Abstract:
A nuclear fusion reactor system includes a reactor core containing nuclear fusionable material and a plurality of conducting spheres arranged adjacent each other with at least two of said conducting spheres adjacent the reactor core. The reactor core and the conducting spheres form a electro/magnetic circuit such that fusion of fusionable material in the reactor core establishes an electro/magnetic flow around the electro/magnetic circuit. Preferably, a spherical electromagnetic confinement field is initiated around the reactor core such that fusion of the nuclear fusionable material generates a plasma which interacts with the spherical electromagnetic confinement field in a magnethydrodynamic manner. Preferably, electrical energy is inductively extracted in response to the electro/magnetic flow through a coil arrangement located around at least one of the conducting spheres.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION  
       [0001]    This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/228,212 filed Aug. 25, 2000. 
     
    
     
       FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
         [0002]    The present invention relates to the field of commercial electric energy production. More particularly, the present invention is directed to methods and an apparatus for the production of electrical power via nuclear fusion reactors utilizing spherical electromagnetic fields to compress, contain and extract energy released during the fusion burn. Benefits of the spherical electromagnetic field include precise control and containment of the fusion burn while limiting instabilities, increased fusion burn length, controlled release of energy and an ignition source for the field.  
         BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
         [0003]    Current estimates of fossil fuel supplies for the world&#39;s energy supply indicate that production will drop below consumption within 10 to 20 years. The availability of alternative energy sources that do not utilize fossil fuels such as hydroelectric, solar, wind, geothermal, tidal power can be expected to be increased. One currently available power source, that of nuclear fission reactors, could be relied upon, if needed. However, nuclear fission reactors have become very unpopular due to their risk and highly radioactive waste products.  
           [0004]    One potential choice for future energy production, that has always been described favorably, is nuclear fusion. One benefit of fusion reactors is they do not rely on dangerous radioactive heavy elements as do fission reactors. Other benefits include a nearly inexhaustible fuel supply coupled with a much smaller, approximately 1,000 times smaller, volume of waste products. While the fusion process does create some radioactive waste products, the volume is small, and the radioactivity is mild and short-lived compared to fission waste products. Fusion waste products are estimated to have half-lives of tens of years rather than the thousands of years for fission waste products. In summary, nuclear fusion reactors hold the promise of unlimited, essentially clean power. For a general background on nuclear fusion, reference is made to Lapedes,  Encyclopedia of Energy  (1976), and Wilhelmsson,  Fusion: A Voyage Through the Plasma Universe  (2000).  
           [0005]    The problem is, other than in nuclear fusion bombs, scientists have been unable to get more energy out of a nuclear fusion reaction than has been used to start the reaction. In other words, nuclear fusion reactors, to date, have failed in the goal to produce energy because they consume more energy than they produce. Ultimately, the goal of nuclear fusion reactors is to create more power than is used to start the process.  
           [0006]    The most important common problem in all past nuclear fusion reactor designs is the formation of instabilities in the plasma that have resulted in less than ideal burns. While many types of instabilities have been described in the past, a physical understanding of the cause of these instabilities has been elusive. The reactor designs of the current invention are in part based upon a new physical understanding of the cause of plasma instabilities, how they can be eliminated, and how they can be used when they do result.  
           [0007]    The second most important problem in all past nuclear fusion reactor designs is the efficient creation of electrical power from the energy produced by the fusion reaction. Efficient conversion of extracted energy into electrical power is needed. Most designs have assumed the heat produced by the fusion process will be extracted to drive steam turbine and generator systems. Thermal transfer using the heat produced by the fusion process is not the most efficient manner of converting extracted energy into electrical power.  
           [0008]    The third most important goal of nuclear fusion reactors is to create energy economically. This goal has not been achieved by prior designs because they failed to produce any net energy.  
           [0009]    Many designs rely on pulses of fusion burns. In other words, the fusion process does not continuously burn for extended periods of time. To be economical, the fusion burns should last for extended periods of time.  
           [0010]    Researchers have approached the problem of creating nuclear fusion reactors in a variety of ways. Perhaps the most fundamental element of the reactor design is the geometric shape of the reactor. The shape of the reactor is critical in all elements of the fusion process including ignition of the fusion reaction and confinement of the active plasma and its corresponding instabilities.  
           [0011]    Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) is a method by which fusion has been initiated through an implosion reaction using lasers, neutral particle beams or ion particle beams. ICF reactor designs have succeeded in advancing fusion research by successfully reaching high temperatures and densities. While the shape of the confinement reactor in ICF designs has been generally spherical, the walls of a reactor chamber for current ICF designs are full of holes and apertures by which the lasers or particle beams are introduced and by which sensors and other instrumentations access the reactor chamber. The resulting chamber presents a very irregular and asymmetrical chamber for the containment of the fusion burn. Unlike other reactor designs, active electromagnetic containment fields are not utilized as part of the ICF design.  
           [0012]    A number of reactor designs use toroidally-shaped (donut-shaped) confinement arrangements for the reactor, or variations on a toroidally-shaped reactor. These include:  
           [0013]    Standard Tokamak Fusion: Tokamak fusion reactor designs contain the fusion fuel plasma in a toroidally-shaped electromagnetic containment field. These designs have been able to contain plasmas for extended periods of time, reach high temperatures and develop high densities.  
           [0014]    Spherical Tokamak Fusion: The cross section of a normal Tokamak is circular. The cross-section of a “spherical” Tokamak is more elongated in the vertical direction.  
           [0015]    Stellarators: In general, there is little difference between Tokamaks and Stellarators—they are both toroidal. The orbit of plasma in a Tokamak is planar—i.e., there is no vertical motion. The orbit of plasma in some Stellarator designs is non-planar—i.e., there is vertical motion.  
           [0016]    Reversed-Field Pinch (RFP): Reversed-Field Pinch devices are similar to a Tokamak in that the plasma is confined by both toroidal and poloidal magnetic fields. The main difference is the relative strength of the magnetic fields.  
           [0017]    Field Reversed Configuration (FRC): The Field Reversed Configuration is another toroidal system with magnetic field lines arranged differently.  
           [0018]    Some of the earliest devices for creating high-temperature plasmas used cylindrical patterns. These designs included:  
           [0019]    Theta Pinch: Theta Pinch designs take the form of a long tube or a skinny torus. The Theta Pinch uses an electrically induced magnetic field to compress and heat the plasma.  
           [0020]    Mirror Machines: A Mirror Machine operates essentially like a Theta Pinch except a strong magnet is placed around each end of the tube in an attempt to deflect the plasma backwards towards the opposite end of the tube.  
           [0021]    Z-pinch: The idea of the Z-Pinch, best embodied in Sandia National Laboratory&#39;s Z-Pinch device, is to suddenly apply a massive voltage across a cylindrical pattern of wires, causing the wires to vaporize. The cross-product of the Electric and Magnetic fields produced, described using the Poynting Vector, or classically as the Electromagnetic Momentum, of the induced fields, collapses the plasma in a cylindrical pattern.  
           [0022]    MAGO: Russian researchers have developed a device called “MAGO.” This device passes a large electrical pulse through an approximately cylindrical copper chamber. The geometry of this device is not spherical. In the MAGO system a deuterium and tritium gas is placed in the approximately cylindrical copper chamber. Next, a massive electromagnetic pulse heats the gas to a plasma state. This gas then flows past an inner nozzle, further heating areas of the plasma.  
           [0023]    An intermediate approach between magnetic confinement devices and inertial confinement devices called Magnetized Target Fusion (MTF) has been used by the military to study fusion bombs. In a MTF device, a “magnetized target plasma” is placed within a containment vessel and is explosively imploded. In essence, these devices are bombs. In one planned device by Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos documents describe potential plans to create a quasi-spherical compression by cylindrically compressing a spherically shaped liner.  
           [0024]    Unfortunately, none of the aforementioned devices have accomplished the ultimate goal of extracting commercial energy through the use of nuclear fusion. There remains no viable design for a commercial fusion reactor. Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide a design for a nuclear fusion reactor system that could achieve this goal and overcome the problems encountered with existing designs.  
         SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
         [0025]    The present invention discloses a new method and apparatus for the commercial production of electricity through the use of a nuclear fusion reactor. All embodiments of these reactor designs will share common features. First, fusible matter is compressed and heated in a roughly spherical geometry until the nuclear fusion process begins. Second, the fusion burn is surrounded and wholly or partly contained by a spherical electromagnetic confinement field. Third, the electric and magnetic fields of the outwardly moving particles will interact with the surrounding spherical electromagnetic confinement field in a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) fashion. Fourth, the MHD interaction will setup a voltage, or a magnetic field differential, across the surrounding spherical electromagnetic confinement field in the core area that can be tapped directly or indirectly for commercial electric power. Finally, in all designs the length of the fusion burn will be lengthened by the external spherical electromagnetic confinement field.  
           [0026]    The key to creating and maintaining the spherical electromagnetic confinement field is the use of spherical reactor cores and conductors. A key in creating harmonic fields is the careful design of electromagnetic induction coils that can be used to transfer energy to and from the containment circuit. In particular, the use of hemispheric coils promises to provide very clean harmonics at a relatively low cost. While there are many material and design variations possible in these designs, they all are intended to create powerful spherical electromagnetic fields around the fusion burn. In the past there has been no design for fusion reactors that places spherical electromagnetic fields around the fusion burn in order to impart energy to the fuel, to contain and ignite the fuel, and to extract energy from the fusion burn using MHD. These designs are the first to offer inexpensive, practically unlimited, almost totally clean energy.  
           [0027]    The exact features and materials of designs that can create a spherical electromagnetic field that will compress, ignite, and extract energy from the fusion fuel can vary considerably. However, each of the design variations requires a description of: the electromagnetic containment circuit, the core area, the method of positioning the fuel, the method of compressing and igniting the fuel, and the method of containing and extracting energy from the burn using MHD and other techniques. Some hybrid variations of these reactor designs combine features from earlier magnetic confinement reactor designs and inertial confinement reactor designs with the new and unique features of these spherical electromagnetic confinement designs.  
           [0028]    In all cases, the main goal of each reactor design is to create commercially usable electrical energy.  
           [0029]    In some designs, amorphous carbon will be subjected to high pressures, high temperatures, and strong electromagnetic fields. Therefore, a secondary product of these reactor designs may be the manufacture of diamonds though conversion of amorphous carbon.  
           [0030]    As mentioned previously, a variety of designs have been developed as potential methods of extracting energy from a fusion reaction. There are key differences between all of these methods and the designs of the present invention.  
           [0031]    In ICF designs, the reaction is imploded, the fusion burn starts, instabilities form and the process explodes. However, ICF designs have failed to produce more energy than is consumed. ICF reactor designs based on lasers are not considered viable long-term options for commercial power plants because of their poor efficiency in converting electrical energy into the intense beams needed for inertial confinement. There are several key distinguishing features between prior art ICF designs and the new designs of the present invention. First, prior inertial methods have not attempted to stop the resulting explosion via active confinement. Second, prior inertial methods have not attempted to create a harmonic burn or influence the quality of the fusion burn via electromagnetic fields. Third, inertial methods have not attempted to use MHD to absorb the exploding energy. Fourth, previous ICF designs have often utilized a surrounding spherical chamber or shield. However, the spherical chamber has only been used as a shield from the explosive process and has played no role in keeping the fusion process burning or harmonic. Indeed the chambers are usually pierced with many sensors, holes, ports and other devices. Such sensors, holes, and protrusions through the reactor wall are completely eliminated or minimized in the new reactor designs of the present invention. While such sensors provide useful scientific information on the fusion burn, it is believed that such sensors create a non-harmonic situation that reduces the quality of the burn. The key differences of the present invention as compared to prior inertial methods are that prior ICF spherical containment chambers have not used intentionally created, spherical electromagnetic fields set up over the surface of the containment shield to electromagnetically contain the fusion burn, influence the fusion burn, or extract electrical power via the MHD process.  
           [0032]    The spherical designs of the present invention differ from those of the toroidal reactor designs for a number of reasons. First, the geometry of the torus is less than ideal for containment in comparison to the geometry of a sphere. To properly utilize a plasma in a MHD process, the plasma velocity must be at right angles to the MHD&#39;s magnetic field. It is believed, from the theory on which these reactors are designed, that plasma, instabilities expanding in a spherical electromagnetic confinement field expand at a right angle to the external electromagnetic field, or are deflected back towards the center of the plasma. In a torus, the plasma may interact with the containing magnetic field at other than a 90° angle. This allows instabilities within a torus to grow and penetrate the containment field. Second, the geometry of a torus also prevents the coil windings around the torus from being perfectly symmetrical. There is more area on the outside of the torus than on the inside. This geometry prevents the containment field from being symmetrical. Instabilities are more likely to penetrate the outer side of the torus than the inner side. In a spherical chamber, there is no preferential side to the chamber. Finally, the plasma orbit within a torus-shaped cavity can induce electromagnetic fields that are extremely unpredictable. These forces are induced at the moment of fusion burn. These instabilities grow too quickly for human operator or computer controlled response and allow the plasma to penetrate the confining fields. The reactor designs of the present invention have electromagnetic fields in place prior to the fusion burn to respond to instabilities as they occur. Because the center of mass of the plasma in the spherical designs of the present invention does not move or orbit, it does not have any orbital induced instability that might make it more difficult to contain the plasma. Instabilities exploding outward from the center of mass of the plasma in a spherical confinement field encounter electromagnetic fields at right angles allowing either the direct conversion of instability energy to electricity via the MHD process or the deflection of the instability back toward the center of mass of the fusion burn. This contrasts problems that are present in all toroidal designs including Tokamaks, Spherical Tokamaks, Stellarators, RFP devices and FRC devices. They all suffer in stability and containment when compared to the spherical electromagnetic confinement field of the present invention.  
           [0033]    There are also major design differences between the spherical geometry of the current invention and designs using a cylindrical reactor. In a cylindrical reactor, the plasma is not confined equally in all directions as it is in the spherical reactor of the present invention. The plasma can escape down the ends of the cylindrical tube with the resulting motion of the plasma inducing various types of instabilities. This is the precise mode of failure for Mirror Machines as they have been unable to contain all of the various instabilities that form as the plasma moves and changes direction within the device.  
           [0034]    The reactor designs of one embodiment of the present invention share the same plasma collapse technique as that of a Z-Pinch device. However, the cylindrical pattern in a Z-Pinch is not spherical. Because it is not spherical, additional instabilities form. The resulting instabilities disrupt the pattern of the fusion burn. Another key difference between Z-Pinch designs and the present invention is that Z-Pinch devices have made no attempt to actively contain the fusion burn after implosion. Z-Pinch devices have no external spherical electromagnetic confinement fields and there is no attempt to extract energy from Z-Pinch devices using these fields and the MHD process.  
           [0035]    There are key differences between the external cylindrical containment geometry of the MAGO device and the spherical reactor designs of the present invention. First the external containment geometry is approximately cylindrical rather than spherical. Second, the nozzle inside of the MAGO cylinder essentially compresses the plasma outwards. Secondary forces from the outer wall do compress the plasma back inwards. However, in the new spherical designs in this application, the portion of the plasma that is to be fused is always compressed and focused towards the center of the fusion burn. With respect to the MAGO device, the fusion burn would need to occur within the solid nozzle portion of the device if it were to have the fusion burn occur in the center of the device. Third, the MAGO device makes no attempt to actively contain and prolong the fusion burn. Fourth, the MAGO device makes no attempt to extract the energy from the fusion burn via MHD. Fifth, the geometry of the MAGO device is not harmonic, energy basically bounces around this non-symmetrical cavity. Variations in subsequent fusion burns, combined with the erratic bouncing of energy inside the device, will cause the physical locations of fusion burns to be inconsistent, unpredictable, and essentially non-harmonic. These differences distinctly differentiates the MAGO devices from the designs of the present invention.  
           [0036]    There are major design differences between the spherical reactor designs of the present invention and MTF devices. MTF devices do not attempt to create a prolonged burn. Instead they are explosively imploded. MTF geometry is cylindrical or “quasi-spherical” rather than the true spherical designs of the present invention. Furthermore, MTF designs do not utilize an MHD process to either contain or extract energy from the fusion burn. Finally, the destruction of the MTF containment chamber is a distinguishing feature in comparison to the new designs of the present invention. In developing a commercially viable fusion reactor design, the spherical reactor designs of the present invention seek to avoid the destruction of the confinement device with each pulse.  
           [0037]    Whatever the precise merits, features, and advantages of the above-cited references and the hundreds, if not thousands, of attempted variations on these references; no fusion design has achieved or fulfilled the purpose of providing more nuclear energy output than was put into the device with the exception of the hydrogen bomb. None of the variations have worked with respect to the intended goal of producing usable, commercially available energy. None of these devices have attempted to actively contain the fusion plasma in a spherical geometry. None of the devices attempts to surround the fusion burn in a spherical electromagnetic field. None of the devices attempts to use spherical MHD electrical energy conversion. None of the devices attempts to create an extended, harmonic, spherical burn.  
           [0038]    There are numerous major embodiments of these reactor designs and hundreds of significant variations to the present invention. The version described as the preferred embodiment is chosen above the other designs based solely upon its likelihood of early success. It will be easier to build because it uses a hybrid of technologies and materials currently available to the scientific and engineering communities.  
       
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0039]    [0039]FIG. 1 is a top view of an embodiment of the reactor design.  
         [0040]    [0040]FIG. 2 is a cut-away view of a conducting sphere.  
         [0041]    [0041]FIG. 3 is an exploded view of a conducting sphere.  
         [0042]    [0042]FIG. 4 is a cut-away view of the fill process for a conducting sphere.  
         [0043]    [0043]FIG. 5 is an isolated top view of the conducting sphere track.  
         [0044]    [0044]FIG. 6 is a cross-section view of the reactor core.  
         [0045]    [0045]FIG. 7 is an elevational cross-section view of the conducting sphere track.  
         [0046]    [0046]FIG. 8 is an elevational cross-section view of the central reactor core area.  
         [0047]    [0047]FIG. 9 is a cross-section view of the fuel pellet.  
         [0048]    [0048]FIG. 10 is a perspective view of the reactor core including laser ports.  
         [0049]    [0049]FIG. 11 is a graph of energy versus time for the fusion reaction.  
         [0050]    [0050]FIG. 12 is an elevational cross-section view of a sphere with an electric circuit.  
         [0051]    [0051]FIG. 13 is an elevational cross-section view of a sphere with a magnetic circuit.  
         [0052]    [0052]FIG. 14 is an elevational view of the hemispherical coil.  
         [0053]    [0053]FIG. 15 is a cross-section view of the hemispherical coil in place over a conducting sphere.  
         [0054]    [0054]FIG. 16 is a cross-section view of layered hemispherical coils in parallel.  
         [0055]    [0055]FIG. 17 is a cross-section view of layered hemispherical coils wired in series.  
         [0056]    [0056]FIG. 18 is a graph of energy versus time for the fusion reaction using pulsed bursts of energy from a capacitor bank.  
         [0057]    [0057]FIG. 19 is a cross-section view of a sphere with voltage applied.  
         [0058]    [0058]FIG. 20 is a cross-section view of a sphere.  
         [0059]    [0059]FIG. 21 is a cross-section view of a sphere with an electrically induced magnetic field.  
         [0060]    [0060]FIG. 22 is a cross-section view of a wire with center pointing Poynting Vectors.  
         [0061]    [0061]FIG. 23 is a cross-section view of a wire with varying directions for Poynting Vectors.  
         [0062]    [0062]FIG. 24( a ) is a side view of the core tangential electrical field.  
         [0063]    [0063]FIG. 24( b ) is an end view of the core tangential magnetic field.  
         [0064]    [0064]FIG. 25( a ) is a side view of the core tangential magnetic field.  
         [0065]    [0065]FIG. 25( b ) is an end view of the core tangential electric field.  
         [0066]    [0066]FIG. 26 is a three dimensional view of a sphere with Poynting Vectors pointing to the center of the sphere.  
         [0067]    [0067]FIG. 27 is a cross-section view of a sphere.  
         [0068]    [0068]FIG. 28 is a cut-away view of the reactor core with a nozzle.  
         [0069]    [0069]FIG. 29( a ) is an exploded view of the reactor core.  
         [0070]    [0070]FIG. 29( b ) is a cross-section view of a fueled reactor core.  
         [0071]    [0071]FIG. 30 is a cut-away view of the reactor core with a fuel pellet.  
         [0072]    [0072]FIG. 31 is an exploded isolation view of the reactor core with a fuel pellet inside a spherical wire implosion cage.  
         [0073]    [0073]FIG. 32 is an exploded isolation view of the reactor core with a fuel pellet inside a spherical wire implosion cage following the application of a massive voltage.  
         [0074]    [0074]FIG. 33 is a cut-away view of a fuel pellet inside a spherical wire implosion cage following the application of a massive voltage.  
         [0075]    [0075]FIG. 34( a ) is a cut-away view of a reactor core inside a plasma container shield.  
         [0076]    [0076]FIG. 34( b ) is a cut-away view of a reactor core inside a plasma container shield following the application of a massive voltage.  
         [0077]    [0077]FIG. 34( c ) is a cut-away view of a reactor core inside a plasma container shield between electromagnetic pulses.  
         [0078]    [0078]FIG. 35 is a cut-away view of a reactor core with fuel nozzle and electromagnetic fields induced across the sphere.  
         [0079]    [0079]FIG. 36 is a cut-away view of a pre-fueled reactor core with electromagnetic fields induced across the sphere.  
         [0080]    [0080]FIG. 37( a ) is a cut-away view of a reactor core with fuel imploded via traditional inertial confinement methods and electromagnetic fields induced across the sphere.  
         [0081]    [0081]FIG. 37( b ) is a cut-away view of a reactor core following the implosion of fuel imploded via traditional inertial confinement methods and electromagnetic fields induced across the sphere.  
         [0082]    [0082]FIG. 38( a ) is an isolated cut-away view of a reactor core with voltage applied across the sphere.  
         [0083]    [0083]FIG. 38( b ) is an isolated cut-away view of a reactor core as massive voltage is applied across the wire.  
         [0084]    [0084]FIG. 38( c ) is an isolated cut-away view of a reactor core with induced magnetic fields.  
         [0085]    [0085]FIG. 38( d ) is an isolated cut-away view of a reactor core at fusion reaction ignition.  
         [0086]    [0086]FIG. 39( a ) is a cut-away view of a reactor core with ignition caused by Poynting Vectors.  
         [0087]    [0087]FIG. 39( b ) is a cut-away view of a reactor core with expanding plasma.  
         [0088]    [0088]FIG. 39( c ) is a cut-away view of a reactor core with plasma returning to the reactor core.  
         [0089]    [0089]FIG. 39( d ) is a cut-away view of the reactor core at time of ignition of the next fusion reaction.  
         [0090]    [0090]FIG. 40 is a graph of voltage versus time for one cycle of the fusion reaction.  
         [0091]    [0091]FIG. 41 is a three-dimensional view of plasma.  
         [0092]    [0092]FIG. 42 is a three-dimensional view of plasma with an instability.  
         [0093]    [0093]FIG. 43 is a three-dimensional view of a negatively charged plasma instability.  
         [0094]    [0094]FIG. 44 is a three-dimensional view of an expanding negatively charged plasma instability.  
         [0095]    [0095]FIG. 45 is a three-dimensional view of a negatively charged plasma instability interacting with an electromagnetic containment field.  
         [0096]    [0096]FIG. 46 is a graph of energy versus time for the fusion reaction.  
         [0097]    [0097]FIG. 47 is a cross-section view of regularly spaced transverse striations from an exploded wire.  
         [0098]    [0098]FIG. 48 is a cross-section view of transverse striation from a wire exploded by increased energy.  
         [0099]    [0099]FIG. 49 is a graph of temperature v. temperature as a function of node location.  
