Abstract:
A fiber reaction process whereby reactive components contained in immiscible streams are brought into contact to effect chemical reactions and separations. The conduit reactor utilized contains wettable fibers onto which one stream is substantially constrained and a second stream is flowed over to continuously create a new interface there between to efficiently bring about contact of the reactive species and thus promote reactions thereof or extractions thereby. Co-solvents and phase transfer catalysts may be employed to facilitate the process.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims priority benefits to provisional U.S. patent application Ser. No. 60/639,444, filed Dec. 22, 2004. 
    
    
     GOVERNMENT FUNDING 
     This invention was made with support from the National Science Foundation Small Business Innovative Research Program, Contract No. DMI-0232067 and Department of Agriculture Small Business Innovative Research Program, Contract No. 2005-33610-15504. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention relates generally to fiber reactors/contactors, and specifically to processes utilizing such devices to effect separation and reaction between two immiscible reaction components using phase transfer catalysts and co-solvents. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention enables the reaction between constituents of two immiscible fluids in order to produce desirable end products. This is currently achieved by making dispersions of one phase in the other to generate small droplets with a large surface area where mass transfer and reaction can occur, as described in  Liquid - Liquid and Solid - Solid Systems , in  Chemical Engineer&#39;s Handbook,  21-1-21-29, 5th ed., (Robert H. Perry &amp; Cecil H. Chilton eds., McGraw-Hill 1973). Dispersions are used to wash water soluble impurities out of organic process streams, to neutralize organic process streams by extracting acid and base compounds from organic process streams, and to effect chemical reactions between components of two streams. For chemical reactions, phase transfer catalysts are frequently used to enhance mass transfer across the interface of the droplets, as described in  Phase - Transfer Catalysis: Fundamentals, Applications, and Industrial Perspectives , (Charles M. Starks, Charles L. Liotta, &amp; Marc Halpern eds., Chapman &amp; Hall 1994). Co-solvents can also be used for this purpose. 
     Phase-transfer catalysis (PTC) technology is used in the commercial manufacture of more than $10 billion per year of chemicals, including monomers, additives, surfactants, polymers, flavors and fragrances petrochemicals, agricultural chemicals, dyes, rubber, pharmaceuticals, and explosives. PTC technology is also used in pollution prevention, pollution treatment and the removal or destruction of impurities in waste and product streams. PTC technology is used in these applications because it provides many compelling benefits, such benefits being primarily related to reducing the cost of manufacture of organic chemicals and pollution prevention. The many significant and advantageous process performance achievements which are routinely realized using PTC include increased productivity (increased yield, reduced cycle time, reduced or consolidated unit operations, and increased reactor volume efficiency), improved environmental performance (eliminated, reduced, or replaced solvent and reduced non-product output), increased quality (improved selectivity and reduced variability), enhanced safety (controlled exotherms and use of less hazardous raw materials), and reduced manufacturing costs (eliminated workup unit operations and use of alternative raw materials). With such a long list of highly desirable benefits achieved in commercial applications (usually multiple benefits are achieved in each application), it is no wonder that PTC technology is used in a wide variety of applications. Cost reduction and pollution prevention are the two most powerful driving forces in the chemical industry today, and they match precisely the strengths and benefits provided by PTC. 
     Despite these great benefits and the wide scope of applications, many chemical companies are still not using PTC technology. Probably the most difficult challenge to be met in the development stage of a PTC project is separation. Specifically, separation of phases can be difficult and time consuming since PTC catalysts resemble soaps and are interfacially active, and separation of catalysts after the reaction takes place is needed for product purity and quality. 
     Processing of vegetable oils typically includes the following steps: 1) acid degumming to remove phospholipids such as lecithin; 2) neutralization to remove free fatty acids that can cause rancidity in processed oils (in some processes degumming and neutralization are combined); 3) washing to remove residual caustic and soap in the neutralized vegetable oil (a double wash is often recommended); 4) bleaching to remove color bodies; and 5) deodorization. Moreover, many modern plant processes are continuous and use centrifuges to accelerate settling of oil and water layers in caustic neutralization and subsequent washing because of the formation of soap by reaction of free fatty acids and caustic, as in the PTC technology discussed above. 
