Abstract:
A method for stowage of cargo items ( 7, 18, 100 ). In a cargo container ( 12, 20, 103 ) wherein spaces around the cargo items and within the cargo container are at least partly filled with spacer elements ( 1, 19, 104 - 106, 109 - 112 ) so as to substantially prevent movement of the cargo items in the cargo container, characterized in that dynamic forces on the cargo items associated with motion of the cargo container and/or weight forces on the cargo items are transmitted to the container structure through the spacer elements, and wherein at least one spacer element transmitting such forces comprises a shaped block of expanded plastics foam material, preferably polystyrene. The invention is applicable to comparatively heavy loads such as those transported in shipping containers and in such land vehicles as rail cars and road transport vehicles.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a U.S. National Stage Application of International Application No. PCT/AU2006/001040, filed on Jul. 27, 2006 and published in English as WO 2007/012115 A1 on Feb. 1, 2007. This application claims the benefit of AU Application No. 2005904009, filed on Jul. 27, 2005. The disclosure(s) of the above applications are incorporated herein by reference. 
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The invention relates to improvements in methods and apparatus for the stowage of goods in containers, especially shipping and other transport containers, and for the transport of goods so stowed. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Enormous quantities of goods, including manufactured goods, produce and materials, are daily shipped around the world by land, sea and air in containers of various types. Standard shipping containers as used on seagoing ships, for example, are a familiar sight at sea and on land. The loading of cargo items into such containers and their subsequent unloading, is a major activity involving much expenditure of labour and money. An important problem facing all those involved in shipping of goods is containing the cost of such loading and unloading. 
     Much of the cost of loading and unloading arises from the need to secure cargo items in their containers securely, to avoid damage in transit. Given the wide variety of goods that must be transported, this can be a skilled process consuming much time and effort. 
     It is also important in many cases that cargo items not move within their containers during transit. In sea transport, for example, any inadvertent shifting of cargo due to ship motions can have adverse effects on ship stability and hence safety. 
     Some cargoes comprising multiple discrete items that can be loaded in a container in layers also present a problem in that no number of complete layers closely matches the load carrying capacity of the container, yet partial layers can be difficult to secure against undesired movement. 
     Materials such as timber used to secure heavy loads in containers can present quarantine and disposal problems at their destinations. 
     An issue widely recognized in the sea transport industry, at least, is that there can be a mismatch between cargoes and container sizes on particular journey legs. For example, where cargo movements are such that “40-foot” containers arrive at a particular port in numbers greater than are required for cargoes leaving that port, there can be excessive numbers of “dead legs” for such containers, i.e. journey legs where the containers are carried empty. Enhancing the ability of such containers to be loaded with other cargo items could in such a case lead to substantial cost savings by reducing dead legs. 
     More generally, it is always desirable to enhance the flexibility of loading of containers. For example, making it easier to use a small container where a large one was previously required, or vice versa, allows better matching of cargoes and container availability. 
     The present invention addresses these problems and issues and is applicable to cargo containers carried on land, sea and air transport vehicles. In addition, it may find application in transport modes where cargo items are contained by the structure of the carrying vehicle, for example where cargo items are carried between decks in ships, or in rail or road vehicles. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The invention has as its purposes and benefits easier, quicker and cheaper packing and unpacking of shipping and other transport containers, with efficient use of available space and avoidance of movement of cargo items within the container, than is available using conventional packing methods. The surprising finding that certain plastics foam materials can be used for the support and restraint of items of significant weight carried in cargo containers has led to the invention. 
     In a first aspect, the invention provides a method for stowing a set of cargo items in a cargo container comprising the steps of: 
     providing a set of one or more substantially rigid spacer elements; and 
     positioning members of said set of spacer elements and members of a set of cargo items in designated positions in a cargo container so that said cargo items and said spacer elements form an assembly that during movement of the cargo container is restrained by contact between the assembly and inner surfaces of said cargo container from movement in a least one direction relative to the cargo container, 
     the method being characterized in that at least one of the spacer elements comprises a shaped block of an expanded plastics foam material. 
     Preferably, at least one of the spacer elements comprises a shaped block of expanded polystyrene foam. 
     During movement of the cargo container inertia forces arising in at least one of the cargo items due to the cargo container movement may be transmitted to the cargo container structure through at least one said shaped block. 
