Abstract:
The present invention includes a  Mytilus edulis  cDNA having a nucleotide sequence that encodes for the  Mytilus edulis  foot protein-2 (Mefp-2), an example of a mollusk foot protein. Mefp-2 is an integral component of the blue mussels&#39; adhesive protein complex, which allows the mussel to attach to objects underwater. The isolation, purification and sequencing of the Mefp-2 gene will allow researchers to produce Mefp-2 protein using genetic engineering techniques. The discovery of Mefp-2 gene sequences will also allow scientists to better understand how the blue mussel creates its waterproof adhesive protein complex.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCED APPLICATIONS  
       [0001]     This patent application was filed by Applicants on the same day as another patent application filed by Applicants entitled “CLONING AND EXPRESSION OF RECOMBINANT ADHESIVE PROTEIN MEFP-10F THE BLUE MUSSEL,  MYTILUS EDULIS ”, having Serial No. ______. 
     
    
     U.S. GOVERNMENT RIGHTS  
       [0002]     The United States Government may have rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC07-99ID13727 between the U.S. Department of Energy and Bechtel BWXT Idaho, LLC, representing the Idaho National Engineering &amp; Environmental Laboratory (INEEL). 
     
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD  
       [0003]     The invention relates to isolated or purified nucleic acid molecules encoding an adhesive protein, for example, Mefp-2 of the blue mussel,  Mytilus edulis . Adhesives that can be derived from the present invention can be used in a variety of fields including but not limited to: military applications, construction products, plastics, electronics, automobile and aviation products as well as several biomedical fields.  
       SEQUENCE LISTINGS  
       [0004]     The electronic readable copy and paper copy of the sequence listing for this invention are identical.  
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0005]      Mytilus edulis , also termed the common edible mussel or blue mussel, constitutes most of the world&#39;s commercial production of cultured mussels, along with the closely related species  Mytilts galloprovincialis . Besides their use in food culturing, mussels (which is an example of a molusk) have also been used to monitor pollutants in coastal marine waters. The most extensive research about the adhesive properties of mussels has been with  M. edulis.    
         [0006]     Marine mussels, like the edible blue mussel,  M. edulis , attach to a variety of surfaces in an aqueous environment using a natural adhesive that is incredibly strong and durable. There are no conventional glues that can be applied in an aqueous environment and are impervious to water and turbulent forces. Prior research has shown that one of the proteins in the adhesive,  Mytilus edulis  foot protein 1 (Mefp-1), bonds to glass, plastic, wood, concrete and Teflon. Nine other adhesive-related proteins from  M. edulis  have been identified to date. A tenth is implicated, but has not been identified. The precise mechanism for assembly of the ten proteins is not understood (Mefp-1, -2, -3, -4, -5; Collagens: Precollagen-D, -P (variant P22 and P33), Precollagen-NG, Proximal Matrix Thread Protein (1 and la); catechol oxidase). There also may be additional proteins involved in the formation of the adhesive.  
         [0007]     Individual protein components have been previously identified from byssal structures through protein isolation and amino acid analysis, revealing repetitive amino acid motifs and modified amino acids with unique characteristics not found in other biological systems. Proposed mechanisms for the strength and waterproof properties of the adhesive formed, relate to these recurring amino acid motifs and hydroxylated amino acids found in many of the protein components. Commercial recombinant protein products consisting of either the partial amino acid sequence of Mefp-1 or repeats of the unique decapeptide motif have been marketed in the past. However, no commercial product incorporates any of the other proteins known to be involved in underwater adhesion by the  M. edulis  mussel. Furthermore, these products are a result of protein isolation techniques and NOT recombinant DNA techniques.  
         [0008]     Initial strategies for identifying the adhesive proteins of the byssus of  M. edulis  involved purification of the proteins directly from the byssi of thousands of animals. About 10,000 mussels are needed to produce 1 gram of adhesive. Thus, subsequent purification and microscopic analysis require(d) the sacrifice of many mussels. This is neither environmentally friendly nor economically practical. When the original mussel adhesive protein, MAP, was identified, only the amino acid motif common to this protein, also referred to as Mefp-1, (a decapeptide repeat occurring ˜80 times) was used in an alternate host production scheme. This MAP recombinant protein did/does have substantial adhesive properties; however, the (complete) gene sequence for Mefp-1 and the other proteins involved in byssus formation are necessary for mimicking the bioadhesive. In addition to a full length Mefp-1, isolating, purifying and sequencing the DNA sequence of  M. edulis &#39; foot protein-2 (Mefp-2) are critically important and are objectives of the present invention.  
         [0009]     The mussel byssus is an extracorporeal structure that consists of a stem, thread, and a plaque (also referred to as a pad or disc) (See  FIG. 1 ) This exogenous attachment device was first described in Brown C H, Some Structural Proteins of  Mytilus edulis, Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,  93(4): 487 (1952). High concentrations of polyphenolic proteins (e.g. L-DOPA), the presence of collagen, and the presence of a catechol oxidase were among the first observations of byssal attachments. Environmental factors such as salinity, temperature, pH, season, and substratum choice, as well as biological factors such as age and metabolic state of the animal effect the efficiency and strength of bonding/attachment. See Crisp D J, Walker G, Young G A, Yule A B, Adhesion and Substrate Choice in Mussels and Barnacles,  Journal of Colloid and Interface Science,  104 (1): 40-50 (1985).  
