Abstract:
A system for treating or providing prophylaxus against a pulmonary infection is disclosed comprising: a) a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a mixture of free antiinfective and antiinfective encapsulated in a lipid-based composition, and b) an inhalation delivery device. A method for providing prophylaxis against a pulmonary infection in a patient and a method of reducing the loss of antiinfective encapsulated in a lipid-based composition upon nebulization comprising administering an aerosolized pharmaceutical formulation comprising a mixture of free antiinfective and antiinfective encapsulated in a lipid-based composition is also disclosed.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS  
       [0001]     This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/748,468, filed Dec. 8, 2005, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0002]     According to the World Health Organization, respiratory diseases are the number one cause of world-wide mortality, with at least 20% of the world&#39;s population afflicted. Over 25 million Americans have chronic lung disease, making it the number one disabler of American workers (&gt;$50B/yr), and the number three cause of mortality.  
         [0003]     Currently, most infections are treated with oral or injectable antiinfectives, even when the pathogen enters through the respiratory tract. Often the antiinfective has poor penetration into the lung, and may be dose-limited due to systemic side-effects. Many of these issues can be overcome by local delivery of the antiinfective to the lungs of patients via inhalation. For example, inhaled tobramycin (TOBI®, Chiron Corp, Emeryville, Calif.), is a nebulized form of tobramycin, that has been shown to have improved efficacy and reduced nephro- and oto-toxicity relative to injectable aminoglycosides. Unfortunately, rapid absorption of the drug necessitates that the drug product be administered twice daily over a period of ca., 20 min per administration. For pediatrics and young adults with cystic fibrosis this treatment regimen can be taxing, especially when one takes into account the fact that these patients are on multiple time-consuming therapies. Any savings in terms of treatment times would be welcomed, and would likely lead to improvements in patient compliance. Achieving improved compliance with other patient populations (e.g., chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), acute bronchial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis) will be critically dependent on the convenience and efficacy of the treatment. Hence, it is an object of the present invention to improve patient compliance by providing formulations with sustained activity in the lungs. Sustained release formulations of antiinfectives are achieved by encapsulating the antiinfective in a liposome. Improving pulmonary targeting with sustained release formulations would further improve the therapeutic index by increasing local concentrations of drug and reducing systemic exposure. Improvements in targeting are also expected to reduce dose requirements.  
         [0004]     Achieving sustained release of drugs in the lung is a difficult task, given the multiple clearance mechanisms that act in concert to rapidly remove inhaled drugs from the lung. These clearance methods include: (a) rapid clearance from the conducting airways over a period of hours by the mucociliary escalator; (b) clearance of particulates from the deep lung by alveolar macrophages; (c) degradation of the therapeutic by pulmonary enzymes, and; (d) rapid absorption of small molecule drugs into the systemic circulation. Absorption of small molecule drugs has been shown to be nearly quantitative, with an absorption time for hydrophilic small molecules of about 1 hr, and an absorption time for lipophilic drugs of about 1 min.  
         [0005]     For TOBI® the absorption half-life from the lung is on the order of 1.5 hr. High initial peak concentrations of drug can lead to adaptive resistance, while a substantial time with levels below or near the effective minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), may lead to selection of resistant phenotypes. It is hypothesized that keeping the level of antiinfective above the MIC for an extended period of time (i.e., eliminating sub-therapeutic trough levels) with a pulmonary sustained release formulation may reduce the potential for development of resistant phenotypes. Hence, it is a further object of the present invention to maintain the ratio of the area under the lung concentration/time curve to the MIC at 24 hr (i.e., the AUIC), not only at an adequate sustained therapeutic level, but above a critical level, so as to reduce the potential for selection of resistant strains.  
         [0006]     It is assumed that only the “free” (un-encapsulated) drug has bactericidal activity. One potential disadvantage of liposomal sustained release formulations is that the encapsulation of drug in the liposomal formulation decreases the concentration of free drug reaching the lung pathogens, drug which is needed to achieve efficient killing of bacteria immediately following administration. Hence, it is further an object of the present invention to provide a formulation that contains sufficient free drug, to be bactericidal immediately following administration.  
         [0007]     The disclosures of the foregoing are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.  
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0008]     It is an object of the present invention to use lipid-based composition encapsulation to improve the therapeutic effects of antiinfectives administered to an individual via the pulmonary route.  
         [0009]     The subject invention results from the realization that administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising both free and liposome encapsulated antiinfective results in improved treatment of pulmonary infections.  
         [0010]     In one aspect, the present invention relates to a system for treating or providing prophylaxis against a pulmonary infection, wherein the system comprises a pharmaceutical formulation comprising mixtures of free and lipid-based composition encapsulated antiinfective, wherein the amount of free antiinfective is sufficient to provide for immediate bactericidal activity, and the amount of encapsulated antiinfective is sufficient to provide sustained bactericidal activity, and reduce the development of resistant strains of the infectious agent, and an inhalation delivery device.  
         [0011]     The free form of the antiinfective is available to provide a bolus of immediate antimicrobial activity. The slow release of antiinfective from the lipid-based composition following pulmonary administration is analogous to continuous administration of the antiinfective, thereby providing for sustained levels of antiinfective in the lungs. The sustained AUC levels provides prolonged bactericidal activity between administrations. Further, the sustained levels provided by the release of antiinfective from the lipid-based composition is expected to provide improved protection against the development of resistant microbial strains.  