     Further, at least a portion of the weight of at least one of the cargo items may be transmitted to the cargo container structure through at least one said shaped block. Substantially all of the weight of at least one of the cargo items may be transferred to the cargo container structure through shaped blocks of members of the set of spacer elements. 
     Preferably, a said spacer element is shaped to conform closely to a portion of the shape of a said cargo item. A said spacer element may further comprise reinforcing means secured to a said shaped block and adapted to resist localized crushing of said shaped block. 
     Thus, in practice of the invention, the substantially rigid spacer elements including expanded plastics foam are intended to actually transmit loads, dynamic and/or static, between the cargo items and the structure of the cargo container. The term “dunnage” is normally used in the art for materials and items which are not firmly attached to cargo and are used to protect the load, so that the spacer elements do not function merely as dunnage. This is despite much teaching away from the use of such materials in the art of transporting substantial loads in cargo containers. 
     The cargo container may be adapted for movement by an aircraft or define a cargo containing space of an aircraft. In another area of potential application, the cargo container may be adapted for movement by a land vehicle or define a cargo carrying space of a land vehicle. Such a load vehicle could for example be a road vehicle or a rail car. 
     In particular, the cargo container may be adapted for movement by a seagoing vessel or defines a cargo carrying space of a waterborne vessel. The cargo container comprises a standard shipping container. 
     The term “standard shipping container” is in this specification to be taken to include in particular containers of the type used in large numbers for transport of goods by sea. The containers in question are the subject of International Standards Organisation (ISO) standards and are available in various sizes, of which common external sizes are:
     (a) length: 20 feet (6096 mm); width 8 feet (2438 mm); height 8 feet 6 inches (2591 mm) or 9 feet 6 inches (2896 mm);   (b) length: 40 feet (12192 mm); width 8 feet (2438 mm); height 8 feet 6 inches (2591 mm) or 9 feet inches (2896 mm).   

     Such shipping containers are of various types and in addition to general purpose containers, the invention is potentially applicable to suitable specific purpose and specific cargo container types, for example refrigerated containers (“reefers”). Containers of this general type are available in a number of other different lengths and the invention may be practiced with such containers. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, a said spacer element is adapted to be lowered over a said cargo item from above and in use to be retained thereon without substantial relative movement between the spacer element and the cargo item. When said spacer element is lowered over said cargo item a portion of said cargo item is accessible from above. In this embodiment, the said cargo item may be placed directly on a floor of the container or on dunnage on said floor. 
     In another embodiment of the invention, a spacer element has a lower surface adapted to lie directly on a floor surface of the cargo container or on dunnage on said floor surface and an upper surface shaped to closely conform with a portion of at least one cargo item and to support the at least one cargo item. 
     In either of these embodiments a spacer element may have upright faces that in use of the spacer element lie closely adjacent to opposing upright inner surfaces of the cargo container. A single spacer element may for example substantially fully span the internal width of a shipping container. 
     Where cargo item weight is borne by one or more spacer elements, at least one of the spacer elements is positioned within the cargo container and a cargo item is subsequently lowered onto said spacer element. The cargo container may have end doors with said cargo item being loaded through said end doors. Cargo items are placed on spacer elements after the spacer elements have been positioned in the cargo container, it may not be possible for some widely cargo item handling vehicles to position cargo items in the container owing to inadequate reach and inability to enter the cargo container. The method may accommodate this problem by a modification in which while being moved into the cargo container by wheeled support means and said wheeled support means is moved by a separate vehicle so that the separate vehicle can remain outside the cargo container. 
     The method of the invention can be applied for example (and is advantageous) where a cargo item comprises a coil of strip material, eg steel. 
     The method of the invention may be applied where the cargo container is a standard shipping container and the or at least one of the cargo items has a weight of more than 10% of a rated payload of the cargo container. 
     The method of the invention may be applied where the cargo container is a standard shipping container and the or at least one of the cargo items has a weight of more than 20% of a rated payload of the cargo container. 
     In practice of the method of the invention, the members of the set of cargo items may be maintained in their designated positions in the cargo container by the set of spacer elements substantially without the use of additional restraint means. However, it is not intended to preclude the possible use of restraint means additional to the set of spacer elements. 
     In one way of practising the method, members of the set of spacer elements but not members of the set of cargo items contact internal upright walls of the cargo container. 
