Abstract:
The invention provides a novel human protein, FISH adaptor protein, involved in amyloid β-protein-mediated cell death. Also provided are methods for modulating amyloid β-protein-mediated cell death using agents that interfere with the activity of FISH adaptor protein.

Description:
[0001]    This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/592,393, filed Aug. 2, 2004, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    This invention relates to identifying proteins involved in mediating neuronal cell death. More specifically, this invention relates to identifying proteins involved in neuronal cell death induced by amyloid-beta protein and the use of such proteins in developing therapies for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer&#39;s disease. 
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0003]    Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease resulting in senile dementia and afflicts four million people in the United States alone (see generally Sloe, TINS, 16:403-409 (1993); Hardy et al., WO 92/13069; Sloe, J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol., 53:438-447 (1994); Duff et al., Nature, 373:476-477 (1995); Games et al., Nature, 373:523 (1995)). Broadly speaking, the disease falls into two categories: late onset, which occurs in old age (65+ years); and early onset, which develops well before the senile period, i.e., between 35 and 60 years. In both types of disease, the pathology is the same but the abnormalities tend to be more severe and widespread in cases beginning at an earlier age. The disease is characterized by at least two types of lesions in the brain, senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Neurofibrillary tangles are intracellular deposits of microtubule-associated tau protein consisting of two filaments twisted about each other in pairs. Senile plaques are areas of disorganized neuropil up to 150 microns across (visible by microscopic analysis of sections of brain tissue) and have extracellular amyloid deposits at the center. A principal component of such plaques is β-amyloid peptide (Aβ) (see Forsyth Phys. Ther., 78:1325-1331 (1998)). Additional proteins found in the plaques include laminin as described by Murtomaki et al., J. Neurosci. Res., 32:261-273 (1992), apoE, acetylcholinesterase, and heparin sulfate proteoglycans, as described by Yan et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1502:145-57 (2000). 
         [0004]    Amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a synaptic single-pass transmembrane protein that is best known for its involvement in AD. In AD patients, amyloid plaques containing aggregated Aβ peptide appear in specific brain regions, triggering an inflammatory response, neuronal cell death, and gradual cognitive decline. One mechanism by which Aβ is derived from APP is cleavage of APP at an extracellular position (β site), followed by an unusual cleavage within the APP transmembrane segment (γ site), producing a fragment of 39-43 amino acids of APP. 
         [0005]    Several mutations within the APP protein have been correlated with the presence of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (Goate et al., Nature, 349:704-06 (1991) (valine 717  to isoleucine); Harlin et al., Nature, 353:844-46 (1991) (valine 717  to glycine); Murrell et al., Science, 254:97-99 (1991) (valine 717  to phenylalanine); Mullan et al., Nature Genet., 1:345-47 (1992) (a double mutation changing lysine 595 methionine 596  to asparagine 595 leucine 596 )). Such mutations are thought to cause Alzheimer&#39;s disease by increased or altered processing of APP to Aβ, particularly processing of APP to increased amounts of the long form of Aβ (i.e., A1-42 and A1-43). Mutations in other genes, such as the presenilin genes PS1 and PS2, are thought to indirectly affect processing of APP to generate increased amounts of long form Aβ (Hardy, TINS, 20:154 (1997)). These observations indicate that Aβ, and particularly its long form, is a causative element in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (Velez-Pardo et al., Gen. Pharm., 31(5):675-81 (1998)). 
         [0006]    The Aβ peptide has also been implicated in neuropathological defects seen in individuals inflicted with Down&#39;s syndrome. For example, almost all individuals with Down&#39;s syndrome, who have an extra copy of chromosome 21, show neuropathological changes similar to those seen in Alzheimer&#39;s disease, if they survive into their 40s. This has been attributed to excess production of β-amyloid protein, which is encoded by the APP gene on chromosome 21. 
         [0007]    Several proteins have been investigated for possible interactions with Aβ. These include the receptor for advanced glycation endproducts, RAGE (see Yan et al., Nature, 382:685-91 (1996)), the scavenger receptor (Khoury et al., Nature, 382:716-719 (1996); and Paresce et al., Neuron 17:553-65 (1996)), the endoplasmic reticulum-associated amyloid-beta biding protein (ERAB) (Yan et al., Nature, 389:689-695 (1997)), α4 or α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (Wang et al., J. Neurochem., 75:1155-1161 (2000) and Wang et al., J. Biol. Chem., 275:5626-5632 (2000)), and the low affinity p75 NGF receptor (see Yaar et al., J. Clin. Invest., 100:2333-2340 (1997)). Additionally, Aβ has been reported to mediate adhesion of cells in a 131-integrin subunit-dependent manner when coated onto plates. (Ghiso et al., Biochem. J., 288:1053-59 (1992); Matter et al., J. Cell Bio., 141:1019-1030 (1998)). However, the mechanism(s) by which Aβ may mediate neurodegeneration remains unclear. The existence and nature of other cellular proteins that may have roles in the process is also largely unclear. 
         [0008]    Various signaling pathways have been implicated in the pathogenesis of AD, including, p38, erk and c-jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) kinase cascades. For example, chronic stimulation of the JNKs has been shown to cause neuronal cell death in several disease paradigms, including in vitro AD models. Additionally, it has been shown that expression of kinase-deficient JNK3 protects against Aβ-induced cell death. However, it is not entirely clear which of these pathways and/or the signaling molecules are the key players in the development of the disease. Accordingly, elucidation of the signaling pathways as well as the intermediates of those pathways will help in understanding the pathology of AD and in developing therapeutic strategies to combat AD. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0009]    This invention provides human proteins that play a role in neuronal cell death. In particular, this invention relates to identification of proteins that are involved in the Aβ-induced cell death pathway in an in vitro model for AD. 
         [0010]    The present invention is based on the discovery and isolation of a human homolog of a previously described FISH adapter protein (FISH), from embryonic human cortical cells (HCC). This invention is further based on an observation that FISH is phosphorylated in response to neurotoxic forms of Aβ and is likely to serve as a signaling molecule in A13 induced neuronal cell death, as shown in an in vitro model for AD. FISH also interacts with other proteins, such as ADAM12, in mediating Aβ-induced cell death 
         [0011]    The invention further provides screening methods for identifying agents that modulate Aβ induced cell death by contacting Aβ treated neuronal cells with a candidate agent, and detecting the survival rate of Aβ-treated cells in the presence of the agent relative to the survival rate in the absence of the agent. The cells can be contacted with the agent either sequentially or simultaneously with Aβ. It is understood that the cells are contacted with a neurotoxic form of Aβ, as described herein, in order to induce cell death. 
