Abstract:
An embodiment of the invention includes a method for decreasing resistance to airflow within a bronchial tree of a subject. The method may include the step of moving an intraluminal device along a lumen of an airway of a bronchial tree, where the intraluminal device includes an expandable member and an energy emitter. The method also may include damaging nerves along the airway using the intraluminal device without destroying an inner surface of an airway wall disposed radially between the intraluminal device and the nerves.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/964,678, filed Dec. 9, 2010, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/727,156, filed Mar. 18, 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,161,978, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/117,905, filed Apr. 29, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,740,017, which is: 
     (a) a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/999,851, filed Oct. 25, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,027,869, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/296,040, filed Apr. 21, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,411,852, each of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety; 
     (b) a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/436,455, filed Nov. 8, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,425,212, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety; and 
     (c) a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/232,909, filed on Aug. 30, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,556,624, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/349,715, filed Jul. 8, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,488,673, each of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     (d) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/999,851, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,027,869, is also a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/535,856, filed on Mar. 27, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,634,363, which is also incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     The present application is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/095,323 filed Jun. 10, 1998, now abandoned; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/260,401 filed on Mar. 1, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,283,988; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/003,750 filed Jan. 7, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,972,026; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/833,550 filed Apr. 7, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,273,907 B1, the entireties of which are incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Asthma is a serious chronic condition affecting an estimated 10 million Americans. Asthma is characterized by (i) bronchoconstriction, (ii) excessive mucus production, and (iii) inflammation and swelling of airways. These conditions cause widespread and variable airflow obstruction thereby making it difficult for the asthma sufferer to breathe. Asthma further includes acute episodes or attacks of additional airway narrowing via contraction of hyper-responsive airway smooth muscle. Other obstructive diseases such as COPD may also have a reversible component caused by one or more of the above mentioned three elements. 
     Asthma generally includes excessive mucus production in the bronchial tree. Usually, there is a general increase in bulk (hypertrophy) of the large bronchi and chronic inflammatory changes in the small airways. Excessive amounts of mucus are found in the airways and semisolid plugs of mucus may occlude some small bronchi. Also, the small airways are narrowed and show inflammatory changes. The reversible aspects of COPD include partial airway occlusion by excess secretions, and airway narrowing secondary to smooth muscle contraction, bronchial wall edema and inflammation of the airways. 
     In asthma, chronic inflammatory processes in the airway play a central role in increasing the resistance to airflow within the lungs. Many cells and cellular elements are involved in the inflammatory process, particularly mast cells, eosinophils T lymphocytes, neutrophils, epithelial cells, and even airway smooth muscle itself. The reactions of these cells result in an associated increase in the existing sensitivity and hyper-responsiveness of the airway smooth muscle cells that line the airways to the particular stimuli involved. 
     The chronic nature of asthma can also lead to remodeling of the airway wall (i.e., structural changes such as thickening or edema) which can further affect the function of the airway wall and influence airway hyper-responsiveness. Other physiologic changes associated with asthma include excess mucus production, and if the asthma is severe, mucus plugging, as well as ongoing epithelial denudation and repair. Epithelial denudation exposes the underlying tissue to substances that would not normally come in contact with them, further reinforcing the cycle of cellular damage and inflammatory response. 
     In susceptible individuals, asthma symptoms include recurrent episodes of shortness of breath (dyspnea), wheezing, chest tightness, and cough. Currently, asthma is managed by a combination of stimulus avoidance and pharmacology. 
     Stimulus avoidance is accomplished via systematic identification and minimization of contact with each type of stimuli. It may, however, be impractical and not always helpful to avoid all potential stimuli. 
     Asthma is managed pharmacologically by: (1) long term control through use of anti-inflammatories and long-acting bronchodilators and (2) short term management of acute exacerbations through use of short-acting bronchodilators. Both of these approaches require repeated and regular use of the prescribed drugs. High doses of corticosteroid anti-inflammatory drugs can have serious side effects that require careful management. In addition, some patients are resistant to steroid treatment. The difficulty involved in patient compliance with pharmacologic management and the difficulty of avoiding stimulus that triggers asthma are common barriers to successful asthma management. Thus, current management techniques are neither completely successful nor free from side effects. 
     In view of the foregoing, a non-pharmacological asthma treatment which does not rely on avoiding stimuli is desirable. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The invention is a method for treating lung disease and in particular, a method for treating the lung during an acute episode of reversible obstructive pulmonary disease such as an asthma attack. One embodiment of the present invention includes a method for treating asthma comprising the step of transferring energy to an airway wall of an airway in a lung such that a diameter of the airway is increased. The energy may be transferred to the airway wall prior to, during or after an asthma attack. The energy may also be transferred in an amount sufficient to temporarily or permanently increase the effective diameter of the airway. The method may be performed while the airway is open, closed or partially closed. 
     In another embodiment of the invention, a method for treating asthma in a lung having a constricted airway comprises transferring energy to an airway wall of the constricted airway sufficient to open the airway. The energy transferred may be in an amount sufficient to permanently or temporarily open the constricted airway. The method may be performed to open a wholly constricted airway as well as a partly constricted airway. 
     In yet another variation of the invention, a method for treating lung disease comprises transferring energy to an airway wall to alter the airway wall in such a manner that a resistance to airflow of the airway is decreased. The method may be performed by transferring energy to increase the caliber of the airway. The airway wall may also be altered by decreasing a thickness of the airway wall. The energy may be transferred to the airway wall during an asthma attack. 
     In another variation of the invention, the method comprises manipulating a distal portion of an energy delivery apparatus to a first location along the airway prior to applying the energy. The energy delivering apparatus can include a rounded tip sufficiently flexible such that when the tip encounters a closed or partially closed airway, trauma to the airway is minimized. The energy is then applied to a discrete location while the distal portion of the energy delivery apparatus is stationary. The distal portion can then be moved to a new location and the process repeated until a number of discrete locations have been treated. In an alternative, the method comprises moving the distal portion of the energy delivery apparatus from the first location and applying energy while the distal portion is being moved in the airway. 
     In another variation of the present invention, a method comprises transferring energy to or from an airway wall to treat a lung disease such as asthma. The method may be carried out by inserting into the airway an apparatus having a cryogenic tip or other cooling means capable of transferring energy from the tissue, resulting in a desired condition such as a larger diameter airway. 
     In yet another variation of the invention, a combination of the above discussed techniques are carried out such that at one time, energy is applied while the distal portion of the energy delivery device is being moved and at another time, energy is applied when the distal portion of the apparatus is stationary. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The invention will now be described in greater detail with reference to the various embodiments illustrated in the accompanying drawings wherein: 
         FIG. 1 . Is a cross sectional view of an airway in a healthy lung; 
         FIG. 2 . Shows a section through a bronchiole having an airway diameter smaller than that shown in  FIG. 1 ; 
         FIG. 3  illustrates the airway of  FIG. 1  in which the smooth muscle has hypertrophied and increased in thickness causing reduction of the airway diameter; 
         FIG. 4  is a schematic side view of the lungs being treated with a treatment device as described herein; 
         FIG. 5  is a partial view of an energy delivery device which can be used to carry out the method of the invention; and 
         FIG. 6  is a partial view of a thermocouple attached to an energy delivering device in accordance with the invention. 
         FIGS. 7 ,  8 ,  9 A,  9 B,  10 A and  10 B are perspective views of heat treatment apparatus for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIGS. 11A and 11B  are cross-sectional views of heat treatment apparatus for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 12A  is a schematic view of an embodiment of the treatment apparatus for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 12B  is an enlarged view of the circled portion of  FIG. 12A ; 
         FIG. 12C  illustrates another embodiment of a treatment apparatus for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIGS. 13A ,  13 B,  14 A,  14 B,  15 A,  15 B,  16 A, and  16 B illustrate additional embodiments of the heat treatment apparatus which employ RF energy for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 17  illustrates an embodiment of the heat treatment apparatus which employs circulating heated fluid for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 18  illustrates an embodiment of the heat treatment apparatus that has both resistive heating and inductive heating for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIGS. 19A and 19B  illustrate an embodiment of a heat treatment apparatus that employs electrodes positioned on the outer surface of a balloon for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIGS. 20 ,  21 , and  22  show embodiments of the heat treatment apparatus that employ diametrically adjustable electrodes for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 23  illustrates a heat treatment apparatus with multiple electrodes for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 24  illustrates a heat treatment apparatus with multiple balloons for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 25  is a schematic side view of one embodiment of a heat treatment apparatus that employs two collapsible and retractable electrodes for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 26  is an enlarged partial cross-sectional view of a distal end of another embodiment of a heat treatment apparatus having one collapsible electrode for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 27  is a side cross-sectional view of an alternative embodiment of a heat treatment apparatus having two wire shaped electrodes for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 28  is a side cross-sectional view of the device of  FIG. 27  in an enlarged state within a bronchial tube; 
         FIG. 29  is a side cross-sectional view of an alternative embodiment of a heat treatment apparatus with four electrodes in an enlarged state within a bronchial tube for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 30  is an end view of the device of  FIG. 29 ; 
         FIG. 31  is a side cross-sectional view of an alternative embodiment of a heat treatment apparatus with a loop shaped electrode in a contracted state for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 32  is a side cross-sectional view of the apparatus of  FIG. 31  with the electrode in an expanded state within a bronchial tube for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 33  is a side cross-sectional view of an alternative embodiment of the invention with a plate shape electrode in a contracted state for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 34  is an end view of the apparatus of  FIG. 33  in the contracted state; 
         FIG. 35  is a side cross-sectional view of the apparatus of  FIG. 33  with the plate shaped electrodes in an expanded configuration; and 
         FIG. 36  is an end view of the expanded apparatus of  FIG. 35  for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIGS. 37A and 37B  are side views of two variations of an embodiment of a treatment apparatus having a plurality of wire shaped electrodes for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 37C  is a cross-sectional side view of another variation of a treatment apparatus having a plurality of wire shaped electrodes for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 38  is a side view of another embodiment of a treatment apparatus with electrodes positioned on expandable balloons for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 39  is a perspective view of an embodiment of a treatment apparatus with electrodes positioned in grooves for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 40  is a perspective view of an embodiment of a treatment apparatus with electrodes in a biasing element for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 41  is a perspective view of an embodiment of a treatment apparatus with electrodes and a biasing element for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 42  is a side view of an embodiment of a treatment apparatus in an unexpanded position for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 43  is a side view of the treatment apparatus of  FIG. 42  in an expanded position; 
         FIG. 44  is a side view of an embodiment of a treatment apparatus in an expanded position for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 45  is a side view of an embodiment of a treatment apparatus having a plurality of lumens containing electrodes for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 46  is a side view of an embodiment of a treatment apparatus having electrodes exposed by cut away sections of a tube for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 47  is a side cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a treatment apparatus with electrodes positioned on an expandable balloon for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIG. 48  is a schematic side view of an embodiment of a treatment apparatus with a balloon for heating of tissue for use with the methods of the present invention; 
         FIGS. 49A-49F  illustrate a variation of the invention and a deployment member for deploying the device; 
         FIGS. 49G-49I  illustrate examples of energy transfer elements of the device; 
         FIG. 49J  shows a partial view of a thermocouple attached to a basket leg; 
         FIGS. 50A-50D  illustrate distal joints of the invention; 
         FIG. 50E  illustrates a proximal joint of the invention; 
         FIGS. 51A-51D  illustrate a series and parallel wiring of legs of the basket; 
         FIGS. 52A-52C  illustrate examples of variable thicknesses of legs of the basket; and 
         FIGS. 53A-53D  illustrate examples of a basket formed from a single sheet or piece of material. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     This invention relates to methods for improving airflow through the airways of a lung having reversible obstructive pulmonary disease. In accordance with the invention an airway may be treated during an acute episode of reversible obstructive pulmonary disease such as an asthma attack. The invention comprises applying or transferring energy to an airway wall to increase the diameter of the airway or otherwise reduce resistance to airflow through the airway. The energy may be transferred in an amount sufficient to temporarily or permanently increase the diameter of the airway. Notably, the method may be performed while the airway is open, closed or partially closed. The inventive method thus can “rescue” an asthma sufferer during an acute asthma episode by increasing the diameter of a constricted airway. 
     Various airways are shown in  FIGS. 1-3 .  FIGS. 1 and 2  show a cross section of two different airways in a healthy patient. The airway of  FIG. 1  is a medium sized bronchus having an airway diameter D 1  of about 3 mm.  FIG. 2  shows a section through a bronchiole having an airway diameter D 2  of about 1.5 mm. Each airway includes a folded inner surface or epithelium  10  surrounded by stroma  12  and smooth muscle tissue  14 . The airway is thus quite different from other tissues such as blood vessel tissue which does not include such folds. The larger airways including the bronchus shown in  FIG. 1  also have mucous glands  16  and cartilage  18  surrounding the smooth muscle tissue  14 . Nerve fibers  20  and blood vessels  24  surround the airway. 
       FIG. 3  illustrates the bronchus of  FIG. 1  in which the smooth muscle  14  has hypertrophied and increased in thickness causing the airway diameter to be reduced from the diameter D 1  to a diameter D 3 . Accordingly, the airways to be treated with the device of the present invention may be 1 mm in diameter or greater. The airways to be treated are often second to eighth generation, and more preferably airways of the second to sixth generation. 
