Abstract:
An apparatus and method for open-atmosphere flame based spraying employs a nozzle to preheat, pressurize and atomize a mechanically pumped reactive and flammable liquid solution through a small orifice or a nozzle and then a set of pilot flames to combust the spray. The liquid feedstock is preheated to a supercritical temperature before reaching the nozzle and is pressurized before spraying due to a reduced size of the outlet port of the feedstock flow channel relative to the inlet. A supplementary collimating, or sheathing, gas is supplied to the flow channel of the feedstock and both the feedstock and the supplementary gas are uniformly heated before spraying. This arrangement helps to avoid clogging of the nozzle and results in satisfactory control of the properties of the particulate products of the spraying procedure.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0001]    This invention, termed for identification purposes Reactive Spray Deposition Technology (RSDT), relates to the deposition of coatings and to the formation of powders, usually of particle size in the nanometer range, by atomizing a reactive liquid feedstock comprising flammable components. In particular, RSDT is an open atmosphere flame based spray technique that uses a nozzle to atomize a mechanically pumped liquid solution through a small orifice and then a set of pilot flames to combust the spray. 
       BACKGROUND ART 
       [0002]    Reactive Spray Deposition Technology falls into a subset of deposition processes known collectively as thermal spraying. Thermal spraying and plasma spraying are both common deposition techniques used in the production of materials with controlled microstructure. Plasma spraying traditionally involves passage of a solid powder through or into a DC or AC plasma, subsequent melting of the solid particles and splats of material deposited on the substrate. The length of time the material spends in the plasma depends on the type of torch, gas flows and plasma shaping devices (i.e. cooling shrouds). Microstructure and spray efficiency are partially determined by torch design. Plasma processing is considered a high-energy technique. Alternatively, lower energy technologies have been explored as possible alternate deposition techniques to plasma spraying. 
         [0003]    Several similar techniques for open atmosphere lower energy flame depositions have been developed to date. Listed below are some developments in thermal spray technology related to fuel cells:
       1) Flame assisted vapour deposition (FAVD), in London at the Imperial College of London (UK-1995),   2) Oxy-acetylene combustion assisted aerosol-chemical vapour deposition (OACAACD), in China at the University of Science and Technology of China (China-2004),   3) Combustion chemical vapour deposition (CCVD) at MicroCoating Technologies, Georgia Tech, and North Carolina State University, (USA-1993),   4) Flame spray Pyrolysis in Zurich at ETH-Particle Technology Laboratory, (Switzerland-1998), and   5) Liquid Feed Flame Spray Pyrolysis at University of Michigan (USA-2004)       
 
         [0009]    The techniques listed above all relate to a generalized process involving pumping a dissolved metal-organic or metal-inorganic precursor through an atomizing nozzle and combusting the atomized spray. The atomization of the liquid can be accomplished by ultrasonics, air shear, liquid pressure, dissolved gases, heat or a combination of energy inputs. Precursor solutions containing the metal reactants required in the deposited film are pumped under pressure to the nozzle by use of a syringe or HPLC pump. In addition, some techniques feed the precursors to the combustion nozzle as an aerosol and the combustion nozzle is not used in the atomization process. 
         [0010]    In some of the techniques, a dissolved gas is added to the precursor solution to aid in atomization. The droplet size and distribution has an impact on the final coating and is therefore important in the design/arrangement of the technique or type of atomizer. Regardless of the nozzle type, the atomized spray is then combusted by an ignition source such as a single pilot flame from a point source or a ring of pilots surrounding the exit of the nozzle. An optimal ignition point must be chosen since igniting too close to the exit of the nozzle results in a fuel rich mixture that does not burn easily while igniting too far away results in an oxidant rich mixture. Pilot gases consist of methane and oxygen, hydrogen or an oxy-acetylene type gas. Pilot gases are supplied to the system by mass flow controllers or by passive rotameters. 
