Abstract:
The current application deals with the doping and multi-chamber method and apparatus for the growth of material, directed toward Solid Phase Epitaxy (SPE) process. We will examine different variations and features of this method and process. The advantages of this method are the high throughput and the reduced operational cost of the production for semiconductor material and devices, such as III-V material (e.g. GaAs) and solar cell devices. It can be applied to many systems and devices/material.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
       [0001]    The current application is related to the following case: 
         [0002]    The US co-pending application, with the same inventor and assignee, Ser. No. 11/559,893, filed Nov. 14, 2006, teaches a very high efficiency multi-junction solar spectrum integrator cells, and the corresponding system and method, including Solid-Phase Epitaxy (SPE) method and process. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND 
       [0003]    The current application is related to the following patent: 
         [0004]    Sepehry-Fard (issued to the current inventor and assignee) teaches Solid-Phase Epitaxy (SPE) reactor, the most cost effective GaAs epitaxial growth technology, U.S. Pat. No. 5,725,659, issued Mar. 10, 1998: Apparatus for performing SPE deposition, for growing layers of semiconductive material, includes a reaction chamber and means for mounting a substrate wafer and a source wafer in the reaction chamber. The substrate wafer and the source wafer are maintained at a predetermined distance, which is less than the mean free path of the reactive species of the oxido-reduction of the semiconductive material. A heater for heating the wafers maintains a temperature difference of 20-40 degree C., between the wafers. 
         [0005]    The teachings of the above (the related patent and application) are incorporated herein by reference, and thus, are not repeated here. 
         [0006]    The following references are also some of the prior art: 
         [0007]    1—Son et al. teaches a method for manufacturing a silicon structure, U.S. Pat. No. 7,141,116, issued Nov. 28, 2006: The improved methods for forming silicon films, particularly single-crystal silicon films, from amorphous silicon films, in which a single-crystal silicon substrate is prepared by removing any native oxide, typically using an aqueous HF solution, and placed in a reaction chamber. The substrate is then heated from about 350 degree C. to a first deposition temperature, under a first ambient to induce single-crystal epitaxial silicon deposition, primarily on exposed silicon surfaces. The substrate is then heated to a second deposition temperature under a second ambient, that will maintain the single-crystal epitaxial silicon deposition on exposed single-crystal silicon, while inducing amorphous epitaxial silicon deposition on insulating surfaces. The amorphous epitaxial silicon can then be converted to single-crystal silicon using a solid phase epitaxy process to form a thin, high quality silicon layer. The first and second ambients include at least one silicon source gas and may include a non-oxidizing carrier gas. 
         [0008]    2—Krishnan teaches a tip architecture with SPE for buffer and deep source/drain regions, U.S. Pat. No. 7,045,433, issued May 16, 2006: A method of manufacturing a semiconductor device includes forming a gate, source/drain extensions, buffer regions, and source/drain regions. The gate is formed over a semiconductor layer, and the source/drain extensions are formed within the semiconductor layer and adjacent to the gate. The buffer regions are formed within first amorphous implant regions, and the source/drain regions are formed within second amorphous implant regions. The buffer regions and the source/drain regions are activated using solid-phase epitaxy, whereby sidewalls of the activated buffer regions and the activated source/drain regions are substantially vertical. 
         [0009]    3—Meier et al. teaches a method and apparatus for self-doping contacts to a semiconductor, U.S. Pat. No. 6,703,295, issued Mar. 9, 2004: A system and method for creating self-doping contacts to silicon devices, in which the contact metal is coated with a layer of dopant and subjected to high temperature, thereby alloying the silver with the silicon, and simultaneously doping the silicon substrate and forming a low-resistance ohmic contact to it. A self-doping negative contact may be formed from unalloyed silver which may be applied to the silicon substrate by either sputtering, screen printing a paste, or evaporation. The silver is coated with a layer of dopant. Once applied, the silver, substrate and dopant are heated to a temperature above the Ag—Si eutectic temperature (but below the melting point of silicon). The silver liquefies more than a eutectic proportion of the silicon substrate. The temperature is then decreased towards the eutectic temperature. As the temperature is decreased, the molten silicon reforms through liquid-phase epitaxy, and while doing so, dopant atoms are incorporated into the re-grown silicon lattice. Once the temperature drops below the silver-silicon eutectic temperature, the silicon which has not already been reincorporated into the substrate through epitaxial re-growth forms a solid-phase alloy with the silver. This alloy of silver and silicon is the final contact material, and is composed of eutectic proportions of silicon and silver. Under eutectic proportions, there is significantly more silver than silicon in the final contact material, thereby insuring good electrical conductivity of the final contact material. 
         [0010]    4—Armitage, Jr. et al. teaches a fabrication of photovoltaic devices by solid phase epitaxy, U.S. Pat. No. 4,165,558, issued Aug. 28, 1979: Devices produced by this method consisting of a semiconductor base and a semiconductor junction-forming epitaxial layer. The epitaxial layer is grown by solid phase means from a metal-semiconductor alloy or from a sandwich structure of semiconductor/metal on the semiconductor base. 
         [0011]    As can be seen, the current application is very different from the methods mentioned in the prior art, including the ones mentioned above. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0012]    The current application deals with the doping and multi-chamber method and apparatus for the growth of material, directed toward SPE process. We will examine different variations and features of this invention. The advantages of the current invention are the speed of production and reduction in the cost of production, for the material and the devices. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0013]      FIG. 1  shows a typical SPE system, comprising: (1) CO 2 , O 2 , N 2 , and H 2  gas cylinders, (2) valves, (3) fluxmeters, (4) water saturator, (5) thermocouples, (6) basket for external doping sources, (7) fused silica sample holder, (8) graphite blocks, (9) fused silica spacers and GaAs source and substrate, (10) 1000 W tungsten halogen lamp, (11) 2000 W tungsten halogen lamp, (12) thermometer, (13) controller for the source temperature, (14) controller for the substrate temperature, (15) trap, (16) Glycerol bubbler, and (17) burner. 
