Abstract:
The invention provides a method of co-culturing mammalian muscle cells and mammalian motoneurons. The method comprises preparing one or more carriers coated with a covalently bonded monolayer of trimethoxysilylpropyl diethylenetriamine (DETA); suspending isolated fetal mammalian skeletal muscle cells in serum-free medium according to medium composition 1; suspending isolated fetal mammalian spinal motoneurons in serum-free medium according to medium composition 1; plating the suspended muscle cells onto the one or more carriers at a predetermined density and allowing the muscle cells to attach; plating the suspended motoneurons at a predetermined density onto the one or more carriers and allowing the motoneurons to attach; covering the one or more carriers with a mixture of medium composition 1 and medium composition 2; and incubating the carriers covered in the media mixture.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is a continuation application that claims priority to U.S. nonprovisional application Ser. No. 12/765,996 filed on 23 Apr. 2010, which claims priority to U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 61/171,958 filed on 23 Apr. 2009, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
     This invention was made with government support under R01 NS050452 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to the field of neurobiology and, more particularly, to a method of inducing formation of functional neuromuscular junctions in a co-culture of mammalian muscle cells with mammalian motoneurons which remains viable for up to approximately seven weeks. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The neuromuscular junction (NMJ), formed between motoneurons and skeletal muscle fibers, is one of the most studied synaptic structures (Witzemann 2006). In a mammalian vertebrate, whenever an action potential is fired by a motoneuron, pre-synaptic vesicles loaded with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) are released in the synaptic cleft (Chow et al., 1985). The released ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to the post-synaptic terminals in the muscle enriched with receptors for acetylcholine (AChRs). This leads to muscle contraction. In this transmission process the electrical impulses (action potentials) generated by the motoneuron are converted to chemical signals, then the chemical signals are converted into a mechanical signal in the form of muscle contraction. Therefore, not only do NMJs represent an important system for studying synapse formation and maturation, but also for studying how cells interconvert messages between electrical, chemical and mechanical modalities. 
     In vivo, NMJ formation is a multistep process, requiring the spatial and temporal interaction of growth factors, hormones and cellular structures that results in a pre-synaptic axonal terminal interfaced with a region of the skeletal muscle membrane (postsynaptic) pre-patterned with AChRs (Colomar et al., 2004; English 2003). In vitro culture models represent a powerful cell biology tool to study the role of these different growth factors, hormones and cellular structures involved in NMJ formation in a defined, controlled system. Consequently, the development of an in vitro system resulting in NMJ formation would facilitate investigations into the roles of specific factors involved in, and required for, the process to occur efficiently. 
     However, limited success has been achieved in developing a long-term in vitro system for NMJ formation in the absence of serum containing media and biological substrates. These issues limit the reproducibility of in vitro studies and their translation to tissue engineering applications and high-throughput assay development. For example, the concentration and/or temporal application of medium components could be investigated to determine their influence on NMJ formation, maturation and maintenance. Such a system also benefits from the absence of factors that may be present in serum that would inhibit these processes. Employing a non-biological growth substrate such as trimethoxysilylpropyl diethylenetriamine (DETA) provides an additional measure of control. DETA is a silane molecule that forms a covalently bonded monolayer on glass coverslips, resulting in a uniform, hydrophilic surface for cell growth. The use of DETA surfaces is advantageous from a tissue engineering perspective because it can be covalently linked to virtually any hydroxolated surface, it is amenable to patterning using standard photolithography (Ravenscroft et al., 1998) and it promotes long-term cell survival because it is non-digestible by matrix metalloproteinases secreted by the cells (Das et al., 2004; Das et al., 2007 (Nat. Protocols)). It is also possible that its structural relationship to the growth factor spermidine, which has recently been shown to prolong cell life (Eisenberg et al., 2009), contribute to its unique ability to enable long-term healthy cell cultures. 
     Previously, we developed a defined in vitro model facilitating the short-term co-culture of motoneurons and skeletal muscle that resulted in NMJ formation (Das et al., 2007 (Neuroscience)). This model also utilized a biocompatible silane substrate and a serum-free medium formulation. However, further improvements were necessary to enhance the physiological relevance of the NMJ development system. Limitations of the previous model were that it did not support long-term tissue engineering studies and therefore, could not mimic several of the muscle maturation processes observed in vivo by obtaining myotubes that more accurately represent mature extrafusal fibers. 