         [0012]     Combinations of free and encapsulated drug can be achieved by: (a) formulation of mixtures of free and encapsulated drug that are stable to the nebulization; (b) formulation of encapsulated drug which leads to burst on nebulization.  
         [0013]     The ratio of free to encapsulated drug is contemplated to be between about 1:100 w:w and about 100:1 w:w, and may be determined by the minimum inhibitory concentration of the infectious agent and the sustained release properties of the formulation. The ratio of free to encapsulated drug can be optimized for a given infectious agent and drug formulation based on known pharmacodynamic targets for bacterial killing and prevention of resistance. Schentag, J. J.  J. Chemother.  1999, 11, 426-439.  
         [0014]     In a further embodiment, the present invention relates to the aforementioned system wherein the antiinfective is selected from the group consisting of antibiotic agents, antiviral agents, and antifungal agents. In a further embodiment, the antiinfective is an antibiotic selected from the group consisting of cephalosporins, quinolones, fluoroquinolones, penicillins, beta lactamase inhibitors, carbepenems, monobactams, macrolides, lincosamines, glycopeptides, rifampin, oxazolidonones, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, streptogramins, and sulfonamides. In a further embodiment, the antiinfective is an aminoglycoside. In a further embodiment the antiinfective is amikacin, gentamicin, or tobramycin.  
         [0015]     In a further embodiment, the lipid-based composition is a liposome. In a further embodiment, the liposome comprises a mixture of unilamellar vesicles and multilamellar vesicles. In a further embodiment, the liposome comprises a phospholipid and a sterol. In a further embodiment, the liposome comprises a phosphatidylcholine and a sterol. In a further embodiment, the liposome comprises dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and a sterol. In a further embodiment, the liposome comprises dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and cholesterol.  
         [0016]     In a further embodiment, the present invention relates to the aforementioned system wherein the antiinfective is an aminogylcoside and the liposome comprises DPPC and cholesterol. In a further embodiment, the antiinfective is amikacin, the liposome comprises DPPC and cholesterol, and the liposome comprises a mixture of unilamellar vesicles and multilamellar vesicles.  
         [0017]     In a further embodiment, the present invention relates to the aforementioned system, wherein the ratio by weight of free antiuinfective to antiinfective encapsulated in a lipid-based composition is between about 1:100 and about 100:1. In a further embodiment, the ratio by weight is between about 1:10 and about 10:1. In a further embodiment, the ratio by weight is between about 1:2 and about 2:1.  
         [0018]     In another embodiment, the present invention relates to a method for treating or providing prophylaxis against a pulmonary infection in a patient, the method comprising: administering an aerosolized pharmaceutical formulation comprising the antiinfective to the lungs of the patient, wherein the pharmaceutical formulation comprises mixtures of free and lipid-based compostion encapsulated antiinfectives, and the amount of free antiinfective is sufficient to provide for bactericidal activity, and the amount of encapsulated antiinfective is sufficient to reduce the development of resistant strains of the infectious agent.  
         [0019]     In a further embodiment, the aforementioned method comprises first determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of an antiinfective for inhibiting pulmonary infections, and wherein the amount of free antiinfective is at least 2 times the MIC, preferably greater than 4 times the MIC, and preferably greater than 10 times the MIC of the antiinfective agent, where the MIC is defined as either the minimum inhibitory concentration in the epithelial lining of the lung, or alternatively the minimum inhibitory concentration in the solid tissue of the lung (depending on the nature of the infection).  
         [0020]     In a further embodiment, the present invention relates to the aforementioned method, wherein the aerosolized pharmaceutical formulation is administered at least once per week. In a further embodiment, the present invention relates to the aforementioned method, wherein the antiinfective is selected from the group consisting of antibiotic agents, antiviral agents, and antifungal agents. In a further embodiment, the antiinfective is an antibiotic selected from the group consisting of cephalosporins, quinolones, fluoroquinolones, penicillins, beta lactamase inhibitors, carbepenems, monobactams, macrolides, lincosamines, glycopeptides, rifampin, oxazolidonones, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, streptogramins, and sulfonamides. In a further embodiment, the antiinfective is an aminoglycoside. In a further embodiment, the antiinfective is amikacin, gentamicin, or tobramycin.  
         [0021]     In a further embodiment, the lipid-based composition is a liposome. In a further embodiment, the liposome encapsulated antiinfective comprises a phosphatidylcholine in admixture with a sterol. In a further aspect, the sterol is cholesterol. In a further aspect, the liposome encapsulated antiinfective comprises a mixture of unilamellar vesicles and multilamellar vesicles. In a further aspect, the liposome encapsulated antiinfective comprises a phosphatidylcholine in admixture with cholesterol, and wherein the liposome encapsulated antiinfective comprises a mixture of unilamellar vesicles and multilamellar vesicles.  
         [0022]     The ratio of the area under the lung concentration/time curve to the MIC at 24 hr (i.e., the AUIC) is greater than 25, preferably greater than 100, and preferably greater than 250.  
         [0023]     The therapeutic ratio of free/encapsulated drug and the required nominal dose can be determined with standard pharmacokinetic models, once the efficiency of pulmonary delivery and clearance of the drug product are established with the aerosol delivery device of choice.  