         [0012]    In certain embodiments, the screening method for identifying agents that modulate Aβ induced cell death employs two populations of cells: a first population that overexpresses FISH protein and a second population that expresses less FISH protein or no FISH protein. Both populations are treated with Aβ and either sequentially or simultaneously with a candidate agent. The rate or amount of cell death is compared between the two populations. An agent that has a greater effect (either positive or negative) on the cells that overexpress FISH is likely to modulate the activity of the one or more components of the FISH-mediated cell death pathway. 
         [0013]    In certain embodiments, the screening method for identifying agents that modulate Aβ induced cell death measures the effect of a candidate agent on Aβ-induced phosphorylation of FISH protein. 
         [0014]    In certain embodiments, the screening method for identifying agents that modulate Aβ induced cell death measures the effect of a candidate agent on Aβ-induced phosphorylation of ADAM12 protein. 
         [0015]    In various embodiments, the screening method for identifying agents that modulate Aβ induced cell death measures the effect of a candidate agent on Aβ-induced cleavage of ADAM12 protein. 
         [0016]    In certain embodiments, the screening method for identifying agents that modulate Aβ induced cell death measures the effect of a candidate agent on Aβ-induced changes in FISH protein localization. 
         [0017]    Generally, an agent that modulates Aβ-induced cell death in a method of the invention, can be a compound that inhibits one or more activities of Aβ, including but not limited to, for example, phosphorylation of a FISH adapter protein by Aβ, interaction of FISH with members of the ADAM family of proteins, and cleavage of ADAM12. 
         [0018]    In some embodiments, an agent is an antibody which binds FISH, thereby blocking the Aβ induced cell death pathway involving FISH. In other embodiments, such an antibody is an antibody that binds a FISH interacting protein involved in the Aβ induced cell death pathway. Examples of FISH interacting proteins include, but are not limited to, ADAM12. An antibody can be a monoclonal or a polyclonal antibody. 
         [0019]    In certain embodiments, agents can also be nonantibody peptides and polypeptides, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and small molecules that can modulate Aβ-induced cell death. 
         [0020]    The present invention provides methods for modulating Aβ-induced neuronal cell death by administering an effective amount of a mutant form of a FISH interacting protein, such as, for example, a mutant of ADAM12 lacking metalloproteinase activity, to Aβ treated cells. In some embodiments, the mutant ADAM is a deletion mutant. In certain embodiments, the mutant ADAM12 protein is administered directly to the cell. In some embodiments, the mutant ADAM12 protein is encoded by a nucleic acid administered to the cell. 
         [0021]    The present invention also provides methods for modulating Aβ-induced neuronal cell death by administering an effective amount of a mutant FISH protein. In certain embodiments, the invention provides a method for preventing Aβ-induced neuronal cell death by administering an effective amount of a dominant negative mutant of FISH protein. In certain embodiments, the mutant FISH protein is administered directly to the cell. In some embodiments, the mutant FISH protein is encoded by a nucleic acid administered to the cell. 
         [0022]    According to the invention, an agent identified by the methods of the invention can be administered to a patient, in a therapeutically effective dose, in order to treat or prevent Aβ-induced cell death. Embodiments include treatment of AD. 
         [0023]    The invention further provides agents that disrupt the interaction of FISH with other proteins, such as members of the ADAM family, where the interaction plays a role in Aβ-induced cell death. 
         [0024]    The invention also provides methods of treating or preventing AD in a patient by administering an agent that modulates Aβ-induced cell death, for example, by blocking phosphorylation of FISH, blocking the interaction of FISH with a FISH interacting-protein, such as, ADAM12, or decreasing ADAM12 cleavage. Such agents include, but are not limited to, antibodies, nonantibody peptides and polypeptides, nucleic acids, lips, carbohydrates, and small compounds. 
         [0025]    In some methods, the dosage of antibody can be about 0.01 to about 10 mg/kg body weight of the patient. 
         [0026]    In some methods, an agent can be administered with a carrier as a pharmaceutical composition. 
         [0027]    In some methods, an agent can be administered intraperitoneally, orally, intranasally, subcutaneously, intrathecally, intramuscularly, topically or intravenously. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         [0028]      FIG. 1  shows a western blot depicting the cross-reactivity of a protein (p165) in lysates of cultured human cortical cells with an anti-pY845EGFR antibody in the presence or absence of an Aβ peptide (lanes 3 and 4). The western blot also shows the disappearance of cross-reactivity of the p165 protein with the anti-pY845EGFR antibody in lysates of cultured human cortical cells, when the lysates are pretreated with a phosphotyrosine-specific phosphatase (LAR) (lanes 1 and 2). 
           [0029]      FIG. 2A  is a flow-chart depicting the various steps involved in the purification of the p165 protein.  FIG. 2B  (lanes 1-6) shows a western blot with eluates from various steps of a protein purification protocol to purify p165 from whole cell lysates of cultured human cortical cells treated with Aβ. The western blot depicts enrichment of the eluates for the p165 protein, detected with an anti-pY845EGFR antibody. 
           [0030]      FIG. 3  is a schematic representation of the p165 protein, identified as a human homolog of the mouse FISH adapter protein, which includes a Phox homology (PX) domain and five Src homology 3 (SH3) domains. Two peptides corresponding to amino acid residues 402-411 and 739-751 were sequenced. 
           [0031]      FIG. 4A  shows a western blot depicting the immunoprecipitation of endogenous FISH from cultured human cortical cells and the phosphorylation of FISH in the presence of Aβ, as detected with an anti-pY845EGFR antibody.  FIG. 4B  shows a western blot depicting the phosphorylation of FISH protein expressed from an adenovirus construct in cultured human cortical cells upon treatment with Aβ, as detected with an anti-pY845EGFR antibody. 
           [0032]      FIG. 5  shows western blots depicting the phosphorylation of Phox homology deletion mutants of FISH (14FL-includes a deletion of 166 amino acids from the N-terminus of FISH; 615-includes a deletion 347 amino acids from the N-terminus of FISH) in an Aβ-independent manner. 
           [0033]      FIGS. 6A-6C  are micrographs depicting inverted images of epidermal growth factor protein (EGFP) positive neurons expressing deletion mutants of FISH. 
           [0034]      FIG. 7  is a bar graph showing the survival rate of neuronal cells infected with mutant forms of FISH expressed by adenovirus constructs. 
           [0035]      FIGS. 8A-8D  are immunofluorescence images of HCC cells showing the localization of FISH in the presence and absence of Aβ, as detected using an antibody to FISH. 
           [0036]      FIG. 9A  shows a western blot depicting the expression of ADAM12 and ADAM19 in lysates of cultured human cortical cells either left untreated (C) or in cells treated for about 18 hours with A13 (T).  FIG. 9B  shows a western blot depicting the degradation of heregulin (HRG) in lysates of cultured human cortical cells either left untreated (C) or in cells treated for about 18 hours with Aβ (T). 