     U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,754,377, 3,758,404, 3,839,487, 3,977,829, and 3,992,156 are directed to methods of effecting mass transfer between two immiscible fluids without forming dispersions. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 3,758,404 (issued to Clonts) discloses a method for effecting mass transfer between immiscible, concurrently flowing liquid-liquid phases, including a conduit having a bundle of elongated fibers positioned therein. The fiber bundle is positioned within the conduit at a perforated node that also acts as the point of introduction for the first liquid, which is deposited onto and within the fiber bundle as a film. A second liquid is directed into the conduit and over the first liquid deposited on the fibers. The large area of contact between the first and second liquids provides for an efficient mass transfer there between. The first liquid deposited on the fibers is moved along the fibers by the viscous drag occurring between the two concurrently flowing fluids. The first liquid in film form, sometimes referred to as the constrained phase, is moved along the fibers and eventually deposited in a collection vessel. The downstream end of the fiber bundle extends outwardly of the conduit into the collection vessel for the purpose of making direct fluid contact with fluid collected off of the bundle in order to prevent dispersion between the two phases. In this manner, mass transfer is efficiently effected between the two immiscible liquids without dispersion of one liquid into the other. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 3,754,377 (issued to Clonts) provides for a gas-liquid mass transfer process which is similar to the liquid-liquid mass transfer process just described. This patent teaches use of the fiber contactor to extract acidic components from natural gas and light hydrocarbons with aqueous caustic. 
     U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,839,487 and 3,977,829 (both issued to Clonts) describe use of the device disclosed therein for the alkylation of paraffin streams with olefin streams using concentrated sulfuric acid. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 3,992,156 (issued to Clonts) provides for mechanical improvements to fiber contactors, such as a method of supporting the fibers to prevent premature breakage and the use of multiple bundles of fibers and distribution tubes. These fiber contactors have proved to be remarkable inventions providing mass transfer at high efficiency levels without dispersion of one fluid into the other in the extraction of troublesome acidic impurities such as phenolics, hydrogen sulfide, CO 2 , and mercaptan compounds from petroleum refinery process streams. 
     In addition, U.S. Pat. No. 5,705,074 (issued to Brient) teaches the use of fiber contactors to remove phenolics and other water-soluble organic materials from aqueous refinery waste streams by an extraction process. U.S. Pat. No. 5,997,731 (issued to Saurez) teaches the use of fiber contactors to neutralize an alkaline solution containing dissolved sodium sulfides, mercaptides and phenolates with a carbon dioxide-containing solvent and recover processable hydrocarbon values. U.S. Pat. No. 5,306,831 (issued to Beshouri, et al.) teaches use of fiber contactors to remove water soluble polyol impurities in a sorbitan ester mixture by treating a polyol-containing sorbitan ester dissolved in a solution containing a hydrocarbon and a polar organic solvent with an aqueous metal halide salt solution. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In an embodiment of the present invention is provided a process for conducting chemical reactions in a conduit reactor comprising introducing streams containing reactive species proximate an upstream end of a plurality of fibers positioned longitudinally within the conduit reactor, wherein a first stream constitutes a phase substantially constrained to the surface of the fibers and a second stream constitutes a substantially continuous phase that is in contact with and is substantially immiscible with the first stream, and whereby the reactive species in the constrained phase and the reactive species of the continuous phase interact to form at least one new chemical species. A phase transfer catalyst is employed to facilitate mass transfer. In an embodiment, a collection vessel can be provided for receiving the constrained phase and the continuous phase, wherein the constrained phase comprises a layer in a first portion of the collection vessel and the continuous phase comprises a layer in a second portion in the collection vessel, and the layer comprising the continuous phase and the layer comprising the constrained phase are separately withdrawn from the collection vessel. In additional embodiments of the present invention, the reaction process may include co-solvents to increase solubility of chemical species produced by the process. 
     In another embodiment of the present invention is provided a process for conducting chemical extractions in a conduit reactor comprising introducing streams containing reactive and extractable species proximate an upstream end of a plurality of fibers positioned longitudinally within the conduit reactor, wherein a first stream containing reactive species constitutes a phase substantially constrained to the surface of the fibers and a second stream containing extractable species constitutes a substantially continuous phase that is in contact with and is substantially immiscible with the first stream, and whereby the reactive species in the constrained phase and the extractable species of the continuous phase interact to effect extraction of at least some of the extractable species from the continuous phase into the constrained phase. The first stream comprises an organic solvent or an aqueous solution containing an organic co-solvent. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       For a more complete understanding of the present invention, and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: 
         FIG. 1  illustrates a prior art example of a conduit reactor useful with the present invention; 
         FIG. 2  depicts a conduit reactor system of the present invention; 
         FIG. 3  depicts a shell and tube heat exchanger for incorporation into processes in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention; and 