           [0014]      FIG. 2  shows Growth rate of GaAs epitaxial layers grown in H2+H2O ambient as a function of the water vapor pressure, PH2O. 
           [0015]      FIG. 3 : Growth rate of GaAs epitaxial layers grown in H2+CO2 ambient as a function of the pressure, PCO2. 
           [0016]      FIG. 4 : Charge density of GaAs epitaxial layers grown in H2+H 2 O ambient as a function of the water vapor pressure, PH2O. A Zn doped GaAs wafer characterized by Nnet≈3×1019 cm−3 has been used as source. The full line represents the maximum doping concentration of Zn, n Zn, max calculated with the diffusion controlled model (right y axis). 
           [0017]      FIG. 5 : Charge density of GaAs epitaxial layers grown in H2+CO2 ambient as a function of the pressure, PCO2. A Zn doped GaAs wafer characterized by NNET≈3×1019 CM−3 has been used as the source. 
           [0018]      FIG. 6 : Charge density profiles of GaAs epilayers grown in different doping environments: the layers grown A: in presence of external doping source of Zn. The temperature of Zn is 550 C and is placed 3.4 cm from the graphite blocks. B: in the reactor contaminated by the previous deposition; C: in the reactor followed by normal cleaning procedure. All other growth conditions were kept constant. 
           [0019]      FIG. 7 : Hole concentration in GaAs epilayers doped with an external Zn source as a function of the temperature of Zn source. 
           [0020]      FIG. 8 : Free electron concentration of GaAs epilayers doped with the external source of Ge as a function of the temperature of the Ge source. 
           [0021]      FIG. 9 : Morphological aspects of GaAs layers grown under various water vapor pressures, PH20, and water injection temperatures, Tinj, into the reactor. 
           [0022]      FIG. 10 : Setup for multiple source and/or substrate growth. (an embodiment) 
           [0023]      FIG. 11 : Setup for multiple source and/or substrate growth. (an embodiment) This can be both arrangements for source and/or substrate, rotating in any direction, rotating individually or as a group, laterally, horizontally, or vertically, moving, rotating, or stopping at different times. It can be a time-truncated event, based on coordinates, positions, x, y, z, and time. The computer control can manage the whole operation. 
           [0024]      FIG. 12 : The arrangement for the source and/or substrate and growth. (an embodiment) It can be for the source and the substrate, showing thermocouple and other controls for adjusting partial pressures and other growth parameters. 
           [0025]      FIG. 13 : The arrangement for the substrate and growth. (an embodiment) It can be for the source and/or the substrate. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
       [0026]    Despite the many advantages that SPE has, so far, multilayer growth has been difficult in one growth run, because, for example, the GaAs source cannot be changed during the epitaxial growth. The type of layer and its charge density are determined when the source is chosen (since (e.g.) GaAs and all dopants come from the GaAs wafer used as the source). Significant change in the doping level of n-type GaAs epilayers and the change from n to p type can only be obtained by selecting different GaAs sources. The transport agent does not influence the doping level of the epitaxial layers. Other transport agents besides water vapor can both serve as the transport agent and a doping source. Adding some properly selected dopants into the reactor may also be a good alternative for the dopants being incorporated into the layer during the growth. 
         [0027]    One method is the GaAs growth in H 2 +CO 2 , rather than H 2 +H 2 O.  FIGS. 2 and 3  show the variation of the growth rate measured as a function of P H2O and P   CO2 , respectively. Full lines represent calculated growth rates. 
         [0028]      FIGS. 4-8  represent the trend for doping, activation, and impurity concentration.  FIG. 9  represents the range for good morphological growth.  FIGS. 10-11  show multiple-source and/or substrate utilization/growth.  FIGS. 12-13  represent the growth and source and substrate setting/parameters. 
         [0029]    We have experienced that: i) P CO2  is much higher than PH 2 0 for equivalent growth rates; (ii) a maximum growth rate occurs in H 2 +CO 2  ambient for PCO 2  of about 300-400 torr; an equivalent behavior does not exist in H 2 +H 2 O ambient for which the growth rate rises as PH2O is increased. 
         [0030]    When the growth of GaAs is performed in H 2 +H 2 O ambient, the reactions involved in the transport are provided using H 2 O. Since the transport of GaAs also takes place in H 2 +CO 2  ambient, it was suspected that the following reactions could also occur in the reactor (Eqs. 1 and 2 given below): 
         [0000]      CO 2  (g)+H 2           CO(g)+H 2 O(g)  (1) 
         [0000]      CO 2  (g)+2H 2  (g)         C(s)+2H 2 O(g)  (2) 
         [0031]    These reactions would provide in-situ the water necessary for the transport of GaAs. The 200° C., 15 min baking step of the reactor before deposition prevents the participation in the transport reaction of adventitious water adsorbed on the reactor hardware when it is open to ambient air for loading the source and substrate. This has been verified by running an experiment in which the graphites were brought to the growth temperatures T 1  and T 2  and held there for 15 min without injecting water. Then, they were cooled down. No GaAs deposition was observed for that run. 
         [0032]    The presence of CO and H 2 O from reactions 1 and 2 was checked by analyzing the reactor exhaust gases. Besides CO 2 , there are other peaks in the gas chromatogram. They are attributable to H 2 O and CO. The reaction times and relative concentrations for H 2 O, CO and CO 2  present in the reactor exhaust gases are given in Table 1. Form these results, it appears that both reactions 1 and 2 provide water in-situ. However, the contribution of reaction 1 is minor, in the experimental growth conditions. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE I 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Retention times, and relative concentrations for H 2 O, CO, and CO 2   
               
