Abstract:
A method determines an optimum bandwidth that minimizes ranging error in a geolocation application. The method ensures that an optimum bandwidth is selected under all channel conditions (i.e., both line-of-sight (LOS) and non-LOS (NLOS) conditions). Additionally, the method is generic and system-independent, such that it is applicable to both coherent receivers (e.g., match filter (MF) based receivers), non-coherent receivers (e.g., energy detector (ED) based receivers) and any types of time-of-arrival (TOA) estimators (e.g., whether peak-detection or threshold-based TOA estimator), regardless of the signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) under consideration.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    The present application is related to and claims priority of copending U.S. provisional patent application (the “&#39;569 Provisional Application”), Ser. No. 60/884,569, entitled “Method for Optimum Bandwidth Selection of Time-of-Arrival Estimators,” filed on Jan. 11, 2007. The copending &#39;569 Provisional Application is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0003]    The present invention relates to ranging applications in a mobile communication system. In particular, the present invention relates to bandwidth selection in a mobile application to reduce ranging error computed based on time-of-arrival estimators. 
         [0004]    2. Discussion of the Related Art 
         [0005]    The need for accurate geolocation has intensified in recent years, especially for cluttered environments (e.g., inside buildings, in urban locales, and foliage), where the Global Positioning System (GPS) is often inaccessible. An unreliable geolocation hinders many applications, such as commercial inventory tracking in warehouses or cargo ships, and in military “blue force tracking” applications (i.e., locating friendly forces). Ultra-wideband (UWB) technology offers great potential for achieving high positioning accuracy in such cluttered environments due to its ability to resolve multipath and to penetrate obstacles. Examples of using UWB technology for geolocation are discussed in (a) “Ultra-wideband precision asset location system,” by R. J. Fontana and S. J. Gunderson, published in  Proc. of IEEE Conf on Ultra Wideband Systems and Technologies  ( UWBST ), Baltimore, Md., May 2002, pp. 147-150; (b) “An ultra wideband TAG circuit transceiver architecture,” by L. Stoica, S. Tiuraniemi, A. Rabbachin and I. Oppermann, published in  International Workshop on Ultra Wideband Systems. Joint UWBST and IWUWBS  2004., Kyoto, Japan, May 2004, pp. 258-262; (c) “Pseudo-random active UWB reflectors for accurate ranging,” by D. Dardari, published in  IEEE Commun. Lett ., vol. 8, no. 10, pp. 608-610, October 2004; (d) “Localization via ultrawideband radios: a look at positioning aspects for future sensor networks,” by S. Gezici, Z. Tian, G B. Giannakis, H. Kobayashi, A. F. Molisch, H. V. Poor, and Z. Sahinoglu, published in  IEEE Signal Processing Mag ., vol. 22, pp. 70-84, July 2005; and (e) “Analysis of wireless geolocation in a non-line-of-sight environment,” by Y. Qi, H. Kobayashi, and H. Suda, published in  IEEE Trans. Wireless Commun ., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 672-681, March 2006. 
         [0006]    In a localization system based on the UWB technology, the time-of-arrival (TOA) technique is often used because of the fine time resolution that can be achieved using UWB signals. However, ranging accuracy is limited by the presence of noise, multipath components (MPCs), the effect of system bandwidth, and the presence of non-line-of-sight (NLOS) conditions. To achieve a higher ranging accuracy, a communication system may provide the transmitted signal a bandwidth larger than its symbol rate. Therefore, many TOA estimators that required high ranging accuracy use a higher operation bandwidth. The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem 1  requires that a band-limited signal be sampled at or higher than the Shannon or Nyquist rate. Therefore, in the TOA estimators, as the system bandwidth increases, a higher sampling rate is required, which increases the computational complexity and power consumption of the digital UWB receivers (RXs). However, as many applications impose constraints on device complexity and power consumption, a suitable trade-off between RX complexity and operating bandwidth is desired in order to achieve good ranging accuracy. 
         [0007]    The article “Modeling of the distance error for indoor geolocation” (“Δlavi I”), by B. Alavi and K. Pahlavan, published in  Proc. IEEE Wireless Commun. and Networking Conf , vol. 1, New Orleans, LO, March 2003, pp. 668-672, introduces a term normalized distance error, g, given by g=e d /d , where e d  is the distance error defined as the difference between the measured distance {circumflex over (d)} between a transmitter (TX) and a RX, and the actual distance d. In Alavi I, a ray-tracing software tool is used to generate the database that is used to perform the analysis. The authors found that g has characteristics that are significantly different under a line-of-sight (LOS) condition as under an obstructed-LOS (OLOS) condition. For a LOS condition, g can be modeled satisfactorily by a zero-mean Gaussian distribution, while for an OLOS condition, a mixture of two distributions—a zero mean Gaussian distribution and an exponential distribution—is required. 