     As noted, neuromuscular junction (NMJ) formation, occurring between motoneurons and skeletal muscle, is a complex multistep process involving a variety of signaling molecules and pathways. In vitro motoneuron-muscle co-cultures are powerful tools to study the role of different growth factors, hormones and cellular structures involved in NMJ formation. In this study we have demonstrated a co-culture system that enable sarcomere assembly in the skeletal muscle myotubes as evidenced by A band/I band formation, increased NMJ density and selective myosin heavy chain (MHC) class switching. These results suggest we have discovered a group of biomolecules that act as molecular switches promoting NMJ formation and maturation as well as skeletal muscle fiber maturation to the extrafusal phenotype. This model system will be a powerful tool in basic NMJ research, tissue engineered NMJ systems, bio-hybrid device development for limb prosthesis and in regenerative medicine. It could also be useful in new screening modalities for drug development and toxicology investigations. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     With the foregoing in mind, the present invention advantageously provides a serum-free culture system utilizing defined temporal growth factor application and a non-biological substrate resulted in the formation of robust NMJs. The system resulted in long-term survival of the co-culture and selective expression of neonatal myosin heavy chain, a marker of myotube maturation. NMJ formation was verified by colocalization of dense clusters of acetylcholine receptors visualized using alpha-bungarotoxin and synaptophysin containing vesicles present in motoneuron axonal terminals. 
     This model will find applications in basic NMJ research and tissue engineering applications such as bio-hybrid device development for limb prosthesis and regenerative medicine as well as for high-throughput drug and toxin screening applications. 
     The present invention provides a method of co-culturing mammalian muscle cells and mammalian motoneurons. The method yields functional neuromuscular junctions in a culture which is particularly long-lived, up to approximately 7 weeks. 
     The method includes preparing one or more carriers coated with a covalently bonded monolayer of trimethoxysilylpropyl diethylenetriamine (DETA). The carriers are preferably glass cover slips as used for microscopy applications. The method continues by suspending isolated fetal mammalian skeletal muscle cells in serum-free medium according to medium composition 1, followed by suspending isolated fetal mammalian spinal motoneurons in serum-free medium according to medium composition 1. Next is plating the suspended muscle cells onto the one or more carriers at a predetermined density and allowing the muscle cells to attach and plating the suspended motoneurons at a predetermined density onto the one or more carriers and allowing the motoneurons to attach. The method continues by then covering the one or more carriers with a mixture of medium composition 1 and medium composition 2 and incubating the carriers covered in the media mixture. 
     It is preferable that in carrying out the presently disclosed method, the practitioner verify DETA monolayer formation by one or more optical parameters, for example, with a contact angle goniometer and by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). 
     In the method, the mammalian skeletal muscle cells and mammalian spinal motoneurons preferably originate from fetal rats. In this regard, when plating the muscle cells it is preferably done at a density of approximately from 700 to 1000 cells/mm 2  and the motoneurons are preferably plated at a density of approximately 100 cells/mm 2 . It should be understood that incubating is effected under mammalian physiologic conditions, as is known in the art for mammalian cell tissue culture. Particularly, incubating is best effected at approximately 37° C. in an air atmosphere with about 5% CO 2  and 85% humidity. 
     In the method, covering comprises a mixture of approximately equal volumes of medium composition 1 and medium composition 2. A complete change of the medium covering the carriers by substituting NbActiv4 medium without growth factors is preferred during the first week of incubation and most preferred on day 4 of incubation. Afterwards, the method calls for changing spent medium as needed with fresh NbActiv4 medium without growth factors. In a preferred embodiment of the method, this periodic changing of the medium may be accomplished every 3 days. 
     In another embodiment of the presently disclosed method, co-culturing mammalian muscle cells and motoneurons includes allowing fetal muscle cells and fetal spinal motoneurons suspended in a serum-free medium according to composition 1 to adhere to a monolayer of covalently bonded DETA supported on an underlying carrier surface. Following this, the method calls for incubating the adhered muscle cells and motoneurons covered in a mixture of serum-free medium composition 1 and serum-free medium composition 2. Further details of this alternate embodiment are as noted above. 
     Yet another embodiment or variation of the present invention includes a method of inducing in vitro formation of functional neuromuscular junctions. This embodiment includes depositing a suspension of isolated fetal muscle cells and fetal spinal motoneurons in a mixture of medium compositions 1 and 2 onto a film of DETA supported on a carrier surface, allowing the cells to adhere to the film and culturing the cells under mammalian physiologic conditions. This is followed by changing the medium mixture to medium composition 2 without growth factors before seven days of culturing the cells, and exchanging spent medium during culturing for fresh medium composition 2 without growth factors. The method also includes monitoring the cells while culturing for formation of functional neuromuscular junctions between motoneurons and muscle cells. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Some of the features, advantages, and benefits of the present invention having been stated, others will become apparent as the description proceeds when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, presented for solely for exemplary purposes and not with intent to limit the invention thereto, and in which: 
         FIG. 1  is a protocol for long-term NMJ formation in a motoneuron and skeletal muscle co-culture, according to an embodiment of the present invention; 
         FIG. 2  shows phase contrast micrographs of the motoneuron and skeletal muscle co-culture between days 12-15. (A-D); red arrows indicate the distinct morphology of the motoneuron and its processes; green arrows indicate the myotubes; scale bar=25 μm; 
