Abstract:
A method and system to predict dielectric behavior in a wide frequency range in a wellbore. The method comprising: deploying a tool in a wellbore, measuring the permittivity and conductivity at more than one frequency of a formation with the tool, and predicting the dielectric behavior of saline water in a wide band frequency range and temperature.

Description:
BACKGROUND 
       [0001]    In the oil and gas field, no satisfactory theoretical expression exists today to predict dielectric behavior in a wide band frequency range. All attempts and prior known work in the area do not yield any useful models that can be used to extract petrophysical information from a wideband measurement of permittivity and conductivity. Such model and measurement would be particularly useful to gather information in shaly sand formations. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    The invention is a scaling method that allows an expression of the dielectric properties of a water filled rock that is independent of frequency and salinity. Based on that, a behavioral empirical model is then extracted to fit these measurements. The invention also comprises the method of using such expression and model in the oil and gas environment to extract information from a wellbore, particularly from shaly sand formations. The invention also comprises a tool and system that takes the measurement utilizing such method. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0003]    To our knowledge, there is no model which can describe the complex dielectric permittivity of shaly sandstones, in the 10 MHz-2 GHz frequency range. The exact polarization process is not very well known. It has however been observed that the dielectric dispersion depends on the clay content. The clay content is expressed here through the CEC (cation exchange capacity) of the rock, or through the cation exchange per pore volume unit, Qv. Qv is linked to the CEC by: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               Q 
               v 
             
             = 
             
               
                 ρ 
                 m 
               
                
               
                 
                   1 
                   - 
                   φ 
                 
                 φ 
               
                
               CEC 
             
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    where ρ m  is the matrix density and φ the porosity of the rock. 
         [0004]    The electrical parameters (electrical conductivity, σ, and dielectric permittivity, ∈) also vary with the frequency, f, the pore water conductivity, σ w , the water fraction, φ), and the porous network connectivity. Kenyon, 1983 (in  Texture effects on megahertz dielectric properties of calcite rock samples, J. Appl. Phys ., vol. 55(8)) showed that, in the frequency range between 1 MHz and 1 GHz, the effect of the parameters frequency and pore water conductivity can be taken into account by a simple normalization of the frequency axes and of the conductivity axes (see  FIGS. 1   a  and  1   b ) 
         [0000]    
       
      
       f 
       noromalized 
       =f/σ 
       w  
      
     
         [0000]      σ noromalized =σ/σ w    
         [0005]      FIG. 1   a  illustrates the dielectric permittivity versus the frequency/water conductivity (f/σ w ) for Whitestone with four different resistivities of saturating water.  FIG. 1   b  illustrates the conductivity/water conductivity σ/σ w  versus frequency/water conductivity f/σ w.  (From Kenyon, 1983). 
         [0006]    This normalization works fine for carbonate rocks, but fails for shaly sands (see  FIG. 2 ).  FIG. 2  shows experimental evidence of the failure of the classical normalization of the dielectric (top) and electrical (bottom) spectra. The normalization coefficient is σ w . The legend is the pore water resistivity values. 
       1—Spectra Normalization 
       [0007]    It is however observed on more than many shaly sand samples of various origins, that the normalization technique works if the normalization factor used is modified. The new normalization coefficient is (σ w +BQv) instead of σ w  previously used, following the writing of Waxman and Smits, 1968 (in  Electrical conductivities in oil - bearing sands, Soc. Pet. Eng. J., Trans., AIME , vol. 243), where Qv is the cation exchange capacity per unit of porous volume, and B a coefficient that depends on pore water conductivity and temperature.  FIG. 3  shows experimental evidence of the normalization of the dielectric (top) and electrical (bottom) spectra (one example of this normalization); note that the conductivities agree well. The normalization coefficient is (σ w +BQv). The legend is the pore water resistivity values. 
         [0008]    In this invention, an empirical model for fully saturated shaly sandstones is used. The model takes into account the facts that:
       there is experimental evidence that both the dielectric permittivity and the electrical conductivity can be normalized by the following quantity:       
 
         [0000]    
       
      
       N=σ 
       w 
       +B·Q 
       v  
      
       
         
           
             Each fully water saturated rock sample can be described by two single spectra:
           dielectric permittivity versus normalized frequency f/(σ w +B·Q v )   normalized conductivity σ/(σ w +B·Q v )versus normalized frequency f/(σ w +B·Q v )   
         
             at high frequency (typically above 1 GHz) the CRI model was successfully describing the dielectric permittivity, ∈, because it contains only volumetric information: 
           
         
       