       FIG. 4  is an illustration of the lungs being treated with a system  36  which can be used to carry out the present invention. The system  36  includes a controller  32  and an energy treatment device  30  which may be an elongated member as described further below. The device  30  also includes an expandable distal section which can be positioned at a treatment site  34  within a lung or another target medium. In operation, the device is manipulated to the treatment site  34 . RF energy, for example, is delivered through the energy delivering device and penetrates the surface of the lung tissue such that tissue is affected below the epithelial layer as well as on the surface of the lung tissue. The application of energy may cause a variety of structural and physiological effects which may result from the application of energy to the airway wall. For example, application of energy to the airway smooth muscle of an asthmatic patient can debulk or otherwise reduce the volume of smooth muscle. This reduced volume of smooth muscle increases the airway diameter for improved air exchange. Even small increases in the airway size can provide relief as the resistance to airflow varies inversely with approximately the fourth power of diameter. 
     U.S. application Ser. No. 09/535,856, filed Mar. 27, 2000, and incorporated by reference in its entirety in the first paragraph of this application further describes that the ability of the airway to contract can also be altered by treatment of the smooth muscle in particular patterns. The smooth muscle is arranged around the airways in a generally helical pattern with pitch angles ranging from about −30 to about +30 degrees. Thus, the treatment of the smooth muscle in appropriate patterns interrupts or cuts through the helical pattern of the smooth muscle at a proper pitch and prevents the airway from constricting. This procedure of patterned treatment application eliminates contraction of the airways without completely eradicating smooth muscle and other airway tissue. A pattern for treatment may be chosen from a variety of patterns including longitudinal or axial stripes, circumferential bands, helical stripes, and the like as well as spot patterns having rectangular, elliptical, circular or other shapes. The size, number, and spacing of the treatment bands, stripes, or spots are chosen to provide a desired clinical effect of reduced airway responsiveness while limiting insult to the airway to a clinically acceptable level. The patterned treatment of the tissues surrounding the airways with energy provides various advantages. The careful selection of the portion of the airway to be treated allows desired results to be achieved while reducing the total healing load. Patterned treatment can also achieve desired results with decreased morbidity, preservation of epithelium, and preservation of a continuous or near continuous ciliated inner surface of the airway for mucociliary clearance. The pattern of treatment may also be chosen to achieve desired results while limiting total treatment area and/or the number of airways treated, thereby improving speed and ease of treatment. 
     Application of energy to an airway wall can also reduce inflammation in the inner lung tissue. Reducing inflammation and edema of the tissue surrounding the airway can increase the diameter of an airway. Inflammation and edema (accumulation of fluid) of the airway are chronic features of asthma. The inflammation and edema can be reduced by application of energy to stimulate wound healing and regenerate normal tissue. Healing of the epithelium or sections of the epithelium experiencing ongoing denudation and renewal allows regeneration of healthy epithelium with less associated airway inflammation. The less inflamed airway has an increased airway diameter both at a resting state and in constriction. The wound healing can also deposit collagen which improves parenchymal tethering. 
     Application of energy to an airway wall can also inhibit the release of inflammatory mediators in the airway wall which may serve as a stimulus for airway smooth muscle contraction. Therapy that reduces the production and release of inflammatory mediators can reduce smooth muscle contraction, inflammation of the airways, and edema. Examples of inflammatory mediators are cytokines, chemokines, and histamine. The tissues which produce and release inflammatory mediators include airway smooth muscle, epithelium, and mast cells. Thus, treatment of these structures with energy can reduce the ability of the airway structures to produce or release inflammatory mediators. The reduction in released inflammatory mediators will reduce chronic inflammation, thereby increasing the airway inner diameter, and may also reduce hyper-responsiveness of the airway smooth muscle. 
     Application of energy to an airway wall can also increase the airway diameter by damaging nerve tissue in the airways. This follows because a resting tone of smooth muscle is nerve regulated by release of catecholamines. Thus, by damaging or eliminating nerve tissue in the airways the resting tone of the smooth muscle is reduced, and the airway diameter is increased. 
     Application of energy to the airways may cause other physiological responses which result in increased diameters. It is to be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to a certain physiological response or process except where such a physiological response or process is a claim limitation in the appended claims. 
     As shown in  FIG. 4 , the present invention may be performed using a controller  32  and a device  30  through which it delivers energy to the target medium  34 . A device  30  of the present invention should be of a size to access the bronchus or bronchioles of the human lung. The device may be sized to fit within bronchoscopes, preferably, with bronchoscopes having a working channel of 2 mm or less. The device may also include a steering member configured to guide the device to a desired target location. For example, this steering member may deflect a distal tip of the device in a desired direction to navigate to a desired bronchi or bronchiole. 
     Another aspect of the present invention is to treat more than one location. Several to many locations (e.g., reference numerals  31 ,  34 , and  38 ) in the airways may be treated in order to reduce asthmatic symptoms. This can be accomplished by manipulating or positioning the expandable basket at a target site in the airways, expanding the expandable basket such that the energy transfer elements (e.g., the basket legs) contact the airway wall, and then delivering energy to the airway wall. The expandable basket is preferably collapsed and moved to another location and the process is repeated. This technique for applying energy at discrete locations can be repeated as many times as necessary to treat the asthmatic symptoms. 
     U.S. application Ser. No. 09/535,856, filed Mar. 27, 2000, and incorporated by reference in its entirety in the first paragraph of this application further describes that the invention may also include the additional step of reducing or stabilizing the temperature of lung tissue near to a treatment site. This may be accomplished for example, by injecting a cold fluid into lung parenchyma or into the airway being treated, where the airway is proximal, distal, or circumferentially adjacent to the treatment site. The fluid may be sterile normal saline, or any other bio-compatible fluid. The fluid may be injected into treatment regions within the lung while other regions of the lung normally ventilated by gas. Or, the fluid may be oxygenated to eliminate the need for alternate ventilation of the lung. Upon achieving the desired reduction or stabilization of temperature the fluid may be removed from the lungs. In the case where a gas is used to reduce temperature, the gas may be removed from the lung or allowed to be naturally exhaled. One benefit of reducing or stabilizing the temperature of the lung may be to prevent excessive destruction of the tissue, or to prevent destruction of certain types of tissue such as the epithelium, or to reduce the systemic healing load upon the patient&#39;s lung. 
     The present invention also includes applying energy continuously along an airway as an expanded basket is moved along the airway. Specifically, the basket may be deployed, energized, and then moved along the airway continuously to continually transfer energy to or from the airway wall as the basket is moved axially along the airway. The above described methods may also be used in combination with one another. 
     An exemplary partial view of an energy delivering device which may be used to perform the invention is shown in  FIG. 5 . The energy delivering apparatus  30  typically includes an elongate body having a proximal section and a distal section. The distal section features a radially expandable basket having a plurality of legs  106 . The legs may be electrodes or have an active region defined by an insulated covering which contacts the medium to be treated. The basket is expanded with an actuator mechanism  112  which may be activated by a movable lever in a handle attached to the proximal end of the elongate body. 
     The invention may also include an atraumatic tip  200  to ensure that the invention does not injure airway tissue when it is placed into airways that are partially or completely closed. The tip may be formed of a flexible material and/or may be rounded to minimize trauma. Examples of energy delivering devices in accordance with the present invention are described in co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 09/436,455 filed Nov. 8, 1999, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Other examples of devices and methods which may be used in accordance with the present invention are found in the following U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/095,323—Methods and Apparatus for Treating Smooth Muscles in the Walls of Body Conduits; Ser. No. 09/349,715—Method of Increasing Gas Exchange of a Lung; and Ser. No. 09/296,040—Devices for Modification of Airways By Transfer of Energy. The entirety of each of the aforementioned applications is hereby incorporated by reference. Another suitable energy device is described in International Patent Application No. PCT/US00/28745. 
     Examples of energy delivering devices disclosed in U.S. application Ser. Nos. 09/436,455 and 09/349,715, incorporated fully above, are now described immediately below in connection with  FIGS. 7-48 . 
       FIG. 7  illustrates another treatment apparatus  40 B for use with one embodiment of the present invention. The treatment apparatus  40 B includes an elongated, cylindrical member  90  having a heating element that has a plurality of electrodes designated  92  and  94  located on the outer surface of the member. The electrodes are electrically connected to a source of RF energy via connector  98 . Preferably each electrode is configured as a band as shown that has a width of about 0.2 mm to about 3 mm, and preferably each electrode band is separate from the next by a distance of about 0.5 mm to 10 mm. The heating element may include one or more electrode bands. The treatment apparatus  40 B has a distal end  100  that is rounded to reduce the amount of resistance encountered when the apparatus is advanced into the airway. 
     The apparatus  40 B has an outer diameter that is approximately equal to (or can be expandable to equal) the desired final inner diameter of the lumen of an air passage to be treated. Typically, the outer diameter ranges from about 1.3 mm to about 7 mm. When the heating element comprises a plurality of electrode bands, the distance between each band is preferably less than about three times the outer diameter of the apparatus. The effect will be that the patency bands formed on the wall of the lumen by the electrodes  92 ,  94  will be separated from each other by no more than a distance equal to about three times the length of the outer diameter of the lumen. The patency bands so configured will provide good support for the airway to prevent the lumen from collapsing. 
     The treatment apparatus  40 B applies a sufficient amount of energy to the walls of collapsible air passages to destroy airway smooth muscle tone and damage cells of the airway tissue to induce fibrosis and create a more rigid wall that can support a non-collapsed lumen. In this embodiment, energy emanates from the electrode bands  92 ,  94  so that following treatment with this particular apparatus, the walls of the air passage will develop patency bands corresponding to locations along the walls. The contours of the patency bans should substantially match those of the electrode bands. As is apparent, the number and width of each electrode band are not critical. In the case where there is only one electrode band, it may be necessary to move the apparatus and heat more than one area of the lumen wall in order to damage sufficient amounts of the airway wall to induce enough fibrosis to increase the strength of the airway wall such that it is no longer collapsed, i.e., the lumen remains substantially open during normal breathing. 
     When the treatment apparatus  40 B is positioned at the treatment site, an RF generator is activated to provide suitable RF energy, preferably at a selected frequency in the range of 10 MHZ to 1000 MHZ. The emitted energy is converted within the tissue into heat in the range of about 40° C. to about 95° C. 
     RF energy is no longer applied after there has been damage to the tissue to induce a healing response. Preferably, the RF energy is applied for a length of time in the range of about 1 second to about 120 seconds. Suitable RF power sources are commercially available and well known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment the RF generator employed has a single channel, delivering approximately 1 to 25 watts of RF energy and possessing continuous flow capability. The rate of transformation can be controlled by varying the energy delivered to the heating element. 
     Besides using RF energy for energizing the heating element, it is to be understood that other forms of energy such as alternating current, microwaves, ultrasound, and light (either coherent (e.g., laser) or incoherent (e.g., light emitting diode or tungsten filament) can be used), and that the thermal energy generated from a resistive coil, a hot fluid element (e.g., circulating liquids, gases, combinations of liquids and gases, etc.), a curie point element, or similar elements can be used as well. The hot fluid element may comprise, for example, an elongated member similar to the one illustrated in  FIG. 7  that includes a conduit system whereby heated fluid is transported through the center of the member and then channeled outward toward the inner surface of the member. In one embodiment the heated fluid is diverted to contact the inner surface of the elongated member so that energy radiates from selected areas on the outer surface of the member corresponding to areas  92  and  94  in  FIG. 7 . Regardless of the source, energy delivered to the lumen wall of the obstructed airway passage should be such that all of the airway tissue is not completely ablated. 
     The heating element, as shown in  FIG. 7 , operates as a unipolar, internal electrode in the patient&#39;s body. An outer electrode (not shown) having a much larger surface area than that of the electrode bands is placed on the outer surface of the patient&#39;s body. For example, an external metal mesh or solid plate is placed on the skin with conductive gel. Both electrodes are connected to an RF generator which produces an electric field at a high frequency within the patient&#39;s body. Because the collective surface area of the electrode bands is much smaller than that of the outer electrode, the density of the high frequency electric field is much higher around the electrode bands. The electric field reaches its highest density between the two electrodes in the region near the heating element. The increased density of the field around the electrode bands produces localized heating of the tissue of the lumen wall. 
     A heating element comprising a bipolar electrode can also be used. Referring to  FIG. 7 , in a bipolar arrangement electrode band  92  would be a first conductive element and electrode band  94  would be a second conductive element. The electrode bands emit RF energy with the first conductive element acting as the active electrode and the second conductive element acting as the return electrode, or vice versa. One electrode would be connected to the positive electrode of the generator and the other would be connected to the negative electrode. An insulator  96  is located between the conductive elements.  FIG. 8  illustrates another treatment apparatus  40 C for use with another embodiment of the present invention. The treatment apparatus  40 C includes a heating element having multiple, i.e., double, bipolar electrode bands. Bands  91  are connected to the positive electrode of the RF generator and bands  93  are connected to the negative electrode. The material between the conductive elements are electrically insulated. 
     While the heating elements have been shown as electrode bands, other configurations can be used such as, for example, spiral, ring and grid patterns. These elements will create corresponding patterns on the lumen wall. 
       FIG. 9A  illustrates another embodiment of the treatment apparatus  40 D for use with another embodiment of the present invention. The treatment apparatus  40 D includes an elongated, cylindrical member having a heating element that comprises electrodes  105  and  104  located on the other surface of the member. Preferably, the heating element comprises a bipolar electrode wherein one of the electrodes is the active electrode and the other electrode is the return electrode, or vice-versa. One electrode is connected to the RF positive electrode of the generator and the other is connected to the negative electrode. Segment  108  of the member situated between the electrodes is made of electrically insulating material. 