         [0008]    In the article, “Bandwidth effect on distance error modeling for indoor geolocation” (“Alavi II”) also by B. Alavi and K. Pahlavan, published in  Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Commun ., vol. 3, Beijing, China, September 2003, pp. 2198-2202, the authors extend their work to the effect of system bandwidth (w) on the normalization distance error g under both LOS and OLOS conditions. As in Alavi I, the zero-mean Gaussian distribution and the mixture of Gaussian and exponential distributions are used in Alavi II to model g under LOS and OLOS conditions, respectively. Additionally, Alavi II proposes a polynomial equation to model the variation in the standard deviation s g  of the zero-mean Gaussian distribution. In Alavi II, standard deviation s g  is provided as a function of bandwidth for both LOS and OLOS conditions. For the OLOS condition, the mean l g  of the exponential distribution, is assumed to be constant over bandwidth. In both Alavi I and Alavi II, a ray-tracing tool generates the database for the distance error modeling. Their models are based on partitioning the area into LOS and OLOS conditions. However, the validity of the models of Alavi I and Alavi II for UWB applications may be limited. 
         [0009]    In subsequent articles by these authors: (a) “Indoor geolocation distance error modeling using UWB channel measurements” (“Alavi III), in  Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Commun ., vol. 1, Berlin, Germany, September 2005, pp. 481-485; and (b) “Modeling of the TOA-based distance measurement error using UWB indoor radio measurements” (“Alavi IV”), published in  IEEE Commun. Letter , vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 275-277, April 2006, the authors extend their model for the distance error by considering an UWB system having a bandwidth that varies from 3-6 GHz. In Alavi III and Alavi IV, the authors present measurements taken from an office environment, instead of a ray-racing simulation. Furthermore, the models of Alavi III and Alavi IV are not based on partitioning the application area into LOS and OLOS conditions. Instead, the concepts of detected direct path (DDP) and undetected direct path (UDP) are introduced. To take into account DDP and UDP, the distance error (e d ) is modeled to have two parts: (a) a multipath error (e m ), and a UDP error (e u ). The multipath error relates to multipath dispersion and the UDP error relates to occurrence of the UDP condition. Alavi III and Alavi IV analyzed these errors with respect to the system bandwidth. The multipath error is present under both DDP and UDP conditions, while the UDP error is present occasionally and usually under a UDP condition. Both e m , and e u  can be modeled by Gaussian distributions with the resulting distance error being characterized by a mixture of two Gaussian distributions. The probability of an UDP condition increases (hence, correspondingly, a UDP error probability increases) with both distance and bandwidth. However, an increase in bandwidth reduces the multipath error. Therefore, an optimum system bandwidth reduces the distance error. However, such an optimization is discussed in neither Alavi III nor Alavi IV. 
         [0010]    In the article “Studying the effect of bandwidth on performance of UWB positioning systems” (“Alavi V”), published in  Proc. IEEE Wireless Commun. and Networking Conf ., vol. 2, Las Vegas, Nev., April 2006, pp. 884-889, the results of Alavi III and IV are extended by studying the effect of bandwidth on multipath error e m , and UDP error e u  separately, as well as in combination. Alavi V reports that, at a low bandwidth, multipath error e m , is dominant, while at a high bandwidth, UDP error e u  is dominant. Even though increasing the bandwidth decreases multipath error e m , an increase in bandwidth also increases UDP error e u . Therefore, an optimum bandwidth is also required to reduce the overall error. Based on the UWB measurement database in an indoor office environment, Alavi V found that a best choice bandwidth at 2 GHz. 
