Abstract:
Methods of producing a controlled release formulation for an active substance are disclosed, wherein the methods involve dispersing a discontinuous phase comprising an active substance into a continuous phase so as to form a two-phase liquid system comprising droplets of said discontinuous phase, and allowing nanoparticles provided to the two-phase liquid system to congregate at the phase interface to thereby coat the surface of the droplets in at least one layer of said nanoparticles. The methods utilise a concentration of a suitable electrolyte which enhances the nanoparticle congregation such that the coating of nanoparticles on the surface of the droplets presents a semi-permeable barrier to the active substance, or otherwise utilise a amount of the active substance that is greater than the solubility limit of that active substance in the discontinous phase. Formulations comprising vitamin A (retinol) as the active substance for dermal delivery are specifically exemplified.

Description:
[0001]    This application is a divisional of U.S. Ser. No. 12/299,063, filed Oct. 30, 2008 which is a filing under 35 USC 371 of PCT/AU2007/000602, filed May 4, 2007, which claims priority from AU2006902311, filed May 4, 2006 and AU 2006906840, filed Dec. 7, 2006. All of these prior applications are incorporated herein by reference. 
     
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    The present invention relates to the encapsulation of a material within particles and, in particular, the encapsulation by nanoparticles of a liquid droplet or a lipid vesicle (i.e. liposomes), which may comprise an active substance. 
       INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE 
       [0003]    This patent application claims priority from:
   AU 2006902311 entitled “Drug release from Nanoparticle-coated capsules” and filed on 4 May 2006, and   AU 2006906840 entitled “Drug release from Nanoparticle-coated capsules (2)” and filed on 7 Dec. 2006.   
 
         [0006]    Further, the following patent application is referred to herein:
   International patent application No PCT/AU2006/000771 (WO 2006/130904).   
 
         [0008]    The entire content of all of these applications is hereby incorporated by reference. 
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0009]    The development of new forms of active substances such as drug compounds and pesticides, as well as a desire to increase the efficacy of existing substances, has created a need to develop new and effective ways of delivering substances to their appropriate targets. For example, it is likely that many potentially useful active substances have not been commercialised because of inadequate formulation. In many cases, the inability to formulate the active substance into a deliverable form could simply be due to solubility problems. 
         [0010]    Emulsions and liposomes are vehicles which may be used to carry active substances such as drug compounds, cosmetics, pesticides, foodstuffs and nutriceuticals, etc., to target areas. Emulsions are dispersed systems consisting of two immiscible liquids, one of which is dispersed (the dispersed or discontinuous phase) in the continuous phase, as droplets. The dispersed droplets may comprise or include a suitably soluble substance, e.g. an active substance such as a drug compound or a pesticide; the dispersed droplets thereby acting as delivery vehicles. If the emulsified droplets are oil droplets, then the emulsion can solubilise or complex amphiphilic or lipophilic active substances, whereas, if the emulsified droplets are aqueous, then water-soluble active substances can be entrapped. 
         [0011]    Liposomes or vesicles are another type of delivery vehicle, consisting of bi-layered structures that are commonly built up using phospholipids, with one or several bi-layers of phospholipids surrounding an aqueous liquid core. Most pharmaceutical research with liposomes has focused on water-soluble drug compounds entrapped in the aqueous liquid core. 
         [0012]    Although useful as vehicles for the delivery of active substances, most emulsions and liposomes are limited by the fact they are thermodynamically unstable and, generally, over time, will coalesce and may eventually separate into two distinct liquid phases (emulsions) or otherwise degrade and release the liquid core into the surrounding media (liposomes). This instability is exacerbated in veterinary and pharmaceutical applications since the vehicles are used under circumstances (e.g. increased salt (electrolyte) or variations in pH) which may put a severe strain on the vehicle structure. The degradation of vehicles containing active substances is undesirable since considerable time and effort is spent in formulating the delivery system. In the veterinary, pharmaceutical and nutriceutical industries in particular, if vehicle stability is compromised, the bioavailability of the active substance may be affected. 
         [0013]    Encapsulation technology is generally directed to encapsulating core materials in a protective coating until time of use. The core material can be a liquid such as oil or water or it can be a solid or a crystal. The encapsulation of a liquid usually facilitates the dispersion of the encapsulated liquid core in another liquid. Encapsulated droplets of oils or water are particularly useful in industries where the delivery of, and/or protection of, active substances is required, for example, the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, etc. Active substances that are insoluble in aqueous media, such as drug compounds, can be encapsulated in a liquid in which it will dissolve. The capsule can then be dispersed in a medium (such as body fluid) in which it may not otherwise have been compatible. 
         [0014]    Particle stabilisation of liposomes is not well-known. A problem with known particle-stabilised emulsions (capsules) is that the stability of the capsules remains poor over a period of time. This means that it is difficult to transport the capsules over long distances and it is difficult to store the capsules for a delayed time of use. As the capsules degrade, the active substance (e.g. a drug compound or a pesticide) within the capsules can leach out, or may be released without control. This leaching or uncontrolled release can pose a more serious problem when aged capsules are used, for example, in the delivery of certain drugs in the body, since one aim of the encapsulation process is to shield healthy cells from the drug&#39;s toxicity and prevent the drug from concentrating in vulnerable tissues (e.g. the kidneys and liver). 
         [0015]    Existing preparations of particle-stabilised vehicles (capsules) are usually dispersed in a liquid in order that the capsules can be delivered to the body as a liquid suspension. These liquid formulations usually have a low active substance content to liquid ratio and, in addition, there is a risk of microbial growth in the liquid which can cause serious infections or spoilage. 
         [0016]    A further problem is coalescence of the capsules to form capsules with an increased diameter. Larger capsules are less stable over time, and larger capsules cannot be delivered to some areas where the diameter of the capsule will not be permitted, e.g. capillaries in the body. Further to this, active substance release profiles are correlated with interfacial surface area. It is important, therefore, that capsule size remain constant in order that the release profile of the active substance is maintained. 
         [0017]    Accordingly, there is required an improved vehicle for the delivery and/or storage of an active compound which eliminates at least some of the problems associated with the delivery systems discussed above. 
         [0018]    It is an object of the present invention to provide an encapsulated droplet which is relatively stable against leaching and coalescence, and which allows for the release of an active substance in a controlled manner. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0019]    In a first aspect, the present invention provides a method of producing a controlled release formulation for an active substance, said method comprising the steps of:
   (i) dispersing a discontinuous phase comprising an active substance into a continuous phase so as to form a two-phase liquid system comprising droplets of said discontinuous phase, each of said droplets having, at its surface, a phase interface; and   (ii) allowing nanoparticles provided to said two-phase liquid system to congregate at the phase interface to thereby coat said surface of the droplets in at least one layer of said nanoparticles;
 
wherein said two-phase liquid system is formed, or is otherwise adjusted, so as to have a concentration of a suitable electrolyte which enhances the nanoparticle congregation of step (ii) such that the coating on said surface of the droplets provided by the at least one layer of said nanoparticles, presents a semi-permeable barrier to the active substance.
   
