Abstract:
An orthopaedic implant can replace a joint in a patient. The orthopaedic implant includes a first component having a first component surface and a second component having a second component surface. The first component surface and the second component surface mate at an interface. The first component surface includes a metal substrate, a nanotextured surface, a ceramic coating, and a transition zone. The nanotextured surface is disposed directly upon the metal substrate and has surface features in a size of 10 −9  meters. The ceramic coating conforms to the nanotextured surface and includes a plurality of bio-active sites configured to attract and retain calcium and phosphorous cations. The transition zone is disposed between the metal substrate and the ceramic coating. The transition zone includes a concentration gradient transitioning from the metal substrate to the ceramic coating and there is no distinct interface between the metal substrate and the ceramic coating.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application is a Continuation-in-Part of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/059,553, filed on Mar. 31, 2008, titled “ORTHOPEDIC IMPLANTS HAVING SELF-LUBRICATED ARTICULATING SURFACES DESIGNED TO REDUCE WEAR, CORROSION AND ION LEACHING,” which claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/042,150, filed on Jan. 26, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,374,642 issued May 20, 2008, titled “TREATMENT PROCESS FOR IMPROVING THE MECHANICAL, CATALYTIC, CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF SURFACES, AND ARTICLES TREATED THEREWITH,” which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/539,996, filed on Jan. 30, 2004, titled “TREATMENT PROCESS FOR IMPROVING THE MECHANICAL, CATALYTIC, CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF SURFACES, AND ARTICLES TREATED THEREWITH,” the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. 
     
