Abstract:
Use of a non-human mammalian disease model, wherein the non-human mammal has been implanted with human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP (cyclic citrullinated peptide) antibody producing cells for (i) analyzing cellular processes in a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies in such human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue, (ii) studying the role of anti-CCP antibodies in the induction and progression of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies, (iii) testing the efficacy of a therapeutic agent for the prevention or treatment of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies, and (iv) identifying a therapeutic agent useful for the prevention or treatment of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies. In one embodiment the non-human mammalian disease model is a mouse, such as a SCID mouse, and the disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies is arthritis, such as RA (rheumatoid arthritis).

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0001]    The present invention relates to the use of a non-human mammalian disease model, wherein the non-human mammal has been implanted with human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP (cyclic citrullinated peptide) antibody producing cells for (i) analyzing cellular processes in a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies in such human inflamed tissue, such as synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue, (ii) studying the role of anti-CCP antibodies in the induction and progression of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies, (iii) testing the efficacy of a therapeutic agent for the prevention or treatment of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies, and (iv) identifying a therapeutic agent useful for the prevention or treatment of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies. In a particular embodiment the non-human mammalian disease model is a mouse, such as a SCID mouse, and the disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies is arthritis, such as RA (rheumatoid arthritis). 
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    Anti-CCP antibodies play a role in arthritis and are currently widely recognized as the most disease-specific marker in RA (Schellekens G A, et al., (2000) “The diagnostic properties of rheumatoid arthritis antibodies recognizing a cyclic citrullinated peptide”  Arthritis Rheum  43: 155-163, and Vossenaar E R, et al. (2004) “Anti-CCP antibodies, a highly specific marker for (early) rheumatoid arthritis (RA)” Clin Appl Immunol Rev  4: 239-262) and have also been shown to have important prognostic value (van Gaalen F A, et al. (2004) “Autoantibodies to cyclic citrullinated peptides predict progression to rheumatoid arthritis in patients with undifferentiated arthritis: a prospective cohort study”  Arthritis Rheum  50: 709-715). 
         [0003]    Remarkably, within the group of anti-CCP-positive patients with undifferentiated arthritis, 95-98% will develop RA (positive predictive value of 93%, odds ratio of 37.8). Importantly, multivariate analyses, in which the anti-CCP antibodies were added to the 7 ACR (American College of Rheumatology) criteria, showed that the presence of anti-CCP antibodies were the most important predictive factor with an odds ratio of 38.6 (95% CI (confidence interval) 9.9-151.0). Moreover, anti-CCP antibodies can be detected in RA patients several years before clinical symptoms occur, indicating that the induction of anti-CCP antibodies precede the development of RA (Nielen N N, et al. (2004) “Specific autoantibodies precede the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis: a study of serial measurements in blood donors”  Arthritis Rheum  50:380-386). All these findings suggest that anti-CCP antibodies play a role in the induction of arthritis and have an influence on the severity of arthritis. 
         [0004]    Furthermore, a number of observations suggest that anti-CCP antibodies play a role in the pathophysiology of RA. Firstly, high anti-CCP antibody titers are associated with severe and erosive disease progression (Vencovsky 3, et al. (2003) “Autoantibodies can be prognostic markers of an erosive disease in early rheumatoid arthritis”  Ann Rheum Dis  62: 427-430). Secondly, decrease in RF (rheumatoid factor) and anti-CCP titers after B cell depletion by anti-CD20 therapy suggests an important function for B cells in the pathophysiology of RA (Cambridge G, et al. (2003) “Serologic changes following B cell lymphocyte depletion therapy for rheumatoid arthritis”  Arthritis Rheum  48: 2146-2154). A decrease in anti-CCP titers was also observed in RA patients treated with anti-TNFα therapy in combination with low-dose methothrexate (Alessandri C, et al. (2004) “Decrease of anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies and rheumatoid factor following anti-TNFalpha therapy (infliximab) in rheumatoid arthritis is associated with clinical improvement”  Ann Rheum Dis  63:1218-1221). In this study, changes in anti-CCP titers and clinical responses were correlated; patients with best clinical improvement during the therapy had the lowest anti-CCP titers at baseline and showed strongest decrease in titer upon therapy. 