         [0100]    [0100]FIG. 50 is a cross-section view of stranded wire designs.  
         [0101]    [0101]FIG. 51( a ) is a cross-section view of cylindrical coils.  
         [0102]    [0102]FIG. 51( b ) is a cross-section view of concentric cylindrical coils.  
         [0103]    [0103]FIG. 51( c ) is a cross-section view of helically wound coils.  
         [0104]    [0104]FIG. 51( d ) is a cross-section view of a combination cylindrical/helical coil.  
         [0105]    [0105]FIG. 52 is a cut-away end view of a Rowland Ring coil.  
         [0106]    [0106]FIG. 53( a ) is a cut-away cross-sectional view of the interaction of a cylindrical coil and the electromagnetic field of a conducting sphere.  
         [0107]    [0107]FIG. 53( b ) is a cut-away cross-sectional view of the interaction of a Rowland Ring coil and the electromagnetic field of a conducting sphere.  
         [0108]    [0108]FIG. 54( a ) is a cut-away cross-sectional view of the interaction of a helical coil and the electromagnetic field of a conducting sphere.  
         [0109]    [0109]FIG. 54( b ) is a cut-away cross-sectional view of the interaction of parallel helical coils and the electromagnetic field of a sphere.  
         [0110]    [0110]FIG. 55( a ) is a cut-away view of a conducting sphere having wound conducting layer strands.  
         [0111]    [0111]FIG. 55( b ) is a cross-section view of a conducting sphere having wound conducting layer strands.  
         [0112]    [0112]FIG. 56 is a cut-away cross-section view of an embodiment of the plasma layer.  
         [0113]    [0113]FIG. 57 is a top view of a no-core fusion containment circuit.  
         [0114]    [0114]FIG. 58 is a cross-section view of the core area in a no-core containment circuit.  
         [0115]    [0115]FIG. 59 is a cross-section view of a straight line containment circuit.  
         [0116]    [0116]FIG. 60 is a top view of a circular containment circuit with one core.  
         [0117]    [0117]FIG. 61 is a top view of an oval containment circuit with one core.  
         [0118]    [0118]FIG. 62 is a cross-section view of offset poles in the curved sections of circular or oval containment circuits.  
         [0119]    [0119]FIG. 63 is a top view of the preferred embodiment for an oval containment circuit with one core.  
         [0120]    [0120]FIG. 64 is a top view of a two core circular containment circuit.  
         [0121]    [0121]FIG. 65 is a top view of a two core oval containment circuit.  
         [0122]    [0122]FIG. 66 is a top view of a four core circular containment circuit.  
         [0123]    [0123]FIG. 67 is a view of a planetary nebula.  
         [0124]    [0124]FIG. 68 is a top view of dual reactor no-core design.  
         [0125]    [0125]FIG. 69 is a cut-away cross-section view of a reactor core wall.  
         [0126]    [0126]FIG. 70 is a cut-away cross-section view of a reactor core wall including void spaces.  
         [0127]    [0127]FIG. 71 is a cut-away cross-section view of a reactor core wall including a layer of shock dampening ceramic spheres.  
         [0128]    [0128]FIG. 72 is a top cut-away view of a solid wire-type conducting circuit.  
         [0129]    [0129]FIG. 73 is a top cut-away view of a solid wire-type conducting circuit with thicker wires.  
         [0130]    [0130]FIG. 74 is a top view of a solid wire-type conducting circuit where the wire diameter equals the thickness of the core wall.  
         [0131]    [0131]FIG. 75 is a top view of a two core solid wire-type conducting circuit where the wire diameter equals the thickness of the core wall.  
         [0132]    [0132]FIG. 76 is a top view of a solid wire-type conducting circuit where the wire diameter equals the thickness of the core wall and includes numerous coils.  
         [0133]    [0133]FIG. 77 is a top view of an oval pattern conducting circuit with conducting spheres.  
         [0134]    [0134]FIG. 78 is a top view of a reactor circuit with coils wired in series.  
         [0135]    [0135]FIG. 79 is a top view of a reactor circuit with coils wired in parallel and series.  
         [0136]    [0136]FIG. 80 is a top-view of a No-Core design.  
         [0137]    [0137]FIG. 81 is a top-view of an oval track, single core design with Rowland Ring coils.  
         [0138]    [0138]FIG. 82 is a top-view of an oval track with two cores.  
         [0139]    [0139]FIG. 83 is a top-view of an oval track with two cores. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS  
       [0140]    Overall Layout  
         [0141]    Refer now to FIG. 1, which is an overall drawing of the preferred embodiment of the invention. It has one reactor core  101  and thirty-one conducting spheres  102  laid out in an oval pattern.  
         [0142]    The Core  
         [0143]    Reactor core  101  is a hollow sphere with many layers of conducting and non-conducting materials. The center of reactor core  101  is the intended location of the fusion reaction. The reaction may initially occur slightly offset from this center point but this does not affect the overall design. A main goal of the overall reactor design is to have fusion reactions occur at the center of the reactor core  101 , and not to have fusion reactions occur at the centers of the conducting spheres  102 . Therefore, conditions at the centers of the conducting spheres  102  are designed to inhibit nuclear fusion reactions.  
         [0144]    Conducting Spheres  
         [0145]    The conducting spheres  102  in the preferred embodiment are completely solid as shown in FIG. 2. In other embodiments, the conducting spheres  102  can be hollow or contain plasma. The conducting layer  118  of a conducting sphere is made of a layer of conducting material. The non-conducting core  119  of a conducting sphere  102  is made of a non-conducting material, or it can be a vacuum. Some variations of the conducting spheres  102  could be filled with gases that are not likely to form fusible plasmas-including, but not limited to Xenon. Such variations are not recommended because of the possibility of electrical arcing inside of the conducting spheres  102 . It is extremely important that the possibility of electrical arcing be minimized in these designs. Electrical arcing inside conducting spheres  102  has the potential to destroy all key components in these reactor designs.  
         [0146]    The dimensions for the preferred embodiment of conducting sphere  102  are an outer diameter of 5 meters with an outer layer thickness of 15.25 cm. The material chosen for the conducting layer  118  for this preferred embodiment is a Copper-Niobium alloy, Cu—Nb. The material for the non-conducting core  119  is amorphous Carbon. The conducting layer  118  of the conducting spheres  102  and the reactor cores  101  should be polished to a very smooth finish to help improve the electromagnetic harmonics on these surfaces. The inner surface of conducting layer  118  of the conducting spheres  102  and the reactor cores  101  should be as smooth as possible. In some designs, the smoothness of the inner layer may be limited by manufacturing techniques. The weight and size of all conducting spheres  102  should be uniform. The conducting spheres  102  will likely be formed in two hemispheres with a heat-shrunk overlapping butt joint  120  as shown in FIG. 3.  
         [0147]    The amorphous carbon fill will be placed into the conducting sphere  102  through an orifice  121  that will be plugged and smoothed to match the surrounding Cu—Nb material.  
         [0148]    If the surfaces of the conducting layer  118  of the conducting spheres  102  or reactor cores  101  are not smooth and or if the material is not consistent, then the conductivity and electromagnetic harmonics may be disrupted to some extent. It is believed, from theory, that every effort should be made to reduce any influence that may cause a non-harmonic electromagnetic wave pattern in the conducting spheres  102  or reactor cores  101 . For example, the material used to plug the orifice  121  should be identical to the conducting layer  118  and the orifice  121  should be cleaned of any fill material after filling and before plugging.  
         [0149]    One possible method for filling the conducting spheres  102 , using funnel  177  to pour non-conducing fill  178  through orifice  121  can be seen in FIG. 4. An example of such non-conducting fill  178  would be amorphous carbon. Since non-conducting fill  178  may settle after filling, steps—such as, but not limited to, vibration in the presence of a vacuum during the filling process—should be taken to insure that the entire cavity is filled compactly. The weight of non-conducting fill  178  should be uniform in all conducting spheres  102 .  
         [0150]    The heat shrunk overlapping butt joints  120  of the conducting spheres  102  should be aligned perpendicular to the central axis of the conducting sphere track  104 , as shown in FIG. 5. This may help the harmonics of the magnetic circuit.  
         [0151]    It is expected that the heat shrunk overlapping butt joints  120  will be fused solid after repeated use. The strong electromagnetic fields involved will weld the heat shrunk overlapping ball joints  120  together. It may be beneficial, for quality control reasons, to subject the conducting spheres  102  to a preliminary current in order to pre-weld the heat shrunk overlapping butt joints  120  so as to allowing testing of the quality of weld.  
         [0152]    When the conducting spheres  102  are refurbished, facilities and equipment will be needed to:  
         [0153]    move the conducting spheres  102  whether intact or damaged,  
         [0154]    cut open the conducting spheres  102 ,  
         [0155]    remove the non-conducting fill  178 ,  
         [0156]    carefully crush the non-conducting carbon fill  178  and, remove any diamond crystals,  
         [0157]    melt and recycle the conducting material, and  
         [0158]    recycle non-conducting fill  178 .  
         [0159]    The preferred embodiment has conducting spheres  102  of equal diameter. However, other embodiments may have conducting spheres  102  with unequal diameters. For example, the straight line embodiment shown in FIG. 59 could have anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  that are larger than reactor core  101 . Similarly, conducting spheres  102  could be larger than anode/cathode conducting spheres  113 . Preferably, the size of the conducting spheres  102  and anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  would be larger multiples of the reactor core  101  wavelength. The embodiment could have several advantages. One being the strengthening of the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 .  
         [0160]    Reactor Core  
         [0161]    The cross-section of the reactor core  101  is shown in FIG. 6. To summarize, an initial reactor core  101 design could be designed as such:  
         [0162]    1) An inner layer of non-conducting material  122  made up of an Ultra High Temperature Ceramic such as: hafnium diboride silicon carbide; or, zirconium diboride composite; or, other compounds resistant to high temperatures. The exact thickness of this layer is unknown at this time due to the classified nature of these ceramics. The estimated required thickness is 1 inch. These materials are estimated to be able to withstand temperatures up to 5,000° F. Preferably, this inner layer of material will have a composition that includes some Boron. Neutral elementary particles such as neutrons may have enough energy to penetrate the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . Boron is known to be able to stop neutrons. The purpose of the inner layer will be to shield the outer layers from massive thermal shock and neutrons. This layer is not essential to the design of the core and may inhibit to the strength of the electromagnetic fields in the conductive layer, and may be omitted. It is primarily intended to lengthen the useful life of the core.  
         [0163]    2) A second non-conducting layer  123  that is composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock, compressive forces from without, explosive forces from within and can stop neutrons. An example of such second non-conducting layer  123  is a 1 inch wall composed of a reinforced carbon-carbon matrix (RCC) impregnated with Boron. The second non-conducting layer  123  is likely manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres. The second non-conducting layer  123  could also be manufactured as one piece around the inner layer of non-conducting material  122 . Preferably, the material would have a low activation, which means the material would not be negatively affected by neutrons coming from the nuclear reaction resulting in the creation of radioactive material. The second non-conducting layer  123  is not essential to the design of the reactor core  101  and may inhibit the strength of the electromagnetic fields in the conductive layer. It is primarily intended to lengthen the useful life of the reactor core  101 .  
         [0164]    3) A third non-conducting layer  124  that is composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock, compressive forces from without and explosive forces from within. An example of such third non-conducting layer is one composed of 1 inch of RCC. Third non-conducting layer  124  is likely manufactured as one piece around the inner layer of non-conducting material  122  and second non-conducting layer  123 . In another embodiment, the second non-conducting layer  123  and the third non-conducting layer  124  may be combined into one layer. The third non-conducting layer  124  is not essential to the design of the reactor core  101  and may inhibit the strength of the electromagnetic fields in the conductive layer. The third non-conducting layer  124  is primarily intended to lengthen the useful life of the reactor core  101 .  
         [0165]    4) A fourth non-conducting layer  125  that is composed of a material that can withstand massive thermal shocks and lessen the thermal shock to the next layer towards the outside of the core. The fourth non-conducting layer  125  could be composed of 5 inches of Silica made rigid by ceramic bonding. This is the same material used in Space Shuttle heat shields. The fourth non-conducting layer  125  is likely manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres. The fourth non-conducting layer  125  may also be manufactured as multiple interlocking tiles attached to the outside of third non-conducting layer  124 . The fourth non-conducting layer  125  is not essential to the design of the reactor core  101  and may inhibit the strength of the electromagnetic fields in the conductive layer. The fourth non-conducting layer  125  is primarily intended to lengthen the useful life of the reactor core  101 .  
         [0166]    5) A conducting layer  118  that is highly conductive, low resistance, economical, capable of being formed into spherical shells of the size needed and that can withstand the internal electromagnetic forces—e.g., Coulombic and Hall—created by massive electromagnetic fields used in these designs. Such an conducting layer  118  could be composed of Cu—Nb—Copper-Niobium—that is approximately 6 inches thick. The conducting layer  118  will likely be manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres that are heat-shrunk to each other with a lap-joint situated at the eventual equator of the electromagnetic field. An improvement to this design would be to replace this material with a superconductive material. In some variations, the conducting layer  118  may be a plasma instead of a solid. In some embodiments, this conducting layer  118  is critical. In the “No Core” embodiment of the current invention, the conducting layer  118  is omitted.  
         [0167]    6) A sixth non-conducting layer  126  composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock and explosive forces from within. The sixth non-conducting layer  126  might be composed of 2 inches of RCC. The sixth non-conducting layer  126  will likely be manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres. The sixth non-conducting layer  126  has a conducting sphere divot  159 . This allows the anode/cathode conducting sphere  113  to sit next to the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 . Without the conducting sphere divot  159 , the harmonics of the electromagnetic fields would not flow smoothly from sphere to sphere.  
         [0168]    7) A seventh non-conducting layer  127  is composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock and explosive forces from within. The seventh non-conducting layer  127  might be composed of 2 inches of RCC. The main purpose of the seventh non-conducting layer  127  would be to add additional structural strength to the sixth non-conduction layer  126  but with strands of Carbon and with the joint at 90°. The seventh non-conducting layer  127  is likely manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres. The seventh non-conducting layer  127  has a conducting sphere divot  159 . This allows the anode/cathode conducting sphere  113  to sit next to the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 . Without the conducting sphere divot  159 , the harmonics of the electromagnetic fields would not flow smoothly from sphere to sphere.  
         [0169]    8) Laser ports  137  preferably are drilled through the reactor core  101  in order to allow the laser or ion beams to impart their energy to the fuel pellet  136 . The laser ports  137  may be simple holes, or may be capped with a transparent material, such as one of the various materials tested for inertial confinement reactor designs.  
         [0170]    In this version of the core wall, the total wall thickness is approximately 18 inches of which {fraction (1/3)}—i.e., 6 inches—is conductive.  
         [0171]    Placement of Conducting Spheres and Trough Description  
         [0172]    The bulk of the conducting spheres— 29  out of  31 —sit in the conducting sphere track  104 . The conducting sphere track  104  could be made of a non-conducting material such as cement. A cross-section of the conducting sphere track  104  is shown in FIG. 7.  
         [0173]    If cement is used, then it should not be reinforced with a metal such as traditional rebar. Instead it should be reinforced with non-conducting material such as plastic or glass fibers. Conductive reinforcement materials such as traditional metal rebar in the cement would be too close physically to the intense electromagnetic fields in the conducting spheres  102 . The close proximity of the intense electromagnetic fields in the conducting spheres  102  to the rebar could cause many problems, including but not limited to: induction of electromagnetic fields in the rebar; heating of the rebar; cracking of the cement, and disruption of harmonics in the conducting spheres  102  and reactor cores  101 .  
         [0174]    The inner walls of the conducting sphere track  104  may be lined with padding material  128  such as, but not limited to, vulcanized rubber. The padding material  128  should be able to withstand high temperatures and exposure to the chosen coolant  130 . The purpose of padding material  128  is to help protect the surface texture and geometrical shape of the conducting spheres  102 . If the conducting spheres  102  are nicked or dented when placed into the trough, or if the weight of the conducting spheres  102  gradually flattens them, then the electromagnetic harmonics of the conducting spheres  102  would be reduced or lost.  
         [0175]    The padding material  128  should be sloped towards the center of the trough. (The slope is exaggerated in FIG. 7 for illustration purposes. In reality, the slope would be very minor.) In essence, the conducting spheres  102  are gently pulled in towards the center of the trough by the force of gravity. This slope will allow the conducting spheres  102  to thermally expand outward and inward allowing the conducting spheres  102  to remain aligned and positioned next to each other on the conducting sphere track  104 .  
         [0176]    The conducting sphere track  104  should have numerous, high-volume coolant inlet pipes  170  and high-volume coolant outlet pipes  171 . This would allow the conducting sphere track  104  to be quickly filled with a coolant  130 , and quickly drained. The coolant  130  could be water or other conductive coolants if coil wires  165  and the conducting layer  118  of the conducting spheres  102  are coated with a non-conducting insulation, but preferably would be a non-conductive, high thermal transfer substance such as liquid Flourinert®. Cooling of the conducting spheres  102  and reactor cores  101  will help maintain the conductivity of the circuit and help maintain the harmonics of the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . For example, if the temperature of a conducting sphere  102  dramatically increased, then the conductivity of the conducting sphere  102  will change and, due to thermal expansion, the wavelength of the main harmonic would change.  
         [0177]    The top of the conducting sphere track  104  should have sliding trough shields  131  that can be quickly moved on or off the trough portion of the conducting sphere track  104 . While over the trough, the sliding trough shields  131  will help provide shielding from magnetic fields and in case a conducting sphere  102  ruptures. When the sliding trough shields  131  are retracted, it will allow the conducting spheres  102  and other components such as the hemispherical coils  106  to be checked, adjusted, or quickly replaced.  
         [0178]    There should be a means to quickly replace the massive conducting spheres  102  and hemispherical coils  106 . This can be accomplished via overhead gantry and cranes  132 .  
         [0179]    There should be coil leads  133  that attach the hemispherical coils  106  to the main electrical bus  107 , the capacitor banks  105  and the power grid. These coil leads  133  can penetrate through any side of the conducting sphere track  104 , or through the sliding trough shields  131 . The coil leads  133  should be highly conductive, evenly spaced around the conducting sphere track  104 , and as short and straight as possible. The coil leads  133  will be cooled by the coolant  130  within the trough of the conducting sphere track  104  and by the coolant bath  108  outside of the conducting sphere track  104 . (An additional cooling jacket may be required-especially if the coil leads  133  are superconductive-within the concrete portion of the conducting sphere track  104  but is not utilized in this design.) In addition to the above details, the conducting sphere track  104  will have numerous sensors to monitor physical conditions such as: temperature, strain, electric fields, magnetic fields, diameters of conducting spheres  102 , etc., and may have pistons or mechanisms to adjust the position of the conducting spheres  102 .  
         [0180]    Placement of the Anode/Cathode Conducting Spheres  
         [0181]    [0181]FIG. 8 shows some of the major details in the central reactor core area. The term “anode” and “cathode” with respect to this electric circuit is purely arbitrary. Either conducting sphere  102  that is adjacent to the reactor core  101  could act as an anode or cathode in an electric circuit, or neither, in a magnetic circuit. The term “anode/cathode” as used in reference to the conducting spheres  113  simply refers to the two conducting spheres  102  that are closest to the reactor core  101 . The anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  and reactor core  101  must be aligned next to each other. In this embodiment, the three spheres are held in position by an inner shield clamp  110 . This inner shield clamp  110  is designed with two halves that act in a clamshell fashion. When the middle reactor shield  109  opens, so does the inner shield clamp  110 .  
         [0182]    The middle reactor shield  109  is made with double walls. The walls are made of a strong material that would resist heat and puncture due to the explosion of a reactor core  101  or anode/cathode conducting sphere  113 . There are some stainless steels—such as  316  stainless steel-that are not very reactive to neutrons. Low reactivity for metals is important. After a period of use, the shield material will become radioactive and will need to be replaced. This will be one of the biggest sources of radioactive waste products from such power plants. The preferred embodiment will use  316  stainless steel. Other materials, including, but not limited to reinforced Carbon/Carbon matrixes could be used for the middle reactor shield  109 .  
         [0183]    Inside the two layers of the middle reactor shield  109  is the middle shield coolant  134 . The coolant  130  is Flourinert® in the preferred embodiment. It is pumped through the middle reactor shield  109  at a high rate. In some variations, this coolant  130  could be replaced by some other fluid, gas, or material appropriate for cooling.  
         [0184]    The anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  sit on non-conducting conductor pedestals  112  of fiber reinforced cement. The center of each conductor pedestal  112  contains coolant tubes  114  for coolant to flow in and out. In this design, and there are many other possible designs, the coolant flows into the conductor pedestals  112  through the central coolant inlet tube  115 , and flows out of the conductor pedestals  112  through the coolant outlet tube  116 . The purpose of cooling the conductor pedestals  112  is so the conductor pedestals  112  do not become “hot spots” beneath the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113 . The coolant  130  should also be carefully monitored so as not to cool the conductor pedestals  112  too much, creating “cold spots” beneath the conducting spheres  102 . Hot spots or cold spots would affect the conductivity and harmonics of the conducting layer  118  of the conducting spheres  102  and the reactor cores  101  and thus reduce the effectiveness of the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 .  
         [0185]    Laser ports  137  pierce the middle reactor shield  109 , the inner shield clamp  110 , and the reactor core  101 . In the preferred embodiment, the final focusing crystal of the laser  103  is located in the laser ports  137  that are in the middle reactor shield  109 . The laser ports  137  through the inner shield clamp  110  and the reactor core  101  are just holes and are not capped with any material. (A clear, strong, heat resistant material with a high amount of boron would be ideal if they were capped.) Non-conductive gaskets  155  are located between the middle reactor shield  109  and the inner shield clamp  110  to reduce the possibility that current flow between the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  and the middle reactor shield  109  could take place.  
         [0186]    The core pedestal  111  and the conductor pedestals  112  could be located on vertical hydraulic lifts that allow them to move up and down for easier opening and closing of the middle reactor shield  109 , the inner shield clamp  110 , and to allow fine adjusting of the supported anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  as they thermally expand and contract through temperature variations.  
         [0187]    Placement of the Reactor Core  
         [0188]    While the reactor core sits in the inner shield-clamp  110 , its weight is also supported by a non-conducting pedestal made of fiber reinforced cement, called the core pedestal  111 .  
         [0189]    The center of the core pedestal  111  also contains coolant inlet tube  115  and coolant outlet tube  116 . The purpose of cooling the core pedestals  111  is so they do not become a “hot spot” beneath the reactor core(s)  101 . The coolant  130  should also be carefully monitored so as not to cool the core pedestal  111  too much, creating a “cold spot” beneath the reactor core(s)  101 .  
         [0190]    Placement of Fusion Fuel  
         [0191]    Initially, the fuel pellet  136  will be in the form of spherical Deuturium-Tritium pellets, presumably purchased from government sources. (Eventually, if the power of these reactor designs reaches expected levels, the use of Tritium may be avoided, allowing cheaper and easier to produce D-D pellets, and possibly other combinations of light elements.) The pellets will be prepositioned within the replaceable reactor core  101  by a three-dimensional grid of ablatable wires  135  made of materials such as glass fibers—see FIG. 9.  
         [0192]    Laser Ports  
         [0193]    The middle reactor shield  109 , the inner shield clamp  110 , and the reactor core  101  will have small holes—laser ports  137 —that will allow the fusion pellet target to be imploded using traditional inertial confinement techniques. The preferred embodiment will use lasers. The design of the lasers and related equipment could be identical to the currently envisioned facility called the National Ignition Facility, or similar to many other inertial confinement devices. It is important that the laser ports be as evenly spaced around the reactor core to assist in imploding the fusion pellet in a spherical fashion. (The NIF facility currently envisions compressing Holoraum cylinders rather than the older type of spherical D-T pellets envisioned for this preferred embodiment.)  
