Abstract:
A process and a device are described for producing high purity and high temperature steam from non-pure water which may be used in a variety of industrial processes that involve high temperature heat applications. The process and device may be used with technologies that generate steam using a variety of heat sources, such as, for example industrial furnaces, petrochemical plants, and emissions from incinerators. Of particular interest is the application in a thermochemical hydrogen production cycle such as the Cu—Cl Cycle. Non-pure water is used as the feed-stock in the thermochemical hydrogen production cycle, with no need to adopt additional and conventional water pre-treatment and purification processes. The non-pure water may be selected from brackish water, saline water, seawater, used water, effluent treated water, tailings water, and other forms of water that is generally believed to be unusable as a direct feed-stock of industrial processes. The direct usage of this water can significantly reduce water supply costs.

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
       [0001]    A process and a device are described for producing high purity and high temperature steam from non-pure water which may be used in a variety of industrial processes that involve high temperature heat applications. The process and device may be used with technologies that generate steam using a variety of heat sources, such as, for example industrial furnaces, petrochemical plants, and emissions from incinerators. Of particular interest is the application in a thermochemical hydrogen production cycle. Non-pure water is used as the feedstock in the thermochemical hydrogen production cycle, with no need to adopt additional and conventional water pre-treatment and purification processes. The non-pure water may be selected from lake water, brackish water, saline water, seawater, used water, effluent treated water, tailings water, and other forms of water that are generally believed to be unusable as a direct feedstock of industrial processes. The direct usage of this water significantly reduces water supply costs. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    Hydrogen is widely believed to be one of the world&#39;s next generation fuels, since its oxidation does not emit greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. Auto manufacturers are investing significantly in hydrogen vehicles. Other transportation vehicles, such as ships, trains and utility vehicles also represent promising opportunities for use of hydrogen fuel. Hydrogen is also a major necessity for the upgrading of heavy oils and fertilizer production. Thus there is need for a reliable, safe, efficient and economic process for the production of hydrogen gas for fuel, heavy oil upgrading and fertilizer production. 
         [0003]    Electrolysis is a proven, commercial technology that separates water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity. Net electrolysis efficiencies are typically about 24%. In contrast, thermochemical reactions to produce hydrogen using nuclear heat can achieve heat-to-hydrogen efficiencies up to about 50% [See Schultz, K., Herring, S., Lewis M., Summers, W., “The Hydrogen Reaction”,  Nuclear Engineering International,  vol. 50, pp. 10-19, 2005 and Rosen, M. A., “Thermodynamic Comparison of Hydrogen Production Processes”,  International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,  vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 349-365, 1996.] 
         [0004]    A copper-chlorine (Cu—Cl) cycle has been identified by Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (AECL) [See Sadhankar, R. R., Li, J, Li, H., Ryland, D. K., Suppiah, S. “Future Hydrogen Production Using Nuclear Reactors”, Engineering Institute of Canada—Climate Change Technology Conference, Ottawa, May, 2006 and Sadhankar, R. R., “Leveraging Nuclear Research to Support Hydrogen Economy”, 2nd Green Energy Conference, Oshawa, June, 2006.] at its Chalk River Laboratories (CRL) as a highly promising thermochemical cycle for hydrogen production. Water is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen through intermediate Cu and Cl compounds. Past studies at Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) have developed enabling technologies for the Cu—Cl thermochemical cycle, through an International Nuclear Energy Research Initiative (INERI), as reported by Lewis et al. [See 17. Lewis, M. A., Serban, M., Basco, J. K, “Hydrogen Production at &lt;550° C. Using a Low Temperature Thermochemical Cycle”, ANS/ENS Exposition, New Orleans, November, 2003.] The Cu—Cl cycle is well matched to Canada&#39;s nuclear reactors, since its heat requirement for high temperatures is adaptable to the Super-Critical Water Reactor (SCWR), which is being considered as Canada&#39;s Generation IV nuclear reactor. 
         [0005]    Other countries (Japan, U.S. and France) are currently advancing nuclear technology for thermochemical hydrogen production [See Sakurai, M., Nakajima, H., Amir, R., Onuki, K., Shimizu, S., “Experimental Study on Side-Reaction Occurrence Condition in the Iodine-Sulfur Thermochemical Hydrogen Production Process”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 23, pp. 613-619, 2000; Schultz, K., “Thermochemical Production of Hydrogen from Solar and Nuclear Energy”, Technical Report for the Stanford Global Climate and Energy Project, General Atomics, San Diego, Calif., 2003; and Doctor, R. D., Matonis, D. T., Wade, D. C, “Hydrogen Generation Using a Calcium-Bromine Thermochemical Water-splitting Cycle”, Paper ANL/ES/CP-3 -111623, OECD 2nd Information Exchange Meeting on Nuclear Production of Hydrogen, Argonne, Ill., Oct. 2-3, 2003.] 