 
         [0022]    Preferably, the discontinuous phase is an oil-based or lipidic medium and the continuous phase is aqueous. Alternatively, the discontinuous phase is aqueous. 
         [0023]    Further, the discontinuous phase may be aqueous and each droplet surrounded by a single or multiple lipid bi-layer (i.e. to form a liposome), and the continuous phase is also aqueous. 
         [0024]    The active substance may be selected from nutriceutical substances, cosmetic substances (including sunscreens), pesticide compounds, agrochemicals and foodstuffs. However, preferably, the active substance is selected from drug compounds. 
         [0025]    Where the discontinuous phase is an oil-based or lipidic medium, the present invention is particularly suited to the production of a controlled release formulation for lipophilic drug compounds (in otherwise, poorly soluble drugs). 
         [0026]    The active substance will typically be present in the discontinuous phase at a concentration in the range of 0.01 to 10 wt %, however, it will be well recognised that the actual amount present may vary considerably depending upon, for example, the solubility of the particular active substance (nb. the solubility of the particular active substance can be increased by the presence of an emulsifier in the discontinuous phase). 
         [0027]    The nanoparticles may be hydrophilic or hydrophobic. In one preferred embodiment, the droplets will be coated with a single layer, or multiple layers, of hydrophilic or hydrophobic nanoparticles. However, in another preferred embodiment, the droplets will be coated with at least two layers of nanoparticles, with the inner layer comprised of hydrophobic nanoparticles and the outer layer comprised of hydrophilic nanoparticles. 
         [0028]    Preferably, said nanoparticles have an average diameter of 5-2000 nm, more preferably, 20-80 nm, most preferably about 50 nm. Also, preferably, the size of the nanoparticles will be such that the ratio of nanoparticle size to capsule size (i.e. the size of the encapsulated droplets) does not exceed 1:15. 
         [0029]    Preferably, the nanoparticles are silica nanoparticles, however nanoparticles composed of other substances (e.g. titania and latex) are also suitable. 
         [0030]    Optionally, an emulsifier can be used to stabilise the emulsion prior to the congregation of the nanoparticles. Suitable emulsifiers include lecithin, oleylamine, sodium deoxycholate, 1,2-distearyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidyl ethanolamine-N, stearylamine, amino acids (e.g. lysine, phenylalanine or glutamic acid) and 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane. However, typically any emulsifier that has a HLB (hydrophilic-lipophilic balance) value of less than about 12 can be used. On the other hand, hydrophilic emulsifiers such as sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) are less suitable, since these can readily migrate into the continuous phase where they can coat both the droplets and the nanoparticles, when present in high concentrations, thereby preventing nanoparticle congregation. 
         [0031]    Preferred emulsifiers are lecithin (which confers a negative charge to the droplets) and oleylamine (which confers a positive charge to the droplets). 
         [0032]    The emulsifier will typically be provided in an amount in the range of 0.0001 to 100 wt % of the emulsion, more preferably, in the range of 0.005 to 50 wt %, and most preferably, in the range of 0.01 to 1 wt % of the emulsion. 
         [0033]    The two-phase liquid system is formed, or is otherwise adjusted, so as to have a concentration of a suitable electrolyte which enhances the nanoparticle congregation of step (ii) such that the coating on said surface of the droplets (i.e. the coating provided by the at least one layer of said nanoparticles), presents a semi-permeable barrier to the active substance. By “semi-permeable barrier”, it is to be understood that the coating substantially retards the diffusion of the active substance from within the encapsulated droplets, such that the active substance is released in a controlled manner, in particular, in a sustained manner. Preferably, the semi-permeable barrier presented by the nanoparticle coating retards the diffusion of the active substance from within the encapsulated droplets such that after two hours of being placed in a test medium (e.g. MilliQ water), at least 25% of the active substance content of the encapsulated droplets has been retained within the encapsulated droplets (ie no more than 75% of the active substance content has been released into the test medium). More preferably, the semi-permeable barrier retards the diffusion of the active substance content of the encapsulated droplets such that at least 35%, and most preferably at least 45%, of the active substance has been retained within the encapsulated droplets after two hours of being placed in a test medium. 
         [0034]    The two-phase liquid system may be adjusted, prior to step (ii), so as to have a concentration of a suitable electrolyte which enhances the nanoparticle congregation of step (ii) by adding or removing an amount of the said suitable electrolyte. However, conveniently, the two-phase liquid system is formed so as to have the required concentration of the suitable electrolyte. For example, the two-phase liquid system can be formed by dispersing a discontinuous phase into a continuous phase which comprises said concentration of the suitable electrolyte. 
         [0035]    The said concentration of electrolyte will typically be at least 5×10 −4  M, preferably, at least 10 −3  M. More preferably, the concentration of electrolyte is within the range of 5×10 −4  to 5×10 −1  M. Most preferably, the concentration of the electrolyte will be in the range of 1×10 −3  to 1×10 −1  M. A lesser concentration of electrolyte may, however, suffice (e.g. 1×10 −6  to 1×10 −5  M). 
         [0036]    Suitable electrolytes include, for example, KNO 3 . However, preferably, the electrolyte is NaCl. 
         [0037]    Optionally, the encapsulated droplets are provided with a polymer layer around the periphery to modify the interfacial properties of the capsule. 
         [0038]    Preferably, the method of the first aspect further comprises a drying step (iii) to produce a dried formulation. The drying step may be performed using a rotary evaporator. Alternatively, the drying step may be performed by freeze drying, spray drying, fluidised bed procedures or pressure filtration combined with vacuum drying. The encapsulated droplets (i.e. capsules) of the dried formulation can be readily re-dispersed into a liquid (preferably, water or aqueous solution) to re-form a two-phase liquid system, thereby providing a useful formulation for the controlled release of an active substance such as a drug compound. 
         [0039]    The discontinuous phase may, optionally, be cross-linked or otherwise comprise a gelling material so as to form a matrix. Such a matrix may enhance the controlled release (i.e. sustained release) of an active substance from the encapsulated droplets. 
         [0040]    In a second aspect, the present invention provides a method of producing a controlled release formulation for an active substance, said method comprising the steps of:
   (i) dispersing a discontinuous phase comprising an active substance into a continuous phase so as to form a two-phase liquid system comprising droplets of said discontinuous phase, each of said droplets having, at its surface, a phase interface; and   (ii) allowing nanoparticles provided to said two-phase liquid system to congregate at the phase interface to thereby coat said surface of the droplets in at least one layer of said nanoparticles;
 
wherein the active substance is present in the discontinuous phase in an amount greater than its solubility limit in the discontinuous phase.
   