         [0011]    In the article, “Performance of TOA estimation algorithms in different indoor multipath conditions” (“Alsindi”), by N. Alsindi, X. Li and K. Pahlavan, published in  Proc. IEEE Wireless Commun. and Networking Conf ., vol. 1, Atlanta, Ga., March 2004, pp. 495-500, the authors provide a performance analysis, comparing different TOA estimation algorithms under different environments (i.e., LOS, OLOS, DDP, NDDP and UDP conditions) and bandwidths. The TOA estimation algorithms compared are inverse Fourier transform (IFT), direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) and super-resolution Eigenvector (EV) algorithms. Under an LOS condition, at lower bandwidths, the more complex EV algorithm performs slightly better than IFT, but almost the same as DSSS. Under an LOS condition, at higher bandwidths, no significant advantage is found in any of the three algorithms compared. Under an OLOS condition, the EV algorithm significantly improves the TOA estimation and outperforms both IFT and DSSS across all bandwidths. Therefore, under an OLOS condition, more complex TOA estimation algorithms reduce the error to an acceptable level. Under an NDP condition, substantial errors are introduced by a UDP condition, even with an increased bandwidth for the system and with the use of a complex TOA estimation algorithm Thus, to reduce distance error, an understanding of channel condition is critical prior to choosing a TOA estimator and the bandwidth to be used. Alsindi did not investigate an optimum operating bandwidth that reduces the estimation error for each TOA estimator. 
         [0012]    TOA radio location systems are limited in ultimate accuracy by both signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the time-varying multipath environment in which they must operate. U.S. Pat. No. 5,742,635 (“Sanderford”), to H. B. Sanderford, Jr., entitled “Enhanced time of arrival method,” issued on Apr. 21, 1998, discloses a technique which can maintain a high SNR by identifying a feature of the received signal that is least affected by multipath. The identification is achieved by increasing or reducing the system bandwidth according to channel conditions in order to lower the noise floor. The technique uses correlation peak information to estimate the leading edge of the correlation function, then enhances discrete samples at the leading edge of the correlation function to yield high SNR readings. However, Sanderford&#39;s technique starts with a very high bandwidth and reduces the bandwidth accordingly to enhance both the SNR and a high ranging accuracy. Such a technique requires both a high sampling rate and adaptive circuitry that changes the bandwidth in a very fast manner, which results in a high implementation cost. To implement a cost effective system, a positioning system with optimum bandwidth that can provide optimum ranging accuracy is therefore highly desired. Sanderford, however, does not disclose a way to determine the optimum bandwidth required to operate under certain channel conditions. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0013]    According to one embodiment of the present invention, an optimum bandwidth selection method is provided for generic TOA estimators. The critical design parameters that affect optimal bandwidth selection are the multipath fading, SNR (or TX-RX separation distance), and NLOS propagation. A method according to the present invention relates the effects of these parameters to determine an optimum bandwidth for a generic TOA estimator, thereby reducing the ranging error. 
         [0014]    The present invention provides methods that are generic and system-independent (i.e., applicable to both coherent and non-coherent systems) and may be applied to any type of TOA estimators (e.g., peak-detection estimators and threshold-based estimators) irrespective of SNR values. Further, the effects of multipath and NLOS propagation errors are accounted for and the bandwidth selection method is particularly applicable to dense multipath UWB communication applications. 
         [0015]    An appropriately selected bandwidth can lower the required sampling rate, such that reduced computational requirements are achieved, relative to the prior art, thus allowing slower analog-to-digital (A/D) converters to be used, thereby significantly reducing power consumption of digital receivers, which also effectively lower production costs of such receivers. By always choosing an optimum bandwidth, resources can be used efficiently, using only the necessary bandwidth amount without redundancy. Excess bandwidth spent merely for locating a wireless device does not yield significant benefits and constitutes a waste of resource. Thus, enlarging the system bandwidth only increases the implementation complexity of the UWB systems, while obtaining only a small improvement in ranging accuracy. Furthermore, the present invention provides an effective figure of merit for deciding the receiver bandwidth requirements for accurate wireless device location estimation. 
         [0016]    Since the bandwidth selection method of the present invention is generic (i.e., such a method is applicable to coherent and non-coherent systems, as well as to any types of TOA estimators (e.g., peak-detection and threshold-based)), the method may be used in many localization application-based systems. The method of the present invention uses the channel conditions (i.e., LOS or NLOS) to choose the optimum bandwidth that minimize the ranging error, irrespective of the transceiver separation distance (i.e., SNR). 
         [0017]    The present invention is better understood upon consideration of the detailed description below, in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0018]      FIG. 1  shows a typical multipath channel impulse response. 
           [0019]      FIG. 2  shows coherent system  200  for estimating the TOA based on match filter (MF), in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. 
           [0020]      FIG. 3  shows non-coherent system  300  for estimating the TOA based on energy detector (ED), in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. 
