Abstract:
A piezoelectric resonator is disclosed. In one embodiment the piezoelectric resonator includes a resonating member having a bi-directionally adjustable resonance frequency, the resonating member including a semiconductor material of a semiconductor-on-insulator wafer, the semiconductor-on-insulator wafer including an oxide layer adjacent to the semiconductor material and a handle layer adjacent to the oxide layer, the oxide layer disposed between the handle layer and the semiconductor material, and electrode, and a piezoelectric material disposed between the semiconductor material and the electrode, and a capacitor created by the semiconductor material and the handle layer separated by an air gap formed out of the oxide layer, wherein the capacitor is configured to receive a direct current voltage that adjusts the resonance frequency of the resonating member.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
   This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/400,030, filed Aug. 1, 2002, which is entirely incorporated herein by reference. 
   This application is related to copending U.S. Utility patent application entitled “Capacitive Resonators and Methods of Fabrication,” Ser. No. 10/632,176, filed on the same date. 

   STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
   The U.S. government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of Contract No. DAAH01-01-1-R004 awarded by the U.S. Army. 

   TECHNICAL FIELD 
   The present invention is generally related to MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) technology, and, more particularly, is related to piezoelectric resonators. 
   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   Advanced consumer electronics such as miniature radios and wristwatch cellular phones pose severe limitations on the size and cost of frequency selective units contained therein. MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) resonators are receiving increased attention as building blocks for integrated filters and frequency references to replace bulky, off-chip ceramic and SAW (surface acoustic wave) devices, among others. Small size, low power consumption and ease of integration with microelectronic circuits constitute the major advantages of MEMS resonators. 
   Several all-silicon resonators with capacitive transduction mechanisms are known, revealing high mechanical quality factors (Q) and optimal performance in the IF (intermediate frequency) and VHF (very high frequency) range. However to reduce the motional resistance of such capacitive resonators for higher frequency applications, gap spacing on the order of nanometer dimensions are often required, which can complicate the fabrication process for these devices. 
   Piezoelectric Film Bulk Acoustic Resonators (FBAR), characterized by a lower motional resistance than their capacitive counterparts, have proven to be suitable for UHF (Ultra-high frequency) applications. However, FBAR resonators generally have low quality factors and no electrostatic fine-tuning capabilities. Further, fabrication methods for these devices are limited practically in their ability to create thick and/or uniform mechanical layers due in part to the long processing times associated with fabrication of thick substrates. 
   Thus, a need exists in the industry to address the aforementioned and/or other deficiencies and/or inadequacies. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   Embodiments of the present invention provide piezoelectric resonators. 
   Briefly described, one embodiment of the piezoelectric resonator, among others, includes a resonating member having a bi-directionally adjustable resonance frequency, the resonating member including a semiconductor material of a semiconductor-on-insulator wafer, the semiconductor-on-insulator wafer including an oxide layer adjacent to the semiconductor material and a handle layer adjacent to the oxide layer, the oxide layer disposed between the handle layer and the semiconductor material, an electrode, and a piezoelectric material disposed between the semiconductor material and the electrode, and a capacitor created by the semiconductor material and the handle layer separated by an air gap formed out of the oxide layer, wherein the capacitor is configured to receive a direct current voltage that adjusts the resonance frequency of the resonating member. 
   Other systems, methods, features, and advantages of the present invention will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following drawings and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the present invention, and be protected by the accompanying claims. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     Many aspects of the invention can be better understood with reference to the following drawings. The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the present invention. Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views. 
