Abstract:
This invention describes a method by which the output power of a circuit or system at any point can be efficiently and cost effectively sampled in a simple and broadband fashion for processing in a closed loop system for applications such as power level control in very broadband circuits. A divider circuit consisting of a selection of passive lumped elements is used to create a very broadband means of sampling the RF power level at any point in a transmission line. Unlike prior art schemes of this nature, this circuit does not rely upon extremely accurate element values and minimization of parasitic reactances. Used in conjunction with a balanced detector-logarithmic or other amplifier combination this invention result in a very broadband low cost simplified realization of the traditional costly bandwidth limited directional coupler-detector combination.

Description:
CROSS RELATION TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     Not Applicable 
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention pertains to RF, Digital, and Analog Circuits. In particular it pertains to circuitry used to monitor and control signal levels in circuits and systems. 
     DEFINITION OF TERMS 
     Detector: A device that converts input RF signal to a baseband output that is proportional to the level of the input signal. 
     Directivity: The ability of a device to sample the forward wave on a transmission line and not the reflected wave. Directivity is defined as the forward coupling coefficient in dB minus the reverse isolation of the coupler in dB. 
     Parasitic: Circuit elements that are unintentionally inserted into a circuit because of the RF properties of devices. For example, an RF circuit resistor will not only have a resistance value, but an inductance value due to the self inductance of the element, and a capacitance value by virtue of the element&#39;s proximity to a ground plane. 
     Square Law Detector: A detector whose output d.c. voltage is directly proportional to the input RF power. It reflects the fact that the RF power is proportional to the square of the input voltage. 
     DUT: Device Under Test. A term used in test and measurement instrument literature to describe the item tested, and sometimes how the instrument is connected to what is being tested. 
     Characteristic impedance: It is the impedance with which, if a transmission line is terminated, none of the incoming energy will be reflected. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     In many RF and microwave systems used in defense, telecommunications, and instrumentation applications it is necessary that the power level of the signal at certain critical points in the system be monitored and carefully controlled. The signal level may affect the desired range of propagation of the signal in free space, or it might affect the nonlinear performance of elements that follow it, such as power amplifiers. Such systems are called leveling detector systems since the RF power or a part of is detected and converted to a proportional dc value and used in some kind of a feedback scheme, often called a Leveling Loop, to achieve the level desired. 
     To control the signal level in an RF system three basic requirements are often imposed. First, a small or negligible portion of the signal needs to be sampled. Second, the sampled signal is often desired to be sampled as closely as possible from the forward wave. This is called the directionality of sampling scheme. And third, in order to have good broadband performance, the proportionality of the detected dc voltage to the RF signal power level as a function of the RF frequency should be constant. 
     Any practical leveling detector system is typically a compromise between these three requirements. Most directional couplers are bandwidth limited so it is difficult achieve good multi-octave bandwidth directivity. Also, the detector element usually has a frequency dependent transfer function, due to chip, parasitic element, and balance issues. For these reasons directional detectors spanning multiple octaves or one or more decade of bandwidth are expensive. 
     The present invention achieves a practical compromise so that practical leveling accuracy and wide bandwidth performance are realized in such a way that the costs are minimized and performance maximized by a combination of hardware and software means. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     As telecommunications and instrumentation and defense systems operate over wider and wider bandwidths, it has become necessary for very wide frequency ranges of signals to be generated. Thus present telecom systems or defense systems may need to cover a frequency range of a 150 MHz to well over 6000 MHz, sometimes up to 20,000 MHz or beyond. To accurately measure and control the signal levels at any point in a circuit or system over such wide ranges, one needs to monitor the signal level at that point in the circuit as unobtrusively as possible. Traditionally this has been done via signal probes or some coupling mechanism or circuit where a small portion perhaps 10 or 20 dB below the signal level is sampled and accurately measured, usually via a square law detector and a logarithmic amplifier. The former converts the RF signal level to a DC voltage in a square law fashion so that the detected DC voltage output is directly proportional to the RF signal level in the circuit at that point, and the latter converts the power level measurements into something that can be linearly manipulated and controlled in decibels, or dB. 
     As can be appreciated by anyone familiar with the art, most circuit elements used in such broadband circuits do not act like pure resistors, inductors or capacitors, or indeed like transmission lines. Every circuit element has associated with it parasitic element values that cannot be ignored and that often limit the useful bandwidth of a design. As a result there are significant deviations in the measured signal voltage levels versus the theoretically estimated. 