     The segment of elongated member in and around electrode  104  is fabricated of material that is expandable and substantially impervious to air or other suitable gases for causing the elongated member to balloon. In this fashion, this section of the elongated member is radially expandable and deformable in response to compressed gas or any other suitable force or material that is applied into the interior region of the elongated member. Moreover, the elongated member will substantially return to its original, non-expanded form when the internal force is deactivated or the material is withdrawn.  FIG. 9B  illustrates the elongated member in the expanded position. The degree of expansion or distance that the member expands will depend on, among other things, the pressure applied and the elasticity of the member wall. In this embodiment, material between position  102  on the elongated member to the base of electrode  105  is fabricated from expandable material such as latex or polyethylene. The material selected preferably does not melt at the temperature ranges used in the treatment. Radial expansion causes electrode  104  to come into thermal or electrical contact with tissue of the air passage to be treated. Electrode  104  is preferably a spring coil. The treatment apparatus  40 D may comprise more than one such coil electrode, which may be positioned along the length of the elongated member so that a plurality of locations along a bronchial tube can be treated simultaneously. 
       FIGS. 10A ,  10 B,  11 A, and  11 B illustrate a further embodiment of the treatment apparatus  40 E for use with an embodiment of the present invention. The treatment apparatus  40 E includes an elongated, cylindrical member  110  having one or more electrodes  113  situated on the outer surface of the elongated member. Preferably, a plurality of these electrodes form a number of rows of electrodes that are positioned along the length of the elongated member. As shown in cross sectional view  FIG. 11A , the segment of surface of the elongated member at and around the electrodes is arranged in pleats  114 . By being folded in this manner, the surface can expand radially when an outward force is applied from the interior of the cylindrical member as shown in  FIGS. 11A and 11B . In this embodiment, the electrodes comprise non-ferrous (e.g., aluminum) strips and an electromagnet  114  which is positioned in the interior of the elongated member. When the electromagnetic is energized with alternating current the magnetic field will cause the non-ferrous electrodes to repel from the electromagnet. In addition, the temperature of the electrode will rise due to Joule heating. The treatment apparatus may comprise a plurality of rows of the electrodes. 
       FIG. 12A  illustrates another embodiment of a treatment apparatus  40 F for use with another embodiment of the present invention. The treatment apparatus  40 F includes a balloon  128  placed at the distal end of a catheter shaft  122 . The catheter shaft is connected to syringe  124  located at the proximal end and is connected to an RF generator  126  in between the syringe and balloon. As shown in  FIG. 12B  which is an enlarged, cut away view of the device, the balloon  128 , which is illustrated in the non-inflated state, is constructed of an elastomeric material  144 . A preferred elastomeric material is silicone. Extending from lumen  146  of the shaft and into the interior of the balloon are electrodes  140  and  142  which are spaced apart and supported by rod  145 . In this embodiment, each electrode is configured as a loop or ring around the rod. Catheter shafts suitable for use in the present invention are substantially any of the catheter shafts in current clinical use for surgical procedures. Balloons suitable for the present invention may be of similar material and design as those currently being used in percutaneous transluminal angioplasty. For a review of the state of the art, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,807,620; 5,057,106; 5,190,517; 5,281,218; 5,314,466; 5,370,677; 5,370,678; 5,405,346; 5,431,649; 5,437,664; 5,447,529; and 5,454,809. The inventive heat treatment apparatus will be described using balloons that are fabricated from an elastomeric material such as, for instance, silicone, natural latex, and polyethylene. The material selected preferably does not melt at the temperature ranges used in the treatment and is preferably impervious to the fluid used to inflate the balloon. With balloons that are made of elastomeric materials, the degree of expansion is proportional to the amount of force introduced into the interior of the balloon. Moreover, the balloon preferably will substantially return to its original, non-expanded form when the internal force is deactivated. When the balloon is fully expanded, its diameter will preferably be about 1 mm to 30 mm depending on the site to be treated. The balloon is typically attached to the catheter tip and the balloon material is folded or collapsed so that when it is fully inflated the balloon diameter has a fixed dimension. It is understood however that other balloon structures can be employed. For example, balloons made of nonelastic materials such as, for example, polyester (e.g., MYLAR) and polyethylene, can also be used. As is apparent, the balloon serves as a vessel or reservoir for medium that is heated. In the case where the electrodes are bipolar electrodes, the fluid (e.g., saline) between the poles acts as a resistive heating medium or resistive element. In addition, the balloon upon being inflated serves as structural support for the bronchial tubes. 
     Referring to  FIGS. 12A and 12B , electrodes  140  and  142  are connected via cables  136  and  138 , through the wall of the balloon  128 , and through the catheter shaft  122  to a radio frequency (RF) generator  126  with controls  130 . The catheter shaft  122  is also connected to the syringe  124  or other similar device for forcing a non-compressible fluid, such as saline, from source  134  through valve  132  to inflate the balloon with the fluid as the operating surgeon deems appropriate. 
     The frequency range of RF radiation useful in the present invention is typically about 10 KHZ to about 100 MHZ and preferably in the range of about 10 KHZ to about 800 KHZ. However, frequencies outside this range may be used at the discretion of the operating surgeon. Alternatively, microwave radiation typically in the frequency range of about 1,000 MHZ to about 2,000 MHZ, preferably in the range of about 1,100 MHZ to about 1,500 MHZ, may be used in place of RF radiation. However, as above, frequencies outside this range may be used at the discretion of the operating surgeon. The RF generator  126  may be replaced with a microwave generator, and the cables  136  and  138  replaced with a waveguide. Other modifications familiar to those skilled in the art may also be required. In addition, alternating current can be employed. 
     In use, when the operating surgeon has placed the treatment apparatus with the collapsed balloon within the lumen of a bronchial tube to be treated, the balloon is inflated through the catheter shaft  122  with fluid from the syringe  124  located conveniently for the surgeon. In the case where the lumen of the bronchial tube has collapsed or is partially collapsed, the balloon is preferably inflated until the lumen has expanded to its normal diameter with the balloon in substantial contact with the inner surface of the lumen. Alternatively, in the case where the lumen has not collapsed, the balloon is preferably inflated until it is in substantial contact with the inner surface of the lumen. Indeed, inflation of the balloon is not necessary in treating a non-collapsed bronchial lumen which has a diameter that is about equal to, or less than that of the outer surface of the uninflated balloon. As is apparent, even if the balloon does not have to be inflated, the balloon interior has fluid, e.g., electrically conductive saline, present which becomes heated by the application of RF energy. 
     Preferably, the exact amount of inflation is determined by the operating surgeon who monitors the balloon expansion by means of endoscopy, or other suitable imaging methods of the art. Generally, the heat required is induced in the tissue of the bronchial tube wall by the RF or microwave radiation emitting from the balloon tip. 
       FIGS. 13A ,  13 B,  14 A,  14 B,  15 A,  15 B,  16 A, and  16 B illustrate other embodiments of the electrode configurations which can be employed with the treatment apparatus  40 F shown in  FIG. 12A . In these figures, the balloons are shown in the inflated state containing fluid  151 . The arrows depict the path of the electric field between the two electrodes or probes that serve as RF poles in the manners described above. 
     In  FIG. 13A , which is a cross-sectional view of balloon  150 , electrodes  152  and  154  are configured as elongated wires that are attached at opposite sides of nonconductive rod  156 .  FIG. 13B  is a side view of the balloon with the electrodes inside the interior of the balloon which is sealed except for conduit  158  through which fluid  151  (e.g., saline) is introduced and removed. 
     In  FIG. 14A , which is a cross-sectional view of the balloon  160 , electrodes  162  and  164  are wires each configured as a semi-circle and positioned at opposite sides of each other to form a circle. The electrodes have opposite polarities and are electrically insulated from each other.  FIG. 14B  is a side view of the balloon with the electrodes inside the interior of the balloon which is sealed except for conduit  168  through which fluid  151  is introduced and removed. 
     In  FIG. 15A , which is cross-sectional view of the balloon  170 , electrodes  172  and  174  are wires with tips that protrude into the interior region of the balloon which has a hollow disk or horse shoe configuration with partition  176  separating the two halves of the disk. Fluid  151  is introduced and removed from the balloon through conduit  178  in support member  175 . The electrodes remain stationary in the solid regions of support member  175  as shown in side view  FIG. 15B . 
       FIGS. 16A and 16B  illustrate another embodiment in which the balloon  180  is fabricated of an electrically conductive material and therefore also serves as an electrode. In this fashion, one of the electrodes is an integral part of the balloon itself. The second electrode  182  is attached to non-conducting rod  186 .  FIG. 16B  is a perspective view of the balloon with electrode  182  in the interior of the balloon which is sealed except for conduit  188  through which fluid  151  is introduced and removed. Suitable electrically conductive materials for fabricating the balloon in this case include, for example, a polyester film (e.g. MYLAR) that is coated with gold, silver, or platinum. 
       FIG. 17  illustrates another embodiment of the treatment apparatus  40 G for use with one embodiment of the present invention. With the treatment apparatus  40 G, the heat generated to heat the fluid in the balloon is supplied by a circulating, hot fluid. Referring to  FIG. 17 , a balloon  190  (substantially the same as balloon  128  of the embodiment shown in  FIG. 12A ) is attached to a catheter  192  containing a smaller, coaxial catheter  194  (coaxial catheter  194  is substantially the same as catheter  192 , differing only in size.) A heated fluid  198 , which may be a liquid, such as water or physiologically compatibly saline solution, is pumped by a metering, circulating pump  202 , through a heating unit  201 , then through the outer catheter  192  to the balloon. The fluid heats the surface of the balloon and exits through the inner coaxial catheter  194  to return to the pump. A positive pressure is maintained within the system to keep the balloon at the proper inflation. This embodiment is employed in substantially the same manner as the other embodiments described above regarding its use to heat the airway tissue to induce fibrosis and strengthen the airway and destroy smooth muscle tone. The choice of the temperature of the circulating liquid is at the discretion of the operating surgeon, but will usually be in the range of about 60° C. to about 95° C. 
     The treatment apparatus  40 H shown in  FIG. 18  represents another embodiment of the treatment apparatus for performing another embodiment of the present invention, wherein the heat generated to heat the fluid in the balloon is supplied by a hot fluid that is injected into the balloon. The catheter  208  includes electrodes  210  and  216  positioned in lumen  206  of the catheter. The electrodes are connected to AC generator  218  although an RF generator can also be used. The channel or lumen  206  also serves as a reservoir for liquid which is introduced from source  222  through syringe  204 . Once the fluid is heated to the desired temperature, it can be injected into the interior of the balloon. As is apparent, the fluid serves both to inflate the balloon as well as to supply the heat treatment of the bronchial tube. A positive pressure is maintained within the system to keep the balloon at the proper inflation. Instead of using resistive heating, the fluid can be heated with heat exchanger  208 . 
     Preferably, the RF energy is applied for a length of time in the range of about 1 second to about 600 seconds and preferably about 5 to about 120 seconds. Suitable RF power sources are commercially available and well known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment the RF generator employed has a single channel that is capable of delivering approximately 1 to 100 watts and preferably 1 to 25 watts of RF energy and possesses continuous flow capability. Regardless of the source of energy used during treatment, the lumen or the bronchial tube is maintained at a temperature of at least about 60° C. and typically between 70° C. to 95° C. and preferably between 70° C. to 85° C. 
     The treatment apparatus of the present invention may include more than one balloon and attendant bipolar electrodes which are positioned along the length of the elongated member so that a plurality of locations along a bronchial tube can be treated simultaneously.  FIG. 12C  illustrates an alternative embodiment of the treatment apparatus of  FIG. 12A  described above, which includes two balloons  148 A,  148 B that are spaced apart. Each balloon  148 A,  148 B includes a suitable set of bipolar electrodes as described previously. The balloons can be connected to separate sources of fluid or they can share a common source. 
       FIGS. 19A and 19B  show a further embodiment of the treatment apparatus  40 I for use with another embodiment of the present invention. The treatment apparatus  40 I includes a balloon  300 , similar to the balloons described earlier, that is positioned at or near the distal end of elongated rod  310  which is positioned within the lumen or aperture  351  of catheter sheath  350 . It is understood that the term “rod” also encompasses tubes which have hollow channels. As shown, the balloon with inner surface  301  is in the inflated state having been inflated with an appropriate fluid such as air or saline that is injected from conduit  330  and into the interior of the balloon through aperture  331  in the rod. The apparatus includes electrodes  302  and  304 , similar to those described earlier, which are spaced apart along the outer perimeter of the inflated balloon. It is understood that the number of electrodes and their configurations on the outer surface of the balloon can be varied. These electrodes come into contact with the wall of the airway when the balloon is inflated. The electrodes employed in the present invention can have different configurations. For example, the electrodes can be conventional coil wires with round cross sections, or they can have a non-round configuration, such as, for example, a thin, foil or band with a rectangular cross section. For the device shown in  FIG. 19B , electrodes  302  and  304  are preferably flat bands each extending around the circumference of the balloon. To permit expansion of the balloon, each band is positioned around the outer surface of the balloon with the two ends overlapping each other. As shown the  FIG. 19B , electrode  302  is a band having ends  303  and  313  with a portion of the band adjacent to end  303  overlapping a portion of the band adjacent to end  313 . Similarly, electrode  304  is a band having overlapping ends  305  and  315 . 