           [0037]      FIGS. 10A-10F  are micrographs of inverted images of EGFP-positive neurons ( 10 D) and EGFP-positive neurons expressing a deletion mutant of FISH (FISH 348-1105) ( 10 A), which further express ADAM12 deletion mutants: ADAM12del 198-415 in  10 B and  10 E and ADAM12del 198-501 in  10 C and  10 F. 
           [0038]      FIGS. 11A-11F  are micrographs of inverted images of neurons, either left untreated ( 11 A, B, and C) or treated with Aβ ( 11 D, E, and F), and further expressing either ADAM12del 198-501 in  11 A and D, EGFP in  10 B and E, or ADAMdel 198-415 in  11 C and F. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
       [0039]    In order that the present invention be more readily understood, certain terms are first defined. Additional definitions are set forth throughout the detailed description. 
         [0040]    The term “antibody” refers to an immunoglobulin, or a fragment thereof, and encompasses any polypeptide comprising an antigen-binding site. The term includes, but is not limited to, polyclonal, monoclonal, monospecific, polyspecific, non-specific, humanized, human, single-chain, chimeric, synthetic, recombinant, hybrid, mutated, grafted, and in vitro generated antibodies. It also includes, unless otherwise stated, antibody fragments such as Fab, F(ab′) 2 , Fv, scFv, Fd, dAb, and other antibody fragments which retain the antigen binding function. 
         [0041]    The terms “Aβ” and “Aβpeptide” refer to the beta-amyloid protein which is a proteolytic product of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Aβ is found in senile plaques of brains of individuals affected with Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) and triggers neuronal cell death, which can be assayed by one or more methods described herein. 
         [0042]    The term “ADAM” refers to disintegrin-like and zinc-dependent metalloproteinases that belong to a large protein family. These proteins share all or some of the following domain structure: a signal peptide, a propeptide, a metalloproteinase, a disintegrin, a cysteine-rich and an epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like domain, a transmembrane region, and a cytoplasmic tail. ADAMs are widely distributed in many organs, tissues, and cells, such as brain, testis, epididymis, ovary, breast, placenta, liver, heart, lung, bone, and muscle. These proteins are capable of at least four potential functions: proteolysis, adhesion, fusion, and intracellular signaling, and have been implicated in many diseases. ADAM12, 15, and 19 are members of this family of proteins that have been previously shown to interact with FISH, in particular with the fifth SH3 domain of FISH. (Abram et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278: 16844-16851 (2003)). 
         [0043]    The term “Aβ activity” refers to at least one cellular process interrupted or initiated by an Aβ peptide. This term includes signaling pathways involved in Aβ-induced cell death. Generally, Aβ activities include, but are not limited to, tyrosine phosphorylation of FISH, interaction of FISH with FISH interacting proteins, such as ADAM12, and cleavage of ADAM 12, However, an Aβ activity can be any response initiated upon exposure of neuronal cells to a toxic form of Aβ peptide, including, induction of cell death, both in vivo and in vitro. 
         [0044]    The terms “FISH” and “FISH adapter protein” refer to a scaffolding protein that contains Five SH3 domains. FISH was first identified as a substrate of the Src protein tyrosine kinase. (Lock et al., The EMBO J., 17: 4346-4357 (1998)). It also contains a Phox homology (PX) domain at the amino-terminus. The fifth SH3 domain has been shown to interact with members of the ADAM family, including, ADAM12, 15, and 19. (Id.) 
         [0045]    The nucleic acid sequence of a murine FISH is provided in SEQ ID NO:1 (Genbank Accession Number AJ007012); the amino acid sequence is provided in SEQ ID NO:2. 
         [0046]    The term “FISH interacting protein” refers to proteins that cohere with FISH. The term also refers to any variants of such proteins (including splice variants, truncations, fragments, substitutions, addition and deletion mutants, fusion proteins, shuffling sequences and motif sequences, and homologs) that have one or more of the biological activities associated with native proteins, or show disruption of a biological activity associated with the native protein. These proteins further include amino acid sequences that have been modified with conservative or non-conservative changes to the native proteins. These proteins may be derived from any source, natural or synthetic. A FISH interacting protein may either stimulate Aβ-induced cell death or inhibit Aβ-induced cell death. Examples of FISH interacting proteins include members of the ADAM family of proteins, including, ADAM12, 15 and 19, and variants of such proteins, including deletion mutants, such as the ADAM12 deletion mutants described in the Examples herein. 
         [0047]    The nucleic acid sequence of a human ADAM12 is provided in SEQ ID NO:3 (GenBank Accession Number BC060804); the amino acid sequence is provided in SEQ ID NO:4. 
         [0048]    Additional FISH-interacting proteins can be identified by methods described herein or those well known in the art. For example, co-immunoprecipitation or two-hybrid systems can be used to identify proteins that interact with FISH, which may be involved in the Aβ induced cell death pathway mediated by FISH. 
         [0049]    A deletion in a FISH or an ADAM12 protein can be made anywhere in the protein as desirable. A deletion may occur anywhere within the protein; for example, N-terminus, C-terminus or any other part of a FISH protein or an ADAM12 protein. An amino acid deletion according to the invention comprises the removal of at least one amino acid from the N-terminus of a FISH protein. In some embodiments, a deletion comprises removal of at least one amino acid from the C-terminus of a FISH protein. In yet another embodiment, a deletion comprises removal of one or more amino acids from a region lying between the N-terminal end and the C-terminal end of a FISH protein. In one embodiment, such a deletion involves the removal of an entire PX domain of a FISH protein. In certain embodiments, such a deletion involves the removal of an entire SH3 domain of a FISH protein. For example, FISH proteins of the invention comprising a deletion include FISH proteins that have the PX domain deleted or FISH proteins that have one or more of the SH3 domains deleted. Similarly, ADAM proteins can include a deletion of one or more amino acid at the N-terminus, the C-terminus or anywhere in between. Such a deletion may also include the deletion of one or more entire domains, for example, the metalloproteinase domain. Deletions can be generated directly in the FISH or ADAM12 amino acid sequence to make a deletion mutant of the corresponding protein, or they may be generated in a polynucleotide sequence encoding the FISH or ADAM12 protein, thereby making a nucleic acid encoding a deletion mutant of the corresponding protein. 
         [0050]    The term “inhibit” or “inhibition” of Aβ activity refers to a reduction, inhibition of otherwise diminution of at least one activity of Aβ due to an agent that effects either phosphorylation of FISH, interaction of FISH with one or more of the FISH interacting proteins, such as ADAM12, or cleavage of ADAM12. Inhibition of a activity does not necessarily indicate a complete negation of Aβ activity. A reduction in activity can be, for example, at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more. In certain embodiments, inhibition can be measured by a decrease in FISH phosphorylation. In certain embodiments, the inhibition can be measured by a decrease in ADAM12 cleavage. In some embodiments, the inhibition can be measured by a decrease in heregulin degradation. Generally, inhibition of Aβ activity can simply be detected by a decrease in cell death or an increase in cell survival after treatment of cells with an agent, as measured by one or more assays provided herein. 