       FIG. 1  is a schematic diagram that illustrates one exemplary implementation for the embodiments of the invention. 
       FIGS. 2A-2C  are schematic diagrams that illustrate several piezoelectric beam resonator embodiments. 
       FIG. 3  is a schematic diagram that illustrates a piezoelectric block resonator embodiment. 
       FIG. 4A  is a flow diagram that illustrates one method embodiment for fabricating the piezo electric resonator embodiments shown in  FIGS. 2A-3 . 
       FIGS. 4B-4E  are schematic diagrams that illustrate the method shown in FIG.  4 A. 
       FIG. 5  is a schematic diagram that illustrates an equivalent electrical circuit for the piezoelectric resonator embodiments of  FIGS. 2A-3 . 
       FIG. 6  is a graph that illustrates resonance frequency as a function of direct current (DC) voltage for the piezoelectric resonator embodiments of  FIGS. 2A-3 . 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
   Embodiments of piezoelectric resonators and methods for fabricating the same are disclosed. In general, the piezoelectric resonator embodiments include voltage tunable, piezoelectrically-transduced, high-mechanical Q (Quality Factor) semiconductor resonators (or resonating element) derived at least in part from semiconductor-on-insulator (SOI) substrates. The embodiments of the invention include substantially all semiconductor materials for the resonating element, such as germanium, silicon, among others. Further, the embodiments of the invention include substantially all semiconductor materials in a variety of crystal alignments or configurations, including single crystal structures, poly structures, amorphous structures, among others. Q can generally be described as a measure of energy stored in a system divided by the energy dissipated in the system. Q can be characterized in terms of frequency response of a resonator, such as the ratio of the center frequency (f 0 ) to the 3-dB (decibel) bandwidth of the resonator device. An active piezoelectric thin-film material, such as zinc-oxide (ZnO), aluminum nitride (AlN), lead zirconate titanate (PZT), etc., is disposed between an electrode (e.g., comprised of a metal such as aluminum) and a low resistivity silicon or other semiconductor material. One mechanism for choosing an appropriate piezoelectric material can be based on selecting a higher product value of the combination of the material&#39;s Young&#39;s modulus and piezoelectric coefficient. The thin piezoelectric film provides for high electromechanical coupling and/or provides for small equivalent motional resistance (e.g., equivalent resistance of the device in the electrical domain), hence reducing noise problems and enhancing filter designability. In one embodiment, the resonating element can be substantially made out of single crystal silicon (SCS), which has a higher inherent mechanical Q than bulk piezoelectrics. Functions of actuation and sensing are preferably achieved by piezoelectric mechanisms. In other words, the piezoelectric material or thin film functions as the transduction element of the device. 
   Through the use of the SOI substrate, piezoelectric actuation mechanisms can be combined with electrostatic fine-tuning for the center frequency of a given resonator. For example, by applying a DC voltage to a capacitor located between a handle layer of the SOI substrate and the resonator body (e.g., SCS device layer) it is possible to introduce “electrical stiffness” through the action of the capacitance, hence modifying the equivalent stiffness of the beam. In other words, when an electrical field is applied, it is equivalent to applying a defined force that causes a deflection of the resonating element, which in turn causes a change in the internal stress or stiffness of the resonating element. 
   The following description will guide the reader through several embodiments of a piezoelectric resonator, a method of fabricating the same, and provide performance characteristics of such devices. 
   The preferred embodiments of the invention may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those having ordinary skill in the art. For example, although the embodiments of the invention can be used with substantially any semiconductor substrate and/or piezoelectric material, the preferred embodiments of the invention will be described using an SCS resonating element and a ZnO thin film for the piezoelectric material, with the understanding that other semiconductor materials in different crystal alignments or structures and/or different piezoelectric material are also included within the scope of the invention. 