 
         [0043]    Preferably, the discontinuous phase is an oil-based or lipidic medium and the continuous phase is aqueous. Alternatively, the discontinuous phase is aqueous. 
         [0044]    Further, the discontinuous phase is aqueous and each droplet surrounded by a single or multiple lipid bi-layer to form a liposome, and the continuous phase is also aqueous. 
         [0045]    Again, the active substance may be selected from nutriceutical substances, cosmetic substances, pesticide compounds, agrochemicals and foodstuffs. However, preferably, the active substance is selected from drug compounds (and, particularly, lipophilic drug compounds where the discontinuous phase used is an oil-based or lipidic medium). 
         [0046]    In the method of the second aspect, the active substance is necessarily present in an amount that is greater than its solubility limit in the discontinuous phase. Preferably, that amount will be at least about 110%, more preferably at least about 120%, of the solubility limit of the active substance in the discontinuous phase. However, amounts that provide a discontinuous phase supersaturated with the active substance are also suitable. Such amounts may be up to about 300% or more of the solubility limit of the active substance in the discontinuous phase. Such amounts can be achieved by, for example, increasing the solubility of active substance in the discontinuous phase by the presence of an emulsifier or by otherwise initially providing the nanoparticles in the discontinuous phase. 
         [0047]    The nanoparticles may be hydrophilic or hydrophobic. Preferably, said nanoparticles have an average diameter of 5-2000 nm, more preferably, 20-80 nm, most preferably, about 50 nm. Also, preferably, the size of the nanoparticles will be such that the ratio of nanoparticle size to capsule size (i.e. the size of the encapsulated droplets) does not exceed 1:15. Moreover, nanoparticles for use in the method of the second aspect, are preferably silica nanoparticles. 
         [0048]    Optionally, an emulsifier (e.g. lecithin or oleylamine) or amino acids (e.g. lysine, phenylalanine or glutamic acid) can be used to stabilise the emulsion prior to the congregation of the nanoparticles. 
         [0049]    The coating formed on said surface of the droplets (i.e. the coating provided by the at least one layer of said nanoparticles), presents either a permeable or semi-permeable barrier to the active substance. With hydrophilic nanoparticles, a suitable permeable coating may be achieved by forming, or otherwise adjusting, the two-phase liquid system so as to have a concentration of a suitable electrolyte (e.g. NaCl) in the range of 
         [0000]    5×10 −3  to 1×10 −1  M, more preferably about 1×10 −2  M. With hydrophilic nanoparticles, a suitable permeable coating may be achieved by forming, or otherwise adjusting, the two-phase liquid system so as to have a concentration of a suitable electrolyte in the range of 5×10 −5  to 5×10 −3  M, more preferably about 1×10 −4  M. 
         [0050]    Optionally, the encapsulated droplets are provided with a polymer layer around the periphery to modify the interfacial properties of the capsule. 
         [0051]    Preferably, the method of the second aspect of the invention further comprises a drying step (iii) to produce a dried formulation. 
         [0052]    In a third aspect, the present invention provides a formulation produced in accordance with the method of the first or second aspect of the invention. 
         [0053]    Preferably, the formulation is a dried formulation. 
         [0054]    The formulation may be suitable for use in a range of dosage forms including oral dosage forms (e.g. tablets, caplets, capsules, liquid emulsions and suspensions and elixirs), mucosal dosage forms, nasal dosage forms (e.g. sprays and aerosols) and topical dosage forms (e.g. creams and lotions). 
         [0055]    In a fourth aspect, the present invention provides a controlled release formulation for topical application to the skin (i.e. epidermis including the stratum corneum, and dermis), wherein said formulation comprises droplets of an oil-based or lipidic medium comprising retinol (Vitamin A) or a retinol derivative and, optionally, an emulsifier, and wherein said droplets are at least partially coated on their surface with nanoparticles. 
         [0056]    Preferably, the formulation of the fourth aspect comprises droplets of an oil-based medium (e.g. triglyceride oils, Paraffin oils, Soybean oils and Jojoba oils). 
         [0057]    Preferably, the formulation of the fourth aspect comprises retinol, however certain retinol derivatives such as retinyl palmitate and retinyl acetate may also be suitable. 
         [0058]    Further, the formulation of the fourth aspect may comprise active ingredients commonly included in cosmetics such as anti-wrinkle and/or anti-ageing creams, or sunscreens. For example, tocopherols (Vitamin E), coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone), UV-A absorbers (e.g. avobenzene) and UV-B absorbers (e.g. octyl methoxycinnamate), titanium dioxide and zinc oxide. 
         [0059]    Preferably, the droplets of the formulation of the fourth aspect are coated on their surface with at least one layer of nanoparticles. Partial coatings (e.g. coatings which cover at least 10%, more preferably at least 50%, of the droplet surfaces, are also suitable. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0060]    An illustrative embodiment of the present invention will be discussed with reference to the accompanying drawings and examples wherein: 
           [0061]      FIG. 1  is a cross-sectional schematic of an emulsion known in the art; 
           [0062]      FIG. 2  is a cross-sectional schematic of a nanoparticle-stabilised emulsion as described herein; 
           [0063]      FIG. 3  is a flow chart showing the steps involved in obtaining dry capsules of the present invention; 
           [0064]      FIG. 4  is a table showing the volumes of emulsion and volumes of nanoparticles (1% wt aqueous dispersion) as well as salt concentrations that produce dry capsules that can be effectively re-dispersed (see  FIG. 5 ); 
           [0065]      FIG. 5  is a table showing the average capsule size following re-dispersion of the capsules listed in the table of  FIG. 4 ; 
           [0066]      FIG. 6  is a graph showing drug release profiles from liquid PDMS emulsion (φ=0.01) containing 0.025 wt % DBP, 900 ml MilliQ (MQ) water as dissolution medium (t=37° C.; 50 rpm), where ◯ shows the results for bare PDMS droplets and the results for PDMS droplets coated by hydrophobic silica are shown as: Δ10 4  M NaCl; □10 −3  M NaCl; x10 −2  M NaCl; ⋄10 −1  M NaCl; the dashed line represents the maximal possible DBP concentration in dissolution medium: a) release time first 6 hours; b) release time 50 hours; 
           [0067]      FIG. 7  is a graph of Ln (1−M t /M 0 ) versus time for DBP release profiles from hydrophobic nanoparticle-coated liquid PDMS emulsion (φ=0.01) containing 0.025 wt % DBP, 900 ml MQ water as dissolution medium, where □10 −3 M NaCl; ⋄10 −2  M NaCl; Δ10 −1  M NaCl; 
           [0068]      FIG. 8  is a graph showing Arrhenius plots for DBP release profiles from hydrophobic coated liquid PDMS emulsion droplets (φ=0.01) containing 0.025 wt % DBP, 900 ml MQ water as dissolution medium, where □10 −1  M NaCl; ⋄10 −3 M NaCl; 
           [0069]      FIG. 9  is a Table showing parameters for DBP release process from hydrophobic nanoparticle-coated PDMS droplets prepared at different salt concentrations (0.025 wt % DBP in emulsion); 
           [0070]      FIG. 10  is a graph showing DBP release profiles in 900 ml MQ water: pure DBP added: 1.1 mg/100 ml and DBP 0.1% wt in PDMS emulsion droplets (φ=0.01), where ⋄ bare liquid PDMS droplets; □ pure DBP; Δ pure DBP with hydrophilic silica nanoparticles; ◯ pure DBP with hydrophobic silica nanoparticles; * PDMS droplets coated by hydrophilic silica (10 −2  M NaCl); x PDMS droplets coated by hydrophobic silica nanoparticles (10 −4  M NaCl); + PDMS droplets coated by hydrophobic silica nanoparticles (10 −1  M NaCl); the dotted line corresponds to the maximal DBP concentration that can be achieved in the dissolution medium; 
           [0071]      FIG. 11  is a graph of DBP release profiles in 900 ml MQ water, pure DBP added: 2.8 mg/100 ml and DBP (0.25% wt) in PDMS emulsion droplets (φ=0.01): ⋄ bare liquid PDMS droplets; □ pure DBP; Δ pure DBP with hydrophilic silica nanoparticles; ◯ pure DBP with hydrophobic silica nanoparticles; * PDMS droplets coated by hydrophilic silica nanoparticles (10 −2  M NaCl); x PDMS droplets coated by hydrophobic silica nanoparticles (10 −4  M NaCl); + PDMS droplets coated by hydrophobic silica nanoparticles (10-1 M NaCl); dotted line correspond to the maximal DBP concentration that can be achieved in the dissolution medium; 
           [0072]      FIG. 12  is a graph showing DBP release profiles from cross-linked PDMS emulsion droplets (φ=0.01) containing 0.025 wt % DBP, 900 ml MQ water as dissolution medium, where ⋄ bare PDMS droplets and PDMS droplets coated by hydrophobic silica nanoparticles: □10 −4 M NaCl; Δ10 −3 M NaCl; ◯10 −1  M NaCl; 
           [0073]      FIG. 13  is a graph showing Ln (1−M 0 /M t ) versus time for drug release profiles from cross-linked PDMS emulsion droplets (φ=0.01) containing 0.025 wt % DBP, 900 ml MQ water as dissolution medium, where ◯ bare PDMS droplets and PDMS droplets coated by hydrophobic silica nanoparticles; □10 −4 M NaCl; Δ10 −3 M NaCl; ◯10 −1  M NaCl; 
           [0074]      FIG. 14  is a Table showing parameters for drug release from cross-linked PDMS droplets (φ=0.01) containing 0.025 wt % DBP, 900 ml MQ water as dissolution medium; 
           [0075]      FIG. 15  is a graph showing DBP release profiles from cross-linked PDMS emulsion droplets (φ=0.01) containing 0.25 wt % DBP in emulsions, 900 ml MQ water as dissolution medium, where ⋄ bare PDMS droplets and PDMS droplets coated by hydrophobic silica nanoparticles: □10 −4  M NaCl; Δ10 −3  M NaCl; ◯10 −1  M NaCl; 
           [0076]      FIG. 16  provides a graph showing the degradation kinetics of retinol contained in negatively charged nanoparticle-coated capsules, wherein the emulsion is stabilised by lecithin (▪ lecithin stabilised bare emulsion (L);  lecithin stabilised emulsion with silica in oil phase (LSO); ▴ lecithin stabilised bare emulsion with silica in water phase (LSA); and ▾ oil in water emulsion (O/W)); 
           [0077]      FIG. 17  provides a graph showing the degradation kinetics of retinol contained in positively charged nanoparticle-coated capsules, wherein the emulsion is stabilised by oleylamine (▪ oleylamine stabilised bare emulsion (O);  oleylamine stabilised emulsion with silica in oil phase (OSO); ▴ oleylamine stabilised emulsion with silica in water phase (OSA); and ▾ oil in water emulsion (O/W)); 
           [0078]      FIG. 18  provides a graph of the release profile of retinol from negatively charged nanoparticle-coated capsules (▪ lecithin stabilised bare emulsion (L);  lecithin stabilised emulsion with silica in oil phase (LSO); and ▴ lecithin stabilised emulsion with silica in water phase (LSA)); 
           [0079]      FIG. 19  provides a graph of the release profile of retinol from positively charged nanoparticle-coated capsules (▪ oleylamine stabilised bare emulsion (O);  oleylamine stabilised emulsion with silica in oil phase (OSO); ▴ oleylamine stabilised emulsion with silica in water phase (OSA)); 
           [0080]      FIG. 20  provides a graph showing the retention of vitamin A (retinol) in pig skin over 24 hours from a lecithin-stabilised formulation of the present invention (L=lecithin-stabilised emulsion of all-trans-retinol in a triglyceride oil; LSO=lecithin-stabilised nanoparticle-coated emulsion of all-trans-retinol in a triglyceride oil, wherein the capsules were formed from a mix with the nanoparticles in the oil phase; and LSA=lecithin-stabilised nanoparticle-coated emulsion of all-trans-retinol in a triglyceride oil, wherein the capsules were formed from a mix with the nanoparticles in the aqueous phase); 
           [0081]      FIG. 21  provides a graph showing the penetration of vitamin A (retinol) through pig skin from a lecithin-stabilised formulation of the present invention (L=lecithin-stabilised emulsion of all-trans-retinol in a triglyceride oil; LSO=lecithin-stabilised nanoparticle-coated emulsion of all-trans-retinol in a triglyceride oil, wherein the capsules were formed from a mix with the nanoparticles in the oil phase; and LSA=lecithin-stabilised nanoparticle-coated emulsion of all-trans-retinol in a triglyceride oil, wherein the capsules were formed from a mix with the nanoparticles in the aqueous phase); and 
           [0082]      FIG. 22  provides a graph showing the retention of vitamin A (retinol) in pig skin over 24 hours from a oleylamine-stabilised formulation of the present invention (O=oleylamine-stabilised emulsion of all-trans-retinol in a triglyceride oil; OSO=oleylamine-stabilised nanoparticle-coated emulsion of all-trans-retinol in a triglyceride oil, wherein the capsules were formed from a mix with the nanoparticles in the oil phase; and OSA=oleylamine-stabilised nanoparticle-coated emulsion of all-trans-retinol in a triglyceride oil, wherein the capsules were formed from a mix with the nanoparticles in the aqueous phase). 
       
