Abstract:
An electrostatic instrument for measuring particle concentrations and possibly sizes in aerosols, such as an Electrostatic Low Pressure Impactor or Differential Mobility Analyser suffers from errors which limit the useful response bandwidth of the device. The invention minimises or eliminates these transient errors which are caused by changing particle concentrations in the aerosol. A system may be added to an otherwise conventional instrument to compensate for the transient effects based on a model of the charge production mechanism. Alternatively, a screening electrode placed over the sense electrodes in the instrument, and held at controlled electrical potential difference, is added to the instrument to eliminate the effect. A third embodiment adds compensating electrodes which provide a direct measurement of the transient effect which can be subtracted from the signal.

Description:
FILED OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates to apparatus for and method of analysing a mixture comprising a fluid and a plurality of electrically charged particles contained therein. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Particle concentrations in aerosols (a suspension of particles in a gas) are often measured by electrostatic techniques based on the principle of charging the particles in a sample of the aerosol and collecting them on one or several collection elements such as electrodes or filters. The current flowing to these electrodes or filters, here referred to as “collection electrodes”, is measured and indicates the quantity of particles collected and hence their concentration in the aerosol. 
     The particles may be charged by any one of a number of methods, such as ultraviolet irradiation or corona discharge; or natural charging (often associated with a combustion process) may be relied upon. 
     Frequently, differences in mobility (the readiness of particles to diff-use or drift through the gas) are used to separate different sizes of particles before collecting them on the collection electrodes. Some devices alternatively use differences in momentum for this discrimination. 
     Such devices are used to make measurements of the number of particles and sometimes the spectrum of particle sizes in aerosols, but are limited to resolving accurately only relatively slow changes in the particle concentration. This is because faster changes lead to transient discrepancies between the actual particle concentration and the measured current which are caused by the rate of change of the concentration of charged particles in the aerosol near the detectors. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     According to the present invention, modifications are made to the design of electrostatic particle measurement instruments to compensate for or eliminate the transient currents produced by the rate of change of charge near the sensing electrodes, and hence reduce the transient errors in measured particle concentrations. 
     According to a first aspect of the invention, this is achieved by apparatus for analysing a mixture comprising a fluid and a plurality of electrically charged particles therein, the apparatus comprising a collection element for collecting said particles and providing an output relating to the number of particles incident thereon, and compensation electrode means, spaced from the collection element, which is responsive to charged particles which pass in the vicinity of, but which are not collected by, the collection element, thereby to enable the output from the collection element to be used to determine the charge collected by the collection element. 
     Thus, by providing compensation electrode means the invention enables spurious measurements caused by particles which induce a current in the collection element, but are not themselves collected by that element, to be avoided. The collection element may comprise any suitable element for collecting charged particles so that the total charge or current resulting from the collection of charged particles can be measured. 
     For example, the apparatus may comprise an electrostatic low pressure impactor (ELPI) instrument which charges the particles in an aerosol to be measured and then passes the aerosol through a column of impactors. The impactors comprise perforated plates followed by collection plates which may be covered with grease. When the aerosol passes through the perforations, relatively massive particles are forced by their momentum to hit the collection plates where they are detected whereas the lighter particles are carried by the gas flow to the subsequent stages. The size of the perforations, size of the plates and the operating pressure are varied throughout the column such that the largest particles are detected on the earliest collection plates and successively smaller particles are detected on later collection plates. Measurement of the electrical current flowing to these collection plates indicates the number of particles detected by each and hence the concentration of size class of particles. Each collection plate thus functions as an electrode. 
     Alternatively, the apparatus may have a collection element which comprises an electrode to which is applied an accelerating voltage for attracting the charged particles. The apparatus may have a succession of such electrodes arranged along a conduit so as to provide an output representative of the size spectrum (i.e. the concentration of particles in each of a number of size classes). 
     In such a case, the compensation electrode means may to advantage comprise a shielding electrode which overlies each of the collection electrodes, the arrangement being such that charged particles on the other side of the shielding electrode from the collection electrodes are prevented or inhibited by the shielding electrode from inducing currents on the collection electrodes. 
     The shielding electrode may to an advantage comprise a conductive grid. Preferably, the conduit is cylindrical, each collection electrode is annular and is coaxial with said cylinder and the shielding electrode is also cylindrical and coaxial with the conduit. 
     Instead of shielding the collection electrode, the compensation electrode means may alternatively be so arranged as to provide an output which can be processed to provide a correction signal for removing or inhibiting components of the output from the collection electrode caused by induced current. 
     Such a compensation electrode means can be controlled so as to be maintained at a voltage which results in a collection of no significant number of particles. Alternatively, the compensation electrode means may collect all of the particles which pass in the vicinity of the collection electrode without being collected by the latter. 