     The balloon of the treatment apparatus  401  is preferably constructed of nonelastic material that is initially folded and/or collapsed. In this non-inflated state, the diameter of the balloon is small enough that the balloon can be positioned inside an aperture or working channel of a bronchoscope. In use, the bronchoscope first is positioned at the treatment site before the balloon to exposed and then inflated. Heat treatment is then commenced to damage airway tissue to induce fibrosis and/or destroy smooth muscle tone. 
       FIGS. 19A and 19B  show that electrodes  302  and  304  are connected via cables  322  and  342 , respectively, to a radio frequency (RF) generator  329  with controls  338 , such as described earlier. Rod  310  is also connected to syringe  350  which is employed to inject a fluid from source  346  through valve  348  into the balloon. 
       FIG. 20  illustrates another embodiment of the treatment apparatus  40 J for use with another method of the present invention which includes a pair of electrode coils  410  and  420  that are positioned in tandem. The number of electrode coils is not critical. The apparatus also includes an elongated rod  430  which has a distal end  431  that is connected to a tip or knob  440  and has a proximal end which is at least partially slidably positioned inside aperture  451  of catheter sheath  450  that includes end coupler  435 . Coil  410  has two ends, the first end  411  being attached to knob  440  and the second end  412  is attached to rotatable or floating coupler  470 . Similarly, coil  420  has two ends, the first end  421  is attached to rotatable coupler  470  and the second end  422  is attached to end coupler  435 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 20 , the coils are in the relaxed state which is meant that no torque is being applied to either coil. In this state, each coil has a “barrel” configuration so that the diameter of the outer contour formed by each coil is largest at its center and smallest at its two ends. A number of preferred methods can be employed to change the diameters of the contour. One method is to compress or expand the coils along the axis. For example, by pushing rod  430  outward so that knob  440  extends away from catheter sheath  450 , the coil diameters will decrease. Another method of changing the diameter is to apply torque to the coils. Torque can be applied by rotating the rod in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction while keeping end coupler  435  stationary, e.g., attached to the inner surface of catheter sheath. Torque can also be applied by keeping rod  430  stationary while rotating end coupler  435 . Alternatively, torque can be applied by rotating the rod in one direction while rotation end coupler  435  in the opposite direction. During the rotation process, rotatable coupler  470  will also rotate to thereby transfer torque from one coil to the other. 
     In practice, applying torque to adjust the radial diameters of the coils is preferred over compressing or pulling the coils lengthwise since applying torque creates less of a gradient in the diameter of each coil. According, preferably, the treatment apparatus is constructed so that end coupler  435  remains stationary. Torque is preferably applied by manually rotating rod  430 . When more than one coil is employed, a rotatable coupler is required to connect adjacent coils. Multiple coil configurations are preferred over one with a single coil that has the same length (in the relaxed state) as the sum of the lengths of the smaller coils since the diameters of the smaller coils will tend to be more uniform and in contact with the wall of the bronchial tube being treated. Each coil in the embodiment shown in  FIG. 20  is connected to an appropriate source of energy. For example, coils  410  and  420  can be connected by lines  415  and  425  to a radio frequency generator  430  as described above. In operation, the heat treatment apparatus  40 J is positioned at the treatment site before the diameters of the coils are adjusted by applying torque. Energy is then applied to the coils. 
       FIGS. 21 and 22  show embodiments of the heat treatment apparatus  40 K,  40 L for use with further methods of the present invention, which are similar to that of  FIG. 20 . The apparatus of  FIG. 21  includes a pair of electrode coils  510  and  520  that are positioned in tandem. The apparatus also includes an elongated rod  530  which has a distal end  531  that is connected to a tip or knob  540  and has a proximal end which is at least partially slidably positioned inside aperture  551  of catheter sheath  550  that includes end coupler  535 . Coil  510  has two ends, the first end  511  being attached to knob  540  and the second end  512  is attached to rotatable coupler  570 . Similarly, coil  520  has two ends, the first end  521  is attached to rotatable coupler  570  and the second end  522  is attached to end coupler  535 . As is apparent, each electrode has a cone-shaped contour and comprises a coil that is wound about and along the axis of the rod  530  and which in the relaxed state has a large diameter at one end and a small diameter at the other end. 
     The treatment apparatus  40 L of  FIG. 22  includes a pair of electrode coils  610  and  620  that are positioned in tandem. The apparatus also includes an elongated rod  630  which has a distal end  631  that is connected to a tip or knob  640  and has a proximal end which is at least partially slidably positioned inside aperture  651  of catheter sheath  650  that includes end coupler  635 . Coil  610  has two ends, the first end  611  being attached to knob  640  and the second end  612  is attached to rotatable coupler  670 . Similarly, coil  620  has two ends, the first end  621  is attached to rotatable coupler  670  and the second end  622  is attached to end coupler  635 . As is apparent, each electrode has a single loop configuration that comprises a coil that is wound once about the rod  630 . In this configuration, the two electrodes when in the relaxed state preferably form loops having the same diameter. 
     The devices  40 K,  40 L of  FIGS. 21 and 22  operate in essentially the same manner as the device  40 J of  FIG. 20 . Specifically, the same methods can be employed to adjust the radial diameter of the coils by compressing or pulling the coils or by applying torque to the coils. In addition, each coil is connected to an appropriate source of energy. For example, coils  610  and  620  can be connected by lines  615  and  625  to a radio frequency generator  330  as shown in  FIG. 19A . 
     The electrodes may be constructed of a suitable current conducting metal or alloys such as, for example, copper, steel, and platinum. The electrodes can also be constructed of a shape memory alloy which is capable of assuming a predetermined, i.e., programmed, shape upon reaching a predetermined, i.e., activation, temperature. Such metals are well known in the art as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,621,882 and 4,772,112. For the present invention, the shape memory metal used should have the characteristic of assuming a deflection away (i.e., expands) from the elongated rod when activated, i.e., heated in excess of the normal body temperature and preferably between 60° C. and 95° C. A preferred shape memory alloy is available as NITINOL from Raychem Corp., Menlo Park, Calif. For the heat treatment apparatuses that employ coils as shown in  FIGS. 19-22 , preferably the electrodes are constructed of NITINOL in a predetermined shape and in the alloy&#39;s super elastic phase which can withstand very large deflections without plastic deformation. 
     Alternatively, the heat treatment apparatuses employing a unipolar electrode can also be employed. For instance, in the case of the embodiment shown in  FIGS. 19A and 19B , the heating device can have one or more inner electrodes  302  and/or  304  on the balloon surface and an outer or external electrode  388  that has a much larger surface area than that of the internal electrode(s) and that is placed on the outer surface of the patient&#39;s body. For example, the external electrode can be an external metal mesh or solid plate that is placed on the skin with conductive gel. Both the internal and external electrodes are connected to an RF generator which produces an electric field at a high frequency within the balloon. Because the collective surface area of the internal electrode(s) is much smaller than that of the outer electrode, the density of the high frequency electric field is much higher around the internal electrode(s). The electric field reaches its highest density in the region near the internal electrode(s). The increased density of the field around the internal electrode(s) produces localized heating of the tissue to destroy smooth muscle tone and damage tissue to cause fibrosis, which stiffens the airway so as to increase gas exchange performed by the lung. 
     As is apparent, the heat treatment apparatus can have more than one electrode that is positioned at or near the distal end of the elongated rod. For example,  FIG. 23  depicts schematically the distal end  700  of a treatment apparatus  40 M which comprises electrodes  701 ,  702 , and  703 . In this configuration, if the device operates in the bipolar mode, two of the three electrodes (e.g.,  701  and  702 ) are connected to one pole of the RF generator and the other electrode ( 702 ) is connected to the other pole. Heat will be generated in the tissue adjacent the region between electrodes  701  and  702  and the region between electrodes  702  and  703 . These electrodes  701 ,  702 , and  703  can be attached to the exterior surface of a balloon, alternatively they represent adjustable coils in embodiments that do not require a balloon. 
     When the treatment apparatus  40 M includes multiple electrodes, not all the electrodes need to be activated at the same time, that is, different combinations of electrodes can be employed sequentially. For example, in the case of the above described bipolar embodiment with three electrodes, electrodes  701  and  702  can be first activated to heat a section of the bronchial tube wall. During the heat treatment, electrode  703  can also be activated so that a second section of the bronchial tube wall is heat treated simultaneously. Alternatively, electrode  701  is disconnected to the RF generator before electrode  703  is activated so that the second section is treated subsequent to treatment of the first section. 
     In addition, when a treatment apparatus  40 M includes multiple electrodes, the device can operate in the monopolar, bipolar mode, or both modes at the same time. For instance, electrodes  701  and  702  can be designed to operate in the bipolar mode while electrode  703  is designed to operate in the monopolar mode. As a further variation, the electrodes can be constructed of different materials and/or constructed to have different configurations. For example, electrode  701  can be made of a shape memory alloy and/or it can be a coil while each of the other electrodes  702  and  703  can be made of a non-shape memory material and/or it can be a band with a rectangular cross section. 
     The treatment apparatus can comprise more than one balloon that is attached to the elongated rod. For example,  FIG. 24  depicts schematically the distal end of a treatment apparatus  40 N for use with embodiments of the present invention, which comprises balloons  810  and  820 . Electrodes  811  and  812  are attached to the exterior surface of balloon  810  and electrodes  821  and  822  are attached to the exterior surface balloon  820 . The treatment apparatus  40 N includes an elongated rod  860  which is positioned with the lumen of catheter sheath  850 . The treatment apparatus  40 N is preferably constructed in the same manner as the device shown in  FIG. 19B  except for the additional balloon. Operation of the device  40 N is also similar although the surgeon has the choice of activating both sets of electrode simultaneously or one set at a time. 
       FIG. 25  illustrates another embodiment of a treatment apparatus  40 P for use with the methods of the present invention. The treatment apparatus  40 P is introduced through a catheter, bronchoscope, or other tubular introducer member  1012 . The heat treatment apparatus includes a shaft  1014  and one or more electrodes  1016 . Electrically connected to the electrodes  1016  is an RF generator  1018  or other energy source. The RF generator is controlled by a controller  1020 . Although the invention will be described as employing an RF generator, other energy sources, such as alternating current and microwave may also be used. 
     In accordance with the embodiment of  FIG. 25 , the electrodes include a first conical electrode  1016 A connected to an inner shaft  1022  and a second conical electrode  1016 B connected to an outer shaft  1024 . The conical electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B are positioned with their axes aligned and may be fixed or movable with respect to each other. Each of the conical electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B includes at least two overlapping sections  1026 . The sections  1026  are flexible and overlap one another to allow the electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B to be compressed within the lumen of the catheter  1012  for insertion into the bronchial tube of a patient. Once the catheter  1012  is positioned with a distal end at a desired treatment location within the bronchial tubes, the shaft  1014  is used to push the electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B out of the distal end of the catheter. Once deployed from the catheter  1012 , the electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B expand radially outwardly until the distal ends of the electrodes contact the walls of the bronchial tube. 
     The electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B are electrically connected to the RF generator  1018  by electrical cables  1028 ,  1030 . When the treatment apparatus  40 P employs two electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B the two electrodes are preferably oppositely charged with one of the electrodes connected to a negative output of the RF generator and the other electrode connected to a positive output of the RF generator. Alternatively, both the electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B or a single electrode  1016  may be connected to the same output of the RF generator and an external electrode  1034  may be used. The external electrode  1034  is connected to an output of the RF generator  1018  having an opposite polarity of the output connected to the internal electrode  1016 . 
       FIG. 26  illustrates an alternative embodiment of a heat treatment apparatus  1040  having a single electrode  1016  positioned on a shaft  1014 . The electrode  1016  is shown as it is deployed from the distal end of a catheter  1012  for heat treatment of the lumen of bronchial tubes. 
     The electrodes  1016  of the embodiment of  FIGS. 25 and 26  are formed of a suitable conductive material such as metal, plastic with a metal coating, or the like. The two or more sections  1026  of each of the cone shaped electrodes is fixed to the shaft  1014  and biased outwardly so that the sections expand or unfold to an enlarged diameter upon release from the distal end of the catheter  1012 . The electrodes  1016  preferably have an enlarged diameter which is equal to or slightly greater than an interior diameter of the bronchial tube to be treated. As shown most clearly in  FIG. 26 , the sides of the sections  1026  overlap one another even in the expanded state. 
     In operation of the embodiments of  FIGS. 25 and 26 , the distal end of the catheter  1012  is first positioned at the treatment site by known catheter tracking methods. The catheter  1012  is then retracted over the heat treatment apparatus to exposed and expand the electrodes  1016 . Each electrode  1016  of the energy emitting apparatus  40 P expands radially outward upon retraction of the catheter  1012  until the electrodes come into contact with the wall of the bronchial tube. In the embodiment of  FIG. 26 , the distance between the two energy emitting electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B may be fixed or may be changeable by sliding the inner shaft  1022  within the outer shaft  1024 . When treatment is completed the heat treatment apparatus  40 P is retracted back inside the catheter  1012  by sliding the catheter over the electrodes. As the heat treatment apparatus  40 P is retracted the sides of the sections  1026  of the electrode  1016  slide over each other upon coming into contact with a distal edge of the catheter  1012 . 