         FIG. 4  illustrates a chemical synthesis of diepoxy resin that may be accomplished using various embodiments of the present invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention is directed to (1) a new and improved process for effecting covalent chemical reactions between components of a first fluid that is initiated by component(s) of a second, substantially immiscible fluid, in order to produce a chemical product, (2) a new and improved process for neutralizing and washing organic reaction products and vegetable oils and fats prior to further processing, and (3) a new and improved process for degumming and neutralizing vegetable oils. Some embodiments of the present invention employ fiber reactors/contactors as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,754,377, 3,758,404, and 3,992,156, which are incorporated herein by reference to the extent not inconsistent herewith; wherein two essentially immiscible fluids with reactive components in them, including one phase which preferentially wets the fibers of the contactor (constrained phase), and, if needed, a phase transfer catalyst or a solvent that partially dissolves a reactant from the aqueous phase and brings it into the organic phase, are utilized. The conduit apparatuses described herein comprising fibers may be utilized as reactors and/or contactors/extractors, but simplicity will be generally referred to as conduit reactors. 
     The fiber conduit reactor and phase transfer catalyzed reactions complement each other extremely well. Major advantages of the conduit reactor for producing new covalent chemical bonds by catalysis are: (1) processes are very fast because of excellent phase-to-phase contact, and (2) by-products are greatly reduced because dispersions and rag layers are virtually eliminated. Since dispersions are eliminated, settling time for coalescence of the dispersed particles is eliminated, thus reducing process time. When one of the reactants (such as epichlorohydrin or vegetable oil) can also react with water, this shorter contact time will mean better yields, reduced by-products, reduced pollution, and reduced costs for the process. Additionally, elimination of settling zones and/or tanks will reduce the footprint of the process and the cost and size of the process equipment. 
     The conduit reactor and vegetable oil processing also complement each other extremely well. Major advantages of the conduit reactor for degumming, neutralizing, washing, and/or bleaching fats, vegetable oils, and biodiesel are (1) very efficient degumming, neutralization, washing and bleaching because of excellent phase-to-phase contact, (2) fast separation of the two phases, and (3) elimination of long-lived dispersions caused by the soaps that form as result of caustic and water reacting with fatty acids. Use of co-solvents in the constrained phase is advantageous in light of the poor solubility of gums and stearate salts in water. 
     The fibers that may be employed in the conduit reactor include, but are not limited to, cotton, jute, silk, treated or untreated minerals, metals, metal alloys, treated and untreated carbon, polymers, polymer blends, and combinations thereof. Suitable treated or untreated minerals include, but are not limited to, glass, asbestos, ceramic, and combinations thereof. Suitable metals include, but are not limited to, iron, steel, nickel, copper, brass, lead, tin, zinc, cobalt, titanium, tungsten, nichrome, silver, aluminum, magnesium, and alloys thereof. Suitable polymers include, but are not limited to, hydrophilic polymers, polar polymers, hydrophilic copolymers, polar copolymers, and combinations thereof, such as polysaccharides, polypeptides, polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid, functionalized polystyrene (including but limited to, sulfonated polystyrene and aminated polystyrene), nylon, polybenzimidazole, polyvinylidenedinitrile, polyvinylidene chloride, polyphenylene sulfide, polymelamine, polyvinyl chloride, co-polyethylene-acrylic acid and ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymers. The fibers can be treated for wetting with preferred phases and to protect from corrosion by the process streams. For instance, carbon fibers can be oxidized to improve wettability in aqueous streams and polymers can display improved wettability in aqueous streams by incorporation of sufficient functionality into the polymer, including but not limited to, hydroxyl, amino, acid, or ether functionalities. 
     The constrained phase can comprise any liquid that wets the fibers preferentially to the continuous phase, including but not limited to, such materials as water, water solutions, water and co-solvents, alcohols, phenols, amines (including but not limited to, polyamines, ethanolamines, and polyethanolamines), carboxylic acids, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethyl formamide, sulfuric acid, ionic liquids (including but not limited to, 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate, 1,2-dimethyl-3-n-propylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate, 1,2-dimethyl-3-n-butylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate, and 1,2-dimethyl-3-n-butylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate), and the like. 
     Referring to  FIG. 1 , which depicts the conduit reactor disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,977,829, a conduit  10  has in it a bundle of elongated fibers  12  filling the conduit  10  for a portion of its length. These fibers  12  are secured to a tube  14  at a perforated node  16 . Tube  14  extends beyond one end of conduit  10  and has operatively associated with it a metering pump  18  which pumps a first (constrained) phase liquid through tube  14  and onto fibers  12 . Operatively connected to conduit  10  upstream of node  16  is an inlet pipe  20  having operatively associated with it a metering pump  22 . This pump  22  supplies a second (continuous) phase liquid through inlet pipe  20  and into conduit  10 , where it is squeezed between the constrained coated fibers  12 . At the downstream end of conduit  10  is a gravity separator or settling tank  24  into which the downstream end of fibers  12  may extend. Operatively associated with an upper portion of gravity separator  24  is an outlet line  26  for outlet of one of the liquids, and operatively associated with a lower portion of gravity separator  24  is an outlet line  28  for outlet of the other liquid, with the level of an interface  30  existing between the two liquids being controlled by a valve  32 , operatively associated with outlet line  28  and adapted to act in response to a liquid level controller indicated generally by the numeral  34 . 