         [0005]    Anti-CCP antibodies recognize proteins containing the nonstandard amino acid citrulline, which is the product of posttranslational modification of arginine residues by the calcium-dependent peptidyl arginine deiminase (PAD) enzymes (Vossenaar E R, et al. (2003) “PAD, a growing family of citrullinated enzymes: genes, features and involvement in disease”  Bioassays  25: 1106-1118). An example of a citrullinated protein present in inflamed RA joints is extravascular fibrin (Masson-Besslère C, et al. (2001) “The major synovial targets of the rheumatoid arthritis-specific antifilaggrin autoantibodies are deiminated forms of the α- and β-chains of fibrin”  J Immunol  166: 4177-4184). The inflamed synovium also contains many PAD2-expressing macrophages and sometimes PAD4-expressing granulocytes (Vossenaar E R, et al. (2004) “Expression and activity of citrullinating PAD enzymes in monocytes and macrophages”  Ann Rheum Dis  63: 373-381). Normally, PAD enzymes are present intracellularly in their inactive form, but when the cells are dying, for example as a result of extensive oxidative stress in the inflamed synovium, PAD enzymes might leak out from the cells, become activated upon changes in calcium concentration and deiminate extracellular proteins (Vossenaar E R, et al. (2003) supra). 
         [0006]    Several animal models have been used to study mechanisms of inflammation in RA (Morgan D W, et al. (1999) “In vivo models of inflammation” Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, Switzerland), but none of them have been successfully applied to study the role of anti-CCP antibodies in the pathophysiology of this disease. Recently, it has been shown that synovial proteins, like fibrin, are citrullinated during inflammation in both an acute (streptococcal cell wall arthritis) and a chronic (collagen-induced arthritis) mouse model for arthritis (Vossenaar E R, et al. (2003) “Citrullination of synovial proteins in murine models of rheumatoid arthritis”  Arthritis Rheum  48: 2489-2500). However, in contrast to the human disease, the mice did not develop antibodies against citrullinated proteins. 
         [0007]    Tanaka K et al. (2003) “Inhibitory effects of an anti-rheumatic agent T-614 on immunoglobulin production by cultured B cells and rheumatoid synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissues engrafted into SCID mice”  Rheumatology  42:1365-1371 disclose SCID mice engrafted with human RA tissue (SCID-HuRag mice) and show that treatment of the mice with T-614 (a cytokine production inhibitor) decreases the high levels of human IgG observed in SCID-HuRag mice. 
         [0008]    While a variety of transgenic and knock-out mice have been found to develop autoimmunity, no animal model producing anti-CCP antibodies or developing spontaneous inflammatory arthritis has been disclosed. 
         [0009]    Accordingly, a continued need exists in the art for additional animal models, compositions and methods to enable the analysis of cellular processes in a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies, the study of the role of anti-CCP antibodies in the induction and progression of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies, and the test and identification of therapeutic agents for the prevention or treatment of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0010]    The present invention provides a non-human mammalian disease model as a unique tool to analyze cellular processes in the synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue, the role of anti-CCP antibodies in the induction and progression of arthritis and to test the effectiveness of novel anti-inflammatory therapies, for instance monoclonal antibodies. 
         [0011]    The term “non-human mammalian disease model” as used herein means all mammals, except humans. 
         [0012]    In one aspect the invention relates to the use of a non-human mammalian disease model, wherein the non-human mammal has been implanted with human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP antibody producing cells, for analyzing cellular processes in a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies. 