         [0024]     In one aspect, the present invention relates to a method of treating a patient for a pulmonary infection comprising a cycle of treatment with lipid-based composition encapsulated antiinfective to enhance bacterial killing and reduce development of phenotypic resistance, followed by a cycle of no treatment to reduce the development of adaptive resistance. The treatment regimen may be determined by clinical research. In one embodiment, the treatment regime may be an on-cycle treatment for about 7, 14, 21, or 30 days, followed by an off-cycle absence of treatment for about 7, 14, 21, or 30 days.  
         [0025]     In another aspect, the present invention relates to a method for reducing the loss of antiinfective encapsulated in lipid-based compositions upon nebulization comprising administering the antiinfective encapsulated in lipid-based compositions with free antiinfective.  
         [0026]     The systems and methods of the present invention are useful for treating, for example, lung infections in cystic fibrosis patients, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchiectasis, acterial pneumonia, and in acute bronchial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis (ABECB). In addition, the technology is useful in the treatment of intracellular infections including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and inhaled agents of bioterror (e.g., anthrax and tularemia). The technology may also be used as a phophylactic agent to treat opportunistic fungal infections (e.g., aspergillosis) in immunocompromised patients (e.g., organ transplant or AIDS patients).  
         [0027]     With bacteria and other infective agents becoming increasingly resistant to traditional treatments, new and more effective treatments for infective agent related illnesses are needed. The present invention addresses these issues by providing a system comprising a pharmaceutical composition comprising both free and lipid-based composition encapsulated antiinfective and an inhalation device. Formulating the antiinfective as a mixture of free and lipid-based composition encapsulated antiinfective provides several advantages, some of which include: (a) provides for a bolus of free antiinfective for immediate bactericidal activity and a sustained level of antiinfective for prevention of resistance; (b) simplifies the manufacturing process, as less free antiinfective need be removed via diafiltration; and (c) allows for greater antiinfective contents to be achieved in the drug product.  
         [0028]     These embodiments of the present invention, other embodiments, and their features and characteristics, will be apparent from the description, drawings and claims that follow. 
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0029]      FIG. 1  depicts the plot of lung concentration (μg/ml) as a function of time following nebulization of unencapsulated tobramycin at a nominal dose of 300 mg (TOBI®, Chiron Corp., Emeryville, Calif.), and liposomal amikacin at a nominal dose of 100 mg. Lung concentrations for both drug products are calculated assuming a volume of distribution for aminoglycosides in the lung of 200 ml. The tobramycin curve was determined by pharmacokinetic modeling of the temporal tobramycin plasma concentration curve (Le Brun thesis, 2001). 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
       [0000]     Definitions  
         [0030]     For convenience, before further description of the present invention, certain terms employed in the specification, examples and appended claims are collected here. These definitions should be read in light of the remainder of the disclosure and understood as by a person of skill in the art. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by a person of ordinary skill in the art.  
         [0031]     The articles “a” and “an” are used herein to refer to one or to more than one (i.e. to at least one) of the grammatical object of the article. By way of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element.  
         [0032]     The term “antibacterial” is art-recognized and refers to the ability of the compounds of the present invention to prevent, inhibit or destroy the growth of microbes of bacteria.  
         [0033]     The terms “antiinfective” and “antiinfective agent” are used interchangeably throughout the specification to describe a biologically active agent which can kill or inhibit the growth of certain other harmful pathogenic organisms, including but not limited to bacteria, yeasts and fungi, viruses, protozoa or parasites, and which can be administered to living organisms, especially animals such as mammals, particularly humans.  
         [0034]     The term “antimicrobial” is art-recognized and refers to the ability of the compounds of the present invention to prevent, inhibit or destroy the growth of microbes such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses.  
         [0035]     The term “bioavailable” is art-recognized and refers to a form of the subject invention that allows for it, or a portion of the amount administered, to be absorbed by, incorporated to, or otherwise physiologically available to a subject or patient to whom it is administered.  
         [0036]     The terms “comprise” and “comprising” are used in the inclusive, open sense, meaning that additional elements may be included.  
         [0037]     The term “illness” as used herein refers to any illness caused by or related to infection by an organism.  
         [0038]     The term “including” is used herein to mean “including but not limited to”. “Including” and “including but not limited to” are used interchangeably.  
         [0039]     The term “lipid-based composition” as used herein refers to compositions that primarily comprise lipids. Non-limiting examples of lipid-based compositions may take the form of coated lipid particles, liposomes, emulsions, micelles, and the like.  
         [0040]     The term “mammal” is known in the art, and exemplary mammals include humans, primates, bovines, porcines, canines, felines, and rodents (e.g., mice and rats).  
         [0041]     The term “microbe” is art-recognized and refers to a microscopic organism. In certain embodiments the term microbe is applied to bacteria. In other embodiments the term refers to pathogenic forms of a microscopic organism.  
         [0042]     A “patient,” “subject” or “host” to be treated by the subject method may mean either a human or non-human animal.  
         [0043]     The term “pharmaceutically-acceptable salts” is art-recognized and refers to the relatively non-toxic, inorganic and organic acid addition salts of compounds, including, for example, those contained in compositions of the present invention.  
         [0044]     The term “prodrug” is art-recognized and is intended to encompass compounds which, under physiological conditions, are converted into the antibacterial agents of the present invention. A common method for making a prodrug is to select moieties which are hydrolyzed under physiological conditions to provide the desired compound. In other embodiments, the prodrug is converted by an enzymatic activity of the host animal or the target bacteria.  