         [0051]    In some embodiments, inhibition of an Aβ activity can be measured, for example, by the difference in the activity before and after exposure of Aβ-treated neuronal cells to a suitable agent. The agent can be chosen from an antibody, a non-antibody polypeptide, a nucleic acid molecule, a carbohydrate, and a small molecule. Examples of antibodies include, but are not limited to, an antibody to FISH and/or a FISH interacting protein such as ADAM12. Examples of non-antibody polypeptides include, for example, deletion or substitution mutants of FISH and/or FISH interacting proteins, including dominant negative mutants of FISH and/or FISH interacting proteins. Examples of nucleic acid molecules include, for example, polynucleotides encoding deletion or substitution mutants of FISH and/or FISH interacting proteins, including dominant negative mutants of FISH and/or FISH interacting proteins. Additionally, antisense molecules and/or iRNA can be used as agents, where such antisense molecules hybridize to mRNA encoding FISH and/or a FISH interacting protein, thereby blocking the Aβ induced cell death pathway involving FISH and/or a FISH interacting protein. 
         [0052]    The term “treating” or “treatment” refers to both therapeutic treatment and prophylactic or preventative measures. Those in need of treatment can include individuals already having a particular medical disorder, as well as those who may ultimately acquire the disorder (i.e., those needing preventative measures). Treatment can regulate Aβ activity or the level of Aβ to prevent or ameliorate clinical symptoms of at least one disease. The inhibitors and/or antibodies can function by, for example, preventing the phosphorylation of FISH, by blocking the interaction of FISH and its interacting proteins, such as ADAM12, and/or by reducing or blocking cleavage of ADAM12. 
         [0053]    The term “patient” includes human and other mammalian subjects that receive either prophylactic or therapeutic treatment. 
         [0054]    In the experiments leading to the present invention, a human homolog of the mouse FISH adapter protein (FISH) was isolated from cultured human cortical cells (HCC), which serve as an in vitro model for AD. Additionally, proteins that interact with FISH to mediate Aβ-induced cell death were also identified. An anti-phosphoTyrosine845 Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) antibody detected a phosphorylated form of FISH on western blots that was specific to cells treated with Aβ, thereby suggesting that phosphorylation of FISH can be induced by Aβ. 
         [0055]    A similar approach can be used to identify other proteins, whose phosphorylation is induced by Aβ. 
         [0056]    The invention further provides assays for identifying agents that modulate Aβ-induced cell death using an in vitro model for AD. Of particular interest are those agents that reduce or prevent Aβ-induced cell death. For example, in one embodiment, human cortical cultures (HCC) can be treated with Aβ, followed by treatment of cells with various agents to monitor their effect on the survival rate of such cells. Agents include, but are not limited to, antibodies that bind FISH and antibodies that bind ADAM12. 
         [0057]    The present methods are useful for the prophylactic or therapeutic treatment of several diseases and conditions that are characterized by the presence of Aβ peptide. Such diseases include, for example, AD, Down&#39;s syndrome and cognitive impairment, type II diabetes, Parkinson&#39;s disease, amyloidoses such as hereditary or systemic amyloidoses, and diseases caused all or in part by prion infection. 
         [0058]    Patients amenable to treatment include individuals at risk of disease but not showing symptoms, as well as individuals presently showing symptoms. In the case of AD, virtually anyone is at risk of suffering from AD if he or she lives long enough. The present methods are useful for individuals who have a known genetic risk of AD. Such individuals include those having relatives who have experienced this disease, and those whose risk is determined by analysis of genetic or biochemical markers. Genetic markers of risk toward AD include mutations in the APP gene, for example mutations at position 717 and positions 670 and 671 referred to as the Hardy and Swedish mutations, respectively (see Hardy, TINS, supra). Other markers of risk are mutations in the presenilin genes, PS1 and PS2, and the gene for ApoE4, family history of AD, hypercholesterolemia, or arteriosclerosis. Individuals presently suffering from AD can be recognized from characteristic dementia, as well as the presence of the risk factors described above. In addition, a number of diagnostic tests are available for identifying individuals who have AD. These include measurement of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) tau and Aβ42 levels. Elevated tau and decreased Aβ42 levels signify the presence of AD. Individuals suffering from AD can also be diagnosed by ADRDA criteria. In asymptomatic patients, treatment can begin at any age (e.g., about 10, about 20, about 30). Usually, however, it is not necessary to begin treatment until a patient reaches about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80 or about 90. Treatment typically entails multiple dosages over a period of time. In the case of Down&#39;s syndrome patients, treatment can begin prenatally by administering therapeutic agents to the mother; or treatment may begin shortly after birth. 
         [0059]    In prophylactic applications, pharmaceutical compositions or medicaments can be administered to a patient susceptible to, or otherwise at risk of developing AD, in an amount sufficient to eliminate or reduce the risk, lessen the severity, or delay the onset of the disease, including biochemical, histological and/or behavioral symptoms of the disease, its complications and intermediate pathological phenotypes presenting during development of the disease. 
         [0060]    In therapeutic applications, compositions or medicaments can be administered to a patient suspected of, or already suffering from a disease in an amount sufficient to cure, or at least partially arrest, the symptoms or progression of the disease (biochemical, histological, and/or behavioral), including its complications and intermediate pathological symptoms. An amount adequate to accomplish therapeutic or prophylactic treatment is defined as a therapeutically- or prophylactically-effective dose. In therapeutic regimes, the agent can be administered at intervals until symptoms of the disease disappear or significantly decrease. Optionally, administration can be continued to prevent recurrence. In prophylactic regimes, agents can also be administered at intervals, in some instances for the rest of a patient&#39;s life. Treatment can be monitored by assaying levels of administered agent, or by monitoring the response of the patient. The response can be monitored by ADRDA criteria and imaging of plaques in the brain of the patient (see WO 00/14810). 
         [0061]    Effective doses of the compositions of the present invention, for the treatment of the above-described conditions vary depending upon many different factors, including means of administration, target site, physiological state of the patient, whether the patient is human or an animal, other medications administered, and whether treatment is prophylactic or therapeutic. Usually, the patient is a human; nonhuman mammals, including transgenic mammals, can also be treated. Treatment dosages can typically be titrated to optimize safety and efficacy. 