         [0013]    In another aspect the invention relates to the use of a non-human mammalian disease model, wherein the non-human mammal has been implanted with human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP antibody producing cells, for studying the role of anti-CCP antibodies in the induction and progression of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies. 
         [0014]    In a further aspect the invention relates to the use of a non-human mammalian disease model, wherein the non-human mammal has been implanted with human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP antibody producing cells, for testing the efficacy of a therapeutic agent for the prevention or treatment of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies. 
         [0015]    In yet a further aspect the invention relates to the use of a non-human mammalian disease model, wherein the non-human mammal has been implanted with human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP antibody producing cells, for identifying a therapeutic agent useful for the prevention or treatment of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies. 
         [0016]    In one embodiment of the invention the efficacy of the therapeutic agent is measured or the therapeutic agent is identified by its ability to inhibit a marker of a disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies. 
         [0017]    In one embodiment of the invention the efficacy of the therapeutic agent is measured or the therapeutic agent is identified by its ability to reduce the concentration or activity of anti-CCP antibodies in the serum of the non-human mammalian model. 
         [0018]    In one embodiment of the invention the efficacy of the therapeutic agent is measured or the therapeutic agent is identified by its ability to reduce the concentration or activity of anti-CCP antibodies by binding thereto in the serum of the non-human mammalian model. 
         [0019]    In one embodiment of the invention the efficacy of the therapeutic agent is measured or the therapeutic agent is identified by its ability to inhibit production of anti-CCP antibodies or to knock-out anti-CCP producing cells in the non-human mammalian model. 
         [0020]    In one embodiment of the invention the efficacy of the therapeutic agent is measured or the therapeutic agent is identified by its ability to reduce the Tender Joint Count (TJC) and/or Swollen Joint Count (SJC) of the non-human mammalian model. TJC and SJC have been developed by the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) as disease activity measures in RA. 
         [0021]    In one embodiment of the invention the efficacy of the therapeutic agent is measured or the therapeutic agent is identified by its ability to reduce or inhibit one or more of the disease markers or conditions selected from the group consisting of: 
         [0000]    (i) rheumatoid factor (RF), such as IgM-RF or IgG-RF,
 
(ii) acute phase proteins, such as serum amylold protein (SAP),
 
(iii) ankylosis,
 
(iv) cartilage degradation,
 
(v) bone erosions, and
 
(vi) cellular infiltrate.
 
         [0022]    In one embodiment of the invention the disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies is arthritis, such as a disease selected from the group consisting of RA (rheumatoid arthritis), psoriatic arthritis, MCTD (mixed connective tissue disease), crystal induced arthritis, reactive arthritis, spondylarthropathy, osteoarthritis, sarcoidosis, palindromic rheumatism, post traumatic arthritis, malignancy related arthritis, septic arthritis, lyme arthritis, SLE (systemic lupus erythematosus), juvenile chronic arthritis, other forms of juvenile arthritis, undifferentiated arthritis, and arthritis e causa incognita. 
         [0023]    In one embodiment of the invention the disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies is RA. 
         [0024]    In one embodiment of the invention the disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies is vasculitis. 
         [0025]    In one embodiment of the invention the disease associated with anti-CCP antibodies is selected from the group consisting of primary vasculitides, e.g. small vessel vasculitis, such as Wegener&#39;s granulomatosis, or secondary vasculitides, e.g. rheumatoid vasculitis. 
         [0026]    In one embodiment of the invention the therapeutic agent to be tested or identified is an anti-arthritis agent or an anti-inflammatory agent. 
         [0027]    In one embodiment of the invention the therapeutic agent to be tested or identified is an antibody or an antibody fragment. The antibody can be polyclonal or monoclonal. The antibody can be chimeric, humanized or fully human. Furthermore, it could be a bi-specific antibody or a combination of two or more antibodies. Other examples of therapeutic agents are small molecules, peptides, nucleic acids, other binding molecules, etc. 