         [0006]    The Sandia National Laboratory in the U.S. and CEA in France are developing a hydrogen pilot plant with a sulphur-iodine (S—I) cycle [See Pickard, P., Gelbard, F., Andazola, J., Naranjo, G., Besenbruch, G., Russ, B., Brown, L., Buckingham, R., Henderson, D., “Sulfur-Iodine Thermochemical Cycle”, DOE Hydrogen Production Report, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 2005 Fuel Cell Vehicles: Race to a New Automotive Future, Office of Technology Policy, US Department of Commerce, January, 2003.] The Korean KAERI Institute is collaborating with Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) aims to complete a large S—I plant to produce 60,000 m 3 /hr of hydrogen by 2020, which will be sufficient for about 1 million fuel cell vehicles [See Suppiah, S., Li, J., Sadhankar, R., Kutchcoskie, K. J., Lewis, M., “Study of Hybrid CuCl Cycle for Nuclear Hydrogen Production”, Third Information Exchange Meeting on the Nuclear Production of Hydrogen, Orai, Japan, October, 2005.] Several countries, participating in the Generation IV International Forum plan to develop the technologies for co-generation of hydrogen by high-temperature thermochemical cycles and electrolysis, through multilateral collaborations [See Rosen, M. A., “Thermodynamic Analysis of Hydrogen Production by Thermochemical Water Decomposition using the Ispra Mark-10 Cycle”, In Hydrogen Energy Prog. VIII: Proc. 8th World Hydrogen EnergyConference, ed. T. N. Veziroglu and P. K. Takahashi, Pergamon, Toronto, pp. 701-710, 1990.] 
         [0007]    When compared to other methods of hydrogen production, the thermochemical Cu—Cl cycle has its own unique advantages, challenges, risks and limitations. Technical challenges include the transport of solids and electrochemical processes of copper electrowinning, which are not needed by other cycles such as the sulfur-iodine cycle. These processes are challenging due to solids injection/removal, which can block equipment operation and generate undesirable side reactions in downstream chemical reactors. Flow of solid materials can lead to increased maintenance costs, due to wear and increased downtime arising from blockage and unscheduled equipment failure. A technological risk involves the potential use of expensive new materials of construction that are needed to prevent corrosion of equipment surfaces. These include surfaces exposed to molten CuCl, spray drying of aqueous CuCl 2  and high temperature HCl and O 2  gases. Additional operational challenges entail the steps of chemical separation (which increases complexity and costs) and phase separation (particles, gas, and liquids must be separated from each other in fluid streams leaving the reactors). As a result, the overall cycle efficiency becomes a limitation, wherein the Cu—Cl cycle must compete economically against other existing technologies of hydrogen production. 
         [0008]    Despite these challenges and risks, the Cu—Cl cycle offers a number of key advantages over other cycles of thermochemical hydrogen production. The attractions include lower temperatures compared to other cycles like the S—I cycle. Heat input at temperatures less than 530° C. make it suitable for coupling to Canada&#39;s SCWR (Super-Critical Water Reactor; Generation IV nuclear reactor) and reduced demands on materials of construction. Other advantages are inexpensive raw materials and reactions that proceed nearly to completion without significant side reactions. Solids handling is required, but it is relatively minimal and it can be reduced by combining thermochemical and electrochemical steps together. Another key advantage is the cycle&#39;s ability to utilize low-grade waste heat from power plants, for various thermal processes within the cycle. 
         [0009]    US Patent Publication No. 2010/012987, published May 27, 2010 describes a system utilizing a thermochemical CuCl cycle in detail. The disclosures of this application are incorporated herein in their entirety. 
         [0010]    There is a need to improve the efficiency of the Cu—Cl cycle for it to be competitive and all aspects of the cycle need to be examined for such opportunities. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0011]    This disclosure related to an improved high temperature industrial process where heat recovery is desired, the improvement comprising transferring heat from a high temperature molten or gaseous material obtained in the high temperature industrial process, to generate high temperature steam from non-pure water, with the impurities in the water being reduced to a precipitate, a slurry or a concentrated aqueous solution, which can be disposed of, or subjected to further processing. 
         [0012]    More specifically, high temperature steam is generated in a heat exchange process, wherein heat from high temperature molten or gaseous material is supplied to non-pure water to produce high temperature steam, with the impurities in the water being reduced to a precipitate, a slurry or a concentrated aqueous solution, which can be disposed of, or subjected to further processing. 