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENT 
       [0083]      FIG. 1  is a cross-sectional schematic of an emulsion according to the prior art, showing an immiscible two-phase system having an oil phase in the form of droplets  10  dispersed in a continuous aqueous phase  12 . Droplets  10  are dispersed in the continuous phase  12 , thereby defining a phase interface  14 . Emulsions are thermodynamically unstable and, in general, separate into the component phases over time. After a period of time, adjacent oil droplets  10  will coalesce (the beginning of phase separation) to form larger oil droplets. Phase separation is controlled by both coalescence and Ostwald ripening. The rate of coalescence is determined by the stability against drainage and rupture of the thin film separating two contacting droplets. The rate of Ostwald ripening is controlled by the molecular solubility of the dispersed phase in the continuous phase. If an emulsion is not stabilised by an emulsifier localised in the thin film  16 , then these coalescence and ripening processes occur within minutes. Eventually the oil phase  10  and aqueous phase  12  will have completely separated into the two component phases (oil and water). 
         [0084]      FIG. 2  depicts a cross-sectional schematic of an emulsion formed by mixing oil and water phases with a rotor-stator homogeniser. It will be understood that any method of preparing an emulsion could be employed, for example, high pressure homogenisation. In order to improve biocompatibility of the emulsion, the oil phase can be a fatty-food simulant such as Miglyol 812™. Alternatively, the oil phase can be a silicone such as polydimethlysiloxane (PDMS), or any other oily medium which will form an emulsion with an aqueous phase. 
         [0085]      FIG. 2  shows the system of  FIG. 1  where droplets  10  have been stabilised by nanoparticles  18  at the interface  14 . Two otherwise immiscible liquids ( 10  and  12 ) have thereby formed a stabilised emulsion. Persons skilled in the art will understand that the two-phase system may comprise any two immiscible liquids. It should also be understood that liposomes dispersed within a liquid are also within the scope of the invention. Where an emulsion defines a discontinuous phase of droplets, a liposome is a vehicle dispersed within a continuous phase. The liquid core or discontinuous phase of the liposome is separated from the liquid of the continuous phase by a bi-layered structure of lipids. 
         [0086]    Nanoparticles  18  can be dispersed in a liquid by sonication and added to the emulsion. In the preferred embodiment, the liquid dispersion comprises 1% by weight (1 wt %) of nanoparticles in an aqueous medium. However, other weight % dispersions can be usefully employed. Upon addition, the nanoparticles congregate at the phase interface  14  by, for example, self-assembly. Alternatively, rather then being added to the pre-formed emulsion, nanoparticles  18  can be first dispersed in either phase (oil or water) and, as an emulsion is formed nanoparticles  18  will congregate at the phase interface  14 . 
         [0087]    The nanoparticles  18  which stabilise the emulsion are preferably silica nanoparticles having a preferred average diameter of approximately 50 nm. However, it will be understood that the nanoparticles  18  may have an average diameter in the range 5 nm—2000 nm and may be made from any suitable material, for example titania or latex, etc. Preferably, the ratio of nanoparticle size to capsule size is approximately, but not limited to, 1:15. In the preferred embodiment, the nanoparticles are Aerosil® silica nanoparticles obtained from Degussa AG. However, 80 nm titania nanoparticles and 100 nm latex nanoparticles are also particularly suitable. The surfaces of nanoparticles  18  may be chemically or physically modified to hydrophobise nanoparticles  18 . The resulting nanoparticle-encapsulated liquid droplet is referred to as a capsule  20 . 
         [0088]    It is an option that, prior to the addition of nanoparticles  18 , a phospholipid monolayer, such as lecithin is used as a stabiliser to stabilise the emulsion (emulsifier  14  is shown in  FIG. 1 ). Lecithin is a fat emulsifier which may prevent droplets  10  from coalescing or ripening before nanoparticles  18  congregate. It will be understood by persons skilled in the art that other natural or synthetic stabilisers could be used to stabilise the emulsion. 
         [0089]      FIG. 2  is merely a schematic representation and therefore, the nanoparticles  18  are not drawn to scale with respect to droplets  10 . It should also be clear that nanoparticles  18  form a coating over the surface of droplets  10  (phase interface  14 ). 
         [0090]    Experiments investigating the formation of capsules  20  were performed with nanoparticles  18  having hydrophilic surfaces and other experiments with nanoparticles  18  having hydrophobic surfaces. Typical isotherms for hydrophilic silica particles adsorbing at the oil water interface  14  are shown in FIG. 3 of International patent application No PCT/AU2006/000771 (WO 2006/130904) incorporated herein by reference. It is clear that salt addition dramatically increases nanoparticle adsorption. In the preferred embodiment, NaCl is used, however it will be understood by persons skilled in the art that any electrolyte may be used. It is believed that the free energy of nanoparticle adsorption increases significantly with salt addition due to a reduction in the range of particle-droplet and particle-particle lateral electrostatic repulsion. 
         [0091]    It was observed that hydrophilic silica nanoparticles form densely packed monolayers with limited interfacial particle aggregation at salt concentrations greater than or equal to 10 −3  M (0.01 M) NaCl. At concentrations of 10 −2  and 10 −1  M NaCl, adsorption amounts for hydrophilic nanoparticles  18  correspond to approximately 75% and just over 100% of an equivalent hexagonally close-packed monolayer of hard spheres respectively. The fractional surface coverage is an approximation calculated from the ratio of the adsorbed amount of nanoparticles  18  and the theoretical value for a hexagonally close-packed monolayer (i.e. 200 mg·m −2  for 50 nm diameter nanoparticles). 
         [0092]    Silica nanoparticles  18  can be modified to be hydrophobic. In the preferred embodiment, the surfaces of nanoparticles  18  are modified with organosilanes. The adsorption behaviour of hydrophobic nanoparticles  18  at the phase interface  14  is highly contrasting to that for hydrophilic nanoparticles. Salt addition still dramatically increases nanoparticle adsorption, for example, hydrophobic silica nanoparticles form rigid layers at greater than or equal to 10 −4  M (0.001 M) NaCl, and thick interfacial walls at 10 −2  M (0.1 M) M NaCl. However, attractive hydrophobic forces play a significant role and packing at the interface is not solely controlled by electrostatic repulsion. Surface coverage values increase to multiple layer values. 
         [0093]    The coalescence behaviour of capsule  20  is dependent upon the hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity of nanoparticles  18 , as well as the coverage of nanoparticles  18  at the emulsion droplet interface  14 . At full or partial coverage of hydrophilic nanoparticles  18 , capsules  20  still display enlargement behaviour, i.e. the diameter of the capsules increase during coalescence. In contrast, emulsion droplets coated by more than one layer of hydrophobic nanoparticles  18  (under conditions of coalescence), form stable flocculated networks rather than enlarged capsules. Experiments have revealed that in the wet phase, it is preferable that nanoparticles  18  have a hydrophobic surface which reduces the occurrence of capsule  20  coalescence. Capsules  20  can have a liquid core or liquid medium  22  (the discontinuous phase) which may comprise an active substance  24 . In the preferred embodiment, the liquid core  22  is a hydrophobic oil-based or lipidic medium and may contain a lipophilic active substance  24  therein. It is an option, however, that the liquid core  22  is hydrophilic (i.e. aqueous) and has a hydrophilic active substance  24  dissolved therein. In  FIG. 2 , the cross-sectional schematic representation shows active substance  24 . The active substance may be any substance which is required to be protected and/or delivered by capsule  20 , e.g. a drug compound, a pesticide compound or a vitamin, etc. In the preferred embodiment, the active substance  24  is a drug compound. The active substance  24  may be wholly or partially soluble or dispersible within liquid core  22 . 
         [0094]    Capsules  20  show good shelf life properties and can be stored and/or transported for later use. In addition, capsules  20  may demonstrate reduced leaching of active substance  24  over time relative to prior formulations, and the nanoparticle  18  layer can be engineered so as to control active substance release within desired parameters. Depending upon the physical properties of the nanoparticles  18 , an active substance  24  may continue to be released after many hours, or even days, have passed (i.e. sustained release), or in a short period of time (enhanced release). 
         [0095]    Capsules  20  can be formed at relatively low temperatures, which is an advantage for temperature sensitive active substances such as biological active substances (e.g. peptides, proteins and nucleic acids). 
         [0096]    It is an option that capsules  20  be coated with a layer that improves the interfacial properties of the capsules. For example, in drug delivery, capsules  20  may be further coated with a polymer layer around the periphery of capsule  20  to increase the bioadhesivity of the capsule to cells within the body. Such a polymer layer may be selected form the group consisting of methylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose, ethylcellulose, polyethyleneglycols, chitosan, guar gum, alginates, carbomers, eudragit and pemulen, etc. Other coatings around the capsule  20  which improve or modify the interfacial properties of the capsule may be used. 