     In an alternative embodiment (not shown), an inverted arrangement using organophilic fibers with a constrained phase that is substantially organic can also be used. This arrangement can, for example, be used to extract organic materials from water with organic liquids constrained to the fibers. 
     During operation of an apparatus such as that depicted by  FIG. 1 , a liquid, such as a caustic aqueous solution, is introduced through tube  14  and onto fibers  12 . Another liquid, such as epichlorohydrin containing resin chlorohydrin (organic phase), is introduced into conduit  10  through inlet pipe  20  and through void spaces (not labeled) between fibers  12 . Fibers  12  will be wetted by the aqueous caustic solution preferentially to the organic mixture. The aqueous caustic solution will form a film (not shown) on fibers  12 , wherein the film will be dragged downstream through conduit  10  by the passage of the organic mixture therethrough. Optionally, a phase transfer catalyst can be employed to facilitate mass transfer across the interface between the phases. Useful phase transfer catalysts for the reaction include, but are not limited to, quatemary ammonium compounds, quatemary phosphonium compounds, sulfonium compounds, crown ethers, polyglycols, and combinations thereof. One skilled in the relevant art would understand the applicability of various catalysts and reaction conditions to achieve the desired product. The phase transfer catalyst may be introduced to the conduit reactor in the constrained phase, the continuous phase, or both phases. As a consequence of the relative movement of the organic phase with respect to the aqueous caustic film on fibers  12 , a new interfacial boundary between the organic phase and the aqueous caustic solution is continuously being formed, and as a result, fresh resin chlorohydrin is brought in contact with caustic and the phase transfer catalyst, thus causing and accelerating the reaction. 
     Both liquid phases will be discharged into separator  24 , but the volume of the organic phase discharged will be greater because the aqueous caustic solution will move at a slower velocity than the organic phase. In separator  24 , the aqueous caustic solution will collect in the lower portion as it is heavier (denser) than the organic phase. Although the embodiment shown in  FIG. 1  describes an arrangement wherein the downstream end of fibers  12  extends into separator  24 , the present invention is not so limited. In some embodiments of the present invention, the downstream end of fibers  12  within separator  24  may be disposed above, below, or at the interface between the liquid phases within separator  24 , depending on the relative density of the constrained phase and the continuous phase. Optionally, for denser constrained phases, the interface  30  within separator  24  can be kept at a level above the bottom of the downstream end of fibers  12 , so that the heavier aqueous caustic film can be collected directly in the bottom of separator  24  without it being dispersed into the organic phase. Although the embodiment of the present invention disclosed above describes the use of a caustic solution as the aqueous phase and epichlorohydrin containing resin chlorohydrin as the organic phase, this example is only illustrative and the present invention is not so limited. Any suitable materials comprising substantially immiscible phases may be employed to practice the present invention. 
     The conduit reactor can be used with constrained phases lower in density than the continuous phase. Because the liquid phases come out of the conduit reactor separated and the constrained phase follows the fibers, the present invention may be utilized even when the phases are very close in density. 
       FIG. 2  shows a conduit reactor system useful in practicing the present invention. In operation, the secured fibers in Reactors  1  and  2  are wetted by the constrained phase (“Caustic in”) before the mobile phase (“Organic in”) is started.  FIG. 2  shows how multiple fiber reactors can be used to increase efficiency of utilization of reactants and to increase conversion of reactants by essentially feeding the liquids counter-currently through the reactor sequence. The continuous phase output of Reactor  1  (“Organic Out”) is introduced to Reactor  2  (“Organic In”) and further processed thereby. The constrained phase output of Reactor  2  is introduced to Reactor  1  (“Caustic In”) while the constrained phase output of Reactor  1  is discarded as waste (or alternatively introduced to another reactor upstream of Reactor  1  (not shown)). In  FIG. 2 , the caustic and organic phases are depicted as flowing co-currently through each individual reactor, but the caustic and organic phases flow counter-currently through the reactor sequence. Of course, fresh caustic can be used with each reactor if desired. 