           [0021]      FIG. 4  shows one implementation of TOA estimator  400  of  FIG. 2 , which can be based either on peak-detection TOA estimator  500  or threshold-based TOA estimator  600 . 
           [0022]      FIG. 5  shows Single Search (SS) scheme  502 , Search and Subtract (SaS) scheme  504 , and Search, Subtract and Readjust (SSaR) scheme  506  suitable for implementing peak-detection TOA estimator  500  of  FIG. 5 . 
           [0023]      FIG. 6  illustrates threshold-based TOA estimator  600  suitable for implementing threshold-based TOA estimator for both the coherent and non-coherent systems, according to one embodiment of the present invention. 
           [0024]      FIG. 7  illustrates the effects of both multipath dispersion and system bandwidth on the first arriving path estimation. 
           [0025]      FIG. 8  shows flowchart  800  of a method for selecting an optimum bandwidth for both LOS and NLOS conditions. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
       [0026]      FIG. 1  shows a typical multipath channel impulse response. U.S. provisional patent application (“the &#39;526 Provisional Application”), Ser. No. 60/868,526, entitled “Method for Optimum Threshold Selection of Time-of-Arrival Estimators,” filed on 4 Dec. 2006, discloses that, for geolocation purposes, the first arriving path (i.e., path  102  of  FIG. 1 ), and not the later arrivals  104  (including the strongest path  106 ) is more significant to the ranging system accuracy. The disclosure of the &#39;526 Provisional Application is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
         [0027]    A UWB multipath channel is given by 
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         [0000]    where L is the total number of MPCs, while a 1  and t 1  are the multipath gain coefficient and the TOA of the lth MPC, respectively. Based on (1), the signal r (t) received after the multipath channel is given by 
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         [0000]    where p(t) is the transmit signal pulse with duration T p , while {a 1 } l=1   L  and {t 1 } l=1   L  are the received amplitudes and the TOAs of p(t), respectively, and n(t) is the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) with a zero mean and two-sided power spectral density N 0 /2. 
         [0028]    The parameter of interest for precision ranging is the TOA t 1  of the first arriving path, and not the strongest path t max . In a noisy and harsh environment, the first arriving path is usually weak and detection of such a weak signal in a dense multipath channel can be very challenging.  FIG. 2  shows coherent system  200  for estimating the TOA based on match filter (MF), in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.  FIG. 3  shows non-coherent system  300  for estimating the TOA based on energy detector (ED), in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. In coherent system  200 , to estimate the TOA t 1  of the first arriving path, TOA estimator  400  can be based either on peak-detection TOA estimator  500  or threshold-based TOA estimator  600 , as illustrated by  FIG. 4 . 
         [0029]    According to one embodiment of the present invention, the peak-detection TOA estimator  500  can be implemented using one of three estimation schemes. These schemes are, in increasing complexity, Single Search (SS) scheme  502 , Search and Subtract (SaS) scheme  504 , and Search, Subtract and Readjust (SSaR) scheme  506  illustrated, for example, in  FIG. 5 . Examples for these schemes are discussed in the article “Time of arrival estimation for UWB localizers in realistic environments,” by C. Falsi, D. Dardari, L. Mucchi, and M. Z. Win,  EURASIP J. AppL Signal Processing , vol. 2006, pp. 1-13. All these algorithms detect the N largest values of the correlator output, where the N is the number of paths considered in the search, and determines the corresponding time locations t k     1   , t k     2   , . . . t k     N.      
         [0030]    Under SS scheme  502 , the TOA and its amplitude are estimated with a single lock. First, the N largest peaks of the correlator output are found. Then, the minimum of the time locations {{circumflex over (τ)} k     i   } i=1   N  is found. This minimum time location is set as the delay estimate of the TOA {circumflex over (τ)} 1  of the direct path. 
         [0031]    SaS scheme  504  provides a method to detect MPC in a non-separable channel and is similar to the successive interference cancellation technique used in multiuser detection. Under SaS scheme  504 , the sample v k     1    which corresponds to the largest peak of the correlator output is found. The index of sample v k     1    is then used to derive the corresponding time location, from which the delay estimate of the strongest path {circumflex over (τ)} k     1    is obtained. As discussed above, the strongest path does not necessarily coincide with the first arriving path. Second, the delay estimate of the second strongest path {circumflex over (τ)} k     2    is similarly found. This process is repeated until all N strongest paths are found. The minimum {circumflex over (τ)} 1  of time locations {{circumflex over (τ)} k     1   } i=1   N  is set as the estimate of the TOA of the direct path. 