     In arrangements which have a plurality of collection electrodes distributed along a conduit, the compensation electrode means for a given collection electrode may be constituted by all of the collection electrodes positioned downstream thereof. If the downstream collection electrodes between them, collect all of the particles which are not collected by the first said collection electrode, their outputs can be used to obtain an indication of the induced current on said collection electrode. 
     According to a second aspect of the invention, in a method of measuring the current flow to a collection electrode to indicate the quantity of charged particles in an aerosol, there is an improvement comprising the step of eliminating or compensating for the part of the current flowing to said collection electrode which is caused by the rate of change of charged density in said aerosol near said collection electrode. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     Three embodiments of apparatus and methods in accordance with the invention will now be described by way of example only and with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: 
     FIG. 1 is a cutaway diagram of a Differential Mobility Spectrometer (DMS) forming part of the first embodiment of apparatus in accordance with the invention; 
     FIG. 2 is a functional block diagram illustrating processing means connected to the DMS of FIG. 1; 
     FIG. 3 is a cutaway diagram of the a DMS of the second embodiment of apparatus the DMS having a shielding electrode; 
     FIG. 4 is a cutaway diagram of a DMS of the third embodiment of apparatus in accordance with the invention; 
     FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a part of the DMS of FIG. 1, and illustrates how charged particles can make different contributions to the current collected on a collection electrode of the DMS; 
     FIG. 6 is a further schematic diagram, illustrating how different particles are collected by different collection electrodes of the DMS of FIG. 1; 
     FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of part of the DMS shown in FIG. 3; and 
     FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of part of the DMS shown in FIG.  4 . 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     First Embodiment 
     The DMS shown in FIG. 1 is used to analyse aerosols, and comprises a hollow cylindrical outer casing  1  formed from an insulating material and which contains a solid cylindrical central electrode  2  which is coaxial with the housing  1 . The electrode  2  is spaced from the inner walls of the housing so as to define with the housing an annular conduit  4  extending along the length of the housing  1 . The electrode  2  is held at a positive potential by a voltage source  6  connected thereto. The inner wall of the housing  1  is provided with a series of annular, axially spaced recesses which are coaxial with the housing  1  and electrode  2 , and each of which houses a respective annular collection electrode (collectively denoted by reference numeral  8 ). 
     An inlet pipe  10  extends into one end of the housing  1 , and contains a particle charging device  12 . The pipe  10  is coaxial with the electrode  2 . As can be seen from FIG. 1, the pipe  10  fits over the end of the electrode  2 , which end has a conical portion  14 . However, the pipe  10  has an inner radius which is slightly larger than the radius of the electrode  2  so that the pipe  10  is spaced from the electrode  2  to define an annular inlet  16  for the aerosol to be analysed by the DMS. All of the collection electrodes  8  are, in use, held at earth potential, but for the sake of simplicity, the connection to earth is only shown in relation to one of those electrodes, labelled E 4 . Also specifically labelled are the electrodes E 1 , E 2  and E 3  which, together with E 4 , constitute the last four collection electrodes that a sample of aerosol passes on its way through the device from the inlet  16  through to the outlet  18  defined by the space between the bottom of the electrode  2  and the housing  1 . 
     The collection electrodes  8  are connected to signal processing means, as shown in FIG. 2, which is specifically adapted to compensate for currents induced in the electrodes  8  as the result of the change in number density of particles passing through the conduit. 
     For the sake of conciseness, the signal processing means is only shown in relation to the electrodes E 1 -E 4 , but it will be apparent from this description how the signal processing means interacts with each of the other electrodes  8 . The output of the electrode E 1  is connected to calculating means comprising a differentiator  20  the output of which is connected to a calculation device  22  for determining from the output of the differentiator the current which would have been induced on the electrode E 2  by the charges collected on E 1 . 
     The output of the calculation device  22  is fed to an adder  24  in which the value for the induced current is subtracted from the current measured on the electrode E 2  at a given time before the output on the electrode E 1  was measured so that the measured induced current and the measured output from the electrode E 2  are synchronised when fed to the adder. This synchronisation is achieved with the aid of delay circuitry  26  which comprises a memory for storing a succession of measured current values from the electrode E 2  and supplying them after a pre-determined delay to the adder  24 . The output of the adder  24  provides a signal representative of the current collected on the electrode E 2  (as indicated at  28 ), and this can be fed to a further differentiator  30  for determining the rate of change of charge collected on E 2 . 
     The output from the differentiator  30  is fed to further calculation device  32  which determines the current which was induced on the electrode E 3  as the result of change of number density of those charged particles subsequently collected on E 2 . The output of the differentiator  20  is also connected to a further calculator  34  which determines the current which would have been induced on the electrode E 3  by the charges collected by E 1 . This value is fed to an adder  36 , the other input of which is connected to a further delay device  38  which is similar in form and function to the device  26 . The output of the adder  36  is fed to a further adder  40 , the other input of which is connected to the output of the calculation device  32  so that the output of adder  40  is representative of the current caused by charges collected by the electrode E 3 , which is output as indicated at  42 . 
     Similarly, the calculation means comprises farther calculation devices  44 ,  46  and  48  and a further differentiator  50  which calculate the components of current induced on E 4  attributable to the charges collected on E 1 -E 3 , and those components are subtracted (in adders  52 ,  54  and  58 ) from the output of the delay circuitory  60  connected to E 4  so as to produce an indication of the current collected on E 4  (as represented by reference numeral  64 ) the output of the adder  58  is connected to a further differentiator  66 . 