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    The present invention relates generally to orthopaedic medicine. More particularly, the present invention relates to an orthopaedic medicine where natural articulating joints such as knees, hips, shoulders, elbows, wrists, ankles, fingers and spinal elements are replaced by implanted mechanical devices to restore diseased or injured skeletal tissue. 
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0003]    When mechanical devices such as prosthetic knees, hips, shoulders, fingers, elbows, wrists, ankles, fingers and spinal elements are implanted in the body and used as articulating elements they are subjected to wear and corrosion. These prosthetic (orthopaedic) implants are usually fabricated in modular form with the individual elements manufactured from metallic materials such as stainless steels, Co—Cr—Mo alloys, Zr alloys, and Ti alloys (Ti—Al—V); plastics such as ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE); or ceramics such as alumina and zirconia. 
         [0004]    As the articulating surfaces of these orthopaedic implants wear and corrode, products including polyethylene wear particles, metallic wear particles, and metallic ions are typically released into the body. Thereafter, these wear particles may be transported to and absorbed into bone, blood, lymphatic tissue, and other organ systems. In general, these wear particles have adverse effects. For example, the polyethylene wear particles have been shown to produce long-term bone loss and loosening of the implant. In addition, even very low concentrations of metallic wear particles and metallic ions may have adverse immunologic tissue reactions. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide an orthopaedic implant that is capable of overcoming the disadvantages described herein at least to some extent. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0005]    The foregoing needs are met, to a great extent, by the present invention, wherein in one aspect an orthopaedic implant is provided that in some embodiments provides reduced wear and increased fracture and fatigue resistance in comparison with some existing orthopaedic implants. 
         [0006]    An embodiment of the present invention pertains to an orthopaedic implant to replace a joint in a patient. The orthopaedic implant includes a first component having a first component surface and a second component having a second component surface. The first component surface and the second component surface are configured to mate at an interface. The first component surface includes a metal substrate, a nanotextured surface, a ceramic coating, and a transition zone. The nanotextured surface is disposed directly upon the metal substrate and has surface features in a size of 10 −9  meters. The ceramic coating conforms to the nanotextured surface and includes a plurality of bio-active sites configured to attract and retain calcium and phosphorous cations. The transition zone is disposed between the metal substrate and the ceramic coating. The transition zone includes a concentration gradient transitioning from the metal substrate to the ceramic coating and there is no distinct interface between the metal substrate and the ceramic coating. 
         [0007]    Another embodiment of the present invention relates to an orthopaedic implant to replace a joint in a patient. The orthopaedic implant includes a first component and a second component. The first component has a first component surface. The second component has a second component surface. The first component surface and the second component surface are configured to mate at an interface. The first component surface includes: a metal substrate, a nanotextured surface, and a ceramic coating. The nanotextured surface is disposed directly upon the metal substrate having surface features in a size of 10 −9  meters. The ceramic coating conforms to the nanotextured surface and includes a plurality of bio-active sites configured to attract and retain calcium and phosphorous cations. At least a portion of the ceramic coating is ballistically imbedded below the nanotextured surface with no distinct interface between the metal substrate and the ceramic coating. 
         [0008]    Yet another embodiment of the present invention pertains to an orthopaedic implant. The orthopaedic implant includes a substrate, nanotextured surface, alloyed case layer, and conformal coating. The nanotextured surface is disposed upon the substrate. The nanotextured surface includes a plurality of bio-active sites. The alloyed case layer is ballistically imbedded on to and below the nanotextured surface. The conformal coating is disposed upon the alloyed case layer. The nanotextured surface, alloyed case layer, and the conformal coating are generated in the presence of a continuous vacuum. 
         [0009]    Yet another embodiment of the present invention pertains to an orthopaedic implant. The orthopaedic implant includes a first component and second component. The first component has a first component surface and the second component has a second component surface. The first component and the second component are configured to replace a joint in a patient and the first component surface and the second component surface are configured to mate at an interface. Both the first component and the second component include a substrate, nanotextured surface, alloyed case layer, and conformal coating. The nanotextured surface is disposed upon the substrate. The nanotextured surface includes a plurality of bio-active sites. The alloyed case layer is ballistically imbedded on to and below the nanotextured surface. The conformal coating is disposed upon the alloyed case layer. The nanotextured surface, alloyed case layer, and the conformal coating are generated in the presence of a continuous vacuum. 
         [0010]    Yet another embodiment of the present invention pertains to a method of coating a surface of an orthopaedic implant component. In this method, the component is placed into a vacuum chamber. The component has a substrate that is textured to create a nanotextured surface with a plurality of bio-active sites. The bio-active sites are configured to retain a lubricating layer in response to exposure to a bodily fluid and the texturing is accomplished by ion beam sputtering the substrate. In addition, the nanotextured surface is coated so that surface-related properties are made. In this coating step, ions are imbedded into the substrate to generate an alloyed case layer in the substrate and a conformal coating is generated on the alloyed case layer. The texturing and coating steps are performed while maintaining a continuous vacuum in the vacuum chamber. 
         [0011]    There has thus been outlined, rather broadly, certain embodiments of the invention in order that the detailed description thereof herein may be better understood, and in order that the present contribution to the art may be better appreciated. There are, of course, additional embodiments of the invention that will be described below and which will form the subject matter of the claims appended hereto. 
         [0012]    In this respect, before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and to the arrangements of the components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of embodiments in addition to those described and of being practiced and carried out in various ways. Also, it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein, as well as the abstract, are for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. 
         [0013]    As such, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the conception upon which this disclosure is based may readily be utilized as a basis for the designing of other structures, methods and systems for carrying out the several purposes of the present invention. It is important, therefore, that the claims be regarded as including such equivalent constructions insofar as they do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present invention. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0014]      FIG. 1  is a partial cross-sectional front elevation view illustrating a prosthetic hip joint suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0015]      FIG. 2  is an exploded view illustrating a prosthetic knee joint suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0016]      FIG. 3  is a cross-section detail view at an interface of a pair of coated surfaces according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0017]      FIG. 4  is a cross-section detail view at an interface of a pair of coated surfaces according to another embodiment of the invention. 
           [0018]      FIG. 5  is a cross-section detail view of a coated surface according to another embodiment of the invention. 
           [0019]      FIG. 6  is a block diagram of a system for coating a surface according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0020]      FIG. 7  is a scanning electron micrograph image of a test pin surface showing remnants of a lubricating film adhered to the surface of an Al 2 O 3  coating. 
           [0021]      FIG. 8  is an energy dispersive X-ray analysis showing the presence of both calcium and phosphorus cations. 
           [0022]      FIG. 9  is an exploded view illustrating a prosthetic shoulder joint suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0023]      FIGS. 10A and 10B  are exploded views illustrating a prosthetic elbow joint installed in bone and uninstalled, respectively, suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0024]      FIGS. 11A and 11B  are views illustrating a wrist joint installed in bone and uninstalled, respectively, suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0025]      FIG. 12  is a view illustrating a prosthetic ankle joint suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0026]      FIG. 13  is a view illustrating a prosthetic facet joint suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0027]      FIG. 14  is a view illustrating a prosthetic lumbar joint suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0028]      FIG. 15  is a view illustrating a prosthetic finger joint suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0029]      FIGS. 16A and 16B  are views illustrating a prosthetic toe joint and an element of the toe joint, respectively, suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0030]    The performance of orthopaedic implants  10  of all types and particularly those that provide motion when implanted in the body can be improved dramatically through the use of embodiments of the present invention. The surface treatments described herein may reduce the generation of wear debris, corrosion products, and metal ion leaching when applied to orthopaedic implants  10  of various designs and made from a wide variety of materials. Thus, when so-treated, orthopaedic implants  10  used in patients to restore skeletal motion impaired by injury or disease may reduce or eliminate the osteolysis, inflammatory and toxic response, and carcinogenic effects that can adversely affect conventional implants. This reduction in generation of wear debris is achieved by applying coatings to the articulating counterfaces of the implants that are more wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant, and self-lubricating than the various metallic, ceramic, and plastic materials the implants themselves are made from. 
         [0031]    According to various embodiments of the invention, surfaces of orthopaedic implants may be treated to reduce wear and improve lubrication. In general, modular orthopaedic implants suitable for use with embodiments of the invention are varied in design and may employ articulating surfaces having different combinations of materials. In some suitable designs, one element may be a metal alloy and the opposed articulating element may be a polymer. In other suitable designs one element may be a metal alloy and the opposed articulating element may be a similar metal alloy. In yet other suitable designs one element may be a ceramic material and the opposed articulating element may be a polymer. And in still another suitable design one element may be a ceramic material and the opposed articulating element may be a similar ceramic material. By treating mating surfaces of the orthopaedic implants as described herein, friction, wear, corrosion, and/or fatigue may be minimized, resulting in a reduced generation of wear debris and metal ion release; and improved lubricity. 
         [0032]    Orthopaedic implants treated according to various embodiments of this invention exhibit reduced generation and release of wear particles, corrosion products, and metallic ions into the body. This reduction in non-biologic contaminants results in a reduced inflammatory response of the body to the implant which improves the longevity of the implant residing in the body. The various embodiments of this invention provide an orthopaedic implant that exhibits reduced generation and release of metallic, plastic, and ceramic wear particles; corrosion products; and metallic ions into the body thereby reducing the inflammatory response of the skeletal tissue to the implant. This results in reducing osteolysis leading to loosening of the orthopaedic implant in the bone into which it is implanted, and enhances its longevity. 
         [0033]    As described herein, a surface treatment may be applied to either one or both of the articulating opposed surfaces of the implant. The surface treatment provides hardness, wear-resistance and corrosion-resistance, and has self-lubricating features that further help reduce the generation and release of wear debris. This surface treatment may be a coating that is initially alloyed into one or more of the articulating surfaces of the implant to form a transition zone starting below the surface of the substrate and then grown to a finite dimensional thickness from the alloyed surface. This transition zone includes a concentration gradient transitioning from the metal substrate to the ceramic coating that has no distinct interface between the metal substrate and the ceramic coating. This facilitates relatively greater adhesion of the coating to the articulating surfaces of the implant as compared to conventional coatings. As such, delamination of the coating from the treated articulating surfaces of the implant is reduced or eliminated. In addition, the surface treatment provides a self-lubricating property to further reduce wear between the articulating elements. This is achieved by providing biologically active sites on the surface of the coatings that attract and hold natural lubricants such as synovial fluid or other extracellular fluids present in the tissue around the articulating elements. These fluid retentive surfaces act to provide a continuous thin layer of lubrication between the treated articulating elements which reduces or eliminates physical contact between the surfaces of the elements thus reducing or eliminating the generation and release of metallic, plastic, and ceramic wear debris; corrosion products; and metallic ions into the body. 
         [0034]    Conventional case hardening and coating methods often undesirably alter the bulk properties of the materials to which they are applied. Specifically, the hardness, toughness, fracture-resistance, and dimensionality may be altered in an undesirable manner by conventional hardening and coating techniques. Post-coating heat-treatments and/or machining may be employed to return the bulk properties to these conventionally treated articles. However, many materials cannot be heat-treated without detrimental effects. Particular examples of materials that cannot be heat treated without detrimental effects include: any of the family of stainless steels, Co—Cr—Mo alloys, Ti—Al—V alloys, Zr alloys; alumina and zirconia ceramics; and plastics. It is an advantage of embodiments of the invention that the bulk properties of the implant material are substantially unaffected by surface treatments as described herein. As such, post-coating heat-treating or machining may be avoided. 
         [0035]    The coating provided by the various surface treatments described herein may be applied to a metal substrate. These coatings include hard ceramic material such as aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 , alpha phase), zirconium oxide (Zr 2 O), metallic nitrides (such as TiN, Si 3 N 4 , CrN, ZrN, TaN), and/or metallic carbides (such as Cr 2 C, TiC, WC). The use of these and other hard ceramic materials further reduces abrasion of the coating. In this manner, orthopaedic implants  10  that have high bulk fracture/fatigue-resistant properties characteristic of metallic materials, and also have the high surface wear- and corrosion-resistant properties characteristic of hard ceramic materials may be provided by various embodiments of the invention. This is achieved by applying a ceramic material to the articulating surface of a metallic implant which minimizes the chance of catastrophic failure of the implant due to fracture of the bulk material. 
         [0036]    The method of treating one or both of the articulating opposed bearing surfaces of the implant as described herein produces a thin nanocrystalline or nearly-amorphous coating that may include multiple contiguous layers of different materials such as metals (Cr, Ni, Ti, Zr, Al, and others) and hard ceramics such as aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 , alpha phase), zirconium oxide (Zr 2 O), or metallic nitrides (such as TiN, Si 3 N 4 , CrN, ZrN, TaN), or metallic carbides (such as Cr 2 C, TiC, WC), each grown directly and sequentially from the previously grown layer. In general, this coating process may be carried out at a temperature of 600 degrees Fahrenheit or less. This reduces or eliminates temperature induced changes in bulk properties or dimensions of the treated element. In addition this coating process produces a thin nanocrystalline or nearly-amorphous coating on the articulating surface thereby minimizing the possibility that intergranular cracks or voids in the coating can allow corrosion and subsequent release of metal ions and/or particle wear debris into the patient. Furthermore, this thin nanocrystalline or nearly-amorphous coating on the articulating surface minimizes the possibility that intergranular cracks in the coating can propagate into the underlying substrate to cause it to fail prematurely, as by a fatigue mechanism. It is a further advantage that coating applied as described herein are resistant to the effects of gamma ray sterilization procedures. Thus, the treated implants can sterilized without degrading the wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant, and self-lubricating properties of the treated implant. 
         [0037]    The invention will now be described with reference to the drawing figures, in which like reference numerals refer to like parts throughout.  FIG. 1  is a partial cross-sectional front elevation view illustrating a prosthetic hip joint  10  suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. As shown in  FIG. 1 , the implant  10  is a multi-element modular mechanical construct for attachment to two skeletal members. In general the implant  10  is configured to allow motion between those two skeletal members. The artificial hip is comprised of an acetabular cup  12 , femoral component  14 , and in some designs an optional liner  16  may be included. The two elements attached to skeletal members include the acetabular cup  12  and femoral component  14 . The acetabular cup  12  comprises two surfaces  20  and  22 . The surface  20  is fastened to the bony acetabulum of the hip, and the surface  22  is concave in shape and can accept the convex portion of an opposed articulating element. The femoral component  14  includes a stem portion  24  and a spherical portion  26  (the femoral head). The stem portion  24  is inserted into the canal of the femoral bone of the leg and fastened therein. The outside surface  28  of spherical portion  26  of the femoral component  14  is mated to the concave surface  22  of the acetabular cup  12  and is configured to provide articulation between the leg and hip. In this manner, function of a patient&#39;s hip may be restored. If included, the liner  16  is interposed between surface  22  and surface  28 . In this case the convex surface  30  of element  16  is fastened to the concave surface  22  of the acetabular cup  12 , and the concave surface  32  accepts the convex surface  28  of the spherical portion  26 . The designs of, and materials chosen for the acetabular cup  12 , spherical portion  26  and liner  16  generally determine the nature and rate of generation of the wear debris and products released into the body. 
         [0038]      FIG. 2  is an exploded view illustrating a prosthetic knee joint suitable for use with an embodiment of the invention. As shown in  FIG. 2 , the articulating orthopaedic implant  10  may include an artificial knee. The artificial knee includes a femoral condyle  38 , tibial plateau  40 , and tibial insert  42 . The femoral condyle  38  and tibial plateau  40  may be attached to skeletal members of a patient. The femoral condyle  38  includes two surfaces  44  and  46 . The surface  44  is fastened to the femoral bone of the leg, and surface  46  is convex in shape and is configured to accept the concave portion of an opposed articulating element such as the tibial insert  42 . The tibial plateau  40  includes a bottom surface  48  and a top surface  50 . The bottom surface  48  is attached to the top of the tibial bone of the leg and fastened thereon. The tibial insert  42  includes a top surface  52  which is mated to the convex surface  46  and is configured to facilitate articulation of the knee and thereby restore function to the knee. The tibial insert  42  includes a bottom surface  54  which is attached to the top surface  50  of the tibial plateau  40 . Left untreated, the designs of, and materials chosen for the elements  38 ,  40  and  42  will determine the nature and rate of generation of the wear debris and products released into the body. 
         [0039]    A variety of combinations of materials are suitable for use with the contacting articulating surfaces of elements in modular orthopaedic hips, knees and other implants according to various embodiments of the invention. These combinations include metal-polymer, ceramic-polymer, metal-metal, and ceramic-ceramic. When treated or coated as described herein, these material combinations reduce friction, wear, and corrosion in modular articulating orthopaedic implants  10 . It is an advantage of embodiments of the invention that undesirable particle debris may be reduced or eliminated by the treatments described herein. Particular examples of drawbacks associated with untreated conventional materials are described in Table I and highlight the innovative features of the current invention. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE I 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Drawbacks of Conventional Implant Material Combinations 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Material 
                   