         [0013]    In another form of the process, where high temperature steam is generated in a heat exchange process, the steam is generated from a two-stage steam generation loop which comprises two heat exchanges, a first-stage heat exchange comprising transferring heat from molten material to a thermal fluid circulating to a second-stage heat exchange, and back again to the first-stage heat exchange; heat from the thermal fluid being transferred to non-pure water in the second-stage heat exchange to produce high temperature steam from which hydrogen gas is produced, and impurities in the water are reduced to a precipitate, a slurry or a concentrated aqueous solution, which can be disposed of, or subjected to further processing. 
         [0014]    In a particular form, the industrial process is a thermochemical Cu—Cl cycle for producing hydrogen gas from water decomposition which comprises supplying heat to the non-pure water from molten CuCl to produce high temperature steam for the production of hydrogen gas, with the impurities in the water being reduced to a precipitate, a slurry or a concentrated aqueous solution, which can be disposed of, or subjected to further processing. 
         [0015]    When the industrial process is a thermochemical Cu—Cl cycle for producing hydrogen gas from water decomposition, it may comprise the generation of steam from non-pure water using a two-stage steam generation loop which comprises two heat exchanges, a first-stage heat exchange comprising transferring heat from molten CuCl to a thermal fluid circulating to a second-stage heat exchange, and back again to the first-stage heat exchange; heat from the thermal fluid being transferred to non-pure water in the second-stage heat exchange to produce high temperature steam from which hydrogen gas is produced, and impurities in the water are reduced to a precipitate, a slurry or a concentrated aqueous solution, which can be disposed of, or subjected to further processing. 
         [0016]    There is also disclosed a device for use in a high temperature industrial process where heat recovery is required and high temperature steam is produced which comprises using a tube and shell heat exchanger, the tube is arranged to receive a high temperature molten or gaseous material obtained from the high temperature industrial process and the shell is arranged to receive non-pure water to which heat is transferred from the high temperature molten or gaseous material in the tube, which then generates high temperature steam from the non-pure water, with the impurities in the non-pure water being reduced to a precipitate, a slurry or a concentrated aqueous solution, which can be disposed of, or subjected to further processing. 
         [0017]    In another form, the device is for use in a high temperature industrial process where heat recovery is desired and high temperature steam is produced, and comprises a two-stage steam generation loop which comprises two heat exchangers, each having a central tube and surrounding shell, the first-stage heat exchanger arranged for high temperature molten or gaseous material to pass through its central tube and the surrounding shell is arranged to receive a secondary thermal fluid to circulate in the surrounding shell to absorb heat from the high temperature molten or gaseous material, the surrounding shell being in fluid communication with the shell in the second-stage heat exchanger to permit circulation of the heated thermal fluid from one shell to the other and back again to the shell in the first-stage heat exchanger; the central tube of the second stage heat exchanger arranged to receive non-pure water which absorbs heat from the thermal fluid to generate high temperature steam for use in the high temperature industrial process, and impurities in the water are reduced to a precipitate, a slurry or a concentrated aqueous solution which can be disposed of or subjected to further processing. 
         [0018]    When the industrial process is a thermochemical Cu—Cl cycle for the production of hydrogen from water decomposition and the molten material is CuCl salt, the high temperature steam is used to produce hydrogen gas from decomposition of water in the thermochemical CuCl cycle. 
         [0019]    The molten CuCl may be received in the tube of the heat exchanger and passes therethrough with the assistance of at least one of gravity, a push-pull plate or a helical screw. 
         [0020]    The molten CuCl may pass through the tube of the heat exchanger at a rate that allows the production of high temperature steam at a temperature suitable for the production of hydrogen gas from the decomposition of water in the thermochemical CuCl cycle. The tube wall may be treated with lubricant to assist passage of molten CuCl through the tube of the heat exchanger, in at least one of the following ways: in advance of the device being used, on a periodic basis and on a continuous basis during use of the device. 
         [0021]    The shell walls may be washed with water or water containing cleaners or both to remove any adhered impurities that foul the apparatus, the washing taking place either when the device is in use or when the device is not in use. 
         [0022]    Finally, a helical screw is best used as it not only assists the passage of molten CuCl through the tube, but also facilitates passage as the salt passes from a molten state to a solid state, as well as making the heat transfer from the molten CuCl to the non-pure water most efficient. 