         [0028]    In one embodiment of the invention the antibody is selected from the group consisting of anti-CD20 antibodies, anti-IL-15 antibodies, anti-TNF-alpha antibodies, anti-IL-1 antibodies, anti-IL-1R antibodies, anti-IL-2Ralpha antibodies, and antibodies against IL-1 accessory protein. Further non-limiting examples are anti-IL-6Ralpha antibodies, anti-gp130 antibodies, and anti-CD38 antibodies. 
         [0029]    In one embodiment of the invention the antibody is an anti-CD20 antibody, such as one of the antibodies disclosed in WO 2004/035607 (2F2, 7D8 and 11B8), rituximab, tositumomab, 2H7.v16 as disclosed in WO 2004/56312, IMMU-106 as disclosed in WO 2003/68821, or TRU-015 as disclosed in US 2003/0118592. 
         [0030]    In one embodiment of the invention the antibody is an anti-IL2Ralpha antibody, such as daclizumab, basiliximab, or one of the antibodies disclosed in WO 2004/045512 (AB1, AB7, AB11, or AB12), or an anti-IL15 antibody, such as 146B7 as disclosed in WO 03/017935. 
         [0031]    In one embodiment of the invention the non-human mammal is a mouse, such as a SCID mouse or a nude mouse. 
         [0032]    The term “SCID mouse” as used herein means a mutant mouse strain producing very few mature B and T cells due to a failure of DNA rearrangement in the developing lymphocytes of the mice. SCID is an abbreviation for severe combined immune deficient. 
         [0033]    In one embodiment of the invention the non-human mammal has been implanted with human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP antibody producing cells derived from a patient suffering from arthritis, such as from a patient suffering from a disease selected from the group consisting of RA, psoriatic arthritis, MCTD, crystal induced arthritis, reactive arthritis, spondylarthropathy, osteoarthritis, sarcoidosis, palindromic rheumatism, post traumatic arthritis, malignancy related arthritis, septic arthritis, lyme arthritis, SLE, juvenile chronic arthritis, other forms of juvenile arthritis, undifferentiated arthritis, and arthritis e causa incognita. 
         [0034]    In one embodiment of the invention the non-human mammal has been implanted with human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP antibody producing cells derived from a patient suffering from RA. 
         [0035]    In one embodiment of the invention an agent for stimulating anti-CCP antibody production, such as LPS (lipopolysaccharide) or T cell-derived cytokines, such as IL-4, IFN-γ (interferon-gamma) or IL-10, has been added to the human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP antibody producing cells prior to implantation thereof. 
         [0036]    In one embodiment of the invention the non-human mammal has been administered with an agent for stimulating anti-CCP antibody production, such as LPS (lipopolysaccharide) or T cell-derived cytokines, such as IL-4, IFN-γ (interferon-gamma) or IL-10, prior to, during or after implantation of the human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP antibody producing cells. 
         [0037]    In one embodiment of the invention the non-human mammal has been implanted with human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP antibody producing cells, wherein arthritis is induced by intra-articular injection of an inflammation inducing agent. 
         [0038]    In one embodiment of the invention the inflammation inducing agent is selected from the group consisting of LPS, streptococcal wall-debris, immune complexes, cytokine-producing recombinant viruses, including recombinant adenovirus, recombinant adeno-associated virus, and recombinant retroviruses. 
         [0039]    In one embodiment of the invention the non-human mammal has been implanted with human synovial tissue or other human inflamed tissue containing anti-CCP antibody producing cells, wherein citrullinated proteins are generated in the articular joint by intra-articular injection of recombinant viruses encoding citrunillating enzymes of human, vertebrate or non-vertebrate origin, including peptidyl arginine deiminase 1-6, by injection of other vectors encoding such enzymes, or by injection of protein representing such enzymes. 