         [0010]     The stem is rooted in the byssal retractor muscles at the base of the foot organ. See Crisp D J, Walker G, Young G A, Yule A B, Adhesion and Substrate Choice in Mussels and Barnacles,  Journal of Colloid and Interface Science,  104 (1): 40-50 (1985). The byssal threads, flexible structures of variable dimensions (e.g. −0.1 mm diameter, 2-4 cm length) and strength, originate from the stem. A byssal thread consists of a flexible, collagenous inner core surrounded by a hard, browned polyphenolic protein. Numerous researchers photographed the collagen core in the 1930&#39;s (See Brown C H, Some Structural Proteins of  Mytilus edulis, Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,  93(4): 487 (1952))—well before three unique, collagenous proteins were identified and characterized by J. H. Waite and colleagues. The outer polyphenolic protein, believed to undergo a curing or quinone tanning-type reaction with a specialized catechol/polyphenol oxidase enzyme, is traditionally designated as  Mytilus edulis  foot protein 1, Mefp-1, or MAP. (Designation of the byssal thread polyphenolic adhesive protein, as well as subsequent adhesive proteins identified in  M. edulis , is preceded by the genus and species: e.g.  Mytilus edulis  foot protein 1=Mefp-1).  
         [0011]     The breaking energy of byssal threads is reported to be 12.50×10 6  Jm −3 , vs tendon (2×10 6  Jm −3  to 5×10 6  μm-3) and silk (50×10 6  Jm −3  to 180×10 6  Jm −3 ; See Denny M W,  Biology and the Mechanics of the Wave Swept Environment , Princeton: Princeton University Press (1988); Qin X X, Waite J H, Exotic Collagen Gradients in the Byssus of the Mussel,  Mytilus edulis, Journal of Experimental Biology,  198 (3): 633-644 (1995). Bond strengths range from 0.1 to 10×10 6  Nm  2  depending on the substratum. (See Waite J H, Reverse Engineering of Bioadhesion in Marine Mussels,  Bioartificial Organs II: Technology, Medicine, and Materials Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,  875: 301-309 (1999)). Byssal thread strength at the distal portion of threads is as strong as vertebrate tendon, but 3-5× more extensible (see, Qin X X, Waite J H, A Potential Mediator of Collagenous Block Copolymer Gradients in Mussel Byssal Threads,  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,  95 (18):10517-10522 (1998)). Byssal thread strength at the proximal portion of threads is weaker, but 15-20× more extensible. Strain energy density of threads approaches that of silk at approximately 6× tougher than tendon. Byssal threads can recover initial length and stiffness given sufficient relaxation time (See Bell E C, Gosline J M, Mechanical Design of Mussel Byssus: Material Yield Enhances Attachment Strength,  Journal of Experimental Biology,  199 (4): 1005-1017 (1996). The byssal structure culminates in a polyphasic plaque of varying size, dependent upon both the size of the animal and the age of the byssus (See Crisp D J, Walker G, Young G A, Yule A B, Adhesion and Substrate Choice in Mussels and Barnacles,  Journal of Colloid and Interface Science,  104 (1): 40-50 (1985). Plaques are commonly only ˜0.15 mm in diameter where they meet the thread, and ˜2-3 mm diameter at the substrate interface. Plaque formation occurs from the deposition of proteins that originate from the foot organ. To date, four specialized adhesive proteins have been identified in byssal plaques from  M. edulis : Mefp-2, Mefp-3, Mefp-4 and Mefp-5.  
         [0012]     In spite of the extensive research in this area, and relative success in patenting and commercializing aspects of these adhesive proteins, a complete understanding of how the byssus is assembled from its component proteins, and the role each protein plays in successful assembly and attachment has not been achieved. A major hurdle has been, and remains, large-scale production of protein in quantities to allow extensive study outside of the byssus. This invention describes nucleotide sequences from cDNAs for Mefp-2 for the first time.  
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0013]     One aspect of the invention is an isolated and purified nucleic acid comprising the nucleotide sequence in (SEQ ID. NO: 1; a c-DNA sequence) which encodes a biologically active Mefp-2 peptide fragment.  
         [0014]     Another aspect of the invention is an isolated and purified nucleic acid comprising the nucleotide sequence in (SEQ ID. NO: 3; a c-DNA sequence) which encodes a biologically active Mefp-2 peptide fragment.  
         [0015]     Another aspect of the invention is an isolated and purified nucleic acid comprising the nucleotide sequence in (SEQ ID. NO: 5; a c-DNA sequence) which encodes a biologically active Mefp-2 peptide fragment.  
         [0016]     The invention also relates to methods of using the isolated and purified DNA sequences to express the polypeptides which they encode.  
         [0017]     Yet another aspect of the invention is a method of producing Mefp-2 protein which comprises incorporating the nucleic acids having the sequences provided by this invention into an expression vector, transforming a host cell with the vector and culturing the transformed host cell under conditions which result in expression of the gene.  
         [0018]     Another aspect of the invention is a nucleic acid sequence that is capable of hybridizing under stringent conditions to a nucleotide sequence found in (SEQ ID NO: 1), (SEQ ID NO: 3) or (SEQ ID NO: 5), or their complements.  
         [0019]     Another aspect of the invention is a nucleic acid molecule that includes the nucleotide sequence set forth in (SEQ ID NO: 1), (SEQ ID NO: 3) or (SEQ ID NO: 5), or degenerate variants thereof.  
         [0020]     Another aspect of the invention is an RNA molecule that includes the nucleotide sequence set forth in (SEQ ID NO: 1), (SEQ ID NO: 3) or (SEQ ID NO: 5), or degenerate variants thereof, wherein Uracil (U) is substituted for Thymine (T).  
         [0021]     Also included in the invention are nucleotides carrying modifications such as substitutions, small deletions, insertions or inversions which still encode proteins having substantially the same activity as the protein of (SEQ ID NO: 2), (SEQ ID NO: 4) or (SEQ ID NO: 6). Included are nucleic acid molecules having a sequence which is at least 90% identical to the nucleotide sequence shown in (SEQ ID NO: 1), (SEQ ID NO: 3) or (SEQ ID NO: 5) respectively.  
         [0022]     Another aspect of this invention is genetically engineered polypeptides created using the isolated and purified nucleotide sequences of this invention.  
         [0023]     Yet another aspect of this invention is utilizing the genetically engineered polypeptides created using the isolated and purified nucleotide sequences of this invention.  