               
                 present in the reactor exhaust gases, and for external standards. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Relative 
                 Relative Concentration a   
               
               
                   
                 Reaction Time 
                 Concentration a  (ppm) 
                 (ppm) 
               
               
                 Gases 
                 (min) 
                 Standard 
                 Sample 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 H 2 O 
                 0.85 
                 1315 
                 1070 
               
               
                 CO 
                 0.89 
                 1000 
                  30 
               
               
                 CO 2   
                 1.60 
                 — 
                 Major Gas b   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 (Note for caption:  a Deduced from peak heights;  b PCO 2  = 100 Torr.) 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0033]    The total amount of water generated in situ by both reactions in H 2 +CO 2  ambient, when PC02=100 torr, is 1070 ppm. It is equivalent to P H2O =0.84 torr. For that water vapor pressure, GR=0.18 μm min −1  in H 2 +H 2 O ambient ( FIG. 2 ) (while GR=0.25 μm min −1  in H 2 +CO 2  ambient with P CO2=100 torr). If one takes into account the possible accumulation of all error sources (growth rates in both ambients, detection and calibration of H 2 O in the exhaust gases, and equivalence of the water concentration in the reactor and in the exhaust gases in H 2 +CO 2  ambient), the growth rates in both ambients are nevertheless in good agreement. 
         [0034]    Electrical Properties of GaAs layers: 
         [0035]    a. Variation with the Growth Ambients: 
         [0036]    The dark circles in  FIGS. 4 and 5  show the variation of the p-type carrier density (N A −N D ) measured as a function of P H20  and P C02 , respectively. All these results were obtained by growing GaAs layers from a heavily doped (N A −N D =2.9×10 19  cm −3 ) Zn—GaAs source on a heavily doped (100) Zn—GaAs substrate. The other growth conditions were identical to the ones reported in the previous section. The full line in  FIG. 4  represents the calculated maximum doping levels according to a theoretical model. 
         [0037]    It is important to notice that: 
         [0038]    (i) all layers are p-type with a charge density increasing with the increase of P H20  or P CO2 ; 
         [0039]    (ii) the range of N A −N D  is nearly the same in both  FIGS. 5 and 4 . It means that C is not incorporated in the growing layers as a major electrically active p-type impurity, when GaAs films are grown in H 2 +CO 2  ambient, despite the fact that reaction (2) is the major reaction for in situ water generation. The highest transport coefficient measured for Zn in this work is found at the highest P H2O  or P co2  used. It is about 1.5% for both ambients at the normal growth temperatures. 
         [0040]    b. Variation with the Growth Temperatures: 
         [0041]    There is only one aspect of the transport of Zn as a doping impurity which is different for both ambients: it is the behavior of N A −N D  with the substrate temperature. The figure shows (dark symbols) the charge density profile of a layer of GaAs grown in H 2 +CO 2  ambient (P CO2=200 torr) at three successive temperatures: Tsub=850° C. for 5 min, 800° C. for 10 min, and 760° C. for 15 min, with Tsou=Tsub+40° C. (indicating the temperatures for the source and substrate, respectively). Both source and substrate are Zn doped (100) GaAs with N A −N D =2.9×10 19  cm− 3 . Three plateaus are clearly visible in the N A −N D  profile. They are N A −N D =2.2×10 17 , 3.4×10 17 , and 5.3×10 17 , for TSub=760, 800, and 850° C., respectively. 
         [0042]    When the same experiment is performed in H 2 +HO ambient (open symbols) there is no variation of N A −N D  with the substrate temperature. The same behavior was already observed when Ge or Te doped n-type GaAs wafers were used as sources in H 2 +H 2 O ambients. 
         [0043]    c. Comments on Variation of Growth Ambients: 
         [0044]    It is possible to grow GaAs layers in H 2 +CO 2  ambient. The transport gas is H 2 O, which is generated in situ, mainly by reaction of H 2  with CO 2 , yielding, at the growth temperature, water vapor and carbon. Unfortunately the latter is unable to be incorporated as a major p-type. 
         [0045]    For doping impurity in the growing layer: As far as the carrier density is concerned, there are only minor differences between layers grown in H 2 +H 2 O or H z +CO z  ambients. 
         [0046]    However, H 2 +CO z  ambient may be very useful to grow very thin epitaxial layers, which is difficult to obtain in H 2 +H 2 O ambient, due to difficulties of getting very low water vapor pressures. The reason is simple: P Co2  must be about two orders of magnitude higher than P H20  to obtain GaAs layer of comparable thickness. It is therefore easier to control P Co2  down to very low pressure. Another use of H 2 +CO z  may be in heteroepitaxy of GaAs on Ge. In H 2 +CO 2  ambient, the pretreated Ge surface is oxidized before the GaAs layers start to grow on it. This makes epilayers on Ge milky. This problem has been solved by high temperature inversion, to remove the oxidized layer form Ge before the deposition. Since water is produced at the growth temperature, H 2 +CO 2  ambient may be used to grow heteroepitaxy without high temperature inversion, which is a time consuming step. 
         [0047]    External doping by adding pure elements (Zn, Ge, Te): 
         [0048]    Various elements can be used as either n- or p-type dopants for GaAs. So far, we have tried to dope GaAs epilayers with Ge, Zn, brass (an alloy of Cu and Zn), Au, Sn, Te and Cu. It was found that Ge, Te and Zn are the elements that can successfully dope the GaAs in SPE under the normal growth conditions, mentioned previously. Even more important is that the doping levels can easily be controlled through the temperature of the external doping source, which is independent of the temperature of the GaAs source. However, other elements tried here, or otherwise, are still good candidates for doping, but may need more calibrations for optimum parameter settings for best activation or reasonable control of activation. 