     In a further aspect, the invention provides a method for transporting a set of cargo items between two locations in a cargo container including the steps of: 
     at a first location stowing a set of cargo items in a cargo container by a method according to the method disclosed above; 
     moving the cargo container to a second location and unloading the cargo items and the spacer elements; 
     disposing of the shaped blocks of the spacer elements by submitting the shaped blocks to a recycling process. 
     In many destinations where cargo containers are sent, there is existing infrastructure for the recycling of expanded plastics foams, including particularly polystyrene foam, without significant environmental nuisance. 
     In a further aspect, the invention provides cargo restraining means for restraining movement of cargo items in a cargo container comprising: 
     a set of one or more substantially rigid spacer elements of which at least one spacer element comprises a shaped block of an expanded plastics foam material; and 
     said spacer elements being shaped and proportioned so as to positionable with members of a set of cargo items in designated positions in a cargo container so that said cargo items and said spacer elements form an assembly that during movement of the cargo container is restrained by contact between the assembly and inner surfaces of said cargo container from movement in a least one direction relative to the cargo container. 
     Preferably, the at least one spacer element comprises a shaped block of expanded polystyrene foam. 
     The cargo restraining means may be adapted for use in a cargo container that is adapted for movement by an aircraft or defines a cargo containing space of an aircraft. 
     The cargo restraining means may be adapted for use in a cargo container that is adapted for movement by a land vehicle or defines a cargo containing space of a land vehicle. 
     The cargo restraining means may be adapted for use in a cargo container that is adapted for movement by a seagoing vessel or defines a cargo containing space of a waterborne vessel. In particular, the cargo restraining means may be adapted for use in a standard shipping container. 
     A said spacer element of the cargo restraining means is preferably shaped to conform to a portion of the shape of a said cargo item. 
     A said spacer element may further comprise reinforcing means secured to a said shaped block and adapted to resist localized crushing of said shaped block. 
     A said spacer element may be adapted to be lowered over a said cargo item from above and in use to be retained thereon without substantial relative movement between the spacer element and the cargo item. 
     In one aspect of the invention in this aspect, a spacer element has a lower surface adapted to lie directly on a floor surface of the cargo container or on dunnage on said floor surface and an upper surface shaped to closely conform with a portion of at least one cargo item and to support the at least one cargo item. 
     The invention can be used in the restraint and stowage of loads that are larger than is usual in applications of expanded foam materials and in particular polystyrene foam. For example, the cargo restraining means may be adapted to support from below at least one cargo item with a weight of more than 10% of a rated payload of the cargo container. For further example, the cargo restraining means may be adapted to support from below at least one cargo item with a weight of more than 20% of a rated payload of the cargo container. 
     In a further aspect of the invention there is provided a method of stowage of cargo items in a cargo container wherein spaces around the cargo items and within the cargo container are at least partly filled with spacer elements so as to substantially prevent movement of the cargo items in the cargo container, characterized in that dynamic forces on the cargo items associated with motion of the cargo container and/or weight forces on the cargo items are transmitted to the container structure through the spacer elements, and wherein at least one spacer element transmitting such forces comprises a shaped block of expanded plastics foam material, preferably polystyrene. 
     In a still further aspect of the invention, there is provided positioning means for maintaining positions of items of cargo in a container, comprising a set of one or more associated and substantially rigid spacer elements wherein members of said set are positionable in designated positions relative to members of a set of cargo items carried in a container so that during movement of the container said cargo items and said spacer elements in combination are substantially restrained by inner surfaces of said container from movement in a least one direction in and relative to the container. 
     In yet another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for stowing a set of cargo items in a container comprising the steps of: 
     providing a set of one or more associated and substantially rigid spacer elements; 
     positioning members of said set and a set of cargo items in designated positions in a container so that during movement of the container said cargo items and said spacer elements in combination are substantially restrained by inner surfaces of said container from movement in a least one direction relative to the container away from designated positions therein. 
     In a further invention, there is provided a method for stowing a set of cargo items in a cargo container comprising the steps of: 
     providing a set of one or more substantially rigid spacer elements; and 
     positioning members of said set of spacer elements and members of a set of cargo items in designated positions in a cargo container so that said cargo items and said spacer elements form an assembly that during movement of the cargo container is restrained by contact between the assembly and inner surfaces of said cargo container from movement in a least one direction relative to the cargo container, 
     the method characterized in that
         (a) a first layer of cargo items and spacer elements comprised in the assembly is placed on a floor surface of the cargo container so as to be prevented from horizontal movement within the cargo container by contact with opposing pairs of upright walls of the cargo container;   (b) cargo items are placed atop spacer elements of the first layer so as to be partly raised above the level of other cargo items of the first layer; and   (c) a second layer of cargo items is placed on top of the first layer and restrained from horizontal movement in the cargo container by contact with upright walls of the cargo container and the raised cargo items.       