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0024]      FIG. 1  is a schematic illustration of the byssal structures of  M. edulis  adapted from Waite J. H., Chem. Ind. p. 607 (1991) and Waite J. H, J. Comp. Physiol (B), p. 451 (1986). 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS  
       [0025]     In practicing the present invention several conventional techniques in microbiology and molecular biology (recombinant DNA) are used. Such techniques are well known and are explained in, for example, Sambrook, 1999, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.; DNA Cloning: A practical Approach, 1985 (D. N. Glover ed); Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. (1994) and all more recent editions of these publications.  
         [0000]     Definitions  
         [0026]     Before proceeding further with a description of the specific embodiments of the present invention, a number of terms will be defined.  
         [0027]     As used herein, a compound or molecule is an organic or inorganic assembly of atoms of any size, and can include macromolecules, peptides, polypeptides, whole proteins, and polynucleotides.  
         [0028]     As used herein, a polynucleotide is a nucleic acid of more than one nucleotide. A polynucleotide can be made up of multiple poly-nucleotide units that are referred to be a description of the unit. For example, a polynucleotide can comprise within its bounds a polynucleotide(s) having a coding sequence(s), a polynucleotide(s) that is a regulatory region(s) and/or other polynucleotide units commonly used in the art.  
         [0029]     The isolated nucleic acid molecule of the present invention can include a deoxyribonucleic acid molecule (DNA), such as genomic DNA and complementary cDNA which can be single (coding or noncoding strand) or double stranded, as well as synthetic DNA, such as synthesized single stranded polynucleotide. The isolated nucleic acid molecule of the present invention can also include a ribonucleic acid molecule (RNA).  
         [0030]     The determination of percent identity or homology between two sequences is accomplished using the algorithm of Karlin and Altschul (1990) Proc. Nat&#39;l Acad. Sci. USA 87: 2264-2268, modified as in Karlin and Altschul (1993) Proc. Nat&#39;l Acad. Sci. USA 90:5873-5877. Such an algorithm is incorporated into the NBLAST and XBLAST programs of Altschul et al. (1990) J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410. BLAST nucleotide searches are performed with the NBLAST program, score=100, wordlength=12 to obtain nucleotide sequences homologous to the nucleic acid molecules of the invention. BLAST protein searches are performed with the XBLAST program, score=50, wordlength=3 to obtain amino acid sequences homologous to the protein molecules of the invention. To obtain gapped alignments for comparison purposes, Gapped BLAST is utilized as described in Altschul et al. (1997) Nucleic Acids Res. 25: 3389-3402. When utilizing BLAST and Gapped BLAST programs, the default parameters of the respective programs (e.g., XBLAST and NBLAST) are used. See the website for the national center for biological information.  
         [0031]     As used herein, the terms hybridization (hybridizing) and specificity (specific for) in the context of nucleotide sequences are used interchangeably. The ability of two nucleotide sequences to hybridize to each other is based upon a degree of complementarity of the two nucleotide sequences, which in turn is based on the fraction of matched complementary nucleotide pairs. The more nucleotides in a given sequence that are complementary to another sequence, the greater the degree of hybridization of one to the other. The degree of hybridization also depends on the conditions of stringency, which include: temperature, solvent ratios, salt concentrations, and the like.  
         [0032]     In particular, selective hybridization pertains to conditions in which the degree of hybridization of a polynucleotide of the invention to its target would require complete or nearly complete complementarity. The complementarity must be sufficiently high as to assure that the polynucleotide of the invention will bind specifically to the target relative to binding other nucleic acids present in the hybridization medium. With selective hybridization, complementarity will be 90-100%, preferably 95-100%, more preferably 100%.  
         [0033]     The term stringent conditions is known in the art from standard protocols (e.g. Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, editors F. Ausubel et al., John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1994) and is when hydridization to a filter-bound DNA in 0.5M NaHPO 4  (pH7.2), 7% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 1 mM EDTA at +65° C., and washing in 0.1×SSC/0.1% SDS at +68° C. is performed.  
         [0034]     Degenerate variant is the redundancy or degeneracy of the genetic code as is well known in the art. Thus the nucleic acid sequences shown in the sequence listing provided only examples within a larger group of nucleic acids sequences that encode for the polypeptide desired.  
         [0035]     Isolated nucleic acid will be nucleic acid that is identified and separated from contaminant nucleic acid encoding other polypeptides from the source of nucleic acid. The nucleic acid may be labeled for diagnostic and probe purposes, using any label known and described in the art as useful in connection with diagnostic assays.  
         [0036]     Because the genetic code is degenerate, more than one codon may be used to encode a particular amino acid, and therefore, the amino acid sequence can be encoded by any set of similar DNA oligonucleotides. With respect to nucleotides, therefore, the term derivative(s) is also intended to encompass those DNA sequences that contain alternative codons which code for the eventual translation of the identical amino acid.  
         [0037]     Mussel adhesive proteins are scleroproteins—proteins contributing mechanical strength to supporting structures in animals. Familiar scleroproteins include collagen, silk, elastin, fibroin, keratin, fibrin and resilin. Quinone tanning requires a catecholic precursor (such as catechol oxidase) and the presence of tanned scleroproteins. See, Waite J H, The Phylogeny and Chemical Diversity of Quinone-tanned Glues and Varnishes, Comp Biochem Physiol B., 97(1):19-29 (1990). Individual adhesive proteins from mussels are derived from the foot organ of the animals. The proteins are stockpiled in the foot, and then secreted or released into the environment to form strong attachments underwater. The proteins involved in adhesion of mussels contain peptidyl-3-4,-dihydroxy-phenylalanine (DOPA), a constituent not found in barnacle cement proteins. The reactive, oxidized form of DOPA, quinone, is thought to provide the moisture-resistance characteristic of mussel underwater adhesion. See, Yu M, Hwang, J, Deming, T J, Role of L-3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine in Mussel Adhesive Proteins,  Journal of the American Chemical Society,  121: 5825-5826 (1999). DOPA can complex with metal ions and oxides and semi-metals such as silicone, thus explaining the ability to adhere to rocks and glass. Other constituents of mussel adhesive proteins include lysine and glycine. Lysine may contribute to adhesion via ionic bonding to negatively charged surfaces like collagen and acidic polysaccharides. Proposed mechanisms for the strength and waterproof properties of the adhesive formed relate to recurring amino acid motifs (decapeptide repeats of 75-80 times in Mefp-1) and the hydroxylated amino acids found in the adhesive proteins. Polyphenolic proteins are non-toxic, biodegradable and have a low immunogenicity.  