     
         [0000]      √{square root over (∈)}=φ√{square root over (∈ w )}+(1−φ)√{square root over (∈ m )}           where ∈ w  is the water dielectric permittivity, ∈ m , the matrix dielectric permittivity, φ the porosity (water fraction).       Based on this observation we use the normalized permittivity:         
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               Y 
               ɛ 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   ɛ 
                 
                 - 
                 
                   
                     ( 
                     
                       1 
                       - 
                       φ 
                     
                     ) 
                   
                    
                   
                     
                       ɛ 
                       m 
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 φ 
                  
                 
                   
                     ɛ 
                     w 
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             at very low frequency, the conductivity follows the Waxman and Smits law: 
           
         
       
     
         [0000]      σ=(σ w   +B·Q   v )φ m              where σ w  is the water conductivity, Qv the exchange cation molarity, m the cementation exponent, and B a coefficient obtained by Waxman and Smits. Based on this observation we use the normalized conductivity:             
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               Y 
               σ 
             
             = 
             
               σ 
               
                 
                   ( 
                   
                     
                       σ 
                       w 
                     
                     + 
                     
                       B 
                       · 
                       
                         Q 
                         v 
                       
                     
                   
                   ) 
                 
                  
                 
                   φ 
                   m 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
       2—Conductivity Spectrum Fitting 
       [0018]    We observed that there is a correlation between the normalized conductivity and the parameter Qv. If: 
         [0000]        f   norm   =f /(σ w   +B·Q   v ) 
         [0000]      σ norm =σ/((σ w   +B·Q   v )φ m ) 
         [0019]    B is a function of temperature and water conductivity, Qv is a function of porosity, CEC, and matrix density. 
         [0020]    It is observed that: 
         [0000]      log(σ norm )=α( f   norm )+10 (log(Qv)+β(f     norm     ))γ(f     norm     )    
         [0021]      FIGS. 4   a  and  4   b  show correlations between the normalized conductivity and Qv at different normalized frequencies. 
         [0022]      FIGS. 5   a - 5   c  illustrate the correlation coefficients for the normalized conductivity expressed above. 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               α 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   f 
                   norm 
                 
                 ) 
               
             
             = 
             
               0.145 
               * 
               
                 Re 
                  
                 
                   ( 
                   
                     1 
                     - 
                     
                       1 
                       
                         1 
                         + 
                         
                           
                             ( 
                             
                                
                                
                               
                                 
                                   f 
                                   norm 
                                 
                                 
                                   1.5 
                                   · 
                                   
                                     10 
                                     8 
                                   
                                 
                               
                             
                             ) 
                           
                           0.82 
                         
                       
                     
                   
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               β 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   f 
                   norm 
                 
                 ) 
               
             
             = 
             
               
                 0.175 
                 * 
                 
                   
                     log 
                     10 
                   
                    
                   
                     ( 
                     
                       f 
                       norm 
                     
                     ) 
                   
                 
               
               - 
               1.375 
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               γ 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   f 
                   norm 
                 
                 ) 
               
             
             = 
             
               
                 0.25 
                 * 
                 
                   
                     log 
                     10 
                   
                    
                   
                     ( 
                     
                       f 
                       norm 
                     
                     ) 
                   
                 
               
               - 
               3.7 
             
           
         
       
     
         [0023]    Hence, if the temperature and matrix density are known, the conductivity depends only on: porosity, CEC, water salinity, and the cementation exponent. 
         [0024]    We propose to invert the spectra for these 4 parameters, or to include an empirical relationship relating the cementation exponent to the CEC and the porosity, so that the inversion can be for 3 parameters only.  FIG. 6  shows the cementation exponent versus porosity and Qv for 35 samples. 
       3—Permittivity Spectrum Fitting 
       [0025]    We observed that there is a correlation between the normalized conductivity and the parameter Qv if corrected by the porosity and the cementation exponent. The fits depend on the normalized frequency: 
         [0000]        f   norm   =f/ (σ w   +B·Q   v ) 
         [0026]    B is a function of temperature and water conductivity, Qv is a function of porosity, CEC, and matrix density. 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               ɛ 
               norm 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   ɛ 
                 
                 - 
                 
                   
                     ( 
                     
                       1 
                       - 
                       φ 
                     
                     ) 
                   
                    
                   
                     
                       ɛ 
                       m 
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 φ 
                  
                 
                   
                     ɛ 
                     w 
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               ɛ 
               norm 
             
             = 
             
               
                 α 
                  
                 
                   ( 
                   
                     f 
                     norm 
                   
                   ) 
                 