         [0049]    In this section, we will describe how GaAs is externally doped and also report the electrical properties of the epitaxial layers. 
         [0050]    An epilayer grown from SI—GaAs sources in a clean, uncontaminated reactor is n-type with a carrier density of about 2×10 16 /cm −3 . This is used as a reference for the cleanliness of the reactor. If the reactor can produce the same carrier density as the reference, then we say that the reactor is clean. The doping experiments always start by checking the background doping to see if the reactor is contaminated. During this first step, an epilayer is grown in a clean reactor, its carrier density and the type of layer are determined and compared with the reference. Then, as a known step, an epilayer is grown with an external doping source at the doping position in the reactor. This is obtained by approaching the doping source toward the graphite susceptors. The type of layer and its carrier density are determined. Finally, the doping source being withdrawn to a lower temperature region of the reactor, an epilayer is grown in the dopant contaminated reactor to determine the degree of contamination, caused by the previous deposition. The dopant contamination of the reactor is eliminated by cleaning all the fused silica parts of the reactor in an aqueous solution of 3% HF, followed by rinsing with NaOH O.1M, HCl 3%, and de-ionized water. Then, the decontamination of the graphite blocks is conducted by reacting them at 850° C. during 30 min in H 2 +H 2 O (4.6 torr) ambient. In the case of a severely contaminated reactor this cleaning procedure may have to be repeated more than once. 
         [0051]    P-type external doping by Zn: 
         [0052]      FIG. 6  shows a typical cycle for doping experiments with a Zn external doping source of Zn. Line A (filled circles) shows the measured carrier density profile of the p-type epilayer doped, with Zn maintained at 550° C. during the growth of GaAs. The slightly low charge density near the interface between the epitaxial layer and the substrate (right side of the graph) is most probably caused by a lower external source temperature at the beginning of the growth. It has indeed been observed that most of the temperature increase of the external doping source happened during the first 5 min, for a 15 min epitaxial growth period, before a more stable temperature was reached. In that 5 min period, the change of temperature amounted 70% of temperature increase of 50 to 60° C. of the external doping sources during the growth. If the external source is closer to the graphite blocks, the time spent to reach a stable temperature is shorter. Again, this can be easily corrected by independently heating the source, or pulling the external source away from the graphite susceptors. 
         [0053]    Line B (open circles) displays a check on the contamination of the reactor after the doping step. The layer is p-type with a charge density in the low 10 16  cm −3  range. Line C (squares) is the background doping of a layer grown in the reactor, cleaned only once. It is n-type with a charge density between 10 15  and 10 16  cm −3 . These results clearly indicate that Zn does dope the GaAs epitaxial layer in this way. The Zn contamination left from the previous deposition is very small. 
         [0054]      FIG. 7  shows the variation of carrier density of epitaxial layers with the temperature of the external doping source, Zn. Each point in the figure stands for one cycle of experiments, mentioned above. In every cycle, the layers obtained by checking background doping are n-type, with a carrier density of 5×10 15  to 2×10 16 . In most cases, the charge density is lower than that of the reference, 2×10 16 , resulting from slight Zn compensation. This can be corrected by repeating the cleaning procedure. Zn contamination of the reactor resulting from Zn external doping is at least one order of magnitude lower than the external doping level reached in the previous deposition. The introduction of an external doping source of Zn has no influence on the morphology and the growth rate of the epilayers. However, the growth rate is significantly reduced when the Zn temperature reaches 650° C. This may be caused by the fact that too much Zn oxide impairs the normal GaAs growth. 
         [0055]    It has been demonstrated that elemental Zn does dope the epitaxial layers and that doping levels ranging from 5×10 16  to 5×10 19  cm −3  can be controlled by adjusting the temperature of Zn. When water vapor is used as transport agent, the reactions involved in SPE to grow the bulk GaAs epilayers are those given before. The following two reactions may be envisaged for the transfer of Zn which is used as p-type dopant: 
         [0000]      Zn(s)         Zn(g)  (3) 
         [0000]      Zn(s)+H 2 O(g)         ZnO(g)+H 2 (g)  (4) 
         [0056]    Contrary to the case of the use of a Zn doped GaAs source, we cannot calculate or even estimate here the maximum doping concentrations from the diffusion-controlled model, because the reduced spacing in SPE condition is not valid for elemental Zn, and a very small portion of Zn was actually incorporated into the epilayer, while most of it was lost to the wall of the reactor (which results in a darkened reactor). However, it has already been demonstrated, by using Zn doped GaAs sources, that reaction (4) is responsible for the transport of Zn in SPE. 
         [0057]    N-type external doping by Ge and Te: 
         [0058]    The same procedure of external doping has been followed to grow n-type epilayers, but, in this case, Ge or Te external doping sources were used.  FIG. 8  shows the variation of carrier density with the temperature of elemental Ge. The layers obtained by checking the background are always n-type with a charge density of 2-4×10 16  cm −3 . The layers grown in Ge contaminated by previous deposition are also n-type with a charge density of either 2-4×10 16  cm −3 , if the temperature of the previous Ge doping source is lower than 650° C., or a charge density of at least one order of magnitude less than that of the external doping level in the previous deposition, if the temperature of Ge is higher than 650° C. 