       FIGS. 27 and 28  illustrate an alternative embodiment of a treatment apparatus  40 Q for use with the methods of the present invention. The treatment apparatus  40 Q may be delivered to a treatment site in a collapsed configuration illustrated in  FIG. 27 . The treatment apparatus  40 Q includes two leaf spring or wire shaped electrodes  1054 A and  1054 B. The electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B are connected to an insulating end cap  1056  of a hollow shaft  1058 . The electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B are electrically connected to the RF generator or other energy source by electric cables  1060 ,  1062 . The heat treatment apparatus  1050  is provided with a central shaft  1064  which is slidable within the hollow shaft  1058 . The central shaft  1064  has a shaft tip  1048  which is connected to a distal end of each of the electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B. 
     Each of the electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B is preferably insulated with an insulating sleeve  1066  except for an exposed contact section  1068 . The treatment apparatus  40 Q is delivered to the lumen of a bronchial tube to be treated either alone or through a catheter, bronchoscope, or other channel. The electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B are expanded radially outwardly by moving the central shaft  1064  proximally with respect to the hollow shaft  1058  of the treatment apparatus  40 Q. Upon expansion, the exposed contact sections  1068  of the electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B come into contact with the walls of the airway or bronchial tube B, shown in  FIG. 28 . The electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B may be configured to bend at a predetermined location forming a sharp bend as shown in  FIG. 28 . Alternatively, the electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B may form a more gradual curve in the expanded configuration. The electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B are preferably connected to opposite poles of the energy source. Alternatively, both of the electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B may be connected to the same lead of the energy source and the external electrode  1034  may be used. Upon completion of the treatment process the electrodes  1054  are retracted back into the catheter for removal or moving to a subsequent treatment site. 
       FIGS. 29 and 30  illustrate another embodiment of the treatment apparatus  40 R for use with embodiments of the present invention. The treatment apparatus  40 R includes four electrodes  1054 A,  1054 B,  1054 C,  1054 D. The four electrode embodiment of  FIGS. 29 and 30  operates in the same manner as the embodiments of  FIGS. 27 and 28  with a slidable central shaft  1064  employed to move the electrodes from a compressed configuration to the expanded configuration illustrated in  FIGS. 29 and 30 . Each electrode  1054 A- 1054 D is connected at a proximal end to the insulating end cap  1056  of the hollow shaft  1058  and at a distal end to the central shaft  1064 . Relative motion of the hollow shaft  1058  with respect to the central shaft  1064  moves the electrodes  1054  from the collapsed to the expanded position. 
       FIGS. 31 and 32  illustrate a further embodiment of a heat treatment apparatus  40 S employing one or more wire or leaf spring shaped loop electrodes  1094 . As in the previous embodiments, the loop electrode  1094  expands from a contracted positioned within a catheter  1092  as illustrated in  FIG. 31  to an expanded position illustrated in  FIG. 32 . In the expanded position, the loop shaped electrode  1094  comes into contact with the walls of the airway or bronchial tube B. Although the embodiment of  FIGS. 31 and 32  has been illustrated with a single loop shaped electrode  1094 , it should be understood that multiple loop shaped electrodes may also be use. The loop shaped electrode  1092  is connected to the shaft  1096  of the heat treatment apparatus  40 S by an end cap  1098  and is electrically connected to the energy source by the electric cables  1100 . 
       FIGS. 33-36  illustrate an alternative embodiment of a treatment apparatus  40 T for use with the embodiments of the present invention, The treatment apparatus  40 T includes a flexible plate shaped electrode  1114 . The flexible plate shaped electrode  1114  is substantially flower shaped in plan having a plurality of petals  1116  with curved distal ends extending from a central section  1120 . The petals  1116  flex along a hinge line  1118  to the compressed insertion configuration illustrated in  FIG. 33  in which the petals  1116  extend substantially perpendicularly from the central section  1120  of the flexible plate shaped electrode  1114 . 
     As illustrated in  FIGS. 35 and 36 , when the treatment apparatus  40 T is moved distally with respect to the catheter  1112  to deploy the electrode  1114  the petals  1116  move outwardly until the petal tips come into contact with the walls of the bronchial tube B. The flexible plate shaped electrode  1114  is preferably formed of a conductive material and fixed to the end of a shaft  1122 . Electric cables  1124  connect the plate shaped electrode  1114  to the energy source. 
     The electrodes in each of the forgoing embodiments may be fabricated of any material which when compressed will return to an expanded configuration upon release of the compression forces. For example, one method of controlling the expansion of the electrodes is the use of shape memory alloy electrodes. With a shape memory alloy, the constraint of the electrodes within a catheter may not be necessary. The shape memory alloy electrodes may be formed to expand to an expanded energy delivery configuration upon heating to body temperature within the body. The expansion of the electrodes is limited by the size of the bronchial tube in which the electrode is positioned. 
     As described above, the heat treatment apparatus may be employed in a bipolar mode in which two different expandable electrodes are connected to two different outputs of the RF generator  1018  having opposite polarities. For example, the electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B may be connected by the electrical cables  1028 ,  1030  to different terminals of the RF generator  1018 . Alternatively, when more than two electrodes  1016  are employed, multiple electrodes may be connected to one terminal of the RF generator. In each of the embodiments of the heat treatment apparatus, the oppositely charged electrodes are separated by an insulating material. For example, in the embodiment of  FIG. 36 , the inner shaft  1022  and outer shaft  1024  are formed of an insulating material. Further, in the embodiments of  FIGS. 27-29  the end cap  1056  and central shaft distal tip are formed of insulating materials. 
     In the case where the apparatus includes only one electrode  1016  as shown in  FIG. 26 , the electrode will be connected to the positive or negative terminal of the RF generator  1018  and the opposite terminal of the RF generator will be connected to the external electrode  1032 . 
     The frequency range of RF radiation useful in the present invention is typically about 10 KHz to about 100 MHZ, preferably in the range of about 200 KHz to about 800 KHz. However, frequencies outside this range may be used at the discretion of the operating surgeon. Typically, the amount of power employed will be from about 0.01 to 100 watts and preferably in the range of about 1 to 25 watts for about 1 to 60 seconds. Alternatively, alternating current or microwave radiation typically in the frequency range of about 1,000 MHZ to about 2,000 MHZ and preferably from about 1,100 MHZ to about 1,500 MHZ may be used in place of RF radiation. In the latter case, the RF generator  1018  is replaced with a microwave generator, and the electric cables  1028 ,  1030  are replaced with waveguides. 
     When the heat treatment apparatus with the bipolar electrodes is positioned inside the lumen of a bronchial tube, activation of the RF generator  1018  causes tissue in the lumen wall to increase in temperature. The heating may be caused by resistance heating of the electrodes themselves and/or power losses through the tissue of the bronchial wall. The particular heat pattern in the tissue will depend on the path of the electric field created by the positioning and configuration of the electrodes. 
     In the monopolar mode, the external electrode  1034 , shown in  FIG. 25 , having a much larger surface area than the inner electrodes is placed on the outer surface of the patient&#39;s body. For example, the external electrode  1034  can be an external metal mesh or a solid plate that is placed on the skin with conductive gel. Both the internal and external electrodes are connected to the RF generator  1018  which produces an electric field at a high frequency. Because the collective surface area of the internal electrodes is much smaller than that of the outer electrode  1034 , the density of the high frequency electric field is much higher around the internal electrodes. The electric field reaches its highest density in the region near the internal electrodes. The increased density of the field around the internal electrodes produces localized heating of the tissue around the bronchial tube without causing significant heating of the body tissue between the bronchial tube and the external electrode. 
     In use, after the operating surgeon has placed the heat treatment apparatus within the lumen of a bronchial tube to be treated, if necessary, the catheter is retracted to expose the electrodes. In the case where the lumen of the bronchial tube has collapsed or is partially collapsed, the size of the energy emitting device is designed so that expansion of the electrodes causes the lumen to expand to its normal or non-collapsed diameter due to contact of the electrodes with the inner surface of the lumen. Alternatively, in the case where the lumen has not collapsed, the device is designed so that upon expansion the electrodes are in substantial contact with the inner surface of the lumen. Indeed, only minimum expansion may be necessary in treating a non-collapsed bronchial lumen. 
     The degree of expansion of the electrodes of the heat treatment apparatus can be monitored by means of endoscopy, fluoroscopy, or by other suitable imaging methods of the art. Generally, the heat required is induced in the tissue of the bronchial tube wall by the RF or microwave radiation emitting from the electrodes. The RF or microwave energy is applied while observing the tissue for changes via simultaneous endoscopy, or other suitable imaging methods of the art. 
     The electrodes employed in the heat treatment apparatus are constructed of a suitable current conducting metal or alloys such as, for example, copper, steel, platinum, and the like or of a plastic material with a conductive metal insert. The electrodes can also be constructed of a shape memory alloy which is capable of assuming a predetermined, i.e., programmed, shape upon reaching a predetermined, i.e., activation temperature. Such metals are well known in the art as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,621,882 and 4,772,112. For the present invention, the shape memory metal used should have the characteristic of assuming a deflection away (i.e., expands) from the elongated rod when activated, i.e., heated in excess of the normal body temperature and preferably between 60° C. and 95° C. A preferred shape memory alloy is available as NITINOL from Raychem Corp., Menlo Park, Calif. In one embodiment, the electrodes are constructed of NITINOL in a predetermined shape and in the alloy&#39;s super elastic phase which can withstand very large deflections without plastic deformation. 
     Substantial tissue transformation may be achieved very rapidly, depending upon the specific treatment conditions. Because the transformation can proceed at a rather rapid rate, the RF energy should be applied at low power levels. Preferably, the RF energy is applied for a length of time in the range of about 0.1 second to about 600 seconds, and preferably about 1 to about 60 seconds. Suitable RF power sources are commercially available and well known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment the RF generator  18  employed has a single channel, delivering approximately 1 to 100 watts, preferably 1 to 25 watts and possessing continuous flow capability. The rate of tissue damage to induce fibrosis can be controlled by varying the energy delivered to the heat treatment apparatus. Regardless of the source of energy used during treatment, the lumen or the bronchial tube is maintained at a temperature of at least about 45° C., preferably between 60° C. and 95° C. 
     When the heat treatment apparatus includes multiple energy emitting devices, not all the electrodes need to be activated at the same time. That is, different combinations of electrodes can be employed sequentially. For example, in the case of the embodiment shown in  FIG. 25 , with two electrodes  1016 A,  1016 B, the electrodes can be activated simultaneously or sequentially. 
       FIGS. 37-48  illustrate further embodiments of treatment apparatus that may be used with the methods of the present invention. The treatment apparatus of  FIGS. 37-47  include tissue contacting electrodes configured to be placed within the airway. These apparatus can be used for delivering radio frequency in either a monopolar or a bipolar manner or for delivering other energy to the tissue, such as conducted heat energy from resistively heated electrodes, similar to the previously described treatment apparatus. For monopolar energy delivery, one or more electrodes of the treatment apparatus are connected to a single pole of the energy source  3032  and an optional external electrode  3044  is connected to an opposite pole of the energy source. For bipolar energy delivery, multiple electrodes are connected to opposite poles of the energy source  3032  and the external electrode  3044  is omitted. The number and arrangement of the electrodes may vary depending on the pattern of energy delivery desired. The treatment apparatus of  FIG. 48  is used to deliver radiant or heat energy to the airway. The treatment apparatus of  FIG. 48  can also deliver indirect radio frequency or microwave energy to the tissue. 
     The treatment apparatus  40 Z of  FIG. 37A  includes a catheter  3036  for delivering a shaft  3040  having a plurality of electrodes  3038  to a treatment site. The electrodes  3038  are formed from a plurality of wires which are soldered or otherwise connected together at two connection areas  3042 . The electrodes  3038  between the connection areas  3042  are formed into a basket shape so that arch shaped portions of the wires will contact the walls of an airway. The wires may be coated with an insulating material except at the tissue contact points. Alternatively, the wires of the basket may be exposed while the connection areas  3042  and shaft  3040  are insulated. Preferably, the electrodes  3038  are formed of a resilient material which will allow the distal end of the treatment apparatus to be retracted into the catheter  3036  for delivery of the catheter to the treatment site and will allow the electrodes to return to their original basket shape upon deployment. The treatment apparatus  40 Z is preferably configured such that the electrodes  3038  have sufficient resilience to come into contact with the airway walls for treatment. 
       FIG. 37B  illustrates a treatment apparatus  40 AA in which the distal end of the device is provided with a ball shaped member  3050  for easily inserting the device to a treatment site without causing trauma to surrounding tissue.  FIG. 37C  illustrates a treatment apparatus  40 AB having electrodes  3038  connected to the distal end of the catheter  3036  and forming a basket shape. The basket shape may be expanded radially during use to insure contact between the electrodes  3038  and the airway walls by pulling on a center pull wire  3052  which is connected to a distal end  3050  of the device and extends through a lumen of the catheter  3036 . The treatment apparatus  40 AB may be delivered to a treatment site through a delivery catheter or sheath  3054  and may be drawn along the airway to treat the airway in a pattern of longitudinal or helical stripes. 