         [0062]    Dosages of antibodies, nonantibody peptides and polypeptides, lipids, carbohydrates, and small molecules can range from about 0.0001 to about 100 mg/kg, and more usually about 0.01 to about 20 mg/kg, of the host body weight. For example, dosages can be about 1 mg/kg body weight or about 20 mg/kg body weight or within the range of about 1 to about 10 mg/kg. An exemplary treatment regime entails administration once per every two weeks or once a month or once every 3 to 6 months. In some methods, two, three, four or more monoclonal antibodies with different binding specificities can be administered simultaneously, in which case the dosage of each antibody administered falls within the ranges indicated. An antibody can usually be administered on multiple occasions. Intervals between single dosages can be weekly, monthly or yearly. In some methods, dosage of antibody can be adjusted to achieve a plasma antibody concentration of about 1 to about 1000 μg/ml, and in some methods about 25 to about 300 μg/ml. Alternatively, antibody can be administered as a sustained release formulation, in which case less frequent administration is required. Dosage and frequency vary depending on the half-life of the antibody in the patient. In general, human antibodies show the longest half life, followed by humanized antibodies, chimeric antibodies, and nonhuman antibodies. The dosage and frequency of administration can vary depending on whether the treatment is prophylactic or therapeutic. In prophylactic applications, a relatively low dosage can be administered at relatively infrequent intervals over a long period of time. Some patients continue to receive treatment for the rest of their lives. In therapeutic applications, a relatively high dosage at relatively short intervals can sometimes be required until the progression of the disease is reduced or terminated, and preferably until the patient shows partial or complete amelioration of the symptoms of the disease. Thereafter, the patient can be administered a prophylactic regime. 
         [0063]    Doses for nucleic acid agents can range from about 10 ng to 1 g, about 100 ng to about 100 mg, about 1 μg to about 10 mg, or about 30 to about 300 μg DNA per patient. Nucleic acids encoding mutant forms of FISH and/or FISH interacting proteins, such as ADAM12, can be linked to regulatory elements, such as promoters and enhancers, that allow expression of the mutant forms in a cell and/or a patient. In some embodiments, promoters/enhancers that specifically cause expression in the brain are used. Promoters such as platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), prion, or the neural enolase promoter are examples. 
         [0064]    The linked regulatory elements and coding sequences can be cloned into a suitable vector. A number of viral vector systems are available including retroviral systems (see, e.g., Lawrie and Tumin,  Curr. Opin. Genet. Develop.,  2:102-109 (1993)); adenoviral vectors (see, e.g., Bett et al.,  J. Virol.,  67:5911 (1993)); adeno-associated virus vectors (see, e.g., Zhou et al.,  J. Exp. Med.,  179:1867-75 (1994)), viral vectors from the pox family including vaccinia virus and the avian pox viruses, viral vectors from the alpha virus genus such as those derived from Sindbis and Semliki Forest Viruses (see, e.g., Dubensky et al.,  J. Virol.,  70:508-19 (1996)), Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,643,576), rhabdoviruses, such as vesicular stomatitis virus (see WO 96/34625), herpes simplex virus, and papillomaviruses (Ohe et al.,  Human Gene Therapy,  6:325-33 (1995); Woo et al., WO 94/12629; and Xiao &amp; Brandsma,  Nucleic Acids. Res.,  24:2630-22 (1996)). 
         [0065]    DNA can be packaged into liposomes. Suitable lipids and related analogs are described by U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,208,036, 5,264,618, 5,279,833, and 5,283,185. 
         [0066]    Gene therapy vectors or naked DNA can be delivered in vivo by administration to an individual patient, typically by systemic administration (e.g., intravenous, intraperitoneal, nasal, gastric, intradermal, intramuscular, intrathecal, subdermal, or intracranial infusion) or topical application (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,399,346). Vectors can include facilitating agents such as bupivacine (U.S. Pat. No. 5,593,970). DNA can also be administered using a gene gun. See Xiao &amp; Brandsma, supra. The DNA is precipitated onto the surface of microscopic metal beads. the microprojectiles are accelerated with a shock wave or expanding helium gas, and penetrate tissues to a depth of several cell layers. For example, the Accel™ Gene Delivery Device manufactured by Agacetus, Inc., Middleton, Wis. is suitable. Alternatively, naked DNA can pass through skin into the blood stream simply by spotting the DNA onto skin with chemical or mechanical irritation (see WO 95/05853). 
         [0067]    In a further variation, nucleic acids can be delivered to cells ex vivo, such as cells explanted from an individual patient, followed by reimplantation of the cells into a patient, usually after selection for cells that have incorporated the vector. 
         [0068]    The effect of antisense agents can be evaluated on the expression of the target nucleic acid (e.g., FISH and/or a FISH interacting protein) in a cell expressing the target nucleic acid at measurable levels. This can be routinely determined using, for example, PCR or Northern blot analysis. 
         [0069]    Agents of the invention can be administered by parenteral, topical, intravenous, oral, subcutaneous, intrathecal, intraarterial, intracranial, intraperitoneal, intranasal, or intramuscular means for prophylactic and/or therapeutic treatment. In some methods, agents can be injected directly into a particular tissue where Aβ deposits have accumulated, for example, by intracranial injection. In some methods, intramuscular injection or intravenous infusion can be employed for the administration of antibody. In some methods, particular therapeutic antibodies can be injected directly into the cranium. In some methods, antibodies can be administered as a sustained release composition or device, such as a Medipad™ device. 
         [0070]    Agents of the invention can optionally be administered in combination with other agents. In the case of AD and Down&#39;s syndrome, in which amyloid deposits occur in the brain, agents of the invention can also be administered in conjunction with other agents that increase passage of the agents of the invention across the blood-brain barrier. 
         [0071]    Agents of the invention can be administered as compositions comprising an active therapeutic agent and a variety of other pharmaceutically acceptable components. See Remington&#39;s Pharmaceutical Science (15th ed., Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa., 1980). The particular formulation employed depends on the intended mode of administration and the therapeutic application. The compositions can also include, depending on the formulation desired, pharmaceutically-acceptable, non-toxic carriers or diluents, which are defined as vehicles commonly used to formulate pharmaceutical compositions for animal or human administration. The diluent can be selected so as not to negatively impact the biological activity of the combination. Examples of such diluents include, but are not limited to, distilled water, physiological phosphate-buffered saline, Ringer&#39;s solution, dextrose solution, and Hank&#39;s solution. In addition, the pharmaceutical composition or formulation can also include other carriers, adjuvants, or nontoxic, nontherapeutic, nonimmunogenic stabilizers, and the like. 
         [0072]    Pharmaceutical compositions can also include large, slowly metabolized macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides such as chitosan, polylactic acids, polyglycolic acids, copolymers (such as latex functionalized Sepharose™ beads, agarose, cellulose, and the like), polymeric amino acids, amino acid copolymers, and lipid aggregates (such as oil droplets or liposomes). 