     Advantageously, at least one of the spacer elements can comprise a shaped block of an expanded plastics foam material, preferably expanded polystyrene foam. 
     In a further invention, there is provided apparatus for use in stowing of cargo items in shipping containers, comprising: 
     elongate means having at a front end means for supporting a cargo item and at a rear end means for connection to a part of a vehicle which can be raised and lowered; 
     chassis means having ground engaging wheels said chassis means being adapted to support the elongate means at a position between the said front and rear ends. 
     The chassis means may include means for lifting and lowering said elongate means. 
     The apparatus may have a counterweight attached to the rear end of the elongate means. 
     Preferably, the counterweight has openings to receive tines of a forklift vehicle and wherein the counterweight is attached to the elongate means so as to be pivotable relative to the elongate means about both transverse and vertical axes. 
     It is to be understood in this specification that the term “set” used in respect of a set of spacer elements, can mean one spacer element or a plurality. Similarly and intentionally in this specification, the term “set”, used in respect of a set of cargo items, can mean one cargo item or a plurality. It is not intended to imply, where there are several members of either type of set, that all such members need be identical. 
     The term “cargo item”, as used herein, can mean a single element or assembly of elements, or a plurality of elements. Similarly, “cargo item” could mean one or several items secured to or on a support or handling element, such as a crate or a pallet. 
     The term “standard shipping container” is here to be taken to include in particular containers of the type used in large numbers for transport of goods by sea. The containers in question are the subject of International Standards Organisation (ISO) standards and are available in various sizes, of which common external sizes are:
     (a) length: 20 feet (6096 mm); width 8 feet (2438 mm); height 8 feet 6 inches (2591 mm) or 9 feet 6 inches (2896 mm);   (b) length: 40 feet (12192 mm); width 8 feet (2438 mm); height 8 feet 6 inches (2591 mm) or 9 feet 6 inches (2896 mm).   

     Such shipping containers are of various types and in addition to general purpose containers, the invention is potentially applicable to suitable specific purpose and specific cargo container types, for example refrigerated containers. Containers of this general type are available in a number of other different lengths. 
    
    
     
       In order that the inventive concepts may be better understood there will now be described, non-limitingly, certain preferred embodiments of the invention by reference to the attached Figures, of which: 
         FIG. 1  is a perspective view of a spacer element according to the invention, supporting a coil of steel strip (shown in phantom lines); 
         FIG. 2  is a side view of four spacer elements as shown in  FIG. 1 , in use in the interior of a container (shown in phantom lines); 
         FIG. 3  is a perspective view of two coils of steel strip on pallets and (in phantom lines) a further spacer element according to the invention; 
         FIG. 4  is a set of three views of the spacer element shown in  FIG. 3 , namely (a) side elevation, (b) end elevation, (c) view from below, 
         FIG. 5  is a perspective view of five spacer elements and coils as shown in  FIG. 3 , in use in the interior of a container (shown in phantom lines); 
         FIG. 6  is a set of three views of a further spacer element according to the invention namely (a) side view, (b) bottom view, and (c) (left half) an end view and (right half) a cross sectional view, the spacer element being shown in views (b) and (c) covering loads of plate material on stillage elements; 
         FIG. 7  is a perspective view of two further spacer elements according to the invention in use in the interior of a container (shown in phantom lines); 
         FIG. 8  is a plan view of a possible packing arrangement for a layer of cylindrical cargo items in a container; 
         FIG. 9  is a plan view of a load of cargo items and further spacer elements according to the invention, in the interior of a container (shown in phantom lines); 
         FIG. 10  is a side view of a part of the load of cargo items and of the spacer elements as shown in  FIG. 8 , the part shown being the containers between planes marked “P” and “Q” in  FIG. 8 ; 
         FIG. 11  is a perspective view of a shipping container interior space (represented by phantom lines) with coil-type cargo items stowed therein according to the invention; 
         FIG. 12  is a perspective view of the shipping container interior space shown in  FIG. 11 , now with one only of the three cargo items shown in  FIG. 11  in place; 
         FIG. 13  is a side view of a forklift vehicle, portion of a container and an apparatus for assisting in loading the container; 
         FIG. 14  is a plan view of a container internal space containing three cargo items, shoring timbers and spacer elements arranged in accordance with the invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
       FIG. 1  shows a first spacer element  1  according to the invention. Spacer element  1  is generally rectangular, having end faces  2 , side faces  3 , a bottom face  4  and a top face  5 . An upwardly-facing recess  6  has the form of a half-cylinder. Shown in phantom lines in  FIG. 1  is a coil  7  of strip steel that is received and supported in recess  6 . Coil  7  is an example only of a cargo item able to be supported by a spacer element such as element  1 . The use of this example is not intended to limit the scope of the invention or of the types of loads able to be held by spacer elements of the general type exemplified by element  1 . Cutouts  8  are provided to provide access to a central hole  9  of coil  7  for an elongate “sting” (not shown) as is typically used by material handling equipment for lifting and moving coils of steel strip. Also, longitudinal recesses  15  extend along the length of bottom face  4  and are spaced and sized to enable tines of a fork lift (or the like, not shown) to lift the spacer element  1  and contained coil  7  together. 