                   
               
               
                 Combi- 
                 Typical  
                   
               
               
                 nation 
                 Materials 
                 Effects 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Metal-Polymer 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Metal 
                 Stainless Steel,  
                 Abrasive wear against UEMWPE 
               
               
                   
                 Co—Cr—Mo, 
                 constantly removes passive oxide 
               
               
                   
                 Ti—Al—V, Zr 
                 layer on the metal which releases 
               
               
                   
                   
                 metal ions which are potentially toxic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 and carcinogenic. 
               
               
                 Polymer 
                 UEMWPE 
                 Adhesive wear releases polymeric 
               
               
                   
                   
                 particle debris. Fatigue wear releases 
               
               
                   
                   
                 particulate debris, produces fatigue 
               
               
                   
                   
                 failure fragments, and plastic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 deformation and cracking of the 
               
               
                   
                   
                 UEMWPE. Polymeric wear debris 
               
               
                   
                   
                 and fragments leads to loosening of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 the implant. 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Ceramic-Polymer 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Ceramic 
                 Sintered  
                 Abrasive wear against UEMWPE less 
               
               
                   
                 alumina or  
                 than that seen with metal components. 
               
               
                   
                 zirconia 
                 Ceramic wear debris is considered 
               
               
                   
                   
                 biologically inert 
               
               
                 Polymer 
                 UEMWPE 
                 Adhesive wear releases polymeric 
               
               
                   
                   
                 particle debris. Fatigue wear releases 
               
               
                   
                   
                 particulate debris, produces fatigue 
               
               
                   
                   
                 failure fragments, and plastic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 deformation and cracking of the 
               
               
                   
                   
                 UEMWPE. Polymeric wear debris 
               
               
                   
                   
                 and fragments leads to loosening of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 the implant. 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Metal-Metal 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Metal 
                 Co—Cr—Mo,  
                 Abrasive wear against opposed 
               
               
                   
                 Ti—Al—V, 
                 metallic surface constantly removes 
               
               
                   
                 Zr 
                 passive oxide layer on the metal which 
               
               
                   
                   
                 releases metal ions which are 
               
               
                   
                   
                 potentially toxic and carcinogenic. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Adhesive wear against opposed 
               
               
                   
                   
                 metallic surface will produce galling 
               
               
                   
                   
                 with constant generation of particulate 
               
               
                   
                   
                 metallic particle debris. 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Ceramic-Ceramic 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Ceramic 
                 Sintered  
                 Wear rate less than seen with metals 
               
               
                   
                 alumina or  
                 and ceramic wear debris considered 
               
               
                   
                 zirconia 
                 biologically inert. Bulk ceramic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 materials are brittle and subject to 
               
               
                   
                   
                 fatigue fracture producing large 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ceramic fragments and possible 
               
               
                   
                   
                 catastrophic failure. 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0040]    Referring to Table I, it is seen that conventional polymeric materials such as UHMWPE are subject to abrasive, adhesive, and fatigue wear, all of which contribute to the release of polymeric particle debris. In addition the UHMWPE is soft and is subject to bulk plastic deformation and dimensional distortion. The surfaces of metallic components wearing against each other are also subject to abrasive, adhesive and fatigue failure. Abrasive rubbing of opposed metallic surfaces constantly removes passive oxide layers on both metal surfaces which release metal ions that are potentially toxic and carcinogenic. Adhesive wear between the opposed metal surfaces will produce galling and metal transfer with constant generation of particulate metallic particle debris. And under cyclic loading conditions the metal surfaces eventually show fatigue wear. Ceramic materials, when wearing against polymer and metal surfaces exhibit low coefficients of friction and generate relatively low levels of ceramic wear debris. Likewise ceramic elements wearing against each other produce relatively low levels of ceramic wear debris. However, bulk ceramic materials are brittle and subject to fatigue fracture producing large ceramic fragments and possible catastrophic failures. 
         [0041]      FIG. 3  is a cross-section detail view at an interface between two coated surfaces according to an embodiment of the invention. In this embodiment, the articulating orthopaedic implant  10  includes opposed elements that are both fabricated from metallic materials and the counter facing surfaces of both are treated to reduce wear, corrosion, ion leaching, and also to be self-lubricated. As shown in  FIG. 3 , when installed in a patient, a thin layer of lubrication  58  such as synovial fluid or the like is maintained between surfaces of opposing articulating elements  60  and  62 . These opposing articulating elements  60  and  62  may be fabricated from a bulk metal  64  and  66  and both have the bulk hardness and fracture-toughness required for optimum performance and long useful life. In a particular example, the bulk metal  64  and  66  may include Co—Cr—Mo. The original surfaces of both elements are shown at  68  and  70 . Using an ion beam enhanced deposition (IBED) process, described herein, a ceramic material is first alloyed into and below the original surfaces  68  and  70  of each opposed element  60  and  62 . The presence of ceramic material in the sub-surface alloyed case layers  72  and  74  produces a high concentration of compressive forces in the surfaces which helps convert retained tensile stresses in the surfaces to compressive stresses with a consequent increase in fracture toughness of layers  72  and  74 . Sub-surface alloyed case layers  72  and  74  also provide bonding zones from which thicker layers of the ceramic material can be grown as ceramic coatings of finite thickness,  76  and  78 . Since ceramic coatings  76  and  78  are grown continuously from sub-surface alloyed case layers  72  and  74 , there is no distinct interface between the original surfaces  68  and  70  and the coatings  76  and  78 , and thus the ceramic coatings generated by this process are relatively less likely to delaminate from the surfaces  68  and  70  as compared to conventional coatings. 
         [0042]    Furthermore, the IBED process allows a high degree of control over the mechanical and metallurgical properties of the ceramic coatings  76  and  78 . The metallurgical composition can be maintained in a highly uniform manner throughout the ceramic coatings. As a result, properties such as hardness and wear-resistance can be optimized to reduce or eliminate wear debris generation from the metallic surface beneath the ceramic coating. The coating grain sizes can further be maintained in the nanometer (1×10 −9  meter) range allowing the coatings to grow substantially void- and pinhole-free thus eliminating corrosion and ion leaching from the metallic surface beneath the ceramic coating. The metallurgical composition can also be tailored to provide biologically active sites on the external surfaces ( 80  and  82 ) of the ceramic coating that attract and hold natural lubricants (synovial or other extracellular fluids) present in the tissue around the articulating elements. These fluid retentive surfaces provide a continuously forming thin layer of lubrication  58  between the treated articulating elements that reduces or eliminates physical contact between the surfaces of the elements. In this manner, the generation and release of wear debris, corrosion products, and metallic ions into the body is reduced or eliminated. 
         [0043]    The IBED process used to form a ceramic coating in and on the surfaces of the metallic articulating elements proceeds as a continuous, uninterrupted, two-step process described in the following Table II: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE II 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Step 1 Surface 
                   