         [0011]    Depositions onto substrates usually occur by positioning the flame in front of or near the desired substrate and allowing the reaction to occur long enough for the desired thickness of film. The distance from the flame tip to the substrate influences the coating morphology, efficiency, boundary layer and the substrate temperature. If a nano-structured or dense film is desired then the flame should penetrate the boundary layer of the substrate. Longer flames (i.e. distance from nozzle to substrate) and higher concentrations of precursor material favour nucleation of particles and agglomeration instead of growth from the vapour phase (of a film) directly on the substrate. In other words, the droplets vaporize leaving the precursor material as a small gas vapour that then nucleates into a solid and then the solids agglomerate into larger particles. This process occurs from spray to flame tip and beyond. A powdery agglomeration of particles with poor adhesion occurs if the gap between the nozzle and the substrate is too large. 
         [0012]    Care must be taken to prevent thermal shock to certain substrates by controlling the heat up and cool down to deposition temperatures when the flame is brought very close to the substrate. This is generally done by heating the substrate from the back by resistive heaters or by another flame. 
         [0013]    Additionally, the heat-up and cool-down must be performed without the reactive precursors present so that a constant deposition temperature is maintained during film growth. 
         [0014]    The above-listed techniques differ in some respects such as the method of atomization, type of atomizer, solution injection geometry and the fuel used in the flame. Summaries of the techniques are listed below. 
         [0015]    Xu and colleagues (3) at NC State used a TQ-20-A2 Meinhard nebulizer for atomizing and a single point pilot flame for ignition of the atomized spray. In addition, a heating torch was applied to the back of the substrate holder to minimize the thermal gradient between the front and back of the substrate. 
         [0016]    Meng et al (2) at the University of Science and Technology in China used a modified oxy-acetylene torch with a 2 mm diameter and fitted at an angle of 45° angle to the substrate. Precursors were supplied to the torch by means of an ultrasonic nebulizer injected directly into the torch. The oxy-acetylene flame core reaches temperatures as high as 3000 C. Unlike other versions of this technology, the flame is not produced by the precursor solvent but by an oxy-acetylene gas mixture. This process has been named oxy-acetylene combustion assisted aerosol-chemical vapor deposition (OACAACVD). 
         [0017]    The system at nGimat (formerly MicroCoating Technologies) consists of a proprietary spray/combustion nozzle, the Nanomiser®, that functions on pressure and heat input for formation of very small droplets that are then combusted by a ring of methane/oxygen pilot lights. It is claimed that the specific geometry of the Nanomiser® allows for the formation of these small droplets which has not been attainable by other technologies. A precursor solution is delivered under pressure to the nozzle and heated prior to exit where a shear force is created by an unheated collimating gas. 
         [0018]    Dr. Xu at NC State uses a system similar to nGimat, however the Nanomiser® nozzle has been replaced by a different off-the-shelf nebulizer. 
         [0019]    Steele and Choy (1) at the Imperial College of London have been using a system of deposition named flame assisted vapor deposition (FAVD). The system was first reported in 1995 and work on SOFC cathode materials was published in 1997. The process consists of an air atomizing nozzle and a separate flame. The air atomizer is directed at a substrate on a hotplate and a separate flame is arranged perpendicular between the substrate and atomizer. The atomized spray passes through the flame and onto the substrate. 
         [0020]    Flame Spray Pyrolysis (FSP) was developed at ETH in Switzerland by Dr. Pratsinis. A variety of products have been synthesized by FSP as for example silica, bismuth oxide, ceria, zinc oxide, zinc oxide/silica composites, platinum/alumina. Using this technique, a 35 cm spray flame produces 300 g/h of fumed silica using oxygen as dispersion gas. The particles are colleted in a baghouse filter unit. 
         [0021]    SOFC/PEM (solid oxide fuel cell/proton exchange membrane) components can be fabricated via routes such as electrochemical vapour deposition (EVD), chemical vapour deposition (CVD), physical vapour deposition (PVD), sol-gel, RF-sputtering, spin coating, slurry spraying, plasma spray and screen-printing. 
         [0022]    Various developments in the field of thermal spraying have also been presented in patent literature, e.g. U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,601,776 to Oljaca et al, 6,808,755 to Miyamoto et al., and US Patent Application 2005/0019551 to Hunt et al. 