     It is a prevalent misconception among system designers that the directivity of a leveling system is fundamental to leveling accuracy. Except for high accuracy Network Analyzer type measurements, where the device or sub-system under test (DUT) could possibly have significant impedance mismatch to the input transmission line and where the DUT could be a considerable distance from the signal source that is part of the measurement setup, and the signal source impedance is fundamental to the measurement accuracy, this should almost never be a concern. This point is widely not well understood. As a result very complex directional detector schemes are used at great cost to solve, what in a majority of instances, is a non-existent problem. This is explained in greater detail in the discussion of  FIGS. 1 and 2  in a later section. 
     Our invention is aimed at solving the two biggest issues associated with prior resistive directional detectors: The first is fact that their directional coupling and directional detection functions, as a matter of realizable practicality are inseparable, and second, that the effects of circuit parasitics not only limit the usable bandwidth, but make a true realization inordinately expensive. In addition, the fact that in most practical circuits the circuit elements are in close proximity to each other and the concept of an interconnect being a transmission line of any length is not meaningful, leveling schemes have no relation to forward and backward waves, but rather to the voltage and current at any point in the circuit. Thus directivity in these instances is a moot concept. 
     Prior resistive directional couplers have been based upon a resistive bridge concept. This is described in greater mathematical detail in the “detailed description of the drawings” section. The directivity in resistive couplers is based upon the observation that, as shown in the discussion of the drawings, in the reverse path, in the ideal case, there is a perfectly balanced bridge, i.e. there is no voltage across the detector diode developed by any reflections. In actuality, this needs the assumption that the impedance of the capacitor Z c  is negligible, and the impedance of the detector circuit, Z det  is infinite. In no practical case is this true. All the elements in the circuit couple to some extent to each other, and when their impedances have widely divergent values, as is needed in such designs, the directivity is compromised. 
     Thus the resistive bridge directional detector depends on some almost physically unrealizable assumptions that it takes a significant amount of cost in terms of circuitry to approximate, making it a very costly and of highly limited usefulness except in very specific measurement cases, type of circuit. Further, as pointed out before, the concepts of a forward wave, a reflected wave, and a characteristic impedance are not meaningful in many of today&#39;s highly integrated designs. 
     The present invention eliminates all these assumptions, while keeping the idea of voltage ratios intact. Firstly, we use five known and finite resistors—neither zero nor infinite impedance to form the sampling detector circuit. Secondly, we assure that the only need is for a balanced input to an amplifier across the cross member of the bridge—i.e. we do not need a diode with an infinite impedance assumption. Third, we then correct for all frequency dependencies that arise out of these assumptions in software. We keep the voltage at a defined point fixed. We claim this creates a sufficiently accurate signal level reference for most applications. At the same time it eliminates much of the expensive bandwidth limiting technology associated with the traditional resistive directional bridge. 
     This invention is based upon the typically unrecognized fact that, between the components of a system, for example between two functional blocks within the same integrated circuit, the line lengths are so small that the concept of a source impedance and a load impedance have very little to do with the characteristic impedance of the transmission line connecting them—the transmission line, if it exists between the elements at all, in fact, is nothing more than an element in an impedance matching network between the two. This immediately implies that a circuit with infinite dissymmetry, such as a directional detector, is not as good in such a system as a perfectly symmetrical level sensing system. 
     It is further clear from this very symmetry of the circuit that all the element parasitics being exactly equal, tend to totally balance out, and as a result, have little effect on the output of the balanced detector. Further, the realization shows clearly that the element values do not need to be disparate to obtain reasonable coupling coefficients as in the case of the so-called directional detectors. This makes them easier to design, realize and compensate for over broad frequency ranges. Clearly the costs are therefore much less, and in most cases with negligible difference in performance, if any. This is demonstrated in the detailed descriptions. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The exemplary embodiments are best described by referring to the drawings attached. It should be emphasized that these drawings are for the purpose of explanation only, and do not necessarily reflect actual values of components or shapes. It should be appreciated that the sizes of components as well as their parasitic element values will vary widely depending on the technology used, for example surface mount or monolithic microwave integrated circuit. 
         FIG. 1  shows a typical level control scenario in block diagram form. 
         FIG. 2  shows a typical preferred embodiment in prior art, where a microstrip or coaxial wave-guide directional coupler is used in conjunction with a detector diode for signal level detection. 