         [0038]     Mefp-1 is a polyphenolic protein with primarily structural properties. It is oxidized and cross-linked through the action of a catechol oxidase to form a hardened sheath (the byssal thread) that extends between the foot organ of the animal and the surface of attachment. The inner core of this structure is comprised of four collagens (with variants) with distinctive domains not found in other biological systems. This combination of proteins functions much like a natural epoxy adhesive. The cystine-rich Mefp-2 forms the foam-like plaque component of the byssus. Mefp-4 and Mefp-5 are additional proteins located in the plaque. A hydroxyarginine-containing protein, Mefp-3, is believed to serve as a primer-like protein for this byssal plaque.  
         [0000]     Byssal Plaque Polyphenolic Protein: Mefp-2  
         [0039]     Mefp-2 is found exclusively in byssal plaques, constituting from 25-40% of the total plaque proteins. Unlike Mefp-1, Mefp-2 is a smaller adhesive protein (molecular mass 42-47 kDa) with only 2-3 mol % DOPA and no hydroxylation of proline to trans-2,3-cis-3,4-dihydroxyproline or trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline. The DOPA residues occur primarily in the N- and C-terminal regions of the protein. Mefp-2 contains considerable secondary structure and is relatively resistant to a variety of proteases (compared to Mefp-1). The high cysteine content (6-7 mol %) coupled with tandemly repetitive motifs similar to epidermal growth factor, represents an adhesive protein with a stabilization role in the byssus (See Inoue K, Takeuchi Y, Miki D, Odo S, Mussel Adhesive Plaque Protein Gene is a Novel Member of Epidermal Growth Factor-like Gene Family, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270 (12): 6698-6701 (1995).  
         [0040]     An Mefp-2 multi-gene family may exist, based on evidence that at least three different repetitive motifs have been identified in the primary protein sequence (See Rzepecki L M, Hansen K M, Waite J H, Characterization of Cysteine-rich Polyphenolic Protein Family from the Blue Mussel,  Mytilus edulis -L, Biological Bulletin, 183 (1): 123-137 (1992). A published full-length gene sequence for Mefp-2 has not been available until now.  
         [0000]     Other Byssal Proteins: Mefp-1, Mefp-3, Mefp-4 and Mefp-5  
         [0041]     Mefp-1  
         [0042]     Mefp-1 was the first polyphenolic protein to be identified in the mussel byssus (See Waite J H, Tanzer M L, Polyphenolic Substance of  Mytilus edulis  Novel Adhesive Containing L-Dopa and Hydroxyproline,  Science,  212 (4498): 1038-1040 (1981). The primary location of Mefp-1 is in the byssal threads, cross-linked via a polyphenol oxidase to form a schlerotonized sheath around the flexible, collagen inner-core. Byssal plaques contain approximately 5% of Mefp-1 as well. Mefp-1 adhesive properties are comparable to synthetic cyanoacrylate and epoxy resins.  
         [0043]     Mefp-1 is a large, basic protein with very little secondary structure and a molecular mass of 130 kDa. Decapeptide and hexapeptide repeats containing numerous post-translational modifications (−60-70% of the amino acid residues are hydroxylated) provided the first indication of an adhesive-related protein unlike any others identified in nature. The hexapeptide repeat is AKPTYK (SEQ ID NO: 22). The major decapeptide consensus repeat, consisting of AKPSY P PTYK (SEQ ID NO: 23) (where Y represents 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-alanine (DOPA), “P” represents trans-2,3-cis-3,4-dihydroxyproline, and P represents trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline) occurs approximately eighty times in Mefp-1. DOPA residues constitute 10-15% of the protein (See Waite J H, Evidence for a Repeating 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine-Containing and Hydroxyproline-Containing Decapeptide in the Adhesive Protein of the Mussel,  Mytilus edulis, Journal of Biological Chemistry,  258 (5): 2911-2915 (1983). The open conformation of the protein is believed to allow functional groups full accessibility for interactions with other proteins and a variety of surfaces, including glass, Teflon, and metals.  
         [0044]     Mefp-1 has been previously commercialized as a source for mussel adhesive protein. Companies supplying Mefp-1 have obtained the pure protein from the byssal structures using protein extraction techniques (e.g., Sigma-Aldrich; BD Biosciences Clontech, formerly marketed by BioPolymers Corp of Farmington, Conn., under the trademark CELL-TAK®) and recombinant protein techniques using synthetic gene constructs. However, currently there are no commercial sources for Mefp-1, due to the high cost of extraction methods and inconsistencies in quality of protein from recombinant protein techniques. All of the laboratory-prepared products were not as strong as the natural protein.  
         [0045]     Mefp-1 requires oxidization by catechol oxidase or tyrosinase enzymes (or periodontate) in order to render the tyrosine residues converted to reactive DOPA residues required for strong adhesion. The enzyme oxidation may serve as an oxidative agent and as a copolymer. Molecular oxygen can also be used to oxidize DOPA to a quinone. Possible cross-linking agents are oxygen, polyvalent metal ions, Fe 3+  and Al 3+ , aldehydes and many types of bi/polyfunctional cross-linkers. The addition of other macromolecules to the Mefp-1 protein—such as collagen, casein or keratin—has been recommended by companies in order to increase the adhesive properties of the individual protein.  