         [0097]    The quantity and properties of nanoparticles  18 , added to the emulsion, is preferably selected so that capsules  20  can withstand a subsequent drying step. A delivery system which is dry and can be transported, stored and/or administered as a powder is an advantage in many industries, such as the pharmaceutical industry, since dry powder formulations usually have a higher active substance content compared with an aqueous formulation. This means that less volume of the delivery system is required for administration of an effective amount of active substance. The increase in active substance content in dry formulations is mainly due to the elimination of unnecessary liquids. 
         [0098]      FIG. 3  is a flow chart outlining a process for obtaining dried capsules. The first step  26  in the process is the formation of a two-phase liquid system having nanoparticles at the phase interface of an oil-in-water emulsion (the system depicted in  FIG. 2 ). The second step  28  involves removal of the continuous phase (water) by drying. 
         [0099]    The first step  26  involves the selection of the nanoparticles&#39; physical properties (i.e. hydrophilic or hydrophobic surface) and the amount of nanoparticles assembled at the interface (i.e. the fractional surface coverage of nanoparticles). The fractional surface coverage of nanoparticles can be controlled by varying the salt concentration and droplet/nanoparticle ratio. As described above, at high salt concentrations (e.g. 10 −2  M NaCl), the adsorption of nanoparticles at the phase interface increases significantly. 
         [0100]    The choice of whether to use hydrophilic or hydrophobic nanoparticles may be influenced by the intended use of the resulting capsules. For example, whether, in use, there will be dry or wet delivery of the capsules. Hydrophobic nanoparticles form a stable wet phase capsule with good protection of the active substance, however, preliminary experiments indicate that hydrophilic nanoparticles better stabilise capsules during a drying phase. Preliminary data also indicates that if the nanoparticles have a hydrophobic surface, then the capsules may be unstable during the drying step. This may be due to migration of the hydrophobic nanoparticles into the oil of the emulsion droplet, resulting in instability of the capsules. 
         [0101]    It is an option therefore, which may prove beneficial by further experiment, that droplets are first coated with a hydrophobic layer of nanoparticles to create a stable wet phase. The resulting capsules can then be further coated by a hydrophilic layer of nanoparticles to stabilise the capsule during a drying phase. 
         [0102]    In step  28 , the emulsion is dried by rotary evaporation which removes the continuous phase by evaporation under reduced pressure. The resulting dried capsules can be collected in a suitable vessel. The emulsion can be dried by any suitable method, e.g. freeze drying, spray drying, fluidised bed procedures or pressure filtration combined with vacuum drying. However, it is believed that spray-drying of the capsules may offer better re-dispersibility of the capsules. 
         [0103]    The table of  FIG. 4  shows that the ratio of the quantity of nanoparticles to the volume of oil droplets can be varied, as well as varying the salt concentration. For example, in row 1 of the table in  FIG. 4 , 10 ml of an emulsion (prepared by mixing oil with water using a rotor-homogeniser) was mixed with 10 ml of a 1% wt aqueous dispersion of nanoparticles (dispersed by sonication). The overall volume of the mixture was 20 ml and the salt concentration of the mixture was 10 −4  M NaCl. For further illustration, in row 7, 1 ml of an emulsion was mixed with 10 ml of a 1% wt aqueous dispersion of nanoparticles. The overall volume of the mixture was made up to 20 ml by the addition of 9 ml of water. The salt concentration of the mixture was 10 −4  M NaCl. 
         [0104]      FIG. 4  shows that of the eighteen different variations in emulsion volume, amount of nanoparticles and salt concentration, twelve combinations formed capsules which maintained their integrity during a drying step. In the first six rows of the table, a dry powder of capsules could not be obtained due to degradation of capsules. Samples labelled A-L (in column 1) show the volume of emulsion to quantity of nanoparticles and corresponding salt concentrations which formed dry capsules. 
         [0105]    Dried capsules have nanoparticles congregated at their surface, forming a phase boundary between liquid and the air. Once dried, it is an option that dried capsules are delivered in dry form. Dry formulations have increased active substance loading, thereby reducing the amount of formulation that is required. A further advantage is that the risk of microbial growth, which can cause serious infections or spoilage, is reduced in dry formulations compared with liquid formulation. 
         [0106]    The capsules are prepared so as to remain stable and do not coalesce to form capsules with an increased diameter. The capsules therefore show good maintenance of the small capsule size as well as the release profile of the active substance contained within the capsule. The small size of the capsules both increases surface area and allows the capsules to be delivered to target areas which require a small capsule size, i.e. blood capillaries. 
         [0107]    Alternatively, the dried capsules  20  can be re-dispersed (shown by step  30 ) in a liquid to re-form a stabilised emulsified product. An advantage of the dried capsules  20  is that they can re-disperse in a liquid to form an emulsion which is substantially identical in composition to the emulsion from which the capsules were dried. 
         [0108]    The table of  FIG. 5  shows the results of re-dispersing the dried capsules labelled A-L in the table of  FIG. 4 . The average capsule size prior to drying is shown along with the average capsule size following re-dispersion. The more closely the size values correlate, the better the stability of the capsule against enlargement due to coalescence. 
         [0109]    It is clear that samples E, F, K and J showed the best re-dispersibility with the capsules in those samples maintaining a very small diameter as well as the percentage of capsules above 10 μm being desirably low. 
         [0110]    It is clear from the description above, that the structure of the nanoparticle layer (i.e. coating) that forms around a droplet is dependent upon salt concentration and the nature of the silica nanoparticles, i.e. whether they are hydrophilic or hydrophobic. These layers are now related to drug release profiles from within the droplets. 
         [0111]    In experiments, dibutylphthalate (DBP) was chosen as a model drug because it is a liquid that is poorly soluble but readily miscible with PDMS. Release profiles of DBP were determined from both bare droplets (i.e. droplets not coated with nanoparticles) and coated droplets (i.e. droplets coated with hydrophilic particles and from droplets coated with hydrophobic particles). 
         [0112]    DBP was incorporated into the PDMS droplets during the synthesis step outlined in Example 3. A modification of the method reported by Obey, T. M. and Vincent, B., (1994),  Journal of Colloid Interface Science,  163:454-463 and Goller, M. I. et al., (1997),  Physiochemical and Engineering Aspects,  123-124 and 183-193 (without dialysis) was employed (herein incorporated by reference). PDMS droplets were prepared according to Example 3. A further batch of cross-linked PDMS droplets were prepared using the same procedure as for liquid droplets except that the mixtures of monomer and cross-linking trimer DEDMS:TEMS (tritethoxymethylsilane) at ratios 1:0.1-1 were used instead of pure monomer. The cross-linking level of the droplets prepared ranged from 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 to 50%. 
         [0113]    Bare and nanoparticle-coated droplet samples were prepared by mixing 10 ml of the prepared emulsions with 10 ml of sonicated MilliQ water and silica aqueous dispersions, respectively. Salt concentrations were adjusted from between 10 −4  to 10 −1  M NaCl in order to control the nanoparticle layer structure as described above. 
         [0114]    DBP is a lipophilic molecule (water solubility 1 mg/100 ml at 20° C.). When the drug is present at a concentration significantly below its solubility limit in water, the drug release from within the bare droplets is rapid and complete ( FIG. 6 ). The presence of hydrophilic silica and hydrophobic silica nanoparticles at low salt concentration (e.g. 10 −4  M NaCl) does not significantly influence the rapid release of DBP. However, at higher salt concentrations (10 −3  and 10 −2  M NaCl) and with hydrophobic silica nanoparticles, a rigid interfacial layer is created that significantly retards the release rate; the half release time is approximately 18 hours. The release rate is even more retarded in the presence of a thick interfacial particle wall prepared at 10 −1  M NaCl. Thus, depending on salt concentration, hydrophobic silica nanoparticle coatings can provide a permeable or semi-permeable barrier. 
         [0115]    From the release profiles for bare and coated droplets, it has been determined that interfacial transport is the rate limiting step in the release process of DBP from hydrophobic silica nanoparticle-coated droplets when rigid interfacial layers are present. The release rate of drug over long times, can be approximated by the equation: 
         [0000]        M   t =⅓ Ac   0   r (1−exp(−3κτ))
 