         [0194]    The laser ports  137  in the side of the reactor core  101  are needed for this preferred embodiment in order to allow the laser energy to reach the fuel pellet  136 . Lasers  103  are needed in this design for the purpose of igniting the fuel pellet  136 . After the initial ignition of the fuel pellet  136 , the lasers  103  are not needed.  
         [0195]    The problem of having laser ports  137  in the side of the reactor core  101  is the disruption of the harmonics of the electromagnetic fields in the conducting layer  118  of the core. The electromagnetic harmonics within the reactor core  101  will be disrupted, to some extent, by the laser ports  137 . This disruption is a result of the electrons flowing around the laser ports  137  rather than through the conducting material that has been removed to make the laser ports  137 . If the diameters of the laser ports  137  are large, then the disruption of the harmonics will be larger. Since the disruption of the harmonics is not desired, the diameters preferably should be minimized.  
         [0196]    In some prior art, laser ports  137  have used some kind of glass or crystal structure. The design of these components has been extremely difficult. The design of such “windows” for the laser ports  137  that pass through the inner shield clamp  110  and the reactor core  101 , in these designs at least, does not seem necessary. In this preferred embodiment, these inner laser ports  137  are simply holes. The final focusing optics for the lasers  103  are located just outside of, or within, the laser ports  137  that pass through the middle reactor shield  109 . Their design can be very similar or identical to such components already designed for the National Ignition Facility.  
         [0197]    The size of the holes for the laser ports  137  that pass through the inner shield clamp  110  and the reactor core  101  will depend on the diameter of the laser  103 . Tests with specific reactor core  101  materials and laser  103  energies will be needed. If the diameters of the laser ports  137  are too small, then the laser  103  will be diffracted by the laser ports  137 , and the energy will not reach the fuel pellet  136 . If the diameters of the laser ports  137  are slightly too small, then the lasers  103  will vaporize some of the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101  and plug the laser ports  137 . If the diameters of the laser ports  137  are just right, then the lasers  103  will slightly vaporize some of the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101  but not plug the laser ports  137 . With a slight amount of vaporized conducting layer  118  within the laser ports  137 , and with the diameter of the laser ports  137  minimized, when the massive pulse of electromagnetic energy that forms the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  passes over the reactor core  101 , then electrons and the electromagnetic pulse will arc through the laser ports  137 , instead of around the diameter of the laser ports  137 , and this will help to minimize the disruption of the electromagnetic harmonics within the reactor core  101 .  
         [0198]    If the laser ports  137  are simply holes, the question is, “Will material pour out the laser ports  137  when the fusion reaction occurs?” If there was no electromagnetic confinement field, then the answer would be yes. However, with an electromagnetic confinement field in place, all of, or the majority of the plasma  150  would be blocked.  
         [0199]    An added benefit of the laser ports  137  is to lessen forces on the reactor core  101  in an explosive event that might rupture the core wall. Energy escaping through the laser ports  137  would impact the middle reactor shield  109 , thus effectively spreading out the energy over a greater area.  
         [0200]    Laser Port Distribution  
         [0201]    The positions and distributions of the laser ports  137  over the reactor core  101  is important. The key engineering factor is how the ports can be positioned to fire around the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  and core pedestal  111  and conductor pedestal  112 . In general, it is preferable to implode the fuel pellet  136  in a spherical pattern. The anode/cathode conducting spheres  113 , core pedestal  111  and conductor pedestal  112  create “blind spots” where laser ports  137  can not be positioned. If needed, this problem can be minimized by having some of the “end” lasers  103  aimed slightly off-center. They can be aimed more towards the ends of the fuel pellet  136 —that is, the ends, or “poles” that face the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113 .  
         [0202]    An estimated minimum of about  14  laser ports  137  is needed to adequately implode the fuel pellet  136  in a spherical pattern. Since the laser ports  137  reduce the electromagnetic harmonics on the reactor core  101 , the number of laser ports  137 , and thus lasers  103 , preferably should be minimized. However, if too few of lasers  103  are used, then the plasma  150  will not implode spherically, and the initial plasma instabilities  139  would be too large for the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  to contain. The optimum number of laser ports  137  can not be stated at this time because of the number of variables involved. The laser  103  beam diameter is important. The laser wavelength is important. The energy per beam is a factor. The diameter of the fuel pellet  136  is important.  
         [0203]    Too many lasers  103  could be used. For example,  50  lasers  103  would probably be too many, creating too much of a disruption in the harmonics of the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 . In addition, the cost of the additional lasers  103  could become prohibitive. For the preferred embodiment,  24  laser ports  137  will be used. Their approximate positions are shown in FIG. 10. The dots in FIG. 10 show the positions of the laser ports  137 . The circular line represents the reactor core&#39;s  101  outer diameter. The radial lines represent the spherical angles from the laser ports  137  to the fuel pellet  136  projected onto a two-dimensional surface. FIG. 10 represents the view of the reactor core  101  from inside the oval conducting sphere track  104  looking outwards. There are only  12  laser ports  137  visible on this side. Another  12  laser  137  ports would be on the opposite side (i.e., the outside view of the reactor core  101 ). The angles are chosen to fire around the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  and the conductor pedestals  112 . There are many patterns that the laser ports  137  could be laid out in to obtain a harmonic burn, this pattern is just one example and is not intended to represent the only manner in which the laser ports  137  could be positioned. In some designs, no lasers  103 , and thus, no laser ports  137 , are used at all.  
         [0204]    In this preferred embodiment, the confinement field pulse comes after the laser pulse for the reasons just discussed. If the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  is too strong when the laser  103  pulses pass through the laser ports  137 , then premature arcing may occur across the laser ports  137  in front of the laser  103  pulses, ionizing some of the conducting layer  118 , and blocking the energy of the lasers  103 . If the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  is too weak when the plasma  150  explodes, then the fusion reaction will not be adequately confined. Thus, timing is critical in this design, as is shown in FIG. 11.  
         [0205]    Tests must be performed to time the delay between when the laser  103  pulses pass through the laser ports  137  and when the plasma  150  (fusion burn) starts to explode outwards. Further tests must be performed to determine the time needed for the energy from the capacitor bank  105  to pass through the electrical bus  107 , through the hemispherical coils  106 , to induce fields in the conducting spheres  104 , pass through the confinement circuit, and build up to a value that will arc across the laser ports  137  in the reactor core  101 . When the reactor is triggered, the timing of the lasers  103  must be designed so that the peak of the laser  103  pulse at time “1” is just prior to the timing of the peak of the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  at time “2”. (The total time width of the laser  103  pulse and fuel pellet explosion pulse will probably be only about 1 nanosecond. An estimate of the total width of the confinement pulse from triggering to peak will probably be about 4 to 5 μseconds—based upon the estimated discharge rate of the capacitor bank  105 —if the Marx modules described later are used. Therefore, it is likely that the triggering of the confinement pulse will be required to begin prior to the triggering of the laser  103  pulse.)  
         [0206]    The delay and duration of each pulse after its triggering is unknown at this time and will be specific to each reactor design. In the example of timing in FIG. 11, the confinement pulse is triggered prior to the triggering of the laser  103  pulse. The laser  103  pulse may need to be triggered first, or they may need to be triggered at the same time. The key detail is the confinement field peak at time “2” lies between the laser  103  pulse peak at time “1” and the fusion yield peak at time “3”.  
         [0207]    Middle Reactor Shield  
         [0208]    Surrounding the reactor core  101  and the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  is a middle reactor shield  109 . This middle reactor shield  109  is made up of strong material capable of halting debris from an exploding or rupturing reactor core  101 . The center of the double walls is filled with a coolant  130 .  
         [0209]    The middle reactor shield  109  is of a clam-shell type. The two halves slide open for access to the central components. In the preferred embodiment, the two halves slide outwards, rather than up and down. This allows the overhead gantry and cranes  132  to easily drop replacement anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  and reactor cores  101  into place. (Design variations for the middle reactor shield  109  may include one wall with no coolant  130 , multi-wall shields with or without coolant  130 .) Middle reactor shield  109  materials may be conducting or non-conducting. For the preferred embodiment,  316  stainless steel will be used. (Another possible metal alloy based on Vanadium—V— 0 .15Cr-5Ti—would be a good example of a suitable material. Metals would have to be resistant to radiation induced swelling and ductility loss and offer low residual activation. Other important considerations are: relatively high thermal conductivity; low thermal expansion coefficient and low modulus.) If the middle reactor shield  109  material is conducting, then non-conductive gaskets  155  must be placed between the middle reactor shield  109  and the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113 —see FIG. 8. The non-conductive gaskets  155  material could be a vulcanized rubber, possibly ceramic, or other materials. In essence, the bulk of the electromagnetic confinement pulse must follow the conducting material in the conducting spheres  102  and the reactor Core  101  and not over the middle reactor shield  109 . Laser ports  137  through the middle reactor shield  109  are required for the lasers  103 . The geometry of the middle reactor shield  109  is spherical, centered around the center of the reactor core  101  so as not to disrupt the electromagnetic harmonics of the reactor core  101 .  
         [0210]    Inner Reactor Clamp/Shield  
         [0211]    Attached to inside of the middle reactor shield  109  is an inner optional shield clamp  110 . The middle reactor shield  109  is a clam-shell type, non-conducting, approximately two inches thick of RCC. This inner shield clamp  110  provides additional shielding and stability in the core area but may be omitted if it disrupts the harmonics of the reactor core  101 , or if it is found that the additional shielding and stability are not needed. The middle reactor shield  109  clamps into position around the anode/cathode conducting spheres  102  and the reactor core  101 . Holes in the inner shield clamp  110  are positioned to mirror the laser ports  137 . The diameter of the holes can be larger than the holes through the sides of the reactor cores  101 .  
         [0212]    Description of Electrical Currents  
         [0213]    The conducting spheres  102  and the reactor core  101  create an electric or magnetic circuit. Potentially, a voltage could be set up so that current flows around the circuit. In this situation, the circuit will be called an electrical circuit, and the reactor is acting in the electric mode. Alternatively, currents can be set up over the conducting spheres to induce a magnetic potential across each conducting sphere. In this situation, the circuit will be called a magnetic circuit, and the reactor is acting in the magnetic mode. The preferred embodiment of these reactor designs uses a magnetic circuit. If this reactor design were designed to be an electrical circuit, then there would result large-scale transport of electrons around the oval track of the circuit. Large-scale transport of electrons would be relatively dangerous and destructive to the circuit.  
         [0214]    [0214]FIG. 12 demonstrates how, if a voltage is set up over the poles of a sphere, then an electric circuit is made. The arrows that represent the direction of the current show how large-scale transport of electrons would flow over the reactor core  101  and accumulate on one pole of the reactor core  101 . The magnetic field would obey the left-hand rule on the left hemisphere, and the right-hand rule on the right hemisphere.  
         [0215]    If this reactor design were designed to be a magnetic circuit, then there would result large-scale transport of electrons around the outer diameters of the conducting spheres  102  and reactor core(s)  101 . FIG. 13 demonstrates how, if a magnetic voltage is set up over the poles of a sphere, then a magnetic circuit is made. The arrows that represent the direction of the magnetic “current” show how large-scale transport of the magnetic field would flow over the reactor core  101 . The electric field would obey the left-hand rule on the left hemisphere, and the right-hand rule on the right hemisphere. Thus, the large scale flow of electrons would counter-rotate around the opposite hemispheres of the conducting spheres  102  and reactor core(s)  101  and would not accumulate on one pole.  
         [0216]    The preferred embodiment of these fusion reactor designs uses a magnetic circuit.  
         [0217]    Tests indicate that the poles of this configuration become hot, apparently due to the faster rotating electrons. This dictates that magnetic circuit designs have very high cooling capabilities.  
         [0218]    In order to induce the magnetic fields in the magnetic circuit in the preferred embodiment of these reactor designs, inductive coils will be used. There are many types of coils that can be used.  
         [0219]    Hemispheric Coils  
         [0220]    Hemispheric coils  106 , as depicted in FIG. 14, have not been used or named before. U.S. Pat. No. 5,146,197 describes the use of spherical type coils for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), however, no suggestion is made in this patent to use such spherical coils for nuclear fusion. Basically, the coil wire  165  is wrapped around one hemisphere of coil support material  166 . Appropriate coil support materials include but are not limited to ceramic or RCC. The coil wire may or may not be insulated.  
         [0221]    Other coil types could be used. Advantages of a hemispheric coil  106  are: they can use a constant current to create a magnetic field because the flux area is changing, and they create a symmetrical magnetic wave pattern over the conducting spheres  102 . The symmetrical magnetic wave pattern would be conducive to creating a harmonic spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  over the reactor core  101 . The disadvantage of using a hemispheric coil  106 , is the pole area becomes very hot. This is one reason cooling is required in the conducting sphere track  104 . Further, the placement of the high-volume coolant inlet pipes  170  should be such that the coolant  130  is aimed at the poles of these hemispheric coils  106 .  
         [0222]    Because the geometrical design of a hemispheric coil  106 , the flux area of the hemispheric coil  106  is decreasing or increasing in a sine wave manner depending on the direction of current flow. Since the magnetic flux is changing, this will induce an EMF across the hemispheric coil  106  according to Faraday&#39;s Law of Induction. The direction of flow of fields over a conducting sphere  102  will oppose the fields in the hemispheric coil  106 . The fields on the conducting spheres  102  will be induced by the fields in the hemispheric coils  106 . Thus, a magnetic field will be set up across the poles of the conducting sphere  102 , and the large-scale transport of electrons in the conducting sphere  102  will counter-rotate around each hemisphere of the conducting sphere  102  as indicated in FIG. 15.  
         [0223]    Just as it is possible to layer normal cylindrical coils, it should be possible to create a more powerful magnetic force by layering the hemispheric coils  106 . Such a coil would be like a cup in a cup as shown in FIG. 16.  
         [0224]    Based upon geometry, it is believed that hemispherical coils  106  hold great promise and are used in the preferred embodiment. Alternate coil designs will be discussed later and can replace the hemispherical coils  106  if needed. The wiring of the hemispherical coils  106  could be connected in parallel or in series. It is believed the best choice will be in parallel over one conducting sphere  102 , and in series from conducting sphere  102  to conducting sphere  102 . FIG. 17 discloses this method for connecting the hemispherical coils  106 . However, in the preferred embodiment, single layer hemispherical coils  106  wired in series directly to the electrical bus  107  are used.  
         [0225]    Energy Source to Initially Drive the Coils  
         [0226]    As in all other fusion reactor designs, these reactor designs need an external energy source to start up. This external energy source could come from a variety of power sources such as: coal, oil, hydroelectric, fission, etc. Most external power plants would not have sufficient power to start the fusion process. Thus, some sort of energy collection system is needed.  
         [0227]    Capacitor Banks  
         [0228]    In many other fusion reactor designs, banks of capacitors are charged. This design utilizes such preexisting equipment. As an example, the Los Alamos National Laboratory is building a device called Atlas. This device will use a 36 MJ array of 240 kVolt Marx modules. These modules can be discharged rapidly. They can deliver a peak current of 45 to 50 MA with a 4 to 5 μsecond rise time.  
         [0229]    The exact amount of capacitors that are needed for the preferred embodiment is not known at this time. This design is scalable. To meet the design goal of 1 to 3 Tesla of induced magnetic fields over the conducting spheres  102  and reactor core(s)  101 , additional capacitors and coils could be added as needed.  
         [0230]    Applying Current to the Coils  
         [0231]    The design would use preexisting equipment to switch the capacitors to the coils. While tests with each reactor design would be needed, it is assumed that massive capacitor banks  105  must be discharged in unison. High-speed switches  138  have been employed for such purposes in other designs and could be purchased for this application. (For example, some inertial confinement reactors use synchronized laser-triggered, gas-insulated switches.)  
         [0232]    When the energy in the capacitor banks  105  is discharged into the hemispherical coils  106 , then electromagnetic fields would develop in the conducting layer  118  of each conducting sphere  102 , and these fields would induce electromagnetic fields in adjacent conducting spheres  102 . The anode/cathode conducting sphere  113  would induce the fields within the reactor core  101 .  
         [0233]    A key question is whether all of the energy in the capacitor bank(s)  105 , should be released at once, with one triggering, or, should the initial pulse be followed up with more pulses. The answer is, it depends on economics. The Marx modules are obviously expensive. The initial pulse is the most critical. It helps to confine the initial explosion of the fusion fuel and creates the spherical electromagnetic confinement field that allows these designs to extract energy in the MHD process. However, to the lengthen the duration of the fusion burn, additional time in the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  would be beneficial. The long-term costs of adding additional energy storage in the capacitor bank(s)  105  would be less than the additional energy captured from the fusion reactions. The bulk of the cost is expended in the initial confinement pulse, not adding additional time to the pulse.  
         [0234]    The frequency at which initial pulses are triggered will be determined by the resonance of the reactor core  101 . This rate is a function of the primary wavelength of the system. If designed correctly, this wavelength will be determined by the wavelength of the conducting spheres  102 . An example of how an initial pulse of energy could be released by a capacitor bank  105 , followed by additional pulses of energy by additional capacitors, is shown in FIG. 18. Additional pulses of confinement energy from capacitors would not be needed if, as predicted, the instabilities from the fusion burn combine with the initial pulse of confinement energy to continuously maintain the confinement field over the course of the fusion burn.  
         [0235]    Magnetic Field Goals  
         [0236]    Due to the custom nature of early reactor designs, and the number of design variables to be tested, it is impossible to state exactly what the goal of the magnetic field over the reactor core  101  should be. For example, while the conducting material for the conducting spheres  102  will initially be a copper alloy, the conductivity of the manufactured conducting spheres  102  must be tested. Obviously, an initial purchase of capacitors could be made and additional modules added on until a sufficiently high magnetic field is achieved. If sufficiently high magnetic fields are not initially attained, it is likely that additional active cooling of the reactor core  101  and conducting spheres  102  may be needed. It is believed that an initial goal of 1 Tesla would be a difficult but reasonable goal. It is also believed that small fields could still allow commercially viable designs.  
         [0237]    Organizations such as the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory have reach quasi-continuous magnetic fields of 65 Tesla in small bore magnets, and have numerous magnets with magnetic fields in the 20-45 Tesla range, including a 30 Tesla continuous magnetic field resistive magnet. If current design goals are met, organizations such as the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory are expected to reach 100 Tesla in a non-destructive magnet. Magnetic fields of up to 820 Tesla have been reached using destructive magnets at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.  
         [0238]    Incremental increases in reaching higher magnetic fields in test magnets are being made by through the use of superconductors, by improving cooling, through alloy selection, by using better capacitors—or other energy sources—reinforcement structures, etc. The modular designs of all of the new reactor designs in the present invention allow new and improved materials and devices to be tested, and first generation components to be replaced later, by more advanced components-especially in the three key components; the reactor cores  101 , the conducting spheres  102 , and the coils  106 ,  147  and FIG. 51.  
         [0239]    Reactor Core Spherical Electromagnetic Confinement Field  140  Field Goal  
         [0240]    The power that is transmitted to the focal point of the core can be found by using the following expressions:  
           P =           A   Equation #1  
         [0241]    (Power is equal to the Poynting Vector times the area of the sphere.)  
               S   ⇀     =       1     μ   0            E   ⇀     ×     B   ⇀               Equation                 #2                               
 
         [0242]    (The Poynting Vector is proportional to the cross product of the electric and magnetic fields.)  
           E=cB   Equation #3  
         [0243]    (The electric field is proportional to the magnetic field times the speed of light.)  
           A= 4π r   2   Equation #4  
         [0244]    (The surface area for a sphere.)  
         [0245]    Solving:  
             P   =       1     μ   0              B   ⇀     2          c4πr   2               Equation                 #5                               
 
         [0246]    As an example of what this implies for these reactor designs, if a magnetic field can be generated at the surface of a 5 meter conducting sphere with a value of 1 Tesla, then the power transmitted towards the focal point of the sphere would be:  
             p   =           1        [     T   2     ]          3   ×       10   8          [     m   /   s     ]          4      π                   25        [     m   2     ]           4      π   ×       10     -   7            [       Wb   /   A     ·   m     ]           =         1        [     T   2     ]          3   ×       10   15          [     m   /   s     ]              25        [     m   2     ]            [     A   ·     m   /   Wb       ]         =     75   ×       10   15          [       kg   ×     m   2         s   3       ]                     Equation                 #6                               
 
         [0247]    Thus, a 1 Tesla field over a 5 meter sphere would focus 75 petawatts at the core of the reactor. A magnetic field of 1.5 Tesla would focus 168.75 petawatts at the core of the reactor. A magnetic field of 2 Tesla would yield 300 petawatts. A magnetic field of 3 Tesla would yield 675 petawatts. A magnetic field of 4 Tesla would yield 1.2 exawatts. All of these example energies are very extreme. This is energy that is focused towards the center of the reactor core  101 . It is referred to as the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . (In some design variations, the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  will be relied upon to ignite the fusion fuel.)  
         [0248]    With a spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  that has enough power, the steps to production of usable fusion energy are ready to begin.  
         [0249]    General Steps for Operation of Reactor.  
         [0250]    It is believed that the invention operates as follows:  
         [0251]    1) The capacitor bank(s)  105  for both the containment circuit and the lasers  103  are charged.  
         [0252]    2) A reactor core  101 , with a spherical fuel pellet  136 —held in place at the center of the reactor core  101  by three abatable glass wires  135  in the x, y, and z axis—is placed on the central core pedestal  111 .  
         [0253]    3) The inner shield clamp  110  and middle reactor shields  109  are closed.  
         [0254]    4) The conducting sphere track  104  and middle reactor shield  109  are filled with coolant  130  and cooled. Coolant  130  is pumped through the conductor pedestal  112  and core pedestal  111 .  
         [0255]    5) The sliding trough shields  131  are closed.  
         [0256]    6) The overhead gantry and cranes  132  are retracted.  
         [0257]    8) High-speed switches  138  allow energy stored in the capacitor banks  105  to flow into the laser circuit and the containment circuit. The lasers  103  are allowed to fire so that their peak energy is applied to the fuel pellet  136  slightly ahead of when the peak of the containment energy sweeps around the containment circuit and is applied to the reactor core  101 .  
         [0258]    9) The current through the hemispherical coils  106  induces electromagnetic fields over the conducting layer  118  of the conducting spheres  102 . These fields create a magnetic circuit around the containment circuit, i.e., the electrons in the conducting spheres  102  do not flow around the circuit, they counter-rotate around each conducting sphere  102 , as shown in FIG. 13, and create a strong magnetic field at each pole of the conducting spheres  102 . The cross-product of the Electric and Magnetic fields—the Poynting Vector—creates a strong central pointing field in each conducting sphere  102 . The non-conducting core  119  within each conducting sphere  102  would be heated and compressed, but not enough to start a fusion burn as is intended in the reactor core  101 . In the reactor core  101 , a strong spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  will start to develop.  
         [0259]    10) The lasers  103  implode the fuel pellet  136  and creates a nucleus of fused material.  
         [0260]    11) The spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  over the reactor core  101  grows as the peak energy starts to flow through the containment circuit. (Extra capacitors are triggered-as needed-to lengthen the duration of the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 .)  
         [0261]    12) Using high-speed switches  138 , the containment circuit is switched from the capacitor bank  105  to the energy grid.  
         [0262]    13) In general, the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  that is set up over the reactor core  101  inhibits the nucleus of fused material from exploding. A more precise way of saying this, is the fused fuel is inhibited from decaying. In general, the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  will compress the fusion burn uniformly in all directions, helping the fusion burn to be harmonic. In general, some instabilities  139  will be ejected from the surface of the fusion burn in jet-like flows.  