         [0032]    Unlike SaS scheme  504 , under SSaR scheme  506 , the amplitudes of all selected strongest paths are jointly estimated at each step. The same process is being repeated until the N strongest paths are found and then the minimum {circumflex over (τ)} 1  of time locations {{circumflex over (τ)} k     1   } i=1   N  is set as the estimate of the TOA of the direct path. While both SS scheme  502  and SaS scheme  504  estimate the delay and amplitude of each path separately in each step, SSaR scheme  506  estimate the amplitudes of different paths jointly. 
         [0033]      FIG. 6  illustrates threshold-based TOA estimator  600  suitable for implementing threshold-based TOA estimator for both the coherent and non-coherent systems, according to one embodiment of the present invention. Threshold-based TOA estimators suitable for implementing threshold-based TOA estimator 600 are discussed, for example, in the &#39;526 Provisional Application. These threshold-based TOA estimators have low computational complexity requirements. For a coherent system with a MF (e.g., coherent system  200  of  FIG. 2 ), the correlator output is compared to a threshold value 1. As shown in  FIG. 6 , coarse estimation  602  is first performed by detecting the first threshold crossing point {circumflex over (τ)} 1  to provide a coarse estimate for the TOA of the direct path. Then, fine estimation  604  searches for a peak within a pulse interval T p  in the vicinity of the coarse estimate. The peak location provides the final estimate {circumflex over (τ)} 1  of the TOA for the direct path. 
         [0034]    For a non-coherent scheme with an ED (e.g., non-coherent TOA estimator  300 ), the TOA estimator performs a leading-edge detection to detect first threshold crossing point {circumflex over (τ)} 1 . 
         [0035]    In a threshold-based TOA estimator, selecting a suitable value for threshold 1 is important and may be difficult. For example, if threshold value 1 is set too low, a high false alarm probability may result from noise, thereby causing early TOA estimates. On the other hand, if threshold value 1 is set too high, a lower detection probability may result because of choosing a wrong path, thereby causing late TOA estimates. Furthermore, setting threshold value 1 too high may also result in a high missed detection probability (i.e., missing all paths), thereby yielding no TOA estimate. To avoid a missed detection, a missing path strategy such as the mid-point strategy or maximum-point strategy is usually used to find the TOA estimate {circumflex over (τ)} 1 . Under such a strategy, an optimized threshold value 1 opt  is set by adopting the thresholding technique proposed in the &#39;526 Provisional Application, which is incorporated by reference above. Under that technique, threshold value 1 is optimized according to the channel operating conditions (e.g., SNR, TX-RX separation distance, and LOS blockage). 
         [0036]    Generally, TOA ranging error ε r  may be defined as follows: 
         [0000]      ε τ ={circumflex over (τ)} 1 −τ 1 ,  (3) 
         [0000]    where τ 1  is the TOA of the first arriving path, usually obtained based on the geometry of the measurement environment (e.g., 
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         [0000]    where d is the actual separation distance between the TX and the RX, and c is the speed of light), and {circumflex over (τ)} l  is the estimated TOA of the first arriving path obtained using a peak-detection TOA estimator or a threshold-based TOA estimator, as discussed above. 
         [0037]    Ranging error may result from, for example, multipath fading, SNR (or TX-RX separation distance), and NLOS propagation. The distance ranging error ε d  may be expressed explicitly as a function of the TX-RX separation distance d (or SNR) and system bandwidth w as follows: 
         [0000]      ε d ( w,d )=ε m ( w,d )+ε nlos ( w,d ),  (4) 
         [0000]    where ε m  ( ) and ε nlos  ( ) are the multipath error and the NLOS propagation error, respectively. Equation (4) shows that both system bandwidth w and the SNR are important parameters that affect the distance ranging error ε d . Thus, according to one embodiment of the present invention, an optimum bandwidth selection method is proposed to reduce the ranging error. 
         [0038]      FIG. 7  illustrates the effects of both multipath dispersion and system bandwidth on the first arriving path estimation. In theory, increasing the bandwidth makes the channel impulse response closer to the ideal case and thus decreases the distance ranging error. As shown in  FIG. 7 , plot  701  has the smallest bandwidth, which results in the largest ranging error, while plot  702  has the largest bandwidth, which results in the smallest ranging error. However, in practice, increasing the bandwidth indefinitely does not necessarily reduce ranging error. Therefore, a method that selects an optimum operating bandwidth under certain SNR condition is essential. 