         [0023]    A unique characteristic of the process and device disclosed herein is that non-pure water is the feedstock used to produce high purity, high temperature steam. Normally in the Cu—Cl cycle, the water used is purified prior to use, a step which is costly and usually eliminates the possibility of using water that contains impurities or salts. Thermochemical hydrogen production is a desirable technology for supplying hydrogen and oxygen at lower cost and reducing environmental impact as compared with existing technologies, for applications to refining, upgrading, and other petrochemical plant operations. Water, heat and a minor amount of electricity are used as inputs to produce hydrogen and oxygen, without any internal consumption of materials, or external emissions to the environment. It has now been found that the Cu—Cl cycle is capable of utilizing non-pure water as feedstock and various grades of waste heat from nuclear, solar, geothermal, and petrochemical operations, such as, for example from upgraders, gasifiers, and engines for equipment may be used to heat the non-pure water to produce high temperature steam of high purity with any impurities and salts present in the water being removed as precipitates, or slurry or both, any valuable material being recovered. 
         [0024]    The non-pure water may be lake water, brackish water, saline water, seawater, tailings water, effluent treated water, and used water from drilling wells. The heat exchanger steam generator may include a screw extruder, or a pull and push plate extruder, or a casting extruder, which allows recovery of heat from molten CuCl, high temperature O 2 , high temperature H 2 , high temperature HCl, or other high temperature substances and exothermic processes of the Cu—Cl cycle to a surrounding water jacket. In the present application, the use of the heat exchanger-steam generator is described with respect to the Cu—Cl cycle and the heat is obtained from molten CuCl salt. A person skilled in the art can readily adapt the equipment and process to accommodate different heat sources. The steam generation may alternatively comprise a two-stage heat exchanger which uses a secondary thermal fluid other than water. In the first stage, the secondary thermal fluid flows through the said jacket to extract the heat from molten salt, and then in the second stage, steam is generated from the secondary fluid using another heat exchanger. 
         [0025]    Any indirect contact between molten salt (or high temperature gas as it occurs in the S—I cycle) and non-fresh water can generate steam, so the steam generation is not limited to a thermochemical cycle of hydrogen production, but may be utilized in other high temperature heat recovery applications such as industrial furnaces, petrochemical plants emissions, and incinerators. For the example of the Cu—Cl cycle, the only feedstock is non-pure water and the products are hydrogen and oxygen, with no other waste streams flowing, except salts and other impurities for the case of brackish water. The main energy input to the Cu—Cl cycle is heat, significantly recycled internally or low-grade heat. In the Cu—Cl cycle, steam reacts with auxiliary compounds of Cu and Cl to form intermediates, then hydrogen and oxygen are released from the intermediates, while the intermediates are recycled internally without being consumed. 
         [0026]    The non-pure water is directly fed into the Cu—Cl hydrogen production cycle without using additional heat in the present apparatus and processes. In comparison, other hydrogen production cycles must utilize water that is treated and purified in a separate process, and additional energy must be input for the treatment and purification. The typical distribution of energy requirements of the Cu—Cl cycle are shown in the accompanying drawings. 
         [0027]    When non-pure water is used as the direct feedstock of the Cu—Cl cycle, the non-pure water is used directly without further external thermal energy input for the processing. Other processes of the Cu—Cl cycle still need further external thermal energy input for the thermochemical hydrogen production. 
         [0028]    Previously, if non-pure water was used, it was preferably used after additional treatment and purification, but the treatment and purification requirements set out herein are simpler than for other traditional steam generators. 
         [0029]    Non-pure water, before it can be used, preferably requires additional water treatment and/or purification which involves additional energy before it can be used in a Cu—Cl thermochemical hydrogen production. The treatment and purification requirements of the present disclosure are simpler and the additional energy required thereof is much less than for other traditional steam generators. 
         [0030]    Cu—Cl cycles are known in the art and may comprise a number of variants. For example, the Cu—Cl cycle may comprise a five step process comprising the steps of
       1) reacting Cu and dry HCl gas at a temperature of about 450° C. to obtain hydrogen gas and molten CuCl salt;   2) subjecting solid CuCl and HCl to electrolysis at a temperature of about 70 to about 90° C. to obtain Cu and an aqueous slurry containing HCl and CuCl 2 ;   3) heating the aqueous slurry obtained from step 2 at a temperature of from about 375 to about 450° C. to obtain solid CuCl 2  and H 2 O/HCl vapours;   4) heating the solid CuCl 2  and water/steam to obtain solid CuOCuCl 2  and gaseous HCl; and   5) heating the solid CuOCuCl 2  obtained in step 4) at a temperature of from about 500 to about 530° C. to obtain molten CuCl salt and oxygen gas.       
