Abstract:
The invention is for an apparatus and method for a refrigerator and a heat pump based on the magnetocaloric effect (MCE) offering a simpler, lighter, robust, more compact, environmentally compatible, and energy efficient alternative to traditional vapor-compression devices. The subject magnetocaloric apparatus alternately exposes a suitable magnetocaloric material to strong and weak magnetic field while switching heat to and from the material by a mechanical commutator using a thin layer of suitable thermal interface fluid to enhance heat transfer. The invention may be practiced with multiple magnetocaloric stages to attain large differences in temperature. Key applications include thermal management of electronics, as well as industrial and home refrigeration, heating, and air conditioning. The invention offers a simpler, lighter, compact, and robust apparatus compared to magnetocaloric devices of prior art. Furthermore, the invention may be run in reverse as a thermodynamic engine, receiving low-level heat and producing mechanical energy.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims priority from U.S. provisional patent application U.S. Ser. No. 61/397,246, filed on Jun. 7, 2010 and entitled “Magneto-Caloric Refrigerator” and from U.S. provisional patent application U.S. Ser. No. 61/397,175, filed on Jun. 7, 2010 and entitled “Staged Magneto-Caloric Refrigerator,” the entire contents of all of which are hereby expressly incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates generally to magnetocaloric machines and more specifically to heat pumps based on magnetocaloric effect. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The subject invention is an apparatus and method for magneto-caloric refrigerator (MCR) offering improved energy efficiency, and reduced emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases. 
     According to the U.S. Department of Energy, refrigeration and air conditioning in buildings, industry, and transportation may account for approximately 10 19  joules of yearly primary energy consumption in the U.S.A. Air conditioning is also a major contributor to electric utility peak loads, which incur high generation costs while generally using inefficient and polluting generation turbines. In addition, peak loads due to air conditioning may be a major factor in poor grid reliability. Most of the conventional air conditioning, heat pumps, and refrigerators may achieve cooling through a mechanical vapor compression cycle. The thermodynamic efficiency of the vapor compression cycle is today much less than the theoretical maximum, yet dramatic future improvements in efficiency are unlikely. In addition, the hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants used by vapor compression cycle today are deemed to be strong contributors to the green house effect. Hence, there is a strong need for innovative approaches to cooling with high efficiencies and net-zero direct green house gas emissions. 
     The magneto-caloric effect (MCE) describes the conversion of a magnetically induced entropy change in a material to the evolution or absorption of heat, with a corresponding rise or decrease in temperature. In particular, MCE material may heat up when it is immersed in magnetic field and it may cool down when removed from the magnetic field. 
     All magnetic materials, to a greater or lesser degree, may exhibit an MCE. However, some materials, by virtue of a unique electronic structure or physical nanostructure, may display a significantly enhanced MCE, which may potentially be harnessed for technological application. In contrast to the MCE found in paramagnetic materials, the large MCE exhibited by ferromagnetic materials near their magnetic phase transition temperature (also known as the Curie temperature or Currie point) may render them suitable as working materials for magnetic cooling at the target temperatures appropriate for commercial, industrial, and home refrigeration application and heat pump devices, namely 200 to 400 degrees Kelvin. For example, gadolinium (Gd) is a ferromagnetic material known to exhibit a significant MCE near its Curie point of about 293 degrees Kelvin. In recent years, a variety of other MCE materials potentially suitable for operation at near room temperature have been discovered. See, for example, “Chapter 4: Magnetocaloric Refrigeration at Ambient Temperature,” by Ekkes Bruck in “Handbook of Magnetic Materials,” edited by K. H. J. Buschow, published by Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, Netherlands, in 2008. 
     One of the very promising novel MCE materials is the intermetallic compound series based on the composition Gd 5 (Si x Ge 1-x ) 4 , where 0.1≦x.l≦0.5, disclosed by K. A. Gschneider and V. K. Pecharsky in U.S. Pat. No. 5,743,095 issued on Apr. 28, 1998 and entitled “Active Magnetic Refrigerants based on Gd—Si—Ge Materials and Refrigeration Apparatus and Process,” which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. See also and article by V. K. Pecharsky and K. A. Gschneider, “Tunable Magnetic Refrigerator Alloys with a Giant Magnetocaloric Effect for Magnetic Refrigeration from ˜20 to ˜290K,” published in Applied Physics Letters, volume 70, Jun. 16, 1997, starting on page 3299. MCE produced by this family of compounds, also referred to as GdSiGe, has been labeled as “giant” because of its relatively large magnitude (reported as 4 to 6 degrees C. per Tesla of magnetic flux density). In particular, the MCE of the GdSiGe alloys may be reversible. Another noteworthy characteristic of the GdSiGe family is that the Curie temperature, may be tuned with compositional variation. This feature allows the working temperature of the magnetic refrigerator to vary from 30 degrees Kelvin to 276 degrees Kelvin, and possibly higher, by adjusting the Si:Ge ratio. For the purpose of this disclosure, an MCE material is defined as a suitable material exhibiting a significant MCE. 
     A magneto-caloric refrigerator (MCR) is a refrigerator based on MCE. MCR offers a relatively simple and robust alternative to traditional vapor-compression cycle refrigeration systems. MCR devices may have reduced mechanical vibrations, compact size, and lightweight. In addition, the theoretical thermodynamic efficiency of MCR may be much higher than for a vapor compression cycle and it may approach the Carnot efficiency. An MCR may employ an MCE material (sometimes referred to as a magnetic refrigerant working material) that may act as both as a “coolant” producing refrigeration and a “regenerator” heating a suitable heat transfer fluid. When the MCE material is subjected to strong magnetic field, its magnetic entropy may be reduced, and the energy released in the process may heat the material. With the MCE material in magnetized condition, a first stream of heat transfer fluid directed into a thermal contact with the MCE material may be warmed in the process and the heat may be carried away by the flow. When substantial portion of the heat is removed from the MCE material, the fluid flow may be terminated. As the next step, the magnetic field may be reduced, which may cause an increase in magnetic entropy. As a result, the MCE material may cool. A second stream of heat transfer fluid may be directed into a thermal contact with the MCE material where may deposit some of its heat and it may be cooled in the process. When substantial portion of the heat is deposited into the MCE material, the fluid flow may be terminated. Repeating the above steps may result in a semi-continuous operation. One disadvantage of such an MCR is the need for multiple flow loops typically involving pumps, heat exchangers, and significant plumbing. 