         [0023]    While all the above developments have some advantages, there is still a need for a low cost, rapid processing method that can be performed continuously, preferably without the need for long sintering times at elevated temperatures. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0024]    In the following specification and claims, unless expressly stated otherwise or unless the context clearly indicates otherwise, the use of singular mode denotes also plural mode. 
         [0025]    In accordance with one aspect of the invention, there is provided an apparatus for thermal spraying of a reactive liquid feedstock, the apparatus comprising:
       a feedstock container,   first heating means for heating contents of the feedstock container to a supercritical temperature,   an elongated tubular conduit for passing the feedstock therethrough, having a first port connected to the feedstock container and a second port for discharging feedstock, the second port having a substantially smaller size than the first port to create a flow restriction for the feedstock to be discharged, the second end forming or associated with a nozzle for collimating flow of the discharged feedstock,   pump means for delivering superheated feedstock to the conduit,   a tubing connected to a source of an auxiliary gas and to the second port for delivering auxiliary gas to the second port,   second heating means disposed around the conduit and the sleeve for simultaneous heating of the feedstock flowing through the conduit and of the auxiliary gas, and   burner means disposed at the second port for igniting said feedstock when it leaves the second port along with the auxiliary gas.       
 
         [0033]    In an embodiment of the invention, the tubing forms a sleeve surrounding the conduit. 
         [0034]    In an embodiment of the invention, the sleeve for the auxiliary gas is arranged coaxially and concentrically around the conduit. 
         [0035]    In one embodiment, the conduit is formed of a tube of decreasing inner diameter from the first port to the second port. 
         [0036]    In another embodiment, the conduit is formed of a number of interconnected tubes of decreasing inner diameter from the first port to the second port. 
         [0037]    In one embodiment, the second heating means is arranged for uniform heating of essentially the entire length of the feedstock conduit. 
         [0038]    The apparatus may also comprise gas curtain means disposed for distributing a curtain of a non-flammable gas, typically air, transversely into a path of burning feedstock discharged from the second port and the nozzle. 
         [0039]    Further, the apparatus may comprise reactant supply means disposed to deliver a stream of a reactant or reactants into the stream of the feedstock after it has been discharged from the nozzle and ignited. The delivery may take place with the air curtain in operation, the point of reactant delivery being downstream of the air curtain. 
         [0040]    In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for spraying a reactive fluid feedstock, the method comprising
       providing a conduit having an inlet port and an outlet port, the size of the outlet port being significantly smaller than the size of the inlet port,   heating a reactive feedstock to a supercritical temperature,   passing the heated reactive feedstock under pressure through the conduit,   providing a sleeve around the conduit, the sleeve being in communication with a source of an auxiliary gas and with the outlet port,   passing an auxiliary gas through the sleeve,   heating the sleeve and the conduit to maintain a supercritical temperature of the feedstock and the auxiliary gas,   providing a flame at the outlet port of the feedstock and the auxiliary gas resulting in a reactive fluid flame spray at the exit port, and   controllably reducing the temperature of the flame spray to produce a desired degree of reaction and to control the properties of particulate products of the reactive spray.       