     FIG. 1  is a schematic diagram that illustrates one exemplary implementation for the embodiments of the invention. Select receiver components of a communication device  120  are shown, with the understanding that transmitter components can also benefit from the embodiments of the invention. The communication device  120  can include a portable transceiver, such as a cellular phone, among other devices. The communication device  120  includes an antenna  102 , piezoelectric resonator devices  100   a - 100   c  configured as frequency selective filters, low-noise amplifiers  106  and  114 , mixers  108  and  116 , voltage-controlled oscillators  110  and  118 , and a frequency reference piezoelectric resonator device  100   d.  All components shown except for resonator devices  100   a - 100   d  are known, and thus further explanation is omitted for brevity. The use of piezoelectric resonators  100   a - 100   d  can result in a reduction in the number of components in the communication device  120 . Piezoelectric resonators  100   a - 100   d  are very selective at high frequencies, thus substantially obviating the need for pre-amplifler selection and other frequency transformation and/or amplification devices that operate to provide signal processing at frequencies that current devices most efficiently operate under. The piezoelectric resonator devices of the preferred embodiments possess high quality factors at high frequencies, enabling frequency selection with substantially fewer components. 
     FIGS. 2A-2C  are schematic diagrams that illustrate several piezoelectric beam resonator embodiments.  FIG. 2A  is a schematic diagram of a first embodiment configured as a clamped-clamped resonator beam  200   a . The clamped-clamped resonator beam  200   a  includes a handle layer  202 , an oxide layer  204 , a device layer  206 , a piezoelectric layer  208 , a drive electrode  210 , and a sense electrode  212  a The “clamped” regions  201  and  203  correspond to the location where the SOI substrate is secured to the underlying handle layer  202 , which in turn can be secured to a printed circuit board, among other devices. In some embodiments, the underlying handle layer  202  is the substrate in an integrated circuit, to which the SOI portion is secured. The “beam” region  205 , having a length “L,” spans between the two clamped regions  201  and  203 , and includes the portion of the piezoelectric resonator  200   a  that is free to vibrate. The device layer  206  and the oxide layer  204  collectively represent the SOI substrate. Some exemplary thicknesses of the device layer  206  (e.g., Ts) can range from approximately 4.0-5.0 microns, although different thickness ranges are possible (e.g., 0.2 microns-30 microns). Some exemplary thicknesses of the oxide layer  204  range from approximately 1.0-5 microns. The handle layer  202  provides mechanical support for the clamped-clamped beam resonator  200   a . The piezoelectric layer  208  is disposed in precise locations between the electrodes  210  and  212   a  and the device layer  206 . The piezoelectric layer  208  can have a thickness of 0.2 microns-0.3 microns, as one example range. The device layer  206  can be a low resistivity SCS substrate, with higher quality silicon (e.g., zero or substantially zero defects) situated in the upper region of the device layer  206 . The electrodes  210  and  212   a  can be comprised of aluminum, among other metals, and example thicknesses include a range of 0.1-0.2 microns. The absence of a bottom metal electrode (e.g., a bottom electrode is conventionally used for piezoelectric devices) reduces the number of stacked layers, which could ultimately affect the mechanical Q of the resonator. 
   In operation, an alternating current (AC) voltage (source not shown) can be applied at the drive electrode  210  according to well-known mechanisms. Responsively, the piezoelectric layer  208  produces a distributed moment, which causes the beam  205  to deflect in the “z” direction (e.g., out-of-plane deflections). The deflection is sensed at the sense electrode  212   a  as a result of the piezoelectric effect. 
   Well-known admittance models of a doubly-clamped piezoelectric beam resonator can be used with modification to model the behavior of the clamped-clamped resonator beam  200   a . The electromechanical coupling coefficients at the drive electrode  210 , η in , in and at the sense electrode  212   a, η   out  of the clamped-clamped resonator beam  200   a  are expressed by: 
               η     i   ⁢           ⁢   n       =           d   31     ⁢     E   p     ⁢     T   s       2     ⁢       ∫   0   L     ⁢         W   i   ″     ⁡     (   x   )       ⁢     Φ   ⁡     (   x   )       ⁢           ⁢     ⅆ   x                   (     Eq   .           ⁢   1     )                 η   out     =       -         d   31     ⁢     E   p     ⁢     T   s       2       ⁢       ∫   0   L     ⁢         W   0     ⁡     (   x   )       ⁢       Φ   ″     ⁡     (   x   )       ⁢           ⁢     ⅆ   x                   (     Eq   .           ⁢   2     )             
 