         [0263]    14) The outward exploding streams of plasma instabilities  139  will setup flows at right angles to the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . The exploding streams of plasma  150  will interact with spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  that surrounds the core in a MHD fashion. The outward exploding streams of plasma  150  will push out on the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  via the MHD effect. The inward pointing spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  will push back on the exploding streams of plasma  150 . The rate of flow of the outward exploding streams of plasma  150  will be slowed. The energy lost in the slowing of the outward moving streams of plasma  150  will be transferred to the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 , effectively increasing its strength, and creating an increased magnetic differential across the reactor core  101 .  
         [0264]    15) The increased magnetic differential creates a magnetic flow, analogous to a current flow, around the containment circuit. A current flow will be induced in the hemispherical coils  106  by the magnetic flow around the containment circuit. The induced current from the hemispherical coils  106  is allowed to flow out into the energy grid. High efficiency is obtained because fusion energy is directly converted into electricity, and the excess energy in the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  is recycled.  
         [0265]    16) The active confinement of the fusion burn by the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  will allow the fusion burn to have a duration that is longer than without active containment.  
         [0266]    17) The central nucleus of fused fuel continues to eject exploding streams of plasma  150 —or possibly pulsates—until the fuel is consumed. Then, when the fuel is almost totally consumed, the process stops. The rate at which energy is released from the fusion burn will depend on the harmonics of the burn. Smoother harmonics will allow a slower release of energy. Poorer harmonics will release energy faster.  
         [0267]    18) Heat is extracted from the coolant  130  in the middle reactor shield  109  and the coolant bath  108  and is used to drive secondary steam turbine generators.  
         [0268]    19) When the reactor core  101  is cooled sufficiently, the outer shield doors are opened and the reactor core  101  is replaced. The sliding trough shields  131  are retracted. Parts are inspected and replaced as needed.  
         [0269]    20) The next cycle begins.  
         [0270]    The length of the burn will be affected by many variables such as: materials selected for conducting spheres  102 , the reactor core  101 , and the size of the capacitor bank  105 . These variables do not affect the general design concepts that patent protection is being applied for, but may affect the details of specific patent variations.  
         [0271]    Theory of Operation  
         [0272]    The simplest way to describe the idea of spherical confinement, is to take a hollow sphere made of a conducting material—e.g., copper—and to set up a voltage across the sphere as shown in FIG. 19. It is important that the sphere is: symmetrical, smooth, of consistent material, and of consistent wall thickness. Also important is that the diameter of the sphere be much larger than the thickness of the wall of the sphere as shown in FIG. 20.  
         D&gt;&gt;t  
         [0273]    The voltage across the sphere will create a current across the sphere. However, on one hemisphere the current density is decreasing as the current spreads out over the greater surface area of the sphere, and on the other hemisphere the current density is increasing as the current comes together at the pole. This change in the current density will induce magnetic fields at right angles on the surface of the sphere. Another way of describing this is the electric flux is changing due to the geometry of the conducting sphere. The changing electric flux induces magnetic fields.  
         [0274]    Magnetic Fields  
         [0275]    If the voltage is set up so the current passes from left to right in this example, then the magnetic fields will form parallel to the equator of the sphere, as indicated in FIG. 21. As the current passes over the surface of the sphere, the electrical field will change due to the geometry of the sphere. This changing electrical field induces magnetic fields on the surface of the sphere at right angles the electrical field according to the right hand rule. Since the electrical field is decreasing on the left hemisphere there is a negative sign, thus explaining why the magnetic field is turning around that hemisphere according to the left hand rule. In essence, the flux of the electrical current is being forced to spread out, by flowing over the sphere, and then is being forced to come back together again. Forcing the current to change direction in such a manner, induces the magnetic fields.  
         [0276]    For purposes of the present invention, this central conducting sphere may be referred to as the “core.” The core can be described as manufactured with numerous layers of different materials, or as a plasma  150 . In a group of reactor designs described in one embodiment of the present invention—called “No Core” Reactors—the core will be made of no materials at all—only spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 .  
         [0277]    The Poynting Vector  
         [0278]    One of the important characteristics of an electromagnetic wave is that it can transport energy from point to point. The rate of energy flow per unit area for an electromagnetic wave can be expressed by the vector S, and it is called the Poynting Vector after John Henry Poynting (1852-1914), who first described it.  
         [0279]    For current flowing through a typical wire with constant circular cross section, the Poynting Vector almost always points inwards towards the center of the wire as shown in FIG. 22. In high voltage and/or high current situations, especially in thick conductors, waves can set up in the conductor, creating a varying direction for the Poynting Vector as shown in FIG. 23. Normally, such waves are a major problem. Spherical electromagnetic waves such as these can explode wires, and have been known to crush pipes in a sausage-link-like fashion when the pipes were struck by lightning. Many wire designs—such as cables used with lightning rods—are composed of thin filaments  164 , twisted or woven, to minimize this effect—see FIG. 50. This natural pattern of spherical waves will be utilized in a beneficial manner in the present invention. In many parts of the designs of the present invention, steps must be taken to prevent such instabilities from exploding components. (This is sometimes referred to as, “the exploding wire phenomenon” and will be explained more in depth hereinafter.)  
         [0280]    In prior nuclear fusion experiments, “instabilities” may have been the result of unintended, or unexpected spherical electromagnetic waves in the plasma  150  (i.e., the induced cross-product of the time varying, and/or, area varying Electric and Magnetic fields.)  
         [0281]    The Poynting Vector can be expressed by the equation:  
               S   ⇀     =       1     μ   0            E   ⇀     ×     B   ⇀               Equation                 7                               
 
         [0282]    In this form—i.e., with this constant—the Poynting Vector can be described using SI Basic Units or SI Derived Units. In SI Derived Units, S is often expressed in terms of watts/meter 2 . In SI Basic Units, S is expressed in terms of kg/second 3 . The direction of the vector S gives the direction in which the energy moves. The vectors E and B refer to the instantaneous vectors for the Electric and Magnetic fields.  
         [0283]    Over the surface of the cores in the fusion reactors described here, the instantaneous vectors for E and B are usually tangential to the core&#39;s spherical surface. There are two primary possibilities for how the electric and magnetic fields are oriented over the core. These two possibilities can be equated to “electric” circuits and “magnetic” circuits.  
         [0284]    In one of the two primary orientations of electric and magnetic fields described in these fusion reactors, the electric fields E are aligned so that they travel from pole to pole over the conducting sphere, while the magnetic fields B point at a right angle to E—essentially parallel to the equator of the conducting spheres, as shown in FIG. 24( a ) and FIG. 24( b ).  
         [0285]    In the other of the two primary orientations of electric and magnetic fields described in these fusion reactors, the magnetic fields B are aligned so that they travel from pole to pole over the conducting sphere, while the electric fields E point at a right angle to B—essentially parallel to the equator of the conducting spheres. This particular arrangement of electric and magnetic fields—essential for “magnetic” circuits—will be the preferred field orientation and is required for the “No-Core” reactor design, as shown in FIG. 25( a ) and FIG. 25( b ).  
         [0286]    Analyzing the Poynting Vector on a Conducting Sphere or Core  
         [0287]    At any point on the surface of a Conducting Sphere or Reactor Core, the electric and magnetic field can be analyzed. By analyzing the cross-product of the electric and magnetic fields, the Poynting Vector can be found. At all points on the surface of the sphere the cross-product S is directed towards the center of the sphere. Two example points of analyzing the Poynting Vector for a sphere are shown in FIG. 26.  
         [0288]    The Poynting Vector can be expressed in different forms, but in general, energy is being transported to the focal point—to the center of the sphere. In essence, the electrical current is being forced to spread out and then allowed to come back together again by the geometry of the conducting sphere  102 , or reactor core  101 . If a current was traveling down a long, straight conductor, then forced to spread out because of a bulge in the conductor, then there must be a force pointing towards the center of the bulge. The equal and opposite force, equivalent to the mechanical force that is spreading the electrical current apart over the sphere&#39;s region, is the central pointing energy transport that can be expressed in the form of the Poynting Vector as shown in FIG. 27.  
         [0289]    The larger the voltage applied across the conducting sphere  102 , the larger the current across the conducting sphere  102 . The larger the current across the conducting sphere  102 , the larger the electric and magnetic fields. The larger the electric and magnetic fields, the larger the amount of energy that is focused on the focal point—at the center of the reactor core  101 .  
         [0290]    It is critical to note that, if a conducting sphere  102  or reactor core  101  is thin-walled, structurally weak, or in plasma form, then the electromagnetic fields will collapse and implode the conducting Sphere  102  or reactor core  101 . This is a problem if the conducting sphere  102  or reactor Core  101  needs to be designed not to collapse. Such a collapsing and implosion can be a benefit if it used as an ignition technique to ignite a plasma into a fusion burn. However, in general, to prevent conducting spheres  102  or reactor cores  101  from vaporizing, imploding, crushing, rupturing or some other catastrophic event, and in order to provide massive central pointing impulses of energy at the center of the reactor core, the conducting spheres  102  and reactor cores  101  must be relatively large, strong, and massive rather than small, and thin.  
         [0291]    Plasma Fusion Within the Core  
         [0292]    A significant early question is, how could a fusion reaction be induced in the reactor core  101  of the reactors designs of the present invention? The first two key issues are: how is the fuel placed in the reactor core  101 ; and, how is the fuel ignited? The next section on MHD will address the issue of how energy will be extracted. There are numerous techniques that could be used to place the fuel inside the core.  
         [0293]    1) In one approach—shown in FIG. 28—a nozzle  149  could be placed in the side of the reactor core  101  to inject a plasma  150  into the reactor core  101  just prior to it being ignited. However, a permanently placed nozzle  149  in the side of the reactor core  101  could interfere with the harmonics of the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  and dramatically reduce their effectiveness to contain the fusion reaction.  
         [0294]    2) A second approach—as shown in FIG. 29( a ) and FIG. 29( b )—would be to place plasma  150  into the reactor core  101  when it is manufactured and have the plasma  150  completely sealed in the reactor core  101 . Thus, the reactor would need to be designed so that the reactor cores  101  could be easily replaced between each fusion burn. With this technique, the reactor core  101  would need to be preheated before the main confinement/triggering pulse in order to re-ionize the plasma  150 .  
         [0295]    3) A third approach—as shown in FIG. 30—would be to place a fuel pellet  136  at the center of the reactor core  101 , pre-positioned and held in place by adjustable, ablatable wires  135  made of a materials which may include but not be limited to: spider web, Kevlar, carbon or glass. There may be 1, 2, 3, or more wires used to hold the pellet in place. In this example, there are 3 wires forming a 3-dimensional x, y, z-type grid.  
         [0296]    4) A fourth approach—shown in FIG. 31—would be to place a fuel pellet  136  inside a small spherical wire implosion cage  151  made of thin conducting wires  152 . How this cage is designed depends on if the containment circuit is acting in an electric mode or magnetic mode. In the electric mode, the thin conducting wires  152  would be aligned from pole to pole as shown in FIG. 32. In the magnetic mode, the thin conducting wires  152  would be made of concentric wires as shown in FIG. 33. The number of strands that make up the cage could be low—e.g., 20-30 wires. However, current tests by Sandia National Laboratories with cylindrical wire cages in their Z-Pinch device would suggest 100-300 wires would be better. Examples of materials for the spherical wire implosion cage&#39;s  151  thin conducting wires  152  would include, but not be limited to: tungsten, copper, aluminum, and gold.  
         [0297]    The purpose of the Spherical wire implosion cage  151  is to implode and ignite the fuel pellet  136  located at the center of the spherical wire implosion cage  151 . The fuel pellet  136  would be held in position inside the spherical wire implosion cage  151  by ablatable non-conducting wires  153 . Examples of materials for the ablatable non-conducting wires  153  would include, but not be limited to: spider web, carbon, silicon and Kevlar. The spherical wire implosion cage  151  of thin conducting wires  152  would be held in position within the larger, outer reactor core  101  by a thick conducting wire  154 .  
         [0298]    A massive voltage would be setup across the reactor core  101 —as shown in FIG. 32—or any number of design variations operating in the electric mode. Part of the current would induce a spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  around the reactor core  101 . Some of the current would pass along the inner thick conducting wire  154  which would vaporize the thick conducting wire  154  and vaporize and implode the spherical wire implosion cage  151 . This implosion would ignite the fuel pellet  136  inside the spherical wire implosion cage  151 . The remaining current passing over the outer reactor core  101  would provide the containment forces for the fusion explosion. The difficulty of inducing a harmonic magnetic mode containment field on the reactor core  101  and in the spherical wire implosion cage  151  at the same time probably will inhibit using this technique. The difficulty caused by the mass transport of electrons around the containment circuit when using the spherical wire implosion cage  151  technique in the electric mode will inhibit using this technique.  
         [0299]    5) A fifth approach would have the reactor core  101  placed inside a larger plasma container/shield  156  that is filled with plasma  150 —see FIG. 34( a ). In the sides of the reactor core  101  would be small plasma flow ports  158  that would allow the plasma  150  to move inside the reactor core  101 . With this technique, the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  over the reactor core  101  would compress and ignite the plasma  150  inside the reactor core  101  when a massive electric voltage, or magnetic differential is set up across the poles of the reactor core  101 —see FIG. 34( b ). But this would not ignite the plasma  150  outside of the reactor core  101 . At most it would compress it outward. As the reactor cools, there will be less pressure in the reactor core  101  than outside of the reactor core  101 . The small plasma flow ports  158  in the sides of the reactor core  101  would allow the plasma  150  outside the reactor core  101  back into the reactor core  101  between each electromagnetic pulse—see FIG. 34( c ).  
         [0300]    If the small plasma flow ports  158  through the sides of the reactor core  101  are small enough, then there should be no disruption to the harmonics of the electromagnetic fields within the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 —the massive electromagnetic pulses that travel through the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101  would simply arc across the plasma flow ports  158 . This technique may not be feasible if the plasma flow ports  158  disrupt the harmonics of the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  too much. Also, the reactor cores  101  would need to be easily replaced with this design since the arcing of the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  across the plasma flow ports  158  would eventually weld them shut.  
         [0301]    6) The previous 5 techniques are meant only as examples. There are other, obvious techniques for placing the fusion fuel into the reactor core  101 , such as dropping a fusion fuel pellet  136  through a hole in the top of the reactor core  101 .  
         [0302]    With a fusion fuel—such as D-T in plasma or pellet form—in place within the reactor core  101 , a high voltage or magnetic differential is applied across the reactor core  101  just moments before the fuel is ignited. This step is critical, and occurs for all variations of this patent. The details of ignition depend on which method of fuel placement is used:  
         [0303]    1) FIG. 35 corresponds to the ignition of approach 1 in FIG. 28. Approach 1 uses electromagnetic fields induced across the sphere to focus a tremendous surge of power to the center of the reactor core  101 —expressed in terms of the Poynting Vector. This focused energy would compress, heat and confine the plasma. With strong enough spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 —the actual magnitude would be dependent upon many design features—the centrally focused energy would ignite the fuel and a nuclear fusion burn would take place. This technique requires stronger spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  across the reactor core  101  relative to the other techniques of the present invention since the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  are used not only for confinement but also for ignition.  
         [0304]    2) FIG. 36 corresponds to the ignition of approach 2 in FIG. 29( b ). With approach 2, the electromagnetic fields induced across the sphere would focus a tremendous surge of power to the center of the reactor core  101 —expressed in terms of the Poynting Vector. This focused energy would compress, heat and confine the plasma. With strong enough spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 —the actual magnitude would be dependent upon many design features—the centrally focused energy would ignite the fuel and a nuclear fusion burn would take place. This technique requires stronger spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  across the reactor core  101  relative to the other techniques of the present invention since the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  are used not only for confinement but also for ignition.  
         [0305]    3) FIGS.  37 ( a ) and  37 ( b ) correspond to the ignition of approach 3 in FIG. 30. With the third technique, just as the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  are growing in magnitude across the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 , the fuel pellet  136  is imploded with traditional inertial confinement methods. For example, external lasers  103 , or ion beams would pass through laser ports  137  and focus on the fuel pellet  136 . The key here is the timing—an electric voltage or magnetic differential must be set up across the reactor core  101  at the correct moment so that the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  are induced so that they should reaching a maximum just prior to when the fusion implosion changes direction to become an explosion. Since the inertial confinement energy is applied directly to the fuel pellet  136  with relatively easy-to-use and understood inertial techniques, the required magnitude of the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  are less with this technique. The spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  are not required to start ignition of the fusion process. The spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  are used to confine and lengthen the fusion burn, and extract energy via the MHD process.  
         [0306]    4) FIGS.  38 ( a ),  38 ( b ),  38 ( c ), and  38 ( d ) correspond to the ignition of approach 4 in FIGS. 31 and 32. With the fourth technique, just as the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  are building, the fuel pellet  136  is imploded with an “x, y, z”—or, “spherical”—pinch. This spherical pinch technique is enabled by passing a current through a thick conducting wire  154  that is strung within the reactor core  101 —FIG. 38( a ). As the massive spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  set up across the reactor core  101  area, some of the current will flow over the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 —FIG. 38( b ) left—through the thick conducting wire  154 , and through the thin conducting wires  152  of the spherical wire implosion cage  151 —FIG. 38( b ) right. This current will be far too massive for the thick conducting wire  154  and will vaporize it. (This is according to the ideas expressed in the section below on the exploding wire phenomena.) However, before the thick conducting wire  154  vaporizes, the current will also sweep across the thin conducting wires  152  of the spherical wire implosion cage  151 . This current will be far too massive for the thin conducting wires  152  of the spherical wire implosion cage  151  and will also vaporize them. Magnetic fields will setup across the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101  and the spherical wire implosion cage  151  as is shown in FIG. 38( c ). Due to the same geometry of electric and magnetic fields in both the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101  and the spherical wire implosion cage  151 , the spherical wire implosion cage  151  will implode into the fuel pellet  136 —FIG. 38( d ) right—igniting the fusion reaction. The fusion reaction is further compressed and contained by the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 —FIG. 38( d ) left—in the much larger, more massive, cooled, shielded and reinforced conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 . In other words, if all goes as planned, the wire spherical wire implosion cage  151  implodes but the reactor core  101  does not.  
         [0307]    5) FIGS.  39 ( a ),  39 ( b ),  39 ( c ),  39  correspond to the ignition of approach 5 in FIGS.  34 ( a ),  34 ( b ), and  34 ( c ). With this technique, a plasma  150  is set up in the plasma container/shield  156 , some of which will flood the inner volume of the reactor core  101 . A massive electric voltage or magnetic differential is applied across the reactor core  101 , inducing massive spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  across the core. The cross-product of this electromagnetic pulse, the Poynting Vector: compresses, heats, and ignites the plasma within the reactor core  101 —FIG. 39( a ). While the plasma external to the reactor core  101  would also be heated and compressed to some extent, by designing the plasma container/shield  156  to be large enough, it would not be heated and compressed sufficiently to ignite. Inside the plasma container/shield  156 , the energy from spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  within the reactor core  101  concentrates the plasma. Outside the plasma container/shield  156 , the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  on the reactor core  101  will repel the plasma, heating and compressing it outwards. The plasma inside the reactor core  101  would be burned until the fuel dissipates and the fusion reaction stops. As the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  over the reactor core  101  die off, the remaining plasma within the reactor core  101  is free to expand—FIG. 39( b ). At some point, the pressure of the plasma outside of the reactor core  101  will be greater than the pressure of the plasma within the reactor core  101 , creating a pressure difference. Then, the some of the remaining plasma external to the reactor core  101  would be sucked into the reactor core  101  due to the pressure difference—FIG. 39( c ). At this point, the next massive electric voltage or magnetic differential would be applied across the reactor core  101 , inducing another massive pulse of spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  across the reactor core  101  and the next fusion burn would occur—FIG. 39( d ). This process has many similarities with an internal combustion engine—especially, with diesel engines.  
         [0308]    MHD (MagnetoHydroDynamics)  
         [0309]    When a nuclear fusion burn occurs in the center of the reactor core  101  in these reactor designs, the plasma  150  will suddenly expand. In each reactor design, the expanding plasma  150  is surrounded by a very strong spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . MHD is the study of the properties of plasma  150  flows exposed to intense electromagnetic fields. The three critical factors needed for MHD energy production—a highly ionized and conductive plasma  150 ; a magnetic field; and a high plasma flow speed directed directly at the magnetic field (at a right angle to a magnetic field)—are all included in these designs. What happens next in the fusion reactor designs described here can be described using the MHD effect:  
         [0310]    1) The plasma  150  will suddenly expand. As it expands it will travel at high velocity directly towards the inner wall and the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  of the reactor core  101 .  
         [0311]    2) As the plasma  150  travels with high velocity towards the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 , the ions in the plasma  150  will induce new electromagnetic fields—described here as “MHD fields  162 ” to contrast from the initial spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 —in the conducting layer  118  of the spherical reactor core  101 . (There will be a superposition of spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  and the induced MHD fields  162 .)  
         [0312]    3) These new MHD electromagnetic fields  162  will become apparent as a higher voltage, either electric or magnetic, across the conducting sphere  102  and can be tapped directly with high efficiency for use as electricity.  
         [0313]    This process can be analyzed by looking at a graph in FIG. 40, which is assumed to approximate the voltage across the core versus time. (This graph depicts the reactor core  101  operating in the Electric Mode.)  
         [0314]    1) At time 1, there is no voltage across the reactor core  101 , but it is just starting to rise.  
         [0315]    2) At time 2, the main electromagnetic wave hits the reactor core  101  as the voltage starts to quickly rise. This spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  is created by energy applied to the reactor core  101  from external sources. The energy lost in this process is the largest portion of lost energy that must be made up by the fusion process in order for break-even energy productions to occur.  
         [0316]    3) Time 3 is found by performing experimental tests on each specific reactor design. This is the time when the voltage stops rising sharply and starts to level out. This is a critical moment. It is the time when the ignition of the fusion fuel must occur.  
         [0317]    4) At time 4, the confining voltage has just reached its peak and the fusion burn is starting to explode. At this moment, the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  is just starting to react to the charged ions that are rapidly approaching it from within. The height of the voltage at this point has the value “A” and is an important design parameter.  
         [0318]    5) Between time 4 and 5, the voltage suddenly spikes. This increase in voltage from “A” to “B” is the induced MHD  162  voltage. The combined fields resist, and potentially stops the plasma  150  instabilities  139 . The reactor core  101  and conducting circuit must be designed to withstand this maximum spike. This height difference—B minus A—must be less than the voltage A by 5-10% for safety sake. Otherwise, the MHD voltage will be greater than the confining voltage, and the voltage polarity could suddenly reverse, with dangerous consequences. This spike in voltage should be relatively brief and will end as the initial major instabilities  139  are suppressed and dampened.  
         [0319]    6) At time 6, the plasma  150  has had its initial major instabilities  139  suppressed and dampened. However, smaller, numerous instabilities  139  continue to keep the average voltage relatively high. This excess voltage is where most of the useful energy will be extracted. The electrical circuit must be designed to tap off the voltage difference between voltage level B and A. If the confining voltage were to drop below A, then the fusion explosion could breach the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . (To maximize the length of the burn at this stage, more fusion fuel is needed. However, if the fusion burn starts with more fuel, the peak voltage back at time 5 would be higher. This would require bigger, stronger, more complex reactors. Instead of starting with more initial fuel, it would be better to add fuel after time 6 in small increments.)  
         [0320]    7) At time 7, the fusion burn has expended the bulk of its fuel, and the instabilities  139  stop having enough energy to push against the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 .  
         [0321]    8) At time 8—without the addition of new fuel to the burn—the fusion process has stopped. The electrical circuit must be designed to monitor voltage and cut off the any remaining confining voltage when this drop occurs.  
         [0322]    9) At time 9, the voltage has dropped to zero. In initial designs, there would now be a period for cooling, safety checks, and maintenance. Then, the cycle would be repeated.  
         [0323]    The main source of energy losses in these types of fusion reactors will come from resistive heating of the reactor core  101  and conducting spheres  102 , which can be cooled—the heat being used as a secondary energy source by driving steam powered turbine generators. Depending upon the design of the reactors it will be possible to create AC or DC electricity. Additional circuitry will be required to transform and condition the electrical energy produced for the needs of the power grid.  
         [0324]    Magnetohydrodynamics and Plasma Instabilities  
         [0325]    The main difficulty in all prior attempts at nuclear fusion has been various instabilities  139  in the plasma  150  that suddenly stop the fusion reaction and frequently damage the reactor. Fundamental to the present invention is the contention that these instabilities  139  themselves are very strong and stable. Furthermore, the sudden strength of these instabilities  139  is a result of the cross-product of the electric and magnetic fields in the plasma  150  caused by the sudden acceleration of ions by the ignition of the fusion burn. In essence, all instabilities  139  have been induced by time varying, or area varying electromagnetic fields. They could be collectively called, “induced Poynting Vector Fields.” 
         [0326]    For example, in Tokamak reactors, as the electric fields and magnetic fields that confine and heat the plasma  150  build, the plasma  150  rotates faster and faster in the torus. Eventually, when the fusion burn starts, the plasma  150  is accelerated in new directions—at magnitudes much greater than the those at which the plasma  150  rotates in the reactor—inducing a powerful cross product of electric and magnetic fields, in directions that cannot be anticipated and counteracted in time. Without an appropriate containment field existing prior to the development of the instability  139 , the induced Poynting Vector is too powerful and it pushes the instability  139  too powerfully to be contained. Inevitably, the containment fields collapse and the plasma  150  quickly cools, stopping the fusion burn.  
         [0327]    Benefits of Spherical Electromagnetic Confinement Field  
         [0328]    Many prior designs, such as Tokamaks, have not utilized spherical containment geometries. While inertial confinement reactors have used spherical geometries for inertial confinement, they have not utilized active electromagnetic confinement after the fusion burn starts. One of the benefits of spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  as described in the present invention is that the perfect symmetry of the sphere minimizes initial instabilities  139  within the reactor core  101 . By minimizing these instabilities  139 , the time of the fusion burn is maximized. Some instabilities  139  are still expected to form inside these types of reactors. These instabilities  139  will be identical to other previous attempts that used spherical inertial confinement techniques, such as laser implosion of spherical D-T pellets.  
         [0329]    However, in the new fusion reactor designs of the present invention, it is exactly these instabilities  139  that will drive the MHD process and be used to extract the fusion energy as useful electrical energy. In earlier spherical inertial techniques, the plasma  150  was allowed to expand and cool without attempting to confine the plasma  150  after the initial burn. Another benefit is that the expanding plasma  150  will automatically interact with spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  at a 90° angle, the best angle for meeting a requirement for the MHD process. Thus, the main benefits of having a spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  existing prior to the fusion burn are: the fusion burn will be contained, the fusion burn will last longer, the fusion burn will push out on the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  at a 90° angle, and by pushing against the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  a 90° angle, the plasma  150  will create energy in a MHD fashion.  
         [0330]    Charged Particles/Neutral Particles Ratio  
         [0331]    A fusion plasma  150  is made of both charged particles—e.g., electrons, protons, etc.—and neutral particles-neutrinos, and neutrons the primary examples. Charged particles will interact strongly with the confining fields. Since neutral particles still have a magnetic moment, it is expected they will interact at least weakly with the confining fields. However, it is better to have a higher percentage of charged particles in the plasma  150  and a lower percentage of neutral particles. It is assumed that the fusion fuel mixture will have some affect on the percentages of charged and neutral particles in the plasma  150 . For example, a D-D mixture may be better than a D-T mixture, or perhaps, the other way around. In these early designs, attempts at fine tuning the percentage of charged to neutral particles by varying the percentages of fuel ingredients will be ignored.  
         [0332]    MHD Interaction in Spherical Electromagnetic Confinement Fields  140   
         [0333]    In the types of reactors of the present invention, as an instability—appearing as a jet of plasma  150 —travels with a velocity V away from the center of mass of the fused material at the center of the reactor core  101  and towards the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 —essentially, always at a right angle to the electric and magnetic fields, as a result of the geometry of the sphere—the electrical charge of the moving plasma  150  will interact with the confining electric and magnetic fields via the MHD effect. Creating this geometrical interaction is one of the key factors distinguishing these designs and prior art. This interaction will induce the magnitude of the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  to higher levels. In an electric mode, the voltage across the reactor core  101  will increase. In a magnetic mode, the magnetic differential across the reactor core  101  will increase. The increase in the magnitude of the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 —the MHD fields  162 —will be proportional to the magnitude of the energy of the charged particles in the instability. Since there exists a preexisting confinement field at the time of the fusion burn, and since the instability  139  induces new confining fields in direct proportion to the size of the instability  139 , the instability  139  should dissipate and be confined. If instabilities  139  are not dissipate and confined, a viable commercial reactor is still possible. However, it would make sense to increase the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  until instabilities  139  are confined.  
         [0334]    Preexisting Confining Field versus Induced Confining Field  
         [0335]    Thus, the magnitude of the electric and magnetic fields over the reactor core  101  can be thought of as having two components: the preexisting spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 , and the induced spherical electromagnetic confinement field  162 . If the combination of the strength and induced MHD field  162  strength is designed to be greater in strength than the largest instability, then the fusion burn will remain essentially spherical but pulsating until the fuel runs out.  
         [0336]    Plasma particles, especially in the form of neutral particles, may penetrate the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  if it is not designed to have a large enough initial strength. If too much energy is lost through neutral particles, then the fusion process will halt, and damage to the reactor could occur.  
         [0337]    Description of an Example Non-harmonic Instability Interacting With the Spherical Electromagnetic Confinement Field P FIG. 41 shows what the plasma  150  instabilities  139  would look like for a spherical target shortly after the implosion reverses direction to become an explosion. At the point the plasma wall changes direction, the plasma  150  will have a geometry approximating a sphere. Shortly after starting to explode, instabilities  139  on the surface of the sphere would start to appear. At this early stage, they would look something like knobs or bumps. While this is an approximation of the plasma shape, actual instabilities  139  similar to these have been observed in plasmas  150 . As the instabilities  139  worsen, they will grow in length. Also, the diameter of the central core of the plasma  150  will expand. For this example, it is useful to examine just one expanding instability  139  and ignore the others as if they were not expanding. The example of non-harmonic instability  139  is indicated in FIG. 42.  
         [0338]    If these reactors become totally efficient at eliminating jets of instabilities, it is assured from theory that the entire plasma  150  will act like a pulsating ball and will still interact with the spherical electromagnetic confinement field in an MHD fashion.  
         [0339]    This non-harmonic instability  139  is made up of plasma  150 . The plasma  150  is primarily made up of charged particles. The charged particles on the outside of the plasma  150  are more likely to be the lighter particles, and therefore negative electrons, as shown in FIG. 43. It does not matter for this example what the charge of individual ions in the plasma  150  is, however. If the charge of the ions were positive, the net results would be the same. The example non-harmonic instability  139  is shown in FIGS. 43 and 44 moving away from the center of the plasma  150  towards the confining wall of the fusion reactor with a velocity V. In essence, it is acting as a powerful current.  
         [0340]    In the fusion reactor designs described for the present invention, the currents from the exploding instabilities  139  interacts with the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 , shown in FIG. 45. Analyzing the example non-harmonic instability&#39;s  139  current for an arbitrary angle of interaction with the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 —in this example, acting in an electric mode—is shown in FIG. 45.  
         [0341]    There are only two possible ways the non-harmonic instability  139  may interact with the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . First, the non-harmonic instability  139  may induce new electromagnetic fields—MHD fields  162 —that will combine with the preexisting spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  creating a more powerful spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . Second, the non-harmonic instability  139  may be blocked by the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . In essence, the non-harmonic instability&#39;s  139  growth will halt. If instabilities  139  are halted, then the fused material plasma  150  fuel at the center of the reactor core  101  will stay essentially spherical and harmonic—perhaps pulsating. With these types of reactors, both the possibility that the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  will be increased, or that the fused material plasma  150  fuel will stay spherical and harmonic are good. Because a non-harmonic instability  139  induces the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  to higher values, its energy is dissipated and it is blocked. If the non-harmonic instability  139  is blocked, the fusion burn will last longer. If the non-harmonic instability  139  induces new electromagnetic fields—MHD fields  162 —that combine with the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 , then the voltage, if in the electric mode, or the magnetic differential, if in the magnetic mode, across the reactor core  101  will increase and will be available for creating useful electric energy by induction through the coils located around the containment circuit. It is expected that both interactions will occur. Looking closely at the details, the instability&#39;s  139  current intersects with the existing electric and magnetic fields of the confining fields. The intersection occurs at right angles. To summarize:  
         [0342]    The non-harmonic instability&#39;s  139  plasma  150  current intersects the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  at a right angle.  
         [0343]    The confining electric and magnetic fields were already at right angles, by design.  
         [0344]    The current must induce higher electric and magnetic fields—MHD fields  162 —in the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . Thus, all the requirements for inducing energy via MHD process are present.  
         [0345]    There are many implications of the interaction between the instabilities  139  and the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 :  
         [0346]    1) The instabilities  139  will induce higher voltages or magnetic differentials across the reactor core  101 .  
         [0347]    2) The instabilities  139  will be blocked.  
         [0348]    3) The instabilities  139  will be prevented from growing in the first place, in essence the plasma  150  will remain harmonic.  
         [0349]    4) The spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  will sap the energy of growing instabilities  139 .  
         [0350]    5) The fusion burn will last longer.  
         [0351]    6) The plasma  150  will be compressed to greater densities.  
         [0352]    7) The plasma  150  will reach higher temperatures.  
         [0353]    8) The more powerful any particular individual non-harmonic instability  139  is, the more powerful the induced MHD field  162  will be. The resulting combination of the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  and the MHD field  162  will be powerful enough to block the non-harmonic instability  139 .  
         [0354]    9) Large instabilities  139  are not likely to occur, since the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  will inhibit and block their formation, and sap their energy before they can grow to be large  
         [0355]    10) The initial harmonics of the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  will have an effect on how harmonic the fusion burn proceeds. Thus, it is beneficial to take all precautions in order to help the initial spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  to be highly harmonic.  
         [0356]    11) Non-harmonic spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  may allow a strong instability  139  to burst through the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 , possibly even helping or causing the non-harmonic instability  139  to grow. As such a non-harmonic instability  139  bursts through the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 , a dangerous jet of plasma  150  will exist that could burn through very thick protective shields. Thus, catastrophic failure must be planned for. For example, if a powerful plasma  150  jet punctures the double walls of the reactor shield, which is filled with coolant  130 , then, the coolant  130  could suddenly explode. This requires that the reactor has an outer shield.  
         [0357]    12) The initial confining fields must be stronger than the average large non-harmonic instability  139 , otherwise possible combinations of the added MHD fields  162  and spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  could occur that would flip the polarity of the voltage across the reactor core  101 , or flip the magnetic field across the reactor core  101 .  
         [0358]    13) The plasma  150  will spherically pulsate—like a ringing bell—with a characteristic frequency that depends on many variables of the reactor design. This pulsing plasma  150  will create pulses of energy in the output circuit that will need a dampening mechanism before the current can go out into the power grid—most likely large capacitor banks. However, the entire confinement circuit will act as such a dampening mechanism. The peaks in the pulses will occur at the point the plasma  150  is expanding outward with maximum acceleration. In designs with two or more reactor cores  101 , an outward pulsation in one core  101  can be used to compress another reactor core  101 .  
         [0359]    14) Smooth harmonics within the initial spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  will be reflected within the plasma as longer, smoother burns.  
         [0360]    15) Poor quality harmonics within the initial spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  will be reflected within the plasma with shorter, non-smooth burns-possibly catastrophic rupturing of conducting spheres  102 , reactor core(s)  101 , coils, the electrical bus  107 , and other components.  
         [0361]    Reactor Efficiency  
         [0362]    The overall efficiency of this type of nuclear fusion reactor can be roughly estimated by multiplying the percent of energy carried away from the fusion burn by charged particles by the percent of energy converted directly to electricity by the MHD process in the conducting wall of the reactor core  101 . For example, if 90% of the energy of the fusion burn is carried away in the form of charged particles, and if 10% of the energy created by the MHD process is lost to thermal interaction within the conducting wall of the reactor core(s)  101 , conducting spheres  102 , electrical bus  107  and other components, then the theoretical efficiency of such a reactor would be 81%. The actual final efficiency would be somewhat less due to thermal losses in the conducting spheres  102 . However, some of the lost heat in the reactor core(s)  101  and conducting spheres  102  can be recovered using steam drive turbine generators.  
         [0363]    Eventually, it might be possible to design the reactor core(s)  101  and conducting spheres  102  of such reactors with super conducting materials. The efficiency of such a design could approach 100%. The only loss in efficiency would be due to neutral particles that can penetrate the confining field or add thermal losses to the reactor wall.  
         [0364]    An unknown at this point is if the so-called “neutral” particles will also be deflected or slowed by the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 . Most neutral particles have magnetic moments that may allow the neutral particles to be deflected to some extent by the massive spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 . Also, it is possible, that while a neutral particle is “overall” neutral, it may have small, localized spots of electric and magnetic charge that may interact strongly with the confining fields rather than weakly. Thus, even the energy of neutral particles may be absorbed by the confining fields of these reactor designs, pushing these reactor design&#39;s efficiency to higher levels.  
         [0365]    Active versus Passive Monitoring of Instabilities  
         [0366]    There have been attempts to actively monitor confining fields in other types of reactors, such as in Tokamaks and Spheromaks, in order to actively increase the confining field strength when an instability  139  occurs. With the designs of the nuclear fusion reactors in the present invention, the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  are passively—i.e., without computer interaction—self-healing. The confining forces are automatically electromagnetically induced to greater values—the MHD fields  162 —by the non-harmonic instability&#39;s  139  MHD interaction with the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 . This process automatically closes the “wound” in the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 , thus preventing the plasma  150  from bleeding through. With these designs, there is no need to create sensors or a computer controlled feedback system to try to monitor and respond to the instabilities  139 .  
         [0367]    Burn Duration  
         [0368]    If the reactor core  101  can be engineered to have enough strength, heat dissipation capability, and current carrying capability—greater than the rate at which energy is released by the fusion burn—then it would be possible to contain the plasma until the fusion fuel is almost totally consumed. Fusion burns of minutes or even hours in duration are possible. With the “No-Core” design, fusion burns of indefinite length are possible. In some designs, plasma injectors  146  could continuously inject small amounts of new fuel into the reactor core  101  to keep the fusion burn going.  
         [0369]    The Danger of Polarity Reversals  
         [0370]    As the fusion burn is proceeding, it is possible to describe the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  on the reactor core  101  in two parts: the initial spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  created by the voltage or magnetic field across the poles of the reactor core; and the later, plasma induced MHD fields  162 . One potential problem in the nuclear fusion designs of the present invention is the electric and magnetic fields induced by the MHD process—the MHD fields  162 —could be greater than the initial confining fields  140 . If the induced MHD fields are less than the original confining fields, then current or magnetic flow will remain in the same direction—the MHD fields  162  will add to the confining fields  140 . This will manifest itself by the voltage or magnetic field across the conducting spheres and the core suddenly increasing. On the other hand, the danger exists that if the induced MHD fields are larger in magnitude than the original confining fields, then current flow or magnetic field in the confining circuit could suddenly reverse direction. This could manifest itself by the voltage across the conducting sphere suddenly flipping values from +to −, to the values −to +, or the magnetic polarity flipping the values from N to S, to the values S to N.  
         [0371]    It does not matter which direction an increased voltage or magnetic field appears across the reactor core  101 , the higher voltage or magnetic field could be utilized in either direction. However, it would be better to know, and control, which direction the current or magnetic fields will flow for safety reasons. A sudden change in current flow or magnetic fields could explode or vaporize equipment involved. Thus, a major design feature would be to design the yield of the fusion fuel to be less than the peak energy-absorption capability of the reactor. This capability is a function of many design features which include: the total mass and material types of the reactor core  101 ; the thermal heat dissipation capability of the reactor core  101 ; the active cooling capability of the reactor (whether normally conductive or super conductive); the conductivity of the reactor core  101  as a function of time and temperature over the course of the burn; the capacitance and inductance of the confining circuit; and the ability of the electrical circuit to carry away the net MHD electricity, which is also a function of the circuits maximum current load, capacitance, inductance, and conductivity.  
         [0372]    Thus, the yield of the fusion fuel must be tailored to be less than the peak energy absorption capability of the reactor. This can be visualized in the FIG. 46. Key details in FIG. 46 are:  
         [0373]    1) The peak of the fusion fuel yield is lower than the peak energy the reactor can absorb.  
         [0374]    2) The reactor can absorb the energy faster than the energy will be released from the fusion burn. This is shown by the reactor&#39;s peak at 2 coming before the fuel&#39;s peak at 3.  
         [0375]    3) The long-term ability of the reactor to absorb energy should be greater than the peak energy release from the fusion fuel for safety considerations. For example, if a reactor core  101  with manufacturing imperfections was accidentally used, an abnormally large non-harmonic instability  139  could occur and damage other areas of the reactor.  
         [0376]    4) This graph also depicts the expected time-varying release of energy from the fusion fuel due to its interaction with the fusion reactor&#39;s confining fields. The yield pulsates up and down. This pulsing in the yield would induce pulsing in the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 .  
         [0377]    5) The length of the fusion burn, as depicted in this graph, is partly dependent on the initial strength of the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 . If they can not be maintained, then the fusion burn will cease before the fusion fuel is consumed.  
         [0378]    This situation could be considered with an analogy using a hydroelectric dam. A hypothetical dam is designed, with an empty reservoir, that would be big enough and strong enough to stop a massive tidal wave and then, in a controlled fashion, let the water pour out through the penstocks to electrical generators. The reactor cores  101  of these reactor designs would be like the dam. Just as the dam must be strong enough to stop the initial tidal wave, the reactor core&#39;s  101  physical and electromagnetic strength must be strong enough to stop the fusion explosion. The penstock and generator is like the electrical circuit in these reactor designs. Just like the penstock must have enough capacity for water to flow out and relieve the sudden pressure of the tidal wave before the dam would burst, these reactor&#39;s electrical circuits must have enough capacity for the electricity to flow out before the reactor core  101  or circuit would electrically burst.  
         [0379]    Initial Critical Design Considerations  
         [0380]    Initial critical design considerations for these reactors include:  
         [0381]    1) A mechanism to place the fusion fuel inside the reactor core  101 .  
         [0382]    2) A mechanism to start an ignition burn inside the spherical reactor core  101 .  
         [0383]    3) Design the reactor core  101  so that massive spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  can be supported. Estimated sustained minimum induced magnetic field to be in the range of 0.5-5 Tesla. Estimated peak magnetic field to be withstood briefly without bursting to be in the range of 2-100 Tesla.  
         [0384]    4) Design the reactor core  101  to withstand massive forces from its electrons, which will cause Coulombic heating, Hall-effect forces, and others.  
         [0385]    5) Design the reactor core  101  so that it will not implode from the initial transport of confining energy, or explode from the latter fusion explosion.  
         [0386]    6) Design the reactor core  101  so that it can be cooled, without the cooling process affecting the spherical harmonics of the reactor core&#39;s  101  spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 . Active cooling during the fusion burn may not be as important as exceptional pre-burn and post-burn cooling ability.  
         [0387]    7) Design an electrical circuit that can transfer to, and carry away from the reactor core  101  extremely high electrical currents and maintain extremely high voltages.  
         [0388]    8) Design a secondary cooling system that utilizes thermal heat from the reactor core  101 , containment circuit and electrical circuit to power steam generators and increase efficiency.  
         [0389]    High Voltage Containment Circuit  
         [0390]    As shown in FIG. 12 and FIG. 13, the type of circuit needed for containment of the plasma can be quite simple. In the electric mode, it consists of a high voltage across a conducting sphere  102 . In the magnetic mode, it consists of high magnetic voltage across a conducting sphere  102 . The points of contact between the conducting wire and the reactor core  101  define the poles of the sphere. However, while the circuits are simple, there are quite a few engineering hurdles that need to be solved in order safely maintain such a circuit and tap off the excess fusion energy.  
         [0391]    The Exploding Wire Phenomena  
         [0392]    When a large enough voltage is placed across a conducting wire  164 , it will vaporize and explode. If a conducting wire  164  is exploded over a white background surface, the background surface will show regularly spaced transverse striations as is shown in FIG. 47. Exactly how the conducting wire  164  explodes depends on many variables: wire composition, voltage, wire resistance, wire length, wire diameter, initial wire geometry, etc. For example, FIG. 50 shows thin strands of wire woven in complex patterns. These patterns are used to create cables resistant to this effect for use between lightning rods and grounding poles. As wire is exploded with increasingly more energy, the striations become sharper. An example is shown in FIG. 48.  
         [0393]    In general, these striations are a result of spherical electromagnetic waves sweeping through the wire. Where the spherical waves come to a point, or node, in the waves, the electromagnetic fields become stronger, and move the electrons in the conductor faster. In essence, the heat becomes more intense at the nodes than at the antinodes. This disparity in temperature vaporizes the conducting wire  164  locally at the nodes first. This creates the dashed pattern observed from exploding conducting wires  164  as shown in FIGS. 47 and 48. Induced magnetic fields—which result from the fast moving ionized plasma  150 —further confines the exploding plasma  150  helping to direct the flow of the instabilities  139 . An example of how the electromagnetic waves vaporize the wire locally at the nodes can be seen in FIG. 49.  
         [0394]    In the lower part of FIG. 49 is the side and end profile a round conducting wire  164 . When a high-voltage current is set up across the conducting wire  164 , the most likely wave-form for the electromagnetic wave, that sweeps over the conducting wire  164 , to take is a spherical wave where the wavelength is equal to the diameter of the conducting wire  164 . Other wavelengths and wave-forms are possible, and can be greatly affected by how the voltage is connected to the conducting wire  164 .  
         [0395]    At the nodes of the waves, the local temperature is dramatically higher than at the antinodes. At the nodes, the electric field is focused to a very small spot. This intense electric field will induce local electrons to extremely high temperatures and velocities. This effect creates localized regions along the conducting wire  164  that vaporize and explode first-that is, before vaporizing other areas such as at the anti-nodes. These localized regions of exploding plasma  150 , while primarily caused by focused electrical fields, will be further constrained by a radial pattern of intense magnetic fields curving around the conducting wire  164  according to alternating left-hand and right-hand rules. The sharp “spikes” that are evident in the more violent examples of exploding conducting wires  164 —as shown in FIG. 48—are caused by induced magnetic fields that axially confine the thin jets of plasmas  150  as they move away from the core of the conducting wire  164 . Thus, magnetic fields take at least two distinct forms. They curve around the conducting wire  164 , and they curve around the jets of plasma  150  shooting away from the conducting wire  164  at approximately right angles. The danger of exploding the conducting wires  164  in the circuits required for these nuclear fusion reactors is not just great. If not planned for, such explosions are certain.  
         [0396]    High Voltage Cabling  
         [0397]    Two techniques used to prevent electrical conducting wire  164  or cable from exploding when high voltages are applied are: to use many small strands of conducting wire  164  instead of one large strand; and to weave or twist the individual strands to make a larger conducting wire  164  or cable, as is shown in FIG. 50.  
         [0398]    These types of cabling are used in lightning protection systems. The purpose of using thin strands is it reduces the radius of any individual conducting surface area. This reduces the wavelength of any resulting electromagnetic waves the follow along the wave guide formed by the strand. Shorter electromagnetic waves reduce the amount of electrons that can be piled up or focused at the nodes of a wave. The weaving, braiding and twisting of individual strands reduces the effects from induced magnetic fields. The magnetic fields tend to have smaller, more complex fields and interactions. This prevents the intensity of any particular wave from growing and creating localized hot spots that would melt or explode the cabling. The drawback to such cabling is, if overall harmonic wave patterns are desired, then this type of cabling creates non- harmonic patterns, or patterns that are too complex to easily understand and control. Superconducting materials could be used to avoid this problem.  
         [0399]    Alternative Design Variations  
         [0400]    Coils Variations  
         [0401]    Hemispherical coils  106  are used in the preferred embodiment. However, in the sizes envisioned for these reactor designs, they are untested. There are many other possible coil designs that could be used instead. They fall into two major categories: coils that create electric mode operation; and coils that create magnetic mode operation. Magnetic mode operation is preferred because, in general, electric mode operation can cause electrons to pile up and burn out components as discussed in the previous section on the exploding wire phenomena.  
         [0402]    In general, the main electrical circuit or magnetic circuit—i.e., the containment circuit made up of conducting spheres  102  and reactor core(s)  101 —described for these nuclear fusion reactor designs—with the exception of straight-line designs (FIG. 59)—are closed circuits. That is, they form a loop, with no “end” of the circuit directly connected to the commercial power grid. Thus, the only way of adding or extracting energy to the closed loop, and controlling the flow of the energy around the closed loop, is by using inductive coils.  
         [0403]    There are three main types of coils that could be used for these purposes: normal wound coils; Rowland Ring coils  147 ; and hemispheric coils  106 .  
         [0404]    Normal Coils  
         [0405]    Normally wound coils are shown in FIGS.  51 ( a )-( d ). The cylindrical coil in FIG. 51( a ) is one of the most common types of coils, it produces a simple, very well understood magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic fields created by these coils is somewhat limited.  
         [0406]    The concentric cylindrical coils in FIG. 51( b ) combine their magnetic fields, thus creating stronger magnetic fields. Some of the world&#39;s strongest magnetic fields are created by magnets that are wound in this way. The more powerful designs using this type of coil must be structurally reinforced both on the inside and out and must be provided with powerful cooling mechanisms. The helically wound coils in FIG. 51( c ) can provide relatively strong magnetic fields but have some harmonics problems. It is difficult for powerful currents to change direction quickly. At the center of a helical coil, the lead changes direction abruptly-see the center of the coil in FIG. 51( c )—and can lead to problems. The coil in FIG. 51( d ) is a combination of cylindrical and helical designs. It can produce large magnetic fields but because of the back and forth, or random, winding patterns typically used in this design, the magnetic fields might not be harmonic enough for these nuclear reactor designs.  
         [0407]    Each of these coil types could be used to induce magnetic fields—and indirectly, electric fields over the conducting spheres  102 —in the containment circuits of these nuclear fusion reactor designs. These designs do lend themselves to effectively inducing harmonic electromagnetic fields over a sphere. However, there are other reactor designs more appropriate for coils such as these. They use a straight-wire type of solid conductor  160  with a circular cross-section, as shown in FIGS. 72, 73,  74 ,  75 , and  76  rather than a circuit of spherical conductors  160 .  
         [0408]    Rowland Ring coils  
         [0409]    As shown in FIG. 52, a Rowland Ring coil  147  is a donut shaped coil. Current typically flows through the Rowland Ring coil  147  as shown in FIG. 52. Rowland Ring coils  147  sometimes have a solid, soft-iron core. Such cores allow higher magnetic fields, but only up to a point. Without a core, the coil is less efficient, but it is possible to obtain much higher magnetic fields by using brute strength—by using more turns and higher currents. All Rowland Ring coils  147  used in the designs of the present invention will be designed for very strong currents and magnetic fields. It is assumed that all of the Rowland Ring coils  147  in these designs are completely covered by a high-strength mechanical shield and cooling system.  
         [0410]    The Electric and Magnetic Interaction of Coils With Conducting Spheres  
         [0411]    When an electric current flows through a coil, according to Ampere&#39;s Law, the coil induces a magnetic field. The magnetic field times the area of the coil gives the magnetic flux of the coil. If the current through the a coil is changing, then the induced magnetic flux through the coil is changing. According to Faraday&#39;s Law of induction, as the magnetic flux is changing, the coil will induce an EMF across the coil.  
         [0412]    A coil can be placed next to a conducting sphere  102 . If a current is set up through the coil, so that it grows rapidly from zero to some large value, then the current in the coil will induce electromagnetic fields in the conducting sphere  102 . According to Lenz&#39;s Law, which applies to closed conducting circuits, the induced fields in the conducting spheres  102  will appear in such directions as to oppose the changes that produced them.  
         [0413]    Various configurations of coils can create different combinations of electric and magnetic fields on the surface of the sphere. For example, a Rowland Ring coil  147  will induce electromagnetic fields over a conducting sphere  102  in the opposite manner as a regular cylindrical coil, as is shown in FIGS.  53 ( a ) and  53 ( b ).  
         [0414]    There are significant advantages and disadvantages to each type of coil. A Rowland Ring coil  147  that induces smooth electromagnetic fields in conducting spheres  102  would be easy to design, compared with other coil types. This is important for harmonics. All that is required is that the wavelength of the Rowland Ring coil  147  match the wavelength of the conducting sphere  102 . Also, if the Rowland Ring coil  147  has a soft iron core, then the Rowland Ring coil  147  will efficiently produce large magnetic fields. An added advantage to a Rowland Ring coil  147  having a soft iron core is that this inhibits the flipping of the polarity-a key safety consideration-due to the phenomena of hysteresis in the soft iron core. However, a soft iron core limits Rowland Ring coil  147  designs to “medium” magnetic fields, that is, inhibiting induction of “massive” magnetic fields. Without the soft iron core, and using the shear brute force of large, brief currents, a Rowland Ring coil  147  can produce “large” magnetic fields.  
         [0415]    In FIG. 53( b ), note how the rotation of the magnetic field in the Rowland Ring coil  147  is opposite to the rotation of the magnetic field in the conducting sphere  102 —according to Lenz&#39;s Law. Also, note how the electric fields sweep over the conducting sphere  102  from pole to pole. This is the disadvantage to using a Rowland Ring coil  147  to induce electric and magnetic fields in the conducting sphere  102 . The electric field sweeping from pole to pole over the conducting sphere  102  will create a current flow across the conducting sphere  102 . This will concentrate electrons on one pole. The electrons will build up only to a point before they will arc across to the next conducting sphere  102 . This arcing will damage the conducting spheres  102  and weld them together. Tests will be required to prove how damaging this will be.  
         [0416]    It is possible that the magnetic fields induced around the conducting sphere  102  by a Rowland Ring coil  147  will limit the actual flow of the electrons. In essence, the conducting sphere  102  may act as if:  
         [0417]    there is a large voltage across the conducting sphere  102 —from pole to pole  
         [0418]    there will be a massive resistance across the conducting sphere  102  from the magnetic fields  
         [0419]    and there will be only a small current flow.  
         [0420]    In FIG. 53( a ), note how the magnetic field in the coil is induced by the normal coil&#39;s current, and how the coil&#39;s magnetic field opposes the induced magnetic field sweeping over the conducting sphere  102  from pole to pole-according to Lenz&#39;s Law. Also, note how the electric fields sweep over the sphere in counter-rotating hemispheres. This is an advantage of using regular coils to induce the electric and magnetic fields over the conducting spheres  102 . Because the fields in this configuration push the electrons in counter-rotating directions around each hemisphere, there is no net electron migration around the main conducting circuit. In essence, the main conducting circuit would not conduct electrons, it would conduct a magnetic field. It would be a magnetic circuit rather than an electric circuit. As far as the ability of the confining fields at the reactor core  101  are concerned, there is no difference between using an electric or magnetic circuit.  
         [0421]    The main drawback in using normal coils is they would be more difficult to design than Rowland Ring Coils  147  or Hemispherical coils  106 . Because of the pattern in how the coil wire  165  wraps in the normal coil, the induced magnetic field would not be as smooth as with the fields induced by the Rowland Ring coil  147 . Two possible solutions for creating smoother fields would be to use parallel helical coils or hemispherical coils  106 . Parallel helical coils are shown in FIG. 54( b ).  
         [0422]    In this configuration, parallel helical coils are separated by structural reinforcement panels that have interior channels for reinforcement and cooling panels  161 . The reinforcement and cooling panels  161  could be made of non-conductive, rigid material such as: ceramics or RCC. The reinforcement and cooling panels  161  will keep the coils in position and prevent them from deflecting under the mechanical forces of the intense electromagnetic fields. The reinforcement and cooling panels  161  will have channels that can handle a high volume of coolant  130 .  
         [0423]    In order to maintain equivalent voltages between layers and to maintain the timing of the electromagnetic pulses, the in-flowing wire leads would all have a common connection, as well as the out-flowing wire leads. The weak point in this coil design will be where the coils connect with the center lead. At this point, there will be an abrupt change in direction which will have the potential for burning out the coils, and disrupting harmonics. See FIG. 51( c ).  
         [0424]    Reactor Core and Conducting Sphere Variations Conducting Layer  
         [0425]    The conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 , and the conducting layer  118  of the conducting spheres  102  of the preferred embodiment is represented as solid Copper-Niobium alloy spheres. It has already been mentioned that the material of these conducting layers  118  could be other conducting materials, gases, or plasmas. What was not mentioned is that the “solid” layer of manufacture could be substituted for strands of conducting wire  164  that are woven, braided, or twisted around a substrate to form a spherical shape. FIGS.  55 ( a ) and  55 ( b ) show how this might look for a conducting sphere  102   
         [0426]    The conducting layer strands  141  are simply wound around the non-conducting core  119 . In essence, they create thousands of closed loops of conductors. This method would work in the magnetic mode, but probably not in the electric mode. FIGS.  55 ( a ) and  55 ( b ) do not represent any weaving, braiding or twisting of the conducting layer strands  141  as shown in FIG. 50. However, with a much higher cost of manufacture, this is possible. Reducing the chance that individual conducting layer strands  141  will burn out does not seem worth the extra cost of utilizing the manufacturing methods shown in FIG. 50.  
         [0427]    Super Conductors  
         [0428]    It would be preferable, if the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 , and the conducting layer  118  of the conducting spheres  102  and the conducting wire  164  in any induction coils used in these designs were made of a super-conducting material. At this point, in the history of super-conducting materials, the costs associated with manufacturing a nuclear fusion power plant following these designs and using super-conducting materials would appear to be too high. The modular form of these reactor designs allows swapping out old materials with new as they become cost effective. An example of a possible super-conducting material would include, but not be limited to, multi-filamentary Nb3Sn and NbTi superconductors.  
         [0429]    Other Conducting Layer Materials  
         [0430]    The conducting layer  118  within a reactor core  101  could be made of:  
         [0431]    Copper and copper alloys  
         [0432]    Aluminum and aluminum alloys  
         [0433]    Iron, steel and other ferrous alloys  
         [0434]    Silver, and silver alloys  
         [0435]    Gold, and gold alloys  
         [0436]    Titanium, and titanium alloys  
         [0437]    Vanadium, and vanadium alloys  
         [0438]    Magnesium, and magnesium alloys  
         [0439]    Other conductive metals and metal alloys, including but not limited to: Chromium, Lead, Molybdenum, Platinum, Tin, Tungsten, Mercury and Zinc.  
         [0440]    Conductive forms of glasses, ceramics, plastics and polymers, composites, and multi-compound materials.  
         [0441]    Plasma Core  
         [0442]    One possible form for the conducting layer  118  of the conducting spheres  102  or the reactor cores  101  is the plasma  150  form. The plasma  150  form offers some key benefits. First, cooling of the conducting layer  118  is not required, it must be hot to be in plasma  150  form. Second, refurbishment of the conducting layer  118  is not required. Third, costs of materials for the conducting layer  118  would be reduced. Fourth, Hall and Coulombic forces tearing the conducting layer  118  apart would not be an issue. The key issue is, how can the plasma  150  form the spherical shape needed? At first, this issue may seem difficult. However, it may not be difficult at all. A simple solution for using plasmas  150 , at least within the reactor core  101  will be presented.  
         [0443]    First, in FIG. 56 is one “solution” that may be very difficult and problematic. The conducting sphere  102 , or reactor core  101  is made of a strong inner and outer layer of material, which may include but not be limited to Steel, Titanium or RCC. The plasma layer  144  is filled with a highly conductive plasma  150 , but offers no support between the inner layer  143  and the outer layer  145 . Therefore, supports  142  are needed between the inner layer  143  and outer layer  145 . However, the massive electromagnetic fields that will be generated in the plasma layer  144  will force the ions in the plasma  150  to rotate very fast. Any supports  142 , of any known material or construction, will be quickly eroded by the moving plasma  150 . When the supports  142  fail, the reactor core  101  may collapse, catastrophically. The initial idea an engineer might have would be to make the supports  142  stronger, but this leads to another problem. The stronger the supports  142  are, the more disruptive they will be to the harmonics within the plasma  150 . If the harmonics within the plasma  150  are distorted to greatly, the instabilities  139  within the plasma burn will become great enough to destroy just about any container.  
         [0444]    There may be some optimum trade-off point where supports  142 , for example made of Tungsten, may survive long enough within the plasma layer  144  for a typical fusion burn to take place, and where the supports  142  do not create disruptions in the harmonics that are large enough to allow plasma instabilities  139  to explode through the reactor core  101 . If so, then this design variation may be viable.  
         [0445]    “No-Core” Reactor Core Design  
         [0446]    In the long-term development of these reactor designs, perhaps the best “core” design will be to have no reactor core  101  at all. The No-Core design has no hard materials. It is made up solely of electromagnetic fields, or electromagnetic fields within a plasma  150 .  
         [0447]    The key to the No-Core design is a conducting circuit, made of conducting spheres  102 , that is designed so that the magnetic fields over the reactor core  101  area are very strong. It is estimated that a magnetic field about 4 Tesla at a radial distance of about 2.5 meters from the center of the reactor core  101  area may be strong enough. With a magnetic field of 4 Tesla, a 5-meter diameter reactor core  101  would focus about 1.2 exawatts of energy at the focal point of the reactor core  101 . (At 5 Tesla, 1.875 exawatts, at 6 Tesla 2.7 exawatts, at 7 Tesla 3.675 exawatts, at 8 Tesla 4.8 exawatts, at 9 Tesla 6.075 exawatts, and at 10 Tesla 7.5 exawatts would be focused at the center of the reactor core  101  area.  
         [0448]    Reaching such high magnetic fields with large diameters would require extremely optimized reactor designs that may involve massive amounts of superconducting materials and previously unheard of cooling requirements. The capacitor and triggering requirements to start the process would be equaling daunting. However, the engineering is straightforward. There are no magical physics barriers to break through. The design simply requires better superconducting materials, more superconducting material, more cooling and more capacitors.  
         [0449]    At these energies, many problems with earlier designs would be moot. There would be no need to design complex reactor cores  101 —the No-Core design would have to be used. There would be no need to have lasers  103  or some other method trigger the burn—the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  would be powerful enough to trigger the fusion burn. There would be no complexity of having to trigger the lasers  103  and spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  in the proper sequence since there would be no lasers  103 .  
         [0450]    A possible No-Core containment circuit might look like FIG. 57. The No-Core core area would look like FIG. 58. Examples of the complete No-Core reactor designs are shown in FIGS. 68 and 80. The middle reactor shield  109  would have a wider diameter to help make insure that no disruption to the harmonics results from the middle reactor shield  109 . The spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  would provide containment of the fusion burn, and provide ignition of the fuel to begin with. The electromagnetic field orientation would be in the magnetic mode. The anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  would be the weak link. When they melt, the harmonics would be lost.  
         [0451]    A fuel pellet  136  could be prepositioned in the middle reactor shield  109  via ablatable wires  135  similar to those shown in FIGS. 9 and 30, and/or, plasma  150  could be injected into the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  via a plasma injector  146 . The advantage of an plasma injector  146  system is that it would allow the fusion burn to be continually fed with additional plasma  150 .  
         [0452]    A variation would be to coat the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  with some material, such as thin layer of Boron impregnated high-temperature ceramic to help them survive longer. Or, it might be possible to actively cool the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113 . The problem in cooling the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  is that half of each anode/cathode conducting sphere  113  is inside the inner shield where no cooling equipment could be placed without disrupting the harmonics of the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 . If only part of each conducting sphere  102  is cooled, then it would create differences that would likely disrupt the electromagnetic harmonics of the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 .  
         [0453]    Another possible solution might be to allow the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  to spin within a cooling and clamping device. While only about one half of the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  would be cooled at any one time, the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  would be constantly rotating the hot side into the cooling portion of the clamp.  
         [0454]    Most likely, the cooling plan would be to pre-cool the entire circuit and operate until heating disrupts the harmonics. It is possible that burns of several minutes could occur with such a technique. This would be a very respectful burn duration. Thermonuclear fusion burns of several minutes would give off tremendous amounts of energy. There seems little doubt that the limits of this design would be in cooling the anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  rather than in fueling the burn area.  
         [0455]    The No-Core design emphasizes a key detail of these patents. The design of the reactor core  101  area depends not upon materials selection, but on the formation of powerful, spherical, electromagnetic confinement fields  140 , that focus energy at the center of the reactor core  101  area. The other key detail is that the same circuit not only focuses energy on the center of the reaction but that it also allows energy coming out of the center of the reaction to be absorbed by the circuit via the MHD process. If this process was not equal and opposite, then the design would not work.  
         [0456]    RCC/Boron ( 23 ) &amp; RCC Layers ( 24 ), ( 26 ), ( 27 ) in Reactor Core  
         [0457]    The element carbon takes a wide range of forms from amorphous carbon, to graphite, to graphite fibers and diamond. Some of these forms, such as graphite and graphite fibers, can be highly conductive. Other forms of carbon, such as amorphous carbon (lampblack), are relatively non-conductive. Tests must be conducted to test the best form of carbon for the second non-conducting layer  123 , third non-conducting layer  124 , sixth non-conducting layer  126  and seventh non-conducting layer  127  as shown in FIG. 6. In general, conductive or non-conductive forms could be used. It is assumed at this point, that the non-conductive forms will perform better, due to smaller eddy currents, smaller inductive losses, smaller thermal losses, and the possibility of being affected by massive Hall and Coulombic forces.  
         [0458]    Since materials can change forms under high temperatures, pressures, and electromagnetic forces, it is assumed that the material characteristics will vary over time and possibly reduce the effectiveness of some or all of the reactor core  101  materials. Tests will be needed to determine the longevity of these components.  
         [0459]    Secondary Diamond Manufacture  
         [0460]    In the center of the conducting spheres  102  of the preferred embodiment will be amorphous carbon. This material is essentially non-conducting when compared with conducting layer  118 . However, after repeated use and exposure to high temperatures, pressures and electromagnetic forces, it is expected that the amorphous carbon will be transformed into other forms of carbon, including graphite and diamond. It is not the intended purpose of these fusion power plant designs to manufacture diamonds. However, they may be extremely efficient at doing exactly that.  
         [0461]    If the non-conducting core  119  in a conducting sphere  102 , or if carbon in second non-conducting layer  123 , third non-conducting layer  124 , fourth non-conducting layer  125 , sixth non-conducting layer  126  and seventh non-conducting layer  127  within the reactor core  101  transform into more conductive forms of carbon, then failure may occur due to sudden increases in currents within these components of the reactor.  
         [0462]    In order to offset costs, remove radioactive materials, and prevent failure of key components, the conducting spheres  102  and the reactor cores  101  will require refurbishment at regular intervals. The refurbishment process will involve removing any diamonds formed at the center of conducting spheres  102 .  
         [0463]    Containment Circuit Variations  
         [0464]    Circuit Design  
         [0465]    With the exception of the straight-line containment circuit, these designs need a closed electric or magnetic circuit for the confinement circuit. These designs utilize conducting spheres  102  in a straight, circular or oval geometrical fashion.  
         [0466]    Straight-line Containment Circuit Designs  
         [0467]    [0467]FIG. 59 represents one type of a straight-line configuration. It utilizes Rowland ring coils  147 , and operates in the electric mode. In other words, the magnetic fields lines are as in FIG. 12. The key to this design is the very powerful and harmonic coils. There is no oval or circular circuit in this design. The load is connected almost directly to the circuit. (There would be circuitry that includes capacitors and DC to AC inverters between the reactor and the load.)  
         [0468]    The number of conducting spheres  102  in this design can be increased to improve harmonics over the reactor core  101  area, or decreased to reduce the overall reactor design costs. The design in FIG. 59 has four conducting spheres  102 . The number of conducting spheres  102  could be reduced to two or zero. If zero conducting spheres  102  are used, then an almost perfect set of hemispherical coils  106  would be needed to enclose the reactor core  101  area. While this might be the limit to reducing these designs to a minimum set of components, it is not believed that current manufacturers have the capability to manufacture such hemispherical coils  106  at this time.  
         [0469]    Circular Containment Circuit Designs  
         [0470]    Circular designs, as contained in FIG. 60, do not seem to offer an advantage over other designs except perhaps in reduced cost. The number of reactor cores  101  can be increased to provide more power, or can be decreased to minimize costs. The number of conducting spheres  102  can be increased to improve harmonics, or reduced to minimize costs.  
         [0471]    Oval Containment Circuit Designs  
         [0472]    The advantage of an oval conducting sphere track  104 , as shown in FIG. 61, is that there are a number of conducting spheres  102  adjacent to each side of the reactor core  101  that are aligned in a straight line. This would allow the eddy currents to diminish in each successive conducting sphere  102  in the straight-line portion of the oval leading in and out of the reactor core  101 . This would tend to “clean up” the main electromagnetic wave and allow for a more harmonic wave to pass over the reactor core  101 . Once again, there are trade-offs that create questions that only experiments with different configurations of reactor designs and different materials can answer. However, these are questions of optimization and cost reduction, not fundamental questions of whether these reactor designs will work.  
         [0473]    [0473]FIG. 63 contains a layout of the preferred embodiment. The design calls for 29 conducting spheres  102 , 2 anode/cathode conducting spheres  113  and 1 reactor core  101 , each conducting sphere  102  and anode/cathode conducting sphere  113  has a 5 meter outside diameter. Thus, the mean center path-length of this example circuit would be 160 meters long.  
         [0474]    There is a symmetry problem with the circular and oval layouts. If a conducting sphere  102  is analyzed, it is found that either the electric or the magnetic field sweeps over the conducting sphere  102  from pole to pole-in the electric mode or magnetic mode. However, the poles of the conducting spheres  102  are not perfectly aligned-pole to pole-in the curved sections of the circular or oval layouts. There is an offset  163  as shown in FIG. 62. Because the poles are not aligned, the electromagnetic wave takes longer to sweep around the outside edge of the conducting sphere  102  than the inside edge. This path difference is where the bulk of eddy currents and heat loss in these designs will occur. It is the main problem that might prevent these reactor designs from working well. If the conducting sphere track  104  were enlarged by adding more conducting spheres  102  then this effect would be lessened. If the conducting sphere track  104  had less conducting spheres  102 , then the offset  163  between the poles would be greater. The smaller the quantity of conducting spheres  102  in the track design, the greater the offset  163 . An increased offset  163  will result in greater eddy currents, greater Coulombic heating and reduced efficiency. The larger the conducing sphere track  104  and the higher the quantity of conducting spheres  102 , the less the offset  163  between the poles will be. However, this increases the cost of the reactor.  
         [0475]    A possible solution to this problem is having variable cooling for the conducting spheres  102  in the curved portions of the conducting sphere track  104 . If the coolant  130  was pumped into the track from the outside edge of the conducting sphere track  104 , and removed from the inside edge of the conducting sphere track  104 , then the outside of the conducting spheres  102  would be slightly more conductive and the inside of the conducting spheres  102  would be slightly less conductive. This might reduce the non-harmonics caused by the offset  163  of the poles to the point of being a non-factor.  
         [0476]    Multi-core Reactors  
         [0477]    Initially, the fusion reactors built on these designs would probably have one reactor core  101  per electrical circuit. Later, as the design variations are perfected for different price points, it will be possible to create reactors with different numbers of reactor cores  101 . Each reactor core  101  would be analogous to a piston in a gasoline engine. The energy produced from one igniting reactor core  101  could be used to compress the next reactor core  101  in the electrical circuit while excess electricity is siphoned off using induction coils. In FIG. 64, two major design variations are demonstrated: the conducting sphere track  104  is circular, and there are two reactor cores  101 . An advantage of a two reactor core  101  design is that one reactor core  101  can be igniting and compressing the fuel in the other reactor core  101 . The circular conducting sphere track  104  design reduces costs as compared to an oval conducting sphere track  104 .  
         [0478]    In FIG. 65, two major variations are demonstrated: the conducting sphere track  104  is oval, and there are two reactor cores  101 . An advantage of a two reactor core  101  design is that one reactor core  101  can be igniting and compressing the fuel in the other reactor core  101 . The oval conducting sphere  104  design improves harmonics as compared to a circular conducting sphere track  104 .  
         [0479]    In FIG. 66, two major design variations are demonstrated: the conducting sphere track  104  is circular, and there are four reactor cores  101 . Increasing the number of reactor cores  101  is possible, but does not seem to offer any key benefits over a two reactor core  101  design. In theory, the number of reactor cores  101  could be increased to the point where only reactor cores  101  are present and there are no conducting spheres  102  in the circuits. An extreme variation would be to replace all conducting spheres  102  with reactor cores  101 . However, the complexity of timing more than 2 reactor cores  101  appears to be a major drawback.  
         [0480]    Conducting Sphere Wavelength to Reactor Core Wavelength  
         [0481]    In all design variations shown so far, the diameter—or wavelength—of the conducting spheres  102  and reactor cores  101  were the same. Observations of planetary nebulae using the Hubble Space Telescope indicate that there would be an advantage to having conducting spheres  102  that have wavelengths that are larger than the wavelengths of the reactor cores  101 . An example, of such a planetary nebula is shown in FIG. 67. In FIG. 67, the outer diameter  173  is greater than the inner diameter  174 . The ratio of the wavelength of the conducting spheres  102  to the reactor cores  101  could be 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, and so on. A design like this amplifies the energy transmitted from the conducting spheres  102  to the reactor core  101  area and reduces the stress on the conducting spheres  102 . An example of such a design is shown in FIG. 68. The diameter of the outer lobes in the planetary nebula in FIG. 67—equivalent to the anode/cathode conducting spheres  102 —is a multiple of the diameter of the central star—equivalent to the reactor core  101 . FIG. 67 visually shows how the electromagnetic confinement techniques in these reactor designs work. There are two obvious shells of plasma  150  in both lobes of this planetary nebula—which is not uncommon for planetary nebulae. There is an inner plasma shell  175  and an outer plasma shell  176  in each lobe. The outer plasma shells  176  are being ejected from the core of the central star. The inner plasma shells  175  are being created by nuclear explosions within each lobe. They are trying to explode outward but are being confined. The explosions within the lobes are pushing out in a MHD type fashion, strengthening the confining forces provided by the outer layers of each lobe. This is an astronomical example of the self-healing design feature of these reactor designs.  
         [0482]    Because the electromagnetic confinement provided by the outer layers is not completely spherical, the plasma  150  from the explosions within the lobes can vent out the two ends of the nebula. The reactor designs of the present invention are explicitly designed to close the ends of the reactor core  101  area to prevent plasma  150  from escaping like this. FIG. 68 is a very advanced design. It has many advantages over the preferred embodiment. The main disadvantage is the increased sophistication and cost of components.  
         [0483]    Details of the FIG. 68 design include:  
         [0484]    It is a No-Core design.  
         [0485]    It is a dual reactor core  101  design.  
         [0486]    It operates in the AC mode.  
         [0487]    The left and right halves of the conducting sphere track  104  are mounted on massive core wavelength adjustment tracks  148  that allow the two halves to be adjusted in a left-to-right direction allowing fine tuning of the reactor core  101  wavelength during the burn. This will be important for long-duration burns as thermal expansion and contraction causes changes in the primary wavelength of the electromagnetic fields.  
         [0488]    It uses hemispherical coils  106 .  
         [0489]    It does not use lasers  103  since implosion, ignition and confinement are performed solely by the conducting circuit.  
         [0490]    It uses plasma  150  fuel that is continuously replenished via plasma injectors  146 .  
         [0491]    There are many advantages to this design. First, because of the core wavelength adjustment tracks  148 , the reactor can be continually adjusted to optimize the harmonics, even if thermal expansion of conducting spheres  102  occurs. Second, as one fusion reaction explodes, it will implode the other fusion reaction. The two reactor cores  101  can continually cycle back and forth like a two piston engine—creating an alternating current. But in this case, at the center of the reactor cores  101  will be two pulsating stars. The burn length of this design is potentially days or weeks—or longer—depending on active cooling capabilities.  
         [0492]    Alternate Core Designs  
         [0493]    The reactor core  101  must be designed to be highly conductive or superconductive. One likely material choice would be to use copper, or a copper alloy. A Copper alloy, Cu—Nb, will be used as an example for the conducting layer  118  though this is not meant as a limit or restriction from using other suitable conducting or superconducting metals, ceramics, fluids, plasmas and materials. The key design aspect is placing a spherical conducting or superconducting material around a nuclear fusion reaction for the purposes of confining the reaction and extracting energy from the reaction, or, a spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  in the “No-Core” designs. Some possible copper alloys include, but are not limited to: Cu, Cu—Al2O3, Cu—Ag, Cu—Nb, Cu-St.St., Cu—Be. Some possible superconducting materials include: niobium-titanium; and ceramics. Some possible fluids include: liquid lead, liquid lithium. Some possible gases include: vaporized water, and Xenon. A vacuum is also a possibility as is explained in the “No- Core” reactor design.  
         [0494]    As the large spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  are generated over the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 , mechanical forces are exerted on the material of the conducting reactor core  101  itself. Electrical energy within the reactor core  101  is converted to heat as the electrons in the material are excited and collide with atoms. In order to withstand these mechanical forces and stresses, and to minimize heating of the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 , a conducting material that combines both mechanical strength and electrical conductivity is needed. However, it appears that these two requirements oppose each other. Mechanically strong materials tend to be poor conductors, and good conductors tend to be mechanically weak.  
         [0495]    If copper, or some other similar conductor that could easily melt were used in the conducting layer  118 , then a non-conducting inner wall  179 , as shown in FIGS. 6, 69,  70 , and  71 , must protect the conducting layer  118  from the heat of the fusion reaction. Thus, since the conducting layer  118  will be prone to melting, it must be shielded internally by the non-conducting inner wall  179 . The purpose of the non-conducting inner wall  179  is not to completely prevent the melting of the reactor cores  101 . For a commercially viable reactor, all that is needed, is that the non-conducting inner wall  179  significantly delay the heating of the conducting layer  118 .  
         [0496]    A shield material similar to that used to protect the exterior of space craft and rockets—such as space shuttle&#39;s exterior-from high temperatures during reentry would be an ideal component for the fourth non-conducting layer  125  of the non-conducting inner wall  179  for the reactor core  101 . One of the shield materials used on NASA&#39;s Space Shuttles is made of a low-density, high-purity silica consisting of 99.8% amorphous fiber insulation (fibers derived from common sand, 1 to 2 mils thick) that is made rigid by ceramic bonding. This tile is 90 percent void and 10 percent material. This material is used in 1 to 5 inch blocks on Space Shuttles and can withstand tremendous thermal shock. Experiments have been done where the material is transferred from an oven at 2300° F. to cold water without suffering damage.  
         [0497]    For these reactor designs, a slurry of this silica material containing fibers mixed with water and a colloidal silica binder solution would be formed over metal hemispheres, partially heated to remove the bulk of the moisture, removed from the metal forms, and then sintered in high temperature ovens to form rigid hemispheres of the fourth non-conducting layer  125 . The fourth non-conducting layer  125  constructed of this material could be made by attaching two hemispheres with an overlapping lap-joint. This layer would protect the conducting sphere  102  from a massive thermal shock. A thermal expansion problem may exist for this inner silica-based thermal shield material. The solid hemispheres might not expand well, cracking when heated. If this is the case, a more complex—but still relatively simple—design of smaller tiles attached to a more flexible non-conducting inner layer  124  may be required.  
         [0498]    This silica type of shield material will work well if the temperature does not exceed about 2300° F. If the temperature of the non-conducting inner wall  179  will exceed 2300° F., then a third non-conducting layer  124  inside of the fourth non-conducing layer  125  would be needed. The third non-conducting layer  124  could be made of Reinforced Carbon Carbon (RCC) which could withstand temperatures inside the reactor core  101  up to about 3000° F.  
         [0499]    When the massive pulse of electromagnetic energy sweeps over the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 , forces within this conducting layer  118  will effectively try to implode the reactor core  101 . To prevent the implosion of the reactor core  101 , the non-conducting inner layer  179  within the conducting layer  118  must be able to withstand very strong crushing forces. RCC is a material that can stand up well to these crushing forces. This is another good reason that the third non-conducting layer of RCC  123  should be planned for.  
         [0500]    RCC fabrication begins with a rayon cloth, graphitized and impregnated with a phenolic resin. This impregnated cloth is laid up as a laminate and cured over a metal hemisphere in an autoclave. After being cured it is removed from the metal form, then the laminate is pyrolized to convert the resin to carbon. This material is then impregnated with furfural alcohol in a vacuum chamber, then cured and pyrolized again to convert the furfural alcohol to carbon. This process is repeated three or more times until the desired carbon-carbon properties are achieved. RCC can withstand temperatures up to 3000° F.  
         [0501]    In a reactor design by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, for a reactor with slightly larger inner dimensions—6.5 meter inner diameter versus this example that uses a 5 meter conducting wall diameter—called “Sombrero”, 400 MJ yield fusion fuel Holoraum targets were calculated to create a surface temperature at the non-conducing inner wall  179  of about 2100° C. or 3812° F. If this non-conducting inner wall  179  temperature is correct, then another layer of material would be needed that can withstand higher temperatures, or larger diameter reactor cores  101  of approximately 10 meters in diameter would be needed, or targets with lower yields would be needed. Only tests will verify the temperature. It is possible that the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  will slow the fusion burn and reduce the non-conducting inner wall  179  temperature.  
         [0502]    If the temperature of the non-conducting inner wall  179  will exceed 3000° F., then another non-conducting layer  122 , inside of the second RCC wall  123  should be planned for. An inner layer of non-conducting material  122  could also be made of Ultra High Temperature Ceramics. One such material is hafnium diboride silicon carbide which has been tested to temperatures of at least 5,000° F. There are other similar ceramics that could be used. The primary material characteristics should be: the ability to withstand temperatures between 3000-5000° F.; strength; the ability to withstand thermal shock without cracking; little or no conductivity; and ease of forming into rigid, spherical shapes. Therefore, since such materials already exist, temperatures at the inner wall of the core up to 5000° F. could be designed for at this time.  
         [0503]    The conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101  will confine elementary particles in the fusion plasma that have a charge. Neutral particles such as neutrinos and neutrons, in all likelihood, will not be sufficiently contained by the electromagnetic shield. Thus, the non-conducting inner wall  179  must have some compound to stop neutrons. The element Boron has been found to be excellent at stopping neutrons and can be combined with the materials for the non-conducting inner wall  179  of a fusion reactor. It has been considered in many other fusion reactor designs just for this purpose.  
         [0504]    In these reactor designs, different inner walls could be used to stop neutrons. For example, the fourth non-conducting layer  125  could be coated or impregnated with a layer of Boron, the second non-conducting layer  123  could be coated or impregnated with Boron or the inner layer of non-conducting material  122  could be coated or impregnated with Boron. Some ultra-high temperature ceramics contain Boron, thus eliminating the necessity of coating or impregnating the ceramics. If Boron is to be impregnated into one of the inner layers constructed of RCC, it might be best to create one inner layer of Boron RCC  123 , and a second, thicker wall  124 , just of RCC to reduce costs.  
         [0505]    The fusion burn will also subject the non-conducting inner wall  179  to x-ray radiation. With the reactor designs described here that burn fuel pellets  136 —hybrid inertial confinement designs—the inside of the reactor core  101  could be filled with approximately 0.5 torr of xenon gas. The purpose of this gas would be to absorb the x-ray radiation and re-radiate it over a longer time at longer wavelengths to help reduce the surface temperature and damage to the inner wall. If the density of the gas were greater, it would likely cause the inertial confinement lasers  103  to be blocked.  
         [0506]    The primary goal of the conducting layer  118  is to create smooth, harmonic, massive spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140 . It is not intended to with withstand the forces of the internal fusion explosion. The conducting layer  118  would need reinforcement from the outside to withstand explosive mechanical forces from within. Another layer of material, external to the conducting layer  118 , for purposes of reinforcement would be needed. In general it should be made of a non-conducting material or be essentially non-conducting. Another layer of RCC would be ideal for this. RCC is thermally conductive, allowing heat to flow out of the conducting layer  118  improving passive or active cooling.  
         [0507]    The materials of these reactor core  101  designs must be able to withstand mechanical stresses to within 90-95% of their yield strength for continuous operation. For pulsed operation, the strength of the materials may be exceeded for brief periods. The calculations of forces for all layers of the reactor core  101  material should be taken into account. For example, if a copper alloy is used for the conductive layer  118 , even though the extreme heat involved may melt this layer at some point later in the process, the initial ductility of the metal should be considered in the calculations that determine if the reactor core  101  can withstand the internal fusion explosion.  
         [0508]    To summarize, an initial reactor core  101  could be designed as such:  
         [0509]    1) An inner layer of non-conducting material  122  made up of an Ultra High Temperature Ceramic such as: hafnium diboride silicon carbide; or, Zirconium diboride composite; or, other related ceramic compounds. The exact thickness of this inner layer of non-conducting material  122  is unknown at this time due to the classified nature of these ceramics (they are now used to make nose-cones for missiles). The estimated required thickness is 1 inch. Preferably, the material will have a composition that includes some Boron to stop neutrons. (Most likely manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres.)  
         [0510]    2) A second non-conducting layer  123  that is composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock, compressive forces from without, explosive forces from within and can stop neutrons. A second non-conducting layer  123  could be a 1 inch wall composed of RCC impregnated with Boron. (Most likely manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres. Possibly manufactured as a single piece around the inner layer of non-conducting material  122 .)  
         [0511]    3) A third non-conducting layer  124  that is composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock, compressive forces from without and explosive forces from within. A third non-conducting layer  124  could be composed of 1 inch of RCC. (Most likely manufactured as one piece around the inner layer of non-conducting material  122  and second non-conducting layer  123 .)  
         [0512]    4) A fourth non-conducting layer  125  that is composed of a material that can withstand massive thermal shocks and lessen the thermal shock to the conducting layer  118 . The fourth non-conducting layer  125  could be composed of 5 inches of silica (99.8% amorphous fiber) made rigid by ceramic bonding. (Most likely manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres. Possibly manufactured as multiple interlocking tiles attached to the outside of the inner layer of non-conducing material  122 , second non-conducting layer  123  and third non-conducting layer  124 )  
         [0513]    5) A conducting layer  118  that is composed of a material with very low resistance, is economical, that can be formed into spherical shells of the size needed, and can withstand the internal Coulombic and Hall forces created by massive electromagnetic fields. The conducting layer  118  could be composed of Cu—Nb, 6 inches thick. (Most likely manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres that are heat-shrunk to each other with the lap-joint situated at the eventual equator of the electromagnetic field.) A high current should be put through this conducting layer  118  in order to weld the joints together. The joint should be tested for gaps which could cause nonharmonic electromagnetic fields and failure.  
         [0514]    6) A sixth non-conducting layer  126  that is composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock and explosive forces from within. The sixth non-conducting layer  126  could be composed of 2 inches of RCC. (Most likely manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres.)  
         [0515]    7) A seventh non-conducting layer  127  that is composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock and explosive forces from within. The seventh non-conducting layer  127  could be composed of 2 inches of RCC. (Most likely manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres with the joint oriented 90° from the hemispheres in the sixth non-conducting layer  126 .)  
         [0516]    Total reactor wall thickness of approximately 18 inches, of which {fraction (1/3)} is conductive.  
         [0517]    To compensate for differences in thermal expansion, the inner and outer sides of individual layers may be designed with a grid of grooves—e.g., the outer side of the fourth non-conducting layer  125  and the inner side of the sixth non-conducting layer  126 . Using a copper alloy, as in this example, the inner surface of the conducting layer  118  will thermally expand more than the external surface of the conducting layer  118 . This is due to the greater temperatures experienced on the inside of the conducting layer  118  due to the fusion burn. The inside of the conducting layer  118  may even melt. To compensate for this volume change, the outside of the fourth non-conducting layer  125 , Silica in this example, and the inner side of the sixth non-conducting layer  126 , RCC in this example, could be composed of voids  168  created by a cross-hatched grid of grooves. In this example, as the conductive layer  118  expands, it would expand into the voids  168  created by these grids of grooves. These voids  168  are illustrated in FIG. 70.  
         [0518]    The voids  168  would need to have a vacuum at the time of the fusion reaction. If they were filled with a gas, the gas would expand during heating of the reactor core  101  and potentially rupture the reactor core  101 . Small channels through the inner layer of non-conducting material  122 , second non-conducting layer  123  and third non-conducting layer  124  to the central reactor core  101  could be used to relieve such pressure. In most of these nuclear fusion reactors, the reactor core  101  will either be under a vacuum, or will be filled with a low pressure gas such as Xenon.  
         [0519]    Periodic tests of the reactor cores  101  for melting will be required. If the conducting layer  118  melts into the voids  168  after a number of fusion burns, then the geometry required for harmonic containment fields will be lost. The melted reactor core  101  can be replaced with a new reactor core  101  and the used reactor core  101  can be refurbished.  
         [0520]    Expansion of the fourth non-conducting layer  125  would be easy to plan for since it is primarily a thermal barrier and not key in preventing implosion or explosion of the reactor core  101 . The fourth non-conducting layer  125  could be designed, if needed, with overlapping panels created with a tongue-and-groove type joint. The panels could simply slide together for a tighter fit to deal with thermal expansion.  
         [0521]    It is not critical that the fourth non-conducting layer  125  be made of a solid material. It has been discovered that hollow ceramic spheres  169  that have a hole drilled in them are not only excellent thermal barriers, but also excellent sound barriers. It should be expected that the internal fusion explosion should create, not only a massive thermal shock, but also a significant sound shock. Such shocks repeatedly reverberating through the reactor core  101  could cause reactor core failure. Therefore, the fourth non-conducting layer  125  might simply start out as a hollow void that is filled with sound-deadening, thermally resistant, small, hollow ceramic spheres  169 . Currently, these hollow ceramic spheres  169  are rated to a temperature of about 2,000° F. But with more expensive, Ultra High Temperature Ceramics, the hollow ceramic spheres  169  should be capable of withstanding temperatures of up to 5,000° F. while retaining their shock dampening characteristics. An example of this type of wall—with a thicker third non-conducting layer  124  might look like:  
         [0522]    1) An inner layer of non-conducting material  122  made up of an Ultra High Temperature Ceramic such as: hafnium diboride silicon carbide; or, Zirconium diboride composite; or, other Ultra High Temperature Ceramic compounds. The exact thickness of the inner layer of non-conducting material  122  is unknown at this time due to the classified nature of these ceramics. The estimated thickness is 1 inch. Preferably, the material will have a composition that includes some Boron to help stop neutrons. The inner layer of non-conducting material  122  would most likely be manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres.  
         [0523]    2) A second non-conducting layer  123  that is composed of material capable of withstanding high temperatures, thermal shock, compressive forces from without, explosive forces from within, and stopping neutrons. The second non-conducting layer  123  could be a 1-inch wall composed of RCC impregnated with Boron. The second non-conducting layer  123  would most likely be manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres. The second non-conducting layer  123  may be manufactured as a single piece around the inner layer of non-conducting material  122 .  
         [0524]    3) A third non-conducting layer  124  that is composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock, compressive forces from without and explosive forces from within. The third non-conducting layer  124  could be comprised of 2 inches of RCC. The third non-conducting layer would most likely be manufactured as one piece around the inner layers of non-conducting material  122  and second non-conducting layer  123 .  
         [0525]    4) A fourth non-conducting layer  125  that is composed of a material that can withstand massive thermal and sound shocks while lessening the thermal shock to the conducting layer  118 . The fourth non-conducting layer  125  could be comprised of 5 inches of hollow ceramic spheres  169  made up of high temperature or ultra high temperature ceramics. These would most likely be manufactured as small, {fraction (1/16)}-{fraction (1/2)} inch, spheres with a small hole drilled or formed in them. The hollow ceramic spheres  169  would be poured into the space between the third non-conducting layer  123  and the conducting layer  118  through temporary openings in the conducting layer  118 . The gaps between the hollow ceramic spheres  169  would be pumped to a vacuum or be allowed to fill with a slight pressure of Xenon gas as an added measure to absorb X-ray radiation.  
         [0526]    5) A conducting layer  118  that is composed of a material with very low resistance, is economical, that can be formed into spherical shells of the size needed, and can withstand the internal Coulombic and Hall forces created by massive electromagnetic fields. The conducting layer  118  may be comprised of 6 inches of Cu—Nb. The conducting layer  118  would most likely be manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres that are heat-shrunk to each other with the lap joint situated at the eventual equator of the electromagnetic field. A high current should be put through this conducting layer  118  in order to weld the joints together. The joint should be tested for voids  168  which could cause nonharmonic electromagnetic fields and failure.  
         [0527]    6) A sixth non-conducting layer  126  that is composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock and explosive forces from within. The sixth non-conducting layer  126  may be comprised of 2 inches of RCC. The sixth non-conducting layer  126  would most likely be manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres.  
         [0528]    7) A seventh non-conducting layer  127  that is composed of material that can withstand high temperatures, thermal shock and explosive forces from within. The seventh non-conducting layer  127  may be comprised of 2 inches of RCC. The seventh non-conducting layer  127  would most likely be manufactured as two interlocking hemispheres with the joint oriented 90° from the hemispheres in the sixth non-conducting layer  126 .  
         [0529]    Having the fourth non-conducting layer  125  filled with hollow ceramic spheres  169  may have advantages. But under the unusual circumstances being described here, there are no guidelines to be certain. Only experiment will discover if this method is superior to using a more traditional thermal barrier such as silica.  
         [0530]    It is key that the conducting layer  118 —a copper alloy in this case—be magnitudes more conductive than the non-conductive, or essentially non-conductive layers. It is believed this would exclude metals, plasmas  150  and conductive gases for materials in the inner conducting layer  122 , second non-conducting layer  123 , third non-conducting layer  124 , fourth non-conducting layer  125 , sixth non-conducting layer  126  and seventh non-conducting layer  127 . However, the spherical electromagnetic confinement fields  140  may inhibit the burn so efficiently that only a thin non-conducting inner wall  179  may be required to protect the conducting layer  118 .  
         [0531]    If conductive materials were used for the non-conducting inner wall  179 , then the main conducting layer  118  would induce dissipative, eddy-like currents in the other conductive layers, increasing Coulombic and Hall forces, increasing thermal loss, and decreasing efficiency. In addition, if the layers of the non-conducting inner wall  179  were made of conducting material, then it is possible that these layers might shield the fusion reaction from the Poynting Vector energy transport and the spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140 . A solid internal conducting layer  118  for any of the layers of the non-conducting inner  179  might be the worst possible choice because it could reduce or eliminate the MHD effect altogether.  
         [0532]    While materials for the layers of the non-conducting inner wall  179  should be chosen for their essential characteristics-non-conductivity, resistance to high temperatures and thermal shock, resistance to high energy particles and photons, ability to absorb neutrons, and high strength—they should also be tested ahead of time to the transport energy induced in the conducting layer  118 . It is quite possible that the massive, central-pointing energy-transport, expressed in terms of the Poynting Vector, could shatter and implode the layers of the non-conducting inner wall  179 . While the layers of the non-conducting inner wall  179  may be non-conductive, or essentially non-conductive—as in Boron impregnated silicas, carbides, ceramics or RCC structures—when compared to the conducting layer  118 , the center pointing transport energy may interact at the elementary particle level, creating massive forces against charged elementary particles—such as electrons, and atomic nuclei within the inner layers. However, even if the induced central pointing energy creates forces at the elementary particle level, these non-conducting inner wall  179  materials may still be able to withstand the shocks without absorbing too much energy for these reasons:  
         [0533]    1) The layers of the non-conducting inner wall  179  are directly next to the conducting layer  118 .  
         [0534]    2) The diameter of the reactor core  101  is large compared to the wall thickness.  
         [0535]    3) The imploding energy per square inch at the inner wall will be small compared to at the focal point of the reactor core  101 .  
         [0536]    4) The materials are strong by their nature.  
         [0537]    5) Also it is believed, the characteristic wavelength of the imploding energy will be large, roughly equal to the diameter of the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101 . This long wavelength will take time to excite charged elementary particles within the non-conducting inner wall  179 . By the time this happens, the exploding forces may be counteracting the imploding forces.  
         [0538]    All reactor core  101  designs, except the “No-Core” core design, will face tremendous thermal, compressive, and explosive forces. It should be expected that early reactor core  101  designs may crack, melt, crush, shatter, be pierced by instabilities, and possibly catastrophically explode. The inner shield clamp  110 , middle reactor shield  109  and outer shield wall  117  should be designed for these possibilities. Again, the overall reactor design should allow for the reactor cores  101  to be quickly and efficiently replaced.  
         [0539]    Misc. Induction Coils Notes  
         [0540]    There are two key issues to consider with respect to induction coils. First, how can massive electromagnetic pulses be induced in the circuit of conducting spheres  102 ? Second, how can excess electromagnetic energy be extracted from the circuit for use in the power grid? 
         [0541]    The circuit could be directly connected to the power grid. See FIG. 59. However, this would not be practical since the massive pulses would easily burn out many components in power grids.  
         [0542]    Instead, induction coils and capacitors should be used to act as an intermediary between the conducting circuit and the electrical power grid.  
         [0543]    There are hundreds if not thousands of possible combinations of arrangements for the coils in such reactors. Possible coil arrangements include:  
         [0544]    1) If a solid “wire-type” conducting circuit as depicted in FIG. 72 is used, then one large coil could be wrapped around the circuit. For this type of circuit to work, the coil must induce an electromagnetic pulse through the conducting wire  164  with a wavelength much longer than the diameter of the conducting wire  164 , otherwise nodes in the waves will vaporize the conducting wire  164  and explode it as explained in the section on the exploding wire phenomena.  
         [0545]    However, even if it were possible to induce very long wavelength pulses using the inductive coil, the wavelength of the MHD effect in the reactor core  101  will be equal to diameter of the reactor core  101 , and if powerful enough, will explode the conducting wire  164  at the anodes and cathodes as is shown in the enlarged detail of FIG. 72. It appears inevitable that too much energy will be focused on these small points to prevent the conducting wire  164  from exploding.  
         [0546]    2) A simple attempt at solving this problem might be to use a thicker conducting wire  164  as contained in FIG. 73. There are many problems with this approach. First, the massive energy will still be focused at the anodes and cathodes at the reactor core  101 . Second, the larger the conducting wire  164 , the less of a change in direction will occur at the reactor core  101  and the smaller will be the induced confining fields. Third, with thicker conducting wires  164 , there will be more avenues for currents to “cut corners” and create eddy currents. There will be increased numbers of possible harmonic waves around the conducting wire  164  with corresponding increased numbers of nodes that will vaporize and explode the conducting wire  164 .  
         [0547]    3) One possible approach is to create a solid conductor  160  that is exactly as thick as the reactor core  101 . However, there would be no induction of confinement fields. A fusion explosion in the reactor core  101  might be confined radially but not axially. It would explode in opposite directions—straight down the conductor in both directions. Besides, the reactor core  101  will still create waves of electromagnetic energy that will focus at nodes and explode the solid conductor  160 .  
         [0548]    4) To focus the energy, which would still allow the induction of the intense containment fields over the surface of the reactor core  101 , the cathode and anode could be capped with a hemispherical dome  180  as shown in FIGS. 74, 75, and  76 . This configuration could work if there was enough active cooling of the conductor/superconductor. However, the solid conductor  160  would be extremely massive and expensive. The overall length of the solid conductor  160  would need to be extremely precise—a multiple of the primary wavelength—to focus the energy. But when heated, the harmonics would be lost since the solid conductor  160  length would not be a multiple of the primary wavelength. Manufacturing the solid conductor  160  with the incorrect length would be very difficult to correct for. The exploding wire danger still exists at nodes of the primary electromagnetic wave. Finally, if damage did occur to either the solid conductor  160  or coil, in this design they would be extremely difficult to repair or replace. A two reactor core  101  version of this design is shown in FIG. 75.  
         [0549]    5) As shown in FIG. 76, another possible arrangement would be to place numerous coils in series around the solid conductor  160  in an attempt to create electromagnetic pulses which have wavelengths equal to the diameter of the solid conductor  160  and reactor core  101 , and then to try to actively cool the solid conductor  160  to prevent it from overheating and exploding. This technique does not appear feasible and would certainly be dangerous. The main advantage of this design is not its practicality but that it emphasizes the importance of analyzing the primary electromagnetic wave: its wavelength, its shape, the locations of nodes, the locations of eddy currents, the locations of intense temperatures, etc.  
         [0550]    6) This leads to the approach, as indicated earlier, of using conducting spheres  102  as shown in FIG. 77. With this approach, the emphasis is not on inducing a current around the circuit. Large-scale flow of electrons around the circuit is not really desired—rather, local, short-distanced but very fast flow of electrons is desired. The emphasis of this approach is creating massive standing, spherical waves of electromagnetic fields that result in a massive voltage across the containment sphere and massive containing fields—i.e., high voltage, high resistance, low current. (Or, massive magnetic differentials if the reactor is operating in the Magnetic Mode.)  
         [0551]    7) Another possible concept contained in FIG. 18 for the electrical or magnetic conducting circuit would be to create an electrical or magnetic circuit using conducting spheres  102  as previously described, laid out in an oval conducting sphere track  104 , and to place coils around one or both of the hemispheres of one or more of the conducting spheres  102 . The coils will be used to induce the electromagnetic pulses and to tap excess energy. Using this overall concept, there are hundreds of possible wiring schemes where the coils are connected in series, in parallel, on separate circuits, or in combinations of these. This overall concept has many common advantages. They are in stark contrast to the disadvantages of the circuit described in 6 above. Advantages include:  
         [0552]    The conducting spheres  102  would be relatively cheap and easy to manufacture.  
         [0553]    It would not be a problem to lengthen or shorten the circuit.  
         [0554]    New or old conducting spheres  102  could be added or removed.  
         [0555]    While the harmonics of the heated circuit would change, it would change uniformly over the entire circuit because, by actively monitoring and equalizing coolant  130  temperatures, the expansion and contraction of the conducting spheres  102  could be controlled.  
         [0556]    While localized eddy-currents from secondary currents still could melt or explode small areas of conducting spheres  102 , the danger of the exploding wire phenomena would be minimized since the main electromagnetic wave would not explode huge sections of a conducting wire  164  or solid conductor  160 .  
         [0557]    Finally, the modular design would allow easy repair or replacement of conducting spheres  102  or coils.  
         [0558]    With respect to the construction of the coil support material  166 , the materials of construction may be chosen based upon the materials dielectric constant. For example, coil support material  166  in FIG. 14 maybe chosen based upon its dielectric characteristics.  
         [0559]    Wiring Pattern for Coils  
         [0560]    How the coils are wired to each other around the conducting circuit is a key consideration. Each coil could be treated as a separate circuit. The coils could be wired in parallel, or in series. Or they could be wired in various combinations. No particular combination appears as the clear winner. Each example could work. However, it seems that the simplest circuit would have advantages for maintaining harmonic current flows and lower costs.  
         [0561]    [0561]FIG. 78 represents coils wired in series. FIGS.  79  represents coils wired in parallel. One technique would be to use Rowland Ring coils  147  placed around an electrical circuit composed of conducting spheres  102 , as previously described. A Rowland Ring coil  147  could be placed at one point along the electrical circuit, or multiple Rowland Ring coils  147  could be placed around one or both of the hemispheres of one or more of the conducting spheres  102 . See FIG. 81. Again, there are hundreds of possible wiring schemes where the Rowland Ring coils  147  are connected in series, in parallel, on separate circuits, or in combinations of these. The Rowland Ring coils  147  may or may not have a soft iron core. Designs that have Rowland Ring coils  147  in series would be preferable to coils in parallel because their inductance will add thus creating a powerful voltage across the reactor core  101  that would be very difficult for the MHD effect to reverse direction.  
         [0562]    Miscellaneous Insulation Notes  
         [0563]    With respect to conducting spheres  102 , they may need an outer layer of material to protect the conducting layer  118  from various problems. For example, the material in the conducting layer may be easily scratched or dented. It may deform from its own weight, especially when heated. Also, this layer of material could reduce or eliminate electrical arcing between the conducting spheres  102 , coils, the conducting sphere track  104 , coolant  130 , or other components or objects in proximity to the conducting spheres  102 . This layer, preferably, will not increase the distance between adjacent conducting spheres  102 . It may be applied prior to the conducting spheres  102  being placed in the conducting sphere track  104  or after. This material may be chosen with respect to its dielectric constant as this may affect the electromagnetic interaction between reactor cores  101 , coils, and conducting spheres  102 . Alternately, a thicker insulating layer may be provided around each sphere  102  with a coupling arrangement between adjacent conducting spheres  102  to optimize the electromagnetic flow.  
         [0564]    Power Source  
         [0565]    Depending on the reactor dimensions and materials, and depending on the designed yield for the D-T plasma  150  or fuel pellet  136 , there would be a characteristic electric voltage or magnetic differential required across the conducting sphere  102  just prior to the ignition of the fusion process. Obviously, an external power source is needed for providing power to the coils that provide the electromagnetic pulse that sweeps over the conducting layer  118  of the reactor core  101  in order to provide initial confinement and ignition—in the case of a purely inductive compressive technique—and the confining fields for the MHD effect. Also, in the case of using inertial techniques for initial ignition of a D-T fuel pellet  136 , a power source would be needed for the lasers  103 , or other beam devices.  
         [0566]    Possible power sources could include:  
         [0567]    1) Coal powered AC generators  
         [0568]    2) Hydro powered AC generators  
         [0569]    3) Nuclear fission powered AC generators  
         [0570]    4) Coal powered DC generators  
         [0571]    5) Hydro powered DC generators  
         [0572]    6) Nuclear fission powered DC generators  
         [0573]    7) Capacitor banks  105  charged by any of the above devices or: the commercial power grid; liquid fuel generators; solar panels; geothermal energy capture devices; or a variety of other energy sources.  
         [0574]    For the purposes of describing this embodiment, a coal powered DC generator will be used.  
         [0575]    Removing Power from the Conducting Circuit  
         [0576]    Depending on the reactor dimensions and materials, and depending on the designed yield for the D-T plasma  150  or fuel pellet  136 , there would be a characteristic voltage required across the conducting sphere  102  just prior to the ignition of the fusion process. Once the fusion process starts, the MHD process will induce a higher electric voltage or magnetic differential across the reactor core  101 . All that is needed is the electrical circuitry to monitor this electric voltage or magnetic differential, and to use the excess to induce current in the coils and to move the current to the power grid.  
         [0577]    One technique for tapping the correct amount of energy from the circuit might be to attach a set number of coils to the circuit and have about 60% of the coils maintaining the required containing voltage and about 40% of the coils tapping off excess voltage. One design would have:  
         [0578]    2 reactor cores  101 —it is a 2 cycle engine  
         [0579]    30 conducting spheres 102—15 per each half of an oval  
         [0580]    48 total coils  
         [0581]    32 coils for creating and maintaining the confining voltage—16 per each half of the oval  
         [0582]    16 coils for tapping off excess voltage—induced by the MHD effect from the fusion reaction.  
         [0583]    Since 66% of the coils are for maintain voltage, and 33% of the coils are designed for tapping off excess voltage, the yield of the fusion burn should not exceed 29% of the total capacity of the circuit. This value of 29% would allow up to 2 of the tap coils to burn out and still be able to draw off the MHD energy.  
         [0584]    This example gives insight on the best wiring techniques. What should happen if coils burn out? If one containment coil burns out, then the whole containment circuit should shut down. This would allow the fusion plasma  150  to expand, cool, and stop the fusion burn. However, if a tap coil burns out, then an opposite coil in the circuit should go down to keep a symmetric voltage. But to insure the ability of the circuit to keep drawing off excess MHD power, the tapping coils should not all be wired in series. If all of the tapping coils went down, the MHD fields might be powerful enough to flip the polarity of the entire conducting circuit—with the resulting danger of the rapid voltage flip-flop.  
         [0585]    DC versus AC  
         [0586]    There are possible designs, using one or more reactor cores  101 , that would, for these types of fusion reactors, create DC currents. In such cases, an AC inverter would be required. There are possible designs, using two or more reactor cores  101 , that would create AC currents. In such cases, if the frequency is appropriate, the current could go directly to the power grid. If the frequency is not correct, then additional circuitry would be required for changing the frequency.  
         [0587]    Major Nuclear Fusion Reactor Types  
         [0588]    The major types of nuclear fusion reactors in these designs all use a spherical electromagnetic confinement field  140  for the purposes of confining the fusion burn and for MHD conversion of energy. Most designs also use spherical conducting spheres  102  to create a harmonic pulse that sweeps over the reactor core  101  area. It has been mentioned that a design with a minimum of one core covered with two hemispheric coils with no conducting spheres is possible. Within these overall parameters, there are many possible nuclear reactor design variations possible, using various combinations of components available. Some of the variables in the reactor design include:  
         [0589]    1) Fusion fuel: D-T, D-D, and D-He, and other elements  
         [0590]    2) Fusion fuel type: plasma  150  or fuel pellet  136   
         [0591]    3) Reactor core confinement field alignment: magnetic mode, electrical mode  
         [0592]    4) Ignition technique: electromagnetic induction; laser  103  inertial; ion beam inertial, spherical wire implosion cage  151   
         [0593]    5) Reactor confinement material: solid conductor  160 , solid superconductor, plasma  150 , liquid, gas, “No Core” 
         [0594]    6) Various reactor core  101  wall material choices, or “No-Core” design  
         [0595]    7) Confinement circuit shape: oval, circular, straight  
         [0596]    8) Confinement coil type: normal cylindrical coil; normal concentric cylindrical coils; normal (single) helical coils; normal (multiple) parallel helical coils; Rowland Ring coils  147  with soft iron cores; Rowland Ring coils  147  without soft iron cores; individual hemispheric coils  106 ; grouped hemispheric coils  106  (cup-in-a-cup layout)  
         [0597]    9) Conducting sphere  102  type: hollow center with a vacuum; solid filled  
         [0598]    10) Conducting sphere  102  fill material  
         [0599]    11) AC or DC output design  
         [0600]    12) One, two, three, four, or more reactor cores  101   
         [0601]    13) Burn length: pulsed, quasi-continuous, or continuous operation  
         [0602]    14) Cooling technique: pulsed, quasi-continuous, or continuous operation  
         [0603]    Some Major Design Choices  
         [0604]    One Reactor Core  101 , Plasma Fuel Designs:  
         [0605]    1) One reactor core  101 , ignition by induced compression, plasma  150  fuel (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by Rowland Ring coils  147  with a soft iron core, pulsed or quasi-continuous DC operation  
         [0606]    2) One reactor core  101 , ignition by induced compression, plasma  150  fuel (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by Rowland Ring coils  147  without a soft iron core, pulsed or quasi-continuous DC operation. See FIG. 81 as an example of this configuration  
         [0607]    3) One reactor core  101 , ignition by induced compression, plasma  150  fuel (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by traditional coils, pulsed or quasi-continuous DC operation  
         [0608]    4) One reactor core  101 , ignition by induced compression, plasma  150  fuel (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by hemispherical coils  106 , pulsed, quasi-continuous, or continuous DC operation  
         [0609]    Two or More Reactor Core  101 , Plasma Fuel Designs:  
         [0610]    5) Two or more reactor cores  101 , ignition by induced compression, plasma  150  fuel (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by Rowland Ring coils  147  with a soft iron core, pulsed or quasi-continuous AC operation  
         [0611]    6) Two or more reactor cores  101 , ignition by induced compression, plasma  150  fuel (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by Rowland Ring coils  147  without a soft iron core, pulsed or quasi-continuous AC operation  
         [0612]    7) Two or more reactor cores  101 , ignition by induced compression, plasma  150  fuel (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by traditional coils, pulsed or quasi-continuous AC operation  
         [0613]    8) Two or more reactor cores  101 , ignition by induced compression, plasma  150  fuel (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by hemispherical coils  106 , pulsed or quasi-continuous AC operation. See FIG. 82 as an example of this configuration  
         [0614]    One Core, Pellet Fuel Designs:  
         [0615]    9) One reactor core  101 , ignition by inertial beam technique, fuel pellet  136  (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by Rowland Ring coils  147  with a soft iron core, pulsed DC operation  
         [0616]    10) One reactor core  101 , ignition by inertial beam technique, fuel pellet  136  (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by Rowland Ring coils  147  without a soft iron core, pulsed DC operation  
         [0617]    11) One reactor core  101 , ignition by inertial beam technique, fuel pellet  136  (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by traditional coils, pulsed DC operation  
         [0618]    12) One reactor core  101 , ignition by inertial beam technique, fuel pellet (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by hemispherical coils  106 , pulsed DC operation. See the preferred embodiment in FIG. 1 as an example of this configuration.  
         [0619]    Two or More Cores, Pellet Fuel Designs:  
         [0620]    13) Two or more reactor cores  101 , ignition by inertial beam technique, fuel pellet  136  (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by Rowland Ring coils  147  with a soft iron core, pulsed AC operation  
         [0621]    14) Two or more reactor cores  101 , ignition by inertial beam technique, fuel pellet  136  (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by Rowland Ring coils  147  without a soft iron core, pulsed AC operation  
         [0622]    15) Two or more reactor cores  101 , ignition by inertial beam technique, fuel pellet  136  (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by traditional coils, pulsed AC operation  
         [0623]    16) Two or more reactor cores  101 , ignition by inertial beam technique, fuel pellet  136  (D-D, D-He, D-T), confinement by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement fields induced by hemispherical coils  106 , pulsed AC operation. See FIG. 83 as an example of this configuration.  
         [0624]    One No-core Core Plasma Fuel Designs in Electric Mode:  
         [0625]    17) One No-Core core, plasma  150  fuel gradually added to chamber by injection, ignition by induced compression, continuous voltage provided by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement field voltage provided by Rowland Ring coils  147  with soft iron core, continuous DC operation.  
         [0626]    18) One No-Core core, plasma  150  fuel gradually added to chamber by injection, ignition by induced compression, continuous voltage provided by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement field voltage provided by Rowland Ring coils  147  without soft iron core, continuous DC operation.  
         [0627]    19) One No-Core core, plasma  150  fuel gradually added to chamber by injection, ignition by induced compression, continuous voltage provided by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement field voltage provided by traditional coils, continuous DC operation.  
         [0628]    One No-core Core Plasma Fuel Designs in Magnetic Mode:  
         [0629]    20) One No-Core core, plasma  150  fuel gradually added to chamber by injection, ignition by induced compression, continuous magnetic differential provided by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement field voltage provided by traditional coils, continuous DC operation.  
         [0630]    21) One No-Core core, plasma  150  fuel gradually added to chamber by injection, ignition by induced compression, continuous magnetic differential provided by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement field voltage provided by hemispherical coils  106 , continuous DC operation. See FIG. 80 as an example of this configuration.  
         [0631]    Two No-core Cores Plasma Fuel Designs in Magnetic Mode:  
         [0632]    22) Two No-Core cores, plasma  150  fuel gradually added to chambers by injection, ignition by induced compression, continuous magnetic differential provided by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement field voltage provided by traditional coils, continuous AC operation.  
         [0633]    23) Two No-Core cores, plasma  150  fuel gradually added to chambers by injection, ignition by induced compression, continuous magnetic differential provided by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a circular or oval pattern, confinement field voltage provided by hemispherical coils  106 , continuous AC operation. See FIG. 68 as an example of this configuration.  
         [0634]    One No-core Core Plasma Fuel Straight-line Designs:  
         [0635]    24) One No-Core core, plasma  150  fuel gradually added to chamber by injection, ignition by induced compression, continuous magnetic differential provided by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a straight-line pattern, confinement field voltage provided by traditional coils, continuous DC operation.  
         [0636]    25) One No-Core core, plasma  150  fuel gradually added to chamber by injection, ignition by induced compression, continuous magnetic differential provided by circuit using spherical conducting coils arranged in a straight-line pattern, confinement field voltage provided by hemispherical coils  106 , continuous DC operation.  
         [0637]    It is believed the best design of the present invention is reactor design  12  using D-T fusion fuel pellets  136  and laser  103  inertial beams-as shown in the preferred embodiment in FIG. 1. The confinement circuit described here could potentially be added to the National Ignition Facility currently being built. Or, a similar facility, using the same type of laser inertial confinement could be built, but with the added confinement circuit. The benefits of this design are: the simplicity of one reactor core  101 ; the lower magnetic fields required due to inertial ignition techniques; and the smooth harmonics of the hemispherical coils  106 .  
         [0638]    In the mid-term, it is believed that design number 8 would be best. It has: 2 reactor cores  101 ; uses D-D plasma  150  fuel; uses hemispherical coils  106 ; and is optimized for 60 MHz pulsed (AC) operation. The benefits of this design are: efficient use of one reactor core&#39;s MHD fields for creating the other reactor core&#39;s confinement fields (like a two cylinder gasoline engine); quasi-continuous operation (i.e., requiring periodic replacement of reactor cores  101  and other components) using injected plasma  150 ; and optimization for 60 MHz AC power for direct commercial electrical grid utilization.  
         [0639]    In the long range, it is believed that design number 23 using 2 reactor cores  101  based on the adjustable wavelength “No-Core” design in FIG. 68 may be the best design. This design has many advantages: the ability to operate almost nonstop since there are no reactor cores  101  to wear out; the magnetic circuit does not entail large-scale movements of electrons that could burn out conducting spheres  102 ; the hemispherical coils  106  should provide smooth confining fields; the conducting spheres  102  and hemispherical coils  106  could be continuously cooled; the use of pulse injected D-D plasma  150  fuel into the confining fields allows the central burning mini-stars to continuously burn; the mini-stars would pulse with opposite beats (i.e., as one star expands, inducing a MHD field, this induced MHD field will induce confining fields that compress the other star, then the cycle reverses); and the induced current that is tapped off will be AC. The diameter of anode/cathode conducting spheres are larger than the diameters of the “No-Core” reactor core, amplifying the power of the spherical electromagnetic field, containment field. And finally, the wavelength of the reactor core  101  area can be adjusted to take into account thermal heating and cooling. All that would be needed would be periodic replacement of conducting spheres  102 ; shield materials; miscellaneous electrical components, and cooling system components.