 
         [0036]    Alternatively, the Cu—Cl cycle may comprise a four step process comprising the steps of
       1) reacting Cu and dry HCl gas at a temperature of about 450° C. to obtain hydrogen gas and molten CuCl salt;   2) subjecting solid CuCl and HCl to electrolysis at a temperature of about 70 to about 90° C. to obtain Cu and an aqueous slurry containing HCl and CuCl 2 ;   3) heating the aqueous slurry containing HCl and CuCl 2  at a temperature of from about 375 to about 450° C. to obtain solid CuOCuCl 2  and gaseous HCl; and   4) heating the solid CuOCuCl 2  at a temperature of from about 500 to about 530° C. to obtain molten CuCl salt and oxygen gas.       
 
         [0041]    A further alternative allows the use of a Cu—Cl cycle that comprises a three step process comprising the steps of
       1) reacting Cu and dry HCl gas at a temperature of about 450° C. to obtain hydrogen gas and molten CuCl salt;   2) subjecting solid CuCl and HCl to electrolysis at a temperature of about 70 to about 90° C. to obtain Cu and an aqueous slurry containing HCl and CuCl 2 ;   3) heating the aqueous slurry containing HCl and CuCl 2  at a temperature of from about 500 to about 530° C. to obtain molten CuCl salt and oxygen gas.       
 
         [0045]    A further alternative allows the use of a Cu—Cl cycle that comprises another three step process as follows:
       1) subjecting CuCl and HCl aqueous solution at a temperature of about 70 to 90° C. to obtain H2 and an aqueous slurry containing HCl and CuCl 2 ;   2) heating the solid CuCl 2  and water to obtain solid CuOCuCl 2  and gaseous HCl;   3) heating the aqueous slurry containing HCl and CuCl 2  at a temperature from about 500 to 530° C. to obtain molten CuCl salt and oxygen gas.       
 
     
    
     
       DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       Brief Description of the Drawings 
         [0049]      FIG. 1  illustrates a cross section of a screw extruder heat exchanger for high temperature steam generation; 
           [0050]      FIG. 1 a    illustrates the same cross section as shown in  FIG. 1 , but includes a closed loop whereby a water-steam chamber can be flushed out and cleaned. 
           [0051]      FIG. 2  illustrates the lower structure of the screw extruder steam generator shown in  FIG. 1 , and is a top plan and perspective view of a section along line  2 - 2  showing the arrangement of the screw discharger for the precipitates or slurry or both from the non-pure water, after the steam has been generated; 
           [0052]      FIG. 3  illustrates a front cross-sectional view of a pull/push plate in a molten salt heat exchanger for high temperature steam generation; 
           [0053]      FIG. 4  illustrates a front cross-sectional view of a two-stage heat exchanger steam generator for high temperature steam generation using impure water; 
           [0054]      FIG. 5  illustrates a schematic representation of a two-stage steam generation loop; 
           [0055]      FIG. 6  illustrates the energy requirement distribution of the Cu—Cl Cycle; and 
           [0056]      FIG. 7  illustrates a simplified flow chart of a typical Cu—Cl thermochemical cycle for the production of hydrogen gas from the decomposition of water; and 
           [0057]      FIG. 8  is a schematic representation of the benefits of using the heat exchanger-steam generator apparatus and process described herein in petrochemical operations. 
       
    
    
     Structure, Design and Operation of the Heat Exchanger-Steam Generator 
       [0058]    One form of the apparatus of the present description is illustrated in  FIGS. 1 and 2  of the accompanying drawings. A continuous production mode screw extruder-steam generator for steam generation of this invention is shown generally at  10  in  FIG. 1 , it consists of inner and outer annular tubes,  11  and  12 , respectively. The inner tube  11  contains a rotary screw  14  to agitate and push molten salt to move downward through a central or core chamber  13 , surrounded by an outer chamber  25 , both being formed by the outer tube  12  and inner tube  11 . The inner chamber has an inlet where a feed  15  of molten CuCl at a temperature of from about 420 to about 900° C., usually about 530° C. is provided to the inner chamber  13 . The base of the reactor has an outlet for removal of solidified CuCl shown at  24 . 