       FIG. 2  shows a side view of four spacer elements  1  and coils  7  positioned in the interior of a standard shipping container  12 . Container  12  is represented schematically in  FIG. 2  by showing in phantom lines only the edges of its internal surfaces, so that only the container&#39;s interior space is shown. 
     Elements  1  are sized so that four of them snugly fit in container  12 , being restrained from longitudinal movement by the inner end surfaces  13  and from lateral movement the inner side surfaces  14  of container  12 . Such movements may be caused by ship motions at sea and need to be resisted for ship stability and safety. The width between side faces  3  of element  1  is close tope width between inner side surfaces  14  and the length of the four elements  1  in combination is close to the length between inner end surfaces  13 . With this mode of stowing the heavy and unwieldy cargo items  7 , it is quicker and easier to load a shipping container and to unload it, with no need for lashing the items  7  to the interior of the container  12  itself. 
     Spacer elements  1  are preferably formed integrally from a foamed cellular plastics material such as, for example only, “RMAX Geofoam” polystyrene foam, available under the name “Isolite EPS” in Australia from a division of Huntsman Chemical Company Australia Pty Ltd. 
     This rigid cellular polystyrene material is available in a range of six density classes, with different compressive strengths, and is manufactured to Australian Standard AS1366 Part 3-1992. Grades used by applicants to date are “SL” (nominal density 11 kg/cubic metre and 70 kPa compressive stress at 10% deflection) and “M” (nominal density 19 kg/cubic metre and 105 kPa compressive stress at 10% deformation). However, it is of course desirable in practising the invention, to use a material with a suitable density for the particular application, having regard to the cargo item weights and sizes, likely movements of the container, and the like. Selection does not of itself require inventive effort. 
     Forming of the elements  1  is preferred to be by foaming in a simple mould (not shown), and more preferably this is done on or close to the site where the coils  7  are to be loaded in container  12 . This could be at a steel warehouse or at a container loading facility. Alternatively, the polystyrene foam can simply be purchased in blocks from the manufacturer and cut to shape using suitable known methods (eg hot wire cutting). 
     Elements  1  may be reinforced—where necessitated by the load to be carried—by providing at appropriate points inserts (not shown) of material(s) more resistant to deformation from concentrated loads than foamed plastics. For example, the recesses  15  could be defined and their surfaces reinforced by inverted channel sections formed from sheet metal placed in the mould before foaming. However, it has surprisingly been found that in many practical cases, and with suitable choice of material, no such reinforcement is needed even for heavy loads. 
     Other suitable materials may be used, and spacer elements with the functionality of elements  1  may even be fabricated form several components in suitable cases. 
     The clearances to be provided between the elements  1  and the inner surfaces  13  and  14  of container  12  are chosen by suitable trial (requiring no to inventive activity) to suit the weights of the cargo items involved, the skill of the persons stowing and unloading the containers, and the equipment available to them. 
       FIG. 3  shows two coils  16  of steel strip, each secured on a suitable pallet  17 , each coil  16  and its pallet  17  comprising a cargo item  18 . Shown in phantom lines is a further spacer element  19  that can facilitate the stowage of cargo items  18  in shipping containers. Again, no implication of a limitation of the invention to this particular type of cargo item is intended by the use of this illustrative example. Cargo such as cargo items  19  are commonly required to be loaded into shipping containers and are sometimes referred to as “top hats”, due to their shape. 
