Abstract:
A bone densitometer accepts inputs of non-bone density patient information to provide a measure of absolute fracture risk to provide a more accurate and personal assessment of osteoporosis. A simple graphical output compares this risk to standard populations.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF INVENTION  
         [0001]    The present invention relates to diagnostic medical equipment and in particular to a bone densitometer providing an output indicating absolute risk of bone fracture.  
           [0002]    Bone densitometers provide a measurement of bone mineral density (BMD) typically using x-ray or ultrasound measurement. Normally this BMD value is an areal density measurement, e.g., g/cm 2 , however, volume density measurements, e.g. g/cm 3 , may also be provided using, for example, tomographic reconstruction.  
           [0003]    BMD measurements may be made at various locations on the body but are most frequently conducted on the bones of the lumbar vertebra, the femoral neck, or the os calcis of the heel.  
           [0004]    X-ray and ultrasound densitometers are described in U.S. Pat. Nos.  6 , 438 , 201 ,  6 , 364 , 837 ,  6 , 277 , 076 ,  6 , 246 , 747 ,  6 , 215 , 846 ,  6 , 160 , 866 ,  6 , 081 , 582 ,  6 , 038 , 281 ,  6 , 027 , 449 , RE36162, 5,841,833, 5,840,029, and 5,748,704, among others, assigned to the assignee of the present invention and hereby incorporated by reference.  
           [0005]    A raw BMD value has limited meaning to a physician or patient and so current densitometers normally provide a comparison of the measured BMD value to an established reference. One such reference is a T-score, which compares the patient&#39;s BMD value to the expected value of BMD for a young adult of the same gender. The T-score provides a qualitative indication of risk of fracture in that the greater the negative value of the T-score, the greater the risk of fracture.  
           [0006]    Alternatively, a logistic regression analysis may be used to determine a quantitative relationship between BMD and relative fracture risk based on a recognized mathematical relationship between decline in BMD and increased risk of fracture. This relationship has been determined prospectively in empirical studies of elderly populations and considers the difference between the patient and someone of the same age and gender.  
           [0007]    Desirably, bone densitometry equipment would provide an indication of the patient&#39;s absolute fracture risk. In this respect, T-scores and relative risk measurements are inadequate. For example, a 70 year old patient with a T-score of −2 and relative risk of 4 has much greater absolute fracture risk than a 50 year old patient with the same T-score and relative risk.  
         SUMMARY OF INVENTION  
         [0008]    The present inventors have recognized that measurement of BMD produced by densitometry equipment, cannot alone provide an indication of absolute fracture risk. To the contrary, current studies show that absolute fracture risk is strongly dependent on factors that are independent of BMD, in particular, age and gender. Other factors which affect absolute fracture risk include: whether the patient is a smoker, the amount of exercise the patient gets, how much the patient is on his/her feet, the patient&#39;s history of fractures, the patient&#39;s family history of fractures, and the long axis length of the patient&#39;s hip (hip axis length). It is likely that additional risk factors will be discovered.  
           [0009]    The present invention therefore provides a bone densitometer that accepts additional patient data to produce an output measurement of absolute fracture risk. The physician and patient are presented with this absolute fracture risk contemporaneously with the measurement of BMD, reducing patient confusion about T-scores and relative risk, and eliminating the need for cumbersome additional calculations by the physician. 
       
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS  
       [0010]    [0010]FIG. 1 is a simplified perspective view of an x-ray bone densitometer providing for lateral scanning or anterior/posterior scanning of a patient with an x-ray fan beam under the control of a computer;  
         [0011]    [0011]FIG. 2 is a bone image of the femur such as may be acquired from the apparatus of FIG. 1 showing measurement of patient hip axis length and placement of a region of interest on the neck of the femur;  
         [0012]    [0012]FIG. 3 is a graph plotting as vertical bars average bone density in the region of interest of FIG. 2, average bone density of a standard individual for the same region of interest, and standard deviation of measurement of the standard individual used in the calculation of T-score;  
         [0013]    [0013]FIG. 4 is a flow chart showing steps performed by a program executed by the computer of FIG. 1 to provide an output measure of absolute fracture risk;  
         [0014]    [0014]FIG. 5 shows an example of a graphic output of absolute fracture risk;  
         [0015]    [0015]FIG. 6 is an example of a tabular output of absolute fracture risk;  
         [0016]    [0016]FIG. 7 is a figure similar to that of FIG. 2 showing use of the invention on lumbar vertebrae and a positioning of a region of interest upon one vertebra; and  
         [0017]    [0017]FIG. 8 is a simplified perspective view of an ultrasound bone densitometer measuring the os calcis of the heel. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
       [0018]    Referring now to FIG. 1, an x-ray bone densitometer  10  may include a patient table  12  providing a horizontal surface for supporting a patient in supine position along the longitudinal axis  16 .  