where d 31  is the transverse piezoelectric coefficient, E p  is the modulus of elasticity of ZnO, and Φ(x) is the function describing the mode shape of the clamped-clamped resonator beam  200   a . Note that slightly different equations for piezoelectric resonator blocks apply, as would be understood by those having ordinary skill in the art. Ts is the height of the device layer  206 . The equivalent motional resistance of the resonating element (e.g., the beam  205 ) depends on the squared inverse of the electromechanical coupling. Therefore the values of η in  and η out  are preferably maximized to achieve low values of the motional resistance. The maximum value of the two integrals in Eqs. 1 and 2 occurs for electrode edges placed at inflection points of the beam mode shape. In one embodiment, the inflection points coincide with 22.4% and 77.6% of the beam length. Therefore the final input to output admittance, Y oi , of an SCS resonator (i.e., a resonator that includes a device layer comprised of SCS) with piezoelectric transduction becomes: 
               Y     o   ⁢           ⁢   i       =           (       2.49   ·     d   31       ⁢     E   p     ⁢     T   s     ⁢     W   L       )     2     ⁢   s           M   1     ⁢     s   2       +           M   1     ⁢     ω   n       Q     ⁢   s     +     K   1                 (     Eq   .           ⁢   3     )             
 
where M 1  and K 1  are first mode equivalent mass and stiffness of the micromechanical resonator, ω n  is the natural resonance frequency of the beam, s is the Laplace variable, and W is the width of the electrodes  210  and  212   a.  If the thickness of the piezoelectric layer  208  is negligible compared to the height, Ts, of the silicon material of the resonator body, the resonance frequency can be approximately expressed by the equation for a beam with isotropic properties: 
               f   0     =     1.03   ⁢       T   s       L   2       ⁢         E   s       ρ   s                   (     Eq   .           ⁢   4     )             
 
where E s  and ρ s  are respectively the modulus of elasticity and the density of silicon.
 
     FIG. 2B  is a schematic diagram of a second embodiment configured as a clamped-clamped resonator beam  200   b  with the piezoelectric layer  208  etched away. Layers similar to  202 - 206  and electrodes  210  and  212   a  of  FIG. 2A  are the same as shown in FIG.  2 B and thus are not discussed here for clarity. The piezoelectric layer  208  is etched in approximately the middle span of the beam  205  to reduce the effective covering of the beam  205  by the piezoelectric layer  208 , thus exposing a surface of the device layer  206 . Reducing the effective covering of the beam  205  by the piezoelectric layer  208  can enhance the mechanical Q of the piezoelectric beam resonator  200   b  (e.g., experimentally proven to at least double the mechanical Q when compared to the embodiment illustrated in FIG.  2 A). 
     FIG. 2C  is a schematic diagram of a third embodiment configured as a clamped-clamped resonator beam  200   c  with a sensing electrode  212   b  that extends further along the beam  205  than the sensing electrode  212   a  of  FIGS. 2A-2B . The extending of the sensing electrode  212   b  covers the area where the strains have the same sign, thus maximizing the sensed strains and providing for improved sensing capability. The sensing electrode  212   b  extends over the middle span of the beam  205 , with the edges located at the inflection points of the beam mode shape. The sensing electrode  212   b  may cover approximately twice the area covered by the sensing electrode  212   a.    
     FIG. 3  is a schematic diagram that illustrates another embodiment in the form of a piezoelectric block resonator  300 . The piezoelectric block resonator  300  includes a handle layer  302 , an oxide layer  304 , a device layer  306 , a piezoelectric layer  308 , a drive electrode  310 , and a sense electrode  312 . As shown, the piezoelectric block resonator  300  has a structural configuration that includes a main block  305  centrally supported by self-aligned small tether regions  301  and  303 . The resonating element can be comprised of SCS, which has a high inherent mechanical quality factor and stress-free properties. The piezoelectric layer  308  can be comprised of a thin ZnO film that can be sputtered on the top surface of the device layer  306 . The ZnO film functions as an insulator between the electrodes  310 ,  312  and the device layer  306 . The piezoelectric layer  308  enables piezoelectric sense and actuation. The drive electrode  310  and the sense electrode  312  can be comprised of aluminum. The drive electrode  310  and sense electrode  312  are configured in a manner to be excited longitudinally (e.g., in-plane displacement), providing for higher frequencies and high order modes. The oxide layer  304  is absent underneath all areas of the piezoelectric block resonator  300  except for the regions substantially under the drive and sense electrode (or pads)  310  and  312  at the end of the tethers  301  and  303 . The absence of the oxide layer  304  under these regions enables high frequency, in-plane movement characteristic of the piezoelectric block resonator  300  of the preferred embodiments. 
   Pure and quasi-length extensional modes can be observed for piezoelectric block resonators  300  of varying lengths. The frequencies of the pure extensional modes for the piezoelectric block resonator  300  are given by equation (5): 
               ω   n     =           (       2   ⁢   n     -   1     )     ⁢   π       2   ⁢           ⁢   l       ⁢       E     ρ   s         ⁢           ⁢   n   ⁢           ⁢   is   ⁢           ⁢   mode   ⁢           ⁢   number   ⁢           ⁢     (     n   =     1   ,   2   ,   3   ,           ⁢   …       )               (     Eq   .           ⁢   5     )             
 