               
               + 
               
                 10 
                 
                   ( 
                   
                     
                       β 
                        
                       
                         ( 
                         
                           f 
                           norm 
                         
                         ) 
                       
                     
                     + 
                     
                       log 
                        
                       
                         ( 
                         
                           Q 
                           v 
                         
                         ) 
                       
                     
                   
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               ɛ 
               norm 
             
             = 
             
               
                 α 
                  
                 
                   ( 
                   
                     f 
                     norm 
                   
                   ) 
                 
               
               + 
               
                 
                   Q 
                   v 
                 
                 * 
                 
                   10 
                   
                     β 
                      
                     
                       ( 
                       
                         f 
                         norm 
                       
                       ) 
                     
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0027]      FIGS. 7   a  and  7   b  show correlations between the normalized permittivity and log(Qv) at different normalized frequencies. 
         [0028]    The following fits were obtained for the α and βcoefficients: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               α 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   f 
                   norm 
                 
                 ) 
               
             
             = 
             
               Re 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   
                     a 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     1 
                   
                   + 
                   
                     
                       a 
                        
                       
                           
                       
                        
                       2 
                     
                     
                       1 
                       + 
                       
                         
                           ( 
                           
                              
                              
                             
                               
                                 f 
                                 norm 
                               
                               
                                 a 
                                  
                                 
                                     
                                 
                                  
                                 3 
                               
                             
                           
                           ) 
                         
                         
                           a 
                            
                           
                               
                           
                            
                           4 
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
                 ) 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     a 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     1 
                   
                   = 
                   1.090 
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     a 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     2 
                   
                   = 
                   22.93 
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     a 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     3 
                   
                   = 
                   
                     10 
                     4 
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     a 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     4 
                   
                   = 
                   0.649 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               β 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   f 
                   norm 
                 
                 ) 
               
             
             = 
             
               Re 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   
                     b 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     1 
                   
                   + 
                   
                     
                       b 
                        
                       
                           
                       
                        
                       2 
                     
                     
                       1 
                       + 
                       
                         
                           ( 
                           
                              
                              
                             
                               
                                 f 
                                 norm 
                               
                               
                                 b 
                                  
                                 
                                     
                                 
                                  
                                 3 
                               
                             
                           
                           ) 
                         
                         
                           b 
                            
                           
                               
                           
                            
                           4 
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
                 ) 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     b 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     1 
                   
                   = 
                   
                     - 
                     1.1245 
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     b 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     2 
                   
                   = 
                   1.865 
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     b 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     3 
                   
                   = 
                   
                     5 
                     * 
                     
                       10 
                       7 
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     b 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     4 
                   
                   = 
                   
                     - 
                     0.546 
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0029]    Hence, if the temperature, the matrix density, and the matrix dielectric permittivity are known, the dielectric permittivity depends only on: porosity, CEC, water salinity, and the cementation exponent. 
         [0030]    We propose to invert the spectra for these 4 parameters, or to include an empirical relationship relating the cementation exponent to the CEC and the porosity, so that the inversion can be for 3 parameters only. 
         [0031]      FIGS. 8   a  and  8   b  illustrate correlation coefficients for the normalized permittivity. 
         [0032]    Another possibility is to use the correlation between the normalized permittivity and the parameter log(φ m /Qv). In that case: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             x 
             = 
             
               log 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   
                     φ 
                     m 
                   
                   
                     Q 
                     v 
                   
                 
                 ) 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0033]      FIGS. 9   a - 9   c  show correlations between the normalized conductivity and the parameter x=log (φ m /Q v ) at different normalized frequencies. 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               ɛ 
               norm 
             
             = 
             
               Re 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   
                     α 
                      
                     
                       ( 
                       
                         f 
                         norm 
                       
                       ) 
                     
                   
                   + 
                   
                     
                       
                         β 
                          
                         
                           ( 
                           
                             f 
                             norm 
                           
                           ) 
                         
                       
                       - 
                       
                         α 
                          
                         
                           ( 
                           
                             f 
                             norm 
                           
                           ) 
                         
                       
                     
                     
                       1 
                       + 
                       
                         
                           ( 
                           
                              
                              
                             
                               
                                 10 
                                 x 
                               
                               
                                 10 
                                 
                                   - 
                                   1.05 
                                 
                               
                             
                           
                           ) 
                         
                         0.88 
                       
                     
                   
                 
                 ) 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0034]    The following coefficients fit were obtained for the α, and β coefficients above: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               α 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   f 
                   norm 
                 
                 ) 
               
             
             = 
             
               Re 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   
                     a 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     1 
                   
                   + 
                   
                     
                       a 
                        
                       
                           