     Despite the apparent conceptual simplicity, there are significant challenges to the development of a practical MCR suitable for commercial applications. This is in-part due to the relatively modest temperature changes (typically few degrees Kelvin per Tesla of magnetic flux density) of the MCE material undergoing MCE transition. In addition, at present time the magnetic field produced by permanent magnets is limited to about 1.5 Tesla maximum. As a result, an MCR using permanent magnets and a single step MCE process may produce only a few degrees Kelvin temperature differential. Many important practical applications such as commercial refrigeration and air conditioning may require substantially higher temperature differentials, typically 30 degrees Kelvin and higher. 
     One approach to achieving commercially desirable temperature differentials from MCR may use multiple MCR stages (also known as cascades). Heat flow between stages may be managed by heat switches. Each stage contains a suitable MCE material undergoing magnetocaloric transition at a slightly different temperature. While the temperature differential achieved by one stage may be only a few degrees Kelvin, the aggregate operation of multiple stages may produce very large temperature differentials. See, for example, “Thermodynamics of Magnetic Refrigeration” by A. Kitanovski, P. W. Egolf, in International Journal of Refrigeration, volume 29 pages 3-21 published in 2006 by Elsevier Ltd., the entire contents of which are hereby expressly incorporated by reference. 
     A variety of heat switching approaches have been proposed but none has won commercial acceptance. For example, Ghoshal, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,588,216 entitled “Apparatus and methods for performing switching in magnetic refrigeration systems,” issued on Jul. 8, 2003, and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, discloses switching of thermal path between MCR stages by mechanical means using micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), and/or electronic means using thermoelectric elements. Ghoshal&#39;s thermal path switching by MEMS is inherently limited by the poor thermal conductivity of bare mechanical contacts. Ghoshal&#39;s thermoelectric switches have very limited thermodynamic efficiency which substantially increases the heat load to the MCR and reduces the overall MCR efficiency. 
     In summary, there is a need for 1) reducing or eliminating moving parts and pumped fluid loops in MCR systems, 2) simpler and more reliable MCR operation, and 3) means for attaining commercially desirable temperature differentials from MCR. A specific need exists for reliable, low-thermal resistance means for switching of the heat flow to and from the MCE material in staged (cascaded) MCR. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention provides a magneto-caloric refrigerator (MCR) having one or more stages. The MCR of the subject invention may use MCE material formed as one or more members alternately exposed to strong and weak magnetic field. Exposure to magnetic field may be coordinated by switching of heat to and from the MCE material by heat commutators comprising a thermally conductive core. Thermal communication between the MCE material and the thermally conductive cores is facilitated by a thin layer of suitable thermal interface fluid (TIF) located therebetween. In particular, an MCE material immersed in a weak magnetic field is arranged to be in a good thermal communication with a thermally conductive core of the heat commutator operating at a lower temperature, and an MCE material immersed in a strong magnetic field is arranged to be in a good thermal communication with a thermally conductive core of a commutator operating at a higher temperature. 
     More specifically, in accordance with one preferred embodiment of the subject invention, the MCR comprises a suitable MCE material formed as one or more annular disks (MCE rings), heat commutators formed as two or more annular disks, and a thermal interface fluid (TIF). The commutators are arranged generally equally spaced on a common axis and affixed in space. The disks of MCE material are placed each between adjacent commutators, arranged to be concentric therewith, and affixed to a common shaft arranged to rotate about them their axis of symmetry. The axial gap between adjacent disks and commutators is arranged to be very small, typically on the order of about 50 to about 500 micrometers, and it is filled with the TIF. The commutator comprises a thermally conductive core, thermally insulating portions, and one or more permanent magnets. The permanent magnet in each commutator is arranged to have its magnetization vector generally parallel to the commutator axis of rotational symmetry. The commutators are clocked about their common axis so that their permanent magnets are placed at the same azimuthal position and their magnetization vectors at that position are pointing in the same direction. In particular, the magnets are arranged so that an MCE disk rotating between adjacent commutators would be cyclically exposed to a sequence of relatively low magnetic field, increasing magnetic field, strong magnetic field, and decreasing magnetic field. For example, a given portion of an MCE disk may be immersed a stronger magnetic field when it is between the magnets, and it may be immersed a weaker magnetic field when it is away from the magnets. 
     For the purposes of this disclosure, the term “strong magnetic field” is defined as a magnetic field having an absolute value of magnetic flux density of at least 0.3 Tesla (3,000 Gauss), and the term “weak magnetic field” is defined as a magnetic field having an absolute value of magnetic flux density of at least 0.1 Tesla (1,000 Gauss) lower than the “strong magnetic field” flux density. In particular, the range of weak magnetic field may include magnetic flux density of essentially zero (0) Tesla (i.e., no field). 
     In operation, the shaft is arranged to rotate about its axis, thus rotating the MCE disks between the stationary commutators. Rotary motion may cause the TIF layer in the gaps between adjacent MCE disks and commutator to flow in a regime known as a shear flow and also known as a Couette flow. Rotary motion may cyclically expose a given portion of an MCE disk to a sequence of relatively low magnetic field, increasing magnetic field, strong magnetic field, and decreasing magnetic field. As a result, a given portion of an MCE disk may cyclically undergo relative warming and relative cooling due to MCE. 
     In a single stage MCR in accordance with the subject invention, an MCE disk has a first planar surface adjacent to a first heat commutator with a first small axial gap therebetween and a second planar surface adjacent to a second heat commutator with a second small axial gap therebetween. Said first gap and said second gap are each filled with a suitable TIF. The thermally insulating portion of the first commutator is arranged to be in a contact via TIF with a portion of the MCE disk immersed in an increasing magnetic field, strong magnetic field, and decreasing magnetic field. The thermally conductive core of the first commutator is arranged to be in a good thermal contact by means of TIF with a portion of the MCE disk immersed a weak magnetic field. Note that the terms “by means of” and “via” may be used interchangeably in this disclosure. The thermally conductive core of the second commutator is arranged to be adjacent to and in a good thermal contact via TIF with a portion of the MCE disk immersed in a strong magnetic field. The thermally insulating portion of the second commutator is arranged to be adjacent to and in a contact with a portion of the MCE disk immersed in a decreasing magnetic field, weak magnetic field, and increasing magnetic field. As a result, the first commutator may be in a good thermal contact with a cooler portion (or portions) of the MCE disk while the second commutator may be in a good thermal contact with a warmer portion (or portions) of the MCE disk. Hence the rotation of the MCE disk causes the first commutator to become cooler and the second commutator to become warmer. By connecting the thermally conductive core of the first commutator to a heat load (a heat reservoir at a lower temperature) and the thermally conductive core of the second commutator to a heat sink (a heat reservoir at a higher temperature), the MCR may pump heat from the heat load to the heat sink. 
     In a multiple stage MCR in accordance with the subject invention, heat may be transported from one adjacent MCE disk to another through a shared commutator located between them. In particular, the thermally conducting core of the shared commutator is arranged to be in a good thermal contact via TIF with a portion of a lower stage (generally cooler) MCE disk immersed in a strong magnetic field and simultaneously in a good thermal contact via TIF with a portion of an adjacent higher stage (generally warmer) MCE disk immersed in a weak magnetic field. 
     The thermal interface fluid (TIF) is a key material for facilitating very low resistance heat transfer in the MCR of the subject invention. For the purpose of this disclosure, TIF may be a liquid or a paste. Preferably, suitable TIF has a good thermal conductivity, surface wetting capability, lubrication properties, low melting point, acceptably low viscosity, low or no toxicity, and low cost. The inventor has determined that TIF should preferably have a thermal conductivity of at least as 1 W/m-degree K and most preferably at least 3 W/m-degree K. In some embodiments of the invention the TIF may be a liquid metal. Suitable liquid metal may be an alloy of gallium (Ga) such as a non-toxic eutectic ternary alloy known as galinstan and disclosed in the U.S. Pat. No. 5,800,060. Galinstan (68.5% gallium, 21.5% indium, and 10% tin) is reported to have thermal conductivity of about 16 W/m-degree K (about 27 times higher than water), a melting point of minus 19 degrees Centigrade, low viscosity, and excellent wetting properties. Brandeburg et al. in the U.S. Pat. No. 7,726,972 discloses a quaternary gallium alloy having a melting point of minus 36 degrees Centigrade, which may be also suitable for use with the subject invention. Other suitable gallium alloys may include those disclosed in the U.S. Pat. No. 5,792,236. 
     In other embodiments of the invention the TIF may also comprise a fluid containing nanometer-sized particles (nanoparticles) also known as nanofluid. Nanofluids are engineered colloidal suspensions of nanoparticles in a base fluid. The nanoparticles used in nanofluids may be typically made of metals, oxides, carbides, carbon, graphite, graphene, graphite nanotubes, or carbon nanotubes. Common base fluids may include water, alcohol, and ethylene glycol. Nanofluids may exhibit enhanced thermal conductivity and enhanced convective heat transfer coefficient compared to the base fluid alone. In yet other embodiments of the invention the TIF may not be strictly a fluid but rather a paste comprising mainly of micro-scale and/or nano-scale particles made of high thermal conductivity materials such as silver, copper, or graphite in suitable base liquid or paste. 
     Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide an MCR that is relatively simple and robust alternative to traditional vapor-compression cycle refrigeration systems, while attaining comparable or even higher thermodynamic efficiency. 
     It is another object of the invention to provide an MCR for general refrigeration and air conditioning while improving energy efficiency and reducing emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases. 
     It is yet another object of the invention to provide an MCR having one or more stages to achieve commercially useful temperature differentials. 
     It is still another object of the subject invention to provide an MCR having low mechanical vibrations, compact size, and lightweight coupled with a thermodynamic efficiency exceeding that of thermo-electric coolers. 
     It is a further object of the subject invention to provide efficient switching of heat to and from an MCE material. 
     These and other objects of the present invention will become apparent upon a reading of the following specification and claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is an isometric view of the SMCR apparatus of the subject invention. 
         FIG. 2  is a cross-sectional view  2 - 2  of the SMCR apparatus shown in  FIG. 1 . 
         FIG. 3  is an isometric view of the SMCR apparatus of  FIG. 1  with a partial section exposing selected internal features. 
         FIG. 4  is an exploded view of the SMCR apparatus of  FIG. 1  omitting certain repeated components. 
         FIG. 5  is an enlarged view of portion  5  of  FIG. 2 . 
         FIG. 6  is an enlarged portion  6  of  FIG. 5 . 
         FIG. 7A  is an isometric view of the MCE disk. 
         FIG. 7B  is a cross-sectional view  7 B- 7 B of the MCE disk of  FIG. 7A . 
         FIG. 8A  is an isometric view of the heat commutator with one side facing up. 
         FIG. 8B  is an isometric view of the heat commutator of  FIG. 8A  with the reverse side facing up. 
         FIG. 8C  is an isometric view of the commutator of  FIG. 8A  with a partial section exposing selected internal features. 
         FIG. 9A  is a cross-sectional view  9 A- 9 A of the heat commutator of  FIG. 8A . 
         FIG. 9B  is a cross-sectional view  9 B- 9 B of the heat commutator of  FIG. 9A . 
         FIG. 10A  is an isometric view of the thermally conductive core with one side facing up. 
         FIG. 10B  is an isometric view of the thermally conductive core of  FIG. 10A  with the reverse side facing up. 
         FIG. 10C  is an isometric view of the thermally conductive core of  FIG. 10A  with a partial section exposing selected internal features. 
         FIG. 11  is a cross-sectional view  11 - 11  of the commutator of  FIG. 10A . 
         FIG. 12A  is an isometric view of the permanent magnets and the yokes of the SMCR of  FIG. 1  with all other components removed from the view. 
         FIG. 12B  is an isometric view of the permanent magnets and the yokes of  FIG. 12A  rotated 45 degrees clockwise to expose obstructed elements. 
         FIG. 13A  is an isometric view of an alternative permanent magnet. 
         FIG. 13B  is an isometric view of another alternative permanent magnet. 
         FIG. 14  is an isometric view of the MCE disk of  FIG. 7A  indicating regions exposed to specific magnetic field strength. 
         FIG. 15  is a plot of absolute magnetic field flux density along the heavy broken curve  118  of  FIG. 14 . 
         FIG. 16  is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the MCR of  FIG. 1 . 
         FIG. 17  is a diagram of temperature versus entropy illustrating a thermodynamic cycle of an exemplary portion of one MCE disk of  FIG. 16 . 
         FIG. 18  is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the MCR of  FIG. 1  showing alternative heat commutators. 
         FIG. 19A  is an isometric view of an alternative thermally conductive core with the reverse side facing up. 
         FIG. 19B  is an isometric view of an altenative thermally conductive core of  FIG. 19A  with the reverse side facing up. 
         FIG. 20A  is a view of an alternative MCE ring for reduced parasitic heat flow in azimuthal direction. 
         FIG. 20B  is a cross-sectional view  20 B- 20 B of the alternative MCE ring of  FIG. 20A . 
         FIG. 21A  is a view of another alternative MCE disk having portions made of material having high thermal conductivity. 
         FIG. 21B  is an enlarged view of portion  21 B of the another alternative MCE ring of  FIG. 21A . 
         FIG. 21C  is an enlarged cross-sectional view  21 C- 21 C of  FIG. 21B . 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     Selected embodiments of the present invention will now be explained with reference to drawings. In the drawings, identical components may be provided with identical reference symbols in one or more of the figures. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art from this disclosure that the following descriptions of the embodiments of the present invention are merely exemplary in nature and are in no way intended to limit the invention, its application, or uses. 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 1, 2, 3, and 4 , there is shown an MCR apparatus  100  in accordance with one preferred embodiment of the present invention. Note that the isometric view of  FIG. 3  having a partial section is formed from the view in  FIG. 1  by removing the quadrant-like volume identified in  FIG. 1  by a broken line  122 . The MCR apparatus  100  has six (6) stages and it comprises six (6) MCE disks  154 , seven (7) heat commutators  160 , five (5) spacer disks  172 , six (6) spacer rings  176 , four (4) magnetic flux returns  148 , end caps  168  and  170 , two (2) bearings  138 , a drive shaft  158 , and an enclosure shell  134 . 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 2, 3, and 4 , the enclosure  134  may be a round tubular member. The heat commutators  160  may be generally formed as annular disks ( FIG. 4 ) arranged equally spaced on a common axis and fixed with respect to the enclosure shell  134 . Spacing of the heat commutators  160  may be defined by the spacer rings  176  which may be also fixed with respect to the enclosure shell  134 . The MCE disks  154  may be placed to interspace the heat commutators  160 , arranged to be concentric therewith, and positioned on the drive shaft  158 . In particular, the hexagonal hole  174  ( FIG. 4 ) of the hub  156  of the MCE disk  154  may slidingly engage the hexagonal surface  140  of the drive shaft  158 . Axial position of the MCE disks  154  on the drive shaft  158  may be maintained by spacer disks  172  interspacing the MCE disks  154 . The hexagonal hole  166  ( FIG. 4 ) of the spacer disk  172  may slidingly engage the hexagonal surface  140  of the drive shaft  158 . The drive shaft  158  may be rotatably suspended in the bearings  138  installed in the end caps  168  and  170 . O-rings  178  ( FIGS. 2 and 3 ) may be installed on the shaft  158  to provide seals. The end caps  168  and  170  may include o-rings  150  ( FIGS. 2 and 3 ) to provide seals to the enclosure shell  134 . The heat commutators  160  comprise permanent magnets  146  ( FIGS. 2 and 3 ). The magnetic flux returns  148  may be installed on the end caps  168  and  170  to reduce the reluctance of the magnetic circuit formed by the permanent magnets  146 . 
     Referring now to  FIG. 5 , the spacer disks  172  are sized to provide a radial clearance gap  182  between the outside diameter of the spacer disks  172  and the inside diameter of the heat commutators  160 . Referring now to  FIG. 6 , the clearance space “S” between adjacent commutators  160   a  and  160   a , and the thickness “T” of the MCE disk  154  are chosen so that the width “G” of axial gaps  184  between MCE disk  154  and heat commutators  160   a  and  160   a  is preferably between about 50 micrometers and about 500 micrometers (about 2 thousands of an inch and about 20 thousands of an inch). Generally, the width “G” may be adjusted by appropriately defining the height “H” of the spacer rings  176 . In addition, the outside diameter of the MCE disk  154  is set to provide a radial clearance gap  198  between the perimeter of the MCE disk  154  and the spacer ring  176 . Preferably, the MCE disk  154  is axially positioned about half way between the permanent magnets  146  ( FIG. 6 ) in adjacent heat commutators  160   a  and  160   a  to balance the magnetic forces of attraction. The gaps  182 ,  184 , and  198  should be arranged to ensure that the shaft  158  together with the MCE disks  154  and the spacer disks  172  can freely rotate on the bearings  138  while preventing the MCE disks  154  and the spacer disks  172  from rubbing on the heat commutators  160   a  and  160   a  and on the spacer rings  176 . The gaps  182 ,  184 ,  198  are filled with a suitable thermal interface fluid (TIF)  142 . A list of exemplary TIF that may be suitable for practicing with the MCR  100  has been provided above. 
     Note that choosing a small width “G” of the gap  184  may beneficially improve thermal communication between the MCE disk  154  and the heat commutators  160   a  and  160   a , but the manufacturing tolerances of the MCR  100  may become more challenging. Conversely, choosing a large width “G” of the gap  184  may beneficially relax manufacturing tolerances of the MCR  100  at the expense of reduced thermal communication between the MCE disk  154  and the heat commutators  160   a  and  160   a.    
     If the TIF  146  comprises gallium and its alloys, metal components of the MCR  100  may require protective coating to prevent corrosion. Metal components requiring anti-corrosion coating may include portions the MCE disk  154 , portions of the commutators  160 , and the end caps  168  and  170 . Suitable protective coatings may include but they are not limited to titanium nitride (TiN) and the diamond-like coating (DLC) Titankote C11 available from Richter Precision, Inc. in East Petersburg, Pa. 
     The shaft  158 , enclosure shell  134 , spacer disks  172 , spacer rings  176 , and MCE disk hubs  156  ( FIG. 4 ) are preferably made from a material having very low thermal conductivity. Such suitable materials may include, but they are not limited to, epoxies including fiberglass epoxy and graphite epoxy, glass fiber silicons, plastics including polyvinylchloride (PVC), polystyrene, polyethylene, acrylics, Teflon®, and ceramics. In addition, some of these parts (namely, the drive shaft  158 ) may be made hollow to further reduce their thermal conductance. Furthermore, the outer perimeter of the enclosure shell  134  may be equipped with a suitable thermally insulating jacket (not shown). Suitable thermally insulating jacket may be made from, but it is not limited to, polystyrene foam. 
     The bearings  138  are preferably made of made from a material having low friction with respect to the material of the shaft. Alternatively, the bearings  138  may include antifriction (i.e., rolling element) bearing portion. The o-rings  150  and  178  may be made from a suitable elastomeric material such as buna-n, silicon rubber, Viton®, or Teflon®. The end caps  168  and  170  are preferably made of made from a material having high thermal conductivity such as, but not limited to, copper, aluminum, silicon, silicon carbide, and aluminum nitride. The magnetic flux returns  148  are preferably made from a soft magnetic material having a high magnetic saturation such as, but not limited to, mild steel, low carbon steel, silicon steel, iron, iron-cobalt-vanadium alloys, Consumet® electrical iron, and Hyperco® 50. Consumet® electrical iron and Hyperco® 50 are available from Carpenter Technology Corporation in Wyomissing, Pa. 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 7A and 7B , the MCE disk  154  comprises an MCE ring  162  and a hub  156 . The MCE ring  162  may be formed from a suitable MCE material and it may be shaped as an annular disk having an outside diameter “D”, width “W”, and thickness “T”. Typical range for the outside diameter “D” is from about 5 centimeters to about 30 centimeters, however, an MCE ring  162  having a diameter “D” outside this range may be also practiced. Typical range for the width “W” is from about 2 centimeters to about 12 centimeters, however, an MCE ring  162  having a width “D” outside this range may be also practiced. Typical range for the thickness “T” is from about 0.5 millimeters to about 5 millimeters, however, an MCE ring  162  having a thickness “T” outside this range may be also practiced. Preferably, the MCE material of each MCE ring  162  is optimized for the anticipated operating temperature range in accordance with its placement in the MCR  100 . For example, if the MCE rings  162  are made of the above noted GdSiGe alloy, the Si:Ge ratio may be adjusted so that the alloy Currie point is near (or within) the anticipated operating temperature range of the MCE ring. The hub  156  is affixed to the MCE ring  162 . The hub  156  has a hexagonal hole  174  for engaging the hexagonal surface  140  of the drive shaft  158 . When the hub  156  is made of thermoplastic material, it may be molded directly onto the MCE ring  162 . 
     Referring now to  FIGS. 8A, 8B, 8C, 9A, and 9B , the heat commutator  160  may be generally formed as an annular disk comprising a thermally conducting core  164 , thermally insulating portions  151 ,  152 , and  153 , and permanent magnets  146 . Note that the isometric view of  FIG. 8C  having a partial section is formed from the view in  FIG. 8A  by removing the quadrant-like volume identified in  FIG. 8A  by a heavy broken line. The thermally conducting core  164  shown in  FIGS. 10A, 10B, 10C, and 11  may be generally formed as an annular disk-like member comprising thermal interface surfaces  192  and  194 , sloped surfaces  143  and  144 , and magnet pockets  180 . Note that the isometric view of  FIG. 10C  having a partial section is formed from the view in  FIG. 10A  by removing the quadrant-like volume identified in  FIG. 10A  by a heavy broken line. The thermally conducting core  164  is preferably constructed from a material having high thermal conductivity. Materials suitable for construction of the thermally conducting core  164  may include, but they are not limited to, copper, aluminum, silicon, aluminum nitride, and silicon carbide. The thermally conducting core  164  may be fabricated as one piece using casting, conventional machining, molding, or electro-discharge machining (EDM), or any combination thereof, or by any other suitable technique. The insulating portions  151 ,  152 , and  153  ( FIGS. 8A, 8B, 8C, 9A, and 9B ,) of the heat commutator  160  are preferably made from a material having a low thermal conductivity and/or being substantially thermally insulating. When the insulating portions  151 ,  152 , and  153  are made of a suitable thermoplastic material, they may be molded directly onto the thermally conductive core  164 . The permanent magnets  146  may be installed in the pockets  180  within the thermally conducting core  164  (see  FIGS. 10A, 10B, 10C, and 11 ) prior to installation of the insulating portion  153 . Preferably, the insulating portions  153  seal the magnets  146  in their pockets  180  to prevent their exposure to the TIF. The permanent magnets  146  may be of the rare earth type such as a neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) composition having a remanent magnetic flux density in excess of 1.4 Tesla, but other types of permanent magnets may be also practiced with the subject invention. Preferably, the permanent magnets  146  are arranged to fit tightly into the pockets  180  to provide good thermal communication therebetween. The magnetization vectors  186  of the permanent magnets  146  are preferably arranged to be perpendicular to the thermal interface surfaces  194  of the thermally conducting core  164  ( FIG. 10B ). The direction of the magnetization vectors  186  is generally shown in  FIG. 9B  where the symbol “•” represents a magnetization vector being normal to the drawing sheet and pointing out toward the viewer, and the symbol “0” represents a magnetization vector being normal to the drawing sheet and pointing in away from the viewer. 
     When the commutators  160  are installed in the MCR  100  as shown in  FIGS. 2, 3, and 4 , the magnetization vectors of their permanent magnets  146  at each azimuthal position are aligned in the same direction. As a result, the permanent magnets  146  and the four (4) flux returns  148  form a magnetic structure  126  shown in  FIGS. 12A and 12B . The magnets  146  in the magnetic structure  126  are arranged in four stacks  120   a ,  120   b ,  120   c , and  120   d . The magnets in each stack have their magnetization vectors  186  aligned in the same direction. Furthermore, the magnetization vectors  186  of the permanent magnets  146  in the stacks  120   a  and  120   c  are pointing in the same direction. The magnetization vectors  186  of the permanent magnets  146  in the stacks  120   b  and  120   d  are pointing in the same direction, which is opposite to the direction of magnetization vectors of the stacks  120   a  and  120   c . Two (2) magnetic flux returns  148  are provided to close the magnetic circuit  190  ( FIG. 12A ) formed by the magnet stacks  120   a  and  120   c . Another two (2) magnetic flux returns  148  are provided to close the magnetic circuit formed by the magnet stacks  120   b  and  120   d.    
     The permanent magnets  146  shown in  FIGS. 12A and 12B  are formed to a rectilinear shape. However, other magnet shapes may be also used with the subject invention.  FIGS. 13A  and B respectively show examples of alternative permanent magnet shapes  146 ′ and 146″ that may be used with the subject invention. 
     An MCE disk  154  installed in the MCR  100  will be exposed magnetic field spatially varying from weak to strong.  FIG. 14  is an approximate map of the magnetic field in the MCE disk  154  identifying regions  130  of generally constant and strong magnetic field, regions  128  of generally constant and weak magnetic field, and regions  132  of increasing or decreasing magnetic field having strong gradient.  FIG. 15  shows a typical profile of absolute magnetic field value along an azimuthal path  118  in the MCE ring  162  of  FIG. 14 . Azimuthal positions I, II, III, and IV generally define boundaries between regions of specific magnetic field strength. In particular, the segment is generally a region of a weak magnetic field, the segment I-II is generally a region of an increasing magnetic field, the segment II-III is generally a region of a strong magnetic field, the segment III-IV is generally a region of decreasing magnetic field, and the segment IV-I +  is generally a region of a weak magnetic field.  FIG. 16  shows an enlarged section of the MCR  100  along an azimuthal path (which may be similar to the path  118  of  FIG. 14 ) including two MCE disks  154   a  and  154   b , and their adjacent heat commutators  160   a ,  160   b , and  160   c . The azimuthal positions I, II, III, and IV are shown with respect to the features of the heat commutators  160   a ,  160   b , and  160   c.    
     In operation, the drive shaft  158  together with the MCE disks  154  and disk spacers  172  ( FIG. 2 ) may be rotated by an externally applied torque in the direction identified by arrow  116  ( FIG. 1 ). For example, the drive shaft may  158  may be rotated by an electric motor, hydraulic motor, air motor, an internal combustion engine, a mechanical spring, by hand, or by any other suitable means. Concurrently, the heat commutators  160 , the enclosure shell  134 , the spacer rings  176 , the bearings  138 , the end caps  168  and  170 , and the magnet flux returns  148  may remain stationary. The relative motion between the MCE disks  154  and the heat commutators  160  may cause the TIF  142  in the gaps  184  ( FIGS. 6 and 16 ) to flow in a regime known as “shear-driven flow” also known as a “Couette flow.” Such a flowing condition of the TIF  142  may significantly enhance its heat transferring capability. 
     Now referring to  FIG. 16 , rotary motion causes the MCE rings  162   a  and  162   b  to move azimuthally in the direction of the arrow  124 . Thus an exemplary portion of the MCE rings  162   a  and  162   b  may repeatedly pass through the positions IV − , I, II, III, IV, and I + . In particular, an exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  arriving at the position IV″ forms a good thermal communication (via TIF  142  in the gap  184 ) with the thermally conducting core  164   a  of the heat commutator  160   a . While being in the segment IV − -I (region of substantially constant weak magnetic field), the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  may be in its lower temperature state and it may receive heat from the thermally conducting core  164   a . In particular, heat flow is indicated by a dotted line and arrow  114 . Concurrently, the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  is thermally insulated from the heat commutator  160   b  by the insulating portion  152   b . Since most MCE materials may have a limited thermal conductivity (typically around 10 Watts/meter-degrees Kelvin or less), azimuthal conduction of heat in the MCE ring  162   a  may be rather slow compared to the speed of azimuthal motion indicated by the arrow  124 . Hence, the temperature of the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  at the position I may be higher than its temperature at the position IV − . The associated thermodynamic process is shown in  FIG. 17 , which (in an idealized theoretical sense) plots the temperature of the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  against its entropy. In particular, the thermodynamic process of the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  in the segment IV-I, which is labeled “isofield heating” (because it occurs at a substantially constant magnetic field) includes heat input (from the thermally conducting core  164   a ) accompanied by the increases in each the temperature and the entropy the exemplary portion. 
     Referring now back to  FIG. 16 , the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  may now progress to the segment I-II (a region of increasing magnetic field) where it may experience a temperature rise due to the MCE. Concurrently, the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  is being thermally insulated from the thermally conducting core  164   a  by the insulating portion  151   a  and from the thermally conducting core  164   b  by the insulating portion  152   b . The thermodynamic process of the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  in the segment I-II is labeled “adiabatic heating” in  FIG. 17  because the heating occurs under substantially thermally insulated conditions. Referring now back to  FIG. 16 , the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  may now progress to the segment II-III (a region of substantially constant strong magnetic field) where it may be in a good thermal communication (via TIF  142  in the gap  184 ) with the thermally conducting core  164   b  of the heat commutator  160   b  while being thermally insulated from the thermally conducting core  164   a  by the insulating portion  151   a . Note, that at least a portion the heat acquired by the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  in the segment IV − -I has been substantially transported to the segment II-III by the motion of the MCE ring  162   a . Heat transport is indicated by the dotted line  114 . A portion of the heat stored in the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  may be now transferred via TIF  142  into the thermally conducting core  164   b  of the heat commutator  160   b . The thermodynamic process of the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  in the segment II-III is labeled “isofield cooling” because it occurs at a substantially constant (and strong) magnetic field. This process includes heat loss (to the heat commutator  160   b ) accompanied by decreases in each the temperature and the entropy of the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a.    
     Referring now back to  FIG. 16 , the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  may now progress to the segment III-IV (a region of decreasing magnetic field) where it may experience a temperature decrease due to the MCE. Concurrently, the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  is being thermally insulated from thermally conducting core  164   a  of the heat commutator  160   a  by the insulating portion  151   a , and from thermally conducting core  164   b  of the heat commutator  160   b  by the insulating portion  152   b . The thermodynamic process of the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  in the segment is labeled “adiabatic cooling” in  FIG. 17  because the cooling occurs under substantially thermally insulated conditions. As the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  arrives at the position IV, its theoretical thermodynamic state may be same as it was at the position IV − , thus completing a closed thermodynamic cycle. Thus the, position IV marks both the end of the above described cycle and the beginning of a new cycle. As the exemplary portion of the MCE ring  162   a  progresses though the segment Iv-I + , it acquires heat from the thermally conducting core  164   a  and so on. Because the MCE ring  162   a  has to pass through four (4) peaks and four (4) valleys in the absolute magnetic field, it will experience four thermodynamic cycles per rotation. Each such a cycle may remove heat from the thermally conducting core  164   a  of heat commutator  160   a  and “pump” it to the thermally conducting core  164   b  of the heat commutator  160   b . Thus, the net effect of the rotation of the MCE ring  162   a  is the removal of heat from the heat commutator  160   a  and “pumping” it to the heat commutator  160   b . Concurrently, a similar process takes place on the MCE ring  162   b , namely heat removal from the heat commutator  160   b  and “pumping” it to the heat commutator  160   c . The thermodynamic cycle of the MCE ring  162   b  may be similar to that shown in  FIG. 17 , but it may generally occur at an elevated temperature. Each MCE disk  154  (with its MCE ring  162 ) represents a stage in the MCR  100 , which is shown in  FIGS. 2 and 3  to have six (6) stages. With additional MCE disks  154  and commutators  160  being added, an MCR with arbitrary number of stages may be constructed to attain a desirable temperature differential. Similarly, the number of peaks and valleys in the absolute magnetic field experienced by the MCE disks  154  in a single rotation may be increased or decreased. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 2 , the end cap  170  is arranged to be in a good thermal communication with its adjacent heat commutator, and the end cap  168  is arranged to be in a good thermal communication with its adjacent heat commutator. Operation of the MCR  100  may cause the end cap  170  to become colder and the end cap  168  to become warmer. The end cap  170  may be placed in a thermal communication with an article or a substance to be cooled, while the end cap  168  may be placed in a thermal communication with a suitable heat sink. The number of MCE disks  154  and heat commutators  160  in the MCR  100  may be set in accordance with a desirable temperature differential between the “hot” end cap  168  and the “cold” end cap  170 . The diameter of the MCE disk  154  may be increased to increase the refrigeration power. A larger MCE disk diameter may also make it possible to increase the number of peaks and valleys in the absolute magnetic field experienced by the MCE disks  154  in a single rotation to further increase the refrigeration power. Using stronger magnets may also substantially increase the refrigeration power. Varying the speed of rotation may be also used to vary the refrigeration power, however, excessively slow speed of rotation may increase parasitic losses due to heat conduction in azimuthal direction inside the MCE ring  162 , while excessively fast speed of rotation may limit the amount of heat that may be conductively transferred between the interior and the surface of the MCE ring  162 . The latter may be due to the already noted rather limited thermal conductivity of the MCE material of the MCE ring  162 . Depending on a specific construction, the speed at which the MCR drive shaft  158  may rotate for optimum performance may be in the range of several revolutions per minute (RPM) to several tens (10&#39;s) of RPM. As a result, the MCR of the subject invention may generate substantially less acoustic noise in the audible range than a comparable vapor compression cycle refrigerator, which may have a compressor operating at around 1800 RPM. 
     For example, if the MCR of the subject invention is used in a refrigerator or a freezer application, the “cold” end cap  170  may be placed in a good thermal communication with an inside wall of a refrigerator/freezer and/or with air inside the refrigerator/freezer, while the “hot” end cap  168  may be placed in a good thermal communication with a suitable heat exchanger cooled by ambient air. 
     As another example, if the MCR of the subject invention is used in an air conditioning application, the “cold” end cap  170  may be placed in a good thermal communication with a heat exchanger thermally contacting the ambient inside (indoors) air, while the “hot” end cap  168  may be placed in a good thermal communication with a suitable heat exchanger cooled by ambient outside air. Alternatively, if the MCR of the subject invention is used in a heat pump application, the “cold” end cap  170  may be placed in a good thermal communication with a heat exchanger thermally contacting the ambient outside air, while the “hot” end cap  168  may be placed in a good thermal communication with a suitable heat exchanger thermally contacting the ambient inside (indoors) air. 
     As yet another example, if the MCR of the subject invention is used in electronics cooling application, the “cold” end cap  170  may be placed in a good thermal communication with the electronics to be cooled, while the “hot” end cap  168  may be placed in a thermal communication with a suitable heat exchanger cooled by ambient outside air. If the MCR of the subject invention is used to cool electronics on a spacecraft, the “hot” end cap  168  may be placed in a good thermal communication with a suitable heat radiator. 
     In stationary applications, such as air conditioning of buildings, the drive shaft  158  may be rotated by an electric motor, preferably through a reduction gear box. In mobile applications such as automotive vehicles, the drive shaft  158  may be rotated directly by the propulsion engine or motor. Furthermore, in some vehicular applications the drive shaft  158  may be rotated at least intermittently by mechanical energy recovered during vehicle deceleration. Since the MCR of the subject invention may offer higher efficiency over a conventional vapor compression cycle, it may be advantageously used for cabin air conditioning and comfort heating in electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. Because cabin air conditioning and comfort heating in such vehicles competes with propulsion motors for electric energy for batteries, energy efficient air conditioning and heating is very important. 
     Referring now to  FIG. 18 , there is shown an azimuthal section (similar to the section shown in  FIG. 16 ) through a portion of an MCR of the subject invention showing an alternative heat commutators  260  having alternative thermally conducting cores  264  divided by insulators  257  at azimuthal position “A” and by insulators  255  and  259  at azimuthal position “B”. The alternative thermally conducting core  264  may be formed by radially splitting the heat transfer surfaces  192  and  194  of the thermally conducting core  164  ( FIGS. 10A and 10B ) into heat transfer surfaces  292 ′ and  292 ″, and  294 ′ and  294 ″ respectively as indicated by heavy broken lines  212  in  FIGS. 19A and 19B . In particular, the alternative thermally conducting core  264  may be formed as several separate portions rather than being monolithic. 
     The alternative thermally conducting core  264  allows for its separate portions to operate at different temperatures. For example, the alternative thermally conducting core  264  allows for a dedicated thermal communication between the portion of the MCE ring  162   a  in the segment II-B with the portion of the MCE ring  162   b  in the segment A-I without being in a direct thermal communication via the thermally conducting core material with the portion of the MCE ring  162   a  in the segment B-III. As another example, the alternative thermally conducting core  264  allows, for a dedicated thermal communication between the portion of the MCE ring  162   a  in the segment B-III with the portion of the MCE ring  162   b  in the segment IV-A without being in a direct thermal communication via the thermally conducting core material with the portion of the MCE ring  162   b  in the segment A-I + . 
     The preferential path for transporting the heat in the MCR of the subject invention are shown as dotted lines and arrows  214  in  FIG. 18 . Whereas a monolithic thermally conducting core  164  is substantially isothermal during the operation of the MCR of the subject invention, portions the alternative thermally conducting core  264  may operate at temperatures different from each other. The permanent magnets  246  may be thermally insulated from portions of the thermally conducting core  264 . MCR of the subject invention using alternative thermally conducting core  264  may have a significant performance advantage over the MCR of the subject invention using a monolithic thermally conducting core  164 . 
     It has been noted above that heat conduction within the MCE ring  162  in the azimuthal direction may be undesirable as it may reduce the efficiency of the MCR  100 .  FIG. 20A  shows an alternative MCE ring  362  having radial slots  369  for restricting parasitic flow of heat in azimuthal direction. The slots  369  may be empty or filled with a suitable thermally insulating material.  FIG. 20B  is a cross-sectional view of the MCE ring  362  showing that the slots  369  may penetrate through the full thickness of the MCE ring material. An alternative slots (not shown) may not be necessarily radial and/or may not necessarily penetrate through the full thickness of the MCE ring material. 
     It has been noted above that MCE materials may have only a limited thermal conductivity in the range of about 10 Watts/meter-degree Kelvin and often lower. This makes it challenging to conduct heat to and from the interior of the MCE ring  162 .  FIG. 21A  shows another alternative MCE ring  462  having portions  461  made of suitable MCE material and portions  489  ( FIGS. 21B and 21C ) made of material having high thermal conductivity. For example, portions  489  may be made of copper, silver, aluminum, graphite, graphite fiber, graphene, or other suitable material. The transverse dimension “X” of portions  489  is preferably made comparable to or smaller than the thickness “T” of the MCE ring  462 . Portions  489  may be formed as a cylinder, prism, parallel-piped, cones, or pyramids, or other suitable shapes. Portions  489  may enhance the conductive heat transfer between the interior of the MCE material of the MCE ring  462  and the flat surfaces of the MCE ring  462 , thus mitigating the limited thermal conductivity of typical MCE materials. This may beneficially allow for a substantial increase of the thickness “T” of the MCE ring  462 , and/or substantial increase of the speed of rotation of the MCE ring  462 . In either case, an increased refrigeration power may be obtained. 
     The above description of the embodiments of the present invention are merely exemplary in nature and are in no way intended to limit the invention, its application, or uses. For example, other embodiments of the invention may use linearly moving strips or plates of MCE material rather than rotating rings. Suitable linear motion may be continuous or reciprocating. As another example, yet other embodiments of the invention may use electromagnets or superconducting magnets instead (or in a combination with) permanent magnets. 
     Apart for refrigeration and/or pumping heat, the MCR apparatus of the subject invention may be also used to convert thermal energy into mechanical energy. Referring now to  FIG. 2 , the end cap  170  may be thermally connected to a suitable source of heat at a first temperature and the end cap  168  may be thermally connected to a suitable heat sink at a temperature substantially lower than the first temperature. Heat may flow through the MCR  100  from the end cap  170  to the end cap  168  in a similar way as already described. Azimuthal temperature variations in the MCE rings  162  may cause corresponding variations in the magnetization of the MCE material within the MCE rings  162 . In particular, cooler portions of the MCE material may be magnetized more and may be drawn more into the space between the magnets  146 , which may produce a torque on the MCE ring  162 , causing it to rotate the shaft  158 . MCR apparatus of the subject invention may be also used to convert low-level heat into mechanical energy, which may make it useful for energy recovery from waste heat generated by some combustion processes. Alternatively, the MCR apparatus of the subject invention may be used to convert solar heat to a mechanical energy. In particular, the shaft  158  may be coupled to an electric generator or a pump. 
     The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “comprises” and/or “comprising,” and “includes” and/or “including” when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. 
     The terms of degree such as “substantially”, “about” and “approximately” as used herein mean a reasonable amount of deviation of the modified term such that the end result is not significantly changed. For example, these terms can be construed as including a deviation of at least ±5% of the modified term if this deviation would not negate the meaning of the word it modifies. 
     The term “suitable,” as used herein, means having characteristics that are sufficient to produce a desired result. Suitability for the intended purpose can be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using only routine experimentation. 
     Moreover, terms that are expressed as “means-plus function” in the claims should include any structure that can be utilized to carry out the function of that part of the present invention. In addition, the term “configured” as used herein to describe a component, section or part of a device includes hardware and/or software that is constructed and/or programmed to carry out the desired function. 
     Different aspects of the invention may be combined in any suitable way. 
     While only selected embodiments have been chosen to illustrate the present invention, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art from this disclosure that various changes and modifications can be made herein without departing from the scope of the present invention as defined in the appended claims. Furthermore, the foregoing description of the embodiments according to the present invention are provided for illustration only, and not for the purpose of limiting the present invention as defined by the appended claims and their equivalents. Thus, the scope of the present invention is not limited to the disclosed embodiments.