       FIG. 5  shows five spacer elements  19  being used to stow ten cargo items  19  in a shipping container interior space  20  (whose edges are shown in phantom lines, just as in  FIG. 2 ). As with spacer elements  1 , elements  19  are sized and shaped so as to fit snugly (i.e. with clearances small enough to sufficiently limit load movement wider likely ship motions and large enough for easy loading and unloading) between inner side surfaces  21  of container interior  20  and so that five in combination fit snugly between inner end surfaces  22  of interior  20 . 
       FIG. 4  shows spacer element  19  in three views. Element  19  is generally in the form of a rectangular prism and has two holes  23  within which coils  16  are received, and a rectangular recess  24  within which pallets  17  are received. In use, and by contrast to spacer element  1  whose load is lowered into recess  6 , spacer element  19  is lowered over two cargo items  18  from above and partially surrounds items  18 . Spacer element  19  thereafter maintains the desired relative positions of the items  18 . A fork lift (not shown) can pass its times into recesses  25  in the base of element  19  to access pallets  17  and lift the complete combination of items  19  and spacer element  18  for placement into container interior  20 . 
     As with elements  1 , spacer elements  19  may conveniently be formed from a lightweight expanded foam plastics material, but without implying any limitation to this material type or construction. 
     It is not essential that the cargo items  18  protrude through the top of spacer element  19 . This arrangement simply happens to economize on the material used to form spacer element  19 . A similar spacer element (not shown) could simply cover the items  19  completely (except at the bottom), if required. 
       FIG. 6  shows a spacer element  30  that is also open-bottomed and in use lowered over a cargo item  31  from above. Cargo item  31  comprises three layers  32  of flat material (eg metal plates or billets for hot rolling) supported on stillage elements  33  in known manner. Spacer element  30  is generally rectangular in overall form, having opposing side faces  33 , end faces  34 , a top face  35  and a bottom face  36 . A recess  37  is formed in bottom face  36  and is shaped and sized for close-fitting containment of cargo item  31  as shown. Recesses  38  are provided also in bottom face  36  for tines of a fork lift or the like, so that once element  30  has been positioned over and lowered onto cargo item  31  the complete combination of spacer element  30  and cargo item  31  can be lifted and conveniently loaded into and unloaded from, a shipping container. The side faces  33  are spaced apart so as to fit between opposing inner side faces of a shipping container (not shown) with clearances small enough to limit undesired movement during transit of the container. Similarly the end faces are spaced so that a specified number of spacer elements  30  can be placed longitudinally in the container with sufficiently small clearance to resist undesired movement in transit. 
     From the above descriptions of spacer elements  1 ,  19  and  30 , it will be apparent that a very wide variety of cargo items—beyond the specific items used as examples—can be conveniently stowed in containers so as to resist undesired movement therein during transit of the containers. By making the spacer elements at the point of loading, especially by the use of lightweight foamed plastics, an efficient stowing and restraining system can be provided. 
     Elements  1 ,  19  and  30  all partially surround their respective cargo items  7 ,  18  and  31  in use.  FIG. 7  shows another possibility. A container interior  40  is partially filled with spacer elements  41  so that cargo spaces  42  and  43  are defined by the spacer elements  41  and the interior surfaces of the container interior  40 . This arrangement permits cargo items, taking up only part of a container interior to be stowed in such a way that their potential movement in the container is limited by the inner sides, floor and (if desired) roof surfaces and (in the longitudinal direction) by the container inner end surfaces and the spacer elements  41 . In this case, the general principle of is again followed of substantially filling gaps between opposing inner surfaces of the container is followed, so as to limit undesired cargo movement, but without actually surrounding the cargo items by the spacer elements  41 . Instead cargo items can bear against inner surfaces of the container interior  40 . 
     Spacer elements  41  have recesses  44  for tines of handling equipment to ease the task of location them in the container interior  40 . 
     Spacer elements  41  are shown as solid blocks, but could be provided with openings (not shown) where the nature of the particular cargo items permits to minimize weight and usage of material (such as expanded plastics foam, where used) in the spacer elements  41 , to provide for air flow (especially in the case of refrigerated containers), etc. 