         [0073]    For parenteral administration, agents of the invention can be administered as injectable dosages of a solution or suspension of the substance in a physiologically-acceptable diluent with a pharmaceutical carrier that can be a sterile liquid such as water, oils, saline, glycerol, or ethanol. Parenteral compositions for human administration can be sterile, substantially isotonic, and made under GMP conditions. Additionally, auxiliary substances, such as wetting or emulsifying agents, surfactants, pH buffering substances, and the like, can be present in compositions. Other components of pharmaceutical compositions can be those of petroleum, animal, vegetable, or synthetic origin, for example, peanut oil, soybean oil, and mineral oil. Glycols, such as propylene glycol or polyethylene glycol, can be liquid carriers, for example, for injectable solutions. Antibodies can be administered in the form of a depot injection or implant preparation that can be formulated in such a manner as to permit a sustained release of the active ingredient. An exemplary composition comprises monoclonal antibody at 5 mg/mL, formulated in aqueous buffer containing 50 mM L-histidine (optional), 150 mM NaCl, adjusted to a suitable pH with HCl. 
         [0074]    Compositions can be prepared as injectables, either as liquid solutions or suspensions; solid forms suitable for solution in, or suspension in, liquid vehicles prior to injection can also be prepared. The preparation also can be emulsified or encapsulated in liposomes or microparticles such as polylactide, polyglycolide, or copolymer for enhanced adjuvant effect, as discussed above (see Langer, Science, 249:1527-33 (1990) and Hanes et al., Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 28:97-119 (1997). The agents of this invention can be administered in the form of a depot injection or implant preparation that can be formulated in such a manner as to permit a sustained or pulsatile release of the active ingredient. 
         [0075]    Additional formulations suitable for other modes of administration include oral, intranasal, and pulmonary formulations, suppositories, and transdermal applications. For suppositories, binders and carriers include, for example, polyalkylene glycols or triglycerides; such suppositories can be formed from mixtures containing the active ingredient in the range of about 0.5% to about 10%, or about 1% to about 2%. Oral formulations include, but are not limited to, excipients such as pharmaceutical grades of mannitol, lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, sodium saccharine, cellulose, and magnesium carbonate. These compositions can take the form of solutions, suspensions, tablets, pills, capsules, sustained release formulations or powders and contain about 10% to about 95% of active ingredient, or about 25% to about 70%. 
         [0076]    Topical application can result in transdermal or intradermal delivery. Topical administration can be facilitated by co-administration of the agent with cholera toxin or detoxified derivatives or subunits thereof or other similar bacterial toxins (See Glenn et al., Nature, 391:851 (1998)). Coadministration can be achieved by using the components as a mixture or as linked molecules obtained by chemical crosslinking or expression as a fusion protein. Alternatively, transdermal delivery can be achieved using a skin patch or using transferosomes (Paul et al., Eur. J. Immunol., 25:3521-24 (1995); Cevc et al., Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 1368:201-15 (1998)). 
         [0077]    The following examples provide various embodiments of the invention. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize the numerous modifications and variations that can be performed without altering the spirit or scope of the present invention. Such modifications and variations are believed to be encompassed within the scope of the invention. The examples do not in any way limit the invention. It is understood that all of the numbers in the specification and claims are modified by the term about, as small changes in dosages, for example, would be considered to be within the scope of the invention. 
       EXAMPLES 
       [0078]    The following materials and methods are for Examples 1-8, which follow. 
         [0079]    Tissue Culture 
         [0080]    Tissue culture plates were coated with polyethyleneimine (PEI) in 150 mM sodium borate, pH 8.5, and incubated overnight at room temperature. Prior to adding cells, the wells were washed with phosphate-buffered salene (PBS) and Minimal Essential Media (MEM with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS)) was added until cells were ready for plating. Human fetal cerebral cortex (E13-E16) was rinsed with Hank&#39;s Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS). Tissue was triturated in 1 mg of DNAse in HBSS. This suspension was filtered through a 100 micron nylon cell strainer and centrifuged at 250×g for 5 minutes. The cells were resuspended in trypsin and incubated at 37° C. for 20 minutes. Modified Minimal Essential Media (MMEM with 10% FBS and 1 mg of DNase) was added and the cells were resuspended; then collected again by centrifugation. Cells were resuspended in MMEM containing B27, and plated in washed PEI-coated plates at 125,000 cells/well in 96 well plates or at 2.5 million cells/well in 6 well plates. The human cortical cultures (HCC) were incubated for 3 weeks with biweekly medium exchanges prior to treatment. 
         [0081]    Aβ Generation 
         [0082]    Aβ was generated by adding double distilled water (ddH 2 0) to Aβ to make up a 1 mM stock. This was aged for 3 days at 37° C., aliquoted, and stored frozen at −20° C. Soluble Aβ was made by adding DMSO to Aβ to make a 7.5 mM stock, sonicating for 30 minutes, aliquoting, and freezing at −20° C. Neurotoxic Aβ was generated by adding ddH 2 0 to Aβ, aliquoting, and freezing at −20° C. 
         [0083]    FISH Immunoprecipitations from HCC Lysates 
         [0084]    Cells were washed, lysed with 25 mM Hepes, pH 7.5, 1% Triton X-100, 0.1% SDS, 150 mM NaCl, 0.5 mM EDTA, 0.5 mM EGTA, and passed through a 26 gauge needle three times. Insoluble material was removed by centrifugation at 15,000 rpm for 15 minutes at 4° C. Lysates were pre-cleared on rabbit anti-mouse (RAM) antibody coupled to protein A beads and immunoprecipitated with FISH-specific antibodies or with antipY845EGFR antibodies. In certain experiments, HCC in 6 well plates were labeled with 100 μCi/ml  35 S-methionine in methionine-free medium overnight prior to lysis. In some experiments, FISH protein was phosphorylated with  32 P. 
         [0085]    Aβ Immunofluorescence 
         [0086]    HCC treated with Aβ for 72 hours were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, stained with 5 μg/ml anti-A6-3D6-biotin, and visualized with 10 μg/ml streptavidin-FITC (Jackson). 
         [0087]    Aβ Neurotoxicity in Human Cortical Neurons 
         [0088]    HCC were pretreated with antibodies or ligands (Please let us know whether HCC cells were treated with any antibodies and/or ligands in this case? If so, please provide the rationale behind using any antibodies and/or ligands and what these are, including the source) for 30 minutes in neuronal medium (MEM) supplemented with glutamine and penicillin/streptomycin (basal media). One micromolar Aβ in basal medium was added for 1 hour. The medium was removed and the HCC were treated with antibodies or ligands and 20 μM soluble Aβ in basal medium for 3 days. At three days, the toxicity was determined by incubating in 10% alamar blue in basal medium for two hours. Fluorescence levels were measured relative to control and Aβ treated wells in triplicate. 