         [0059]    Non-pure water at a temperature ranging from about 0 to about 100° C., and typically at 20° C. is fed at inlet  16  into the outer chamber or jacket  25 . The chamber  25  also includes an inlet  19  at which a continuous water stream at a temperature of about 0 to 100° C., and typically from about 10 to about 40° C., with 20° C. being typical is fed to chamber  25 . Water is sprayed onto the outside wall of the inner tube  11  to form a water film. When the film is flowing downward, water accumulates, boils and vaporizes. The water can be introduced also by a continuous flow stream via inlet  19 . An outlet for the steam is provided at  20  from the outer chamber. The temperature of the steam generated is in the range of about 100 to about 500° C. and the optimum range is about 300 to about 400° C. The temperature of the molten salt entering the inside tube is in the range of about 420 to about 900° C. and the optimum range is about 450 to about 530° C. The steam pressure can be in the range of about 0 to about 250 bar (gauge) and the optimum range is about 0 to about 2 bar gauge so that high temperature steam can be generated. The diameter of inner tube  11 A is in the range of about 5 to about 100 cm and the optimum range is about 15 to about 45 cm. The space for the flights of the screw, B is in the range of about 1 to about 10 cm and the optimum range is about 2 to about 5 cm. The diameter of the screw root, C, is in the range of about 1 to about 50 cm, and the optimum range is about 5 to about 20 cm. It is noted that the outside tube could be other than cylindrical in shape, for example, rectangular or square. Between the two inlets  16  and  19 , and between the inlet  16  and the outlet  20 , within the chamber  25 , the temperatures achieved provide boiling water and high temperature steam, respectively. 
         [0060]    The dimensions of the tubes  11  and  12 , and the whole unit are selected to ensure the most efficient heat transfer and the generation of high temperature steam. 
         [0061]    The molten salt can also be introduced from the top, by either continuous melt stream or pouring in this form of the apparatus. To avoid the attachment of the solidified salt onto the wall of the inner chamber  13  during the downward travel of the salt, a suitable lubricant such as grease (silicone) can be applied onto the wall. In operation, the process in this apparatus can be conducted on a continuous basis. The molten salt is introduced into the chamber  13  of the heat exchanger-steam generator and the water is introduced as a spray and as a continuous flow stream into the outer chamber  25 . As the molten salt is pushed downwardly through the central chamber via the turning of screw  14 , heat is transmitted to the water entering the outer chamber  25  and the height of the apparatus is selected to ensure sufficient heat transfer to generate high temperature steam from the water. Boiling water Hb is produced in a lower portion of chamber  25  which rises upwardly becoming high temperature steam Hs, which is removed via outlet  20 . As steam is formed from the non-pure water, impurities and salts are deposited in the bottom of the chamber  25 . These may comprise a solid precipitate or slurry or both. Removal of these materials is managed in a suitable manner known to those skilled in the art and recovery of any valuable products can be undertaken using known methods. An extruder  23  can be placed in the outlet from chamber  25  to assist in removal of the impurities/minerals etc. The molten CuCl solidifies as the heat is transferred from it to the water. As the salt cools it solidifies. Removal of the salt is undertaken in accordance with known methods for removing such solids from industrial equipment. 
         [0062]    In  FIG. 3 , there is illustrated an alternative structure for the heat exchanger-steam generator. The rotary screw of  FIG. 1  is replaced with a push-pull plate arrangement shown generally at  40 . A top plate  41  and a bottom plate  42  are provided in an inner salt chamber  43 . The plates  41  and  42  may have the same diameter X, which allows the plates to engage interior wall  45  of chamber  43 . The molten salt can be fed through a side inlet  15  and a top inlet  46 . Removal of solid salt  21  can be achieved by removing the bottom plate  42 . Outer chamber  44  has the same inlets and outlets found in the heat exchanger-steam generator shown in  FIG. 1 . However, in the arrangement shown here, the process is generally conducted as a batch or semi-batch process. 
         [0063]      FIG. 4  illustrates a further alternative arrangement for the heat exchanger-steam generator which employs a casting with a mould: molten salt steam generator. The structure here is very similar to the annular tube arrangement shown in  FIG. 3 . The difference is that no device is used to assist passage of molten salt through the central chamber. All other aspects of the apparatus are the same as found in the apparatus of  FIG. 3 . To approach a continuous operation, a surface coating such as a lubricant, for example grease is usually needed to assist the CuCl to move downwardly. When the molten CuCl is poured into the heat exchanger, the lubricant, e.g. grease may be continuously applied, e.g. by spraying onto the surface of the inside wall of the inner tube  11 , as indicated by element  15 A in  FIG. 4 . Any other known methods for distributing a lubricant such as grease onto the inside wall at appropriate locations are suitable for this purpose. 
         [0064]      FIG. 5  shows an alternative arrangement that comprises a two-stage steam generation loop. Instead of directly generating the steam by the heat of molten salt, secondary thermal fluids are utilized to extract the heat from the molten salt, and then the thermal fluid is allowed to transfer its heat to the non-pure water to generate steam in a second stage heat exchanger. A big advantage of using secondary thermal fluid is that the non-pure water can be introduced to the tube route rather than the shell path so the precipitates from the water can be more easily removed. Another advantage is that any corrosion from the non-pure water on the outside wall of the pipe that confines the molten salt is eliminated. Typical secondary fluids include thermal oil, high pressure gases such as nitrogen, helium, argon, and air. 