     Considering now all of the collection electrodes in the DMS, the output from each of these electrodes (other than the first electrode, closest to the input) is connected to a respective differentiator, the output of which is in turn, connected to a respective series of calculation devices, each of which calculates the induced current, attributable to the charge collected on the collection electrode connected to that differentiator, on a respective one of the upstream electrodes. The output of each of the electrodes is also connected to a suitable delay device for synchronising the output of that electrode with the induced current values which are fed to each of the adders (each corresponding to a respective downstream electrode) connected to that delay device. 
     Thus, for each electrode other than E 1 , the charge collected on the or each downstream collection electrode is used to provide a correction to take into account the current which is induced by charges passing in the vicinity of the electrode (but which are not collected thereby). 
     This embodiment of this invention uses a system added to or incorporated in a particle measuring instrument and corrects for the effects of the rate of change of charged particle concentration, which is estimated from the variation over time of the currents measured on the collection electrode or electrodes. This embodiment may be used where a sample of the aerosol to be measured, which may optionally be diluted flows past or through the collection electrode or electrodes which are connected to a current measuring electrical circuit. This embodiment is preferably used in situations in which all or a fixed proportion of the total number of charged particles in the aerosol are collected on the collection electrodes. 
     The correction for the effects of the rate of change of charged particles concentration is based on the following model for the mechanism of current generation. 
     A charged particle near an electrode held at a fixed potential attracts a charge of the opposite sign onto the electrode from the connected circuit. The quantity of charge attracted is proportional to the charge on the particle but it is also a function of its distance from the electrode and the geometry of the other conductors nearby. As the particle approaches the electrode the charge attracted to the electrode increases and therefore there is a current flow in the connected circuit When the particle finally reaches the electrode, the total attracted charge due to that particle is equal and opposite to its charge. Therefore, when a large number of particles steadily flowing to the electrode is considered, the current measured is as if it were just produced at the time the particles were collected. 
     It will be appreciated that the particle is collected in the sense that it comes into contact with the electrode so that a charge can be exchanged between the particle and the electrode. The particle is not necessarily retained on the electrode. 
     If the concentration of charged particles in the aerosol near the electrode changes, however, this will lead to a change in the charge induced on the electrode and therefore an extra component of current in the connected circuit before the particles at the new concentration reach the electrode. If the change in concentration is a reduction, the magnitude of charge on the electrode will reduce producing a component of current in the opposite direction from that produced by collected particles. 
     Using this model, we can see that any current measured to the collection electrode is due to the sum of the effects of collected particles, new charged particles entering the vicinity of the electrode and those charged particles already near it approaching, less the effect of any particles which leave tile vicinity of the electrode. This embodiment of the invention uses this to estimate accurately the concentration of particles in the aerosol at any instant without errors which come from ignoring the effect of changing charge concentration near the electrode. 
     The sample aerosol flow  1  is passed through the charging device  12 , which applies a positive charge to the particles, and then flows along the centre of an annular channel surrounded by a sheath flow of clean gas entering between the inlet pipe  10  and housing  1  at the same flow velocity. While this happens the electrode  2  is held at a high positive potential, and the current flow from the collection electrodes  8  is measured. The collection electrodes  8  and centre electrode  2  set up an electrical field in the annular conduit  4  which causes the positively charged particles to drift from the sample aerosol, through tie sheath flow, towards the electrodes  8 . The smaller particles, with less aerodynamic resistance, drift faster, reaching the outside of the channel sooner and being collected on an electrode further upstream than the larger particles. For this embodiment of the invention to be applied to the DMS, either the voltages, flow rates and geometry of the instrument should be designed such that almost all the particles in the aerosol are collected before the flow exits the channel. In a modified version of this embodiment, additional mesh, gauze or functionally equivalent, electrodes are mounted at the exit end to collect any remaining particles, the current flow from these electrodes also being measured. (such an additional element would be treated as electrode E 1 ). 
     Generally more particles pass through an upstream collection electrode ring than are collected on it, so changes in the concentration of these larger particles which pass through can dominate the current from the particles actually collected on an upstream collection electrode. The signal processing means shown in FIG. 2 act as a correction system. The collection electrodes E 1  and E 4  in this diagram are the four most downstream of the collection electrodes in FIG.  1 . E 1  is the collection electrode furthest downstream. 
     As very few charged particles leave the channel without being measured, the current on collection electrode E 1  indicates the number of particles per unit time (‘particle flux’) in the aerosol that passed through the previous electrode E 2  uncollected. To correct for the transient errors due to the change in particle concentration in the vicinity of E 2 , therefore, the rate of change of the current on E 1  (shown by the d/dt box) is multiplied by a constant of proportionality and subtracted from the current measured on E 2 . Preferably, this correction is applied to the value of the current measured on the penultimate electrode E 2  a short period earlier and stored, as indicated by the delay blocks in FIG. 2; this delay period being equal to the time taken for the aerosol and sheath flow to travel from the average position of the penultimate electrode to that of the final electrode. 