         [0059]    Unlike Zn doping, in which the doping almost linearly increases with the Zn temperature, Ge doping has its own characteristics. The Ge doping level remains almost constant, at 6-8×10 16  cm−3, when the Ge temperature is lower than 650° C., and increases sharply, when the Ge temperature is higher than 650° C. This is one of the disadvantages of Ge doping, because it may make it difficult to control the doping levels by varying the Ge temperature. 
         [0060]    It has been shown that Ge is transported as an oxide, and the transport reaction for Ge is: 
         [0000]      Ge(s)+H 2 O (g)         GeO(g)+H 2  (g)  (5) 
         [0061]    The carrier density of the layers obtained from contamination-checking is always one order of magnitude less than that of externally doped ones. The maximum doping level we could reach in this way is 2-4×10 18  cm− 3 . One key difference between Te and Ge (or Zn) is that Te is transported by sublimation, which does not require water as a transport agent. 
         [0062]    Unlike other external doping elements, the layers obtained from Te doping suffer from very poor surface morphology. Conditions indicated before no longer govern the surface morphology of epitaxial layers, if Te is introduced as the external doping source. 
         [0063]    Comments on the external dopings: 
         [0064]    One thing that should be emphasized here is that all of the n or p-type epilayers with the broad ranges of charge densities shown before were obtained with the same GaAs, i.e. SI—GaAs source and substrate. And, all other growth parameters were kept constant, except that different external dopants were introduced into the reactor. We have also observed that there is no influence of external dopants on carrier densities of epilayers, if the temperature of the dopants (Zn, Ge) is lower than 400° C. (and 280° C. for Te), which is not displayed in the Figs. shown above. 
         [0065]    Now, principally, the procedure of the multilayer growth with various n or p-type doping levels is simplified, in order to control the external doping source of Zn or Ge and its temperatures. Selection of Zn or Ge and Te determines the resulting type of epilayers, p or n-type, respectively. The temperature of the external dopants determines the doping levels. Technically, the only modification of the SPE system is that two movable baskets of external doping sources, along with thermocouples to measure the dopant temperatures, have to be introduced (rather than one). The baskets can always park at the end of the reactor where the temperature is well below 300° C., while external doping sources are not in use. The remaining problem may be cross-contamination between n and p-type dopants, which could effect the abruptness of the p-n junctions and increase the compensation ratio. This can be solved by a shutter or a very tight cap, which can be put on the basket, or removed mechanically to another part of the chamber, when it is not in use. 
         [0066]    Oval discussion: 
         [0067]    Three kinds of overgrowth: oval defects, boat defects, and plateaus. They are all elongated in the [110] direction, but they do not have the same size. For layers about 5 μm thick, the origin of the oval defects in MOCVD is proposed to be gallium rich areas, or clustering of arsenic vacancies. Impurity adsorption is involved in the creation of the boat defects and plateaus. Other typical defects were also observed on layers grown by MOCVD on (100) GaAs, which include four sided pyramids. The origin of these defects has been attributed to Ga droplets formed by the decomposition of trimethyl gallium, when AsH 3  is deficient. Pyramids are not seen on layers grown by SPE. 
         [0068]    Oval defects also exist in layers grown by MBE, but due to causes different from those in layers grown by MOCVD. In MBE, they are elongated along the [110] direction. Oval defects have been extensively studied in MBE. They can be divided into three categories: substrate related, particulate related, and gallium source related. Each category contains an oval defect with a specific morphology. The substrate related defects have been attributed to threading dislocations or surface contaminations Ga 2 O 3 , C, or neutral contaminants in distilled water. Particulates on the substrate also cause oval defects. In this case, a macroscopic central core usually reveals the origin of the defects. Ga-related oval defects are distinguished from the others by a ridge along their length. The ridge spans the entire length or broadens into a flat facet in the middle of the defect. They originate either from Ga spitting directly from the effusion cell onto the substrate or from Ga excess on the substrate, as a consequence of the reaction of Ga203 followed by the inverse reaction on the substrate. 
         [0069]    Growth Parameter Variation: 
         [0070]    a. Variation of Spacer Thickness: 
         [0071]    We replaced the spacers of various thicknesses (from 0.5 to 3.4 mm). The O.3 mm thick spacer is normally used. Although the growth rate of the layers was reduced by almost one order of magnitude upon increasing the source to substrate distance from 0.3 mm to 3.44 mm, the oval hillock density remained constant. Here, we could explain why the substrate temperatures were used as the reference to water injection temperatures. It is obvious that as the thickness of the spacer increases, the substrate temperature decreases, even though the source temperature is kept constant. When the spacer is thick enough, T inj  (referred to substrate) is so low, for example 440 C, that it is out of the region B of the Figure shown, even though the T inj  (referred to source) remains unchanged (550 C). 
         [0072]      FIG. 9  shows the morphological results versus different growth parameters. 
         [0073]    Table 2 below shows the results of morphology study, as well: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Tint 
                   
                 Growth 
                   
               
               
                 Spacer 
                 (C) To 
                 Tint (C) 
                 rate 
               
               
                 (mm) 
                 (to Sou) 1   
                 (to sub) 2   
                 (μm/min) 
                 Morphology 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 0.3 
                 550 
                 481 
                 0.35 
                 Mirror-like OHD 10 4  cm −2   
               
               
                 0.5 
                 550 
                 476 
                 0.3 
                 Mirror-like OHD 10 4  cm −2   
               
               
                 1.0 
                 550 
                 455 
                 0.18 
                 Mirror-like OHD 10 4  cm −2   
               
               
                 1.5 
                 550 
                 445 
                 0.14 
                 Mirror-like OHD 10 4  cm −2   
               
               
                 2.0 
                 550 
                 440 
                 0.11 
                 Milky Surface 
               
               
                 2.0 
                 600 
                 501 
                 0.11 
                 Mirror-like OHD 10 4  cm −2   
               
               
                 3.5 
                 616 
                 500 
                 0.053 
                 Mirror-like OHD 10 4  cm −2   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Notes for table above: 
               
               
                   1 Tint (C) (to sou) - Water injection temperature refers to source temperature 
               
               
                   2 Tint (C) (to sub) - Water injection temperature refers to substrate temperature 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0074]    Effects of spacers and temperature references of water vapor injection on the surface morphology and oval hillock density, OHD, of GaAs epitaxial layers grown by SPE are also studied. 
         [0075]    b. Variation of Tsou and Tsub, with ΔT=40° C.: 
         [0076]    The growth temperature of T sou  and Tsub were changed in a way in which the substrate temperature, T sub , varied from the lowest possible (600° C.) to grow a layer, to 830° C., while the temperature difference between source and substrate was approximately maintained at about 40° C. No layer can be deposited by this technique when the substrate temperature is below 600° C. We found that the growth temperatures have little influence on the oval defect density, when they are both higher than 700 C. Below that temperature, the defect density is not affected, either, but another type of oval defect with a faceted head becomes the most common one. As it has already been mentioned, this defect is also seen occasionally at higher substrate temperatures. When a thin layer (about 1000A) of GaAs is first grown at Tsub=760° C., before resuming the growth at T sub=660° C., split oval defects do not show up. They are replaced by structureless defects, characteristics of the layers grown at higher temperature. It indicates that the oval defects have their origin near or at the substrate surface. There is a strong possibility that twining reported by others could result from the growth temperature. Indeed, in MOCVD and MBE, layers were grown at 630 and 600 C, respectively. These temperatures are close to Tsub=660° C., for which the defects mentioned above are obtained. 
         [0077]    Variation of ΔT (Tsou−Tsub), with T sou=800C: 
         [0078]    The substrate temperatures were varied from 740° C. to 800° C., while the source temperature was kept constant, 800 C. The growth rate decreases, as the substrate temperature approaches the source temperature, which is also predicted by the diffusion controlled mode. No dependence of the oval hillock density on ΔT was observed. Generally speaking, the slower the vertical growth rate, the bigger the size of the hillock is. In other words, the lateral growth rate can be controlled not only by the variation of water vapor pressure, but also by other growth parameters which could affect the vertical growth rate. This is very important when device fabrications involve the use of lateral growth. It gives extra flexibility. For example, very low water vapor pressure corresponding to higher lateral growth rate may, however, result in resistive epitaxial layers, while thicker spacers or smaller source substrate temperature differences have no such negative influences. 
         [0079]    Substrate Variation: 
         [0080]    We found that by use of misoriented GaAs substrates, we were able to reduce the surface defect density from 10 4  to 2 or 5×10 2  per cm 2 . 
         [0081]    Conclusion: 
         [0082]    In SPE, the arsenic pressure is fixed by the thermodynamic equilibrium of the transport reaction at the source and substrate temperature. It is therefore not possible to change the V/III ratio to decrease the oval defect density, as it is in the case of MOCVD, as both oval defects and plateaus are affected the same way in SPE. By using vicinal substrates, one may conclude that all oval hillocks result from the contamination of the substrate surface. 
         [0083]    Preparation of the Starting Materials: 
         [0084]    a. GaAs Sources and Substrates: 
         [0085]    Table 3 below shows the various GaAs wafers purchased from different companies. For the optimization of the surface morphology of the layers and for external doping experiments, the source of GaAs wafers was always undoped semi-insulating (SI) GaAs. Although all GaAs wafers, including SI GaAs, could be used as substrates, Si—GaAs wafers (10 18  cm− 3 ) were most often used. The source and substrate (1-2 cm 2 ) were degreased in boiling trichloroethylene, rinsed successively with boiling acetone, boiling propanol, and room temperature deionized water. The wafers were then etched in H 2 0:H 2 0 2 :NH 4 0H(150: 1:6) at room temperature for 3 min. After being rinsed with deionized water and blown dry with nitrogen, the source and substrate were ready to be loaded into the reactor. 
         [0086]    b. External Doping Sources: 
         [0087]    Elements or alloys were used as external doping sources. They included both n-type dopants, Ge and Te, and p-type dopants, Zn, brass, Au and Sn. These external sources were degreased in the same way as the GaAs sources and substrates, but they were not etched. Traditionally, the GaAs source not only provided the material to grow GaAs epitaxial layers, but also acted as a doping source because the dopants in the GaAs source also incorporate into the growing layer during the epitaxial growth. An alternative to dope the layer is to use other dopants, rather than the ones in the GaAs source. This practice is labeled as external doping. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 GaAs wafers from various sources: 
               
               
                 (All wafers were polished at least on one side) 
               
             
          
           
               
                 GaAs Wafers 
                 Specifications 
                 Suppliers 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 undoped SI—GaAs 
                   
                 MAlCOM 
               
               
                 Si doped GaAs (100) 
                 No − N A  = 1–3 × 10 18  cm− 3   
                 Laser Diode, Inc 
               
               
                 Si-doped GaAs 
                 No − N A  = 1–4 × 1O I8  cm− 3   
                 Laser Diode, Inc 
               
               
                 (2° off (100) 
               
               
                 toward (110) 
               
               
                 Si-doped GaAs (100) 
                 No − N A  = 1–3 × 1O I8  cm− 3   
                 Sumitomo 
               
               
                 Te-doped GaAs (100) 
                 No − N A  = 2–3 × 1O I8  cm− 3   
                 Laser Diode, Inc 
               
               
                 Zn-doped GaAs (100) 
                 NA − N o  = 2–3 × 10 18  cm− 3   
                 Sumitomo 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Note: 
               
               
                 No is donor concentration, and 
               
               
                 N A  is acceptor concentration. 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0088]    SPE System and Epitaxy Conditions: 
         [0089]    a. SPE System: 
         [0090]    The SPE system can be divided into two parts: (i) the gas supply and (ii) the reactor. The gas supply provides various combinations of gas sources to meet the needs at different growth stages. It mainly consists of stainless steel pipes, valves, and flowmeters. The reactor part is a growth chamber which consists of the fused silica reactor, a heating system, and an exhaust system. The reactor can be opened at one end. One of our reactors was 37 cm long and had a 6 cm diameter. The fused silica holder holds the high purity graphite blocks, the GaAs source, and substrate, and it is also used as the gas inlet through the hollow tube fixed in a stainless steel base in which the open end of the reactor tube is inserted. This setup, similar to the glass-metal joints used in high-vacuum technology, is leak-proof DFP-2 Poco graphite was used for both heat susceptors. 
         [0091]    Fused silica spacers (Accumet), 0.03 cm thick, were normally used. The heating system has two lamps and two temperature controllers. Key element in the exhaust system is the burner. 
         [0092]    b. Epitaxy Conditions: 
         [0093]    After being degreased and etched, the source and the substrate were loaded into the reactor and were separated by spacers. The degreased external doping sources were introduced into the reactor at this time, too, if needed. The closed reactor was successively purged with dry N 2  for 30 min and dry H 2  for 10 min. Then, it was baked at 200° C. under dry H 2  for 15 min in order to remove adsorbed water. This (15 min baking) is an important step. 
         [0094]    One Embodiment/Example: 
         [0095]    The usual growth temperatures for the source(T sou ) and substrate (T sub ) are 800 and 760 C, respectively. These temperatures are read from the thermocouples inserted in the graphite susceptors, heating the GaAs source and substrate. Temperature fluctuations of the heating system were minimized down to 1 C by using the controllers. T sou  was first raised from 200 to 500° C. with a temperature ramp R of 2.30 degree C. S −1 , then from 500 to 800 DC with R=1.25 degree C. S −1 . Simultaneously, Tsub was first raised from 200 to 450° C. with R=1.92° C. S−1, then from 450 to 760° C. with R=1.29° C. S−1. It takes therefore 370 s to reach the stable growth temperatures. 
         [0096]    Water vapor with a known pressure is injected into the reactor during the rise of the temperature to the growth temperatures. The exact injection temperature, T inj, and water partial pressure, P H2O , were also studied. Changes of P H2O  from 0.008 to 4.58 Torr are obtained, by mixing dry and wet H 2  (obtained by bubbling H 2  in H 2 O, maintained at 0 C). Higher water vapor pressures, PH2O, &gt;&gt;4.58 torr, were obtained in a similar way, but bubbling H 2  in room temperature water. The total pressure in the reactor was kept constant at 1 atm and the flow of H 2 +H 2 O was at 550 cm 3  min −1 . 
         [0097]    C. External Doping: 
         [0098]    External doping sources, after they were decreased, were introduced into the reactor, by placing them in a fused silica basket, which was pendant from the fused silica holder. There was a thermocouple right above the basket to monitor its temperature, but not to control it. The temperature of the basket was determined by its position from the graphite susceptor. 
         [0099]    In this way, the temperature increase of the doping sources during the growth, usually a 15 min period, was about 50-60 degree C. This temperature increase is due to the temperature gradient produced by existing heating sources, heated graphite susceptors, which have been used as the heating source for external doping sources. An accurate temperature control of the doping source during the growth could be obtained either by the introduction of another heating source, or by slowly pulling the basket away from the graphite blocks during the deposition. 
         [0100]    Methods of Electrical Characterization: 
         [0101]    For all types of GaAs epitaxial layers, ohmic contacts were made by using the alloy In—Ag (90% ln), alloyed at 350 C. For lightly doped p-type GaAs (106 cm− 3 ), an alloying temperature up to 450 degree C. was used. 
         [0102]    Fabrication of SPE Grown p-n Junctions: 
         [0103]    To make p-n junctions, the simplest way is to grow one n type GaAs epitaxial layer on a p type GaAs substrate, and vice versa. Desired free carrier concentrations can easily be obtained by the external doping technique. After the deposition of a layer, a few mesas could be made on the epitaxial layer by a conventional photolithographic technique and wet etching. In our case, nail polish was used as a mask to protect certain areas on the epitaxial layer, and the unprotected area was etched with a mixture of H 2 O: H 2 SO 4 :H 2 O 2  (5:4: 1). In order to have a good isolation, the etching should remove the unwanted epitaxial layer completely. Finally, ohmic contacts were made on the two sides of the junction. 
         [0104]    Another Embodiment: 
         [0105]    Without opening the chamber, we are able to not only provide different dopants, but also grow different epi-material. One method is to use a disk of any shape, both for the source and substrate, with a motor behind it, to rotate the disk to different positions. Within that big circle or disk, there are a series of smaller disks. Embedded in those disks (or graphite heat suceptors, which are SiC coated to avoid contamination from graphite into the chamber, hence avoiding increase of background doping) are wafers of similar doping concentration or different dopants/concentration(s). The operation can be computer controlled or manual. So, the different dopants can be in the chamber, and the rotating or lateral moving disks or railings/vehicles/baskets can facilitate the selective deposition/relative rate of those dopings. 
         [0106]    Another Embodiment: 
         [0107]    The source and/or substrate wafers benefit from vertical movements by lifts/robots/elevators and/or by circular movements, either individually or as group, through circular movements, lateral movements, perpendicular movements (up/down movements), and/or time truncated movements (X,Y,Z,T). Time truncated events allude to a computer controlled apparatus, where, depending on the growth details (such as transport agent pressures, time, thickness of growth layer, etc.), certain instructions are made to the processor to take certain movements which can be lateral, circular, perpendicular, etc, or any combination thereof. 
         [0108]    In general, we can have an array of wafers, compartmentalization, to the tune of several thousand wafers, and multiwafer chamber. 
         [0109]    An application for solar cells, using polycrystalline material: 
         [0110]    We refer to the Ref.: “Why CuInGaSe 2  and CdTe polycrystalline thin film solar cells are more efficient than corresponding single crystal?”, by A. Boslo, N. romeo, A. Podesta, S. Mazzamuto and V. Canevari, published in Cryst. Res Technol. 40, No. 10-11, 1048-1053: 
         [0111]    CuInSe 2  based materials is grown by means of columnar grains, with very special grain boundaries (GBs). Much of the thinking about GBs is based on their similarity to surface structures. Since various electronic measurements have demonstrated that the free surface of chalcopyrite CuGaInSe 2  exhibit a type inversion, it is possible to suppose that this behavior is also the same in the GBs. This means the existence of a barrier that prevents the motion of one type of carrier into the GBs/surface. To explain the origin of such barrier, we can suppose that the ordered defect compound formed on the chalcopyrite surface contains a high concentration of donors. The absence of holes inside the GB prevents GB electrons from combining. Furthermore, the bulk material in polycrystalline material is purer than in single crystals, since impurities segregated to the GBs. This explains the superiority of polycrystalline CuInSe2 solar cells over their crystalline counterpart. 
         [0112]    It is also remarkable that the highest efficieny CdTe PV devices are fabricated from polycrystalline, rather than single crystal CdTe. This is probably due to the fact that the grain boundries both in CdS and CdTe are passivated by the segragation in grain boundries of insulating materials, like CdF2, CdSO 3  and CdSO 4  in the CdS films, or CdTeO 3  in the CdTe films. In other words, probably, there exists an electron barrier at the grain boundries, that makes devices fabricated from II-VI compounds less sensitive to grain boundries than solar cells made from III-V or group IV materials. Moreover, the heat treatment, in the presence of CdCl 2  of the CdS/CdTe system, is effective in the grain growth, and enhances the interdiffusion of sulfur and tellerium, forming the intermixed layer Cd(S, Te) at the interface. This is believed to shift the actual pn junciton into the CdTe and to passivate the metalurgical heterointerface. Controlling the intermixed layer between CdS and CdTe, both during the CSS deposition of the absorber layer, and during the CdCl 2  heat treatment, it is possible to maximize the photovolatge Voc and the fill factor (FF). 
         [0113]    So, this method can be applied to both polycrystalline and monocrystalline III-V, in addition to other semiconductors, in addition to other methods: LPE, MOCVD, MBE, CBE, etc. 
         [0114]    Note about Solar Cells: 
         [0115]    Some of the key issues that affect the high efficiency multi junction solar cells are: 
         [0116]    a. Contact loss reduction 
         [0117]    b. Surface/interface recombination loss reduction 
         [0118]    c. Bulk recombination loss reduction 
         [0119]    d. Lattice matching 
         [0120]    e. High quality epilayer 
         [0121]    f. Carrier cofinement 
         [0122]    g. Photon confinement 
         [0123]    h. Current matching 
         [0124]    i. Material selection 
         [0125]    j. Device structure 
         [0126]    k. Optical loss reduction (AR) 
         [0127]    l. Cell interconnection loss reduction (Tunnel junction) 
         [0128]    Another embodiment for solar cells: 
         [0129]    To make the multi-junction cell, such that one can electrically access each cell by itself, i.e. top and bottom connections, with two additional connections for the buried top cell to middle cell connection, and the middle to bottom cell connection: We can serially connect each group of cell to a individual MPPT, and input that into the inverter. Then, spectral shifts will not result in the whole stack working at the capacity of the worst cell. (For description of MPPT, please refer to the following URL: http://www.blueshyenergyinc.com/pdf/Blue%20Sky_What%20is%20MPPT.pdf.) 
         [0130]    Another Embodiment: 
         [0131]    The cells that are used are 10.5×11.5 mm. Active collection area is 10×10 mm, and the optical surface is anti-reflective coated. On opposite sides of the top of the cell, there are two 0.050 inch wide and 10 mm long gold coated strips, which provide the negative termination. On the bottom of the cell, there is a 10.5×11.5 mm solid gold coated pad, for the positive termination and heat transfer. 
         [0132]    Our users then mount the bare cell using H20E epoxy in the centre of a 100×100×3 mm thick copper (primary heat sink) using a bond line of about 2-3 mils. 
         [0133]    Other Embodiments: 
         [0134]    (These are just examples, and scope of coverage is broader.) 
         [0135]    All of the above teachings can be applied to the following paragraphs: 
         [0136]    It can be applied to any semiconductor (Si, II-IV, III-V, etc.) or metal/other material (e.g. plastic). It can be applied to other growth methods, such as MBE or MOCVD, or in combination of any of these methods. It can be applied to any devices, such as solar cell, FET, or HBT. 
         [0137]    The dopants or elements growth (for binary, ternary, and so on, with more elements/layers/structures) (for abrupt or ramping interfaces/dopings) can come from the same basket/source or multiple baskets, from circular tray, or trays, other shape trays, with different moving mechanism, such as rotation or lateral, or angular or vertical, by itself or with respect to other objects, or using the cover or cap to stop the flow of material, or any other valve or shutter, or ionization/magnetic techniques to block the flow, using different temperature controls, on one or more baskets or sources, on absolute or relative temperatures, or using different catalyst or ambient for reaction, to use physical or chemical reactions, to produce any dopant of any form and any bandgap engineering of any form, for any structure or material, for any application, or in combination to other growth methods, such as MBE, automatically by a computer, using a calibration curve, or manually by an operator, in situ or with interruptions, in combination with other manufacturing equipment, such as evaporator, so that there is an option not to open the chamber to do all of the above, if desired, for faster growth time. 
         [0138]    One example: We can have one or more baskets, with one or more elements or compounds, together with one or more sources, combining, defusing, mixing, alloying, or integrating, in solid, liquid, or gas forms, into binary, ternary, or higher-order compounds, as a polycrystalline, single crystal, or amorphous materials. For example, for GaInAs, we have: 
         [0000]      2GaP+H2O&lt;--------&gt;Ga2O+H2+P2 
         [0139]    Also, we have Indium in a basket, and based on prior calibration curves, we can adjust distances, angles, orientations, and temperatures, for relative or absolute values, to produce the right alloy, with the right mole fraction, and good crystallinity/surface morphology. 
         [0140]    For example, we can introduce In by heating or combination of heating and carrier gas, such as combination of H2O and H2, or I2, or ZnCl2, or ZnCl2 and H2, or I2 plus H2, or PC13, or H2 (ZnCl2). ZnCl2 can be used both as a transport agent and a doping agent. 
         [0141]    In addition, for multiple growth, the substrate can rotate or move, with respect to other objects, to grow in series or parallel, or combination, or growth in one chamber having multiple substrates, or multiple chambers each having one or more substrates, for better control of uniformity, or with chambers being flat or in multiple floors stacked on top of each other, or using railing or rotations/disks, or grow the different layers in different chambers, to reduce cross contamination, chambers being in sequence, and also in parallel, or cleaning procedure, to clean up the system before next growth, to reduce cross contamination, or dedicate chambers for specific material or devices, to speed up the process, or to lift the cap or top surface of a mega-chamber with a lift or crane, or to have chambers within chambers, for quality control, and better reproducibility, to be able to grow fast by SPE, and grow many at one time, to reduce cost by many orders of magnitude, compared to competition, such as MBE method, and reduce cost and efficiency for devices, such as solar cells, but not limited to any specific device, material, application, process, or growth methods. 
         [0142]    Other Examples: 
         [0143]    The growth chamber can also be stationary. 
         [0144]    The doping and elemental baskets have fixed or movable positions, with respect to substrate, or with respect to each other. Their temperatures are adjusted separately, or relatively, or in combination, to adjust quality, morphology, defects, crystalinity, growth rate, material composition, for example for ternary compound AlGaAs, doping efficiency, doping profile, structure/layer profile/engineering/design, abrupt or gradual modification of doping or grading layers, speed of growth, rate of cooling/heating material or substrate, based on calibration, or predefined property/requirement/design/device/material composition. Angle and speed of flow of ambient are also variable/adjustable, depending on the growth requirements and constraints. 
         [0145]    Any variations of the teachings above are also meant to be protected by the current patent application.