The use of higher order modes of vibration for the piezoelectric block resonator  300  enables high frequency operation because the natural frequency grows as (2n−1). Further, the use of a block-type structure results in a structure whereby the dimensions of the structure can be kept in a range that can be easily fabricated using optical lithography. Equivalent motional resistance is reduced for this structure, due in part to the high electromechanical coupling factor attributed by piezoelectric transduction. Thus, the signal-to-noise ratio is improved over other transduction devices, such as capacitive devices.
 
     FIG. 4A  is a flow diagram that illustrates one method for fabricating the piezoelectric resonator embodiments shown in  FIGS. 2A-3 . Note that the method is based on one implementation, and that alternate implementations are included within the scope of the preferred embodiments of the invention such that steps can be omitted, added to, and/or executed out of order from that shown or discussed, as would be understood by those reasonably skilled in the art of the present invention.  FIGS. 4B-4E  are schematic diagrams that are used in cooperation with  FIG. 4A  to illustrate some of the structural changes that occur during the fabrication method. In general, the fabrication method of the preferred embodiments includes a simple three-mask process that can be used as a fabrication technology for SCS (or other) microelectromechanical resonators used for piezoelectric transduction. Structures similar to or the same as those shown for the clamped-clamped resonator beam  200   b  of  FIG. 2B  are used as a non-limiting example, with the understanding that the process applies similarly to the other embodiments shown in  FIGS. 2B ,  2 C and  3 . As shown in  FIG. 4B , structure  400   a  comprises a handle layer  202  adjacent to a semiconductor-on-insulator (SOI) substrate. The SOI substrate comprises an oxide layer  204  and a device layer  206 . The oxide layer  204 , as described above, is disposed between the handle layer  202  and the device layer  206 . 
   The device layer  206  can be comprised of a SCS structure. SCS structures can be made in a wide variety of defined thicknesses. A thicker device layer  206  translates to a wider frequency range. In contrast, conventional systems may use SiO 2 , which is typically deposited and thus has larger constraints to increasing thickness since the barrier to oxidation increases as the thickness increases. 
   Referring to  FIGS. 4A and 4B , step  401  includes etching trenches  420   a ,  420   b  in the device layer  206  of the SOI substrate. This etching step defines the resonator body. In one embodiment, the trenches  420   a ,  420   b  are etched to the oxide layer  204 , and have a width of approximately 4 micro-meters (μm). The etching can be performed using reactive ion etching (RIE), such as regular RIE (e.g., for depths of 4-5 microns), or deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) (e.g., for depths greater than 10 microns) using the Bosch process, among other processes. The height of the silicon layer (device layer  206 ) of the beam  205  (FIG.  2 A), for example Ts of  FIG. 2A , is defined by the thickness of the device layer  206 . As one example, the device layer  206  of the selected SOI can be p-type, with low resistivity, a &lt;100&gt; orientation, and with a nominal thickness of 4±1 μm. Further, the oxide layer  204  can be 1 μm thick and the handle layer  202  can be n-type, having a &lt;100&gt; orientation with a nominal thickness of 400 μm. The choice of an n-type substrate does not necessarily depend on particular design parameters, but primarily on substrate availability. 
   Referring to  FIGS. 4A and 4C , step  403  includes etching the oxide layer  204  of the SOI substrate to form structure  400   b . In other words, a cavity is opened underneath the device layer  206 . For example, the cavity can be created by isotropic etching of the oxide layer  204  in hydro-flouric acid (HF) solution having a molar concentration of approximately 49%, among other solutions and/or molar concentrations. This etching step provides for a small gap (e.g., approximately 1 μm) that can be used for capacitive fine-tuning of the beam center frequency. 