         [0000]    where A is the surface area of the sphere, c 0  is the initial concentration of the drug in the oil droplet and κ is given by: 
         [0000]      κ= k   1   /D  
 
         [0000]    k 1  is the interfacial rate constant; all remaining symbols have their previous meanings. 
         [0116]    Since the initial amount of drug in the droplet is A c 0  r/3, this expression simplifies to: 
         [0000]        M   t   /M   0 =1−exp(−3 k   1   t/r   2 )
 
         [0000]    and using the same linear transform as for the diffusion-limited case, the following equation A is obtained: 
         [0000]      Ln(1 −M   t   /M   0 )=−3 k   1   t/r   2   (equation A)
 
         [0117]    A plot of Ln (1−M t /M 0 ) against time will have a limiting slope at longer times of −3 k 1 /r 2 , enabling the interfacial transport rate constant of the drug, between the oil droplet and the release medium, to be found. 
         [0118]      FIG. 7  is a graph of Ln (1−M t /M 0 ) against time. Correlation coefficients are &gt;0.96 and release rate constant were calculated to be 0.3 nm 2 s −1  (at 10 −3  and 10 −2  M NaCl) and 0.05 nm 2 s −1  (at 10 −1  M NaCl). From literature such as Washington, C. and Evans, K., (1995),  J. Contr. Rel.,  33, 383-390, Barthel, H. et al. 2003, US Patent Publication No 2003/0175317, and Binks, P. B., (2002).  Proceedings of  3 rd World Congress on Emulsions , Lyon, C M E, Paris, 1-10, it is possible to conclude that the nanoparticle coatings are a more significant barrier for molecular transport of DBP from emulsion droplets than are adsorbed polymers. 
         [0119]    The activation energy for crossing the interfacial barrier was determined using an Arrhenius approach. Release profiles for droplets coated at 10 −3  M NaCl and 10 −1  M NaCl were determined at four temperatures: 22° C., 27° C., 32° C. and 37° C. Kinetic rate constants were determined for each temperature from equation A above and from the plots Ln k vs. 1/T ( FIG. 8 ) the activation energies (E a ) were calculated: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             Slope 
             = 
             
               - 
               
                 
                   E 
                   a 
                 
                 R 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             R 
             = 
             
               8.31 
                
               
                   
               
                
               J 
                
               
                 / 
               
                
               K 
                
               
                   
               
                
               mol 
             
           
         
       
     