       FIG. 38  illustrates a treatment apparatus  40 AC in which a catheter shaft  3046  is provided with a plurality of electrodes  3048  positioned on inflatable balloons  3050 . The balloons  3050  are inflated through the catheter shaft  3046  to cause the electrodes  3048  come into contact with the airway walls  3100 . The electrodes  3048  are preferably connected to the energy source  3032  by conductive wires (not shown) which extend from the electrodes through or along the balloons  3050  and through the catheter shaft  3046  to the energy source. The electrodes may be used in a bipolar mode without an external electrode. Alternatively, the treatment apparatus  40 AC may be operated in a monopolar mode with an external electrode  3044 . The electrodes  3048  may be continuous circular electrodes or may be spaced around the balloons  3050 . 
     An alternative apparatus device  40 AD of  FIG. 39  includes a catheter  3056  having one or more grooves  3060  in an exterior surface. Positioned within the grooves  3060  are electrodes  3058  for delivery of energy to the airway walls. Although the grooves  3060  have been illustrated in a longitudinal pattern, the grooves may be easily configured in any desired pattern. Preferably, the treatment apparatus  40 AD of  FIG. 39  includes a biasing member (not shown) for biasing the catheter  3056  against the airway wall such that the electrodes  3058  contact the tissue. The biasing member may be a spring element, an off axis pull wire, an inflatable balloon element, or other biasing member. Alternatively, the biasing function may be performed by providing a preformed curve in the catheter  3056  which causes the catheter to curve into contact with the airway wall when extended from a delivery catheter. 
       FIG. 40  illustrates a treatment apparatus  40 AE having one or more electrodes  3068  connected to a distal end of a catheter  3066 . The electrodes  3068  are supported between the distal end of the catheter  3066  and a device tip  3070 . A connecting shaft  3072  supports the tip  3070 . Also connected between the distal end of the catheter  3066  and the tip  3070  is a spring element  3074  for biasing the electrodes  3068  against a wall of the airway. The spring element  3074  may have one end which slides in a track or groove in the catheter  3066  such that the spring can flex to a variety of different positions depending on an internal diameter of the airway to be treated. 
       FIG. 41  illustrates an alternative treatment apparatus  40 AF in which the one or more electrodes  3078  are positioned on a body  3080  secured to an end of a catheter  3076 . In the  FIG. 41  embodiment, the body  3080  is illustrated as egg shaped, however, other body shapes may also be used. The electrodes  3078  extend through holes  3082  in the body  3080  and along the body surface. A biasing member such as the spring element  3084  is preferably provided on the body  3080  for biasing the body with the electrodes against the airway walls. Leads  3085  are connected to the electrodes and extend through the catheter  3076  to the energy source  3032 . 
       FIGS. 42 and 43  illustrate a further treatment apparatus  40 AG having one or more loop shaped electrodes  3088  connected to a catheter shaft  3086 . In the unexpanded position shown in  FIG. 42 , the loop of the electrode  3088  lies along the sides of a central core  3090 . A distal end of the loop electrode  3088  is secured to the core  3090  and to an optional tip member  3092 . The core  3090  is slidable in a lumen of the catheter  3086 . Once the treatment apparatus  40 AG has been positioned with the distal end in the airway to be treated, the electrode is expanded by pulling the core  3090  proximally with respect to the catheter  3086 , as shown in  FIG. 43 . Alternatively, the electrode  3088  or the core  3090  may be spring biased to return to the configuration of  FIG. 43  when a constraining force is removed. This constraining force may be applied by a delivery catheter or bronchoscope through which the treatment apparatus  40 AG is inserted or by a releasable catch. 
     The treatment apparatus  40 AH of  FIG. 44  includes a plurality electrodes  3098  positioned on leaf springs  3096  which are outwardly biased. The leaf springs  3096  are connected to a shaft  3102  which is positioned within a delivery catheter  3094 . The leaf springs  3096  and electrodes  3098  are delivered through the delivery catheter  3094  to a treatment site within the airways. When the leaf springs  3096  exit the distal end of the delivery catheter  3094 , the leaf springs bend outward until the electrodes  3098  come into contact with the airway walls for application of energy to the airway walls. 
       FIGS. 45 and 46  illustrate embodiments of treatment apparatus  40 AI,  40 AJ in which electrodes  3106  in the form of wires are positioned in one or more lumens  3108  of a catheter  3104 . Openings  3110  are formed in the side walls of the catheters  3104  to expose the electrodes  3106 . As shown in  FIG. 45 , the treatment apparatus  40 AI has multiple lumens  3108  with electrodes provided in each of the lumens. The side wall of the treatment apparatus  40 AI is cut away to expose one or more of the electrodes  3106  through a side wall opening  3110 . In  FIG. 45 , the opening  3110  exposes two electrodes positioned in adjacent lumens. The treatment apparatus  40 AI may be provided with a biasing member as discussed above to bring the electrodes  3106  of the treatment apparatus into contact with the airway wall. 
     The treatment apparatus  40 AJ of  FIG. 46  includes a catheter  3104  which has been foitned into a loop shape to allow the electrode  3106  to be exposed on opposite sides of the device which contact opposite sides of the airway. The resilience of the loop shape causes the electrodes to come into contact with the airway walls. 
     The treatment apparatus  40 AK of  FIG. 47  is in the form of a balloon catheter. The treatment apparatus  40 AK includes electrodes  3118  positioned on an exterior surface of an inflatable balloon  3116 . The electrodes  3118  are electrically connected to the energy source  3032  by the leads  3120  extending through the balloon and through the lumen of the balloon catheter  3114 . The balloon  3116  is filled with a fluid such as saline or air to bring the electrodes into contact with the airway wall  3100 . 
       FIG. 48  illustrates an alternative embodiment of a balloon catheter treatment apparatus  40 AM in which a fluid within the balloon  3126  is heated by internal electrodes  3128 . The electrodes  3128  are illustrated in the shape of coils surrounding the shaft of the catheter, however other electrode shapes may also be used. The electrodes  3128  may be used as resistance heaters by application of an electric current to the electrodes. Alternatively, radio frequency or microwave energy may be applied to the electrodes  3128  to heat a fluid within the balloon  3126 . The heat then passes from an exterior of the balloon  3126  to the airway wall. The radio frequency or microwave energy may also be applied indirectly to the airway wall through the fluid and the balloon. In addition, hot fluid may be transmitted to the balloon  3126  from an external heating device for conductive heating of the airway tissue. 
       FIGS. 49A-49F  illustrate variations of the inventive device that use an expanding force to expand the basket.  FIG. 49A  illustrates a deployment member of the device.  FIG. 49B  illustrates the device of  FIG. 49A  when the elongated member is moved in a distal direction to a deployment point.  FIGS. 49C-49D  illustrate the elongated member  101 , sheath  120 , expandable member  103 , distal tip  118 , and wire  121  extending through the device.  FIG. 49C  illustrates the basket  103  in a first unexpanded state when the elongated member  101  and wire  121  are proximal of the deployment point  171 .  FIG. 49D  illustrates the expansion of the basket  103  to a second expanded state as the elongated member  101  moves distally and the wire  121  is restrained at the deployment point  171 . 
     Turning now to  FIG. 49A , the deployment member may comprise a handle  123  which is adjacent to a proximal portion of an elongated member  101 . The handle may be designed to be operated by a single hand, either right or left. The handle may also have a control switch for operation of the device. Such a switch could control the power supply attached to the device as well. Also, the handle may be configured to determine the position of the device within a human body as the device is advanced to a target site. For example, marks on the handle or even a readout could provide information to the user as to the relative deployment state of the expandable member. Also, a sensor may be placed on the handle  123 , this sensor may be used to determine the position of the expandable member. Such a sensor could also be used to measure the size of the airway, such a measurement could be used as a control variable to determine the amount of energy that the device power supply must deliver. The handle  123  may control the expandable member using force compensation (e.g., a spring, etc.) or deflection limiting stops to control the expansion of the expandable member. Such force compensation or deflection stops provide a limit to the expansion member to avoid over-expansion of a particular airway. 
     Turning now to the handle  123  of  FIG. 49A , an elongated member  101  may be slidably mounted to the handle. The variation of the invention depicted in these Figures may also, but does not necessarily, include a sheath  120  exterior to the elongated body  101 . A wire  121  extends from the handle through the elongated member  101  and may be attached to a distal tip  118  of the device. The wire  121 , elongated member  101 , and distal tip (not shown) are slidably moveable in both a distal and proximal directions. The handle may also include a stop  125  which prevents the wire  121  from moving distally beyond a deployment point  171 . The stop  125  may be connected to a spring (not shown) to limit the expansion of the expandable member upon reaching a pre-determined force. The handle  123  may include a control member  129  that is moveably attached to the handle  123  for moving the elongated member  101  in a distal/proximal direction. Although the handle  123  in the figures is depicted to have a control member  129  as illustrated, other variations of control members are also contemplated to be within the scope of this invention. For example, though not illustrated, a handle  123  may include other configurations, such as lever, thumb-wheel, screw-mechanism, ratchet mechanism, etc., which are attached to the handle  123  to provide control actuation for the expandable member. 
       FIG. 49B  illustrates a variation of the inventive device when the elongated member  101  and wire  121  are moved in a distal direction. In this illustrations, a stop  125  prevents the wire  121  from moving distally of a deployment position  171 . This illustration further illustrates a variation of the invention where the stop  125  is attached to springs  127  which provide force compensation for the expandable member on the device. Although not shown, a control member  129  may have a stop which limits its travel along a handle  123 . Such a stop is an example of a deflection limiting mechanism which controls the movement of the control member  129 , thus controlling the extent of the expansion of the expandable member. 
       FIG. 49C  illustrates the invention when the expandable member or basket  103  is in a first unexpanded state. As noted above, the wire  121  is attached to a distal tip  118  of the device and both are prevented from distal movement when the wire  121  is in the deployment position  171 . Therefore, as depicted in  FIG. 49D , movement of the elongated member  101  in a distal direction against a distal tip  118 , that is restrained by a wire  121 , causes a basket  103  to compress between the advancing elongated member  101  and the stationary distal end  118 . Thus, the basket  103  is forced outward and radially expands into a second expanded state. As noted above, the wire  121  may also be used to transfer energy to or from the energy transfer elements found on the basket  103 . Also, it is contemplated that the wire  121  may be a wire, a ribbon, a tube, or of any other equivalent structure. Also contemplated, but not shown, is a detent means for maintaining the elongated member in a distal position to expand the basket  103  against the distal tip  118  without the need for continual applied force by a user of the device. Also contemplated is a ratchet member, or friction member to maintain the basket  103  in the expanded state. 
       FIG. 49E  illustrates another variation of a deployment member. In this variation, a sheath  120  may be slidably attached to a handle  123 . In this variation, the elongate member  101  is rigidly attached to the handle  123 . The sheath  120  may be attached to a first control member  131 . A wire  121  extends through the elongate member  101  and is attached to the distal tip of the device (not shown). The wire  121  may be attached to a second control member  133 . As indicated in  FIG. 49F , proximal movement of the first control member  131  causes the sheath  120  to proximally retract over the elongate member  101  and uncover the expandable portion (not shown). Proximal movement of the second control member  133  causes the wire  121 , distal joint, and expandable member to move against the non-moving elongate member  101  which causes the expandable member to expand into a second state. 
     Turning now to the energy transfer elements located on the expandable portion,  FIGS. 49G-49I  illustrate examples of energy transfer elements that may be located on the expandable portion of the device. In the variation of the invention where the expandable portion comprises a basket having basket legs  107 , the basket legs  107  may function as heat exchange elements. In other words, the device may be configured so that the leg is an electrode or the conductive heating element. In these variations, the leg  107  may be partially covered with an insulation only leaving an active region exposed for delivery of energy to the airways. Examples of such insulation include a heat shrink sleeve, a dielectric polymeric coating, or other material which may function as an insulator. 
       FIG. 49G  illustrates an example of a basket leg  107  with an energy transferring element  135  coiled around the leg  107 . In this example, the energy transferring element uses conductive heating and comprises a resistance heating element  135  coiled around the leg  107 .  FIG. 49H  illustrates a variation of the invention having an RF electrode attached to the basket leg  107 . The RF electrode may be attached to the basket leg  107  via the use of a fastener  153 . For example, the electrode may be attached via the use of a heat shrink fastener  153 , (e.g., polymeric material such as PET or polyethylene tubing). 
       FIG. 49I  illustrates another variation of the invention where the energy transfer element is a printed circuit  173  that is situated around the leg  107  and secured to the leg. Also contemplated, but not shown for use as energy transfer elements are a polymeric heating material, an electrically conductive paint, a resistance element sputtered onto the leg in a pattern or formed on a substrate by photofabrication. Also, the basket leg itself may be chosen of appropriate size and resistivity to alloy dual use as a basket and energy transfer element. Many nickel-chromium alloys have both high specific resistance and significant spring-like properties. In any variation of the invention the use of adhesives or other coatings may also be used to secure the energy transfer element to the basket leg  107 . Also, the energy transfer elements are not limited to what is illustrated in the drawings. It is also contemplated that other types of energy transfer elements may be used such as radiant, laser, microwave, and heat energy. 
       FIG. 50A  illustrates a variation of a distal tip  207  having a redundant joint. The distal tip  207  has a polymeric cap  209  covering the distal ends of the basket legs  107  and wire  211 . The legs  107  are soldered  213  to the distal end of the wire  211 . Also used to maintain the joint is an adhesive  215  substantially filling the polymeric cap  209 . A multi-lumen piece  217  separates the legs  107  and wire  211 . A side view of the multi-lumen piece  217  is shown in  FIG. 50B . A multi-lumen tubing may be used for the multi-lumen piece  217 . The ends  219  of the polymeric cap  209  may be heat formed or otherwise tapered down around the legs  107 . 