         [0065]    The illustrated apparatus of  FIG. 5  comprises two heat exchangers  60  and  70 , each having a shell  65 ,  75  and tube  64 ,  74  design. The heat exchangers  60  and  70  are connected so that the secondary thermal fluid circulates from shell  65  to shell  75  through conduits  50 ,  51  and  52 . In the first stage heat exchanger  60 , molten salt enters tube  64  which may be provided with a rotating screw  61  for pushing the molten salt through the tube  64 . Screw  61  can be replaced with an alternative device for pushing the molten salt or no device may be used. Solidified salt exits at  24  and is removed in a suitable manner. Heat from the molten salt is transferred to the thermal oil in shell  65  which circulates through conduit  5  to a second stage heat exchanger  70  into shell  75 . Non-pure water is fed to the central tube  70  at inlet  16  and as it passes through the heat exchanger  70 , it picks up heat from the circulating high temperature thermal oil and turns to super heated steam, which is removed from outlet  20 . Precipitates or slurry or both collects in tube  74  and can be removed by a suitable device, such as a rotating screw  71 , and any valuable material can be recovered in conventional ways. 
       Description of How the Molten Salt is Handled in the Heat Exchanger 
       [0066]    A portion of a pilot plant was constructed incorporating the molten salt heat exchanger described herein. Referring to  FIG. 1 , one can see how the heat exchanger  10  handles molten salt  15   a,  which involves the salt being mixed and the dimensions of the tube  13  in the hear exchanger  10  being selected to ensure this mixing takes place. 
         [0067]    A feed of molten salt  15  is introduced to the tube  13  and is then pushed downwardly by the axial pushing force of the flights  13   b  of the rotary screw  14 . During the downward moving of the molten salt  15 , the salt  15  close to the inside wall of chamber  13  is cooled to a lower temperature than the molten salt  15  close to the screw flights  13   b  and root  13   a.  At the same time, heat carried by the molten salt  15  is transferred through the wall  11  of chamber  13  to the water or steam contained in the annulus ( 25 ). Due to the radial agitating force of the flights  13   b,  the lower-temperature molten salt  15  close to the inside wall of chamber  13  is agitated until it is farther from the wall and closer to the screw root  13   a  to mix with a portion of higher temperature molten salt  15 . At the same time, other portions of higher temperature molten salt  15  are agitated until closer to the inside wall of chamber  13 . Some portions of molten salt  15  may solidify when the salt is agitated closer to the inside wall of chamber  13  and is then agitated back to closer to the root  13   a  to solidify more salt or it is melted again. Through the mixing generated by the screw flights  13   b,  the heat in various locations of the molten salt stream is transferred to the wall of chamber  13  and hence to the water in the chamber  25 . 
         [0068]    During the downward movement of the molten salt  15 , the temperature of the salt becomes lower and lower. When the salt  15  moves near the bottom of chamber  13 , all salt  15  has been solidified. At this time, the rotary screw  14  also serves as a granulator to avoid forming big chunks of solidified salt. 
         [0069]    To achieve the functions as described above, e.g., the good mixing and granulating, the dimensions of the screw  14  and chamber  13  and the rotary speed are selected and controlled to be in an optimal range, which can be determined through routine experimentation. The channel width B is usually in the range of 1-50 cm and the optimal width is 2-20 cm. The flight width (A-8) is in the range of 0.2-10 cm and the optimal range is 1-4 cm. The helix angle Ha may be selected from those in the range of 5-85 degrees and the optimal range is 15-45 degrees. The rotary speed may be selected to be in the range of 0.5-5000 rpm and the optimal range is 1-100 rpm. These parameters are based on the pilot design and in practice can be readily adjusted to ensure maximum heat transfer and steam production. 
       Handling of Water Impurities in Non-Pure Water 
       [0070]    Safe operation of the heat exchanger  10  is necessary to avoid cracking on the inside wall  17  of chamber  13 . Cracking can be avoided by enhancing the thickness of the chamber wall  17  and by selecting suitable material for the inside wall of the tube  14 , along with regular checks and maintenance. 
         [0071]    When the water is evaporated on the outside wall of chamber  13 , impurities will be concentrated in the remaining unevaporated water which flows downward along the wall. During the downward movement on the wall, some impurities, such as salts, will precipitate. The precipitates are entrained by the concentrated water to accumulate in the chamber  25 . Due to the density difference of water and the precipitates, the precipitates settle at the bottom of chamber  25 . When the quantity of precipitates exceeds the height of screw discharger  23  after some runtime, the screw discharger will operate and remove the precipitates to outside of chamber  25 . The runtime depends on the steam generation rate and scale, and the screw discharger  23  can then accordingly operate intermittently or continuously. 