       FIG. 3  shows a conventional shell and tube heat exchanger. Combining this design with the conduit reactor yields a conduit reactor design (not shown) adapted to handle exothermic reactions that need to be cooled and endothermic reactions that need to be heated. One can see that modification of the inlet of the heat exchanger tubes (“Tube Inlet”) to duplicate the inlets shown in  FIG. 1  would make each tube in the exchanger act like a thermally controlled fiber reactor (not shown). The exit end of the heat exchanger (“Tube Outlet”) can be modified to operate as a separator (not shown) to collect the aqueous phase on the bottom near the end of the fibers (not shown) and allow the organic phase to exit from the top of the separator section. Introduction of a heat exchange medium to the exchanger (via “Shell Inlet”) and outflow thereof (via “Shell Outlet”) allows for the addition or removal of thermal energy from the exchanger tubes. While  FIG. 3  depicts a counter-current flow heat exchanger, a co-current arrangement could also be used in conjunction with the present invention. In addition, although baffles are shown on the shell side of the exchanger in  FIG. 3 , the invention is not so limited and a heat exchanger without baffles may be employed. 
       FIG. 4  describes the chemical synthesis of diepoxy resin from epichlorohydrin and Bisphenol A (BPA). As illustrated therein, epichlorohydrin and BPA are combined in the presence of a basic material to produce a mixture of resin intermediates, diepoxy resin, and excess epichlorohydrin (not shown). While the major reaction products are described in  FIG. 4 , additional minor by-products typically produced are not shown. A large excess of epichlorohydrin is used to minimize formation of higher molecular weight products. Useful basic materials for the reaction include, but are not limited to, basic compounds such as amines (including but not limited to, ethanolamines, polyamines, and polyethanolamines), hydroxides, carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, phosphates, and combinations thereof. These basic materials may comprise cations including, but not limited to, lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, quatemary complexes, and combinations thereof. The resin intermediates, dichlorohydrin resin and monoepoxy-monochlorohydrin resin (collectively referred to herein as “resin chlorohydrin”), are converted to the diepoxy resin (polyglycidyl ether resin) by subsequent exposure to an aqueous base and a phase transfer catalyst in the conduit reactor described in  FIG. 1 . While the reaction depicted by  FIG. 4  utilizes epichlorohydrin and BPA, any suitable epihalohydrin. and any suitable polyhydric alcohol may be used to produce polyglycidyl ether resins according to the present invention. One suitable polyhydric alcohol is phenol-novolac, (Bisphenol F) (available from Dow Deutschland GmbH &amp; Co., Schwalbach, Germany). 
     The epichlorohydrin reaction described above is one example of a chemical reaction which could be achieved using the processes comprising the present invention. Other suitable reactions include, but are not limited to, O-alkylation (etherification); N-alkylation; C-alkylation; chiral alkylation; S-alkylation; esterification; transesterification; displacement (e.g., with cyanide, hydroxide, fluoride, thiocyanate, cyanate, iodide, sulfide, sulfite, azide, nitrite, or nitrate); other nucleophilic aliphatic &amp; aromatic substitutions; oxidation; hydrolysis; epoxidation and chiral epoxidation; Michael addition; aldol condensation; Wittig condensation; Darzens Condensation; carbene reactions; thiophosphorylation; reduction; carbonylation; transition metal co-catalysis; HCl/HBr/HOCl/H 2 SO 4  reactions; and polymer synthesis or polymer modification. In one aspect, an organic halide (R—X) and an organic acid (R′—H) may be coupled by the process described herein to produce a coupled product (R—R′), wherein R—X and R′—H can be on the same molecule or different molecules. In such an embodiment, the organic acid (R′H) may comprise a carbon acid, such as a cyclopentadiene, an acetoacetate, or an acetylene, or the organic acid may comprise carboxylic acids; thiocarboxylic acids; phenols, alcohols, thiols, amines, ethanolamines, and the like. In another aspect, water, alcohols, carboxylic acids, inorganic acids, thiols, amines, or the like may be reacted with an epoxide to form a glycol or a substituted glycol such as, but not limited to, an alkyl ether alcohol, an alkyl thioether alcohol, an ester alcohol, and an amino alcohol, a phosphate ester or a borate ester. 
     The following examples are provided to demonstrate particular embodiments of the present invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the methods disclosed in the examples which follow merely represent exemplary embodiments of the present invention. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments described and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. In the examples provided, all temperature and pressure conditions should be considered as ambient unless otherwise noted. 
     EXAMPLE 1 
     This example illustrates the use of a conduit reactor comprising a 12″×¼″ stainless steel tube containing approximately 100,000 glass fibers. 
     Tests were run with approximately 100,000 glass fibers 17 inches in length in a ¼-inch internal diameter (I.D.) stainless steel tube. The liquid volume of this reactor was approximately 2.9 mL. Two liquids were pumped through this tube, with the constrained phase on the glass fibers being a 23% by weight sodium hydroxide aqueous solution. The continuous phase was a mixture of epichlorohydrin and resin chlorohydrin (made by reacting epichlorohydrin and bisphenol A (BPA) in a 10:1 molar ratio at 70° C. for 24 hours), and included 0.2% tetrabutyl ammonium hydroxide used as a coupling initiator and phase transfer catalyst. The caustic flow rate was 0.5 mL/min. Table 1 shows flow rate, stoichiometry, conversion, and contact time data obtained using the aforementioned reactor for phase transfer catalyzed ring closure of resin chlorohydrin to diepoxy resin. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Org. Flow 
                   