         FIG. 3  shows a prior art lumped element realization of a directional detector. This is discussed in detail, since it forms the basis of most present lumped element IC designs, and its shortcomings are the basis for the present patent. 
         FIG. 4  shows one preferred embodiment that corrects many of the shortcomings of the prior embodiments in actual usage situations. 
         FIG. 5  shows block diagram leveling loop realization based upon the invention. 
         FIG. 6  shows a flow chart of the error correction software that allows broad bandwidth operation. 
         FIG. 7  shows a single ended configuration that has most if not all the advantages of the invention in relation to parasitic minimization. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     The invention concepts are attempted to be described using the drawings referred to. They do not represent all possible embodiments, but are used for illustrative purposes only. 
       FIG. 1  shows a typical level-control scheme used often in many microwave signal sources or at points where a programmable leveled output is needed. The signal to be measured is output by a source,  101 . This could be an element of a system that is part of a larger chain of elements such as an amplifier, modulator or an oscillator. The source can have many output ports, but the port that is of concern, in this discussion is connected to a modulator or attenuator  106 , typically via a coaxial cable, or a microstrip or stripline transmission line which could be part of an Integrated Circuit layout. The modulator,  106 , is in turn connected to a directional detector,  103 , for the purposes of measuring the signal level, and the through (or forward) signal output of the directional detector is connected to the load,  102 . The load, in this case may actually be nothing more than the subsequent element in the signal chain. For example it can be another amplifier, an antenna, a pulse modulator, or a power divider. It can be in close physical proximity to the directional detector or quite far away. It can be a DUT in a network measurement system. The detected output of the directional detector,  107 , is input to a logarithmic amplifier,  104 . The output voltage of the logarithmic amplifier is ideally proportional, in dB, to the power level of the signal at the source output,  108 . This output is fed into one port of a leveling amplifier,  105 . A reference level,  109 , which is a voltage proportional in dB to the desired power level at  108 , is fed into the other input of the leveling amplifier  105 . The output of the leveling amplifier  110  is fed back into the modulator or attenuator  106 . If the signal level at  108  is higher than desired, the attenuation of the attenuator  106  is increased, and if the signal level is lower, the attenuation is decreased, thus keeping the signal level at the input to the load constant. The modulator/attenuator  106  can be either digitally controlled via a DAC or analog controlled using PIN diodes. 
     This leveling scheme has a number of areas of possible inaccuracy. It depends upon the ability of the directional detector to be accurate over wide frequency ranges such as 100 MHz to 18,000 MHz, and over a wide dynamic range of powers, such as −30 dBm to +20 dBm, for example. As will be described in the subsequent paragraphs, the directional detector itself can create a significant level of uncertainty or inaccuracy. 
       FIG. 2  demonstrates one of the traditional methods used to control signal level in RF and microwave circuits. The input signal  201  is fed to the input of a directional coupler  202 , the output of which is connected to the load. The directional coupler has a coupling arm,  203 , which, by virtue of its length, which is typically a quarter wavelength long at the center of the operating frequency range, and by virtue of its proximity to the main line, couples a portion of the forward wave energy into the coupled arm output  205 . The matching terminating resistor  209  is intended to absorb all of the reflected signal coupled into the coupler in order to provide the desired directivity. The directional property of the coupler is a function of the physical length of the two transmission lines, the dielectric constant of the media surrounding these lines, and the packaging of the coupler, including the ground plane proximity. All these elements have to be taken into account in the design. As can be appreciated, all this adds inaccuracy in the amount of coupled energy as a function of frequency. The coupled output  205  is then connected to a detector, usually a diode, which, when operated in its square law region, outputs a dc voltage that is proportional to the input power. The diode has a limited square law region, and its own parasitics, all of which add to the inaccuracy of the leveling scheme. 
       FIG. 3  demonstrates a traditional discrete element method of solving some of these problems. The source,  301 , has a source voltage of Vs, and a source resistance,  302  of Rs. Elements R 1 ,  303 , R 2 ,  305 . R 3 ,  306  along with Rs, form what is often called a directionsl Bridge, which connects to the load, R 1 ,  304 . In addition, the detection elements of the circuit are the diode, D 1 ,  307 , the isolation capacitors C 1 ,  308 , C 2 ,  310  and output resistor R 4 , whose output is fed to a logarithmic amplifier. 