 
         [0049]    The method may further comprise the step of introducing a spray of a supplementary material into the path of the reactive spray in order to produce a combined coating resulting from the reactive feedstock and the supplementary material. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
         [0050]    The invention will be described in more detail by way of the following description in conjunction with the drawings in which 
           [0051]      FIG. 1  is an overall representation of an embodiment of the RSDT apparatus of the invention, 
           [0052]      FIG. 2  is a schematic view of another embodiment of the apparatus, 
           [0053]      FIG. 3  is a schematic view of yet another embodiment of the apparatus, 
           [0054]      FIG. 4  is a schematic representation of an exemplary structure (Example 2) produced by the method of the invention, 
           [0055]      FIG. 5  is a graph showing the effect of perpendicular quench (“air knife”) on flame temperature, 
           [0056]      FIG. 6  illustrates the effect of quench angles on flame temperature, 
           [0057]      FIG. 7  illustrates SEM microstructure of a samarium doped ceria (SDC) electrolyte, 
           [0058]      FIG. 8  illustrates SEM microstructure of a SDC made from a low concentration solution at a high deposition rate, center (left image) and edge (right image), 
           [0059]      FIG. 9   a  illustrates SEM microstructure of a platinum layer produced by the method of the invention, 
           [0060]      FIG. 9   b  illustrates TEM of a cross-section of the same Pt layer as in  FIG. 9   a , 
           [0061]      FIG. 10   a  is a TEM photograph of nanostructured platinum deposited on a Nafion substrate, 
           [0062]      FIG. 10   b  is a TEM photograph showing gradient structure of supported Pt thin film with carbon and Nafion® particles, 
           [0063]      FIG. 11   a  is schematic representation of a catalyst layer structure, column shaped agglomerates of Pt nanoparticles, produced by the method of the invention, 
           [0064]      FIG. 11   b  is a schematic representation of another catalyst layer structure, column shaped agglomerates with Pt coated carbon particles, 
           [0065]      FIG. 12  illustrates two-dimensional catalyst gradient produced by the method of the invention, and 
           [0066]      FIG. 13  is a graph illustrating the performance of a PEM cell produced by the method of the invention. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
       [0067]    As represented schematically in  FIG. 1 , an exemplary apparatus (system) of the invention includes a number of precursor containers  100  with flow meters, connected through a pump  110  to a spraying assembly (also termed “nozzle assembly”)  120 . The assembly  120  functions to atomize a liquid precursor or precursors  100  when mixed with combustion gas and a collimating (sheath) gas. A source of a collimating (sheath) gas  130  and a source of a combustion gas  140 , each with flow controllers, are each connected to the spraying assembly  120 . Depending on detailed structural arrangements shown in further figures, the product(s) of the associated spray method are either deposited on a substrate  150  or collected in a separate container  160 . 
         [0068]    Turning now to  FIG. 2 , the apparatus of  FIG. 1  is shown in more detail. The precursor container  10  holds a quantity of a precursor (mixed with a solvent)  12 . The precursor can be an organo-metallic, inorgano-metallic species, slurries or polymeric species. The solvent may be an aqueous or organic solvent and may contain an additional dissolved/liquefied gas such as propane, dimethyl ether or carbon dioxide. 
         [0069]    A heater  14  is installed on the container  10 , the heater being suitable to heat the precursor to a supercritical temperature. 
         [0070]    The liquid precursor solution  12  is kept under pressure in the container  10  and pumped through line  16  by a pump  18 . The superheated liquid (fluid) exits the pump  18  and enters the delivery line  20 . Delivery lines  16  and  20  are insulated with an insulation layer  22 . Then the supercritical fluid  12  enters the nozzle assembly  120 . The fluid is passed through an open-ended tube  24  that has an opening port  26  and an exit port  28 . The diameter (or size, in case of non-cylindrical tubes) of opening  26  is larger than that of the port  28 . A chamber  30  encloses the tube  24 . The tube  24  is sealed to the chamber  30  through a fitting  31 . 
         [0071]    The open-ended tube  24  can be manufactured out of a traditional metallic material, or for applications such as cermet depositions can be replaced with a suitable heat-resistant non-metallic material such as graphite to allow higher temperatures of the deposition medium. It is not necessary that the tube be of gradually decreasing diameter; instead, its inner size can change step-wise, e.g. by using interconnected telescoping tubes. 
         [0072]    In the embodiment illustrated, the larger (inlet side) inner diameter of the tube  24  was about 0.006″, or 0.15 mm. The smaller (outlet side) inner diameter was about 0.004″ or 0.1 mm. The length of the tube from the inlet to the outlet was about 4″ (10 cm). 