         [0046]     Mefp-1 in the form of CELL-TAK (BioPolymers Corp of Farmington, Conn.) has been tested as a surgical adhesive between a number of different cells or tissues from a range of species. For example, studies testing the efficiency of CELL-TAK (BioPolymers Corp of Farmington, Conn.) compared to other adhesives have included porcine cartilage, bone and skin (see, Chivers R A, Wolowacz R G, The Strength of Adhesive-Bonded Tissue Joints, International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 17 (2): 127-132 (1997)), rat tissue (see, Schmidt S P, Resser J R, Sims R L, Mullins D L, Smith D J, The Combined Effects of Glycyl-L-Histidyl-L-Lysine-Copper (II) and CELL-TAK® (BioPolymers Corp of Farmington, Conn.) on the Healing of Linear Incision Wounds, Wounds A Compendium of Clinical Research and Practice, 6 (2):62-67 (1994)), rabbit corneas (see, Robin J B, Picciano P, Kusleika R S, Salazar J, Benedict C, Preliminary Evaluation of the Use of Mussel Adhesive Protein in Experimental Epikeratoplasty, Archives of Ophthalmology, 106 (7):973-977 (1988)), and chicken osteoblasts and cartilage cells (see, Fulkerson J P, Norton L A, Gronowicz G, Picciano P, Massicotte J M, Nissen C W, Attachment of Epiphyseal Cartilage Cells and 17/28 Rat Osterosarcoma Osteoblasts using Mussel Adhesive Protein, Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 8 (6): 793-798 (1990)). Studies have also included human breast cancer cells and mouse sperm cells. The best adhesion with CELL-TAK (BioPolymers Corp of Farmington, Conn.) has been shown to occur with cell cultures. Other testing of CELL-TAK for industrial applications has included it&#39;s use as an enzyme immobilization matrix in the fabrication of enzyme-based electrodes (See Saby C, Luong J H T,  Mytilus edulis  Adhesive Protein (MAP) as an Enzyme Immobilization Matrix in the Fabrication of Enzyme-Based Electrodes, Electroanalysis, 10 (17): 1193-1199 (1998)).  
         [0047]     Purified polyphenolic protein was also shown to effectively immobilize human chorionic gonadotrophin to wells of a microtiter plate (See Burzio V A, Silva T, Pardo J, Burzio L O, Mussel Adhesive Enhances the Immobilization of Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin to a Solid Support, Analytical Biochemistry, 241 (2): 190-194 (1996). In addition, the immunoreactivity of the attached antigen used in the study was stable for several months. This example shows a possible tool for polyphenolic proteins in basic research and medical diagnostics.  
         [0048]     Other  Mytilus  mussel species contain a protein analogous to Mefp-1, with differences in the decapeptide repeat frequency, residue composition, and non-repetitive regions. To date, analogous proteins to Mgfp-2 have not been reported other than the identification of the Mefp-2 variants described herein.  
         [0049]     Mefp-3  
         [0050]     Mefp-3 is the smallest byssal adhesive protein identified to date, with a molecular mass of ˜5-7 kDa. See Papov V V, Diamond T V, Biemann K, Waite J H, Hydroxyarginine-Containing Polyphenolic Proteins in the Adhesive Plaques of the Marine Mussel,  Mytilus edulis , Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270 (34): 20183-20192 (1995); Inoue K, Takeuchi Y, Miki D, Odo S, Harayama S, Waite J H, Cloning, Sequencing and Sites of Expression of Genes for the Hydroxyarginine-Containing Adhesive-Plaque Protein of the Mussel,  Mytilus galloprovincialis , European Journal of Biochemistry, 239 (1): 172-176 (1996); Warner S C, Waite J H, Expression of Multiple Forms of an Adhesive Plaque Protein in an Individual Mussel,  Mytilus edulis , Marine Biology, 134 (4): 729-734 (1999). Mefp-3 contains no repeats, 20-25 mol % DOPA, and a prevalence of 4-hydroxyarginine and tryptophan residues. Warner S C, Waite J H, “Expression of Multiple Forms of an Adhesive Plaque Protein in an Individual Mussel,  Mytilus edulis ”, Marine Biology, 134 (4): 729-734 (1999) identified twenty gene variants (−0.3 kB) of Mefp-3 in the foot organ; however, only four or five proteins have actually been detected in plaques deposited on glass or plastic. The presence of a gene family for Mefp-3 supports the primer-like function of the protein in adhering to substrata. One hypothesis has been that deposition of a specific Mefp-3 variant is dependent upon the surface used for attachment. However, protein expression specific to substrate attachment has not been demonstrated to date.  
         [0051]     Mefp-4  
         [0052]     Mefp-4 is another protein identified in byssal plaques, with a molecular mass of 79 kDa (See, Warner S C, Waite J H, “Expression of Multiple Forms of an Adhesive Plaque Protein in an Individual Mussel,  Mytilus edulis ”, Marine Biology, 134 (4): 729-734 (1999); Vreeland V, Waite J H, Epstein L, “Polyphenols and Oxidases in Substratum Adhesion by Marine Algae and Mussels”, Journal of Phycology, 34 (1): 1-8 (1998); Weaver, JK, “Isolation, Purification, and Partial Characterization of a Mussel Byssal Precursor Protein,  Mytilus edulis  foot protein 4”, MS thesis, University of Delaware, Newark, (1998)  
         [0053]     Mefp-4 contains elevated levels of glycine, arginine, and histidine, as well as 4 mol % DOPA. A unique tyrosine-rich octapeptide is present, with variations in residue substitutions giving rise to a family of proteins. This very large protein most likely serves a stabilization role in byssal plaques, as does Mefp-2. A gene sequence for Mefp-4 has not been identified, nor are any analogs/homologs from other mussel species available to date.  