     Practically, the differentiation operation d/dt may be approximated, for example by finite difference The product δt 2 K 2.1  is the constant of proportionality between the rate of change of particle flux and the correction applied to the penultimate electrode. Both elements of the product are defined below. Preferably, the constant of proportionality is the integral over time of the influence factor along the path followed by the charged particle. The constant of proportionality may, alternatively, be derived from measurements of the particular instrument. 
     The influence coefficient of a charged particle near an electrode is the ratio of the magnitude of charge attracted onto the electrode by the charged particle divided by the charge on the particle. It is a function of the distance of the particle from the electrode and the geometry of the electrode and other conductive bodies (such as the centre electrode in the DMS) nearby. This can be calculated for the particular geometry of the instrument by conventional techniques such as Gauss&#39;s law and the principle of overall charge neutrality or widely available computer programmes. 
     The radial location of a charged particle at the penultimate ring can be estimated from the forces applied to it as it passes through along the channel  4 . The most important forces are aerodynamic and the electrostatic forces due to the applied electric field and charge image attraction to surfaces. For the DMS, the applied electric field Is large and therefore dominates the charge image effects in the bulk of the column. The radial entry location is approximately known, as the aerosol all enters near the centre of the channel, and one other point on the path is known to be the location of the final electrode. The electric field can be calculated from Gauss&#39;s law. 
     Along with Stokes&#39; theorem (strictly modified by a Cunningham slip correction factor for these small particles) which states that the drift velocity of a particle is proportional to the force on it, this allows the path the particle follows through the channel to be predicted and thus the influence coefficient of any collected particle on any upstream ring to be evaluated. In FIG. 2, the coefficient δt m κ m,n  the influence coefficient of particles collected at collection electrode Em on the charge on collection electrode En, multiplied by the time they spend in the vicinity of electrode En. 
     When this correction is applied to the current from the penultimate electrode E 2 , this then gives an accurate reflection of the particle flow collected at that electrode. Therefore, in the same way, the current measurement on the next electrode E 3  can be corrected for the change in particle concentration of particles collected at both downstream rings E 1  and E 2  (separately, as the radial location and hence coefficient δt m κ m,n  of the two sizes of particles will be different at the axial position of the upstream electrode). The same process is then applied successively to all upstream electrodes each of which is corrected for the currents collected on all the downstream electrodes. 
     The operation of the DMS and the theory behind correction of detected currents will now be described in more detail. An aerosol formed of a spectrum of particle sizes from less than 5 nm to around 1000 nm at a flow rate of around 5 litres/min STP is charged in a prescribed manner and the resulting charged aerosol is classified according to electrical mobility in the annular column in the housing  1 . The size and number of the particles in the aerosol is inferred from the currents measured at various locations within the D)MS. The currents measured on the collection electrodes (typically &gt;1&gt;10 −15  A) can have a significant component which is due to the rate of change of charged particles entering the classifier. Methods to obtain a measurement which improves the accuracy of the classification are presented. 
     The aerosol is drawn into the instrument using a vacuum pump (not shown) with a swept capacity of about 25 m 3 /hr. Particles larger than about 1000 nm are collected on an impactor such that only particles less than 1000 nm are admitted to the instrument. The sample is then drawn through a restrictor such that the sample pressure is reduced from near to atmospheric pressure, to about 250 mbar. 
     Aerosol particles are charged in a unipolar diffusion charger with a residence time of around 500 ms and an average ion density of 1×10 13 /m 3 . The sample flow of charged particles is admitted to the entry of the classifier in a cylinder immediately adjacent to the high Voltage electrode and is surrounded by a cylinder of the clean sheath air. The ratio of the sample flow to sheath flow is about 4:1. A section of the classifier is shown schematically in FIG.  5 . 
     The particles move with the local gas flow speed at about 1 m/s, but experience a force due to a strong electric field maintained between the High Voltage electrode  2  and the collector electrode E 2  which is held near to earth potential. The electric field strength is in the range 0-10 kV/cm (High Voltage electrode voltage range is 0-10 kV) and the Current flows to the Collector electrodes are measured with sensitive electrometer amplifiers which are generally operated at near ground potential. 
     Column lengths of about 1 m, comprising 22 or 26 Collector electrodes with lengths of 15-35 mm and internal diameter about 55 mm have been found to give good performance. The diameter of the High voltage electrode of about 25 mm gives an annular gap of 15 mm. The ratio of sheath air to sample flow of around 4:1 has been used. 
     Theory 
     Consider the toroidal control volume bounded by the dotted box shown in FIG. 5 within the classifier and excluding the High Voltage electrode. The electric field force causes charged particles to drift outwards and some of the particles will hit the Collector electrode. In FIG. 5 the flow of charged particles into the control volume is I in ; the flow of particles out of the control volume is I out ; the flow of charge from particles incident on the Collector electrode leads to I collected ; the flow of induced charge to the Collector electrode leads to I induced ; the total charge flow to the Collector electrode is I measured ; the total of the positive charge within the volume is Σ+ and the total of the negative charge within the volume is Σ−. 
     Positive charge in the sample flow, Σ+ causes an equal and opposite negative charge to be induced, Σ−. This negative charge is split between the surface of the High Voltage electrode and the Collector electrode such that the potential difference between the High Voltage electrode and Collector electrode is unchanged. 
     