               
               
                 Texturing) 
                 Step 2 (Coating) 
               
             
          
           
               
                 A 
                 B 
                 A 
                 B 
                 C 
                 D 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Article placed 
                 Surface 
                 Coating 
                 Initial case 
                 Thin 
                 Thicker 
               
               
                 in vacuum 
                 textured  
                 material 
                 layer of 
                 conformal 
                 coating grown 
               
               
                 chamber 
                 by ion  
                 evolved and 
                 coating 
                 coating grown 
                 while 
               
               
                   
                 beam 
                 deposited on 
                 material 
                 while 
                 continuously 
               
               
                   
                 sputtering 
                 surface of 
                 alloyed into 
                 continuously 
                 augmented by 
               
               
                   
                   
                 article 
                 surface of 
                 augmented by 
                 ion beam 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 article 
                 ion beam 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0044]      FIG. 4  is a cross-section detail view of a coated surface according to another embodiment of the invention. As shown in  FIG. 4  the orthopaedic implant  10  includes elements  84  and  86  in close proximity. In this embodiment, a multiple layer coating may be generated in and/or on each articulating surface of the orthopaedic implant  10 . This is achieved by performing the IBED process to form a second (outer) coating layer in and out from the surface of the first (inner) layer. Referring to  FIG. 4 , one or both top surfaces of the coating ( 88  and  90 ) previously formed on the articulating surfaces of the orthopaedic implant  10  are shown at  92  and  94 . A second material is first alloyed into and below the original surfaces  92  and  94  of the coatings  88  and  90  on each opposed element  84  and  86 . Sub-surface alloyed case layers  96  and  98  also provide bonding zones from which thicker layers of the second material can be grown as coatings of finite thickness,  100  and  102 . Since the second layer coatings  100  and  102  are grown continuously from sub-surface alloyed case layers  96  and  98 , there is no distinct interface between the original surfaces  92  and  94  of the first coating ( 88  and  90 ) and the second coatings  100  and  102 , and thus the second coatings are relatively less likely to delaminate from the first coatings  88  and  90  as compared to conventional coating procedures. Furthermore, the IBED process allows a high degree of control over the mechanical and metallurgical properties of the second coatings  100  and  102 . The metallurgical composition can be maintained highly uniform throughout the second (outer) coating, thus properties like hardness and wear-resistance can be optimized to reduce or eliminate wear debris generation from the metallic surface or first (inner) coating beneath the second (outer) coating. The metallurgical composition can also be tailored to provide biologically active sites on the external surfaces ( 104  and  106 ) of the ceramic coating that attract and hold natural lubricants (synovial or other extracellular fluids) present in the tissue around the articulating elements. These fluid retentive surfaces provide a continuously forming thin layer of lubrication  108  between the treated articulating elements which eliminates physical contact between the surfaces of the elements thus eliminating the generation and release of wear debris, corrosion products, and metallic ions into the body. 
         [0045]      FIG. 5  is a cross-section detail view of a coated surfaces according to another embodiment of the invention. As shown in  FIG. 5 , the articulating opposed element is fabricated from a metallic material and the counter facing opposed element is fabricated from either a plastic or ceramic material, and the surface of only one element is treated to reduce wear, corrosion, ion leaching and also to be self-lubricated. 
         [0046]    As shown in  FIG. 5 , the articulating orthopaedic implant  10  includes opposed elements  130  and  132 . In a particular example, the articulating element  130  is fabricated from a bulk metal alloy such as Co—Cr—Mo or Ti—Al—V ( 134 ) that has the bulk hardness and fracture-toughness required for optimum performance and long useful life. The counter facing articulating element ( 132 ) is fabricated from a bulk plastic or ceramic material. The original surface of the metallic articulating element is shown at  136 . Using an IBED process, a ceramic material is first alloyed into and below the original surface  136  of element  130 . The presence of ceramic material in the sub-surface alloyed case layer  138  produces a high concentration of compressive forces in the surface which helps convert retained tensile stresses in the surface to compressive stresses with a consequent increase in fracture toughness of layer  138 . The sub-surface alloyed case layer  138  also provides a bonding zone from which a thicker layer of the ceramic material can be grown as a ceramic coating  140  of finite thickness. Since the ceramic coating  140  is grown continuously from sub-surface alloyed case layer  138 , there is no distinct interface between the original surface  136  and the coating  140 , and thus the ceramic coating is less likely to delaminate from the surface  136  as compared to conventional coating methods. Furthermore, the IBED process allows a high degree of control over the mechanical and metallurgical properties of the ceramic coating  140 . The metallurgical composition can be maintained highly uniform throughout the ceramic coating, thus properties like hardness and wear-resistance can be optimized to eliminate wear debris generation from the metallic surface beneath the ceramic coating. And coating grain sizes can be maintained in the nanometer (1×10 −9  meter) range allowing the coating to grow void- and pinhole-free thus eliminating corrosion and ion leaching from the metallic surface beneath the ceramic coating. The metallurgical composition can also be tailored to provide biologically active sites on the external surface ( 142 ) of the ceramic coating that attract and hold natural lubricants (synovial or other extracellular fluids) present in the tissue around the articulating elements. These fluid retentive surfaces provide a continuously forming thin layer of lubrication  144  between the treated and untreated articulating elements that eliminates physical contact between the surfaces of the elements thus reducing or eliminating the generation and release of metallic and plastic or ceramic wear debris, corrosion products, and metallic ions into the body. 
         [0047]    The IBED process used to form a ceramic coating in and on the surfaces of the metallic articulating elements proceeds as a continuous, uninterrupted, two-step process is outlined below in Table III: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE III 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Step 1 (Surface 
                   
               
               
                 Texturing) 
                 Step 2 (Coating) 
               
             
          
           
               
                 A 
                 B 
                 A 
                 B 
                 C 
                 D 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Article placed 
                 Surface 
                 Coating 
                 Initial case 
                 Thin 
                 Thicker 
               
               
                 in vacuum 
                 textured  
                 material 
                 layer of 
                 conformal 
                 coating grown 
               
               
                 chamber 
                 by ion  
                 evolved and 
                 coating 
                 coating grown 
                 while 
               
               
                   
                 beam 
                 deposited on 
                 material 
                 while 
                 continuously 
               
               
                   
                 sputtering 
                 surface of 
                 alloyed into 
                 continuously 
                 augmented by 
               
               
                   