       FIG. 50C  illustrates another variation of a distal tip  221  having a redundant joint. The distal tip  221  has a polymeric cap  209  covering the distal ends of the basket legs  107  and wire  211 . The legs  107  are soldered  213  to the distal end of the wire  211 . Also used to maintain the joint is an adhesive  215  substantially filling the polymeric cap  209 . A hypo-tube  224  covers the legs  107  and wire  211 . A side view of the hypo-tube  224  is shown in  FIG. 50D . The distal end of the hypo-tube  224  may be flared to seat a ball located on a distal end of the wire  211  and the legs  107 . A proximal end of the hypo-tube  224  may be flared to provide greater interlock with ends  219  of the polymeric cap  209 . As shown in  FIG. 50C , the ends of the legs  107  taper outwards from the hypo-tube  224  and form an area with a diameter larger than the end of the cap  226  which may be tapered down around the legs  107  and wire  211 . The ends  219  of the polymeric cap  209  may be heat formed or otherwise tapered down. 
       FIG. 50E  shows another variation of the invention having a hoop or ring  228  at a proximal joint of the device. The hoop  228  may be soldered or welded to the legs  107  and keeps the legs  107  attached even if a joint fails between the legs and the elongate member  101 . Also, the hoop  228  may electrically connect the legs, preventing disconnection of single leg  107  having a temperature sensing element attached. 
     The invention also includes a temperature detecting element (not shown). Examples of temperature detecting elements include thermocouples, infrared sensors, thermistors, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), or any other apparatus capable of detecting temperatures or changes in temperature. The temperature detecting element is preferably placed in proximity to the expandable member. In one variation, a temperature sensor may be mounted along a pull wire. For the variations depicted in  FIGS. 49G-49I , a temperature sensor may be mounted between the energy transfer elements  135 ,  155 ,  173  and the leg  107 . In one variation of the invention a temperature sensor is placed on a single basket leg  107  to provide a signal to control energy transfer. It is also contemplated that a temperature sensor may be placed on more than one basket leg  107 , and/or on a central wire to provide control for multiple areas of energy transfer. The temperature sensor may be placed on the inside of the basket leg  107  to protect the temperature sensor while still providing a position advantageous to determining the device temperature at the energy transfer element. 
       FIG. 49J  illustrates a variation of the invention having thermocouple leads  149  attached to a leg  107  of the device. The leads may be soldered, welded, or otherwise attached to the leg  107 . This variation of the invention shows both leads  149  of the thermocouple  147  attached in electrical communication to a leg  107  at separate joints  177 . In this case, the temperature sensor is at the surface of the leg. This variation provides in case either joint becomes detached, the circuit will be open and the thermocouple  147  stops reading temperature. The device may also include both of the thermocouple leads as having the same joint. 
       FIGS. 51A-51D  illustrate variations of the device in which impedance may be varied by wiring the basket legs  107  in series or in parallel.  FIG. 51A  illustrates a series wiring diagram in which a current path  157  flows from a first leg to a second leg  107 , a third leg  107 , and a fourth leg  107 , sequentially.  FIG. 51B  illustrates the series wiring diagram and shows a single wire  143  connecting the legs  107  in series. The wire  143  may, for example, extend to a distal end of the leg and wrap over itself to the proximal end of the leg  107 . A covering (not shown) may be placed over the wire  143  wrapped leg  107  at the proximal end of the device.  FIG. 51C  illustrates another variation of a series wiring diagram. In this example, a wire  143  extends from the proximal end of a leg  107  to its distal end and then extends to the distal end of an adjacent leg  107  and extends back to the proximal end of the adjacent leg  107 . 
       FIG. 51D  illustrates a parallel wiring diagram in which a current path  157  flows to each leg  107 . Series wiring has an added advantage in that all current will pass through each energy transfer element. By design, this configuration equalizes the heat dissipated at each leg through construction of legs with equal resistance. In addition, in the event of failure of any electrical connection, no energy is delivered. This provides an additional safety feature over parallel wiring. As mentioned elsewhere, the electrical current may be AC or DC. AC may be delivered in the RF range as a safety measure additional to electrical isolation. DC may be used to allow a portable device powered by a battery pack or provide an energy source within the device itself. 
       FIGS. 52A-52C  illustrate variations of the legs  107  of the basket  103 . As discussed above, the legs may, for example, comprise a stainless steel, or a shape memory/superelastic alloy such as a nitinol material. The basket legs  107  may have a rectangular cross section in those variations where the legs  107  are formed from ribbons, or the legs  107  may have a circular cross section in variations where the legs  107  are formed from wires. Also, a leg  107  may be configured to have a non-axisymmetric cross-section. For example, the leg may have an oval or flat cross section as well. The legs  107  of a basket  103  need not all have similar cross sections. For instance, the cross section of each of the legs  107  in a basket  103  may be individually chosen to optimize such factors as the resilience of the basket  103 , or to optimize energy transfer characteristics. An example of a cross section of a basket leg  107  is seen in  FIG. 52A  which illustrates a top view of a basket leg  107  that has a contoured shape  159 . In this illustration, the energy exchange element is not shown in the figure for clarity. One of the purposes of such a contoured shape  159  is illustrated in  FIG. 52B . When the basket (not shown) expands to its second state, leg  107  is configured to bend at or substantially near to points  161 . A benefit of such a configuration is to allow a substantially parallel active surface as defined by the contour shape  159 .  FIG. 52C  illustrates another variation of a leg  107 . In this variation, the leg  107  has a region of increased diameter  163  in the case of round wire, or increased width or thickness in the case of rectangular or other non-axisymmetric wire. Such a region  107  could also be a flat wire with bumps or protrusions creating areas of increased width of the flat wire. This region  163  may, for example, provide a stop that assists in locating insulation, heat shrink, or other external covering around the leg  107 . Also contemplated is a leg  107  that consists of a composite construction. In this variation, the leg  107  may comprise of differing materials in predetermined regions to control the bending of the leg  107  as the basket  103  expands, or the leg may be constructed of different materials to selectively control regions of deliver of energy on the leg. 
       FIGS. 53A-53D  illustrate another variation of the inventive device in which the expandable member comprises basket from a single piece or sheet of material. Such a configuration could comprise an etched, machined, laser cut, or otherwise manufactured piece of metal.  FIG. 53A  illustrates a partial view of a basket  103  formed from a single piece of material. The thickness of the material is, for example 0.005 inches but may vary as desired. The illustration of  FIG. 53A  shows the basket  103  prior to being wrapped about the Z direction as indicated. As shown, the legs  107  may be of varying length or they may be the same length  107  or a combination thereof. The basket  103  may have a distal portion  167  or basket head  167  which may be configured to facilitate construction of the device. For example, the basket head  167  may be notched  166  to obtain a desired shape as the basket is wrapped about the Z direction.  FIG. 53B  illustrates a variation of the basket head  165  being notched such that sections  165  of the material may be bent from the plane of the material to form tabs  165 . Tabs  165  may be used to form mechanical joints with another part, such as a distal tip cap.  FIG. 53C  illustrates another variation of a basket  103  made from a single piece of material. In this example, the legs  107  of the basket  103  are bent in a direction orthogonal to the plane of the basket head  167 . In this example, the distance between the ends of the legs  107  may be, for example, about 2.75 inches.  FIG. 53D  illustrates a variation of the proximal ends of the legs  107  of the basket  103 . In this example, the proximal ends of the legs  107  may have features  169  which promote the structural integrity of the proximal joint (not shown) of the device. In this variation, the ends of the legs  107  have a saw-tooth design which improve the integrity of the proximal joint connecting the legs  107  to the elongated member. The variation of  FIG. 53D  also illustrates a proximal end of the leg  107  as having a radius, however, the end of the leg  107  may have other configurations as required. Also, the legs  107  may have a width of, for example, 0.012 inches and a separation of, for example, 0.016 inches. However, these dimensions may vary as needed. 
     The energy delivery device may further comprise a temperature detecting element. Examples of temperature detecting elements include thermocouples, infrared sensors, thermistors, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), or any other apparatus capable of detecting temperatures or changes in temperature. The temperature detecting element is preferably placed in proximity to the expandable member. 
       FIG. 5  is a partial view of a variation of the energy delivery device having thermocouple  137  positioned about midway along basket leg  106 .  FIG. 6  is an enlarged partial view of the thermocouple  137  of  FIG. 5  showing the leads  139  separately coupled on an inwardly-facing surface of the leg  106 . Consequently, the basket leg itself is used as part of the thermocouple junction upon which the temperature measurement is based. The thermocouple junction is intrinsic to the basket leg. This configuration is preferred because it provides an accurate temperature measurement of tissue contacting the leg  106  in the vicinity of the thermocouple leads. In contrast, typical thermocouple configurations consist of a thermocouple junction offset or extrinsic to the basket leg. Thermocouple junctions offset or extrinsic to the basket leg do not measure temperature as accurately in certain applications as thermocouple junctions which are intrinsic to the basket leg. 
     An intrinsic thermocouple junction configuration is safer than an extrinsic thermocouple junction because, in the event one of the thermocouple leads separates from a basket leg, the intrinsic thermocouple junction becomes “open” and no thermocouple signal is produced. In contrast, when an extrinsic thermocouple junction separates from a basket leg a signal continues to be produced. The signal of a detached extrinsic thermocouple junction can be misleading because although a temperature reading continues to be produced, the temperature reading does not reflect the temperature at the point where the basket leg contacts the subject tissue. Accordingly, an intrinsic thermocouple junction having two leads separately attached to a basket leg is preferred. 
       FIG. 6  also shows basket leg  106  having an outer insulating material or coating  40 . The boundaries  41  of the insulating material  40  define an uninsulated, active section of electrode leg  106  which delivers energy to the airway walls. Preferably, the insulating coating  40  is heat shrink tubing or a polymeric coating. However, other insulating materials may be used. 
     Various controllers may be used to carry out the invention. An example of an RF controller which may be used to carry out the invention is described in co-pending International Patent Application No. PCT/US01/32321, entitled “CONTROL SYSTEM AND PROCESS FOR APPLICATION OF ENERGY TO AIRWAY WALLS AND OTHER MEDIUMS” filed Oct. 17, 2001, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. As stated in that PCT application, an example of a RF generator which may be modified in accordance with the present invention is the FORCE™ 2 Generator manufactured by Valleylab, Boulder, Colo., U.S.A. Another suitable technique to generate and control RF energy is to modulate RF output of a RF power amplifier by feeding it a suitable control signal. 
     The controller and power supply is configured to deliver enough energy to produce a desired effect in the lung. The power supply should also be configured to deliver the energy for a sufficient duration such that the effect persists. This may be accomplished by a time setting which may be entered into the power supply memory by a user. 
     The power supply or generator may also employ a number of algorithms to adjust energy delivery, to compensate for device failures (such as thermocouple detachment), to compensate for improper use (such as poor contact of the electrodes), and to compensate for tissue inhomogeneities which can affect energy delivery such as, for example, subsurface vessels, adjacent airways, or variations in connective tissue. 
     The power supply can also include circuitry for monitoring parameters of energy transfer: (for example, voltage, current, power, impedance, as well as temperature from the temperature sensing element), and use this information to control the amount of energy delivered. In the case of delivering RF energy, typical frequencies of the RF energy or RF power waveform are from 300 to 1750 kHz with 300 to 500 kHz or 450 to 475 being preferred. The RF power-level generally ranges from about 0-30 W but depends upon a number of factors such as the size and number of the electrodes. The controller may also be configured to independently and selectively apply energy to one or more of the basket leg electrodes. 
     A power supply may also include control modes for delivering energy safely and effectively. Energy may be delivered in open loop (power held constant) mode for a specific time duration. For example, a power setting of 8 to 30 Watts for up to 10 seconds is suitable and a power setting of 12 to 30 Watts for up to 5 seconds is preferred. For more permanent restructuring of the airways, a power setting of 8 to 15 Watts for 5 to 10 seconds is suitable. For mere temporary relief or enlargement of the airway, a power setting of 10 to 25 Watts for up to 3 seconds is suitable. With higher power settings, correspondingly lower time durations are preferred to limit collateral thermal damage. 
     Energy may also be delivered in temperature control mode, with output power varied to maintain a certain temperature for a specific time duration. For example, energy may be delivered for up to 20 seconds at a temperature of 55 to 80° C., and more preferably, energy is delivered up to 10 seconds at a temperature in the range of 60 to 70° C. For more permanent restructuring of the airways, energy is delivered for 5 to 10 seconds at a temperature in the range of 60 to 70° C. For mere temporary relief or enlargement of the airway, energy is delivered for up to 5 seconds at a temperature of 55 to 80° C. Additionally, the power supply may operate in impedance control mode. 
     The operator may start at low values of power, temperature and time, and treat until the desired effect (for example, airway diameter increasing or tissue blanching) is acutely observed, raising the power, temperature or time as needed. 
     As described in International Patent Application No. PCT/US01/32321, entitled “CONTROL SYSTEM AND PROCESS FOR APPLICATION OF ENERGY TO AIRWAY WALLS AND OTHER MEDIUMS” filed Oct. 17, 2001, incorporated by reference in its entirety above, in the case of RF energy delivery via RF electrodes, the power supply may also operate in impedance control mode. Various other modes of operation and control algorithms disclosed in the incorporated PCT application are now described immediately below. They include “Temperature Control Mode,” “Energy Pulses and Energy Modulation,”, “Feedback Algorithm,” “Power Shut Down Safety Algorithms,” and “Examples.” 