       
         Σ − =Σ −   collector +Σ −   HVelectrode   1 
       
     
     We may describe this split by a constant K which is solely a function of the radial distribution of the positive charge such that. K is known as the influence coefficient:              K   =         ∑     -   collector         (       ∑     -   collector       +     ∑       -   H                     V      electrode           )       =     fn        (     radial                 location                 of                   ∑   +       )               2                              
     Neglecting charge flow to the High Voltage electrode (which can only occur by diffusion against the strong electric field), the charge flow to the Collector Electrode carried by particles is given by: 
     
       
           I   collected   =I   in   −I   out   3 
       
     
     Consider a cylindrical surface bounded by the dashed line in FIG. 5 which is located within the conductive Collector electrodes. The axial field is constant. Gauss&#39;s law states: 
     
       
           E ·ds=∫   volume   qdv   4 
       
     
     Where: 
     q is the charge in the volume enclosed by the surface 
     E is the electric field normal to the surface 
     and ds is the integral over the surface 
     The surface comprises a cylinder and 2 circular ends. Therefore Gauss&#39;s Law may be expressed as: 
     
       
         Area circular ends   ×E   axial +Area cylinder   ×E   radial   =Σq   5 
       
     
     Since the cylindrical surface is located inside the conductive Collector electrode, there is no field normal to this surface. Therefore: 
     
       
         Area circular end   ×E   axial   =Σq=Σ   + +Σ −   6 
       
     
     Therefore, substituting from 1 and 2 
     
       
         Σ −   collector   =K ·(Area circular ends   ×E   axial −Σ + )  7 
       
     
     Changes in Σ +  at fixed r and hence fixed K cause the inducing of a current in the Collector electrode of the form: 
     
       
           I   induced   =dΣ   −   collector   /d   1   =−K     d(Σ     + ) /dt   8 
       
     
     Therefore the total charge flow to the collector electrode, I measured  has two components I collected  and I induced . For the application described here, the required measurement of the classifier is I collected , which corresponds to impact of charged particles within a small band of electrical mobility such that their trajectories are incident onto the collector electrode. The charge flow I induced  has a component from all particles within the control volume and is an unwanted artifact in this application. In certain circumstances, the magnitude of I induced  can be significantly higher than I collected . In particulars collector electrodes near the entry of the column may have a small incident charge and a high induced charge, since most of the charged particles pass the electrode without hitting it. 
     In general: 
     