                   
                 article 
                 surface of 
                 augmented by 
                 ion beam 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 article 
                 ion beam 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0048]      FIG. 6  is a block diagram of a system for coating a surface according to an embodiment of the invention. As shown in  FIG. 6 , the treatment process may be performed in a vacuum vessel  150 . A high vacuum environment is preferably maintained in the vacuum vessel  150  in order to allow a high degree of control over the quality of the coating formed in and on the surface of the article. One or more articles  152  may be affixed to a part platen  154 . The part platen  154  is configured to provide suitable control of positioning of the articles during the separate cleaning and coating steps. The part platen  154  can rotate about its axis  156  and tilt about its center  158 . The tilt angles and rotation rates are chosen such that the surfaces of the parts  152  to be treated are cleaned at the proper angle and the ceramic coating is applied at the proper angle and with good uniformity on the surfaces to be coated. A cleaning/augmenting ion beam source  160  is located within the vacuum chamber and generates a broad beam of cleaning/augmenting ions  162 . The broad beam of cleaning/augmenting ions  162  is configured to perform initial cleaning of the surface of the article by sputtering (first step). An electron gun evaporator  164  is located within the vacuum vessel which produces evaporated coating material  166 . The coating material  166  is sprayed onto the surface of the articles  152 . The electron gun evaporator  164  is configured to contain multiple charges of coating material if a multiple layer coating is to be grown from the articulating surface of the implant. The beam of texturing/augmenting ions  162  is simultaneously applied to the surface of the articles  152  and is used initially to mix the coating material into the surface of the articles  152  forming an alloyed case layer in the surface, and then used to control the composition and crystal structure of the coating as it is grown out from the alloyed case layer (second step). 
         [0049]    If multiple layers of coating material are to be applied, the beam of texturing/augmenting  162  ions is simultaneously applied to the surface of the first coating layer and is used initially to mix or ballistically embed the coating material into the surface of the first coating layer forming an alloyed case layer in the first coating layer, and then used to control the composition and crystal structure of the second coating layer as it is grown out from the first coating layer. During both the cleaning and alloying/coating step, the part platen  154  may be rotated about its axis  156  and oscillated about its center  158  to facilitate uniform coverage of the articles. A thickness measuring gauge  168  is positioned near the part platen  154  in order to monitor the arrival of the evaporated coating material  166  and control formation of the alloyed surface layer and then the thicker coating grown from the alloyed surface layer. 
         [0050]    Preferably, the two-step treatment process is carried out sequentially in the same vacuum chamber without releasing the high vacuum to atmospheric pressure between steps. If this occurs a latent oxide layer will form on the cleaned surface and will interfere with the formation of the coating. It is also preferable to accurately control the intensities of the cleaning/augmenting ion beam and the angular position of the articles to be treated relative to this directional beam such that the surface alloyed layer and coating are applied uniformly to the surface to be treated. 
         [0051]    Embodiments of the invention are further illustrated by the following non-limiting four Examples in which examples of particular coating parameter and test data associated with the coated items is presented. 
       EXAMPLE 1 
       [0052]    Samples of Co—Cr—Mo materials used to manufacture the orthopaedic implants  10  were prepared and coated with a ceramic coating as described herein. The samples were pins and disks utilized in the standard Pin-On-Disk wear test procedure (ASTM F732-00(2006) Standard Test Method for Wear Testing of Polymeric Materials Used in Total Joint Prostheses, American Society For Testing and Materials). The wear of the coated pin and disks was measured and compared to the wear found with uncoated pins and disks manufactured from the same Co—Cr—Mo material. 
         [0053]    In this case a two-layer coating was deposited on the pins and disks using the inventive IBED process. The first (inner) layer was titanium nitride (TiN) and the second (outer) layer was aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ). The procedures and processing parameters utilized to deposit the two-layer coating on the pin and disk sample materials are as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE IV 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Step 1: Surface Texturing 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Description 
                 Process Parameters 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 A 
                 Pin &amp; Disk materials placed in vacuum 
                 Vacuum: 1.0E(−07) Torr 
               
               
                   
                 chamber on a rotatable articulated fixture 
                   
               
               
                   
                 which allows programmed orientation of 
                   
               
               
                   
                 the device during the process. 
                   
               
               
                 B 
                 Surface of the Pin &amp; Disk materials 
                 Ion Species: N 
               
               
                   
                 textured by ion beam sputtering with the 
                 Beam Energy: 1000 eV 
               
               
                   
                 ion beam from the augmenting ion source 
                 Beam Current: 4.4 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 and manipulating the materials such that the 
                 Angle of incidence between 45-75 
               
               
                   
                 sputtering angle of incidence is maintained 
                 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 on the surfaces to be textured 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Time: 10 minutes 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Step 2: Coating by Vacuum Evaporation, TIN first (inner) layer, Al 2 O 3  second 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Description 
                 Process Parameters (TiN) 
                 Process Parameters (Al 2 O 3 ) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 A 
                 E-gun evaporator used 
                 Material: Ti 
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 to melt and evaporate 
                 Part platen held at angle 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 coating material 
                 between 25 and 75 
                 between 25 and 75 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 continuously onto 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
                 to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                 surface of Pin &amp; Disk. 
                 Evolution Rate: 14.5 
                 Evolution Rate: 10 Å/sec 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Å/sec 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
                 Temperature: 750° F. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
                   
               
               
                 B 
                 Augmenting ion beam 
                 Ion species: N 
                 Ion species: Ar 
               
               
                   
                 used to alloy the first  
                 Beam Energy: 1000 eV 
                 Beam Energy: 1000 eV 
               
               
                   
                 few layers of the 
                 Beam Current: 4.4 
                 Beam Current: 2.7 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 evaporated coating 
                 mA/cm 2   
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 material into device 
                 Material: Ti 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 surface of the Pin &amp; 
                 Part platen held at angle 
                 between 25 and 75 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 Disk thus forming a 
                 between 25 and 75 
                 to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                 case layer. 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
                 Time: 30 seconds 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Time: 40 seconds 
                 Part platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part platen Rotation: 30  
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
                 Temperature: 750° F. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
                   
               
               
                 C 
                 Thin conformal 
                 Ion species: N 
                 Ion species: Ar 
               
               
                   
                 coating is grown out 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
               
               
                   
                 from the alloyed case 
                 Beam Current: 4.4 
                 Beam Current: 2.7 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 layer as evaporation of 
                 mA/cm 2   
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 the coating material 
                 Material: Ti 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 continues. 
                 Part platen held at angle 
                 between 25 and 75 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 Augmenting ion beam 
                 between 25 and 75 
                 to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                 used to control the 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
                 Thickness: 50 A 
               
               
                   
                 composition and 
                 Thickness: 50 A 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30  
               
               
                   
                 crystal structure of the 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                 coating as it is grown. 
                 RPM 
                 Temperature: 750° F. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
                   
               
               
                 D 
                 Coating is grown out 
                 Ion species: N 
                 Ion species: Ar 
               
               
                   
                 from the conformal 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
               
               
                   
                 coating as evaporation 
                 Beam Current: 4.4 
                 Beam Current: 2.7 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 of the coated material 
                 mA/cm 2   
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 continues. 
                 Material: Ti 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 Augmenting ion beam 
                 Part platen held at angle 
                 between 25 and 75 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 used to control the 
                 between 25 and 75  
                 to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                 composition and 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
                 Thickness: 50,000 Å 
               
               
                   
                 crystal structure of the 
                 Thickness: 10,000 Å 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                 coating as it is grown.  
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
                 Temperature: 750° F. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0054]    The test conditions and results of the Pin-On-Disk testing are seen in Table V. In this test, the pin and disk sample materials coated with a two layer TiN/Al 2 O 3  coating. As a result of a run for 2,000,000 inches of wear travel in the Pin-On-Disk tester a volumetric loss of 0.25 mm 3  is shown. This compares to a volumetric loss of 2.1 mm 3  measured for 2,000,000 inches of wear travel for uncoated Co—Cr—Mo material. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE V 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison of Volumetric Wear Loss (ASTM, F732) 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Sample Material 
                 Load (lbs/in 2 ) 
                 # of Inches 
                 Loss (mm 3 ) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 IBED Coated Co—Cr—Mo 
                 11,700 
                 2,000,000 
                 0.25 
               
               
                 Co—Cr—Mo 1 
                 11,700 
                 2,000,000 
                 2.1 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       EXAMPLE 2 
       [0055]    A 5 micron thick single layer coating of chromium nitride (Cr 2 N) was deposited on a 304 stainless steel panel using the inventive process described in U.S. Ser. No. 11/042,150 and then tested for resistance to abrasive wear using a standard Taber Abraser Test. The test was applied using the procedure defined by Military Test Specification (MIL-A-8625F) in which an abrasive wheel (Taber, CS-10), impregnated with 50 micron diameter corundum grits, is rubbed against the coating surface with a loading of 2.2 pounds of force, and run for 10,000 abrasion cycles. The wear loss is measured and presented as the number of microns of coating lost per 10,000 wear cycles. 
         [0056]    The procedures and processing parameters utilized to deposit the single layer Cr 2 N coating on the 304 stainless steel panel are described in Table VI as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE VI 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Step 1: Surface Texturing 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Description 
                 Process Parameters 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 A 
                 Panel material placed in vacuum 
                 Vacuum: 1.0E(−07) Torr 
               
               
                   
                 chamber on a rotatable 
                   
               
               
                   
                 articulated fixture which allows 
                   
               
               
                   
                 programmed orientation of the 
                   
               
               
                   
                 device during the process. 
                   