     One possible variation, not shown, is to bevel, round off, or taper upright corner edges of spacer elements (such as elements  1 ,  19 ,  30  or  41  for example) to ease the process of passing the elements through load openings (eg doors) in containers. The openings are of course close fitting so that some care in alignment is needed. 
       FIG. 11  shows three large coils  100 ,  101  and  102  (eg of steel strip) stowed in a shipping container internal space  103  in another important way of practising the invention. Internal space  103  is represented by chain-dotted lines as before. The coils are stowed with their axes longitudinally oriented in space  103 . They are supported from below on spacer elements  104 ,  105  and  106  which are cut away to closely conform with the cylindrical shapes of coils  100 - 102  and which closely fit the gap between opposing sidewalls  107  and  108 . Four further spacer elements  109 ,  110 ,  111  and  112  are provided firstly to separate coils  100  and  101  and  101  and  102  and secondly to separate coils  100  and  102  from respective end walls  113  and  114 . The entire assembly of coils  100 - 102  and spacer elements  109 - 112  and  104 - 106  is closely confined between end walls  113  and  114 . No separate restraint of coils  100 - 102  is provided. 
       FIG. 12  is a similar view of container internal space  103  partly loaded, through end doors  115 . Spacer elements  109  and  104  are in position, and spacer element  110  is being moved longitudinally (as shown by arrow  116 ) towards its final position. Coil  100  has been placed on spacer element  104 , by means described below, after placement of spacer element  104  in position. Similarly, coils  101  and  102  will be placed on their respective supporting spacer elements  105  and  106  In the same way, after placement of elements  105  and  106  in space  103 . 
     A difficulty with stowing in the way shown in  FIG. 12  is that it can be impossible for a suitably sized fork lift (or other handling device) to enter space  103 .  FIG. 13  shows a way in which this problem can be overcome. A forklift  120  is used to manoeuvre a wheeled apparatus  121  which has an elongate sting  122  that can pass through coils such as coil  100 . A chassis  123  is mounted on wheels  124  and has hydraulic cylinders  125  whereby sling  122  can be raised and lowered (as shown by arrow  126 ). A beam  127  is mounted at a pivot  128  to sting  122  and is coupled at its opposite (rear) end to a counterweight  129 . Coupling of beam  127  to counterweight  129  allows a degree of relative movement between them. Counterweight  129  is adapted to be raised and lowered by forklift  120 , which extends its tines  130  into cooperating openings (not shown) in counterweight  129 . Hydraulic power for operating cylinders  125  and a cylinder  131  that allows some relative pivoting of beam  127  about sting  122  is taken from forklift  120 . 
     Apparatus  121  can allow heavy weights such as coil  100  to be lifted and manoeuvred into (or out of) a container  132  without itself having to enter container  132 . Counterweight  129  reduces the weight to be lifted by forklift  120  when handling coil  100 , with wheels  124  acting as a fulcrum. Apparatus  121  allows the use of a forklift smaller than would otherwise be necessary for placement of coil  100  into container  132 . This is very helpful, because many dock facilities do not have such large machines. Apparatus  121  can be provided for use only when necessary and allows the use of smaller machines to continue while practising the invention in this way. 
     Polystyrene spacer elements have the unexpected advantage of surprisingly high friction when in contact with container interior surfaces. Thus, lateral forces on coils  100 - 102  would be transmitted to the floor  133  of space  103  by shear in spacer elements  104 ,  105  and  106  and friction at their contacts with floor  133 , as well as by direct bearing of end faces such as faces  134  on walls  107  and  108 . Generally clearances between spacer elements such as  104 - 106  and opposing walls such as  107  and  108  should be as small as practicable, even to the extent of actual contact between the elements and the walls on both sides. However, the effect of friction where cargo items such as coils  100 - 102  are supported from below is to alleviate any ill effects of positive clearances. Clearances can if desired or found necessary be closed by sliding any suitable thin laminar material between spacer elements and walls. 
     An important point of difference among the various spacer elements described herein is that some are used to resist both the weight of cargo items and lateral forces arising from motions during transport of the cargo container, whereas others resist only the latter type of forces. Spacer elements  1  and  104 - 106 , for example, support the weight of cargo items (respectively items  7  and  100 - 102 ) and also restrain movement of those cargo items in generally horizontal directions in their containers, which movements can arise from dynamic forces associated with motion in a seaway for shipping containers or cornering and acceleration loads in land applications. By contrast, spacer elements  19 ,  34  and  109 - 112  primarily restrain cargo items against generally horizontal forces, while the weight of the cargo items is taken directly by the floors of their respective containers. 