                   
                 Contact Time, 
               
               
                   
                 (mL/min.) 
                 NaOH:BPA 
                 % Conversion 
                 (min.) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Start 
                 0 
                 51.0 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 16 
                 0.55 
                 68.3 
                 0.18 
               
               
                   
                 8 
                 1.10 
                 69.9 
                 0.34 
               
               
                   
                 4 
                 2.20 
                 70.9 
                 0.64 
               
               
                   
                 2 
                 4.39 
                 71.8 
                 1.16 
               
               
                   
                 1 
                 8.79 
                 77.7 
                 1.93 
               
               
                   
                 0.5 
                 17.58 
                 96.3 
                 2.9 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     EXAMPLE 2 
     This example illustrates the use of a conduit reactor comprising a 36″×½″ stainless steel tube with approximately 570,000 glass fibers. 
     Tests were run with approximately 570,000 glass fibers 40 inches in length in a ½-inch I.D. The liquid volume of this reactor was approximately 35 mL. Two liquids were pumped through this tube with the constrained phase on the glass fibers being a 23% by weight sodium hydroxide aqueous solution. The continuous phase was a mixture of epichlorohydrin and resin chlorohydrin (made by reacting epichlorohydrin and bisphenol A in a 10:1 molar ratio at 70° C. for 24 hours), with 0.1% tetrabutyl ammonium hydroxide coupling and phase transfer catalyst. The caustic solution was introduced onto the upstream end of the glass fibers at about 12 to about 60 mL per hour. The organic phase was introduced into the conduit and flowed past the fibers at rates varying between about 30 and about 3540 mL per hour. After passing through the fiber reactor, the separated organic phase was analyzed by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) for resin and chlorohydrin content and the results shown as percent conversion to diepoxy resin as listed in Table 2. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Org. Flow 
                 Aq. Flow 
                   
                   
                 Contact Time 
               
               
                 Run 
                 (mL/hr) 
                 (mL/hr) 
                 % PTC 
                 % Conversion 
                 (min.) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1 
                 30 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 95.7 
                 35 
               
               
                 2 
                 60 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 94.7 
                 23 
               
               
                 3 
                 120 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 92.9 
                 12.8 
               
               
                 4 
                 240 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 87.9 
                 7.1 
               
               
                 5 
                 480 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 77.3 
                 3.76 
               
               
                 6 
                 210 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 98.45 
                 23.3 
               
               
                 7 
                 330 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 99.09 
                 5.8 
               
               
                 8 
                 950 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 96.60 
                 2.1 
               
               
                 9 
                 480 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 98.08 
                 4.1 
               
               
                 10 
                 2010 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 88.2 
                 1.0 
               
               
                 11 
                 1290 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 92.2 
                 1.6 
               
               
                 12 
                 2480 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 82.2 
                 0.8 
               
               
                 13 
                 3540 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 79.4 
                 0.6 
               
               
                 14 
                 2940 
                 30 
                 0.1 
                 82.7 
                 0.7 
               
               
                 15 
                 1830 
                 60 
                 0.1 
                 90.1 
                 1.1 
               
               
                 16 
                 1800 
                 40 
                 0.1 
                 92.8 
                 1.14 
               
               
                 17 
                 1800 
                 20 
                 0.1 
                 90.8 
                 1.15 
               
               
                 18 
                 1200 
                 12 
                 0.1 
                 90.7 
                 1.7 
               