         [0073]    An induction heater  32  surrounds the chamber  30  to maintain the temperature of the process streams via a feedback controller  34 . The temperature of the tube  24  is controlled by a temperature controller  35 . A combination of pressure (supplied by the pump  18 ), optional dissolved/liquefied gas (added into container  10 ) and heat input (via induction heating  32 ) aid in the formation of a uniform process stream  36  which can be either solid, liquid or gas or a mixture of these phases. This stream  36  can either be used directly for processing (i.e. spraying without combusting) or can be introduced through or near a pilot burner  38  installed at the periphery of the outlet port  28 . 
         [0074]    The system may employ off-the-shelf components readily available in the HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) and RESS (rapid expansion of supercritical spray) industries for storage and delivery of precursor solutions. 
         [0075]    The chamber  30  functions to prevent shorting of the induction coil  32  and to channel a sheath gas  40  therethrough. The gas  40  enters the chamber  30  through a connection  42 , and exits the chamber at a tapered nozzle exit  44 . The gas  44  acts to shape, accelerate and assist in atomization of the process stream. A shearing force is placed on the stream  36  exiting the tube  24  by the passing of gas  40  out the exit  44  of the chamber  30 , the force helping to turbulently mix the deposition medium with the collimating (sheath) gas  40 . 
         [0076]    It is noted that the heater  32  is placed such that it maintains the desired temperature of both the fluid  12  flowing through the tube  24 , but also the gas  40 . 
         [0077]    Although the formation of a supercritical fluid is not necessary for deposition with the equipment specified, in cases where a supercritical fluid is desired for a specific deposition, vessel  10  and tube  24  can be heated to generate supercritical fluid prior to entering the nozzle assembly. In such cases, the induction heater  14  is used to maintain the temperature of the medium  12 . 
         [0078]    The liquid droplets  36  are directed toward a pilot light  38  (fuel line  46 , fuel container  48  and an oxidant line  50  and container  52 ) and are combusted into a flame  54 . The fuel and oxidant are directed by tubing to a pilot burner assembly  55  where they are combusted. 
         [0079]    The pilot burner assembly  55  consists of a block disposed concentrically around the exit port and having e.g. eight holes through which the fuel and oxidant are directed. The pilot burner assembly  55  can be integrated into the body of the nozzle  120  or consist of a separate body altogether. The flame  54  is directed at a substrate  56 , which is mounted on a holder  58  that can optionally be heated by a heater  60 . 
         [0080]    The feedstock  12  for the system may consist of precursors that are dissolved in liquefied gas and/or an organic liquid mixture in the vessel  10 . Liquefied gases that have been successfully sprayed include propane, carbon dioxide and di-methyl ether. Liquefied gases can be combined with organic solvents that are chosen based on their capacity to dissolve precursors and on their physical properties. The physical properties include but are not limited to those attributes that allow finer atomization (boiling point, viscosity, surface tension, etc.). Pumping  18  and storage components  10  are available off-the-shelf and are selected to allow extremely high pressures up to 680 bar and temperatures up to 150 C. prior to introduction into the nozzle and much higher inside the nozzle if utilized in conjunction with the second heat source  32 . Primarily, the decomposition temperature of the dissolved precursors limits the solution temperature within the tube  24 . Therefore, the number of solvents and specific precursors used for precursor preparation is increased due to elevated temperatures and the excellent solvation properties of supercritical fluids. 
         [0081]    As mentioned above, the resulting spray  36  can then be combusted or used directly in a spray process. A combusted spray produces a flame  54  that can be shaped by the use of a secondary orifice  44  that acts as a collimator for the spray  36  and flame  54 . The conically narrowing, collimating portion  44  of the chamber  30  is fed with a heated gas  40  that turns the laminar flame into a turbulent flow regime. The gas is supplied from a reservoir  62  and heated by means of a heater  64 . 
         [0082]    The flame  54  can either be directly positioned over a substrate  29  for thin film deposition as shown in  FIG. 2  it or can be used in a particle collection system  160  for collection of nanoparticles. 
         [0083]    In  FIG. 3 , showing another embodiment of the apparatus, same elements as in  FIG. 2  are indicated with same reference numerals. Elements  10 - 22  are omitted for clarity. 