     Further, the invention may be used for restraint of loads against horizontal movement in a cargo container in one direction only or in two perpendicular directions. In  FIGS. 2 ,  5  and  11 , container spaces  12 ,  20  and  103  are shown as being completely filled except for space above the loads, so that both lateral and longitudinal movements are resisted by the spacer elements  1 ,  19  and  104 - 106  and  109 - 112 . However, it is possible in principle to apply the invention in such a way that only movements in one direction are resisted by the spacer elements including expanded foam materials, with other means being provided to resist movement in a perpendicular direction. In  FIG. 14 , heavy cargo items  150 ,  161  and  152  are shown in a container internal space  153  (represented by chain-dotted lines) and are secured against longitudinal movement (i.e. in the direction of arrow  154 ) by timbers  155 . However, they could still move laterally to some degree, and so are restrained against lateral movement by spacer elements  156  according to the invention. Any or all of the cargo items  150 - 152  could of course have their weight supported by spacer elements according to the invention.  FIG. 14  is meant primarily to illustrate the above point rather than necessarily being a practical and preferred way of practising the invention. 
     Further embodiments and methods of practising the invention, in which the cargo items are not necessarily surrounded, will now be described. 
       FIG. 8  is a plan view of a container interior  60  (shown in phantom lines) with a single layer of 65 drum-type cargo items  61  therein. A problem of this arrangement is that the layer of items  61  is not constrained sufficiently by the interior surfaces of the container interior  60  to fully prevent movement of items in transit, with the possibility of damage or leakage. There is a space  62  into which cargo items  61  can move, but which cannot be neatly filled by one or more extra containers  61 . A further problem that often arises with cargoes of this type is that one layer does not fully utilize the weight carrying capacity of the container, whereas two full layers would exceed that capacity.  FIGS. 9 and 10  show how the invention allows these problems to be avoided. 
       FIG. 9  is a similar view to  FIG. 8 , showing how the container interior  60  can be stowed with an extra 25 cargo items to make 90 cargo items in all, all constrained against excessive movement during transit.  FIG. 10  shows this cargo as seen in side elevation looking in the direction of arrow “R” in  FIG. 9 , although for clarity only those cargo items between planes “P” and “Q” are shown. To prevent movement within the space  62 , a suitably shaped and sized spacer element  63  is positioned therein bearing against some of the cargo items  61  and inner end surface  64 . (A spacer element  63 , positioned in a designated position as a first step in loading a layer of cargo items  61 , has the additional advantage of guiding the building up of the layer with each item in its correct position, so that an intended or designed arrangement and number of items  61  in the layer is achieved.) 
     In  FIG. 9 , circles without letters indicate cargo items  61  of the bottom layer. Circles with the letter “Y” indicate cargo items  61  that are raised partly out of the bottom layer by being positioned on top of suitably shaped and sized spacer elements  65 , of which four are shown in this case. A partial layer of 25 additional cargo items  61 , marked “X”, is then stacked on top of items  61  of the bottom layer. Undesired movement of the items  61  labelled “X” is to prevented by the inner side surfaces  66  of container interior  60  and end barriers formed by the partly-raised cargo items  61  labelled “Y”. 
     Each of spacer elements has the form of two cylinders  67  (that each sit under one cargo item  61 ) joined by an intermediate section  68 . However, this is optional. It will be clear to skilled persons that many other shapes would be possible. Another possibility is to provide spacer elements (not shown) that instead of lifting some cargo items partially out of one layer to form a barrier to movement of items in another layer, are held within one layer and also extend out of that layer to form a barrier against undesired movement of items of another layer. For example, elements having a shape that is a combination of the shape of elements  67  and the cargo items  61  shown above them in  FIGS. 9 and 10  could be used as an alternative to elements  67  to restrain movement of items  61  of the upper layer. 
     As with the arrangement of  FIG. 7 , the arrangement of  FIGS. 9 and 10  involves a cargo being constrained against undesired movement by a combination of interior surfaces of a container and by spacer elements placed in the container. 
     It should be understood that there is nothing specific to the particular packing arrangement shown in  FIGS. 8 ,  9  and  10  that limits the scope of the invention. What has been described is purely an example. 
     Many variations and enhancements may be made without exceeding the spirit or scope of the invention.