         [0040]    Other aspects and advantages of the present invention are described further in the following detailed description. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0041]      FIG. 1  shows immunohistochemical staining for human van Willebrand factor and murine CD31 on acetone-fixed cryosections of non-implanted synovial tissue and a synovial graft explanted from SCID-mouse 7, 17, and 27 days after implantation. Sections were counterstained with hematoxylin. Magnification: 125×. 
           [0042]      FIG. 2  shows immunohistochemical staining for human cell-specific markers on acetone-fixed cryosections of non-implanted synovial tissue and a synovial graft explanted from SCID-mouse 27 days after implantation. Sections were counterstained with hematoxylin. Magnification: 125×. 
           [0043]      FIG. 3  shows immunohistochemical staining for proliferation marker Ki-67 on acetone-fixed cryosections of non-implanted synovial tissue and a synovial graft explanted from SCID-mouse 7, 17, and 27 days after implantation. Sections were counterstained with hematoxylin. Magnification: 125×. 
           [0044]      FIG. 4  shows the presence of anti-CCP antibodies in the sera of SCID-mice implanted with anti-CCP+ or anti-CCP− human synovial tissue as measured by ELISA. White bars: plate coated with cyclic peptide containing arginine. Black bars: plate coated with CCP. After implantation: pooled sera 1 week and 2 weeks after implantation. Positive control: serum of anti-CCP+ patient. 
           [0045]      FIG. 5  shows a simulation curve for IgG production by synovial xenograft in an RA SCID mouse model. The anti-CCP antibodies form part of the IgG and will follow the same kinetics as shown for IgG. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
       [0046]    It is believed that anti-CCP antibodies are involved in the induction or progression arthritis. A possible mechanism by which anti-CCP antibodies could contribute to disease progression is as follows. An initial small inflammation might cause death of PAD-expressing cells, release of PAD enzymes and the generation of citrullinated proteins in the synovlum. In anti-CCP positive patients, the locally produced anti-CCP antibodies would bind citrullinated proteins and form immune complexes, which would subsequently cause activation of inflammatory cells and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Next, the cytokines would promote influx of more inflammatory cells into the synovium which would eventually die and cause the production of more citrullinated proteins. In this way, anti-CCP antibodies might contribute to the perpetuation of the inflammation and the chronic nature of the disease. 
         [0047]    The present invention provides a useful tool for investigating in vivo properties of novel therapies, such as treatment with monoclonal antibodies directed against a particular cell type, cytokine, etc. Monitoring of changes in the composition and magnitude of cellular infiltrate in the graft upon treatment with novel therapies can also provide information on interactions between cells and immune mediators. The presence of anti-CCP antibodies in sera of the non-human mammals implanted with human synovial tissue allows investigations on the role of these antibodies in the induction or progression of RA and other diseases in which anti-CCP antibodies play a role. 
         [0048]    Various aspects of the invention are described in further detail in the following examples. 
       EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
     Implantation of Synovial Tissue in Mice 
       [0049]    SCID-mice, strain C.B.-17/IcrCrl-SCID-bg, male/female, 4-12 weeks, purchased from Charles River Nederland (Maastricht, the Netherlands) were kept in IVC cages under standard conditions of temperature and light, and were fed laboratory chow and water ad libitum. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Leiden University Medical Center-Academic Hospital Leiden (ADEC), the Netherlands. 
         [0050]    Before implantation the mice were anesthetized by intraperitoneal injection of ketamine (NIMATEK, EuroVet) and xylazine (Rompun, Bayer) in a v/v ratio of 1:1. A small incision of the skin was made using surgical scissors. Inflamed synovial tissue of a patient with RA undergoing joint replacement surgery was implanted subcutaneously as a cluster of six small fragments (total 2-3 mm 3 ) on each flank of the mouse. The wound was closed using Permacol cyanoacrylate glue. 
         [0051]    At the end of experiment the mice were sacrificed by CO 2  inhalation. The synovial grafts were explanted. One of them was snap-frozen in OCT compound (TissueTek, Sacura Finetek Europe) for further immunohistochemical analysis. 