       
         
           I 
           measured 
           =I 
           collected 
           +I 
           induced 
         
       
     
     In FIG. 6, there are shown the trajectories of largest particles at end of classifier 
     Where Ux is the flow velocity ( − 1 m/s) and 
     L is the length of the Collector electrode ( − 30 mm) 
     The column 4 is arranged such that Collector electrode E 1  collects the particles with the lowest electrical mobility in the sample (these will be the largest particles—around 1000 nm diameter). These particles follow a trajectory which is within the envelope between A and B in FIG.  6 . 
     I induced1  for Collector electrode E 1  is caused only by changes in the charge occurring in the flow field immediately adjacent to the ring (between trajectories A and B). All this charge is subsequently collected on the ring, which means that the induced component is negligible (I induced) ≈0) and: 
     
       
         I increased1   ≅I   collected1   9 
       
     
     The current measured on the previous collector electrode (E 2 ) I measured2 , similarly has a component I collected2  due to particles with mobilities such that their trajectories fall between B and C in FIG.  6 . However, the particles which pass Collector electrode E 2  without hitting it are the same as those which later hit Collector electrode E 1 . Changes in the charge on these particles give rise to an induced current on Collector electrode E 2 , I induced2 . This current is induced before the particles causing it are detected on the downstream collector electrode by a time equal to the transit time for gas between E 2  and E 1 . The delay time between a particle passing ring m and being collected on ring n is approximately:          δ                   t     m   ,   n         =       ∑     n   =   1       m   -   1              L   n     /   Ux                              
     Where L n  is the length of the collector electrode n and Ux is the axial gas velocity. 
     The radial location of a charged particle which represents those falling between trajectories A and  8  (ie those that eventually hit the final collector electrode E 1 ) as they pass the penultimate collector electrode (E 2 ) can be estimated from the forces applied to it as it passes through along the classifier. The lost important forces are aerodynamic and the electrostatic forces due to the applied electric field and charge image attraction to surfaces. For the classifier, the applied electric field is large and therefore dominates the induced charge effects in the bulk of the column. The radial entry location is approximately known, as the aerosol all enters near to the High Voltage electrode, and one other point on the path is known to be the location of the final electrode. The electric field can be calculated from Gauss&#39;s law. Along with Stokes&#39; theorem (strictly modified by a Cunningham slip correction factor for these small particles) which states that the drift velocity of a particle is proportional to the force on it, this allows the path which the particle follows through the channel to be predicted. 
     The radial location of particles eventually hitting Collector electrode E 1  can be determined along the column by solving:                     r          x       =         z   p          V   x           u   x        r                   ln        (       r   2       r   1       )                 10                              
     where r is the radial location of the particle within the classifier, 
     r2 is the radius of the surface of the High Voltage electrode 
     r1 is the radius of the Collector electrode 
     Vx is the Voltage between the High Voltage electrode and the Collector electrode at position x along the classifier 
     Ux is the axial flow velocity at position x along the classifier 
     For the annular geometry of the classifier, die proportion of charge induced on a given Collector electrode n for a particle at radius r (which is the influence coefficient, K) can be approximated as:              Km   ,     n   =     [     1   +       ln        (       r     m   ,   n         r   2       )         ln        (       r   2       r   1       )           ]             11                              
     Where r m,n  is the radial location at Collector electrode m of particles which subsequently hit Collector electrode n 
     Note that when the particle is close to the High voltage electrode, K is ˜0 and most of the charge is induced on the High Voltage electrode. When the particle is close to the Collector electrode, K is ˜1 and most of the charge is induced on the collector electrode. Therefore the component of current measured on Collector electrode E 2  (I measured2 ) due to the rate of change of charge passing Collector electrode E 2  (I induced2 ) can be calculated from this and the measured rate of change of current on Collector electrode E 1  (I measured1 ) using equation 8. The charge adjacent to E 2 , but not collected on it is (since all of this charge eventually hits E 1 ): 
     
       
         Σ +   2   =I   measured 1   ×δt   1,2   12 
       
     
     Therefore 
     
       
           I   induced     2     =−δt   2,1   K   2,1   d ( I   measured     1     )/   dt   13 
       