         [0045]     The term “treating” is art-recognized and refers to curing as well as ameliorating at least one symptom of any condition or disease.  
         [0000]     Lipids  
         [0046]     The lipids used in the pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention can be synthetic, semi-synthetic or naturally-occurring lipids, including phospholipids, tocopherols, sterols, fatty acids, glycoproteins such as albumin, negatively-charged lipids and cationic lipids. In terms of phosholipids, they could include such lipids as egg phosphatidylcholine (EPC), egg phosphatidylglycerol (EPG), egg phosphatidylinositol (EPI), egg phosphatidylserine (EPS), phosphatidylethanolamine (EPE), and phosphatidic acid (EPA); the soya counterparts, soy phosphatidylcholine (SPC); SPG, SPS, SPI, SPE, and SPA; the hydrogenated egg and soya counterparts (e.g., HEPC, HSPC), other phospholipids made up of ester linkages of fatty acids in the 2 and 3 of glycerol positions containing chains of 12 to 26 carbon atoms and different head groups in the I position of glycerol that include choline, glycerol, inositol, serine, ethanolamine, as well as the corresponding phosphatidic acids. The chains on these fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated, and the phospholipid may be made up of fatty acids of different chain lengths and different degrees of unsaturation. In particular, the compositions of the formulations can include dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), a major constituent of naturally-occurring lung surfactant. Other examples include dimyristoylphosphatidycholine (DMPC) and dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol (DMPG) dipalmitoylphosphatidcholine (DPPQ and dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol (DPPG) distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPQ and distearoylphosphatidylglycerol (DSPG), dioleylphosphatidyl-ethanolamine (DOPE) and mixed phospholipids like palmitoylstearoylphosphatidyl-choline (PSPC) and palmitoylstearolphosphatidylglycerol (PSPG), and single acylated phospholipids like mono-oleoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (MOPE).  
         [0047]     The sterols can include, cholesterol, esters of cholesterol including cholesterol hemi-succinate, salts of cholesterol including cholesterol hydrogen sulfate and cholesterol sulfate, ergosterol, esters of ergosterol including ergosterol hemi-succinate, salts of ergosterol including ergosterol hydrogen sulfate and ergosterol sulfate, lanosterol, esters of lanosterol including lanosterol hemi-succinate, salts of lanosterol including lanosterol hydrogen sulfate and lanosterol sulfate. The tocopherols can include tocopherols, esters of tocopherols including tocopherol hemi-succinates, salts of tocopherols including tocopherol hydrogen sulfates and tocopherol sulfates. The term “sterol compound” includes sterols, tocopherols and the like.  
         [0048]     The cationic lipids used can include ammonium salts of fatty acids, phospholids and glycerides. The fatty acids include fatty acids of carbon chain lengths of 12 to 26 carbon atoms that are either saturated or unsaturated. Some specific examples include: myristylamine, palmitylamine, laurylamine and stearylamine, dilauroyl ethylphosphocholine (DLEP), dimyristoyl ethylphosphocholine (DMEP), dipalmitoyl ethylphosphocholine (DPEP) and distearoyl ethylphosphocholine (DSEP), N-(2,3-di-(9-(Z)-octadecenyloxy)-prop-1-yl-N,N,N-trimethylammonium chloride (DOTMA) and 1,2-bis(oleoyloxy)-3-(trimethylammonio)propane (DOTAP).  
         [0049]     The negatively-charged lipids which can be used include phosphatidyl-glycerols (PGs), phosphatidic acids (PAs), phosphatidylinositols (Pls) and the phosphatidyl serines (PSs). Examples include DMPG, DPPG, DSPG, DMPA, DPPA, DSPA, DMPI, DPPI, DSPI, DMPS, DPPS and DSPS.  
         [0050]     Phosphatidylcholines, such as DPPC, aid in the uptake by the cells in the lung (e.g., the alveolar macrophages) and helps to sustain release of the bioactive agent in the lung. The negatively charged lipids such as the PGs, PAs, PSs and PIs, in addition to reducing particle aggregation, are believed to play a role in the sustained release characteristics of the inhalation formulation as well as in the transport of the formulation across the lung (transcytosis) for systemic uptake. The sterol compounds are believed to affect the release characteristics of the formulation.  
         [0000]     Liposomes  
         [0051]     Liposomes are completely closed lipid bilayer membranes containing an entrapped aqueous volume. Liposomes may be unilamellar vesicles (possessing a single membrane bilayer) or multilamellar vesicles (onion-like structures characterized by multiple membrane bilayers, each separated from the next by an aqueous layer). The bilayer is composed of two lipid monolayers having a hydrophobic “tail” region and a hydrophilic “head” region. The structure of the membrane bilayer is such that the hydrophobic (nonpolar) “tails” of the lipid monolayers orient toward the center of the bilayer while the hydrophilic “heads” orient towards the aqueous phase.  
         [0052]     Liposomes can be produced by a variety of methods (for a review, see, e.g., Cullis et al. (1987)). Bangham&#39;s procedure (J. Mol. Biol. (1965)) produces ordinary multilamellar vesicles (MLVs). Lenk et al. (U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,522,803, 5,030,453 and 5,169,637), Fountain et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,588,578) and Cullis et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,975,282) disclose methods for producing multilamellar liposomes having substantially equal interlamellar solute distribution in each of their aqueous compartments. Paphadjopoulos et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,235,871, discloses preparation of oligolamellar liposomes by reverse phase evaporation.  