               
               
                 B 
                 Surface of the Panel material 
                 Ion Species: N 
               
               
                   
                 textured by ion beam sputtering 
                 Beam Energy: 1000 eV 
               
               
                   
                 with the ion beam from the 
                 Beam Current: 4.4 
               
               
                   
                 augmenting ion source and 
                 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 manipulating the materials such 
                 Angle of incidence 
               
               
                   
                 that the sputtering angle of 
                 between 45-75 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 incidence is maintained on the 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                 surfaces to be textured 
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Time: 10 minutes 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Step 2: Coating by Vacuum Evaporation, Cr 2 N 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Process Parameters 
               
               
                   
                 Description 
                 (Cr 2 N) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 A 
                 E-gun evaporator used to melt 
                 Material: Cr 
               
               
                   
                 and evaporate coating material 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 continuously onto surface of the 
                 between 25 and 75 
               
               
                   
                 Panel 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Evolution Rate: 12 Å/sec 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
               
               
                 B 
                 Augmenting ion beam used to 
                 Ion species: N 
               
               
                   
                 alloy the first few layers of the 
                 Beam Energy: 1000 eV 
               
               
                   
                 evaporated coating material into 
                 Beam Current: 3.4 
               
               
                   
                 device surface of the Panel thus 
                 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 forming a case layer. 
                 Material: Cr 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                   
                 between 25 and 75 
               
               
                   
                   
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Time: 40 seconds 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
               
               
                 C 
                 Thin conformal coating is grown 
                 Ion species: N 
               
               
                   
                 out from the alloyed case layer 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
               
               
                   
                 as evaporation of the coating 
                 Beam Current: 3.4 
               
               
                   
                 material continues. Augmenting 
                 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 ion beam used to control the 
                 Material: Cr 
               
               
                   
                 composition and crystal 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 structure of the coating as it is 
                 between 25 and 75 
               
               
                   
                 grown. 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Thickness: 50 A 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
               
               
                 D 
                 Coating is grown out from the 
                 Ion species: N 
               
               
                   
                 conformal coating as 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
               
               
                   
                 evaporation of the coated 
                 Beam Current: 3.4 
               
               
                   
                 material continues. Augmenting 
                 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 ion beam used to control the 
                 Material: Cr 
               
               
                   
                 composition and crystal 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 structure of the coating as it is 
                 between 25 and 75 
               
               
                   
                 grown. 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Thickness: 50,000 Å 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1 (R.A. Poggie, “A Review Of The Effects Of Design, Contact Stress, And Materials On The Wear Of Metal-On-Metal Hip Prostheses,” from  Alternate Bearing Surfaces In Total Joint Replacement , American Society for Testing and Materials, Special Technical Publication STP 1346, 1998) 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0057]    The result of the Taber Abrasive Wear Testing is seen in Table VII. The MED Cr 2 N coating, showed a loss of 0.15 microns (μ) in thickness for the 10,000 cycles of abrasive wear. This compares to a thickness loss of 2.82 microns measured for 10,000 cycles of abrasive wear on uncoated Co—Cr—Mo material with a Rockwell “C” Scale Hardness of 45, that typical of material used for orthopaedic hip and knee implant components. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE VII 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Taber Wear Measurement (MIL-A-8625F) 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Material 
                 Abrasive 
                 # of Cycles 
                 Wear (μ) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 IBED Cr 2 N Coating 
                 CS-10 
                 10,000 
                 0.15 
               
               
                   
                 Co—Cr—Mo (R C  45) 
                 CS-10 
                 10.000 
                 2.82 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       EXAMPLE 3 
       [0058]    A 5 micron thick single layer coating of aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) was deposited on a 304 stainless steel panel as described herein and then tested for resistance to abrasive wear using a standard Taber Abraser Test. The test was applied using the procedure defined by Military Test Specification (MIL-A-8625F) in which an abrasive wheel (Taber, CS-10), impregnated with 50 micron diameter corundum grits, is rubbed against the coating surface with a loading of 2.2 pounds of force, and run for 10,000 abrasion cycles. The wear loss is measured and presented as the number of microns of coating lost per 10,000 wear cycles. 
         [0059]    The procedures and processing parameters utilized to deposit the single layer Al 2 O 3  coating on the 304 stainless steel panel are illustrated in Table VIII as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE VIII 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Step 1: Surface Texturing 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Description 
                 Process Parameter 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 A 
                 Panel material placed in vacuum 
                 Vacuum: 1.0E(−07) Torr 
               
               
                   
                 chamber on a rotatable 
                   
               
               
                   
                 articulated fixture which allows 
                   
               
               
                   
                 programmed orientation of the 
                   
               
               
                   
                 device during the process. 
                   
               
               
                 B 
                 Surface of the Panel material 
                 Ion Species: Ar 
               
               
                   
                 textured by ion beam sputtering 
                 Beam Energy: 1000 eV 
               
               
                   
                 with the ion beam from the 
                 Beam Current: 4.4 
               
               
                   
                 augmenting ion source and 
                 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 manipulating the materials such 
                 Angle of incidence 
               
               
                   
                 that the sputtering angle of 
                 between 45-75 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 incidence is maintained on the 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                 surfaces to be textured 
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Time: 10 minutes 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Step 2: Coating by Vacuum Evaporation, Al 2 O 3   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Process Parameters 
               
               
                   
                 Description 
                 (Al 2 O 3 ) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 A 
                 E-gun evaporator used to melt 
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 and evaporate coating material 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 continuously onto surface of the 
                 between 25 and 75 
               
               
                   
                 Panel 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Evolution Rate: 12 Å/sec 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
               
               
                 B 
                 Augmenting ion beam used to 
                 Ion species: Ar 
               
               
                   
                 alloy the first few layers of the 
                 Beam Energy: 1000 eV 
               
               
                   
                 evaporated coating material into 
                 Beam Current: 2.7 
               
               
                   
                 device surface of the Panel thus 
                 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 forming a case layer. 
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                   
                 between 25 and 75 
               
               
                   
                   
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Time: 40 seconds 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
               
               
                 C 
                 Thin conformal coating is grown 
                 Ion species: Ar 
               
               
                   
                 out from the alloyed case layer 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
               
               
                   
                 as evaporation of the coating 
                 Beam Current: 2.7 
               
               
                   
                 material continues. Augmenting 
                 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 ion beam used to control the 
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 composition and crystal 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 structure of the coating as it is 
                 between 25 and 75 
               
               
                   
                 grown. 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Thickness: 50 A 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
               
               
                 D 
                 Coating is grown out from the 
                 Ion species: Ar 
               
               
                   
                 conformal coating as 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
               
               
                   
                 evaporation of the coated 
                 Beam Current: 2.7 
               
               
                   
                 material continues. Augmenting 
                 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 ion beam used to control the 
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 composition and crystal 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 structure of the coating as it is 
                 between 25 and 75 
               
               
                   
                 grown. 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Thickness: 50,000 Å 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0060]    The result of the Taber Abrasive Wear Testing is seen in Table IX. The IBED Al 2 O 3  coating, showed a loss of 0.07 microns (μ) in thickness for the 10,000 cycles of abrasive wear. This compares to a thickness loss of 2.82 microns measured for 10,000 cycles of abrasive wear on uncoated Co—Cr—Mo material with a Rockwell “C” Scale Hardness of 45, that typical of material used for orthopaedic hip and knee implant components. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE IX 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Taber Wear Measurement (MIL-A-8625F) 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Material 
                 Abrasive 
                 # of Cycles 
                 Wear (μ) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 IBED Al 2 O 3  Coating 
                 CS-10 
                 10,000 
                 0.07 
               
               
                   
                 Co—Cr—Mo (R C  45) 
                 CS-10 
                 10.000 
                 2.82 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       EXAMPLE 4 
       [0061]    Pin and disk samples were prepared from Co—Cr—Mo material used to manufacture orthopaedic implants, and then coated with a ceramic coating as described herein in order to test the fluid retentive properties of the deposited ceramic. In this case a two-layer coating was deposited on the Co—Cr—Mo pin and disk using the inventive MED process. The first (inner) layer was titanium nitride (TiN) and the second (outer) layer was aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ). The procedures and processing parameters utilized to deposit the two-layer coating on the Co—Cr—Mo pin and disk samples are illustrated in Table X as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE X 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Step 1: Surface Texturing 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Description 
                 Process Parameters 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 A 
                 Pin &amp; Disk materials placed in vacuum 
                 Vacuum: 1.0E(−07) Torr 
               
               
                   
                 chamber on a rotatable articulated 
                   
               
               
                   
                 fixture which allows programmed 
                   
               
               
                   
                 orientation of the device during the 
                   
               
               
                   
                 process. 
                   