     The critical ratio of the system is the directivity of the bridge, which is imposed by the simple equation
 
( R 1 /Rs )=( R 2 /R 3)
 
In a typical 50 ohm characteristic impedance system as used in a network analyzer, for example, Rs and R 1  are 50 ohms. In order to couple a small amount of energy, 20 dB in this example, and to provide a directive bridge, R 1  is typically, close to 5 ohms, R 2  is 50 ohms, and R 3  is 500 ohms. The capacitor, C 1  is made sufficiently large so that it theoretically has zero impedance. The bridge formed by R 1  and Rs on the one side and R 2  and R 3  on the other, both have 10:1 impedance ratios (5/50 and 50/500), so that there is zero voltage across the diode when looking from the load R 1 .
 
     The way the circuit is supposed to work is as follows. The voltage across the points A and B is directly proportional to the voltage Vs, and the values of Rs, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , and R 1 . It is easily calculated using Ohms Law and elementary algebra. The diode detects this RF or microwave signal, converts it into a DC voltage Vd, which is fed to the logarithmic amplifier. A significant error in the system occurs here. The parasitic values of the elements Rs, R 1 , R 2 , and R 3 , plus the impedance of the load R 1  as reflected at the point C all affect this detected voltage. For example, if R 1  is created by a very large impedance separated a quarter wavelength of transmission line from point C, the effective value of R 1  seen by the detector is a short circuit, the voltage Vb is practically zero, and the diode sees the full source voltage Vs. R 1 /(R 1 +Rs). This results in increased attenuation rather than decreased attenuation of the signal. 
     The voltage across the points A and C have to be detected by the diode D 2 ,  307  in order to create the closed loop control. This involves isolating the diode from the point A via capacitor C 1 , and making sure that the RF voltages are bypassed by means of the resistor capacitor combination of R 8  and C 2 . This part of the circuit has to be transparent to the RF signals, and to the extent it is not, will affect the fidelity of the transfer function. A diode is the only effective solution. Every one of these conditions is inherently unrealizable. 
     The claim that is made is that, to the extent the directivity is infinite, the source impedance stays constant. This is because, to the extent that (R 1 /Rs)=(R 2 /R 3 ), the voltage at Vc has no effect on the RF voltage Va-Vb. However, as has been seen in the preceding paragraph, in any value close to the limit, the system asks for less power from the source when it should be asking for more. In areas close to the limit, the directionality of the directional detector, is therefore more than a little suspect. 
     It should also be pointed out here that not only is the value of R 1  limited to a finite range for the solution to be viable, but so is the value of Rs. If the source, for example is a modulator that is almost turned off, then Rs can be either 0 or infinity, in which case the entire bridge falls apart. 
     Most importantly, for most circuits that matter, consider the situation in a well packed Microwave Monolithic Integrated Circuit. The distance between the source and the load has minimal lengths of transmission lines—it has impedance matching circuits. The concept of a characteristic impedance in such a situation is meaningless. Thus the realization of a bridge where the source and load impedances are not the ideal 50 ohms but a complex, frequency dependent impedance makes the directional bridge moot. 
     The fundamental problem with the directional bridge, as is obvious from the foregoing, is that it is essentially non-symmetric. The present invention recognizes this fact and this contradiction and proposes a more elegant and better-controlled and more meaningful solution. The solution is described in  FIG. 4 . 
     Referring to  FIG. 4 , the source voltage Vs,  401 , with its source impedance, Zs,  402 , feeds a circuit consisting of 5 resistors, R 1 ,  403 , R 2 ,  404 , R 3 ,  408 , R 4 ,  405 , and R 5 ,  407 . This is connected as shown to the load, R 1 . The big difference between this circuit and the one in  FIG. 3 , is that it has a symmetrical topology. R 1  is made typically very small compared to the source and load impedances, and R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , and R 5  are made very large, for example 500 ohm each in a 50 ohm system. This accomplishes two things. It minimizes the power lost to the sampling mechanism, and it makes it possible to achieve a balanced broadband output. It minimizes the coupling at the cost of directivity, which we have seen has almost no meaning in most non-broadband high dynamic range network analyzer type applications. 
     The differential voltage, Vdiff,  410 , developed across points B and D can be shown to be related to the voltage Vc, by the equation 
     
       
         
           
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     This differential voltage is connected to the inputs of a commercially available Detector Log Video Amplifier (DLVA) such as the Analog Devices AD 8317, shown as item  408 , with a balancing resistor,  409 . 