         [0053]     Unilamellar vesicles can be produced from MLVs by a number of techniques, for example, the extrusion of Cullis et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,008,050) and Loughrey et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,059,421)). Sonication and homogenization cab be so used to produce smaller unilamellar liposomes from larger liposomes (see, for example, Paphadjopoulos et al. (1968); Deamer and Uster (1983); and Chapman et al. (1968)).  
         [0054]     The original liposome preparation of Bangham et al. (J. Mol. Biol., 1965, 13:238-252) involves suspending phospholipids in an organic solvent which is then evaporated to dryness leaving a phospholipid film on the reaction vessel. Next, an appropriate amount of aqueous phase is added, the 60 mixture is allowed to “swell”, and the resulting liposomes which consist of multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) are dispersed by mechanical means. This preparation provides the basis for the development of the small sonicated unilamellar vesicles described by Papahadjopoulos et al. (Biochim. Biophys, Acta., 1967, 135:624-638), and large unilamellar vesicles.  
         [0055]     Techniques for producing large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs), such as, reverse phase evaporation, infusion procedures, and detergent dilution, can be used to produce liposomes. A review of these and other methods for producing liposomes may be found in the text Liposomes, Marc Ostro, ed., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1983, Chapter 1, the pertinent portions of which are incorporated herein by reference. See also Szoka, Jr. et al., (1980, Ann. Rev. Biophys. Bioeng., 9:467), the pertinent portions of which are also incorporated herein by reference.  
         [0056]     Other techniques that are used to prepare vesicles include those that form reverse-phase evaporation vesicles (REV), Papahadjopoulos et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,235,871. Another class of liposomes that may be used are those characterized as having substantially equal lamellar solute distribution. This class of liposomes is denominated as stable plurilamellar vesicles (SPLV) as defined in U.S. Pat. No. 4,522,803 to Lenk, et al. and includes monophasic vesicles as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,588,578 to Fountain, et al. and frozen and thawed multilamellar vesicles (FATMLV) as described above.  
         [0057]     A variety of sterols and their water soluble derivatives such as cholesterol hemisuccinate have been used to form liposomes; see specifically Janoffet al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,721,612, issued Jan. 26, 1988, entitled “Steroidal Liposomes.” Mayhew et al., PCT Publication No. WO 85/00968, published Mar. 14, 1985, described a method for reducing the toxicity of drugs by encapsulating them in liposomes comprising alpha-tocopherol and certain derivatives thereof. Also, a variety of tocopherols and their water soluble derivatives have been used to form liposomes, see Janoff et al., PCT Publication No. 87/02219, published Apr. 23, 1987, entitled “Alpha Tocopherol-Based Vesicles”.  
         [0058]     The liposomes are comprised of particles with a mean diameter of approximately 0.01 microns to approximately 3.0 microns, preferably in the range about 0.2 to 1.0 microns. The sustained release property of the liposomal product can be regulated by the nature of the lipid membrane and by inclusion of other excipients (e.g., sterols) in the composition.  
         [0000]     Infective Agent  
         [0059]     The infective agent included in the scope of the present invention may be a bacteria. The bacteria can be selected from:  Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus anthracis, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmenellosis, Yersina pestis, Mycobacterium leprae, M. africanum, M. asiaticum, M. aviuin-intracellulaire, M. chelonei abscessus, M. fallax, M. fortuitum, M. kansasii, M. leprae, M. malmoense, M. shimoidei, M. simiae, M. szulgai, M. xenopi, M. tuberculosis, Brucella melitensis, Brucella suis, Brucella abortus, Brucella canis, Legionella pneumonophilia, Francisella tularensis, Pneurnocystis carinii, mycoplasma , and  Burkholderia cepacia.    
         [0060]     The infective agent included in the scope of the present invention can be a virus. The virus can be selected from: hantavirus, respiratory syncytial virus, influenza, and viral pneumonia.  
         [0061]     The infective agent included in the scope of the present invention can be a fungus. Fungal diseases of note include: aspergillosis, disseminated candidiasis, blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mucormycosis, and sporotrichosis.  
         [0000]     Antiinfectives  
         [0062]     The term antiinfective agent is used throughout the specification to describe a biologically active agent which can kill or inhibit the growth of certain other harmful pathogenic organisms, including but not limited to bacteria, yeasts and fungi, viruses, protozoa or parasites, and which can be administered to living organisms, especially animals such as mammals, particularly humans.  
         [0063]     Non-limiting examples of antibiotic agents that may be used in the antiinfective compositions of the present invention include cephalosporins, quinolones and fluoroquinolones, penicillins, and beta lactamase inhibitors, carbepenems, monobactams, macrolides and lincosamines, glycopeptides, rifampin, oxazolidonones, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, streptogramins, sulfonamides, and others. Each family comprises many members.  
         [0000]     Cephalosporins  
         [0064]     Cephalosporins are further categorized by generation. Non-limiting examples of cephalosporins by generation include the following. Examples of cephalosporins I generation include Cefadroxil, Cefazolin, Cephalexin, Cephalothin, Cephapirin, and Cephradine. Examples of cephalosporins II generation include Cefaclor, Cefamandol, Cefonicid, Cefotetan, Cefoxitin, Cefprozil, Ceftmetazole, Cefuroxime, Cefuroxime axetil, and Loracarbef. Examples of cephalosporins III generation include Cefdinir, Ceftibuten, Cefditoren, Cefetamet, Cefpodoxime, Cefprozil, Cefuroxime (axetil), Cefuroxime (sodium), Cefoperazone, Cefixime, Cefotaxime, Cefpodoxime proxetil, Ceftazidime, Ceftizoxime, and Ceftriaxone. Examples of cephalosporins IV generation include Cefepime.  