       Example 2 
     Serum Collection 
       [0052]    Blood samples were collected using capillaries (Microvette CB300, Sarstedt, Germany) before and weekly after implantation. To ensure larger volume of serum, at the end of the experiment the mice were sacrificed by CO 2  inhalation and blood samples were collected by heart punction using a 25 G needle on a 1 ml syringe. Serum was obtained by centrifugation in an Eppendorf MiniSpin centrifuge for 30 min at 13000 rpm and stored at −20° C. 
       Example 3 
     Immunohistochemistry 
       [0053]    5 μM cryosections on Superfrost (Menzel GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany) slides were prepared using LEICA CM1900 cryostate and stored at −80° C. Thawed sections were fixed in acetone for 10 min, dried at room temperature and washed 3×5 min in PBS (phosphate buffered saline). All steps were performed at room temperature. Endogenous peroxidase activity was blocked by incubation with 0.3% hydrogen peroxide/0.1% sodium azide for 20 min. Slides were washed 3×5 min in PBS. Thereafter, primary antibody diluted in 1% BSA (bovine serum albumin)/PBS was incubated for 60 min. After 3×2 min wash in PBS, HRP (horseradish peroxidase)-conjugate (goat anti-mouse Ig-HRP; DAKO P0447, DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark) diluted 1:50 in 1% BSA/10% NHS/PBS was added over 30 min. Peroxidase signal was enhanced using TSA™ Biotin system (Perkin Elmer Life Sciences, NEL700). Shortly, slides were washed 3×2 min in PBS and incubated with biotinyl tyramide diluted 1:400 in amplification buffer for 30 min. After 3×2 min wash in PBS, streptavidin-HRP diluted 1:100 in 1% BSA/PBS was added for 30 min. Slides were washed 3×2 min in PBS and preincubated with AEC (3-amino-9-ethylcarbazole) buffer (0.03M acetic acid/0.07M sodium acetate) for 2 min. Peroxidase activity was detected using AEC as a substrate. Slides were incubated with the AEC solution (0.47 mg/ml AEC/0.22% hydrogen peroxide in AEC buffer) for 20 min. Colour reaction was stopped with distilled water. Finally, slides were counterstained with hematoxyline (Merck), washed with running water and covered with Kaiser&#39;s glycerin and cover slips. 
         [0054]    As it appears from  FIGS. 1 to 3  the inflamed synovial tissue of the RA patient was successfully engrafted. As it can be seen from  FIG. 1  the graft becomes vascularized by murine vessels.  FIG. 2  shows that human immune cells, including T cells, B cells, plasma cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, but not neutrophils, persist in the graft for a prolonged time, i.e. at least up to 3 weeks after implantation.  FIG. 3  shows the persistence of cellular infiltrate in the xenograft for a prolonged time, i.e. at least up to 3 weeks after implantation. 
       Example 4 
     Anti-CCP Antibody Assay 
       [0055]    The presence of human anti-CCP antibodies in sera was measured using anti-CCP-ELISA (CCP1 test, cf. Schellekens G A, et al. (2000) “The diagnostic properties of rheumatoid arthritis antibodies recognizing a cyclic citrullinated peptide”  Arthritis Rheum  43: 155-163). Plates coated with cyclic peptide containing arginine or citrullinated cyclic peptide (CCP; obtained from Dr W. van Venrooij, Dept. Biochemistry, NCMLS Nijmegen, the Netherlands) were incubated with 100 μl/well of mouse sera diluted 1:4 in PBS/1% BSA/0.05% Tween-20 for 1 hour at 37° C. in a humid incubation chamber. Anti-CCP-positive human serum was used as a positive control. After wash (6×) with PBS/0.05% Tween-20, 100 μl of rabbit anti-human HRP-conjugated antibody (PO 214 , DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark; 1:10000 in PBS/1% BSA/0.05% Tween-20) was added to each well. The plates were incubated for 1 hour at 37° C. in a humid incubation chamber and washed 6 times with PBS/0.05% Tween-20. Bound antibodies were visualized using 100 μl/well of 3,3′,5,5′-tetra-methylbenzidine (TMB)/ureumperoxide at room temperature. The staining reaction was stopped with 100 μl/well of 2M H 2 SO 4 . OD450 was read using an ELISA reader (EL 312e, Bio-Tek Instruments). 