                       
                        
                       2 
                     
                     
                       1 
                       + 
                       
                         
                           ( 
                           
                              
                              
                             
                               
                                 f 
                                 norm 
                               
                               
                                 a 
                                  
                                 
                                     
                                 
                                  
                                 3 
                               
                             
                           
                           ) 
                         
                         
                           a 
                            
                           
                               
                           
                            
                           4 
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
                 ) 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     a 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     1 
                   
                   = 
                   1.126 
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     a 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     2 
                   
                   = 
                   6.75 
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     a 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     3 
                   
                   = 
                   
                     10 
                     5 
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     a 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     4 
                   
                   = 
                   0.677 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               β 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   f 
                   norm 
                 
                 ) 
               
             
             = 
             
               Re 
                
               
                 ( 
                 
                   
                     b 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     1 
                   
                   + 
                   
                     
                       b 
                        
                       
                           
                       
                        
                       2 
                     
                     
                       1 
                       + 
                       
                         
                           ( 
                           
                              
                              
                             
                               
                                 f 
                                 norm 
                               
                               
                                 b 
                                  
                                 
                                     
                                 
                                  
                                 3 
                               
                             
                           
                           ) 
                         
                         
                           b 
                            
                           
                               
                           
                            
                           4 
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
                 ) 
               
             
           
         
       
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     b 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     1 
                   
                   = 
                   0.594 
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     b 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     2 
                   
                   = 
                   12.53 
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     b 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     3 
                   
                   = 
                   
                     10 
                     5 
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   
                     b 
                      
                     
                         
                     
                      
                     4 
                   
                   = 
                   0.361 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0035]      FIGS. 10   a  and  10   b  illustrate correlation coefficients for the normalized permittivity. 
       4—Model Final Expression 
       [0036]    
       
         
           
             
               ɛ 
               * 
             
             = 
             
               ɛ 
               + 
               
                  
                  
                 
                   σ 
                   
                     ωɛ 
                     0 
                   
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    where ω is the circular frequency of the electromagnetic wave and: 
         [0000]      σ(φ, σ w , m,CEC,ƒ, T)=((θ w +B·Q ν )φ m )×10 α     1     (ƒnorm)+10      (log (Qν)+β     1     ƒnorm))γ1(f     norm ) 
         [0000]    equation 1 
         [0000]      ∈(φ,σ w   ,m,CEC,f,T )=((1−φ)√{square root over (∈ m )}+φ√{square root over (∈ w )}×(α 2 ( f   norm )+10 β     2     (f     norm     )   Qv )) 2   equation 2 
         [0000]    where: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 Q 
                 v 
               
               = 
               
                 
                   ρ 
                   m 
                 
                  
                 
                   
                     1 
                     - 
                     φ 
                   
                   φ 
                 
                  
                 CEC 
               
             
             , 
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    f norm =f/(σ w +B·Q v ),T is the temperature for B and ∈ w  determination 
       5—Test on a Few Lab Data at Various Salinities 
       [0037]      FIGS. 11   a - 11   d  illustrates the results of the obtained model on multiple cores having different salinities. 
       6—Application on a Real Log 
       [0038]    In operation, a tool is deployed in a wellbore utilizing a conveyance device, such as a wireline, a slickline, a drill pipe, a coiled tubing, or a production tubing. Once the tool is in position close or adjacent to the target formation, sensors in the tool take measurements of the following parameters: ∈ (permittivity), σ (conductivity) and T Permittivity and conductivity are measured at multiple frequencies in the range 10 MHz to 2 GHz. 
         [0039]    The calculations and further processing can be performed by the tool downhole or the measurements can be transmitted to the surface for further processing. 
         [0040]    An inversion algorithm is then performed using equations 1 and 2 to obtain φ, σ w , m, CEC. 
         [0041]    This inversion works in a classical way known by people skilled in the art. The goal is to match the measured permittivities and electrical conductivities at the different frequencies to the predicted permittivity and electrical conductivity by the model (equation 1 and 2) through the adjustment of the first guessed parameters we are trying to determine (φ, σ w , m, CEC). Usually, a cost function including at least the error between the measured permittivity and electrical conductivity and the predicted permittivity and electrical conductivity by the model, is minimized. The direction of minimization is determined through the derivative of the model at the last estimate of the parameters (φ, σ w , m, CEC) and an iteration algorithm ensures that the last estimate reduces the error at least at the measurement error bar. 
         [0042]    A simplified version would link m and CEC using the well know shaly sand formulation: 
         [0000]    m=m 0 +f(CEC) where m 0  is either set or picked in a clean section.