         [0000]     Quinolones and Fluoroquinolones  
         [0065]     Non-limiting examples of quinolones and fluoroquinolones include Cinoxacin, Ciprofloxacin, Enoxacin, Gatifloxacin, Grepafloxacin, Levofloxacin, Lomefloxacin, Moxifloxacin, Nalidixic acid, Norfloxacin, Ofloxacin, Sparfloxacin, Trovafloxacin, Oxolinic acid, Gemifloxacin, and Perfloxacin.  
         [0000]     Penicillins  
         [0066]     Non-limiting examples of penicillins include Amoxicillin, Ampicillin, Bacampicillin, Carbenicillin Indanyl, Mezlocillin, Piperacillin, and Ticarcillin.  
         [0000]     Penicillins and Beta Lactamase Inhibitors  
         [0067]     Non-limiting examples of penicillins and beta lactamase inhibitors include Amoxicillin-Clavulanic Acid, Ampicillin-Sulbactam, Sulfactam, Tazobactam, Benzylpenicillin, Cloxacillin, Dicloxacillin, Methicillin, Oxacillin, Penicillin G (Benzathine, Potassium, Procaine), Penicillin V, Penicillinase-resistant penicillins, Isoxazoylpenicillins, Aminopenicillins, Ureidopenicillins, Piperacillin+Tazobactam, Ticarcillin+Clavulanic Acid, and Nafcillin.  
         [0000]     Carbepenems  
         [0068]     Non-limiting examples of carbepenems include Imipenem-Cilastatin and Meropenem.  
         [0000]     Monobactams  
         [0069]     A non-limiting example of a monobactam includes Aztreonam.  
         [0000]     Macrolides and Lincosamines  
         [0070]     Non-limiting examples of macrolides and lincosamines include Azithromycin, Clarithromycin, Clindamycin, Dirithromycin, Erythromycin, Lincomycin, and Troleandomycin.  
         [0000]     Glycopeptides  
         [0071]     Non-limiting examples of glycopeptides include Teicoplanin and Vancomycin.  
         [0000]     Rifampin  
         [0072]     Non-limiting examples of rifampins include Rifabutin, Rifampin, and Rifapentine.  
         [0000]     Oxazolidonones  
         [0073]     A non-limiting example of oxazolidonones includes Linezolid.  
         [0000]     Tetracyclines  
         [0074]     Non-limiting examples of tetracyclines include Demeclocycline, Doxycycline, Methacycline, Minocycline, Oxytetracycline, Tetracycline, and Chlortetracycline.  
         [0000]     Aminoglycosides  
         [0075]     Non-limiting examples of aminoglycosides include Amikacin, Gentamicin, Kanamycin, Neomycin, Netilmicin, Streptomycin, Tobramycin, and Paromomycin.  
         [0000]     Streptogramins  
         [0076]     A non-limiting example of streptogramins includes Quinopristin+Dalfopristin.  
         [0000]     Sulfonamides  
         [0077]     Non-limiting examples of sulfonamides include Mafenide, Silver Sulfadiazine, Sulfacetamide, Sulfadiazine, Sulfamethoxazole, Sulfasalazine, Sulfisoxazole, Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole, and Sulfamethizole.  
         [0000]     Others  
         [0078]     Non-limiting examples of other antibiotic agents include Bacitracin, Chloramphenicol, Colistemetate, Fosfomycin, Isoniazid, Methenamine, Metronidazol, Mupirocin, Nitrofurantoin, Nitrofurazone, Novobiocin, Polymyxin B, Spectinomycin, Trimethoprine, Trimethoprine/Sulfamethoxazole, Cationic peptides, Colistin, Iseganan, Cycloserine, Capreomycin, Pyrazinamide, Para-aminosalicyclic acid,, and Erythromycin ethylsuccinate+sulfisoxazole.  
         [0079]     Antiviral agents include, but are not limited to: zidovudine, acyclovir, ganciclovir, vidarabine, idoxuridine, trifluridine, ribavirin, interferon alpha-2a, interferon alpha-2b, interferon beta, interferon gamma).  
         [0080]     Anifungal agents include, but are not limited to: amphotericin B, nystatin, hamycin, natamycin, pimaricin, ambruticin, itraconazole, terconazole, ketoconazole, voriconazole, miconazole, nikkomycin Z, griseofulvin, candicidin, cilofungin, chlotrimazole, clioquinol, caspufungin, tolnaftate.  
         [0000]     Dosages  
         [0081]     The dosage of any compositions of the present invention will vary depending on the symptoms, age and body weight of the patient, the nature and severity of the disorder to be treated or prevented, the route of administration, and the form of the subject composition. Any of the subject formulations may be administered in a single dose or in divided doses. Dosages for the compositions of the present invention may be readily determined by techniques known to those of skill in the art or as taught herein.  