         [0056]    The CCP1 test allows detection of human anti-CCP antibodies in the SCID-mice implanted with human synovial tissue. As it can be seen from  FIG. 4  sera of mice implanted with synovium of an anti-CCP+ RA patient become anti-CCP+ within the first two weeks after implantation. Sera of mice implanted with synovium of anti-CCP− patient remain anti-CCP−. 
       Example 5 
     Effect of Antibody Treatment on Tissue Graft B Cells and Anti-CCP Antibodies in an RA.SCID Mouse Model 
       [0057]    Implantation of synovial tissue: SCID-mice, strain C.B.-17/IcrCrl-SCID-bg, male/female, 4-12 weeks, are kept in IVC cages under standard conditions of temperature and light, and fed laboratory chow and water ad libitum. Prior to implantation the mice (for example three mice in each experimental group, day 0) are anesthetized by intraperitoneal injection of ketamine (NIMATEK, EuroVet) and xylazine (Rompun, Bayer) at a ratio of 1:1 v/v. A small incision of the skin is made using surgical scissors. Inflamed synovial tissue of a patient with RA undergoing joint replacement surgery is implanted subcutaneously as two clusters of up to six small fragments (total 2-3 mm 3 ) on each flank of the mouse. The wound is closed using Permacol cyanoacrylate glue. 
         [0058]    On day one of the experiment, remaining synovial tissue is analyzed in order to control for B cells in the inflamed synovial transplants. 
         [0059]    On day 8 of the experiment, purified monoclonal antibodies such as an monoclonal antibody against CD38, CD20, IL-15, IL-1R, IL-6Ralpha or gp130 is injected i.v. in a volume of 200 μl at a dose of 10 to 30 mg/kg. 
         [0060]    In one experimental set-up, the mice are sacrificed on day 14 by CO 2  inhalation and the synovial grafts are explanted. The grafts are snap-frozen in OCT compound (TissueTek, Sacura Finetek Europe) for immunohistochemical analysis. 
         [0061]    In a second experimental set up, the antibody titers are followed over longer periods of time, for example of up to 49 days or longer, during which time serum is collected weekly and the antibody titers determined. 
         [0062]    Serum collection: Blood samples are collected using capillaries (Microvette CB300, Sarstedt, Germany) before (day 0) and weekly (day 7 and day 14) after implantation for the first experimental set up or at day 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, and 49 for the second experimental set up. To ensure larger volume of serum, at the end of the experiment, the mice are sacrificed by CO 2  inhalation and blood samples are collected by heart puncture using a 25 G needle on a 1 ml syringe. Serum is obtained by centrifugation in the Eppendorf MiniSpin centrifuge for 30 min at 13,000 rpm and stored at −20° C. until the assay is performed. 