               
               
                 B 
                 Surface of the Pin &amp; Disk materials 
                 Ion Species: N 
               
               
                   
                 textured by ion beam sputtering with the 
                 Beam Energy: 1000 eV 
               
               
                   
                 ion beam from the augmenting ion 
                 Beam Current: 4.4 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 source and manipulating the materials 
                 Angle of incidence between 45-75 
               
               
                   
                 such that the sputtering angle of 
                 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 incidence is maintained on the surfaces 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 RPM 
               
               
                   
                 to be textured 
                 Time: 10 minutes 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Step 2: Coating by Vacuum Evaporation, TiN first (inner) layer, Al 2 O 3  second 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Description 
                 Process Parameters (TiN) 
                 Process Parameters (Al 2 O 3 ) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 A 
                 E-gun evaporator 
                 Material: Ti 
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 used to melt and 
                 Part platen held at angle 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 evaporate coating 
                 between 25 and 75 
                 between 25 and 75 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 material 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
                 to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                 continuously onto 
                 Evolution Rate: 14.5 
                 Evolution Rate: 10 Å/sec 
               
               
                   
                 surface of Pin &amp; 
                 Å/sec 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                 Disk. 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
                 Temperature: 750° F. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
                   
               
               
                 B 
                 Augmenting ion 
                 Ion species: N 
                 Ion species: Ar 
               
               
                   
                 beam used to alloy 
                 Beam Energy: 1000 eV 
                 Beam Energy: 1000 eV 
               
               
                   
                 the first few layers 
                 Beam Current: 4.4 
                 Beam Current: 2.7 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 of the evaporated 
                 mA/cm 2   
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 coating material 
                 Material: Ti 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 into device surface 
                 Part platen held at angle 
                 between 25 and 75 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 of the Pin &amp; Disk 
                 between 25 and 75 
                 to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                 thus forming a 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
                 Time: 30 seconds 
               
               
                   
                 case layer. 
                 Time: 40 seconds 
                 Part platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Part platen Rotation: 30 
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                   
                 RPM 
                 Temperature: 750° F. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
                   
               
               
                 C 
                 Thin conformal 
                 Ion species: N 
                 Ion species: Ar 
               
               
                   
                 coating is grown 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
               
               
                   
                 out from the 
                 Beam Current: 4.4 
                 Beam Current: 2.7 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 alloyed case layer 
                 mA/cm 2   
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 as evaporation of 
                 Material: Ti 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 the coating 
                 Part platen held at angle 
                 between 25 and 75 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 material 
                 between 25 and 75 
                 to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                 continues. 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
                 Thickness: 50 A 
               
               
                   
                 Augmenting ion 
                 Thickness: 50 A 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                 beam used to 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                 control the 
                 RPM 
                 Temperature: 750° F. 
               
               
                   
                 composition and 
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
                   
               
               
                   
                 crystal structure of 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 the coating as it is 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 grown. 
                   
                   
               
               
                 D 
                 Coating is grown 
                 Ion species: N 
                 Ion species: Ar 
               
               
                   
                 out from the 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
                 Beam Energy: 800 eV 
               
               
                   
                 conformal coating 
                 Beam Current: 4.4 
                 Beam Current: 2.7 mA/cm 2   
               
               
                   
                 as evaporation of 
                 mA/cm 2   
                 Material: Al 2 O 3   
               
               
                   
                 the coated 
                 Material: Ti 
                 Part platen held at angle 
               
               
                   
                 material 
                 Part platen held at angle 
                 between 25 and 75 degrees 
               
               
                   
                 continues. 
                 between 25 and 75 
                 to evaporator flux 
               
               
                   
                 Augmenting ion 
                 degrees to evaporator flux 
                 Thickness: 50,000 Å 
               
               
                   
                 beam used to 
                 Thickness: 10,000 Å 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
               
               
                   
                 control the 
                 Part Platen Rotation: 30 
                 RPM 
               
               
                   
                 composition and 
                 RPM 
                 Temperature: 750° F. 
               
               
                   
                 crystal structure of 
                 Temperature: &lt;200° F. 
                   
               
               
                   
                 the coating as it is 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 grown. 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0062]    An additional set of pin-on-disk samples was prepared from solid, single crystal, alpha phase Al 2 O 3 . The counter facing surfaces of this pin-on-disk set would not have the same surface nanostructure, and thus fluid-retentive properties, as would the Al 2 O 3  coating deposited on the Co—Cr—Mo samples using the inventive process. 
         [0063]    Both sample pin and disk sets were tested according to the standard pin-on-disk wear test procedure (ASTM F732-00(2006) “Standard Test Method for Wear Testing of Polymeric Materials Used in Total Joint Prostheses, American Society for Testing and Materials”). The samples were immersed in defined bovine calf serum as a lubricant (Hyclone Labs: Cat. No. SH30073.04) during the entirety of the test. After completion of 2,000,000 cycles in the pin-on-disk test, both sample sets were carefully dried and the surface the pins imaged using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and the surface composition analyzed with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX). 
         [0064]    No residue was detected by either SEM imaging or EDAX analysis on the surface of the single crystal, alpha phase, pin indicating that the surface of the solid Al 2 O 3  pin did not have the properties of a fluid-retentive surface. The IBED-coated Co—Cr—Mo pin surface did however show remnants of a film that had been retained on the surface of the Al 2 O 3  coating.  FIG. 7 , is a scanning electron micrograph image of the pin surface showing remnants of the lubricating film still adhered to the surface of the Al 2 O 3  coating.  FIG. 8  is an energy dispersive X-ray analysis showing the presence of both Ca and P cations which are inorganic elements present in the defined bovine calf serum proteins. Thus it is confirmed that the structure and surface activity of Al 2 O 3  coatings as deposited by the inventive IBED process acts as a fluid retentive surface which maintains the self-lubricating performance of orthopaedic implants so-treated. 
         [0065]    Conclusions: 
         [0066]    The orthopaedic implants  10  with surface treatments provided by this invention will generate less debris in the form of wear products, corrosion products, and metallic ion leaching which are liberated and transported to bone, blood, the lymphatic system, and other internal organs. This will result in less inflammation, toxicity, and immune response resulting in increased longevity of the orthopaedic implant  10  and less adverse effects on the patient. The surface treatments can be applied to a variety of the materials used to fabricate the articulating elements of the modular orthopaedic implants  10 , and are useful for a variety of combinations of metal, ceramic, and polyethylene articulating elements. 
         [0067]    In addition to orthopedic implants where the inventive process is applied to both mating surfaces of an articulating joint there are other devices which articulate in which it is appropriate to apply the inventive process to only one mating surface. These devices include, and are not be limited to, the knee, the hip, the shoulder, the elbow (ulna), the wrist, the ankle, spine disc, spine facet, the finger, and the toe. 
         [0068]    The design of another typical modular articulating orthopaedic implant, for example an artificial shoulder, is shown in  FIG. 9 . The implant is a multi-element modular mechanical construct with means for attachment to two skeletal members, and means for allowing motion between those two skeletal members. The artificial shoulder is comprised of element  110  (the stem) and element  120  (the plastic socket). The two elements attached to skeletal members include elements  110  and  120 . Element  110  comprises two surfaces, surface  111  is fastened to the humerus of the upper arm, and surface  112  is convex in shape and can accept the concave portion of an opposed articulating element. Element  120  comprises a bottom surface  121  and a top surface  122 . The bottom surface  121  of element  120  is attached to the glenoid of the scapula and fastened thereon. The top surface  122  of element  120  is mated to the convex surface  112  of element  110  and provides means for articulation of the shoulder thereby restoring function. The top surface  112  of element  110  is treated with the inventive process. The designs of, and materials chosen for the elements  110  and  120  will determine the nature and rate of generation of the wear debris and products released into the body. 
         [0069]    The design of another typical modular articulating orthopaedic implant, for example an elbow, is shown in  FIGS. 10A and 10B . The elbow implant is a multi-element modular mechanical construct with means for attachment to two skeletal members, and means for allowing motion between those two skeletal members. The artificial elbow is comprised of element  210  (the humeral component), element  220  (the ulnar component), and element  230  (the plastic insert). The two elements attached to skeletal members include elements  210  and  220 . Element  210  comprises two surfaces, surface  211  is fastened to the humeral bone of the upper arm, and surface  212  is shaped like a “Y”. Element  220  comprises a bottom surface  221  and a top surface  222 . The bottom surface  221  of element  220  is attached to the ulnar bone of the lower arm and fastened thereon. Surface  222  of Element  220  has an internal surface machined to accept the plastic insert Element  230 . Surface  212  of Element  210  is designed to accept surface  222  of Element  220  by insertion between the spaces in the top of the “Y”. Surface  222  of Element  220  is secured by insertion of pins  213  through both surfaces  212  and  222 . Securing the top surface  222  of element  220  to the top surface  212  of element  210  with pins  213  provides means for articulation of the elbow thereby restoring function. The top surface  222  of element  220  is treated with the inventive process. The designs of, and materials chosen for the elements  210 ,  220  and  230  will determine the nature and rate of generation of the wear debris and products released into the body. 
         [0070]    The design of another typical modular articulating orthopaedic implant, for example a wrist, is shown in  FIGS. 11A and 11B . The implant is a multi-element modular mechanical construct with means for attachment to two skeletal members, and means for allowing motion between those two skeletal members. The artificial wrist is comprised of element  310  (the radial component), element  320  (the carpal component), and element  330  (the plastic spacer). The two elements attached to skeletal members include elements  310  and  320 . Element  310  comprises two surfaces, surface  311  is fastened to the radial bone, and surface  312  is concave in shape and can accept the convex portion of an opposed articulating element. Element  320  comprises a bottom surface  321  and a top surface  322 . The bottom surface  321  of element  320  is attached to the carpal bones and fastened thereon. The top surface  322  of element  320  is attached to the top surface  331  of element  330 . The bottom surface  332  of element  330  is mated to the concave surface  312  of element  310  and provides means for articulation of the wrist thereby restoring function. The top surface  312  of element  310  is treated with the inventive process. The designs of, and materials chosen for the elements  310 ,  320  and  330  will determine the nature and rate of generation of the wear debris and products released into the body. 
         [0071]    The design of another typical modular articulating orthopaedic implant, for example an ankle, is shown in  FIG. 12 . The implant is a multi-element modular mechanical construct with means for attachment to two skeletal members, and means for allowing motion between those two skeletal members. The artificial ankle is comprised of element  410  (the tibial component), element  420  (the plastic spacer), and element  430  (the talar component). The two elements attached to skeletal members include elements  410  and  430 . Element  410  comprises two surfaces, surface  411  is fastened to the lower end of the tibial bone, and surface  412  is concave in shape and can accept the convex portion of the top surface  421  of element  420  (the plastic spacer). Element  420  comprises a top surface  421  and a bottom surface  422 . The top surface  421  of element  420  is convex in shape and can mate to the bottom surface  412  of element  410 . The bottom surface  422  of element  420  is concave and is mated to the top surface  431  of element  430  (the talar component) and provides means for articulation of the ankle thereby restoring function. The top surface  431  of element  430  is treated with the inventive process. The designs of, and materials chosen for the elements  410 ,  420  and  430  will determine the nature and rate of generation of the wear debris and products released into the body. 
         [0072]    The design of another typical modular articulating orthopaedic implant, for example a facet joint replacement, is shown in  FIG. 13 . The implant is a multi-element modular mechanical construct with means for attachment to two skeletal members, and means for allowing motion between those two skeletal members. The facet joint replacement is comprised of element  510 , element  520 , and element  530 . The two elements that are attached to skeletal members include elements  510  and  520 . Element  510  comprises two surfaces, surface  511  is fastened to a vertebral body, and surface  512  is concave in shape and can accept the convex portion of an opposed articulating element. Element  520  comprises two surfaces, surface  521  is fastened to the body of an adjacent vertebrae and surface  522  is concave in shape and can accept the convex portion of an opposed articulating element. Element  530  comprises two surfaces  531  and  532  both of which are convex. Surface  531  of element  530  is mated to surface  512  of element  510 , and surface  532  of element  530  is mated to surface  522  of element  520  thereby providing means for articulation of the vertebrae thereby restoring function. Surface  512  of element  510  and surface  522  of element  520  are treated with the inventive process. The designs of, and materials chosen for the elements  510 ,  520  and  530  will determine the nature and rate of generation of the wear debris and products released into the body. 
         [0073]    The design of another typical modular articulating orthopaedic implant, for example a lumbar disc replacement, is shown in  FIG. 14 . The implant is a multi-element modular mechanical construct with means for attachment to two skeletal members, and means for allowing attachment between those two skeletal members. The lumbar disc replacement is comprised of element  610 , element  620 , and element  630 . The two elements that are attached to skeletal members include elements  610  and  620 . Element  610  comprises two surfaces, surface  611  is fastened to a vertebral body, and surface  612  can accept the surface of an opposed articulating element. Element  620  comprises two surfaces, surface  621  is fastened to an adjacent vertebrae and surface  622  can accept the surface of an opposed articulating element. Element  630  comprises two outside surfaces  631  and  632 . Surface  631  of element  630  is mated to surface  612  of element  610 , and surface  632  of element  630  is mated to surface  622  of element  620  thereby providing means for connection and articulation of the vertebrae thereby restoring function. Surface  612  of element  610  and surface  622  of element  620  are treated with the inventive process. The designs of, and materials chosen for the elements  610 ,  620  and  630  will determine the nature and rate of generation of the wear debris and products released into the body. 
         [0074]    The design of another typical modular articulating orthopaedic implant, for example a finger, is shown in  FIG. 15 . The implant is a multi-element modular mechanical construct with means for attachment to two skeletal members, and means for allowing motion between those two skeletal members. The artificial finger is comprised of element  710 , element  720 , and element  730 . The two elements attached to skeletal members include elements  710  and  720 . Element  720  comprises two surfaces, surface  721  is fastened to the bone of a finger, and surface  722  is flat and is attached to surface  731  of element  730 . Element  710  comprises two surfaces, surface  711  is fastened to the more distal bone of the same finger, and surface  712  is convex and mates to the concave surface  732  of element  730  which provides means for articulation of the finger thereby restoring function. Surface  712  of element  710  is treated with the inventive process. The designs of, and materials chosen for the elements  710 ,  720  and  730  will determine the nature and rate of generation of the wear debris and products released into the body. 
         [0075]    The design of another typical modular articulating orthopaedic implant, for example a toe, is shown in  FIGS. 16A and 16B . The implant is a multi-element modular mechanical construct with means for attachment to two skeletal members, and means for allowing motion between those two skeletal members. The artificial toe is comprised of element  810  (Metatarsal Head Articular Component), element  820  (Proximal Phalanx Fixation Component), and element  830  (Proximal Phalanx Articular Insert). The two elements attached to skeletal members include elements  810  and  820 . Element  810  comprises two surfaces, surface  811  is fastened to the metatarsal bone, and surface  812  is convex and mates to the concave surface  832  of element  830 . Element  820  comprises two surfaces, surface  821  is fastened to the proximal phalanx, and surface  822  connects to surface  831  of element  830 . Surface  832  of element  830  is concave and mates to surface  812  of element  810  which provides means for articulation of the toe thereby restoring function. Surface  812  of element  810  is treated with the inventive process. The designs of, and materials chosen for the elements  810 ,  820  and  830  will determine the nature and rate of generation of the wear debris and products released into the body. 
         [0076]    The many features and advantages of the invention are apparent from the detailed specification, and thus, it is intended by the appended claims to cover all such features and advantages of the invention which fall within the true spirit and scope of the invention. Further, since numerous modifications and variations will readily occur to those skilled in the art, it is not desired to limit the invention to the exact construction and operation illustrated and described, and accordingly, all suitable modifications and equivalents may be resorted to, falling within the scope of the invention.