   Referring to  FIGS. 4A and 4D , step  405  includes applying a piezoelectric material to the SOI substrate to form structure  400   c . For example, a piezoelectric material, such as ZnO, can be sputter-deposited on the SOI substrate to form a piezoelectric layer  208 . Other options for applying include high-temperature growth of the ZnO, among others. ZnO is an acceptable choice for the piezoelectric material because of its well-known process of fabrication and ease of integration with current microelectronics. In fact, no high temperature processes are involved in all the fabrication steps described herein. Thus, integration with actual CMOS (complementary-metal-oxide-silicon) technology could be simply implemented as a post-CMOS process. Exemplary deposition parameters can include a temperature of 250° C. for the SOI substrate, a pressure of 6 mTorr, an Ar to O 2  mix ratio of 0.5, and a power level of 300 W. 
   Referring again to  FIGS. 4A and 4D , step  407  includes the patterning of the piezoelectric material. For example, ZnO can be patterned by wet etching using ammonium chloride (NH 4 Cl), 5% at 55° C. NH 4 Cl is a good choice in that it has a very slow etch rate (50 Å/s) and enables the definition of small features, avoiding severe lateral undercutting. Note that for embodiments where the piezoelectric material is not etched (e.g., the piezoelectric resonator embodiments shown in FIGS.  2 A and  2 C), step  407  can be omitted. Further, in some embodiments, an additional step can include providing an adhesion layer (e.g., a metal) to improve the adhesion of the piezoelectric material. 
   Referring to  FIGS. 4A and 4E , step  409  includes providing an electrode  410  (e.g., such as electrodes  210  and/or  212   a,b  of  FIG. 2 ) to the piezoelectric material (i.e., piezoelectric layer  208 ). In one embodiment, the electrode  410  is defined by a third mask using lift-off (e.g., lifting off portions not needed using a sacrificial layer). For example, 1,000 Å of aluminum can be deposited by electron-beam evaporation. Keeping the thickness of the ZnO and Al layers as low as possible can provide for maximum mechanical Q, in addition to avoiding or mitigating any detrimental effects due to stacked layers of different materials. 
   Piezoelectric resonators fabricated using the above-described method were tested in a custom-built vacuum chamber capable of pressures as low as 10 μTorr. 
   A low-noise JFET (junction field-effect transistor) source-follower with a gain stage was used to interface with the piezoelectric resonators of the preferred embodiments. The sensing interface was built on a printed circuit board (PCB) using surface mount components. The piezoelectric resonator was mounted on the board and wire-bonded. The frequency spectra of the resonators were attained by using a network analyzer. 
   Table 1 below lists the frequency responses taken from the network analyzer for a 100 μm long, 20 μm wide clamped-clamped beam and a 200 μm long, 20 μm wide clamped-clamped beam fabricated using the above method and illustrated by the embodiment shown in FIG.  2 B. The peak frequency values for 1 st , 3 rd , 5 th , and/or 6 th  resonance modes were determined, the peak values representing the mechanical resonance of the piezoelectric resonator. One purpose for evaluating for higher resonance modes (e.g., harmonics) is to evaluate the quality factor at these higher frequencies. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 1 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               (beam-style) 
             
           
        
         
             
               Dimensions 
                 
               Q 
             
           
        
         
             
               length 
               width 
                 
                 
                 