         [0019]    A C-arm  18  may have a lower end positioned beneath the patient table  12  to support an x-ray source  20  and, an upper end positioned above the patient table to support an opposed x-ray detector  22 . The x-ray source  20  produces a fan beam  24  whose plane is parallel to the longitudinal axis  16 , and which, in the preferred embodiment, provides two x-ray energies. The x-ray detector  22  may be a multi-element CZT detector discriminating between the energies of x-rays. Other methods of dual energy measurement, including those providing for rotating filter wheels or variations in x-ray tube voltage, may also be used, as may monoenergetic techniques of measuring bone density, as will be understood in the art.  
         [0020]    The x-ray source  20  and x-ray detector  22  may be moved in a raster pattern  25  so as to trace a series of transverse scans  33  of the patient during which dual energy x-ray data is collected by the x-ray detector  22 . The raster pattern  25  is adjusted so that there is a slight overlap between successive scan lines of the fan beam  24  to provide some height data. During this scanning, the x-ray source  20 , the x-ray detector  22 , and the translation controller  19  communicate with and are under the control of computer  26  which may include dedicated circuitry and/or one or more processors. The operation of the computer  26  is under the direction of a stored program portion of which will be described in detail below.  
         [0021]    The computer  26  communicates with a terminal  28  including a display  30  and a keyboard  31  and a cursor control device such as a mouse  35  allowing for operator input of patient data, as will be described, and the output of text and/or images to the operator providing the results of the scan.  
         [0022]    During operation of the bone densitometer  10  to acquire bone mineral density (BMD) data, the computer  26  will communicate with the translation controller  19  to scan a region of interest ( 37  or  38 ) of the patient  14  in one or more transverse scans  33 . Along each scan, data will be collected associated with different rays of the fan beam  24  measuring attenuation at two distinct x-ray energy levels. The two measurements of attenuation for different x-ray energies may be combined to produce a bone image substantially independent of attenuation by soft tissue.  
         [0023]    Referring now to FIG. 4, in a first step of a stored program executed by computer  26  of FIG. 1, indicated by block  40 , patient information is entered into the computer  26 . The information may be entered through the keyboard  31  or through a menu structure and mouse  35  or by transfer of the data from another patient record system.  
         [0024]    These data will generally include quantitative information related to risk of fracture other than BMD and will typically include the age and gender of the patient. The present invention also contemplates, however, the use of additional patient information including, for example, the patient&#39;s smoking habits (smoker or non-smoker), the amount of exercise the patient performs, the patient&#39;s mobility (for example, how much time the patient is on his or her feet during the day or whether the patient can get out of a chair without using his or her arms, or similar measures), the patient&#39;s history and patient&#39;s family history of fragility fractures, whether there are crush fractures of patient vertebra, and patient hip axis length. These latter two quantities may be determined alternatively by the scanning process described below and input without physician intervention.  
         [0025]    After the non-BMD patient information is input at succeeding process block  42 , a scan is conducted of the patient to produce a bone image. Typically, as shown in FIG. 1, the scan will be either of a region of interest  38  about the hip of the patient or a region of interest  37  in the area of the lower or lumbar spine region. For the hip, the region of interest  38  may be the femoral neck, trochanter, femoral shaft, Ward”s region, or the total femur.  
         [0026]    Referring now to FIG. 2, for a bone image  32  of the patient&#39;s femur  34 , a determination of patient hip axis length  36  may be derived and used as one of the non-BMD inputs described above. Such measurement may be made by the placement of cursors on the image on display  30  by the operator using the cursor control device  35  or through automatic or semi-automatic procedures known in the art in which fiducial points are identified on the bone using a template structure or the like and the distance mathematically calculated.  
         [0027]    A similar mechanism may be used to place a measurement region  39  on the neck of the femur  34  defining an area in which the BMD measurements will be combined to yield an average bone density over the measurement region  39 .  