               
                 19 
                 240 
                 12 
                 1.0 
                 98.5 
                 8.3 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     EXAMPLE 3 
     This example illustrates the use of a conduit reactor comprising a 12″×½″ stainless steel tube with approximately 570,000 glass fibers. 
     Tests were run with approximately 570,000 glass fibers 16 inches in length in a 12″ outside diameter (O.D.)×½-inch I.D. stainless steel tube. The liquid volume of this reactor was approximately 18 mL. Two liquids were pumped through this tube with the constrained phase on the glass fibers being a 23% by weight sodium hydroxide aqueous solution containing 2% tetrabutyl ammonium hydroxide phase transfer catalyst. The continuous phase was a mixture of benzyl alcohol and benzyl bromide (1:1 molar ratio) in equal weight of toluene. The caustic solution was introduced onto the upstream end of the glass fibers at 60 mL/hr. The organic phase was introduced into the conduit and flowed past the fibers at rate of 270 mL/hr. The reactor was maintained at 75° C. After passing through the fiber reactor, the organic phase separated cleanly from the aqueous phase and was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). The data, shown in Table 3 below, indicate about 70% conversion of benzyl alcohol to benzyl ether in 3.25 minutes reaction time, with no settling time required. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Component 
                 Relative Concentration (GC-MS) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
                 Benzyl bromide 
                 10 
               
               
                   
                 Benzyl alcohol 
                 17 
               
               
                   
                 Benzyl ether 
                 72 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     EXAMPLE 4 
     The same conduit reactor used in Example 3 above was used in this experiment. Two liquids were pumped through the reactor with the constrained phase on the glass fibers being an aqueous solution comprising about 94% methanol, 4% sodium hydroxide, and 2% water. The continuous phase was soybean oil. The methanolic caustic solution was introduced onto the upstream end of the glass fibers at 60 mL/hr. The soybean oil was introduced into the conduit and flowed past the fibers at a rate of 270 mL/hr. The reactor was maintained at 60° C. After passing through the fiber reactor, the organic phase separated cleanly from the aqueous phase and was analyzed by gas chromatography (GC). The data, shown in Table 4 below, indicate about 67% conversion of vegetable oil to fatty acid alkyl ester (biodiesel) in 5 minutes reaction time, with no settling time required. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                 Relative Concentration 
               
               
                   
                 Component 
                 (GC Area Percent) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
                 Soybean oil 
                 33 
               
               
                   
                 Biodiesel 
                 67 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     EXAMPLE 5 
     The same conduit reactor used in Example 3 above was used in this experiment. Two liquids were pumped through the reactor with the constrained phase on the glass fibers being a 5% sodium hydroxide solution. The continuous phase was commercial degummed soybean oil containing 0.13% free fatty acid (FFA) (available from Archer Daniels Midland Company, Decatur, Ill.) dissolved at 30% by weight in hexane. This simulated micella was neutralized as the 5% caustic solution was flowed through the reactor at a rate of 1 mL/min. The neutralization results, shown in Table 5 below, indicate that FFA concentrations more than ten times lower than the 0.05% FFA specification for commercial soybean oil were obtained. This exceptional FFA reduction was achieved in 1 to 3 minutes with excellent and immediate separation of the phases. The reactor pressure did rise over time, however, indicating that solids were building up in the reactor thereby restricting flow (i.e., reactor plugging). 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Org. Flow 
                 Residual 
                 Contact 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Rate 
                 FFA 
                 Time, 
                 Time before 
               
               
                 Run 
                 (mL/min.) 
                 (%) 
                 (min.) 
                 plugging observed 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1 
                 4.5 
                 0.0018 
                 3.3 
                 1 
                 day 
               
               
                 2 
                 9 
                 0.0020 
                 1.8 
                 6-8 
                 hr. 
               
               
                 3 
                 12 
                 0.0027 
                 1.4 
                 3-4 
                 hr. 
               
               
                 4 
                 16 
                 0.0026 
                 1.1 
                 &lt;1 
                 hr. 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     EXAMPLE 6 
     The same conduit reactor used in Example 3 above was used in this experiment. Two liquids were pumped through the reactor with the constrained phase on the glass fibers being an aqueous ethanolic sodium hydroxide solution. The ethanol:water ratio was varied from about 1:9 to about 9:1. The continuous phase used was soybean oil dissolved at 30-95% by weight in hexane. The soybean oil used was retail soybean oil contaminated with from about 1% FFA to about 16% FFA. The ethanol was included to prevent reactor plugging, caused by organic salts (sodium carboxylates) formed and precipitated during the reaction. The reactor was maintained at 25° C. or 70° C. to increase solubility of sodium carboxylate salts. Reactor pressure remained low at ethanol:water ratios at or above about 3:7. Results are shown in Table 6 below. Runs made using 10% and 20% ethanol co-solvent (not shown in Table 6) gave pressure increases, indicating only partial solubility of sodium carboxylates at these high levels of free fatty acids. During run 8, which utilized a high caustic and high FFA concentration, solids were observed but the reactor did not plug. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 Temp. 
                 NaOH 
                 EtOH 
                 Aq. Flow 
                 Org. Flow 
                 % Oil in 
                 % FFA 
                 % FFA in 
                 NaOH:FFA 
                 % FFA 
                 Contact 
               