         [0120]    E a  values were calculated to be 580 and 630 kJmol −1 , for nanoparticle layer structures prepared at 10 −3  M NaCl and 10 −1  M NaCl, respectively. These values are significantly higher in comparison with E a  values for small lipophilic molecules to pass polymeric type barriers (50 kJmol −1 ) around oil droplets. 
         [0121]    The linearity of the Arrhenius plots in  FIG. 8  can be attributed to insignificant changes in the interfacial nanoparticle layer structure during the release process. The attachment energy of small particles with intermediate contact angles (close to 90° at oil-water interfaces) has an order of magnitude of 104 kT, hence confirming irreversible attachment of the nanoparticles. Therefore, diffusion through the interfacial wall, not particle detachment, can be proposed as the drug release mechanism from these capsules. Kinetic parameters for the release process are presented in the table of  FIG. 9 . These parameters reflect the correlation between interfacial layer structure and release profiles: there is no difference in the behaviour of the system at 10 −3  and 10 −2  M NaCl because of the similar interfacial rigid layer structure, whereas release is more retarded at 10 −1  M NaCl due to the presence of relatively thick interfacial particle walls. 
         [0122]    In comparison with the sink conditions (i.e. wherein initial DBP concentration in emulsion (0.025 wt %) is significantly below (−15%) the solubility limit in water (0.28 mg/100 ml maximal possible amount in dissolution medium), release profiles appeared different when the maximal drug concentration was slightly above the solubility limit (1.1 mg/100 ml) (see  FIG. 10 ). When pure DBP oil phase is added in such concentration into the water dissolution medium, it takes approximately 20 hours to achieve the equilibrium solubility level; this is because the dissolution rate determines the release profile. However, the dissolution rate is increased when DBP is incorporated into PDMS emulsion droplets. 
         [0123]    When the silica nanoparticles are present in DBP aqueous dispersion or at the surface of PDMS emulsion droplets containing DBP, the dissolution velocity and soluble drug fraction is dramatically increased. The effect is strongly dependent upon the nature of the nanoparticle coatings; it is only significant when permeable nanoparticle coatings are present at the surface of the droplets (i.e. hydrophilic silica coatings prepared at 10 −2  NaCl and hydrophobic silica coatings prepared at 10 −4  NaCl), whereas when there are relatively thick nanoparticle coatings around the droplets (eg hydrophobic nanoparticle coatings prepared at 10 −1  M NaCl), the increase in solubility of DBP is not as significant (this is probably due to the retarded diffusion across viscoelastic droplet interfaces ( FIG. 10 )). 
         [0124]    Similar trends of increased solubility rate occur when the total DBP concentration is well above the solubility limit (2.8 mg/100 ml) ( FIG. 11 ). The observed increase in solubility of DBP is even more evident giving rise to supersaturated solutions. The intensity and duration of the “supersaturation” effect is much more pronounced for hydrophobic silica coated droplets. For hydrophilic particles, the peak in the soluble DBP concentration is at a maximum after 2 hours and then subsequently the soluble amount of DBP decreases within the next 6 hours and eventually reduces back to the solubility limit ( FIG. 11 ). 
         [0125]    The “supersaturation” effect is more pronounced for hydrophobic silica nanoparticles, in terms of maximal solubility achieved as well as duration of the effect (i.e. after 10 hours, the amount in solution reduces to the normal solubility limit). It is speculated that this difference in the effect of hydrophilic and hydrophobic silica nanoparticles is a consequence of the amphiphilic nature of hydrophobic silica, which gives an opportunity for hydrophobic binding to DBP (higher amount of DBP adsorbed and higher amount released in solution). As in the previous case, the increase in solubility is negligible when thick interfacial walls of hydrophobic silica nanoparticles are present at the surface of the droplets ( FIG. 11 ). 
         [0126]    Hydrophilic silica is an excellent additive to accelerate the dissolving process of actives that are difficult to dissolve, and thus it can improve the biological availability of a compound. Adsorbates of hydrophilic silica and poorly soluble drugs have been produced, so that non-polar solvents form loosely packed sorption layers which, upon contact with water, release sufficient quantities of active into the water so that supersaturated solutions are formed. 
         [0127]    Considering that formation of saturated and supersaturated solutions occurs when either pure DBP or DBP within the droplets is mixed with silica nanoparticles, it is believed that DBP physisorps onto the silica adsorbed at the surface of the droplets, and upon dilution in water, DBP is desorbed and released in water. 
         [0128]    Cross-linked droplets (40% cross-linked) were chosen for study due to the fact that DBP partitioning coefficients were the highest at this cross-linking level, i.e. entrapment of DBP was the highest. DBP release studies under sink conditions (0.025 wt % DBP in the droplets) show that cross-linking of the droplets retards drug diffusion from the droplet ( FIG. 12 ). Hydrophilic silica nanoparticle-coated capsules (created at 10 −2  M NaCl) and permeable, hydrophobic silica nanoparticle-coated capsules (created at 10 −4  M NaCl) have no effect on drug dissolution as opposed to semi-permeable hydrophilic/hydrophobic silica nanoparticle coatings around capsules (created at 10 −3 -10 −1  M NaCl). 
         [0129]    The rate limiting step for drug release from bare cross-linked droplets is diffusion through the internal matrix, therefore the diffusion-limited model is applicable ( FIG. 12 ). Good linear fits were obtained for the first 120 minutes of release ( FIG. 13 ). Calculated diffusion coefficients are presented in the table of  FIG. 14  and are in agreement with typical values for drug diffusion in gels (e.g. 4.8 to 6.5 nm 2 s −1 ). 
         [0130]    Diffusion is further sustained when hydrophobic silica nanoparticles are present as semi-permeable coatings. The release process reached equilibrium after approximately 2 hours. After 2 hours, 25% of the amount of DBP loaded still remained in the droplets (for bare droplets and coated with permeable silica nanoparticle coatings at 10 −4  M NaCl), (compare: 37% (for silica coating at 10 −3  M NaCl) and 46% (for silica coating at 10 −1  M NaCl)). Due to the presence of nanoparticles, the diffusion coefficients reduced to 3.2 and 2.4±0.5 nm 2 s −1 . The activation energy for drug diffusion from bare cross-linked droplets is 127±15 kJmol −1  and in the presence of a hydrophobic silica nanoparticle coating, it becomes 155 and 177±25 kJmol −1  ( FIG. 14 ). Therefore, these represent major energy barriers for diffusion in the gel matrix of the droplets. In comparison, with liquid droplets, silica nanoparticle coatings are less effective diffusion barriers probably due to the lower particle penetration in the droplets, and consequently, lower interfacial viscosity. 
         [0131]    For cross-linked droplets, when the DBP concentration is increased above the solubility limit ( FIG. 15 ), the dissolution profiles are clearly different than from liquid droplets, i.e. no supersaturated solutions are formed and an increase in solubility is only slightly pronounced for permeable, hydrophobic silica nanoparticle-coated capsules (created at 10 −4  M NaCl). Calculated diffusion coefficients ( FIG. 16 ) (for the first 90 minutes) are 3.5±0.5 nm 2 s −1 . The observed different behaviour of liquid and cross-linked droplets can be attributed to different release rate limiting steps, i.e. diffusion from the gel matrix is the rate-limiting step for cross-linked droplets and interfacial transport for the liquid droplets. 
       EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     Producing Nanoparticle-Stabilised Emulsion 
     a) Preparation and Characterisation of Emulsion Stabilised by Lecithin 
       [0132]    Lecithin (0.6 g) stabiliser was dissolved in oil (Miglyol 812™) (10 g), and then added to water (total sample weight: 100 g) under mixing using a rotor-stator homogeniser (11,000 rpm, 10 minutes, pH=6.95±0.2). After 24 hours, the emulsion was characterised in terms of size (laser diffraction Malvern Mastersizer) and zeta potential (PALS). The droplet size ranges from 0.20-0.86 μm. 
         [0133]    For the inclusion of an active substance, the active substance may be added to the oil before or after the addition of the lecithin. 
       b) Preparation of Nanoparticles 
       [0134]    An aqueous dispersion of silica (Aerosil®) nanoparticles (1 wt %) was prepared by sonication over at least a one hour period.  FIG. 5  shows that the average size of the silica nanoparticles was approximately 50 nm. 
       c) Capsule Formation 
       [0135]    The emulsion formed in step (a) and the nanoparticle dispersion (b) were mixed together. The concentration of electrolyte of the two-phase liquid system was estimated to be within the range of about 10 −4 M to 10 −1  M (NaCl). 
       d) Adjusting Electrolyte Concentration 
       [0136]    In this example, no additional electrolyte was added. At the estimated electrolyte concentration, it was anticipated that the formed capsules would comprise a layer of congregated nanoparticles that presents a semi-permeable barrier to the diffusion of any active substance included within the discontinuous phase. 
         [0137]    The electrolyte concentration of the two-phase liquid system for formation of capsules can, however, be adjusted to vary the release characteristics of an active substance from the discontinuous phase. 
       Example 2 
     Drying—Removal of Continuous Phase 
       [0138]    The capsules formed in Example 1 were dried by rotary evaporation at 50° C., until the water phase was completely removed. 
       Example 3 
     Preparation of Liquid PDMS Droplets 
       [0139]    Aqueous solutions containing 1% diethoxy-dimethyl-silane (DEDMS), which was previously mixed with 0, 0.025, 0.1 and 0.25 wt % DBP in a nitrogen gas atmosphere, and 0.1% ammonia were sealed under nitrogen gas in a 250 ml reaction vessel, shaken vigorously for 30 seconds, and than tumbled at 30 rpm and 25° C. for 18 hours. 
         [0140]    Drop size distributions were characterised by laser diffraction (Malvern Mastersizer X). Average drop sizes and size span [defined as (d(v,0.9)−d(v,0.1))/d(v,0.5)] were ˜2 μm and 0.56 for the liquid droplets, and 1.55 μm and 1.2 for the cross-linked droplets. The presence of DBP did not significantly change the drop size distribution. 
         [0141]    The emulsion samples were considerably more mono-dispersed than typical o/w or w/o emulsions prepared by homogenisation. Electrophoretic mobilities and hence ζ potentials were determined using a combination of microelectrophoresis (Rank Bross, Mark H) and PALS; ζ potentials are not changed (within the experimental error) when DBP is present up to 0.25 wt %. 
       Example 4 
     Preparation of Nanoparticle-Stabilised Emulsion of Vitamin A 
       [0142]    Retinol (Vitamin A alcohol) is an active substance of considerable interest to the pharmaceutical, nutritional and cosmetic industries. Formulating the substance has, however, been met with difficulties due to its sensitivity to oxidation (e.g. photo-oxidation upon exposure to light). In particular, Vitamin A alcohol is sensitive to auto-oxidation at the unsaturated side chain of the compound, resulting in the formation of decomposition products, isomerisation and polymerisation. As a result, auto-oxidation leads to reduced biological activity, and an increased risk of toxicity caused through generation of decomposition products. A nanoparticle stabilised emulsion of Vitamin A alcohol was produced in accordance to assess whether the present invention offered the possibility of providing a formulation showing enhanced stability of vitamin A alcohol, with a sustained rate of release. 
       a) Preparation of Vitamin A-Containing Emulsion Stabilised by Lecithin 
       [0143]    Lecithin (0.6 g) stabiliser and all-trans-retinol (0.05 g) was dissolved in triglyceride oil (Miglyol 812™) (10 g), and then added to water (total sample weight: 100 g) under mixing using a rotor-stator homogeniser (11,000 rpm, 10 minutes, pH=6.95±0.2) or, alternatively, a high pressure homogeniser (5 mbars, 5 cycles). The concentration of electrolyte of the two-phase liquid system was estimated to be within the range of about 1×10 −6  to 1×10 −5  M (NaCl). No additional electrolyte was added. 
       b) Preparation of Vitamin A-Containing Emulsion Stabilised by Oleylamine 
       [0144]    Oleylamine (1 g) stabiliser and all-trans-retinol (0.05 g) was dissolved in triglyceride oil (Miglyol 812™) (10 g), and then added to water (total sample weight: 100 g) under mixing using a rotor-stator homogeniser (11,000 rpm, 10 minutes, pH=6.95±0.2) or, alternatively, a high pressure homogeniser (5 mbars, 5 cycles). The concentration of electrolyte of the two-phase liquid system was estimated to be within the range of about 1×10 −6  to 1×10 −5  M (NaCl). No additional electrolyte was added. 
       c) Preparation of Nanoparticles 
       [0145]    An aqueous dispersion of fumed silica (Aerosil® 380) nanoparticles (1 wt %) (i.e. hydrophilic nanoparticles) was prepared by sonication over at least a one hour period. 
       d) Capsule Formation 
       [0146]    The emulsion formed in step (a) and step (b) was separately mixed with the nanoparticle dispersion of step (c). 
       e) Alternative Preparation 
       [0147]    Capsules may also be formed in an analogous manner wherein the nanoparticles are initially included in the triglyceride oil from which the emulsion is formed. For example, to prepare a lecithin-stabilised nanoparticle-coated vitamin A capsule similar to that described in a) above, all-trans-retinol (0.05 g) was dissolved in triglyceride oil (Miglyol 812™) (10 g) to which fumed silica (Aerosil® 380) nanoparticles (5 wt % in oil phase) and lecithin (0.6 g) stabiliser had previously been added, and then added to water (total sample weight: 100 g) before forming an emulsion using a rotor-stator homogeniser (11,000 rpm, 10 minutes, pH=6.95±0.2) or high pressure homogeniser. 
       f) Capsule Characteristics 
       [0148]    The nanoparticle-coated capsules formed were approximately 0.5 μm in diameter. 
         [0149]    The capsules were assessed for stability of the retinol upon exposure to ultraviolet light. The results are shown in  FIGS. 16 and 17 . The positively charged nanoparticle-coated capsules (i.e. capsules stabilised with oleylamine) showed particularly good stability against UV exposure. While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is considered that the less pronounced results for the negatively charged nanoparticle-coated capsules (i.e. capsules stabilised with lecithin) may have been due to a stabilising effect conferred by the lecithin per se on the retinol. 
         [0150]    The capsules were also assessed for in vitro drug (i.e. retinol) release. The analysis of the drug release profiles obtained (shown at  FIGS. 18 and 19 ) showed that Higuchi&#39;s model is the most suitable for describing the release kinetics of the retinol: 
         [0000]    
       