         [0039]    Thus, system bandwidth w is a design parameter for which a careful choice plays an important role in optimizing a design for any TOA estimator. 
         [0040]    Under an LOS condition, ε nlos (w,d)=0 and thus ε d  (w,d)=ε m (w,d). To study the effect of SNR on ε m , the value of ε m  may be calculated with a fixed bandwidth. Under such a condition, the inventors have found that that ε m  is effectively constant over d (i.e., constant irrespective of the SNR values). Therefore, ε m (w,d)≈ε m  (w) under a LOS condition. 
         [0041]    The effect of bandwidth on the multipath error is next reviewed. To study the effect of bandwidth w on ε m , the mean μ ε     m   , bias σ ε     m    and root-mean-square error (RMSE) RMSε ε     m    of ε m  may be calculated as follows: 
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         [0000]    for n=1, . . . N . To select an optimum bandwidth for the TOA estimators, the bias and RMSE are minimized. The inventors have found that the variation of mean μ ε     m    with bandwidth w is independent of d, which further confirms that ε m  is independent of d. Furthermore, the absolute value of μ ε     m    (i.e.|μ ε     m   |) may be modeled by an exponential function ƒ(|μ ε     m   |) given by 
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         [0000]    which may be estimated using a least squares method. Since, u ε     m     is independent of d, a single parameter set is sufficient for ε d . Thus, under a LOS condition, regardless of the SNR values, the optimum bandwidth for the TOA estimator is determined by the parameters 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
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         [0042]    Because ε m  is independent of d, the distance ranging error under the NLOS condition can be simplified as follows: 
         [0000]      ε d ( w,d )=ε m ( w )+ε nlos ( w,d )  (9) 
         [0000]    Since ε m  and ε nlos  are both present under an NLOS condition, they are inseparable. By assuming that the effect of w and d on ε nlos  are independent, equation (9) may be re-written as follows: 
         [0000]      ε d ( w,d )=ε m ( w )+ε nlos ( w )+ε nkos ( d )=ε m,nlos ( w )+ε nlos ( d )  (10) 
         [0000]    where ε m,nlos (w)=ε m (W)+ε nlos (W). To study the effect of d on ε nlos , the value of ε d  may be calculated using a fixed bandwidth. Analysis shown that larger variations of ε nlos  (also ε d ) with different values of d. These variations are random and no correlation are observed between ε nlos , and d. The variation of ε nlos  under an NLOS condition is mainly due to the positive bias introduce by different materials that block the LOS path (e.g., doors, walls, and furniture). The type of materials that block an LOS path affects the value of ε nlos . Thus, NLOS propagation error may be presumed independent of d, but depends on the penetration coefficient, of the material that block the LOS path (i.e., ε nlos (d)≈ε nlos X). 
         [0043]    To study the effect of bandwidth w on ε d  (w,d), a similar approach as described above for an LOS condition may be adapted, in which the mean μ e     m     ,nlos , bias σ ε     m     ,nlos , and root-mean-square error (RMSE) RMSE ε     m,nlos    of ε m,nlos  are calculated. Analysis showed that, despite the characteristics of ε m,nlos  is substantially different as compared to ε m  under an LOS condition, the exponential shape of ε m  are still present in ε m,nlos  in which the shape of the exponential function varies due to the NLOS propagation error. Thus, a different parameter set is required for each channel condition. Under an NLOS condition, regardless of the SNR values, an optimum bandwidth for the TOA estimator is determined by the parameters 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
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         [0044]      FIG. 8  shows flowchart  800  of a method for selecting an optimum bandwidth for both LOS and NLOS conditions. Flowchart  800  summarizes the bandwidth selection method discussed above with respect to the LOS and the NLOS conditions. 
         [0045]    As shown above, ranging accuracy increases with bandwidth. However, the bandwidth gain, defined as the decrease in the ranging error with an increase in the bandwidth, diminishes with the measurement bandwidth. The decrease in ranging error (i.e., the bandwidth gain) is found greatest when the bandwidth increases from 500 MHz to 2.5 GHz and diminishes as the bandwidth is further increased, showing a non-linear relationship between bandwidth gain and bandwidth. If the bandwidth is large enough to identify the direct path from the multipath clutter, then any further increase in bandwidth does not provide an additional gain in the range resolution. 
         [0046]    The above detailed description is provided to illustrate the specific embodiments of the present invention and is not intended to be limiting. Numerous variations and modifications within the scope of the present invention are possible. The present invention is set forth in the following claims.