               
                 Run 
                 (° C.) 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (mL/min.) 
                 (mL/min.) 
                 Micella 
                 in Oil 
                 Effluent 
                 Ratio 
                 Removal 
                 Time (min.) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1 
                 25 
                 1 
                 30 
                 3 
                 3 
                 30 
                 1.67 
                 0.01 
                 19.56 
                 97.88 
                 3.00 
               
               
                 2 
                 25 
                 1 
                 30 
                 1 
                 9 
                 30 
                 1.67 
                 0.01 
                 2.17 
                 98.48 
                 1.80 
               
               
                 3 
                 25 
                 0.58 
                 60 
                 1 
                 16 
                 30 
                 1.00 
                 0.01 
                 1.10 
                 99.18 
                 1.06 
               
               
                 4 
                 70 
                 1 
                 60 
                 1 
                 8 
                 95 
                 1.00 
                 0.28 
                 1.20 
                 71.99 
                 2.00 
               
               
                 5 
                 70 
                 0.95 
                 60 
                 1 
                 8 
                 90 
                 1.00 
                 0.01 
                 1.20 
                 98.60 
                 2.00 
               
               
                 6 
                 70 
                 0.95 
                 60 
                 1 
                 8 
                 85 
                 1.00 
                 0.00 
                 1.27 
                 99.80 
                 2.00 
               
               
                 7 
                 25 
                 10 
                 90 
                 1 
                 9 
                 30 
                 16.67 
                 0.05 
                 1.97 
                 99.07 
                 1.80 
               
               
                 8 
                 25 
                 12.5 
                 90 
                 1 
                 16 
                 30 
                 16.67 
                 0.01 
                 1.40 
                 99.87 
                 1.06 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     EXAMPLE 7 
     The same conduit reactor used in Example 3 was used in this experiment. Two liquids were pumped through the reactor with the constrained phase on the glass fibers being aqueous ethanol containing about 1.73% sodium hydroxide. The ethanol:water ratio employed in Runs 1 and 2 was 3:2, and in Run 2 95% ethanol was used. The continuous phase used was neat soybean oil containing about 1% free fatty acids. The reactor was maintained at about 70° C. The reactor pressure varied from about 150 psig to about 500 psig with a flow of oil of about 4 mL/min. to about 8 mL/min., providing for a contact time of about 2 minutes to about 3.6 minutes in the reactor. The fiber contactor provided about 90% removal of FFA in this time frame. The FFA content of the exit oil was about 0.1%. The results are shown in Table 7. A longer contact time would presumably be needed to get the FFA level down to &lt;0.05% under these reaction conditions, which produce a viscous fluid environment in the reactor. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 NaOH 
                 EtOH 
                 Aq. Flow 
                 Org Flow, 
                 NaOH:FFA 
                 FFA Removal 
                 Contact time 
               
               
                 Run 
                 (%) 
                 (%) 
                 (mL/min.) 
                 (mL/min.) 
                 Ratio 
                 (%) 
                 (min.) 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1 
                 1.73 
                 60 
                 1 
                 4 
                 3.28 
                 90.2 
                 3.6 
               
               
                 2 
                 1.73 
                 60 
                 1 
                 8 
                 1.64 
                 87.7 
                 2.0 
               
               
                 3 
                 1 
                 95 
                 1 
                 4 
                 1.73 
                 77.9 
                 3.6 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     EXAMPLE 8 
     The same conduit reactor used in Example 3 was used in this experiment. Two liquids were pumped through the reactor with the constrained phase on the glass fibers being water, and the organic phase comprising commercial biodiesel fuel (available from Archer Daniels Midland Company, Decatur, Ill.). The phases separated quickly and easily at 1 minute contact time with minimal pressure, thereby demonstrating excellent washing characteristics, as shown in Table 8 below. 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Biodiesel 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Flow Rate 
                 H 2 O Flow Rate 
                 Pressure 
               
               
                 (mL/min.) 
                 (mL/min.) 
                 (PSIG) 
                 Observations 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 8 
                 1 
                 0 
                 Clear with good separation 
               
               
                 12 
                 1 
                 0 
                 Clear with good separation 
               
               
                 16 
                 1 
                 0 
                 Clear with good separation 
               
               
                 16 
                 0.5 
                 5-8 
                 Clear with good separation 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     It will be understood that certain of the above-described structures, functions, and operations of the above-described embodiments are not necessary to practice the present invention and are included in the description simply for completeness of an exemplary embodiment or embodiments. In addition, it will be understood that specific structures, functions, and operations set forth in the above-described referenced patents and publications can be practiced in conjunction with the present invention, but they are not essential to its practice. It is therefore to be understood that the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described without actually departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.