         FIG. 3  provides phase contrast pictures of the co-cultures between days 25-30; (A, B) the myotubes exhibited characteristic striations; (C, D) myotubes with striations and myotubes without striations; red arrows indicate the motoneuron cell body and the processes; green arrows indicate the myotubes; scale bar for A, B=40 μm; scale bar for C, D=25 μm; 
         FIG. 4  shows the immunocytochemistry of co-cultures at day 25; (A-B) NF-150 (red) indicates the large motoneurons and their processes (white arrows); the striated myotubes (green) stained for nMHC (N3.36); scale bar=50 μm; 
         FIG. 5  depicts neuromuscular junction (NMJ) formation between day 30-40; (A) phase picture of the myotube indicating the alpha-bungarotoxin staining in green; (B) triple stain, showing the close proximity of alpha-bungarotoxin (green) and synaptophysin (blue) indicating synapse formation at a specific confocal plane and myotube striations are indicated in red (nMHC); (C-D) NMJ observed at two different planes using confocal microscopy; a much more dense clustering of synaptophysin and alpha-bungarotoxin was observed in these planes; 
         FIG. 6  shows striated myotube development in the absence of NMJ formation; (A, B) no NMJs were observed on this striated myotube; (A) a phase picture of the myotube; (B) immunostained picture of the same myotube with alpha-bungarotoxin, N3.36 and synaptophysin; scale bar=50 μm; and 
         FIG. 7  depicts NMJ formation on an N3.36 (−) myotube; (A) phase picture showing the different morphologies of myotubes in the co-culture; (B-D) show that NMJ formation was observed on a myotube that was negative for N3.36; culture stained with alpha-bungarotoxin, N3.36 and synaptophysin; possibly the myotube on which NMJ was formed was immature and had not yet expressed the neonatal myosin heavy chain marker (N3.36). 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     The present invention will now be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which preferred embodiments of the invention are shown. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. Any publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including any definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods and examples given are illustrative in nature only and not intended to be limiting. Accordingly, this invention may be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the illustrated embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these illustrated embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description, and from the claims. 
     Materials and Methods 
     Surface Modification and Characterization 
     Glass coverslips (Thomas Scientific 6661F52, 22×22 mm No. 1) were cleaned using an O2 plasma cleaner (Harrick PDC-32G) for 20 min at 100 mTorr. The DETA (United Chemical Technologies Inc. T2910KG) films were formed by the reaction of the cleaned glass surface with a 0.1% (v/v) mixture of the organosilane in freshly distilled toluene (Fisher T2904). The DETA coated coverslips were then heated to approximately 100° C., rinsed with toluene, reheated to approximately 100° C., and then oven dried (Das et al., 2006). Surfaces were characterized by contact angle measurements using an optical contact angle goniometer (KSV Instruments, Cam 200) and by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) (Kratos Axis 165). XPS survey scans, as well as high-resolution N1s and C1s scans utilizing monochromatic AI Ka excitation were obtained (Das et al., 2006). 
     Skeletal Muscle Culture in Serum-Free Medium 
     Skeletal muscle was dissected from the thighs of the hind limbs of fetal rat (17e18 days old). Briefly, rats were anaesthetized and killed by inhalation of an excess of CO 2 . This procedure was in agreement with the Animal Research Council of University of Central Florida, which adheres to IACUC policies. The tissue was collected in a sterile 15 mL centrifuge tube containing 1 mL phosphate-buffered saline (calcium- and magnesium-free) (Gibco 14200075). The tissue was enzymatically dissociated using 2 mL of 0.05% of trypsin-EDTA (Gibco 25300054) solution for 30 min in a 37° C. water bath at 50 rpm. After 30 min the trypsin solution was removed and 4 mL Hibernate E/10% fetal bovine serum (Gibco 16000044) was added to terminate the trypsin reaction. The tissue was then mechanically triturated with the supernatant being transferred to a 15 mL centrifuge tube. The same process was repeated two times by adding 2 mL of L15/10% FBS each time. The 6 mL cell suspension obtained after mechanical trituration was suspended on a 2 mL, 4% BSA (Sigma A3059) (prepared in L15 medium) cushion and centrifuged at 300 g for 10 min at 4° C. The pellet obtained was washed 5 times with L15 medium then resuspended in 10 mL of L15 and plated in 100 mm uncoated dishes for 30 min. The non-attached cells were removed and then centrifuged on a 4% BSA cushion (Das et al., 2006). 
     The pellet was resuspended in serum-free medium according to the protocol illustrated in  FIG. 1  and plated on the coverslips at a density of 700-1000 cells/mm 2 . The serum-free medium containing different growth factors and hormones was added to the culture dish after 1 h. The final medium was prepared by mixing medium 1 (Table 1) and medium 2 (Table 2) in a 1:1 v/v ratio.  FIG. 1  indicates a flowchart of the culture protocol. Tables 1 and 2 list the growth factor and hormone supplement compositions of medium one and medium two. The cells were maintained in a 5% CO2 incubator (relative humidity 85%). The entire medium was replaced after four days with NbActiv4 medium according to the protocol in  FIG. 1  (Brewer et al., 2008). As described in (Brewer et al., 2008), NbActiv4™ (available from BrainBits LLC) comprises all of the ingredients in Neurobasal™ (Table 3), B27™ (Table 4), and Glutamax™ (Table 5). NbActiv4™ may also comprise creatine, estrogen, and cholesterol. Thereafter three-fourths of the medium was changed every three days with NbActiv4™. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Composition of Medium 1 
               