     The amount of power lost in the coupler can be made small both by decreasing R 1  and increasing R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , and R 5 . For example, if R 1 =5 ohms, Rs=R 1 =50 Ohms, and R 2 =R 3 =R 4 =R 5 =500 ohms, the difference voltage is approximately Vin/20. 
     An important thing to observe about the equation is that, if R 1  is 1/10 th the value of Rs and R 1 , and if R 7 =R 6  is 20 times R 1 , the equation reduces to
 
 Vdiff=Vc/ 20
 
     Further, the impedance looking back from the DLVA  408  is totally independent of any of the active RF circuits, R 6  and R 7  dominate it all. A 50 ohm balancing resistor across the input makes no difference to the impedance equation. Parasitics are no longer a problem and directivity is a non issue. It gives our invention some great advantages. 
     First, since the shunt elements are large, it is possible to select elements with low series parasitics (which are geometry dependent) so parasitics do not play a big part. 
     Second, since they are equal in all 4 elements, and the output voltage is almost strictly a function of the ratio of these values, the parasitic effects get common-moded out. 
     Third, since the impedance looking back from the DLVA towards the coupler is so high, the balance can be perfect unlike the previous case where the source impedance of the diode makes the detector output circuit very critical and frequency dependent and bypassing is a critical issue 
     Fourth, the value of R 1  in relation to Rs and R 1  effectively determines the coupling. Since this is not a bridge, the values of R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , and R 5  can be completely separated out from this critical factor. This is a great physical realizability advantage over the directional detector. 
     Fifth, by enabling the driving of a commercial DLVA, it makes the detector able to use newer commercial devices without any circuit redesign. And, in addition, it allows the separation of the coupling and detection functions, allowing improvements in the detector to be easily incorporated in future designs. 
     Our invention is thus able to create a solution that was hitherto non-obvious. It takes into account the necessity to minimize the effects of parasitics, put a boundary on the value of directivity in highly integrated circuits, and creates a solution that does not depend upon a single diode element that cannot work over a wide dynamic range. 
       FIG. 5  shows an example of the use of the invention in a digital leveling loop. The signal source  501  output is passed through a digital attenuator,  502 , and in this instance an RF amplifier  503  as an example to the detector  504  and thence to the load  505 . The balanced output of the detector is connected to DLVA  506  and the DLVA output is connected to the Analog to Digital converter  507 . The ADC output and a Digital word representing the desired power level are fed to a digital comparator  508  and the error word is used to digitally control the attenuator  502 . The closed loop adjusts the attenuator until the error is zero. These elements are typically in close proximity to each other—however, if they were not the performance of the leveling loop will still maintain the power available at the load port of the coupler. 
       FIG. 6  is an example of how the comparator can be programmed to correct for frequency characteristics and parasitics of the elements as well as any nonlinearity in the transfer function of the DLVA over its dynamic range. A known source  601  is substituted for source  501  and measurements of the DLVA output versus frequency and power level are made at the output of the ADC,  507 . This digital word is read via a circuit  602 , which could for example be a microcontroller to read and output the word upon a trigger command. These are compared to the theoretically calculated levels via a comparator,  604 , which could simply be a subtraction command in the microcontroller. The difference word is then used to create a correction table  604  which is resident in the EEPROM that is used to perform the Level shilling and Comparator function,  508 , to control the signal level to the programmed value. 
     It should be pointed out that the choice of the resistors in the sampler circuits is in no way constrained to be symmetrical. In fact the circuit allows itself to be designed based upon the detection scheme being used. For example, in  FIG. 7 , a single ended diode detector configuration is shown which has all the advantages of the present invention with none of the disadvantages of the directional detector. In this case, the source  701  and source impedance  702  are connected to the load resistor  706  through the sampling resistor combination  703 ,  704 , and  705 , and  707 , where resistance R 2 ,  704  could be equal to R 4 ,  705  plus R 5 ,  707 . Then the voltage at the detector diode,  710 , is single ended and referred to ground, and does not have the parasitic difficulties associated with the directional detector. The diode in this circuit could just as easily be replaced with a single ended DLVA also. 
     It should also be pointed out that, in this respect, the present invention represents a superset of many of the prior art circuits. For example, by choosing the values or resistors R 3 , R 3 , R 4 , and R 5 , one could realize the directional bridge circuit, albeit with all its problems.