     Temperature Control Mode 
     In a temperature control mode, the power supply may operate up to a 75° C. setting. That is, the temperature measured by the thermocouple can reach up to 75° C. before the power supply is shut off. The duration must be long enough to produce the desired effect, but as short as possible to allow treatment of all of the desired target airways within a lung. For example, up to 15 seconds is suitable, and more preferably 8 to 12 seconds with about 10 seconds per activation (while the device is stationary) being preferred. Shorter duration with higher temperature will also produce an acceptable acute effect. 
     It should be noted that different device constructions utilize different parameter settings to achieve the desired effect. For example, while direct RF electrodes typically utilize temperatures up to 75° C. in temperature control mode, resistively heated electrodes may utilize temperatures up to 90° C. 
     Energy Pulses and Energy Modulation 
     Short bursts or pulses of RF energy may also be delivered to the target tissue. Short pulses of RF energy heat the proximal tissue while the deeper tissue, which is primarily heated by conduction through the proximal tissue, cools between the bursts of energy. Short pulses of energy therefore tend to isolate treatment to the proximal tissue. 
     The application of short pulses of RF energy may be accomplished by modulating the RF power waveform with a modulation waveform. Modulating the RF power waveform may be performed while employing any of the other control algorithms discussed herein so long as they are not exclusive of one another. For example, the RF energy may be modulated while in a temperature control mode. 
     Examples of modulation waveforms include but are not limited to a pulse train of square waves, sinusoidal, or any other waveform types. In the case of square wave modulation, the modulated RF energy can be characterized in terms of a pulse width (the time of an individual pulse of RF energy) and a duty cycle (the percent of time the RF output is applied). A suitable duty cycle can be up to 100% which is essentially applying RF energy without modulation. Duty cycles up to 80% or up to 50% may also be suitable for limiting collateral damage or to localize the affect of the applied energy. 
     Feedback Algorithm 
     As indicated above, the present invention includes controllers having various algorithms The algorithms may be either analog and digital based. A preferred embodiment is a three parameter controller, or Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller which employs the following algorithm: Pi + i=Pj+G(αej+βei−i+γej_) where Pi + i is a new power set point, Pj is a previous power set point, α, β and γ are preset values, G is a variable gain factor and e, en, ej− correspond to error at the present time step, error one step previous and error two steps previous where the error is the difference between the preset temperature and a measured temperature. 
     We have found that by using a variable gain factor (G) to adaptively control RF energy delivery, the system of the present invention can treat a wide range of tissue types including lung tissue bronchus, bronchioles and other airway passages. The variable gain factor scales the coefficients (alpha, beta, and gamma; each a function of the three PID parameters) based on, for example, the temperature response to energy input during the initial temperature ramp up. 
     Exemplary PID parameters are presented herein, expressed in alpha-beta-gamma space, for an energy delivering device and controller of the present invention. These settings and timings are based on testing in various animal lung tissues using an energy delivering apparatus as described above. First, the gain factor preferably varies and is reset 0.1 to 2 and more preferably at 0.5 seconds after energy delivery has begun. Preferably, the gain factor is reset as follows: G is reset to 0.9 to 1.0 and preferably 0.9 if a temperature rise in ° C. per Joule is less than or equal to 2.5; G is reset to 0.4 to 0.5 and preferably 0.5 if a temperature rise in ° C. per Joule is between 2.5 to 5.0; G is reset to 0.2 to 0.3 and preferably 0.2 if a temperature rise in ° C. per Joule is equal to 5.0 to 7.5; and G is reset to 0.1 to 0.2 and preferably 0.1 if a temperature rise in ° C. per Joule is greater than 7.5. We have also found that a suitable value for α is from 1 to 2; for β is from −1 to −2; and for γ is from −0.5 to 0.5. More preferably α, β, γ are 1.6, −1.6, and 0.0 respectively. 
     It is also possible to change the relative weights of alpha, beta, and gamma depending upon monitored temperature response working in either PID or Alpha-Beta-Gamma coordinate space beyond just scaling the alpha-beta-gamma coefficients with a variable gain factor. This can be done by individually adjusting any or all of alpha, beta, or gamma. 
     In another variation of the present invention, the PID algorithm is Pj +1 =P, +(G^i+G ei− 1 +G 3 ej_) and G]; G and G 3  are each variable gain factors. The invention includes configuring the controller such that G 1  G 2  and G 3  are reset to 0.90 to 2.00, −0.90 to −2.00 and 0.50 to −0.50 respectively if a temperature rise in ° C. per Joule is less than or equal to 2.5; to 0.40 to 1.00, −0.40 to −1.00 and 0.25 to −0.25 respectively if a temperature rise in ° C. per Joule is between 2.5 to 5.0; to 0.20 to 0.60, −0.20 to −0.60 and 0.15 to −0.15 respectively if a temperature rise in ° C. per Joule is equal to 5.0 to 7.5; and to 0.10 to 0.40, −0.10 to −0.40 and 0.10 to −0.10 respectively if a temperature rise in ° C. per Joule is greater than 7.5. Each of the variable gain factors may be equal to a product of at least one preset value and at least one variable value. 
     It is also possible to employ an algorithm that continuously adapts to signals rather than at discrete sample steps, intervals or periods. The algorithm takes into account several variables upon which observed temperature response depends including, for example: initial temperature, time history of energy delivery, and the amount of energy required to maintain set point temperature. An exemplary analog PID algorithm is: u=Kp e+Kif edt+Ko(de/dt) where u is a signal to be adjusted such as, for example, a current, a voltage difference, or an output power which results in energy delivery from the electrode to the airway wall. Kp, Ki and K D  are preset or variable values which are multiplied with the proper error term where e(t) is the difference between a preset variable and a measured process variable such as temperature at time (t). The above equation is suitable for continuous and/or analog type controllers. 
     Power Shut Down Safety Algorithms 
     In addition to the control modes specified above, the power supply may include control algorithms to limit excessive thermal damage to the airway tissue. Damage may be limited by terminating or shutting down the energy being delivered to the target medium. The algorithms can be based on the expectation that the sensed temperature of the tissue will respond upon the application of energy. The temperature response, for example, may be a change in temperature in a specified time or the rate of change of temperature. The expected temperature response can be predicted as a function of the initially sensed temperature, the temperature data for a specified power level as a function of time, or any other variables found to affect tissue properties. The expected temperature response may thus be used as a parameter in a power supply safety algorithm. For example, if the measured temperature response is not within a predefined range of the expected temperature response, the power supply will automatically shut down. 
     Other control algorithms may also be employed. For example, an algorithm may be employed to shut down energy delivery if the sensed temperature does not rise by a certain number of degrees in a pre-specified amount of time after energy delivery begins. Preferably, if the sensed temperature does not increase more than about 10° C. in about 3 seconds, the power supply is shut off. More preferably, if the sensed temperature does not increase more than about 10° C. in about 1 second, the power supply is shut off. 
     Another way to stop energy delivery includes shutting down a power supply if the temperature ramp is not within a predefined range at any time during energy delivery. For example, if the measured rate of temperature change does not reach a predefined value, the power supply will stop delivery of the RF energy. The predefined values are predetermined and based on empirical data. Generally, the predefined values are based on the duration of time RF energy is delivered and the power-level applied. A suitable predefined rate of temperature change to stop energy delivery is from 8° C./second to 15° C./second in the first 5 seconds (preferably in the first 2 seconds) of commencing energy delivery. 
     Other algorithms include shutting down a power supply if a maximum temperature setting is exceeded or shutting down a power supply if the sensed temperature suddenly changes, such a change includes either a drop or rise, this change may indicate failure of the temperature sensing element. For example, the generator or power supply may be programmed to shut off if the sensed temperature drops more than about 10° C. in about 0.1 to 1 seconds and more preferably in about 0.2 seconds. 
     In another configuration, the power is terminated when the measured temperature exceeds a pre-selected temperature or exceeds the set point temperature by a pre-selected amount. For example, when the set point is exceeded by 5 to 20° C., more preferably 15° C. the power will terminate. 
     In another configuration, power is terminated when the measured temperature (averaged over a time window) exceeds a pre-selected temperature. For example, power may be terminated when the measured temperature (averaged over 1 to 5 seconds and preferably averaged over 2 seconds) exceeds the preset temperature by a predetermined amount. The predetermined amount is generally from 1 to 10° C. and preferably about 5° C. Suitable preset temperatures are from 60 to 80° C. and most preferably about 65° C. Accordingly, in one exemplary configuration, the power is stopped when the measured temperature (averaged over 2 seconds) exceeds 70° C. 
     In another configuration, the power is terminated when the amount of energy delivered exceeds a maximum amount. A suitable maximum amount is 120 Joules for an energy delivery apparatus delivering energy to the airways of lungs. 
     In another configuration, the power is shut down depending on an impedance measurement. The impedance is monitored across a treated area of tissue within the lung. Impedance may also be monitored at more than one site within the lungs. The measuring of impedance may be but is not necessarily performed by the same electrodes used to deliver the energy treatment to the tissue. The impedance may be measured as is known in the art and as taught in U.S. application Ser. No. 09/436,455 which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Accordingly, in one variation of the present invention, the power is adjusted or shut off when a measured impedance drops below a preset impedance value. When using the energy delivering device of the present invention to treat airways, a suitable range for the preset impedance value is from 40 to 60 ohms and preferably about 50 ohms. 
     In another variation, the energy delivery apparatus is configured to deliver an amount of power up to a maximum power. The maximum power can be from 10 to 40 watts and preferably from 15 to 20 watts. 
     In yet another configuration, the power supply is configured to shut down if the power delivered exceeds a maximum power and the measured temperature drops by a critical temperature difference within a sampling period of time. A suitable maximum power is from 15 to 20 Watts and preferably about 17 watts. The sampling period of time generally ranges from 0.1 to 1.0 seconds and preferably is about 0.5 seconds. A suitable range for the critical temperature difference is about 2° C. 
     It is to be understood that any of the above algorithms and shut-down configurations may be combined in a single controller. However, algorithms having mutually exclusive functions may not be combined. 
     While the power supply or generator preferably includes or employs a microprocessor, the invention is not so limited. Other means known in the art may be employed. For example, the generator may be hardwired to run one or more of the above discussed algorithms. The controller is preferably programmable and configured to receive and manipulate other signals than the examples provided above. For example, other useful sensors may provide input signals to the processor to be used in determining the power output for the next step. The treatment of an airway may also involve placing a visualization system such as an endoscope or bronchoscope into the airways. The treatment device is then inserted through or next to the bronchoscope or endoscope while visualizing the airways. Alternatively, the visualization system may be built directly into the treatment device using fiber optic imaging and lenses or a CCD and lens arranged at the distal portion of the treatment device. The treatment device may also be positioned using radiographic visualization such as fluoroscopy or other external visualization means. 
     EXAMPLES 
     A system to treat airways in accordance with the present invention was built and tested in vivo on two canines. The system included an energy delivering apparatus having a distal basket. The basket included electrode legs and a temperature sensor mounted to one of the legs. The system also included a generator programmed to measure the temperature change per energy unit during the first half-second of treatment. A PID gain factor was adjusted depending on the measured tissue response. That is, the gain factor was adjusted based on the temperature change per joule output during the first half second. In general, this corresponds to a higher gain for less responsive tissue and lower gain for more responsive tissue. 
     After treating the test subjects with a general anesthetic, RF energy was delivered to target regions using an energy delivery device and generator as described above. In particular, energy activations were performed on all available intraparenchymal airways three millimeters or larger in diameter in both lungs. Three hundred sixty-three activations using a 65° C. temperature setting were performed in the two animals (i.e.,  180  activations per animal). Additionally, in twenty of the activations in each animal, the energy delivery device was deliberately deployed improperly to provide a “Stress” condition. 
     In each activation, the measured temperature reached and stabilized at 65° C. or, in the case of the twenty activations under “stress” conditions, the power properly shut off. Thus, the present invention can successfully treat lung tissue with a variable gain setting and various safety algorithms to safely maintain a preset temperature at the electrode or lung tissue surface. This temperature control is particularly advantageous when treating the airways of lungs to reduce asthma symptoms. 
     Notably, the methods of the invention may be performed while the lung is experiencing natural symptoms of reversible obstructive pulmonary disease. One such example is where an individual, experiencing an asthma attack, or acute exacerbation of asthma or COPD, undergoes treatment to improve the individual&#39;s ability to breath. In such a case, the treatment provides immediate relief for (i.e., “rescues”) the patient. 
     All of the features disclosed in the specification (including any accompanying claims, abstract and drawings), and/or all of the steps of any method or process disclosed, may be combined in any combination, except combinations where at least some of such features and/or steps are mutually exclusive. 
     Each feature disclosed, in this specification (including any accompanying claims, abstract and drawings), may be replaced by alternative features serving the same, equivalent or similar purpose, unless expressly stated otherwise. Thus, unless expressly stated otherwise, each feature disclosed is one example only of a generic series of equivalent or similar features. 
     The invention is not restricted to the details of the foregoing embodiments. The invention extends to any novel one, or any novel combination, of the features disclosed in this specification (including any accompanying claims, abstract and drawings), or to any novel one, or any novel combination, of the steps of any method or process so disclosed.