         [0063]    Immunohistochemistry: 5 μM cryosections on SuperFrost (Menzel GmbH, Braunschweig) slides are prepared using LEICA CM1900 cryostate and stored at −80° C. Thawed sections are fixed in acetone for 10 min, dried at room temperature and washed 3×5 min in PBS. All steps are performed at room temperature. Endogenous peroxidase activity is blocked by incubation with PBS supplemented with 0.3% hydrogen peroxide and 0.1% sodium azide for 20 min. Slides are washed 3×5 min in PBS. Next, primary antibody diluted in PBS supplemented with 1% BSA is incubated for 60 min. After 3×2 min wash in PBS, HRP-conjugate (goat anti-mouse Ig-HRP; DAKO PO 447 ) diluted 1:50 in PBS (supplemented with 1% BSA and 10% NHS) for 30 min is added for 30 min. Peroxidase signal is enhanced using TSA™ Biotin system (Perkin Elmer Life Sciences, NEL700). Shortly, slides are washed 3×2 min in PBS and incubated with blotinyl tyramide diluted 1:400 in amplification buffer for 30 min. After 3×2 min wash in PBS, streptavidin-HRP diluted 1:100 in PBS (supplemented with 1% BSA) is added for 30 min. Slides are washed 3×2 min in PBS and preincubated with AEC buffer (0.03M acetic acid/0.07M sodium acetate) for 2 min. Peroxidase activity is detected using AEC as a substrate: slides are incubated with the AEC solution (0.47 mg/ml AEC/0.22% hydrogen peroxide in AEC buffer) for 20 min. Color reaction is stopped with distilled water. Finally, slides are counterstained with hematoxyline (Merck), washed with running water and covered with Kaiser&#39;s glycerin and cover slips. 
         [0064]    Scoring of staining intensity: Scoring of stained synovial tissue xenografts is performed in a blinded fashion by two persons. A score on a scale of 0-8 is used, and this scoring is performed relative to a positive control on a section from the same animal. 
         [0065]    Detection of anti-CCP antibody production by human antibody producing cells from the implanted tissue graft: The production of anti-CCP antibodies can be detected by a specific ELISA. 
         [0066]    Statistical analysis: Scoring of staining intensity is analyzed by Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA followed by Dunn&#39;s multiple comparison test using Graph Pad Prism version 4.01 (Graph Pad software, Inc., San Diego, Calif., USA). 
         [0067]    Modeling of antibody pharmacokinetics following transplantation of the SCID mice with human synovial tissue harboring anti-CCP antibody-producing cells: The plasma concentration of IgG including human anti-CCP antibodies secreted by antibody-producing cells from synovial tissue transplants in SCID mice is simulated in  FIG. 5 . The antibody production takes place in the synovial tissue grafts or by cells migrated from the graft into the mouse tissues or circulation. It is assumed that locally produced antibody equilibrates with the plasma compartment with a half-life (t 1/2 ) of 12 hours. From there, half of the plasma pool is redistributed into the interstitial space with a t 1/2  of 3 hours. Elimination from the mouse plasma compartment occurs with at t 1/2  of 10 days (which is a normal value for SCID mice). In this simulation the IgG production rate is set at 200 μg/kg/day which corresponds to a production of about 200 ng IgG per hour per synovial transplant. Anti-CCP antibodies form part of the IgG, and will follow the same kinetics. Higher or lower antibody production may be expected if tissue grafts containing smaller or greater numbers of antibody-producing cells are transplanted. Under the assumption that antibody production takes place during a period of 21 days, IgG (including anti-CCP) concentrations of 20 μg/ml in the SCID mouse serum are readily achieved (see simulation in  FIG. 5 ). Treatment with the passively transferred antibodies, such as anti-CD38, anti-CD20 or anti-IL-15 antibodies performed during the first 14 days, such as on day 8, would then inhibit antibody production from that day forward and reductions in anti-CCP antibody production are readily detected in ELISA as discussed above. 
         [0068]    The present example is a minimal scenario and it is expected that graft survival and anti-CCP antibody production will be observed for longer periods of time. In such case there is an extended period of antibody build-up, and higher antibody plasma concentrations are achieved. The window for immunotherapeutic approaches with antibodies will thus extend proportionally. 
       EQUIVALENTS 
       [0069]    Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain, using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents of the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims. Any combinations of the embodiments disclosed in the dependent claims are also contemplated to be within the scope of the invention. 
       INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE 
       [0070]    All patents, pending patent applications and other publications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.