         [0089]    Aβ Induction of FISH Phosphorylation 
         [0090]    Neurotoxic Aβ was added to HCC in 6-well plates in basal media supplemented with N-2 for 0 minutes to 24 hours. HCC was placed on wet-ice, washed with PBS, lysed with 25 mM Hepes, pH 7.5, 1% Triton X-100, 0.1% SDS, 150 mM NaCl, 0.5 mM EDTA, and 0.5 mM EGTA, and passed through a 26 gauge needle 3 times. Insoluble material was removed by centrifugation at 15,000 rpm for 15 minutes at 4° C. Lysates were precleared on protein A beads and FISH was immunoprecipitated using anti-FISH or an anti-pY845EGFR antibody and protein A beads. Immunoprecipitates were washed 3 times with 1 ml of 25 mM Hepes, pH 7.5, 1% Triton X-100 150 mM NaCl, 0.5 mM EDTA, and 0.5 mM EGTA. Immunoprecipitated samples were separated on 8% tris-glycine gels (Novex) and Western blotted with anti-phosphotyrosine 845 EGFR. 
         [0091]    The present examples use an in vitro tissue culture model of Aβ plaques that form on hippocampal and cortical neurons in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) and exhibit the associated neurotoxicity. The model uses primary human cortical neuronal cultures to represent the neurons effected in AD as closely as possible. Addition of Aβ to these cultures results in a reproducible A13 meshwork that forms over 1-3 days on the neurons and subsequently causes toxicity in the neurons. Aβ incubated on plates without HCC also stained as a meshwork but consistently showed a more uniform pattern with extensions that were shorter, thinner, and more linear than those seen on HCC. 
       Example 1 
     Identification and Purification of a Human Homolog of the Mouse FISH Adapter Protein 
       [0092]    HCC cells were treated with Aβ, as discussed above, and the whole cell lysates were treated with an anti-phosphotyrosine-845 EGFR antibody to detect proteins that may be phosphorylated on tyrosine residues upon treatment of cells with Aβ. A western blot of the cell lysates revealed a phosphoprotein (p165) that appeared in HCC cells only upon treatment with Aβ, suggesting that phosphorylation of this protein was induced by Aβ.  FIG. 1  shows a representative western blot of one such experiment which demonstrates cross-reactivity of the p165 protein with an anti-pY845EGFR antibody in presence of Aβ (lane 3). Immunoprecipitation of EGFR revealed that this protein was not phosphorylated EGFR but a yet unknown protein (data not shown). Treatment of cell lysates with a phosphotyrosine-specific phosphatase (LAR) resulted in a disappearance of the band corresponding to the p165 protein (lane 1) 
         [0093]    An empirically defined protocol was used for the purification of p165 from whole cell lysates of HCC cells treated with Aβ.  FIG. 2A  shows a flow chart with the various steps used in the purification process and  FIG. 2B  shows a western blot that depicts enrichment of p165 in eluates obtained from various steps in the purification process. 
         [0094]    The p165 protein was microsequenced and the deduced amino acid sequence was used to search known databases. (Please provide us with names of specific databases that were used. Also, please provide the sequence so that we can claim the protein.). The p165 protein was subsequently identified as a human homolog of a murine protein called FISH adapter protein. (Lock et al., The EMBO J., 17: 4346-4357 (1998)). A schematic representation of p165 is shown in  FIG. 3 . Based on the deduced amino acid sequence of the p165 protein, the protein is predicted to have an N-terminal Phox-homology (PX) domain and five Src homology 3 (SH3) domains. The fifth Src homology domain of the mouse FISH(SH3 domain #5) has been previously reported to interact with members of the ADAM family of proteins, including ADAM12, ADAM15, and ADAM 19. (Abram et al., J. Biol. Chem., 278: 16844-16851 (2003)). 
       Example 2 
     FISH is Phosphorylated in HCC Cells in Response to Aβ Treatment 
       [0095]    HCC cells were treated with Aβ, as discussed above, and endogenous FISH was immunoprecipitated, also as discussed above. Results of one such representative experiment are shown in  FIG. 4 . 
         [0096]    Immunoprecipitations and subsequent detection by western blotting were performed both in absence and presence of Aβ.  FIG. 4  (lanes 1 and 2) depict a negative control where no FISH is detected, as expected. Lanes 3 and 4 show the presence of endogenous FISH both in Aβ treated and untreated HCC cells, as detected using an anti-FISH antibody. Lanes 5 and 6 show that FISH is phosphorylated on one or more tyrosine residues only upon treatment with Aβ. Accordingly, this experiment suggests that phosphorylation of endogenous FISH is induced by Aβ. 
         [0097]    The results of this experiment were further substantiated by investigating the phosphorylation of exogenous FISH expressed in HCC from an adenovirus construct. As shown in  FIG. 4B , Aβ treatment led to robust phosphorylation of adenovirally expressed FISH (lane 4). 
       Example 3 
     PX Deletion Mutants of FISH are Phosphorylated in an Aβ Independent Manner 
       [0098]    In order to determine which domain(s) of FISH were involved in Aβ-induced phosphorylation of FISH, various mutant forms of FISH were generated. Two mutant forms carried deletions of the N-terminal PX domain. These were designated 14FL, which was missing the first 166 amino acids of FISH, and 615, which was missing the first 347 amino acids of FISH. These mutant forms were expressed in HCC cells either treated with Aβ or left untreated and subsequently immunoprecipitated FISH protein was subsequently detected by western blotting using the anti-phosphotyrosine-845 EGFR. As shown in  FIG. 5 , both of the PX deletion mutants (14FL and 615) were phosphorylated independent of treatment with Aβ. 
       Example 4 
     The Presence of the Fifth SH3 Domain in Fish is Necessary but not Essential for Neurotoxicity and PX has a Protective Effect on the Neurons 
       [0099]    Various N and C terminal mutant forms of FISH were generated and tested for their toxic effect on neurons. Initially, three mutant forms were tested. The FISH 981-1105 mutant form was missing the PX as well as the first four SH3 domains but contained the fifth SH3 domain, which has previously been reported to interact, with members of the ADAM family of proteins. The FISH 348-1105 mutant form was missing the PX domain, but included the third, forth, and fifth SH3 domains. The FISH 348-911 mutant form was missing the PX as well as the fifth SH3 domain. 
         [0100]      FIG. 6  shows micrographs of inverted images of neurons that were infected with adenoviruses encoding the above-described FISH mutant forms. In all instances, the neurons were positive for epidermal growth factor protein, which was used as a marker for the infected cells. As shown in  FIG. 6 , the neurons that were infected with the mutant forms that contained the fifth SH3 domain (FISH 981-1105 and FISH 348-1105) showed more cell death relative to the neurons that were infected with mutant forms that were missing the SH3 domain (FISH 348-911). 