     
     This principle is then extended upstream to the sample entry into the classifier as shown as the correction system in the block diagram in FIG.  2 . 
     The collector electrodes E 1  to E 4  in this diagram are the four most downstream of the twenty two collector electrodes in the classifier. Collector electrode E 1  is furthest downstream, around 600 mm from the most upstream collector electrode. As very few charged particles leave the channel without being measured, the current on collector electrode E 1 , I measured1  indicates the number of particles per unit time (‘particle flux’) in the aerosol that passed the previous collector electrode E uncollected. 
     To correct for the transient errors due to the change in particle concentration in the vicinity of Collector electrode E 2 , the rate of change of the current on Collector electrode E 1  (shown by the d/dt box) is multiplied by the appropriate influence coefficient, K 2  (from equation 11) and subtracted from the current measured on Collector electrode E 2  (I measured2 ). This correction is applied to the value of the current measured on the penultimate electrode E 2  a short period earlier and stored, as indicated by the delay blocks in FIG. 2; this delay period being equal to the time taken for the aerosol and sheath flow to travel from the average position of the penultimate electrode to that of the final electrode (which is around 30 ms). Practically, the differentiation operation d/dt may be approximated, for example by a finite difference. 
     The trajectory down the classifier of charged particles incident on any given Collector electrode can be obtained by solving equation 10. Therefore, the appropriate value of influence coefficient, K m,n  for Collector electrode m due to particles eventually hitting a downstream Collector electrode n can be determined from equation 11. 
     I induction  (which is the component of induced current for Collector electrode m due to particles eventually hitting downstream collector electrodes) is a function of time and may be calculated as follows:                  I     induced   m            (   t   )       =       -   δ                     t   m            ∑     n   =   1       m   -   1              K     m   ,   n                   (       I     measured   m            (     t   +     δ                   t     m   ,   n           )       )            t                   13                              
     This compensation technique could be implemented as an analogue electric circuit, however the most practical implementation is a digitally sampled system as follows. Data may be sampled and stored digitally at intervals equal to δt (if δt is constant). In this case, the delay time effects are achieved by incrementally displacing the stored arrays. Alternatively, if data is sampled at rates either faster or slower than δt, or δt is not constant, then the arrays should be displaced to give close approximations to &amp;t and where this cannot be achieved, an interpolation between datapoints may be required. 
     Summary 
     For this embodiment 1 each measured current on a particular Collector electrode is adjusted by subtracting the induced current for that electrode which is determined as the sum of the induced currents due to particles landing on each of the downstream Collector electrodes. 
     Second Embodiment 
     The second embodiment of this invention is a modification to a standard electrostatic particle measuring consisting of an additional electrode which screens the sensing electrode or electrodes from the effect of changing charged particle concentrations in the aerosol nearby. This is shown in FIGS. 3 and 7, in which components substantially the same as those of the first embodiment are denoted by the corresponding reference numeral of FIGS. 1 and 5, raised by 100. The symbols used in FIG. 7 have the same meaning as the corresponding symbols used in the description of the first embodiment. 
     The existing collection electrodes  108  in the instrument are largely covered by an additional, cylindrical shielding electrode  109  which is constructed so that the majority of particles can still pass through it This might be achieved by making the shielding electrode of conductive mesh, gauze, perforated sheet, an array of wires, or similar. The electrical potential of the shielding electrode is controlled (possibly to electrical ground), probably by connecting it to a voltage supply  111 . The shielding electrode should be mounted close to the collection electrodes because it eliminates the effect on the collection electrode current of changes in the charged particle density in the aerosol beyond the shielding electrode but not in the volume between the shielding electrode and the collection electrodes. For practical reasons, one shielding electrode may screen one or more collection electrodes or several shielding electrodes may be used The shielding electrode should be designed to impede the flow of charged particles through it as little as possible, so for instance, the open fraction of the gauze should be maximised. 
     This example uses a single shielding electrode  109  to cover all the ring shaped collection electrodes  108  set unto the outer wall of the channel defined by housing  101 . The shielding electrode  109  takes the form of a gauze tube which is supported regularly on electrically insulating rings. The shielding electrode is connected to a voltage supply; the voltage on the shielding electrode should ideally be such that there is still a significant electrostatic field to attract particles from the vicinity of the shielding electrode to the collection electrodes, which must overcome the charge image force that will attract particles to the shielding electrode. 