         [0054]     Mefp-5  
         [0055]     Mefp-5 is the most recent identified adhesive-related byssal plaque protein. See, Waite J H, Qin X X, “Polyphosphoprotein from the Adhesive Pads of  Mytilus edulis”, Biochemistry,  40 (9): 2887-2893 (2001). Mefp-5 is a relatively small protein with a molecular mass of 9.5 kDa, a 27 mol % DOPA content, and the presence of phosphoserine. Phosphoserine is known to occur in acidic mineral-binding motifs of proteins that bind calcareous materials (e.g. osteopontin); therefore, its presence in byssal plaques may aid in adhesion of one animal to a neighboring mussel&#39;s shell. Mefp-5 was formerly associated with the Mefp-3 family of variants, and similarly, plays an interfacial role as a primer for substrate adhesion. See, also M J Sever, et al., Metal-mediated cross-linking in the generation of a marin-mussel adhesive. Angewandte Chemie 43(4), 448-450.  
         [0056]     An underwater adhesive will be a valuable asset to the military and industries such as forest products (composite wood products), building/construction, plastics, electronics, automotive, aviation, and the biomedical fields (dentistry, surgery, orthopedics, ophthalmology). All can benefit from an environmentally safe, strong, inexpensive alternative to the conventional adhesives available today. There are no conventional glues that can be applied in an aqueous environment and are impervious to water and turbulent forces. The development of a biomimetic glue product (an adhesive that employs man-made materials to mimic the efficient attachment mechanisms of the natural mussel) will revolutionize the field of adhesive technology. Mussel adhesive proteins represent a tantalizing target in the field of biomimetics. The challenge of resisting the effects of water: (i) its ability through hydrogen bonding to interfere with initial bonding between the substrate and adhesive; (ii) the attack by water on the adhesive-substrate interface through wicking and crazing; (iii) swelling of adhesive (and failure of the bond junction) through water absorption; and (iv) dissolution or erosion of the adhesive, have been met by the mussel byssus and the protein constituents secreted during its synthesis. For more than 20 years, researchers have studied mussel adhesion to gain clues to design better glues for wet environments, such as in dentistry, as a surgical glue and in industry. Two commercial products for attachment of cells to plastic vessels in cell culture applications have been introduced (Cell-Tak/BioPolymers, Inc., AdheraCell/Genex Corp.), and several U.S. patents cover aspects of the repeating decapeptide motif, isolation of polyphenolic proteins from mussels and recombinant forms of Mefp-1.  
         [0000]     Genetic Approaches  
         [0057]     Reverse-genetics approaches to obtaining complete gene sequences, enzymatic screening of a cDNA library from the foot organ of  M. edulis , and the use of DNA probes allow for detection of transcripts actively expressed and transcribed by the mussel. With the complete gene sequences, an alternate host system can be employed to produce the adhesive proteins of interest for future analyses from protein chemistry, novel microscopy, and adhesive science disciplines. The adhesives industry will require a large quantity of protein to perform adequate testing and analyses for future adhesive technologies.  
         [0058]     In the first reverse-genetics strategy, an approach is taken to identify known genes for adhesive proteins of interest. For this method, PCR (polymerase chain reaction) primers are designed for the genes of interest based on available nucleotide and amino acid sequences from  M. edulis  and other mussel species. The primers are combined with total RNA isolated from the foot organ of  M. edulis  in an RT-PCR (reverse transcription followed by PCR) reaction to yield a product corresponding to the gene of interest. This cDNA (c=“complementary”) product is then inserted (cloned) into a plasmid vector (currently obtained from a vendor). The clone for the adhesive gene of interest is now packaged for analysis by DNA sequencing and for insertion (transformation) into a suitable host for recombinant protein expression. DNA sequencing of the clone is critical in 1) determining that the clone is full-length e.g. contains the start and stop signal for translation of the full gene to protein, and 2) identifying variants in any of the gene sequences.  
         [0059]     In the second reverse-genetics approach, a cDNA library is constructed from RNA isolated from the foot organ of  M. edulis . This library consists of individual clones in wells of a microtiter plate. High-throughput DNA sequencing of the microtiter plates containing the clones, followed by analysis using available bioinformatics software programs, will enable 1) a determination of all of the genes presently expressed in the foot of the mussel, and 2) a determination of known and possibly novel adhesive proteins expressed in the foot of the mussel. The treatment of mussels prior to excision of their foot organ for RNA isolation (e.g. exposure to various surfaces, water conditions) may play a role in the expression of genes in the foot organ.  
         [0060]     An enzymatic assay is a third strategy to obtain the polyphenoloxidase (catechol oxidase) gene. In this assay, microtiter plates containing either 1) all clones from a foot organ cDNA library or 2) only clones identified by DNA sequencing to resemble a polyphenoloxidase enzyme, are subjected to addition of an appropriate substrate for colorimetric indication of active enzyme activity. It is important that the active form of the protein be determined for subsequent adhesive formulation determinations.  
         [0061]     A fourth strategy to obtain genes for adhesive proteins involves the development of nucleotide probes based on known DNA sequences or protein sequence motifs in the respective genes. These probes are then tested against a cDNA foot library from  M. edulis.    
       Preferred Embodiments  
       [0062]     The present invention relates to the adhesive protein, Mepf-2 and the nucleotide sequences encoding such protein, found in the blue mussel,  Mytilus edulis . Sequence ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 3 and SEQ ID NO: 5 describe the DNA sequence encoding Mepf-2 (SEQ ID NOs: 1, 2, and 3 are representative of the coding sequence, since they were generated from c-DNAs). (Sequence ID NO: 2), (SEQ ID NO: 4) and (SEQ ID NO: 6) illustrate the corresponding amino acid sequences for the abovementioned nucleotide sequences.  
         [0000]     Nucleotide Sequences  
         [0063]     The scope of the present invention is not limited to the exact sequence of the nucleotide sequences set forth in (SEQ ID NO: 1), (SEQ ID NO: 3) and (SEQ ID NO: 5) or the use thereof. The invention contemplates certain modifications to the sequence, including deletions, insertions, and substitutions, that are well known to those skilled in the art. For example, the invention contemplates modifications to the sequence found in (SEQ ID NO:1), (SEQ ID NO: 3) and (SEQ ID NO: 5) with codons that encode amino acids that are chemically equivalent to the amino acids in the native protein. An amino acid substitution involving the substitution of amino acid with a chemically equivalent amino acid includes a conserved amino acid substitution.  