                 
               (Quality 
             
             
               (μm) 
               (μm) 
               F 0 -1 st   
               F 0 -3rd 
               F 0 -5th 
               F 0 -6th 
               Factor) 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
               100 
               20 
               1.72 MHz 
                 
                 
                 
               6200 
             
             
               200 
               20 
               .721 MHz 
                 
                 
                 
               5400 
             
             
               200 
               20 
                 
               3.29 MHz 
                 
                 
               5300 
             
             
               200 
               20 
                 
                 
               4.87 MHz 
                 
               3000 
             
             
               200 
               20 
                 
                 
                 
               6.70 MHz 
               2400 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   As shown in the first row entry of Table 1, the resonator having a length of 100 μm and a width of 20 μm has a center frequency of 1.72 MHz and shows a quality factor of 6,200 at a pressure of approximately 50 mTorr. Piezoelectric resonators with different configurations (e.g., the embodiment shown in  FIG. 2A ) were tested and showed Qs about two times smaller, in the order of 3,000. Such high values of the quality factor confirm that the choice of SCV as the resonating material is an optimal choice. Further, actuation voltages as low as 700 μV (e.g., the minimum value enabled by the network analyzer) can excite the piezoelectric resonators, which can show a dynamic range of approximately 45 dB or better. 
   The piezoelectric resonators of the preferred embodiments can be operated in higher order modes, hence enabling higher frequencies. The placement of the electrodes can be optimized for operation in the fundamental mode. Some high order modes have inflection points within the electrode region, which decimates the charge build-up from the piezoelectric material. Therefore, some of the high order modes cannot be sensed. With the increased degrees of freedom, there are additional high order modes. The frequency responses of a 200 μm long beam in its 1 st -6 th  mode are also shown in Table 1. A Q of 5,400 at 0.721 MHz was shown at the first resonance mode. A Q of 5,300 at 3.29 MHz was measured for the third resonance mode, with no substantial decrease from the first mode quality factor. The Qs for the fifth and sixth modes, respectively at 4.87 MHz and 6.7 MHz, are approximately halved: a Q of 3,000 was recorded for the fifth mode and a Q of 2,400 for the sixth mode. Thus, as shown in Table 1, by exciting the harmonics, high quality factors (e.g., over 1000) were achieved. 
   Table 2 below lists the first and second order frequency responses taken from the network analyzer for piezoelectric block resonators, similar to or the same as the embodiment shown in FIG.  3 . In particular, piezoelectric block resonators having a thickness of 4-5 μm and dimensions of (a) 480 μm length×120 μm width, (b) 120 μm length×40 μm width, and (c) 240 μn length×20 μm width were tested in an approximately 50 mTorr vacuum, similar to the test arrangement described in association with Table 1. Note that for piezoelectric block resonators of the preferred embodiments, frequency response is not a function of block thickness. Such a feature substantially alleviates the need for uniform substrate thickness. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 2 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               (block-style) 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Dimensions 
                 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               length 
               width 
                 
                 
             
             
                 
               (μm) 
               (μm) 
               F 0 -1 st  and 2 nd   
               Q (Quality Factor) 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               480 
               120 
                66.6 MHz 
               5500 
             
             
                 
               480 
               120 
               195 MHz 
               4700 
             
             
                 
               120 
               40 
                35 MHz 
               4500 
             
             
                 
               120 
               40 
               104 MHz 
               4500 
             
             
                 