      
       Q 
       t 
       =K 
       H 
       t 
       1/2  
      
     
         [0000]    Q: the amount of drug released in time t per unit area
 
K H : Higuchi&#39;s rate constant;
 
         [0151]    and the calculation of diffusion rate constants (see Table 1) from the slope of the line in the plot of released amount of drug per unit area of the membrane versus √t showed that the diffusion rate constant in the presence of silica nanoparticles decreased for both negatively and positively charged emulsions (i.e. the nanoparticle-coated capsules showed a sustained rate of retinol release). 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Correlation of diffusion rate constant for the 
               
               
                 diffusion of drug from different formulations 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Rate Constant 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Formulation 
                 (μg/cm 2 /h 1/2 ) 
                 Correlation Coefficient 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 O/W 
                 0.88 
                 0.9948 
               
               
                   
                 L 
                 1.85 
                 0.8690 
               
               
                   
                 LSO 
                 1.10 
                 0.9835 
               
               
                   
                 LSA 
                 0.84 
                 0.9598 
               
               
                   
                 O 
                 1.07 
                 0.9974 
               
               
                   
                 OSO 
                 0.64 
                 0.8871 
               
               
                   
                 OSA 
                 0.92 
                 0.9802 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 5 
     In Vitro Release/Delivery from Nanoparticle-Stabilised Emulsion of Vitamin A 
     a) Lecithin Stabilised Formulations (Negatively Charged Capsules) 
       [0152]    A study of the release profile of vitamin A from the lecithin-stabilised formulations described in Example 4 was undertaken using excised pig skin with Franz diffusion cells. The study was made in comparison with a lecithin-stabilised emulsion of vitamin A in the triglyceride oil. Briefly, the skin from the abdominal area of a large white pig was separated and after removal of hair and the underlying fat layer, was kept at −80° C. until required. Skin samples were mounted to diffusion cells and 100 μl of the vitamin A formulation applied to achieve the thin layer on the skin sample surface. All experiments were carried out under occluded conditions. 
         [0153]    At 6, 12 and 24 hours, skin samples were taken and extracted with acetone to determine the concentration of vitamin A retained in the whole skin. In addition, samples from receptor phase (ethanol/water 50/50) and skin surface were analysed with HPLC to quantify the penetrated ratio through the skin and the amount of drug remaining on the skin surface, respectively. The results are shown in  FIGS. 20 and 21 . 
         [0154]    At all time points, the skin retention of vitamin A was increased significantly for the formulations compared to unencapsulated control emulsions stabilised with lecithin. The results were statistically analysed with T test and ANOVA test and significance is marked in  FIG. 20  with asterisks for P values less than 0.05. 
         [0155]    The formulations are proposed for use in topical skin application (e.g. for cosmetic purposes) and, accordingly, the “target layer” for the delivery of the vitamin A is the upper layers of skin. Transport across the skin is undesirable in such application, and it simply leads to the “loss” of the active substance. Surprisingly, it was found that the amount of vitamin A detected in the receptor phase was negligible ( FIG. 21 ) for the formulations (i.e. less than 0.5%). 
       b) Oleylamine Stabilised Formulations (Positively Charged Capsules) 
       [0156]    A study of the release profile of vitamin A from the oleylamine-stabilised formulations described in Example 4 was also undertaken using excised pig skin with Franz diffusion cells. In this case, the study was made in comparison with a oleylamine-stabilised emulsion of vitamin A in the triglyceride oil. 
         [0157]    The results obtained with these positively charged emulsions according to the present invention (see  FIG. 22 ) similarly showed enhancement in skin retention of vitamin A by nanoparticle encapsulation of the emulsion. Moreover, the oleyalmine-stabilised formulation generally showed higher skin retention and penetration (up to 1%) compared to the lecithin-stabilised formulations tested in a) above. 
         [0158]    Although a preferred embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention has been described in the foregoing detailed description, it will be understood that the invention is not limited to the embodiment disclosed, but is capable of numerous rearrangements, modifications and substitutions without departing from the scope of the invention. 
         [0159]    Modifications and variations such as would be apparent to persons skilled in the art are deemed to be within the scope of the present invention. For example, although the invention is generally discussed with reference to emulsion droplets, the techniques discussed can generally be applied to liposomes, other vesicle systems and other similar vehicles. 
         [0160]    Throughout this specification the word “comprise”, or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising”, will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps, but not the exclusion of any other element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps. 
         [0161]    All publications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference. Any discussion of documents, acts, materials, devices, articles or the like which has been included in the present specification is solely for the purpose of providing a context for the present invention. It is not to be taken as an admission that any or all of these matters form part of the prior art base or were common general knowledge in the field relevant to the present invention as it existed in Australia or elsewhere before the priority date of each claim of this application.