         [0064]     Chemical equivalency can be determined by one or more the following characteristics: charge, size, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, cyclic/non-cyclic, aromatic/non-aromatic etc. For example, a codon encoding a neutral non-polar amino acid can be substituted with another codon that encodes a neutral non-polar amino acid, with a reasonable expectation of producing a biologically equivalent protein.  
         [0065]     Amino acids can generally be classified into four groups. Acidic residues are hydrophilic and have a negative charge to loss of H +  at physiological pH. Basic residues are also hydrophilic but have a positive charge to association with H +  at physiological pH. Neutral nonpolar residues are hydrophobic and are not charged at physiological pH. Neutral polar residues are hydrophilic and are not charged at physiological pH. Amino acid residues can be further classified as cyclic or noncyclic and aromatic or nonaromatic, self-explanatory classifications with respect to side chain substituent groups of the residues, and as small or large. The residue is considered small if it contains a total of 4 carbon atoms or less, inclusive of the carboxylcarbon. Small residues are always non-aromatic.  
         [0066]     Of naturally occurring amino acids, aspartic acid and glutamic acid are acidic; arginine and lysine are basic and noncylclic; histidine is basic and cyclic; glycine, serine and cysteine are neutral, polar and small; alanine is neutral, nonpolar and small; threonine, asparagine and glutamine are neutral, polar, large and nonaromatic; tyrosine is neutral, polar, large and aromatic; valine, isoleucine, leucine and methionine are neutral, nonpolar, large and nonaromatic; and phenylalanine and tryptophan are neutral, nonpolar, large and aromatic. Proline, although technically neutral, nonpolar, large, cyclic and nonaromatic is a special case due to its known effects on secondary conformation of peptide chains, and is not, therefore included in this defined group.  
         [0067]     There are also common amino acids which are not encoded by the genetic code include by example and not limitation: sarcosine, beta-alanine, 2,3-diamino propionic and alpha-aminisobutryric acid which are neutral, nonpolar and small; t-butylalanine, t-butylglycine, methylisoleucine, norleucine and cyclohexylalanine which are neutral, nonpolar, large and nonaromatic; ornithine which is basic and non-cylclic; cysteic acid which is acidic; citrulline, acetyl lysine and methionine sulfoxide which are neutral, polar, large and nonaromatic; and phenylglycine, 2-naphtylalanine, β-2-thienylalanine and 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid which are neutral, nonpolar, large and aromatic. Other modifications are known in the art some of which are discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,465,237 issued to Tomlinson on Oct. 15, 2002.  
         [0000]     Cloning and Sequencing of cDNA Encoding Mepf-2: SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, and 5  
         [0068]     For SEQ ID NO: 5 (clone designation QTB10): Total RNA from the foot organ of  M. edulis  was supplied to the customer by Invitrogen Corporation (Carlsbad, Calif.). Invitrogen&#39;s cDNA library was constructed using the following strategy. First strand cDNA was synthesized using AMV Reverse Transcriptase with a Not T primer. The Not I primer is a 39 base pair primer which consists of 18 T residues and a Not I restriction site. The RNA-cDNA hybrid created by first strand synthesis was converted to double stranded cDNA by DNA Polymerase I in combination with RNase H and  E. coli  DNA ligase. After addition of BstX I adapters, the cDNA was digested with Not I and sized on an agarose gel. Size selected cDNA (&gt;500 bp) was ligated into BstX I/Not I digested phagemid vector pYES2 and transformed into the  E. coli  strain TOP10F′. pYES2 is a yeast expression vector. Library amplification was performed by plating over 20 large plates and incubating overnight at 37° C. The cells were scraped from the plates, resuspended into SOC media/20% glycerol and aliquoted into 6 tubes with each vial containing approximately 2 mL. Vials were stored at 80° C. until use. Validation: number of primary recombinants=4.35×10 6  ratio containing inserts=10/10, average insert size of the clones analyzed=1.22 kB. The original cDNA library from Invitrogen was designated as #1 (I). Subsequent replications and platings were designated as cDNA libraries #2 (II) and #3 (III).  
                                                                                           TABLE 1                           Primers for RT-PCR: Mefp-2 (SEQ ID NO: 1 and 3)                                Restriction               Primer   F/R   Target   DNA Sequence: 5′ to 3′   nt   Site   Amino Acids                    514   F   Mefp-2     gcggccgc cacagaagcatcatgttgt   (SEQ ID NO: 17)   31   Not I   . . . MLFS   (SEQ ID NO: 20)                       tttc               515   R   Mefp-2     gagctc gtctaggttaacttaatactc   (SEQ ID NO: 18)   30   Sac I   . . . DEY*   (SEQ ID NO: 21)                   gtc                  
 
         [0069]     For SEQ ID NO: 1 and 3: Specific primers were designed (as shown in Table 1) based upon GenBank Accession No. D43794 , Mytilus galloprovincialis  (SEQ ID NO: 19) mRNA for adhesive plaque matrix protein. Primer set 514(SEQ ID NO: 17)/515(SEQ ID NO: 18) produced clones #2 (SEQ ID NO: 1) and #7 (SEQ ID NO: 3) The  M. galloprovincialis  sequence was used because it was assumed an analogous protein is present in  M. edulis.    
         [0070]     The nucleotide sequence for Mepf-2 clone #2 (SEQ ID NO: 1) and clone # 7 (SEQ ID NO: 3) was amplified by RT-PCR using the designed primers with total RNA isolated from the foot organ of  M. edulis . Following first strand cDNA synthesis, PCR was carried out as described for clone #2: 1 μL cDNA, 5 μL 10× Buffer for Accuzyme DNA Polymerase (for a 2 mM MgCl 2  final concentration; Bioline; Randolph, Mass.), 1 μL dNTPs (at 10 mM each), 2 μL primer set 514 (SEQ ID NO: 17)/515(SEQ ID NO:18) (for Mefp-2; at 100 pmol/μL), 40 μL sterile water and 1.0 KLL Accuzyme DNA Polymerase were added to a thin-walled 0.5 mL PCR tube. Amplification was performed on a PerkinElmer 9700 thermocycler (PerkinElmer, Inc.; Boston, Mass.) under the following conditions: 95° C.-3 minutes; 30 cycles of: 95° C.-30 seconds, 50° C.-1:00 minute, 72° C.-2:00 minutes; 72° C.-10:00 minutes; final hold at 4° C. The PCR reaction was analyzed on a 1% agarose gel.  