         [0028]    At process block  44 , the average bone density over the measurement region  39  is converted to a standard BMD value according to techniques well known in the art to compensate for differences between densitometers  10  from different manufacturers caused by different definitions of the measurement regions  39  and different measurement techniques.  
         [0029]    Next, at process block  46 , a T-score is calculated from the standard BMD value. Referring to FIG. 3, such T-scores are well known in the art and compare the average bone density  48  found within the measurement region  39 , as corrected by process block  44 , to an average bone density  50  of a standard individual. By convention, the standard individual is a statistical combination of individuals of average age thirty and the same gender as the patient. A standard deviation  52  for the standard individual may be determined from measurements of the individuals from whom the standard is prepared. The T-score is then the difference between average bone density  48  (of the patient) and average bone density  50  (of the standard individual) indicated by distance  54  divided by the standard deviation  52 .  
         [0030]    After computation of the T-score, which may also be output to the operator at process block  56 , the present invention computes an absolute fracture risk. The computation of absolute fracture risk may be risk of hip fracture or the risk of any fracture and uses the average bone density  48  (per FIG. 3) and the patient information (per process block  40 ) of age and gender.  
         [0031]    The process of determining absolute fracture risk uses several public data sets. The first data set provides average BMD (or its equivalent) for a normative set of individuals classified by age. Such data is, for example, available from the government sponsored studies, such as the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) (see www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes). This first data set is combined with an empirically determined second data set providing fracture rate for individuals of these same age classifications. The result is an average absolute fracture rate for each age group.  
         [0032]    The third data set provides relative risk of fracture for given decreases in BMD for each of the age classifications. This relative risk is made into an absolute risk for the patient by adjusting the average absolute fracture rate for the age group of the patient by the relative risk caused by the difference between the patient&#39;s BMD and the average BMD for the patient&#39;s age group.  
         [0033]    Thus, the absolute fracture risk can be calculated for an individual patient, by determining the deviation of the individual patient&#39;s BMD value from the BMD normal to the patient&#39;s age group and applying the relative risk for that age group to the absolute fracture risk of that age group to determine the absolute fracture risk for the individual patient.  
         [0034]    These relationships may be reduced to a set of curves held in tabular form or to explicit equations according to techniques well known in the art. These data may be smoothed by interpolation to obtain a continuous function. In addition, the absolute fracture estimate can be refined for different countries based on information regarding the relative fracture rates in each country. As additional research is prepared, additional factors may be incorporated into these equations or curves.  
         [0035]    The underlying data and this methodology is described generally in the following public papers: “Meta-Analysis Of How Well Measures Of Bone Mineral Density Predict Occurrence Of Osteoporotic Fractures”, Marshall et al., Br. Med. J. 312:1254-1259 (1996); “Risk of Hip Fracture Derived From Relative Risks: An Analysis Supplied to the Population of Sweden”, Kanis et al., Osteoporosis Int., 11:120-127 (2000); “Prospective: The Diagnosis of Osteoporosis”, Kanis et al., J. Bone Miner. Res., Vol.  9 , No. 8:1137-1141(1994); “Ten Year Probabilities of Osteoporotic Fractures According to BMD and Diagnostic Thresholds”, Kanis et al., J. Bone Miner. Res. Vol. 16 (Suppl 1):S194 (2001), Kanis et al.; “Ten Year Probabilities of Osteoporotic Fractures According to BMD and Diagnostic Thresholds”, De Laet et al., J. Bone Miner. Res. Vol. 13, No. 10:1587-1593 (2002); “Identification and Fracture Outcomes of Undiagnosed Low Bone Mineral Density in Post-Menopausal Women: Results From the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment”, Siris et al., JAMA Vol. 286 No. 22:2815-2822 (2001).  
         [0036]    These results may be modified by a number of multipliers for risk known in relationships with the other patient input variables. For example, each 6 mm increase in hip axis length (compared to height- and weight-adjusted average) increases risk by a factor of 1.6. A smoker has an increased risk for fracture of 1.3 compared to non-smokers. Subjects with low mobility (less than 4 hours of time on their feet per day) or who are unable to raise from a chair without the use of their arms have an increased fracture risk of 2.0 in each case. In the presence of these or other additional risk factors, absolute risk estimates can be further refined by multiplying the risk determined from the BMD and age models by the appropriate relative risk coefficients reported in the scientific literature.  