         [0084]    As shown in  FIG. 3 , the flame can be quenched by a non-flammable gas or liquid medium  70  to freeze the reaction in the flame  54 . Water, air or nitrogen can be used as the medium  70  to stop the reaction at various points for control of particle properties such as morphology and size. In the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 3 , a number of air streams arranged at an angle or perpendicularly to the spray direction, so-called air knives  72 , is used to quench the flame in a short distance, while creating a turbulent mixing environment. This turbulent mixing zone is used to evenly cool the process stream and prevent the agglomeration of particles prior to deposition on the substrate. Alternatively, the air streams  72 , supplied from a source of compressed air  74  through blowers  76  can be directed tangentially to the flame spray stream, creating a so-called air horn, not illustrated. In each case, the medium  70  should be directed transversely to the flame spray. 
         [0085]    The positioning, flow rate, velocity and shape of the quench stream affect the adhesion and efficiency of the deposition. Error! Reference source not found.5 and Error! Reference source not found.6 show that the substrate temperature is dramatically reduced by the introduction of the quench system and dependent on both the quench position and flow rate. By cooling the process stream in a short distance, the nozzle assembly  120  can be located much closer to the substrate than in traditional methods, increasing the efficiency of deposition, while maintaining the desired deposition morphology. 
         [0086]    For co-deposition applications, gas-blast atomisers are used to introduce additional materials into the process stream. The quench system  72 ,  74 ,  76  described above is intended to cool the process stream sufficiently and to create a turbulent mixing zone to allow the uniform addition of additional materials to the deposition steam. Due to the adjustable nature of the quench system, the additional materials can have a low melting point or be otherwise temperature sensitive such as the ionomers used in PEMFC electrodes. The co-deposition assembly is shown in  FIG. 3  where  78  is a container of a slurry to be sprayed and  80  denotes nozzles for delivering streams  82  of the additional slurry spray. 
         [0087]    As an example of this co-deposition variant, the addition of carbon into the deposition stream allows the formation of platinum coated carbon particles with high active surface area. 
         [0088]    In operation, a warming program with small controlled incremental steps bringing the flame closer to the substrate allows repeatable and precise control over the temperature profile of the substrate. A solution minus the dissolved precursors (designated as a blank) is used for a pre-heating stage of the deposition. Upon attainment of proper substrate temperature, a valve is switched to change to the solution containing dissolved precursors. This allows the start of the deposition to be done at the optimized temperature for adhesion. Similarly, the reverse can be done at the end of a deposition. 
       Application of the Invention  
     Low Temperature SOFC 
       [0089]    A metal supported SOFC is an architecture envisioned to enable SOFCs to have high power output, low cost, high reliability and high durability. However, this requires that SOFCs operate at lower temperatures to avoid oxidation. 
         [0090]    The first case study under investigation is the deposition of the solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte material samarium-doped ceria (SDC) onto a porous cermet substrate, the SEM being shown in  FIG. 7 . The apparatus and method of the invention is expected to facilitate the manufacture of both dense and porous structures to be deposited on this substrate. The fabrication of the necessary active layers can be completed in situ, without a lengthy high temperature post-processing step. The removal of this step should eliminate unfavourable reactions between consecutive layers of the final fuel cell and material shrinkage and cracking that can be common in conventional processing techniques. Initial depositions were performed on a 17 mm diameter button cell composed of 8% doped yttrium-stabilized zirconia. The solution formulated consists of two concentrations of SDC, 10 mM and 1 mM. The solvents used were toluene, acetone and di-methyl ether and were chosen based on their solvation characteristics for the chosen precursor metals. The precursor materials consisted of cerium-2 ethylhexanoate (Ce-2eh) and samarium acetylacetonate (Sm-acac) mixed in molar ratios of 10% samarium and 90% cerium. Precursors and liquid organic solvents were added to an appropriate vessel and then sealed. Next, the vessel was filled with di-methyl ether and the contents were mixed thoroughly. 