         [0082]     In certain embodiments, the dosage of the subject compounds will generally be in the range of about 0.01 ng to about 10 g per kg body weight, specifically in the range of about 1 ng to about 0.1 g per kg, and more specifically in the range of about 100 ng to about 10 mg per kg.  
         [0083]     An effective dose or amount, and any possible affects on the timing of administration of the formulation, may need to be identified for any particular composition of the present invention. This may be accomplished by routine experiment as described herein, using one or more groups of animals (preferably at least 5 animals per group), or in human trials if appropriate. The effectiveness of any subject composition and method of treatment or prevention may be assessed by administering the composition and assessing the effect of the administration by measuring one or more applicable indices, and comparing the post-treatment values of these indices to the values of the same indices prior to treatment.  
         [0084]     The precise time of administration and amount of any particular subject composition that will yield the most effective treatment in a given patient will depend upon the activity, pharmacokinetics, and bioavailability of a subject composition, physiological condition of the patient (including age, sex, disease type and stage, general physical condition, responsiveness to a given dosage and type of medication), route of administration, and the like. The guidelines presented herein may be used to optimize the treatment, e.g., determining the optimum time and/or amount of administration, which will require no more than routine experimentation consisting of monitoring the subject and adjusting the dosage and/or timing.  
         [0085]     While the subject is being treated, the health of the patient may be monitored by measuring one or more of the relevant indices at predetermined times during the treatment period. Treatment, including composition, amounts, times of administration and formulation, may be optimized according to the results of such monitoring. The patient may be periodically reevaluated to determine the extent of improvement by measuring the same parameters. Adjustments to the amount(s) of subject composition administered and possibly to the time of administration may be made based on these reevaluations.  
         [0086]     Treatment may be initiated with smaller dosages which are less than the optimum dose of the compound. Thereafter, the dosage may be increased by small increments until the optimum therapeutic effect is attained.  
         [0087]     The use of the subject compositions may reduce the required dosage for any individual agent contained in the compositions (e.g., the FabI inhibitor) because the onset and duration of effect of the different agents may be complimentary.  
         [0088]     Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of subject compositions may be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g., for determining the LD 50  and the ED 50 .  
         [0089]     The data obtained from the cell culture assays and animal studies may be used in formulating a range of dosage for use in humans. The dosage of any subject composition lies preferably within a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED 50  with little or no toxicity. The dosage may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. For compositions of the present invention, the therapeutically effective dose may be estimated initially from cell culture assays.  
         [0000]     Pharmaceutical Formulation  
         [0090]     The pharmaceutical formulation of the antiinfective may be comprised of either an aqueous dispersion of liposomes and free antiinfective, or a dehydrated powder containing liposomes and free antiinfective. The formulation may contain lipid excipients to form the liposomes, and salts/buffers to provide the appropriate osmolarity and pH. The dry powder formulations may contain additional excipients to prevent the leakage of encapsulated antiinfective during the drying and potential milling steps needed to create a suitable particle size for inhalation (i.e., 1-5 μm). Such excipients are designed to increase the glass transition temperature of the antiinfective formulation. The pharmaceutical excipient may be a liquid or solid filler, diluent, solvent or encapsulating material, involved in carrying or transporting any subject composition or component thereof from one organ, or portion of the body, to another organ, or portion of the body. Each excipient must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the subject composition and its components and not injurious to the patient. Suitable excipients include trehalose, raffinose, mannitol,. sucrose, leucine, trileucine, and calcium chloride. Examples of other suitable excipients include (1) sugars, such as lactose, and glucose; (2) starches, such as corn starch and potato starch; (3) cellulose, and its derivatives, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose and cellulose acetate; (4) powdered tragacanth; (5) malt; (6) gelatin; (7) talc; (8) excipients, such as cocoa butter and suppository waxes; (9) oils, such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil, safflower oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil and soybean oil; (10) glycols, such as propylene glycol; (11) polyols, such as glycerin, sorbitol, and polyethylene glycol; (12) esters, such as ethyl oleate and ethyl laurate; (13) agar; (14) buffering agents, such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide; (15) alginic acid; (16) pyrogen-free water; (17) isotonic saline; (18) Ringer&#39;s solution; (19) ethyl alcohol; (20) phosphate buffer solutions; and (21) other non-toxic compatible substances employed in pharmaceutical formulations.  
         [0000]     Inhalation Device  
         [0091]     The pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention may be used in any dosage dispensing device adapted for intranasal administration. The device should be constructed with a view to ascertaining optimum metering accuracy and compatibility of its constructive elements, such as container, valve and actuator with the nasal formulation and could be based on a mechanical pump system, e.g., that of a metered-dose nebulizer, dry powder inhaler, soft mist inhaler, or a nebulizer. Due to the large administered dose, preferred devices include jet nebulizers (e.g., PARI LC Star, AKITA), soft mist inhalers (e.g., PARI e-Flow), and capsule-based dry powder inhalers (e.g., PH&amp;T Turbospin). Suitable propellants may be selected among such gases as fluorocarbons, hydrocarbons, nitrogen and dinitrogen oxide or mixtures thereof.  
         [0092]     The inhalation delivery device can be a nebulizer or a metered dose inhaler (MDI), or any other suitable inhalation delivery device known to one of ordinary skill in the art. The device can contain and be used to deliver a single dose of the antiinfective compositions or the device can contain and be used to deliver multi-doses of the compositions of the present invention.  