               240 
               20 
                16.9 MHz 
               11,600 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   As shown, the 480 μm×120 μm piezoelectric block resonators demonstrated high-Q resonant peaks at 66.6 MHz (with Q of 5,500) and 195 MHz (with Q of 4,700) in a 50 mTorr vacuum. These peaks correspond to two quasi-length-extensional mode shapes of the 480×120 μm block. It should be noted that these quasi-extensional modes cannot be calculated using equation (5) above as they show substantial thickness modulation. When testing operation in air, the Q of the 67 MHz peak was reduced only by a factor of 1.25 compared to its Q in vacuum. Higher order modes were also observed in testing. 
   For the 120 μm×40 μm block resonator, the first and second extensional modes were measured at 35 MHz and 104 MHz (with Q of 4,500), which is in good agreement with theoretical values calculated using equation (5). The highest Q measured for the block resonators was 11,600, which has been measured for the first extensional mode of a 240 μm×20 μm block at 17 MHz. ANSYS simulations were also performed that verified the observed resonant peaks for the data shown in Table 1 and Table 2. 
     FIG. 5  shows a circuit arrangement  500  including an equivalent circuit  502  for modeling the resonance behavior of a piezoelectric beam and block resonators of the preferred embodiments and a trans-resistance amplifier circuit  504  that can be used in conjunction with the equivalent circuit  502 . As shown, the equivalent circuit  502  includes an input voltage (V in ) which corresponds to the potential at a drive electrode. Vin can be, for example, 1 millivolts (mV) to 100 mV. The equivalent circuit  502  includes parasitic capacitance (C p ) associated with the capacitance between the bonding pads and ground. The feed-through capacitance, C FT  corresponds to the capacitance between the input and output port (e.g., the distance between the electrodes located on the beam  205  of FIG.  2 A). The body of the resonator (e.g., resonating element) can be modeled with the series capacitor (C m ), resistor (R m ), and inductor (L m ). For example, the frequency response of the mechanical resonator is determined by:
   f= 1/[(2π( LC ) 1/2 ]  (Eq. 6) 
The assumption made for the equivalent circuit  502  is that the sense electrode is at virtual ground, enabling modeling as a unilateral device. The output current (i out ) is provided to a high impedance device, such as the operational amplifier of the trans-resistance amplifier circuit  504 , where a voltage drop is created across the resistor, R, of the trans-resistance amplifier  504 . The value of the voltage is implementation-dependent. The larger the value of R of the trans-resistance amplifier  504  and/or the smaller the output current, the larger the output voltage (V out ).
 
   Electro-static fine-tuning is enabled by the structure of the piezoelectric resonators of the preferred embodiments. In general, tuning is performed by the application of a DC voltage across a capacitor located between the device layer and the handle layer of a piezoelectric resonator, such as the “beam” style piezoelectric resonator. The application of the DC voltage creates a negative mechanical stiffness, which tends to decrease the resonance frequency with the application of increasing DC voltage, thus providing a tuning effect. Another mechanism to provide tuning is to etch out another electrode adjacent to the main “beam” portion of a block-type resonator. The in-plane movement with respect to the adjacent electrode creates a variation in capacitance. Thus, the piezoelectric block resonators provide for voltage-tunable functionality. 
     FIG. 6  shows a graph  600  that provides a comparison between the measured (curve  652 ) and the theoretical (curve  650 ) frequency-tuning characteristic for a 200 μm long beam-style, 719 kHz resonator. The data for this graph  600  is determined by changing the DC voltage applied to a capacitor between the handle layer of the SOI wafer or substrate and the device layer of a piezoelectric resonator from 0 to 20 V. Axis  646  provides an indication of resonance frequency, and axis  648  provides an indication of DC voltage. Shown is an electrostatic tuning range of 6 kHz. The tunable frequency characteristics are uniquely related to the fabrication methodology described in association with FIG.  4 . This fabrication methodology enables the combination of piezoelectric transduction mechanisms with electrostatic tuning, the latter of which was generally considered a sole prerogative of capacitive resonators. Uncertainty on the exact extension of the etched area underneath the beam (e.g., of the device layer  206 ,  FIG. 2A , for example) could account for the small mismatch between the theoretical and experimental curves  650  and  652 , respectively. 
   It should be emphasized that the above-described embodiments of the present invention, particularly, any “preferred” embodiments, are merely possible examples of implementations, merely set forth for a clear understanding of the principles of the invention. Many variations and modifications may be made to the above-described embodiment(s) of the invention without departing substantially from the spirit and principles of the invention. All such modifications and variations are intended to be included herein within the scope of this disclosure and the present invention and protected by the following claims.