         [0072]    To ensure the downward moving of the precipitated impurities with concentrated water, preferably 1-10% of the water is not evaporated so that the precipitated impurities can be entrained by the downward flowing concentrated water on the outside wall of chamber  13 . Multiple water level gauges can be set to monitor the evaporation extent. The water level gauges could be any known gauges. 
         [0073]    Referring now to  FIG. 1   a,  after some runtime, for example, 6 months, the outside wall of chamber  14  may be covered by a layer of precipitated impurities to foul the chamber and affect the efficient operation of the heat exchanger  10 . To remove the precipitates on the wall, the process is slowed or stopped, and simultaneously the water flow rate is increased at inlet  16  to a higher value than normal, and the chamber  13  is filled with water to reach the water level of inlet  16 , and then the water is pumped out through inlet  19  (now serving as an outlet) by pump  100  back to inlet  16  to form a closed liquid water loop to dissolve the precipitates and clean the outside wall of chamber  15 . The speed of the water flow is selected to be in the range of 5-30 m/s. After cleaning, the closed water loop formed by inlets  16  and  19  is disconnected, then the water flow rate of inlet  16 , is restarted or the molten salt processing is restarted or the molten salt processing is speeded up. The connection or disconnection of inlets  16  and  19  is controlled by valve  99 . Some cleaning acids, such as, for example dilute HCl or HNO 3 , can also be used as additives or agents, for the removal of water-insoluble impurities precipitated on the wall. 
         [0074]    The precipitates removed from chamber  25  may carry water or be an aqueous slurry. The slurry can be conveyed to a filtration system to extract water and the extracted water can be reused for steam generation. The filtration can be conducted using any known system. 
         [0075]    The impurities do not have to be precipitated, as they can also be produced in a highly concentrated aqueous solution which accumulates at the bottom of chamber  25 . The screw discharger  23  can remove the highly concentrated water, or the screw discharger can be replaced by a simple pipe wherein the concentrated water can be pumped out. In this case an extra loop may be required to recover the water from the highly concentrated aqueous solution or disposal of it may be needed. 
         [0076]    The equipment and technology described herein are compatible with most types of non-pure water and especially suitable for geographical areas where fresh and high quality water are not as plentiful as other areas, or where saline and brackish water are richer than fresh, high quality water, e.g., industrial regions for oil sands extraction and upgrading where the use of fresh and high quality water is strictly limited and distributed. 
         [0077]    Brackish water is water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. Certain human activities can produce brackish water, in particular certain civil engineering projects such as dikes and the flooding of coastal marshland to produce brackish water pools for freshwater prawn farming. Brackish water is also the primary waste product of the salinity gradient power process. Because brackish water is hostile to the growth of most terrestrial plant species, without appropriate management it is damaging to the environment. Technically, brackish water contains between 0.5 and 30 grams of salt per litre—more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand (ppt or %). 
         [0078]    Pure water is a non-conductive substance that is toxic to life, and corrosive of most metals. Impure water is water that has impurities, such as salts, hardness, metal ions, and so on. 
         [0079]    There are benefits to using the present technology in conjunction with petrochemical processes and these are illustrated in  FIG. 8 . Non-pure water, e.g. brackish water, can be used to produce hydrogen that can be used for operations, such as oil sands upgrading, refineries, enrichment of concentration of hydrogen in syngas, among others. Also, oxygen can be used for gasification of upgrading residuals or coal, improving combustion, reducing the use of air heating, and lowering NOx emissions. This technology is capable of using non-pure water to produce hydrogen and oxygen for upstream and downstream units of petrochemical plant operations. 
         [0080]      FIG. 6  illustrates schematically the energy inputs and outputs for a typical CuCl Cycle derived from incorporating the present technology and equipment, which are considered to be significant. 
         [0081]      FIG. 7  is a simplified representation of a prior art Cu—Cl Cycle, which is described in more detail in the previously referenced US Patent Publication No. 2010/012987. Reference may be had to the specific parts of this patent application which describe the contents of  FIG. 7  in detail, where it appears as  FIG. 5 . In  FIG. 7 , an input of water is included. This represents an example of how the present technology could be combined with the Cu—Cl cycle. 
         [0082]    The materials used to construct the apparatus of the present technology may be selected in accordance with the operating parameters of the equipment. The selection is within the common knowledge of a person skilled in the art. 
         [0083]    The above description is meant to be exemplary only, and one skilled in the art will recognize that changes may be made to the embodiments described without departing from the scope of the invention disclosed. Modifications which fall within the scope of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art, in light of a review of this disclosure, and such modifications are intended to fall within the appended claims.