     The shielding electrode in this example also reduces the sensitivity of the instrument to changes in the dielectric constant of the gas being measured and to noise in the high voltage supply. The collection electrodes in the DMS carry a constant charge due to the capacitance between them and the centre electrode  102 . In the case of the conventional DMS in FIG. 1, changes either in the electrostatic permittivity (due to, for example, water vapour concentration changes) of the aerosol or the voltage on the centre electrode will lead to a change in this charge which will be observed as an erroneous current. The shielding electrode will prevent changes in the permittivity of gas except in the gap between the shielding electrode and collection electrodes from affecting the charge on the collection electrodes, and in the DMS the sample flow remains near the centre of the channel, away from this region. With the shielding electrode fitted, the potential difference which determines the charge on the collection electrodes is now that between the shielding electrode and the collection electrodes, and as this potential difference is smaller, it may be easier to minimise the electrical noise on this voltage. 
     Collector electrodes  108  comprise rings with an internal diameter of 54 mm and the screen electrode  109  is a mesh tube of thickness about 0.2 mm with diameter 50 mm. Therefore, the screen electrode  109  is spaced from the collector electrodes  108  by about 2 mm. 
     The screen electrode  109  is maintained at a fixed voltage between that of the high voltage electrode  102  and collector electrodes  108  such that there is an electric field which attracts charged particles through the screen electrode  109  towards the collector electrodes  108 . We have operated the screen electrode with a voltage of around +100V. 
     The charge which is induced by the sample flow is now induced mainly on the high voltage electrode  102  and screen electrode  109  and not on the collector electrodes  108 . The primary current flow to the collector electrode  108  from charged particles in the sample passing through the screen  109  and hitting electrodes  108 . 
     The screen electrode  109  mesh size is optimised for reducing the currents induced on the collector electrode, while allowing charged particles to pass through the mesh to the collector electrode. It has been found that a satisfactory size for holes in the mesh is of the same order as the separation between the screen electrode and collector electrode. A mesh made up of triangular holes, with sides of 2 mm, separated by a web of metal of 0.2 mm has been found to give good performance. The screen electrode can be made from thin stainless steel sheet and with an open area of around 80%. 
     The voltage stability of the screen electrode is very important since changes cause an induced signal on the collector electrode. The support of the screen electrode is important since vibration of the screen electrode relative to the high voltage electrode and collector electrode gives rise to large induced currents on the collector electrode. 
     Summary 
     With this embodiment by interposing a screen electrode between the majority of the sample aerosol and the collector electrode, the current measured on the collector electrode is due solely to charged aerosol hitting the collector electrode. 
     Third Embodiment 
     A third embodiment of detector is shown in FIGS. 4 and 8, in which components corresponding to those of the first embodiment are denoted by the reference numerals of FIGS. 1 and 5 raised by 200, the third embodiment includes an addition of compensating electrodes  207  mounted near the collector electrodes  208 , in alternating sequence therewith. The electrodes  207  are held at a different potential from the electrodes  208  such that the compensating electrodes do not collect significant numbers of charged particles. The compensating electrodes  207  may be the same size as or a different size to the collection electrodes  208  and should be mounted as close to them as possible. The current flowing to these electrodes is then due only to the rate of change of charged particle density in the aerosol near the electrodes. With appropriate gain to take account of the different sizes of the electrodes, the current measured on the compensating electrodes is subtracted from the current measured on the collection electrodes and thus the effect of changing charged particle concentrations is eliminated. 
     As can be seen from FIG. 4, the compensating electrodes  207  are mounted between successive collection electrodes  208  in the channel  204 . The compensating electrodes  207  are controlled to a voltage such that there is little electric field attracting the charged particles towards them. In FIG. 4, only one such electrical connection is shown for clarity. For the DMS, the compensating electrode voltage should preferably be approximately equal to the voltage of the centre electrode  202 . In this example, the correction used for each collection electrode  208 , is preferably equal to the average of the currents measured flowing to the electrodes on either side, multiplied by approximately the ratio of the collection electrode length to the compensating electrode length. 
     In FIG. 8 the flow of charge from particles incident on the Compensation electrode leads to I′ collected +; the flow of induced charge to the Compensation electrode leads to I′ induced  +; the total charge flow to the Compensation electrode is I′ measured + 
     In this implementation, one or more compensation electrodes are introduced adjacent to the collector electrodes. These are maintained at a voltage such that the field at the surface of the electrode acts to repel charged particles in the sample. This requires that the voltage be higher than that for the high voltage electrode. In practice smaller voltages may be used where the collected particles are a very small proportion of those which would have been collected on a ground potential electrode (e.g. 1%) i.e. 
     
       
         I′ collected +≈0 
       
     
     Since no charged particles are incident on the compensation electrodes, the signal measured is solely due to the induced charge particles moving in front of the electrodes. For compensation electrodes adjacent to collector electrodes, this means that the induced charge for the collector electrode may he estimated. Where the compensation is shorter than the collector electrode, the compensation should be made per unit length of the compensation electrode. 
     Where a collector electrode is between two compensation electrodes, the average of the two compensations could be used.