         [0093]     A nebulizer type inhalation delivery device can contain the compositions of the present invention as a solution, usually aqueous, or a suspension. In generating the nebulized spray of the compositions for inhalation, the nebulizer type delivery device may be driven ultrasonically, by compressed air, by other gases, electronically or mechanically. The ultrasonic nebulizer device usually works by imposing a rapidly oscillating waveform onto the liquid film of the formulation via an electrochemical vibrating surface. At a given amplitude the waveform becomes unstable, whereby it disintegrates the liquids film, and it produces small droplets of the formulation. The nebulizer device driven by air or other gases operates on the basis that a high pressure gas stream produces a local pressure drop that draws the liquid formulation into the stream of gases via capillary action. This fine liquid stream is then disintegrated by shear forces. The nebulizer may be portable and hand held in design, and may be equipped with a self contained electrical unit. The nebulizer device may comprise a nozzle that has two coincident outlet channels of defined aperture size through which the liquid formulation can be accelerated. This results in impaction of the two streams and atomization of the formulation. The nebulizer may use a mechanical actuator to force the liquid formulation through a multiorifice nozzle of defined aperture size(s) to produce an aerosol of the formulation for inhalation. In the design of single dose nebulizers, blister packs containing single doses of the formulation may be employed.  
         [0094]     In the present invention the nebulizer may be employed to ensure the sizing of particles is optimal for positioning of the particle within, for example, the pulmonary membrane.  
         [0095]     A metered dose inhalator (MDI) may be employed as the inhalation delivery device for the compositions of the present invention. This device is pressurized (pMDI) and its basic structure comprises a metering valve, an actuator and a container. A propellant is used to discharge the formulation from the device. The composition may consist of particles of a defined size suspended in the pressurized propellant(s) liquid, or the composition can be in a solution or suspension of pressurized liquid propellant(s). The propellants used are primarily atmospheric friendly hydroflourocarbons (HFCs) such as 134a and 227. Traditional chloroflourocarbons like CFC-11, 12 and 114 are used only when essential. The device of the inhalation system may deliver a single dose via, e.g., a blister pack, or it may be multi dose in design. The pressurized metered dose inhalator of the inhalation system can be breath actuated to deliver an accurate dose of the lipid-containing formulation. To insure accuracy of dosing, the delivery of the formulation may be programmed via a microprocessor to occur at a certain point in the inhalation cycle. The MDI may be portable and hand held.  
       Exemplification  
     EXAMPLE 1  
       [0096]     Pharmacokinetics of amikacin delivered as both free and encapsulated amikacin in healthy volunteers. The nebulized liposomal amikacin contains a mixture of encapsulated (ca., 60%) and free amikacin (ca., 40%). Following inhalation in healthy volunteers the corrected nominal dose was 100 mg as determined by gamma scintigraphy.  FIG. 1  depicts the lung concentration of amikacin and TOBI® (administered 100% free), based on pharmacokinetic modeling of serum concentrations over time. Both curves assume a volume of distribution for aminoglycosides in the lung of 200 ml. Interestingly, the peak levels of antiinfective in the lung are approximately equivalent for the 100 mg dose of liposomal amikacin, and the 300 mg dose of TOBI®. This is a consequence of the rapid clearance of the free, tobramycin from the lung by absorption into the systemic circulation with a half-life of about 1.5 hr. These results serve as a demonstration of the improved lung targeting afforded by liposomal encapsulation. The presence of free and encapsulated antiinfective in the amikacin formulation is demonstrated by the two component pharmacokinetic profile observed. Free amikacin is rapidly absorbed into the systemic circulation (with a half-life similar to TOBI), while the encapsulated drug has a lung half-life of approximately 45 hr. The free amikacin is available to provide bactericidal activity, while the encapsulated drug provides sustained levels of drug in the lung, enabling improved killing of resistant bacterial strains. The measured lung concentrations for the liposomal compartment are significantly above the MIC 50  of 1240 clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, potentially reducing the development of resistance.  
       EXAMPLE 2  
       [0097]     Impact of free amikacin on the percentage of amikacin encapsulated in liposomes following nebulization. Liposomal preparations of amikacin may exhibit significant leakage of encapsulated drug during nebulization. As detailed in Table I below, the presence of free amikacin in solution was shown to surprisingly decrease the leakage of antiinfective by about four-fold from the liposome. While not wishing to be limited to any particular theory, it is hypothesized that liposomes break-up and re-form during nebulization, losing encapsulated antiinfective in the process. Alternatively, encapsulated antiinfective is lost during nebulization because the liposome membrane becomes leaky. When an excess of free antiinfective is present in solution, the free antiinfective is readily available in close proximity to the liposome, and is available to be taken back up into the liposome on re-formation.  
                                 TABLE 1                           Effect of free amikacin on the leakage of amikacin from       liposome-encapsulated amikacin.                    % Free Amikacin   % Free Amikacin           % Free Amikacin   (Post-   (Due to       Formulation   (Pre-nebulization)   nebulization)   nebulization)               A   3.3 (n = 1)   42.4 ± 3.2 (n = 3)   39.1 ± 3.2 (n = 3)       B   53.6 ± 5.4 (n = 9)   63.3 ± 4.7 (n = 9)    9.8 ± 5.8 (n = 9)                 Wherein n is the number of measurements.             
 
       Incorporation by Reference  
       [0098]     All of the patents and publications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference.  
       EQUIVALENTS  
       [0099]     Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims.