Abstract:
Methods of preparing metal and metal alloys with partially microcrystalline anodic coatings are disclosed. Associated article therefrom are correspondingly disclosed. The partially microcrystalline anodic coatings exhibit steam, superheated steam, alkaline and acidic resistance. Partially microcrystalline anodic coating can be prepared by impregnation of micropores of a metal or metal substrate with metal precursor species, conversion of the metal precursor species into metal hydroxides, thermal treatment to dry out moisture and to promote phase transformation of the metal hydroxide product into metal oxides solids and bonding with metastable metal oxide substance in the pore structure of the metal or metal alloy substrate, and hydrothermal sealing to create sealed partially microcrystalline anodic coating.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF INVENTION 
       [0001]    1. Field of Invention 
         [0002]    This invention relates to coatings on metals and related methods therefor and, in particular, to coatings such as anodized coatings on metal and metal alloys that exhibit resistance to steam, including superheated steam, and resistance to alkaline and acidic degradation. 
         [0003]    2. Discussion of Related Art 
         [0004]    Anodic coatings for aluminum and aluminum alloys, for example, are typically classified by type and class. Type I coatings are derived from chromic acid electrolyte and type IB coatings from low voltage processes in chromic acid electrolyte. Type IC coatings are typically produced by non-chromic acid anodizing. Type II coatings are produced in a sulfuric acid electrolyte. Type III coatings, also referred to as hard anodic coatings, are also produced in a sulfuric acid electrolyte. Class 1 coatings are dye free coatings and class 2 coatings are dyed coatings. 
         [0005]    Type II and Type III are characterized as having significant porosity by the nature of the cell formation and coatings can be left unsealed or can be sealed. Sealing of anodic coatings on metal surfaces can be classified based on the composition of the seal solution, based on the operating temperature, or based on the mechanism of the process. 
         [0006]    Traditional sealing processes can be considered to include hot (boiling) deionized water sealing, steam sealing, sodium or potassium dichromate sealing, sodium silicate sealing, nickel acetate sealing, nickel fluoride sealing, and new sealing processes, such as cobalt acetate sealing, trivalent chromium sulfate or acetate sealing, cerium acetate sealing, zirconium acetate sealing, triethanolamine-based sealing, lithium or magnesium salt-based sealing, potassium permanganate sealing, polymer-based sealing, and oxidizing corrosion inhibitor-based sealing such as those involving molybdate, vanadate, tungstate, and perborate agents. 
         [0007]    Sealing processes based on temperature can involve high temperature sealing (above 95° C.) with steam, hot water, and dichromate; mid-temperature sealing (80° C.-95° C.) with silicate and divalent or trivalent metal acetates, triethanolamine-based techniques, and oxidizing corrosion inhibitor based techniques; low temperature sealing (70° C.-80° C.) with metal acetate, and ambient temperature sealing (25° C.-35° C.) with nickel fluoride. 
         [0008]    Sealing processes can also be classified by sealing mechanism as by hydrothermal sealing which typically involves converting aluminum oxide to boehmite (aluminum oxide hydroxide, AlO(OH)); physical or chemical impregnation and filling of the micropores of the anodic layer by dichromate, silicate, nickel fluoride, and polymer compounds; electrochemical sealing which involves electrophoretic migration and deposition anionic species in the micropores; and corrosion inhibition sealing which involves thermal motion and diffusion promoted absorption of corrosion inhibitors into the micropores. 
         [0009]    Sealing of type I, IB, IC, II, IIB and III coatings can be performed by immersion in aqueous dichromate solutions with a pH of 5-6 and a temperature of 90° C.-100° C. for 15 minutes, by immersion in boiling deionized water, or by immersion in a cobalt acetate solution or a nickel acetate solution. Sealing can also be performed by immersion in a sealing medium of hot aqueous nickel acetate or cobalt acetate with a pH of 5.5-5.8 or by immersion in boiling deionized water. Duplex sealing with hot aqueous solutions of nickel acetate and sodium dichromate can also be performed on type I, IB, IC, II, IIB, and III coatings. In accordance with MIL-A-8625, type III coatings for abrasion or resistance service are typically not sealed. Otherwise, type III coatings can be sealed by immersion in boiling deionized water, in a hot aqueous sodium dichromate solution, or in hot aqueous solution of nickel acetate or cobalt acetate and other sealing mechanisms. 
         [0010]    Smutting can be encountered in sealing processes, typically during hydrothermal sealing procedures. Smutting can result from the conversion of the coating surface to boehmite. Smutting is typically associated with high operational temperature and pH, long immersion time, aged sealing solution containing too much dissolved solids and breakdown components of additives, and shortage of anti-smutting agents and/or surface active agents. Anti-smutting agents can inhibit the formation of boehmite on the coating surface without adversely affecting the sealing process within the micropores. Typical anti-smutting agents include, for example, hydroxycarboxylic acids, lignosulphonates, cycloaliphatic or aromatic polycarboxylic acids, naphthalene sulphonic acids, polyacrylic acids, phosphonates, sulphonated phenol, phosphonocarboxylic acids, polyphosphinocarboxylic acids, phosphonic acids, and triazine derivatives. 
         [0011]    As illustrated in  FIG. 1 , anodic coatings  102  on some nonferrous metals such as aluminum and aluminum alloys  104  can have porous structures with cells including pores or voids  106  or micropores and walls of a metal oxide, and a barrier oxide layer  108 . The porous structure can be susceptible to aggressive environments and water absorption, which can result in degradation the anodized layer. 
         [0012]    Conventional hydrothermal sealing process is typically performed by immersion or exposure to hot water or steam at temperatures above 80° C. to hydrate the anhydrous oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) in anodic coatings to form boehmite-like crystals (AlO(OH)) according to the following reaction: 
         [0000]      Al 2 O 3  (anodic coating)+H 2 O→2AlO(OH)  (1)
 
         [0013]    Because boehmite (3.44 g/cm 3 ) has a larger volume per unit mass than aluminum oxide (3.97 g/cm 3 ) and because two moles of boehmite can be formed from one mole of aluminum oxide, the micropores are eventually at least partially filled, and typically blocked and closed by the resultant expansion of the cell walls of the anodic coating during hydrothermal sealing. Hydrolysable salts and organic agents can be utilized to improve the sealing performance and efficiency, saves energy, and minimizes the formation of smut on the surface of anodic coatings. For example, nickel ions from nickel acetate can catalytically hydrate aluminum oxide to boehmite through the co-precipitation of nickel hydroxide (Ni(OH) 2 ): 
         [0000]      Ni 2+ +2OH − →Ni(OH) 2 ↓  (2)
 
         [0014]    In dichromate sealing, aluminum oxydichromate (AlOHCrO 4 ) or aluminum oxychromate ((AlO) 2 CrO 4 ) forms in the micropores according to the reactions: 
         [0000]      Al 2 O 3 +2HCrO 4   − +H 2 O→2AlOHCrO 4   − ↓+2OH −  (pH&lt;6.0)  (3)
 
         [0000]      Al 2 O 3 +HCrO 4   − →(AlO) 2 CrO 4   − +OH −  (pH&gt;6.0)  (4)
 
         [0015]    In silicate sealing, silicate ions react with aluminum oxide to form aluminum silicate (Al 2 OSiO 4 ) in the micropores of an anodic coating according to the following reaction: 
         [0000]      Al 2 O 3 +SiO 3   2− +H 2 O→Al 2 OSiO 4   − ↓+2OH −   (5)
 
         [0016]    The micropores of an anodic coating are not completely filled and closed in either dichromate sealing or silicate sealing. Accordingly, poor results may be anticipated if an acid dissolution test or a dye stain test is used to evaluate the sealing quality. However, dichromate sealing or silicate sealing actually enhances the corrosion resistance of anodic coatings on aluminum, which is ascribed to the role of chromate or silicate in inhibiting the corrosion of aluminum. 
         [0017]    Cold sealing processes typically involve nickel fluoride-based sealing techniques. Because cold sealing processes are typically performed at room temperature, reaction (1) does not normally occur in the micropores and voids of an anodic coating. With the catalytic effect of co-precipitation of nickel hydroxide and aluminum fluoride, aluminum oxide is transformed to aluminum hydroxide instead of boehmite at temperatures below 70° C., as expressed in the following reactions: 
         [0000]      Ni 2+ +2OH − →Ni(OH) 2   −   (2)
 
         [0000]      Al 2 O 3 +6F − +3H 2 O→2AlF 3   − +6OH −   (6)
 
         [0000]      Al 2 O 3 +3H 2 O→2Al(OH) 3 ↓  (7)
 
         [0018]    As with dichromate and silicate sealing, cold nickel fluoride sealing is an impregnation process that does not completely fill and close the micropores and voids, despite the approximate 150% increase in volume when Al 2 O 3  (3.97 g/cm 3 ) is transformed to Al(OH) 3  (2.42 g/cm 3 ) in accordance with reaction (7). It is recognized that aluminum hydroxide is chemically less stable and more soluble in aqueous solutions than boehmite. The formed Al(OH) 3  tends to be spongy rather than crystalline in form and the sealed anodic article performs poorly when evaluated with acid dissolution or dye stain tests. 
         [0019]    Consequently, the anti-corrosion performance of anodized articles post treated by cold sealing can be considered inferior to that treated with conventional hydrothermal sealing and other impregnation processes mentioned above. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0020]    One or more aspects of the invention can relate to a method of producing a metal substrate cells with pores and walls comprising at least one of partially microcrystalline metal oxide and partially microcrystalline metal hydroxide. One or more particular aspects of the invention can relate to a method of producing a metal substrate cells with pores and walls comprising at least one of at least partially microcrystalline metal oxide and at least partially microcrystalline metal hydroxide. One or more further aspects of the invention can be directed to a method of producing an anodized aluminum substrate cells with pores and walls at least partially comprising at least one of microcrystalline aluminum oxide and microcrystalline aluminum hydroxide. Some aspects of the invention can be directed to a method of producing an anodized aluminum substrate having structures of at least one of partially microcrystalline aluminum oxide and partially microcrystalline aluminum hydroxide from an aluminum substrate having cells with micropores and walls of at least one of amorphous aluminum oxide and amorphous aluminum hydroxide comprising introducing a metal cationic species into at least a portion of the micropores, converting at least a portion of the metal cationic species into a metal hydroxide, converting at least a portion of the metal hydroxide into a metal oxide, and converting at least a portion of the walls of at least one of amorphous aluminum oxide and amorphous aluminum hydroxide into structures of at least one of partially microcrystalline aluminum oxide and partially microcrystalline aluminum hydroxide. The method can comprise introducing a metal cationic species into at least a portion of the micropores; converting at least a portion of the metal cationic species into a metal hydroxide; converting at least a portion of the metal hydroxide into a metal oxide; and converting at least a portion of walls of the micropores of at least one of amorphous aluminum oxide and amorphous aluminum hydroxide into at least partially comprising at least one of partially microcrystalline aluminum oxide and partially microcrystalline aluminum hydroxide. In one or more embodiments related to such methods, converting at least a portion of walls of the micropores can comprise immersing the aluminum substrate in an aqueous metal salt solution having a temperature in a range of from about 75° C. to about 95° C. to convert at least a portion of at least one of the amorphous oxide and amorphous hydroxide into at least one of partially microcrystalline aluminum oxide and partially microcrystalline aluminum hydroxide. The aqueous metal salt solution can comprise at least one of metal acetate and a metal nitrate. In one or more other embodiments related to such methods, converting at least a portion of the metal hydroxide can comprise heating, for example, the aluminum substrate in an oxidizing atmosphere at a temperature in a range of from about 150° C. to about 300° C. for an oxidizing period of at least about 30 minutes. In one or more further embodiments related to such methods, converting at least a portion of the metal cationic species comprises immersing the metal substrate in an alkaline solution having a pH of at least about 8 units. In one or more further embodiments related to such methods, introducing the metal cationic species into the at least a portion of the micropores comprises immersing the aluminum substrate in an aqueous metal solution comprising a metal fluoride and a surfactant. In one or more still further embodiments related to such methods, introducing the metal cationic species into the at least a portion of the micropores comprises exposing the aluminum substrate to ultrasonic energy in an ultrasonic bath that is free of fluoride and free of a surfactant. 
         [0021]    One or more aspects of the invention can be directed to a method of producing an anodized aluminum substrate. The method can comprise immersing the aluminum substrate in a first aqueous metal salt solution; exposing the aluminum substrate to an alkaline solution having a pH in a range of from about 8 units to about 13 units and ultrasonic energy, after immersing the aluminum substrate in the first aqueous solution; thermally treating the aluminum substrate in an oxidizing atmosphere at a drying temperature of at least about 150° C. after immersing the aluminum substrate in the alkaline solution; and immersing the aluminum substrate in a second aqueous metal solution having a temperature in a range of from about 75° C. to about 95° C. after thermally treating the aluminum substrate. In accordance with one or more aspects of the invention, the first aqueous metal salt solution comprises a fluoride of at least one of nickel, iron, zinc, copper, magnesium, titanium, zirconium, aluminum, and silver. In accordance with one or more aspects of the invention, the first aqueous metal salt solution can have a pH of less than about 7 units and a temperature in a range of from about 15° C. to about 35° C. In accordance with one or more aspects of the invention, the first aqueous metal salt solution can comprise less than about 100 ppm of a surfactant and, in some cases, the first aqueous metal salt solution can comprise about 0.5 wt % to about 8.0 wt % of metal cationic species. In accordance with one or more aspects of the invention, exposing the aluminum substrate comprises immersing the aluminum substrate in an alkaline solution comprising an alkali metal hydroxide such as sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide (NaOH and KOH) and a surfactant for a period in a range of from about 1 minute to about 5 minutes. In some cases, the alkaline solution having a temperature in a range of from about 20° C. to about 60° C. In accordance with one or more aspects of the invention, exposing the aluminum substrate can comprise directing ultrasonic energy to the substrate, typically in an ultrasonic bath for a period in a range of from about 10 minutes to about 25 minutes. In accordance with one or more further aspects of the invention, thermally treating the aluminum substrate can comprise heating the aluminum substrate in an oven at a temperature in a range of from about 150° C. to about 300° C., typically for a period of from about 30 minutes to about two hours. In some cases, the second aqueous metal solution has a pH in a range of from about 5.0 units to about 6.0 units and, in still further cases, the solution can comprise at least one of a metal acetate and a metal nitrate in a concentration of from about 4.5 wt % to about 6.5 wt %. 
         [0022]    One or more aspects of the invention can be directed to an aluminum article comprising an anodized coating of at least about 0.05 mm having a Taber abrasion loss of less than about 109 mg as determined in accordance with ASTM 4060 after immersion in a sodium hydroxide solution at least about 0.04 wt % for 11 days at a temperature in a range of from about 15° C. to about 25° C. 
         [0023]    One or more aspects of the invention can be directed to an aluminum article comprising a dyed anodized coating of at least about 0.05 mm having a fading that of less than a ΔL* of about 1.5, a Δa* of about 2.0, and Δb* of about 2.5 values in accordance with a CIE (Commission Internationale d&#39;Eclairage) 1976 L*,a*,b color scale as performed in accordance with ASTM E 308, after exposure, for at least 5 cycles, to ultrasonic cleaning with a solution having a pH of 12 and to autoclaving at 275° F. In some cases, the ultrasonic cleaning is performed for at least about 45 minutes and, in still further cases, autoclaving is performed for at least about 45 minutes. 
         [0024]    One or more aspects of the invention can be directed to an aluminum article comprising an anodized metal coating of at least about 0.05 mm that is partially microcrystalline and having an X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrograph as illustrated in  FIG. 7 . In some particular cases, the spectrograph of the partially microcrystalline coating exhibits peaks at about 18°, 37°, 44°, and 62°. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0025]    The accompanying drawings are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the drawings, each identical or nearly identical component or step that is illustrated in various figures is represented by a like numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component or step may be labeled in every drawing. In the drawings: 
           [0026]      FIG. 1  is a schematic illustration showing an anodic coating for conversion or sealing thereof in accordance with one or more aspects of the present invention; 
           [0027]      FIG. 2  is a schematic illustration showing introduction of metal precursor species an anodic coating for conversion or sealing thereof in accordance with one or more aspects of the present invention; 
           [0028]      FIG. 3  is a schematic illustration showing conversion of the metal precursor species into an intermediate compound in an anodic coating for conversion or sealing thereof in accordance with one or more aspects of the present invention; 
           [0029]      FIG. 4  is a schematic illustration showing conversion of the intermediate compound into metastable species in an anodic coating for conversion or sealing thereof in accordance with one or more aspects of the present invention; 
           [0030]      FIG. 5  is a schematic illustration showing conversion of the metastable species into a partially microcrystalline anodic coating in accordance with one or more aspects of the present invention; 
           [0031]      FIG. 6  is a copy of a spectrograph of an X-ray diffraction pattern of a partially microcrystalline anodic coating on an aluminum substrate in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present invention, along with conventional amorphous anodic coatings on aluminum substrates; 
           [0032]      FIG. 7  is a copy of a spectrograph of an X-ray diffraction pattern of a partially microcrystalline anodic coating on an aluminum substrate in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present invention; 
           [0033]      FIG. 8A  is a copy of a photograph of a sodium hydroxide bath being agitated for evaluating aluminum racks having partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the present invention and the conventional anodic coating; 
           [0034]      FIGS. 8B-8D  are copies of photographs showing the aluminum racks having partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the present invention and racks with conventional anodic coating; 
           [0035]      FIG. 9  a flowchart of a sterilization procedure that may be utilized to disinfect articles of the invention; 
           [0036]      FIGS. 10A-10C  are copies of photographs showing the abrasion performance of a partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention ( FIG. 10C ) and conventional anodic coating ( FIG. 10B ); and 
           [0037]      FIGS. 11A-11E  are copies of photographs showing phase transformation of metal hydroxide product into metal oxide solids via thermal treatment relevant to the partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0038]    One or more aspects of the present invention can be directed to treatments that provide anodic coatings on metal substrates with desirable physical and chemical properties. One or more aspects of the invention can be directed to articles having at least partially microcrystalline anodic coatings thereon. Further aspects of the invention can be directed to techniques of producing a metal substrate having structures comprising at least one of partially microcrystalline metal oxide and partially microcrystalline metal hydroxide. Still further aspects of the invention can be directed to techniques of producing metal substrates having structures comprising at least one of at least partially microcrystalline metal oxide and at least partially microcrystalline metal hydroxide. Some aspects of the invention can be directed to fabricating anodized aluminum articles having microcrystalline features of at least one of microcrystalline aluminum oxide and microcrystalline aluminum hydroxide from aluminum articles having anodized coatings with cells defined by micropores and walls of any of amorphous aluminum oxide and aluminum hydroxide by introducing at least one metal cationic species into at least a portion of the micropores, converting at least a portion of the metal cationic species into a metal hydroxide, converting at least a portion of the metal hydroxide into a metal oxide, and converting at least a portion of the cells of at least one of amorphous aluminum oxide and amorphous aluminum hydroxide to fabricate the aluminum articles having partially microcrystalline feature of at least one of microcrystalline aluminum oxide and microcrystalline aluminum hydroxide. One or more aspects of the invention can relate to techniques of producing an anodized aluminum substrate having structures that are preferably comprised of at least one of microcrystalline aluminum oxide and microcrystalline aluminum hydroxide, more preferably, at least one or partially microcrystalline aluminum oxide and partially microcrystalline aluminum hydroxide. One or more further aspects of the invention can involve promoting crystallinity of an anodic layer on a substrate. One or more still further aspects of the invention can be directed to techniques of producing an anodized aluminum substrate. The partially microcrystalline anodic coated articles pertinent to some aspects of the invention can be utilized in a variety of applications such as but not limited to tools including consumer hardware, trade equipment; equipment and machinery parts including those for semiconductor, oil and mineral extraction, and other industrial processes; medical devices and equipment including general medical and orthopedic equipment such as containers, trays, modules, handles, fixturing devices, carts; automotive components including exterior trim, engine and transmission parts, such as pistons, rings, valves; naval and marine components such as propellers, outdrives, cleats, winches, locks, masts, rigging, and other wetted components; electronic housing; aerospace parts and equipment; military parts and equipment including gun parts, night vision systems, electronic equipment, transportation equipment; household and commercial appliances such as dishwashers, driers, clothes washers, sinks; construction equipment and hardware such as bathroom and kitchen hardware; and cooking apparatus utensils, and equipment such as cookware, tableware for domestic and commercial use. 
         [0039]    Some aspects of the invention can be directed to sealing that can at least partially fill the voids or spaces of the cells such as micropores  106  by, for example, impregnation or filling with a barrier material that provides at least partial protection of the underlying material from degradation of a metal as exemplarily illustrated in  FIGS. 2-5 . 
         [0040]    Micropores  106  can at least be partially impregnated or filled by introducing one or more compounds that is at least partially resistant to acidic attack or alkaline attack under various conditions. In accordance with one or more embodiments of the invention, the one or more compounds can be introduced into micropores  106  by immersion of the metal substrate in a bath containing one or more precursor compounds under conditions that are non-reactive to the substrate metal or substrate metal oxide. Thus, in some cases, for example, one or more aspects of the invention can involve introducing one or more metal cationic species into at least a portion of the spaces or voids of a metal substrate, such as micropores  106 . In accordance with some embodiments of the invention, the metal substrate, such as an aluminum substrate or an aluminum alloy substrate, can be immersed in a first aqueous metal salt solution, preferably at ambient conditions. One or more embodiments of the invention can involve introducing one or more metal cationic species into at least a portion of the pores by, for example, immersing the metal substrate in an aqueous metal solution. The metal species or base metal salt in solution can at least partially impregnate at least a portion of the anodic pores by diffusion phenomena as exemplarily illustrated in  FIG. 2 . Non-limiting examples of the metal that can be utilized as a precursor compound include nickel, iron, zinc, copper, magnesium, titanium, zirconium, aluminum, and silver. The bath or aqueous metal solution can have a pH of less than about 7 units and a temperature in a range of from about 15° C. to about 35° C. In accordance with one or more aspects of the invention, the first aqueous metal salt solution can comprise less than about 100 ppm of a surfactant and, in some cases, the bath or first aqueous metal salt solution can comprise, consist of, or consists essentially of about 0.5 to about 8.0 wt % of metal cationic species. 
         [0041]    In accordance with some advantageous conditions, the aqueous metal solution further comprises at least one surfactant. In some further advantageous configurations, the aqueous metal solution can be a bath containing a fluoride. Thus, in some cases, the aqueous metal solution can comprise a fluoride of at least one of nickel, iron, zinc, copper, magnesium, titanium, zirconium, aluminum, and silver, with or without a surfactant. In such instances, at least a portion of the aluminum oxide of walls of micropores  106  can react with the fluoride anionic species to form aluminum fluoride, typically at least a portion of the inside surfaces of the micropores (not shown). In a variant thereof, the aqueous metal solution can consist essentially of a fluoride of at least one of nickel, iron, zinc, copper, magnesium, titanium, zirconium, aluminum, and silver, with at least one surfactant. In another variant thereof, the aqueous metal solution can consist essentially of a fluoride of at least one of nickel, iron, zinc, copper, magnesium, titanium, zirconium, aluminum, and silver, without a surfactant. 
         [0042]    In one or more further variants in accordance with one or more such aspects of the invention, introducing the metal cationic species into the at least a portion of the pores can comprise exposing the metal or metal alloy substrate to ultrasonic energy in an ultrasonic bath that is free of fluoride and free of a surfactant. 
         [0043]    Some further aspects of the invention can involve converting at least a portion of the precursor compound, such as the metal cationic species, into a stable metal compound. For example, at least a portion of the metal cationic species can be converted or reacted to form metal hydroxide. In some cases, the metal precursor can be induced to form a precipitate  108  and preferably fill, at least partially, micropores  106 , as exemplarily illustrated in  FIG. 3 , as, for example, the metal hydroxide. Converting at least a portion of the metal cationic species can comprise immersing, at least partially, the metal or metal alloy substrate in an alkaline solution having a pH of at least about 8 units. Formation or conversion into the metal hydroxide can involve exposing the aluminum substrate to an alkaline solution having a pH in a range of from about 8 units to about 13 units. In a variant thereof, the metal or metal alloy, or at least a portion thereof, can be exposed to ultrasonic energy, after immersing the aluminum substrate in the first aqueous solution. In accordance with one or more aspects of the invention, exposing the metal or metal alloy substrate can comprise immersing the substrate in an alkaline solution comprising an alkali metal hydroxide or an alkali earth hydroxide and one or more surfactants for a period sufficient to convert at least a portion of the metal cationic species into a metal hydroxide. For example, conversion can involve immersion of the metal substrate for a period in a range of from about 1 minute to about 5 minutes. The alkaline solution can consist essentially of an alkali metal hydroxide and a surfactant but in other cases, the alkaline solution can consist essentially of an alkali earth hydroxide and in yet other cases, the alkaline solution can consist essentially of a mixture of an alkali metal hydroxide and an alkaline earth hydroxide. The alkaline solution preferably has a temperature in a range of from about 20° C. to about 60° C. 
         [0044]    In alternative or complementary cases in accordance with one or more further aspects of the invention (not shown), exposing the metal or metal alloy substrate can comprise directing ultrasonic energy to the substrate in an ultrasonic bath for a period sufficient to convert at least a portion, typically a predefined portion of the metal cationic species into a metal hydroxide. For example, the ultrasonic energy can be directed by immersion of the substrate for a period in a range of from about 10 minutes to about 25 minutes. 
         [0045]    One or more aspects of the invention can involve a thermal treatment that involves converting at least a portion of the metal hydroxide into a metal oxide. As illustrated in  FIG. 4 , at least a portion of the precipitated metal hydroxide  108  can be converted into a metastable metal oxide  110  in a portion of at least some of the pores. It is believed that at least a portion of the oxidation product is bonded to the metal oxides of the metal or metal alloy substrate, mechanically, chemically, or both. Conversion of at least a portion of the metal hydroxide precipitate  106  can comprise exposing the metal or metal alloy substrate to conditions that thermodynamically favor at least partial oxidation, and in some cases, dehydration or drying, of the hydroxide precipitate. Conversion and bonding can be effected by heating the metal substrate in an oxidizing atmosphere at a thermodynamic conversion temperature for a predetermined oxidizing period that provide a sufficient conversion yield. Depending on the conversion temperature, metal hydroxide oxidation to the metastable oxide can be performed in the oxidizing atmosphere in less than two hours. For example, conversion can be effected by heating in an oven at a temperature of at least about 150° C., typically in a range of from about 150° C. to about 300° C. for a period of at least about 30 minutes. 
         [0046]    One or more further aspects of the invention can involve converting at least a portion of the structure of the micropores, e.g., walls thereof, from an amorphous phase into structures at least partially comprising at least one of partially microcrystalline metal oxide and partially microcrystalline metal hydroxide  112 , as exemplarily illustrated in  FIG. 5 . Conversion can also involve promoting microcrystallinity of at least a portion of the walls of the micropores. Converting at least a portion of the structures can comprise immersing at least a portion of the metal or metal alloy substrate in a second aqueous metal salt solution in conditions that favor conversion into partially microcrystalline metal oxide or partially microcrystalline metal hydroxide phase. For example, conversion to promote microcrystallinity can involve immersion of an aluminum or aluminum alloy substrate in a second aqueous metal solution at a temperature in a range of from about 75° C. to about 95° C. to convert at least one of the amorphous aluminum oxide and/or amorphous aluminum hydroxide thereof into at least one of partially microcrystalline metal oxide and partially microcrystalline metal hydroxide, typically into at least one of partially microcrystalline metal oxide and partially microcrystalline metal hydroxide. The second aqueous metal solution preferably has a pH in a range of from about 5 units to about 6 units and, in some cases, the second aqueous solution can comprise at least one of a metal acetate and a metal nitrate. In some cases, the second aqueous solution can consist essentially of a metal acetate or consist essentially of a metal nitrate. In still other cases, the second aqueous solution can consist essentially of a metal acetate and a metal nitrate. The concentration of the metal acetate and/or metal nitrate can be from about 4.5 wt % to about 6.5 wt %. Thus in some cases, promoting microcrystallinity can involve partial hydration to form boehmite-like crystals, with associated expansion, to close, at least partially, all or at least a substantial portion of the micropores to form partially microcrystalline structures. 
         [0047]    Non-limiting example of a surfactant that can be utilized in the various embodiments of the invention include non-ionic surfactants such as but not limited to hydrophilic polyethylene oxide, e.g., polyethylene glycol p-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)-phenyl ether, which is commercially available as TRITON™ X-100 surfactant, from The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Mich. 
         [0048]    In embodiments of the invention involving an aluminum or aluminum alloy substrate, the resultant partially microcrystalline anodic coating thereof can be analytically characterized to have an X-ray diffraction pattern or spectrograph as illustrated in  FIGS. 6 and 7 . The spectrographs presented at  FIGS. 6 and 7  show two different XRD incident angles fixed at 1 and 4, respectively. In the spectrographs, the partially microcrystalline anodic coating, designated as “This Invention” in  FIG. 6 , exhibit partial microcrystalline character compared to the prior art amorphous, non-crystalline anodic coatings, designated as “Conventional #1” and “Conventional #2.” In particular, partially microcrystalline aluminum hydroxide can be noted by the peaks at about 18°, 37°, 44°, and 62°. 
         [0049]    One or more aspects of the invention can be directed to an aluminum article comprising a partially microcrystalline coating of at least about 0.05 mm having a Taber abrasion loss of less than about 109 mg as determined in accordance with ASTM 4060 after immersion in a sodium hydroxide solution at least about 0.04 wt % for 11 days at a temperature in a range of from about 15° C. to about 25° C. Further aspects of the invention can be directed to an aluminum article comprising a dyed anodized coating of at least about 0.05 mm having a fading that of less than a ΔL* of about 1.5, a Δa* of about 2.0, and Δb* of about 2.5 values in accordance with a CIE (Commission Internationale d&#39;Eclairage) 1976 L*,a*,b color scale as performed in accordance with ASTM E 308, after exposure, for at least 5 cycles, to ultrasonic cleaning with a solution having a pH of 12 and to autoclaving at 135° C. In such aspects, the article provides fading resistance after ultrasonic cleaning thereof for at least about 45 minutes and, in still further cases, after autoclaving is performed for at least about 45 minutes. 
         [0050]    One or more further aspects of the invention can be directed to an aluminum article comprising an anodized partially microcrystalline coating, typically of at least about 0.05 mm. The anodized coating of at least about 0.05 mm can exhibit a Taber abrasion loss of less than about 109 mg as determined in accordance with ASTM 4060 after immersion in a sodium hydroxide solution at least about 0.04 wt % for 11 days at a temperature in a range of from about 15° C. to about 25° C. 
         [0051]    As used herein, the term “partially microcrystalline” refers to anodic coatings that exhibit less than complete crystalline character. Partially microcrystalline metal hydroxide or partially microcrystalline metal oxides typically exhibit a repeating pattern that can be from the crystalline oxide, crystalline hydroxide, or both. Further, some aspects of the invention can be relevant to anodic coatings with partial polymicrocrystalline character from polymicrocrystalline metal oxides, polymicrocrystalline metal hydroxides, or both. 
       EXAMPLES 
       [0052]    The function and advantages of these and other embodiments of the invention can be further understood from the examples below, which illustrate the benefits and/or advantages of the one or more systems and techniques of the invention but do not exemplify the full scope of the invention. 
         [0053]    In the examples, the partially microcrystalline anodic aluminum samples of the invention were prepared in accordance with the SANFORD QUANTUM® process. Samples were anodized in a solution of 250 gram/liter H 2 SO 4  which was held at 15° C.-21° C. A voltage of 14 VDC-18 VDC was applied. Samples were immersed in ambient nickel acetate solution for 20 minutes in an ultrasonic bath, followed by treatment in a 0.4 vol % NaOH solution having a pH of about 13 units, for about five minutes. Samples were then heat treated at 250° C. for one hour and finally immersed into a nickel acetate solution at 90° C. for 40 minutes. 
         [0054]    Conventional anodic aluminum samples were prepared by conventional type III hard anodizing process. Samples were anodized in a solution of 225 gram/Liter H 2 SO 4  which was held at −2° C.-0° C. A voltage of from 18 VDC to 33 VDC was applied. Samples were then sealed either using ambient nickel fluoride at 25° C. for 10 minutes or nickel acetate solution at 90° C. for 20 minutes. 
         [0055]    Double sealed aluminum samples were prepared by the SANFORD QUANTUM® process to provide a coating thickness of 0.05 mm. Samples were anodized in a solution of 250 gram/liter H 2 SO 4  which was held at 15° C.-21° C. A voltage of 14 VDC-18 VDC was applied. Samples were immersed in ambient nickel fluoride solution for 10 minutes and followed by nickel acetate solution at 90° C. for 20 minutes. 
       Example 1 
       [0056]    This example illustrates the resistance of conventional anodized aluminum substrate panels prepared according to the SANFORD QUANTUM® process to high pH conditions. 
         [0057]    Several 4 inch×4 inch samples of various aluminum alloy panel were anodized using the SANFORD QUANTUM® process with varying coating thickness. Table 1 shows run condition for three anodic coating steps. The samples were evaluated by using an ultrasonic bath filled with general purpose cleaner agent. 30 mL of PRO·PORTION™ ultrasonic cleaning agent, from Sultan Healthcare, Englewood, N.J., was mixed with about one gallon of deionized water to make ultrasonic cleaning bath. The pH of the solution pH was adjusted about 11.0±0.2 units and maintained by adding caustic as needed. Ultrasonic energy was applied for about four to six hours while maintaining the bath temperature constant by circulating the bath to an air blower. The cosmetic appearance and dye migration were measured to determine the fail and pass mode. Each of the samples was wiped with moderate pressure using a white cotton inspection glove or high quality paper wipe soaked with reagent grade Isopropyl alcohol. Failure mode was defined as a showing of any evidence of color bleeding on the glove or wipe. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Result of high pH alkaline ultrasonic cleaning 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 STEPS INVOLVED 
                 Results 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Coating 
                   
                 1st Metal 
                 Thermal 
                 2nd Metal 
                   
                 Dye 
               
               
                 Alloy 
                 Thickness, mm 
                 Dye 
                 Solution 
                 Synthesis 
                 Solution 
                 Appearance 
                 Migration 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 6061 
                 0.018 
                 All* 
                 Nickel Salt 
                 NA 
                 Steam Seal 
                 Fail 
                 Fail 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 for 35 min 
                   
                 for &gt;30 min 
               
               
                 5052 
                 0.018 
                 All 
                 Nickel Salt 
                 NA 
                 Steam Seal 
                 Fail 
                 Fail 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 for 35 min 
                   
                 for &gt;30 min 
               
               
                 6061 
                 0.013 
                 Bordeaux/ 
                 Nickel Fluoride 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 Fail 
                 Fail 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Purple 
                 for 15 min 
               
               
                 6061 
                 0.018 
                 Black 
                 Nickel Salt 
                 NA 
                 Nickel Fluoride 
                 Fail 
                 Fail 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 for 35 min 
                   
                 for 10 min 
               
               
                 5052 
                 0.015 
                 Black/Red 
                 Nickel Salt 
                 NA 
                 DI Boiling 
                 Fail 
                 Fail 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 for 30 min 
                   
                 Water 
               
               
                 6061 
                 0.030 
                 Black 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 Nickel Salt 
                 Fail 
                 Fail 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 for 35 min 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *blue, dark blue, red, black, green 
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 2 
       [0058]    This example compares the performance of a conventional anodic coating and the partially microcrystalline anodic coating in accordance with the present invention after exposure to high pH, alkaline conditions. 
         [0059]    Two aluminum racks were prepared by hard coating using (1) the partially microcrystalline coating of the invention and (2) black dyed conventional according to the nickel acetate seal method. Each of the racks was placed in a hot etch solution containing about 120 g/liter of sodium hydroxide at 140° F. (about 60° C.). Each of the solutions was vigorously agitated with air as illustrated in  FIG. 8A . 
         [0060]    The conventionally sealed aluminum rack was completely stripped off after about two minutes. However, the coating on the rack prepared by in accordance with the present invention maintained its properties after about 20 more minutes in the hot etch solution.  FIG. 8B  shows the aluminum racks (left-partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention, right-conventional nickel acetate seal) before immersion.  FIG. 8C  shows the aluminum racks after immersion for 2 minutes, the rack on the left, prepared to have the partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention, did not show etching whereas the coating of the rack on the right, prepared with conventional nickel acetate seal, was removed. As shown in  FIG. 8D , the rack, prepared to have the partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention, still had an acceptable coating even after immersion for 20 minutes in the alkaline bath. 
       Example 3 
       [0061]    This example compares the performance of a conventional anodic coating and the partially microcrystalline anodic coating in accordance with the present invention after exposure to medical sterilization conditions. 
         [0062]    Several 4 inch×4 inch sample panels were prepared to have the partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention along with conventional anodic panel samples. The sample was evaluated by using the Accelerated Sterilization Procedure (ASP) illustrated in  FIG. 9  which includes ultrasonic and autoclave operations. Sterilization involved transferring the sample into an ultrasonic system filled with general purpose cleaner solution. 30 mL of PRO·PORTION™ ultrasonic cleaning agent was mixed with about one gallon of deionized water to make ultrasonic cleaning bath. The pH of the solution was adjusted to be about 12.5±0.2 units and maintained by adding caustic. Ultrasonic energy was applied for about 45 minutes while maintaining the bath temperature constant. After ultrasonic cleaning, the sample panels were rinse with deionized water to remove cleaning solution. After rinsing, the sample panels were immersed into an enzymatic cleaning agent, RENUZME™ agent from Getinge USA, Inc., Rochester, N.Y., for about 30 second. The sample panels were then rinsed under deionized water for about 30 seconds to remove cleaning agent. After rinsing, the sample panels were autoclaves at 132° C. for 45 minutes. Each of the sample panels was sterilized by repeating the cycles for 4 times. Table 2 presents the results from the sterilization operations. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Steps Involved 
                 Failure mode 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1st Metal 
                 2nd Metal 
                 Appeared After 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Coating 
                 Salt 
                 Thermal 
                 Salt 
                 Cosmetic 
                 Dye 
               
               
                 Color 
                 Thickness, mm 
                 Solution 
                 Synthesis 
                 Solution 
                 Appearance 
                 Migration 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Blue 
                 0.018 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 Nickel Acetate: 
                 1 st   
                 1 st   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 35 min 
                 cycle 
                 cycle 
               
               
                 Dark 
                 0.015 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 Nickel Acetate: 
                 1 st   
                 1 st   
               
               
                 Blue 
                   
                   
                   
                 35 min 
                 cycle 
                 cycle 
               
               
                 Bordeaux 
                 0.015 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 Nickel Acetate: 
                 1 st   
                 1 st   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 35 min 
                 cycle 
                 cycle 
               
               
                 Green 
                 0.018 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 Nickel Acetate: 
                 1 st   
                 1 st   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 35 min 
                 cycle 
                 cycle 
               
               
                 Black 
                 0.015 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 Nickel Acetate: 
                 1 st   
                 1 st   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 35 min 
                 cycle 
                 cycle 
               
               
                 Black 
                 0.018 
                 Nickel Fluoride: 
                 NA 
                 Nickel Acetate: 
                 1 st   
                 1 st   
               
               
                   
                   
                 25 min and followed 
                   
                 35 min 
                 cycle 
                 cycle 
               
               
                   
                   
                 by pH = 13 
               
               
                 Black 
                 0.033 
                 NA 
                 NA 
                 Nickel Acetate: 
                 1 st   
                 1 st   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 35 min 
                 cycle 
                 cycle 
               
               
                 Black 
                 0.051 
                   
                 NA 
                 Nickel Acetate: 
                 1 st   
                 1 st   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 40 min 
                 cycle 
                 cycle 
               
               
                 Black 
                 0.051 
                 Nickel fluoride: 
                 At 
                 Nickel Acetate: 
                 Passed 
                 Passed 
               
               
                   
                   
                 25 min and followed 
                 250° C. 
                 35 min 
                 after 4 th   
                 after 4 th   
               
               
                   
                   
                 by pH = 13 w/ 
                 for 1 hr 
                   
                 cycles 
                 cycles 
               
               
                   
                   
                 surfactant 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 4 
       [0063]    This example compares the performance of a conventional anodic coating and the partially microcrystalline anodic coating in accordance with the present invention after exposure to dishwashing conditions. 
         [0064]    Sample aluminum panels with conventional hard coating as well as the partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention were prepared. The panels were placed in residential dishwashers during normal dishwashing cycles, about 60 to 90 minutes using commercially available dry detergents. Two 10 washing cycles were performed over 20 days. As presented in Table 3, which summarizes the observations and results, only the panel samples with the partially microcrystalline anodic coating finish showed no signs of functional or aesthetic property loss. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Coating 
                 Result on Cosmetic 
               
               
                 Sample ID 
                 Anodic Coating Process 
                 Thickness 
                 Appearance 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 NA HC 
                 Undyed conventional 
                 0.046 mm 
                 Failed 
               
               
                 NA HC 
                 Black dyed conventional 
                 0.046 mm 
                 Failed 
               
               
                 NA 
                 Undyed SANFORD 
                 0.046 mm 
                 Failed 
               
               
                   
                 QUANTUM ® 
               
               
                 NA 
                 Black dyed SANFORD 
                 0.046 mm 
                 Failed 
               
               
                   
                 QUANTUM ® 
               
               
                 SB 
                 Undyed, partially 
                 0.046 mm 
                 Passed 
               
               
                   
                 microcrystalline 
               
               
                 SB 
                 Black dyed, partially 
                 0.053 mm 
                 Passed 
               
               
                   
                 microcrystalline 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 5 
       [0065]    This example compares the performance of a conventional anodic coating and the partially microcrystalline anodic coating in accordance with the present invention after soaking in a solution of 0.04% sodium hydroxide. 
         [0066]    Two aluminum samples were prepared with the partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention. A conventional aluminum anodic coating sample panel was also prepared. The surface of each of the sample panels was scratched by scuffing with a metal grate. The scratched panels were soaked in a 0.04% solution of sodium hydroxide and water (pH of 11.6 to 12.3) for 24 hours. The panels were abraded and soaked for 3 or more cycles and the cosmetic appearance of each was evaluated after each cycle by scratching the surface using metal grate. Table 4 presents the observations after scratching. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Abrasion and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Cosmetic Failure 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Mode Appearance 
               
               
                 ID 
                 Process 
                 Coating Thickness 
                 Cycles 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 NA 
                 Undyed conventional 
                 0.051-0.061 mm 
                 1st 
               
               
                 SB 
                 Undyed, partially 
                 0.051-0.061 mm 
                 &gt;3rd 
               
               
                   
                 microcrystalline anodic 
               
               
                   
                 coating 
               
               
                 SB 
                 Black dyed, partially 
                 0.051-0.061 mm 
                 &gt;3rd 
               
               
                   
                 microcrystalline anodic 
               
               
                   
                 coating 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 6 
       [0067]    This example evaluates conventional anodic coatings and the partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention after exposure to low pH conditions, sulfuric acid immersion. 
         [0068]    Aluminum samples were prepared with the partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention. Three conventional anodic coating samples using different seal conditions were prepared from 1 inch×1 inch 6061 aluminum alloy coupons. The coating thickness and weight of each of the samples was determined according to ASTM B 137. The samples were soaked in 0.71 vol % aqueous sulfuric acid solution, having a pH of 0.8 units, for 24 hours. The coating thickness and weight were measured after immersion in the sulfuric acid solution and compared with initial values. The results and observations of the samples are presented in Table 5. The data notes that all three conventional anodic coatings were completely dissociated in the aqueous sulfuric solution, i.e., the mass of the coatings were completely removed from the aluminum surface. Further, bare aluminum appeared to be attacked by the acid solution as indicated by a negative weight loss. In contrast, the partially microcrystalline anodic coating aluminum sample of the present invention showed a coating thickness loss of 20% and weight loss of 31%. Furthermore, the partially microcrystalline anodic coating sample of the invention appeared to maintain its hardness and integrity. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
             
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Coating Thickness, 
                 Coating Mass, 
               
               
                   
                 mm 
                 grams 
               
             
          
           
               
                 ID 
                 Process 
                 Before 
                 After 
                 Before 
                 After 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Invention 
                 Partially 
                 0.044 
                 0.036 
                 0.2642 
                 0.1812 
               
               
                   
                 microcrystal- 
               
               
                   
                 line Anodizing 
               
               
                 Convention 
                 Classic Hardcoat 
                 0.051 
                 0.0 
                 0.2624 
                 −0.4910 
               
               
                   
                 followed by 
               
               
                   
                 nickel acetate 
               
               
                   
                 seal 
               
               
                 Convention 
                 Quantum 
                 0.044 
                 0.0 
                 0.2312 
                 −0.3349 
               
               
                   
                 Hardcoat 
               
               
                   
                 followed by 
               
               
                   
                 nickel acetate 
               
               
                   
                 seal 
               
               
                 Convention 
                 Quantum 
                 0.043 
                 0.0 
                 0.2246 
                 −0.3658 
               
               
                   
                 Hardcoat 
               
               
                   
                 followed by 
               
               
                   
                 nickel 
               
               
                   
                 fluoride seal 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 7 
       [0069]    This example compares the abrasion resistance of a conventional anodic aluminum coating and the partially microcrystalline anodic aluminum coating of the invention. 
         [0070]    Taber abrasion among the three samples, a partially microcrystalline anodic aluminum sample of the invention, a double sealed anodic aluminum sample (prepared by nickel fluoride treatment followed by nickel acetate treatment), and a conventional anodic aluminum coating having coating thickness of 0.05 mm (2.0 mil), were evaluated after soaking each in sodium hydroxide for 3 and 11 days at ambient temperature. 
         [0071]      FIG. 10A  is a copy of a photograph of the 3 days old double sealed anodic aluminum sample after performing the Taber procedure. It indicated entire coating thickness loss showing bare aluminum surface in the abrasion area. 
         [0072]    The 11 days old partially microcrystalline anodic aluminum sample of the invention had less coating thickness loss from 0.05 mm (2.0 mil) to 0.038 mm (1.5 mil) after performing the Taber procedure.  FIG. 10B  is a copy of a photograph showing the appearance of 3 days old conventional anodic coating after abrasion testing and  FIG. 10C  a copy of a photograph showing the appearance of the 11 days old partially microcrystalline anodic coating after abrasion testing. 
       Example 8 
       [0073]    This example evaluates the phase transformation of metal hydroxide product into metal oxide solids via thermal treatment during the partially microcrystalline anodic coating of the invention. 
         [0074]    Metal salt solution including nickel acetate having 5.0 wt % was prepared as illustrated in  FIG. 11A . The pH of the solution was increased to about 10.0 units by adding aqueous sodium hydroxide, NaOH, solution. The solution became greenish turbid, which is indicative of nickel hydroxide precipitation, as illustrated in  FIG. 11B . The precipitate was filtered using a No. 40 Whatman filter paper, as illustrated in  FIG. 11C . The filter paper with the precipitate was dried at 60° C. for 1 hour. The dried green colored precipitate, nickel hydroxide, was collected in a weigh dish as illustrated in  FIG. 11D  and heated in an oven at 250° C. for 1 hour. 
         [0075]    The green precipitate became black particles after the thermal treatment. The black particles are believed to be nickel oxide, Ni 2 O 3 .  FIG. 11E  shows the green precipitate (on the left) before thermal synthesis, showing greenish color particles, nickel hydroxide, and the thermally treated particles (on the right) which are black color particles of nickel oxide. 
         [0076]    Having now described some illustrative embodiments of the invention, it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the foregoing is merely illustrative and not limiting, having been presented by way of example only. Numerous modifications and other embodiments are within the scope of one of ordinary skill in the art and are contemplated as falling within the scope of the invention. In particular, although many of the examples presented herein involve specific combinations of method acts or system elements, it should be understood that those acts and those elements may be combined in other ways to accomplish the same objectives. 
         [0077]    Those skilled in the art should appreciate that the parameters and configurations described herein are exemplary and that actual parameters and/or configurations will depend on the specific application in which the systems and techniques of the invention are used. Those skilled in the art should also recognize or be able to ascertain, using no more than routine experimentation, equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention. It is therefore to be understood that the embodiments described herein are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto; the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described. 
         [0078]    Moreover, it should also be appreciated that the invention is directed to each feature, system, subsystem, or technique described herein and any combination of two or more features, systems, subsystems, or techniques described herein and any combination of two or more features, systems, subsystems, and/or methods, if such features, systems, subsystems, and techniques are not mutually inconsistent, is considered to be within the scope of the invention as embodied in the claims. Further, acts, elements, and features discussed only in connection with one embodiment are not intended to be excluded from a similar role in other embodiments. 
         [0079]    As used herein, the term “plurality” refers to two or more items or components. The terms “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” and “involving,” whether in the written description or the claims and the like, are open-ended terms, i.e., to mean “including but not limited to.” Thus, the use of such terms is meant to encompass the items listed thereafter, and equivalents thereof, as well as additional items. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of,” are closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, with respect to the claims. Use of ordinal terms such as “first,” “second,” “third,” and the like in the claims to modify a claim element does not by itself connote any priority, precedence, or order of one claim element over another or the temporal order in which acts of a method are performed, but are used merely as labels to distinguish one claim element having a certain name from another element having a same name (but for use of the ordinal term) to distinguish the claim elements.