         [0037]    At succeeding process block  58 , the results of the absolute risk calculation may be output. Referring to FIG. 5, in a graphical output, the T-score may form a vertical axis of a graph  59  with patient age as the horizontal axis. The patient&#39;s T-score, as computed at process block  46 , is plotted on the graph as plot point  60  for the patient&#39;s input age.  
         [0038]    The background of the graph includes three separate bands  62 ,  64  and  66  representing low, medium, and high absolute fracture risks, respectively. Generally, band  62  indicates low absolute fracture risk (colored green in this example), band  64 , positioned below band  62 , indicates medium absolute fracture risk (colored yellow in this example), and band  66 , positioned below band  62 , and indicates a high absolute fracture risk, (colored red in this example).  
         [0039]    The interface between band  62  and  64  indicates a 10% fracture risk during the next ten years and the interface between bands  64  and  66  indicates a 20% fracture risk during the next ten years. This selection of thresholds of 10% and 20% conforms to thresholds used for the treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults as determined by the National Cholesterol Education Project (NCEP) and thus is familiar to physicians. The strength of the relationship between fractures and bone density, however, is stronger than the analogous relationship between lipid levels and coronary heart disease.  
         [0040]    The alignment of the three bands  62 ,  64 , and  66  with T-score also provides a classification of the patient that conforms generally to a division prepared by the World Health Organization for the assessment of osteoporosis in populations. Thus, at age 65, when the fracture risk increases significantly, a ten year risk for any fracture of 20% occurs at the femoral T-score of −2.5 matching the WHO category of osteoporosis based on a BMD 2.5 or more standard deviations below a young adult BMD. Likewise, a ten year risk for any fracture of 10% at age 65 equates to a femoral neck T-score of −1 matching the WHO category of low bone mass (osteopenia) based on a BMD between 1 and 2.5 standard deviations below a young adult BMD. Thus, the graphic representation provides consistency with the well known categorizations of normal, osteopenia, and osteoporosis defined by the WHO at an age where fracture risk incidence begins to increase dramatically (65 years). However, it is important to recognize that the WHO criteria were defined for populations rather than individuals.  
         [0041]    Note that the bands generally rise with age reflecting the fact that for a given BMD value, risk increases as the patient becomes older. This must be compared to standard BMD and T-score values which remain constant for a given bone mass with the aging process. The particular shape of the bands  62 ,  64  and  66  will depend on the patient data used. If additional risk factors are included, these bands may be shifted by those risk factors.  
         [0042]    Referring to FIG. 6, the information may also be provided in tabular form with a first row of a table  70  providing in a first column, the patient&#39;s name and age, in the second column, the ten year risk for hip fracture, and in a third column, the ten year risk for any fracture. In a second row, the first column indicates a reference population having the same age as that of the patient. In a second column of the second row, the ten year risk for hip fracture for that population is provided, and in a third column, the ten year risk for any fracture for that population is provided.  
         [0043]    Referring now to FIG. 7, the densitometer  10  of FIG. 1 also may be employed for the measurement of BMD from a region of interest  63  located in a trabecular region of a lumbar vertebra  65 . Standard morphometric techniques may be used to detect crushed vertebra  65 ′ such as indicate fragility fractures which may also be used in the calculation of absolute risk as one of the patient input factors described above. Presence of a fragility fracture represents a strong risk factor for future osteoporotic fractures, which can be incorporated into the absolute risk model.  
         [0044]    Referring to FIG. 8, the present invention is also applicable to ultrasonic densitometers  73  in which an ultrasonic transducer  71  provides an ultrasonic signal passing through the os calcis  72  of a patient&#39;s foot  74 . The ultrasonic signal is received by a detector  76  and processed by computer  80  to determine speed of sound (SOS) or broadband ultrasonic attenuation (BUA) or combinations of the two as are well known in the art. Patient data may be entered through an associated keyboard  82  and output data provided on output display  84  according to well-known techniques in the art.  
         [0045]    Thus, the present invention, by accepting additional patient data, provides an accurate measurement of absolute risk, rather than relative risk, as is desired by patients and physicians. Absolute risk assessment is a more accurate representation of risk than T-scores or relative risk measures that can either overstate, in the case of younger individuals, or understate, in the case of the elderly, the true fracture risk.