         [0101]    To further delineate the importance of the various domains on the effect of FISH on neurotoxicity, additional deletion mutants of FISH were generated. All the Mutant forms are summarized below in Table 1 along with the degree of neurotoxicity after neurons were infected with adenovirues encoding the various mutant forms. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 FISH protein (amino acids) 
                 Toxicity 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
                 FLPX (1-1105) 
                 − 
               
               
                   
                 14FL (167-1105) 
                 ++ 
               
               
                   
                 615 (348-1105) 
                 ++++ 
               
               
                   
                 Hinc (348-911) 
                 + 
               
               
                   
                 232 (981-1105) 
                 +/− 
               
               
                   
                 14PCR (167-431) 
                 − 
               
               
                   
                 14Sma (167-721) 
                 +/− 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0102]    As summarized in Table 1, the full-length FISH protein (FLPX) appeared to have little or no toxic effect on HCC, whereas the mutant forms that included the fifth SH3 domain were the most neurotoxic, in particular, 14FL and 651. Also, the 14PCR mutant form, which included the PX domain but was missing the fifth SH3 domain, also produced little or no toxicity. The results of one such experiment are also graphically depicted in  FIG. 7 , which shows the percentage of cells that survived after being infected with adenoviruses encoding the various forms of FISH, relative to non-infected cells. The percentage survival of these cells was determined as described above in Materials and Methods. 
       Example 5 
     FISH Adapter Protein Re-Localizes in Cells Upon Treatment with Aβ 
       [0103]    Tyrosine phosphorylation of FISH upon treatment with Aβ suggests that the Aβ neurotoxic signal may be mediated through FISH tyrosine phosphorylation. In order to further investigate the role of FISH in Aβ-induced cell death, HCC cells were examined for the subcellular localization of FISH in untreated cells as well as in cells that were treated for 6 hours with Aβ. Endogenous FISH was detected by immunofluorescence using a primary anti-FISH antibody followed by a Red Cy3 labeled anti-rabbit antibody. A blue DAPI stain was used to detect nuclei. The FISH adapter protein was re-localized in Aβ treated cells, as shown in  FIG. 8A , compared to the localization in untreated cells, as shown in  FIG. 8C . 
       Example 6 
     ADAM12 is Cleaved During Aβ-Induced Toxicity 
       [0104]    Previously, it was reported that FISH, especially the fifth SH3 domain of FISH, interacts with members of the ADAM family of proteins, including ADAM12, 15, and 19. However, the significance, if any, of these interactions in Aβ-induced toxicity is unknown. Because the fifth SH3 domain of FISH appears to be important in Aβ-induced toxicity, as discussed above, the interaction of FISH with members of the ADAM family of proteins was investigated. 
         [0105]    Self-cleavage of ADAMs accompanies activation of their protease activity. Western blotting for ADAM12 and 19 in whole cell lysates of HCC cells either left untreated or treated for 18 hours with Aβ, revealed that ADAM12 is in fact cleaved in cells treated with Aβ, suggesting that cleavage of ADAM12 and subsequent activation may play a role in Aβ-induced toxicity. The results of one such representative experiment are shown in  FIG. 9A , which is a western blot depicting ADAM12 cleavage during Aβ-induced toxicity in HCC cells, as indicated by lower levels of ADAM12 in Aβ treated cells (lane 2), whereas levels of ADAM19 do not change in the presence or absence of Aβ (lanes 3 and 4). 
         [0106]    That Aβ-induced toxicity is accompanied by cleavage and subsequent activation of ADAM12 was confirmed by investigating the degradation of heregulin (HRG), which is a transmembrane precursor protein known to be cleaved by metalloproteases of the ADAM family. Degradation of pro-HRG was investigated in HCC cells either left untreated or treated with Aβ. As shown in  FIG. 9B , Aβ treatment induced degradation of pro-HRG relative to cells that were left untreated. 
       Example 7 
     ADAM12 Deletion Mutants Block FISH Induced Toxicity 
       [0107]    As discussed above, the PX domain of FISH has a protective effect on neurons. However, FISH mutants containing the fifth SH3 domain are the most toxic. Since, the fifth SH3 domain has been shown to interact with members of the ADAM family and ADAM12 appears to be involved in Aβ-induced toxicity, the effect of ADAM12 deletion mutants that are missing the metalloprotease domain (ADAM12D198-415 and ADAM12D198-501) was investigated on the toxic effect of a FISH deletion mutant, which was missing the PX domain but contained the fifth SH3 domain. 
         [0108]    HCC cells were either infected with an adenovirus encoding the FISH mutant (FISH 348-1105) or encoding EGFR, and subsequently infected with an adenovirus encoding either EGFR, ADAM12D198-415, or ADAM12D198-501. The effect on neuronal toxicity was examined. As shown in micrographs of the cells in  FIG. 10 , the FISH mutant induced toxicity in the presence of Aβ, as evidenced by increased web-formation, relative to the cells transfected with EGFR alone ( 10 D). The cells expressing the ADAM12 deletion mutants appeared to have less web formation ( 10 B and  10 C), thereby suggesting that these mutants block the toxic effect of the FISH deletion mutant. 
       Example 8 
     ADAM12 Deletion Mutants Block Aβ Induced Toxicity 
       [0109]    In addition to examining the effect of the ADAM12 deletion mutants on FISH induced toxicity, their effect on Aβ-induced neuronal toxicity was also examined. The results of a representative experiment are shown in  FIG. 11 , which shows micrographs of HCC cells transfected with adenoviruses encoding various ADAM12 deletion mutants in both untreated cells and cells that had been treated with Aβ. As shown in  FIG. 11 , the ADAM12 deletion mutants (ADAM12del 198-501 in  11 A and ADAM12del 198-415 in  11 F) blocked the toxic effect of Aβ. 
         [0110]    All publications and patent applications cited above are incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application were specifically and individually indicated to be so incorporated by reference. If the disclosure of any of the publications and patent applications incorporated by reference conflicts with the disclosure of the instant application, the instant application controls. Although the present invention has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity and understanding, it will be apparent that certain changes and modifications can be practiced within the scope of the appended claims. 
         [0111]    Many modifications and variations of this invention can be made without departing from its spirit and scope, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The specific embodiments described herein are offered by way of example only and are not meant to be limiting in any way. Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, cell culture, treatment conditions, and so forth used in the specification, including claims, are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless otherwise indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters are approximations and may very depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present invention. Unless otherwise indicated, the term “at least” preceding a series of elements is to be understood to refer to every element in the series. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims.