Abstract:
A fault-tolerant multi-point flame sense circuit utilizes a single electronic switch to signal the presence or absence of flame to an electronic controller. Multiple flame sense electrodes may be input to this circuit. By configuring these electrodes in accordance with the present invention, cross-contamination of a single failed flame sense electrode will not affect the other flame sense electrodes&#39; ability to sense a flame at their associated burner. The circuit provides inputs for a number of flame sense electrodes via input channels that are capacitively coupled to the line voltage and resistively coupled to an RC network that controls the state of an electronic switch. When a flame is present at any one of the electrodes, the resulting unbalance current flow through the RC network turns the switch off to indicate the presence of flame. This operation is not affected by a short on any other electrode in the circuit.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
         [0001]    This invention relates generally to burner flame sense circuitry, and more particularly to electronic flame sense circuitry having multiple flame sense electrodes for sensing multiple burners.  
         BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
         [0002]    Advances in the sophistication and reliability of control electronics have long made their incorporation in consumer appliances desirable. However, only recently has the cost of such electronics been compatible with the extremely competitive marketplace for these appliances.  
           [0003]    One such commercial and consumer market into which control electronics have now been widely incorporated is that for consumer and commercial cooking appliances such as ovens. The control electronics for such modern ovens provide programmable cooking cycles and control each aspect of the flame control system, primarily safety control. Many such modern ovens incorporate a gas distribution system (GDS) that includes an ignition module, solenoid valves, burners, and hot surface igniter or spark electrodes. The ignition module dispenses with the necessity of continually having a pilot flame burning in the appliance to reliably ignite the gas burners when called for by the thermostat. The electronically controlled solenoid valve controls the gas flow for each cooking cycle, and allows for proper purging and gas shutoff during fault conditions. Such gas distribution systems typically include an electronic flame sense circuit to sense when the burners are ignited. This flame sense is used to control the direct spark ignition of the gas and to sense failure or flameout conditions. These conditions may necessitate reactivating an ignition sequence in an attempt to relight the burners or shutting off of the gas solenoid valve to allow for oven cavity purging before re-ignition is attempted. Electronic flame sense circuits typically rely on a physical phenomena of flame known as current rectification within a flame. According to this principle, a flame will conduct electricity in one direction. As such, the flame may be modeled as a resistor diode combination that allows current flow only in a single direction therethrough. These circuits are, of course, designed such that they are fail safe. That is, the typical failure mode of these circuits is such to indicate to the electronic controller that no flame is sensed. In this way, the electronic controller will shut off the gas solenoid valve to the oven burners.  
           [0004]    In typical consumer ovens, at least two burner elements are included within the oven cavity. Typically, a bottom burner is used during bake cycles, while an upper burner is used to allow broiling. In such applications, a need exists for flame sensing of both the upper and lower burners. While separate flame sense circuits could be utilized, such would serve to simply increase the cost of the sensing circuitry required by a factor of two. Indeed, in applications where multiple burners are used, the provision of multiple flame sense circuits increases the cost of the circuitry accordingly.  
           [0005]    Recognizing that the two-burner configuration in a consumer oven allows operations of only one burner at a time, i.e., either baking or broiling, a single dual flame sense circuit integrating two flame sensors has been developed as illustrated in FIG. 1. Under typical operating conditions, only one of the two flame sense electrodes  100 ,  102  would be required to sense flame at any given point in time based on the alternate controlled operation of the bake and broil burners. The flame-sensing portion of this circuit is powered from the line voltage L 1  through a capacitor  104 . Each flame sense electrode  100 ,  102  also includes a current limiting resistor  106 ,  108 . A voltage divider network including resistor  110 , and the RC combination of resistor  112  and capacitor  114  is also included. The midpoint between this resistor  110  and the RC combination  112 ,  114  is coupled through resistor  115  to the gate of a  116  of a junction field effect transistor (JFET)  118 , whose drain is coupled through resistor  120  to a 5 volt DC input and whose source  122  is coupled to ground.  
           [0006]    With no flame present at either burner being sensed by sensing electrodes  100 ,  102 , operation of the flame sense circuit of FIG. 1 generates an output voltage level equal to the drain to source voltage which is sensed by the electronic controller (not shown) as a no flame condition. That is, current flow during the positive half cycle of source L 1  flows through capacitor  104  resistor  110  and the RC network  112 ,  114 . This generates a positive gate source voltage VDS. With such a positive voltage at gate  116 , the JFET  118  remains in a conducting state allowing current flow therethrough. During the negative half cycle of source L 1 , current flows from ground through the RC network,  112 ,  114 , through resistor  110  and capacitor  104  to the source L 1 . During this negative half cycle, the voltage developed at the gate  116  across the RC network  112 ,  114  is negative. This negative voltage, however, is not sufficient to pinch off the JFET  118  to halt current flow therethrough. As a result, the JFET  118  will remain on, and the controller will continue to sense a very small voltage v DS .  
           [0007]    If a flame is present at either burner as sensed by electrodes  100 ,  102 , the flame sense circuit may be represented as illustrated in FIG. 2. As may be seen from an analysis of this FIG. 2, a flame may be represented as a series combination of a resistor  124  and a diode  126 . As will be understood by those skilled in the art, the flame provides rectification whereby current flow is allowed only in a single direction therethrough. During this flame sense condition, current flow will be from source L 1  through capacitor  104  to a current divider network comprised of resistor  106  and flame (resistor  124  and diode  126 ), and the voltage divider network of resistor  110  and RC network  112 ,  114 . However, the resistor  106  is sized in relation to resistor  110  to allow a majority of the current flow from source L 1  during this positive half cycle through its branch of the circuit.  
           [0008]    During the negative half cycle, however, the rectification action of the flame prevents any reverse current flow through resistor  106  of the circuit. Instead, all of the current flow during the negative half cycle flows from ground through the RC network  112 ,  114  through resistor  110  and capacitor  104  to source L 1 . As a result of the unequal current flow through the RC network  112 ,  114  during the positive and negative half cycles of source L 1 , an accumulation of negative charge is developed across capacitor  114 . This negative charge is coupled to gate  116  of JFET  118 , which pinches off the JFET  118  halting current flow therethrough. Because this negative charge is not drained away during the positive half cycle, the JFET  118  remains in an off condition during the entire period of flame presence. This will be sensed as a constant 5 voltage level by the electronic controller, which will be read as a flame present condition. As soon as the flame (resistor  124  and diode  126 ) disappears, operation of the circuit will return to that illustrated and described above with reference to FIG. 1, allowing the JFET  118  to turn on and dropping the sensed voltage flow a high level (e.g. 5 v) to a low level (e.g. V DS ).  
           [0009]    While the circuit of FIG. 1 provides a significant cost savings over the usage of two separate flame sense circuits, a passive failure at one of the flame sense electrodes may go undetected and result in a failure to sense flame when actually present. Such a condition is illustrated in FIG. 3. If one of the flame sense electrodes  102  is shorted  128  to ground, the circuit will no longer sense flame at either of the flame sense electrodes  100 ,  102 . When neither the oven nor the broiler is turned on, the circuit appears to operate normally with the JFET  118  remaining in its conducting mode allowing current to flow therethrough. As a result, the presence of this short  128  will go undetected until one of the burners is turned on. FIG. 3 illustrates the effect when the burner associated with the other flame sense electrode  100  is turned on.  
           [0010]    During the positive half cycle of source L 1 , current flows through capacitor  104  into a three-way current divider network having one branch through the unfaulted flame sense electrode  100 , another branch through the faulted electrode  102  and short  128 , and a third branch through the resistor  110 , RC network  112 ,  114 . During the negative half cycle of source L 1 , no current can flow through the sensed flame (resistor  124  diode  126 ) as discussed above. However, instead of forcing the current to flow through the RC network  112 ,  114  to develop a net negative charge across capacitor  114  thus pinching off JFET  118 , reverse current is allowed to flow through the short  128 . Due to the presence of this short  128 , sufficient negative charge across capacitor  114  cannot develop at the gate  116  of JFET  118 . As a result, the JFET  118  is allowed to remain in its conducting state, which is sensed by the electronic controller as a no-flame condition. As a result, the electronic controller will shut down the burner even though its flame sense electrode  100  is unfaulted.  
           [0011]    This operation may be understood more clearly with reference to FIG. 4. In this FIG. 4, the flame sense circuit is redrawn to illustrate circuit operation during a negative half cycle of source L 1 . To simplify the description of this circuit, the flame sense electrode  100  is not shown because no current may flow in this branch during the negative half cycle due to the flame rectification. As may be seen more clearly from this redrawn circuit of FIG. 4, current during this negative half cycle will flow from ground through short  128 , resistor  108 , capacitor  104  to the source L 1 . Current will also flow from ground through the RC network  112 ,  114 , resistor  110 , and capacitor  104  during this negative half cycle. However, the proportion of current flowing through the short circuit  128  to that flowing through the RC network  112 ,  114  is such that the charge across capacitor  114  at gate  116  is not sufficient to shut off switch  118 . As such, the JFET  118  is allowed to remain conducting, which is sensed as a no-flame condition.  
           [0012]    As a result of this cross-contamination, field service personnel will have a difficult time isolating the failure. This is because the typical problem report will indicate that the burner with the unfaulted flame sense electrode  100  was turned on but the system did not sense a flame. However, examination of the flame sense electrode  100  will not reveal any failure because, in fact, this electrode is not faulted. The cross contamination of failures in this circuit tends to increase the field service time required to diagnose and correct the problem, thus increasing the cost of ownership of the appliance and leading to customer dissatisfaction. However, the cost of utilizing two separate flame sense circuits for each of the two burners is cost prohibitive from a manufacturing/marketability standpoint. Therefore, a need exists in the art for a new and improved multi-point flame sense circuit that does not suffer from the flame sense electrode failure cross contamination problem existing with the present circuit.  
           [0013]    The invention provides such a circuit. These and other advantages of the invention, as well as additional inventive features, will be apparent from the description of the invention provided herein.  
         BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
         [0014]    In view of the above it is an objective the present invention to provide a new and improved multi-point flame-sensed circuit. More particularly, it is an objective the present invention to provide a new and improved multi-point flame-sensed circuit that does not suffer from the cross-contamination problem of the prior integrated multi-point flame sense circuit discussed above. Specifically, it is an objective of the present invention to provide a full-tolerant multi-point flame sensed circuit that allows a number of flame-sense electrodes to be utilized to sense multiple burners or multiple locations on a burner to verify proper operation of the burner element. Preferably, a failure of any one of the multiple flame-sense electrodes will not disrupt the ability of the circuit to properly sense flame present at a non-faulted flame-sense electrode.  
           [0015]    In one embodiment of the present invention, each individual flame-sense electrode is coupled to the multi-point fault-tolerant flame-sense circuitry of the present invention via a separate channel powered by the line voltage and coupled to the output switching device. Preferably, each channel provides a capacitive coupling to the source voltage, and a resistive coupling to the input-switching device. In a highly preferred embodiment, each of the channels for the multiple flame-sense electrodes are coupled in parallel with one another between these two points. A current limiting resistor is also included in association with each flame-sense electrode. The circuit elements are then balanced to ensure that proper operation of the sense circuit is not affected by failure of any one of the flame-sense electrodes.  
           [0016]    In one embodiment of the present invention, a fault-tolerant multi-point flame sense circuit comprises an electronically controllable switch having a control input, an RC network having a first node coupled to the control input of the switch and a second node coupled to ground, and a number of flame sense electrode channels. Each flame sense electrode channel has a separate capacitive coupling to a line voltage input and a separate resistive coupling to the RC network. Preferably, each flame sense electrode channel includes a current limiting resistor that couples a flame sense electrode to a junction between the capacitive coupling to the line voltage input and the resistive coupling to the RC network. The flame sense electrode channels are preferably balanced with one another such that current flow between the line voltage input and the ground during both positive and negative half cycles of an external line voltage is equal when no flame is present at any of the flame sense electrodes. As such, the electronically controllable switch remains in a quiescent state when no flame is present at any of the flame sense electrodes.  
           [0017]    In a further embodiment, each of the flame sense electrode channels for which its associated flame sense electrode is not failed provides a current flow path between the line voltage input and the first node of the RC network. As such, a transition of the electronically controllable switch from a quiescent state is precluded without a flame being present at one of the flame sense electrodes of one of the channels for which its associated flame sense electrode is not failed when one of the flame sense electrode channels includes a flame sense electrode that is failed. Preferably, current flow through the RC network is unbalanced during positive and negative half cycles of the external line voltage when one of the flame sense electrode channels for which its associated flame sense electrode is not failed senses a flame. This results in a net voltage buildup across the RC network and transitions the electronically controllable switch from the quiescent state. In one embodiment, the flame sense electrode channels are balanced with one another such that current flow between the line voltage input and the ground during negative half cycles of an external line voltage is equal when flame is present at any of the flame sense electrodes. This results in a negative charge developing across the RC network. As a result, the electronically controllable switch changes from a quiescent state when flame is present at any of the flame sense electrodes.  
           [0018]    In an alternate embodiment of the present invention, a fault-tolerant multi-point flame sense circuit comprises a line voltage input adapted to receive AC line voltage from an external source, an electronically controllable switch, a switch control circuit coupled to the electronically controllable switch, and a number of parallel flame sense channels. Each flame sense channel is coupled between the switch control circuit and the line voltage input. Preferably, each flame sense channel comprises a flame sense electrode in series with a current limiting resistor that is coupled to a first capacitor, which is coupled to the line voltage input. The current limiting resistor further is coupled to a first resistor, which is coupled to the switch control circuit.  
           [0019]    In a further embodiment, the switch control circuit comprises a second resistor and a second capacitor coupled in parallel to ground. Preferably, the number of parallel flame sense channels comprises two parallel flame sense channels. Current flow through the parallel flame sense channels ensures that the switch control circuit transitions the electronically controllable switch when one of the flame sense channels senses a flame. In this embodiment, when at least one of the parallel flame sense channels includes a flame sense electrode that is shorted to ground, current flow through the other parallel flame sense channels ensures that the switch control circuit transitions the electronically controllable switch when one of the other flame sense channels senses a flame. The current flow through the other parallel flame sense channels ensures that the switch control circuit does not transition the electronically controllable switch when no one of the other flame sense channels senses a flame.  
           [0020]    In yet a further embodiment of the present invention, a flame sense circuit comprises a first flame sense electrode coupled through a first resistor to a first node. This first node couples a first capacitor and a second resistor, the first capacitor being coupled to a line voltage input and the second resistor being coupled to a flame sense input node. The flame sense input node is coupled to a third resistor that is coupled to a gate of a junction field effect transistor. The drain of the JFET is coupled through a resistor to a control voltage input, and its source is coupled to ground. The flame sense input node further is coupled to a fourth resistor and to a second capacitor, both of which are also coupled to ground. The circuit further includes a second flame sense electrode coupled through a sixth resistor to a second node coupling a third capacitor and a seventh resistor. The third capacitor is coupled to the line voltage input and the seventh resistor is coupled to the flame sense input node.  
       
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0021]    The accompanying drawings incorporated in and forming a part of the specification illustrate several aspects of the present invention, and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the invention. In the drawings:  
         [0022]    [0022]FIG. 1 is a simplified circuit diagram of a prior multi-point flame sense circuit;  
         [0023]    [0023]FIG. 2 is a simplified circuit diagram of the circuit of FIG. 1 modeling the sensing of a flame;  
         [0024]    [0024]FIG. 3 is a simplified circuit diagram of the circuit of FIG. 1 modeling the sensing of a flame and a failed flame sense electrode;  
         [0025]    [0025]FIG. 4 is a redrawn simplified circuit diagram of the circuit of FIG. 3;  
         [0026]    [0026]FIG. 5 is a simplified circuit diagram of an embodiment of the fault-tolerant multi-point flame sense circuit of the present invention;  
         [0027]    [0027]FIG. 6 is a simplified circuit diagram of the circuit of FIG. 5 modeling the sensing of a flame;  
         [0028]    [0028]FIG. 7 is a simplified circuit diagram of the circuit of FIG. 5 modeling the sensing of a flame and a failed flame sense electrode;  
         [0029]    [0029]FIG. 8 is a redrawn simplified circuit diagram of the circuit of FIG. 7. 
     
    
       [0030]    While the invention will be described in connection with certain preferred embodiments, there is no intent to limit it to those embodiments. On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications and equivalents as included within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.  
       DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
       [0031]    To avoid the cross-contamination failure problem of the prior multi-point flame sense circuit without increasing the cost significantly over the prior circuit, the circuit of FIG. 5 was developed. As will be described below, this circuit is immune from cross-contamination of a failure of one of the flame sense electrodes. That is, while a failure of a flame sense electrode for a particular burner will not allow that burner to operate, other burners within the system whose flame sense electrodes are not failed will be able to continue to operate properly. That is, their flame sense electrodes will continue to properly sense flame when present so that the electronic controller will operate those burners and their associated spark electrodes and gas solenoids correctly. This circuit will also greatly reduce the amount of time required to diagnose and repair a failure of one of the flame sense electrodes since the failure will be detected when the burner associated with that failed electrode is operated. In this way the field personnel will be able to immediately inspect the electrode of the suspect burner with confidence that a latent failure located elsewhere in the system could not have caused the field problem. This greatly reduces the amount of time required for the service personnel, especially considering that the burners and their associated flame sense electrodes are physically located in different areas of the oven compartment. This reduces the overall cost of ownership and increases the customer satisfaction.  
         [0032]    Turning now to the fault-resistant multi-point flame sense circuit of the present invention illustrated in FIG. 5, it can be seen that, from a total part count point of view, this fault tolerant circuit adds only two passive components to the number of parts required by the flame circuit of FIG. 1, which is subject to the cross-contamination failure problem. As such, its slight increase in cost over the prior circuit is far out weighed by the reduce service time and increased overall reliability provided by this circuit. It should be noted that while this circuit of FIG. 5 illustrates the usage of only two flame sense electrodes  150 ,  152 , one skilled in the art will recognize that multiple flame sense electrodes may be included in this circuit as required by the particular installation into which it is to be used with appropriate balancing of component values.  
         [0033]    In this improved circuit of FIG. 5, the line input L 1  is coupled to each of the flame sense electrodes  150 ,  152  through different channels. The channel for flame electrode  150  utilizes capacitor  154 , resistor  158 , and is coupled through resistor  169  to the gate  170  of JFET  172  through resistor  164 . For flame sense electrode  152 , the channel includes capacitor  156 , resistor  160 , and is coupled through resistor  169  to the gate  170  of JFET  172  through resistor  162 . This resistor  169  is also coupled to an RC network (including capacitor  166  and resistor  168 ) to ground. The source  176  of JFET  172  is also coupled to ground, and the drain is coupled through resistor  174  to a 5 volt supply. As may be apparent from this description, additional flame sense electrodes may be added to this circuit by providing a capacitive coupling to source L 1  and a resistive coupling to the resistor  169  and the gate  170  of JFET  172 .  
         [0034]    As may also be apparent from this FIG. 5, operation of this circuit with no flame present at any of these sensed burners results in JFET  172  remaining in its conducting state allowing current to flow therethrough. That is, the forward and reverse current flow during each of the positive and negative half cycles of source L 1  flows equally through capacitors  154  and  156  and resistors  162  and  164  to the node coupled to the resistor  169  and gate  170 , and through the RC network  168 ,  166  to ground. As a result of this equal forward and reverse current flow, a sufficient negative charge cannot develop across capacitor  166  to pinch off JFET  172 . As a result, the JFET  172  remains conducting and the electronic controller (not shown) senses a flame off or no-flame condition.  
         [0035]    During a normal flame sense condition, the flame sense circuit of the present invention may be represented as illustrated in FIG. 6. In this FIG. 6, the flame is represented as resistor  124  and diode  126  coupling the flame sense electrode  150  to ground. Current flow during the positive cycle of source L 1  will flow primarily through the resistor  158 , flame sense electrode  150 , and flame (represented by resistor  124  and diode  126 ) to ground. While positive current will also flow through the RC network  166 ,  168 , this current will be small as a result of the relative sizing of resistor  158  and  164 . During the negative half cycle of source L 1 , current flow through flame sense electrode  150  is precluded by the rectification effect of the flame sensed thereby. As a result, all of the reverse current flow during the negative half cycle of source L 1  is forced to flow through the RC network  166 ,  168  and is then divided equally between the paths including resistor  162  and capacitor  156  and the path including resistor  164  and capacitor  154  to source L 1 . Since the proportion of current flow through RC network  166 ,  168  during the negative half cycle is much greater than that flowing in the opposite direction during the positive half cycle, a net negative charge develops across capacitor  166 . This net negative charge is applied to gate  170  of JFET  172 , which pinches off the JFET  172  halting current flow therethrough. The electronic controller then senses that the JFET  172  has turned off, and processes this information as a flame present condition.  
         [0036]    If a latent failure exists with one of the other flame sense electrodes as illustrated by the circuit of FIG. 7 as a short  128  from the flame sense electrode  152  to ground, the ability of the other flame sense electrodes to properly sense the presence of flame at their associated burners is not affected. Of course, the faulted flame sense electrode  152  will not be able to sense the presence of flame as a result of the short  128 . As a result, the electronic controller will not allow that associated burner to operate for safety reasons, and will properly log a failure with regard to that burner.  
         [0037]    Operation of this circuit with a flame sensed at flame sense electrode  150  and with a failure  128  on an unassociated flame sense electrode  152  during the positive half cycle of source L 1  proceeds in much the same way as the unfaulted circuit in FIG. 6. That is, only a very small portion of the current from source L 1  is allowed to flow through the RC network  166 ,  168  during this positive half cycle. The majority of the current during this positive half cycle flows instead through the two flame sense electrode branches. While more of the current flows through the faulted flame sense electrode  152  due to the short  128 , as opposed to the presence of the flame represented by resistor  124  and diode  126 , the effect from the standpoint of the RC network is nearly the same, i.e. not much positive current flows therethrough during the positive half cycle.  
         [0038]    Operation of the fault-tolerant multi-point flame sense circuit of the present invention during the negative half cycle of source L 1  with a failure of an unassociated flame sense electrode  152  varies significantly from the prior multi-point flame sense circuit discussed above. Specifically, while current is allowed to flow through the short circuit  128  of flame electrode  152  during the negative half cycle of source L 1 , a net negative charge across capacitor  166  is still generated sufficient to pinch off the current flow through JFET  172 . This allows the electronic controller to sense a flame condition at flame sense electrode  150 .  
         [0039]    During this negative half cycle of source L 1 , the circuit of FIG. 7 may be redrawn as illustrated in FIG. 8 to simplify the understanding of the operation of this circuit. During the negative half cycle of source L 1 , the current will flow from ground through the short  128  of flame sense electrode  152  and its associated resistor  160  through capacitor  156  to source L 1 . Current will also flow from ground through the RC network  166 ,  168  through resistor  162  and capacitor  156  to L 1 . However, current is also allowed to flow through the channel associated with the flame sense electrode  150 , that is through resistor  164  and capacitor  154  to source L 1 . As may be seen from a comparison of this FIG. 8 with the prior circuit illustrated in FIG. 4, the addition of the extra channel for current flow during the negative half cycle (resistor  164 , capacitor  154 ) allows a sufficient negative charge to be developed across capacitor  166  as coupled to gate  170  so that the JFET  172  may still be pinched off, halting current flow therethrough. The electronic controller (not shown) will detect this as a flame present condition, which is proper because of the flame present at flame sense electrode  150 . If no flame were present at this flame sense electrode  150 , there would not be the unbalance current flow through the RC network  166 ,  168  that will result in a net negative charge being developed across capacitor  166  sufficient to pinch off JFET  172 . Only when the flame is present and current is allowed to flow through the associated unfaulted flame sense electrode  150  does this current flow unbalance result in the development of a charge sufficient to pinch off the switch  172 .  
         [0040]    In one embodiment of the present invention, the circuit is balanced as follows: capacitors  154  and  156  are 0.01 microfarads, resisters  158  and  160  are 1.0 megaohms, resistors  162 ,  164 , and  169  are 4.7 megaohms, resistor  168  is 22 megaohms, and capacitor  166  is 0.1 microfarads. Preferably, the ratios of resistor  158  to resistor  162 , and of resistor  160  to resistor  164  are equal and a minimum of ¼ to 1.  
         [0041]    The use of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in the context of describing the invention (especially in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. The terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and “containing” are to be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., meaning “including, but not limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the invention and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the invention unless otherwise claimed. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice of the invention.  
         [0042]    Preferred embodiments of this invention are described herein, including the best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention. Variations of those preferred embodiments may become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading the foregoing description. The inventors expect skilled artisans to employ such variations as appropriate, and the inventors intend for the invention to be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, this invention includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.