         [0091]    The deposition temperature was in range of 960-1000 C. on the edge of the substrate. The deposition solution was 3 mM in SDC and the deposition rate was approximately 0.280 um/min. The microstructure is somewhat columnar and appears to be “cauliflower” in shape with each individual structure 1-2 um in size at the edge of the slide and mostly &lt;1 um in the center of the sample, as seen in  FIG. 8 . 
       PEMFC MEA Fabrication 
       [0092]    The method of the invention can be applied to produce electrocatalysts. In this context, the method can be summarized in the following four steps: (1) pumping a precursor solution into an atomizer, (2) atomizing the precursor solution, (3) combustion of the process stream to form catalyst nanocluster vapor, and (4) mixing of catalyst vapor plume with carbon powder and optionally an ionomer before depositing onto an electrolyte membrane. During the first step, chemical precursors such as metal nitrate or metal organics among others are dissolved in suitable solvents, which also act as a fuel for combustion. Water-soluble precursors may also be dissolved in water and then mixed with a suitable fuel. 
         [0093]    The microimages for the electrocatalyst layer and the supported Pt produced in this manner are shown in  FIGS. 10   a  and  10   b.    
         [0094]      FIGS. 11   a  and  11   b  show respectfully structurally engineered films and supported platinum nanoparticles produced according to the invention to make a highly active, high surface area material. Creating a structure with a high surface area allows for better mass transport of the oxidant to the active catalyst sites. Additionally, the amount of platinum contained in the catalyst layer can be significantly reduced, typically by almost 10 times, to significantly reduce the cost of the materials while maintaining high performance. 
         [0095]    The process of the invention is flexible enough to allow for the deposition of layers containing a gradient both in plane and perpendicular to the deposition surface. This gradient can be used to engineer the electrocatalyst layer to optimize the cost and performance of the membrane while addressing the problems associated with mass transport and the catalyst utilization. On the other hand, by opening up the microstructure in ECL and increasing the catalyst utilization and mass transport, higher power can be achieved even at lower loadings of catalyst.  FIG. 12  schematically shows how such a tailored catalyst layer could be incorporated into a fuel cell. 
         [0096]    A novel application of RSDT to the manufacture of a PEMFC can be accomplished by depositing an electrocatalyst layer consisting of a thin engineered structure of platinum, followed by a mixture of carbon and platinum as shown in  FIGS. 9   b  &amp;  10   a.  Due to the thin electrocatalyst layer formed by the reactive spray process, the RSDT prepared layer has much better bonding strength and controlled microstructure. As well, due to the ability to deposit a dense thin layer of platinum, the inclusion of an ionomer can be significantly reduced or eliminated altogether while still obtaining high performance. 
         [0097]      FIG. 13  shows the initial performance obtained by a cell manufactured using the RSDT process with platinum loading significantly less than that prepared by conventional techniques. 
       Proton Conducting Ceramics 
       [0098]    The RSDT is also capable of depositing ceramic proton-conducting films as PEMFC electrolytes, or producing ceramic proton-conducting nanopowders as doping materials of PEMFC electrolytes. Both will enable PEMFCs to operate at 110 C. or a higher temperature, thus removing a key technical barrier to the commercialization of PEMFC technology. 
         [0099]    In addition, RSDT can be used for preparing ceramic proton-conducting membranes for hydrogen purification and hydrogen compression devices, which have much higher mechanical strength that traditional technology and can operate at much higher temperature and pressure than those with polymer membranes. 
       EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
       [0100]    In Example 1, deposition of SDC was carried out on the apparatus as illustrated in  FIG. 2 . Two feedstock solutions were made. The first one was prepared with 0.46 g of samarium acetylacetonate (Sm-acac) and 4.67 g of cerium-2 ethylhexanoate (Ce-2eh) dissolved into 47.5 g of toluene in a container  10 . Next, 215.3 grams of acetone were added to the container  10  and the container was capped off; then 112.6 g of di-methyl ether was added to the container and thoroughly shaken. The container was heated to 350 C. so that the solution formed a supercritical solution. The second solution was made exactly the same as the first but without Sm-acac and Ce-2eh and was designated as blank. The blank was stored in a separate container  10 . The pump was set to a flow rate of 4 ml/min and the blank solution was passed into the nozzle. The frequency of the induction heater  32  was set to 271 kHz and the nozzle temperature  35  was set to 350 C. The oxidant  50  and fuel gas  46  for the burner assembly were oxygen and methane respectively. The shaping gas  40  was set to a flow rate of 3 L/min and heated to a temperature of 350 C. The methane and oxygen in the burner assembly were ignited by a spark. A 17 mm round substrate  56  of NiO—YSZ (8% Y stabilized) was placed onto a holder  58  and held on a vacuum chuck. Additionally, the holder  58  was heated by resistive heaters. The substrate  56  was heated to 400 C. via the holder  58 . A spark ignited the spray  36  while the blank solution was flowing in the tube  24  and the burner assembly  54  maintained the flame. The flame  54  was brought close to the substrate  56  in a controlled manner by the use of linear motion system. Upon reaching a substrate  56  temperature of 960-1000 C., the blank solution was switched to the regular feedstock solution  12 . Deposition of SDC lasted for 70 minutes. Upon completion of the deposition the feedstock solution  12  was switched back to blank and the flame  54  was moved away incrementally to minimize thermal shock to the substrate  56 . The sample was then analyzed by SEM as seen in  FIG. 8 . 
       Example 2 
       [0101]    In Example 2, a bilayer of Pt and Pt/carbon for use in PEM fuel cells was deposited by RSDT. First, 0.75 g of Pt-acetylacetonate was dissolved in 197.6 g of toluene in a container  10 . Next, 39.5 g of propane was added and the container was thoroughly mixed. The solution  12  was heated to 350 C. The substrate  56  ( FIG. 4 ) in this example was a Nafion® membrane. In this example, a set of air knives  72  was used to cool the flame  54  so that the substrate  56  was maintained below 140 C. The reaction plume consisted initially only of streams  54  and  72  for the initial deposition of the Pt sublayer  90  onto the Nafion® membrane  56 . The flow rate of the Pt feedstock was set to 4 ml/min. The frequency of the induction heater was set to 271 kHz and the nozzle temperature  35  was set to 200 C. The oxidant  46  and fuel gas  50  for the burner assembly were oxygen and methane respectively. The shaping gas  40  was set to a flow rate of 1.95 L/min and heated to a temperature of 350 C. The methane  50  and oxygen  46  in the burner assembly were ignited by a spark. A substrate  56  of Nafion® was placed onto a holder  58 . A spark ignited the spray  36  while the feedstock  12  was flowing in the tube  24  and the burner assembly  55  maintained the flame. The flame  54  was maintained at a distance of 13 cm from the substrate  56  to avoid any substrate damage. The temperature of the substrate  56  was maintained below 140 C. A motion program was set up so that the reaction plume would cover the 7×7 cm substrate. The Pt sublayer  45  ( FIG. 4 ) was deposited for 10 minutes, and the substrate was removed from the reaction plume  54  and  72 . 
         [0102]    Next, a set of air shear nozzles  80  was used to atomize a slurry  78  of 0.28 g Vulcan XC-72R carbon dispersed in 68 g of propanol. The slurry  78  was atomized into a spray  82 . The atomization of slurry  78  was controlled by the supply of pressurized air  74  to nozzles  80 . The air supply pressure was 25 psi. The flow rate was determined by the pressure on slurry  78 , the pressure controlled by a pressure regulator  79  installed on the compressed air line  81 . Once the nozzles were operational, the substrate was moved back into the reaction plume that now contained stream components  54 ,  72  and  82 . The pressure on slurry  78  was set to 5 psi. This resulted in the deposition of a layer consisting of Pt particles  93  deposited onto carbon  95 . Total time of the deposition was 15 minutes. 
       INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY  
       [0103]    While the invention has been identified in the specification as applicable in the field of fuel cells and specifically to produce fuel cell membranes, it will be appreciated that the invention may be applicable to other fields where known thermal spraying methods are typically used.