         [0071]     Following first strand cDNA synthesis, PCR was carried out as described for clone #7: 1 μL cDNA, 5 μL 10× Buffer for Taq PCR buffer (Promega; Madison, Wis.), 1 μL dNTPs (at 10 mM each), 2 μL primer set 514 (SEQ ID NO: 17)/515(SEQ ID NO:18) (for Mefp-2; at 100 pmol/μL), 37.5 μL sterile water and 0.5 μL Taq DNA Polymerase were added to a thin-walled 0.5 mL PCR tube. Amplification was performed on a Perkin-Elmer 9700 thermocycler as described above for clone #2. The PCR reaction was analyzed on a 1% agarose gel.  
         [0072]     Cloning was performed per the pYES2.1 TOPO TA Cloning Kit (Invitrogen; Carlsbad, Calif.). Transformants were picked and screened by restriction enzyme digestion (Sacd and NotI double restriction digest, per New England BioLabs; Beverly, Mass.) and DNA sequencing. Clone designations #2 and #7 (SEQ ID NOs:1 and 3, respectively) were determined to be complete cDNA clones for Mefp-2.  
         [0073]     DNA sequencing of all potential Mefp-2 clones was performed with a LiCor 4000L DNA Sequencer (LiCor Inc.; Lincoln, Nebr.) and with an ABI 3700 DNA Sequencer using BigDye v2.0 and v3.0 chemistries (Applied Biosystems; Foster City, Calif.). Oligonucleotide sequencing primers were obtained from Invitrogen cloning kits, LiCor, Operon Technologies, Inc. (Alameda, Calif.), and MWG Biotech (UK). Primers used with the LiCor sequencer were IRD 800 dye-labeled. Primers used with the Applied Biosystems sequencer were un-labeled. See Table 2 for details of DNA sequencing primers used.  
         [0074]     Screening of the cDNA libraries was performed following 96-well plasmid preparation methods from various vendors (e.g. Qiagen (Alameda, Calif.) and Promega (Madison, Wis.)).  
         [0075]     Sequencing primers designed for vector targets were designed based upon vector sequences provided by Invitrogen. Primers designed by the inventors for targeting DNA sequence of Mefp-2 were based upon clone #2, #7 and QTB10 consensus sequences.  
         [0076]     Sequencing primers for vector targets were obtained from Invitrogen. Primers designed by inventors (labeled HS/FFR) for targeting the DNA sequence of Mefp-2 were based upon clone #2, #7 and QTB10 consensus sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, and 5).  
                                                                   TABLE 2                           Sequencing Primers                    Target:                       F/   Vector or DNA       Primer   R   Sequence   DNA Sequence: 5′ to 3′   nt                    T7   F   pYES2   TAATACGACTCACTATAGGG   (SEQ ID NO: 7)   20           (Standard)       and       Invitrogen       pYES2.1/V5-His-       Corporation       TOPO               V5C-term   R   pYES2.1/V5-His-   ACCGAGGAGAGGGTTAGGGAT   (SEQ ID NO: 8)   21       Reverse       TOPO       Invitrogen       Corporation               506   R   pYES2   TTTCGGTTAGAGCGGATG   (SEQ ID NO: 9)   18       by HS/FFR               507   R   pYES2   AGGGCGTGAATGTAAGCGTG   (SEQ ID NO: 10)   20       by HS/FFR               508   F   Mefp-2 internal   TTTGGTCCAGAATGCGAG   (SEQ ID NO: 11)   18       by HS/FFR               Sq1   F   Mefp-2 internal   CTTTGGCAGACTTTGCG   (SEQ ID NO: 12)   17       by HS/FFR               Sq2   F   Mefp-2 internal   ACGGAAAGTGCTCACCC   (SEQ ID ON: 13)   17       by HS/FFR               Sq3   F   Mefp-2 internal   AAGTGCTCACCCTTGGG   (SEQ ID NO: 14)   17       by HS/FFR               FP-1   F   pPDM-1   CCCAATACGCAAACCGCCTCT   (SEQ ID NO: 15)   21       EpiCentre               RP-1   R   pPDM-1   TTAGAAAAATAAACAAATAGGGG   (SEQ ID NO: 16)   25       EpiCentre           TT                  
 
         [0077]     It should be noted that Epicentre FP-1 (SEQ ID NO: 15) and RP-1 (SEQ ID NO: 16) were used for Mefp-1 and not used for Mefp-2.  
         [0000]     Expression of Mefp-2 Protein  
         [0078]     Expression of recombinant Mefp-2 protein from clone #2, #7 and QTB10 (SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, and 5) is performed by following the protocol set forth by Invitrogen. Expression is performed with the pYES2 system in the yeast strain  Saccharomyces cerevisiae . A 30-liter fermentor (Bio Flo 4500—New Brunswick Scientific; Edison, New Jersey) is used to scale-up from the Invitrogen protocol.  
         [0079]     Having described the basic concept of the invention, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the foregoing detailed disclosure is intended to be presented by way of example only, and is not limiting. Various alterations, improvements, and modifications are intended to be suggested and are within the scope and spirit of the present invention. Additionally, the recited order of the elements or sequences, or the use of numbers, letters or other designations therefore, is not intended to limit the claimed processes to any order except as may be specified in the claims. Accordingly, the invention is limited only by the following claims and equivalents thereto.  
         [0080]     All publications and patent documents cited in this application are incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent document were so individually denoted.