             
          
           
               
                 No. 
                 Component 
                 Amount 
                 Catalogue # 
                 Source 
                 References 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1 
                 Neurobasal A 
                 500 
                 mL 
                 10888 
                 Gibco/ 
                 Brewer et al., 1993 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Invitrogen 
                   
               
               
                 2 
                 Antibiotic- 
                 5 
                 mL 
                 15240-062 
                 Gibco/ 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Antimycotic 
                   
                   
                   
                 Invitrogen 
                   
               
               
                 3 
                 Glutamax 
                 5 
                 mL 
                 35050-061 
                 Gibco/ 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Invitrogen 
                   
               
               
                 4 
                 B27 Supplement 
                 10 
                 mL 
                 17504-044 
                 Gibco/ 
                 Das et al., 2004; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Invitrogen 
                 Brewer et al., 1993 
               
               
                 5 
                 G5 Supplement 
                 5 
                 mL 
                 17503-012 
                 Gibco/ 
                 Alterio et al., 1990; 
               
               
                   
                 (100X) 
                   
                   
                   
                 Invitrogen 
                 Clegg et al., 1987; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Bottenstein 1981, 1988; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Bottenstein et al., 1988; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Morrow et al., 1990; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Gonzalez et al., 1990; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Moore et al., 1991; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Anderson et al., 1991; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Olwin et al., 1992 
               
               
                 6 
                 VEGF 165 r Human   
                 10 
                 μg 
                 P2654 
                 Gibco/ 
                 Arsic et al., 2004; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Invitrogen 
                 Germani et al., 2003; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Lee et al., 2003; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Lescaudron et al., 1999 
               
               
                 7 
                 Acidic FGF 
                 12.5 
                 μg 
                 13241-013 
                 Gibco/ 
                 Alterio et al., 1990; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Invitrogen 
                 Moore et al., 1991; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Olwin et al., 1992; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Motamed et al., 2003; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Dusterhoft et al., 1999; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Fu et al., 1995; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Smith et al., 1994; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Oliver et al., 1992; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Dell&#39;Era et al., 2003 
               
               
                 8 
                 Heparin 
                 50 
                 μg 
                 D9809 
                 Sigma 
                 Alterio et al., 1990; 
               
               
                   
                 Sulphate 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Moore et al., 1991; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Olwin et al., 1992; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Motamed et al., 2003; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Dusterhoft et al., 1999; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Fu et al., 1995; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Smith et al., 1994; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Oliver et al., 1992; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Dell&#39;Era et al., 2003 
               
               
                 9 
                 LIF 
                 10 
                 μg 
                 L5158 
                 Sigma 
                 Husmann et al., 1996; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Kurek et al., 1996; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Megeney et al., 1996; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Vakakis et al., 1995; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Martinou et al., 1992; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Sun et al., 2007; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Malm et al., 2004; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Zorzano et al., 2003; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Sakuma et al., 2000 
               
               
                 10 
                 Vitronectin 
                 50 
                 μg 
                 V0132 
                 Sigma 
                 Biesecker 1990; 
               
               
                   
                 (Rat Plasma) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Gullberg et al., 1995 
               
               
                 11 
                 CNTF 
                 20 
                 μg 
                 CRC 401B 
                 Cell Sciences 
                 Wang et al., 2008; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Chen et al., 2003, 2005; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Cannon 1998; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Marques et al., 1997 
               
               
                 12 
                 NT 3 
                 10 
                 μg 
                 CRN 500B 
                 Cell Sciences 
                 Oakley et al., 1997 
               
               
                 13 
                 NT 4 
                 10 
                 μg 
                 CRN 501B 
                 Cell Sciences 
                 Carrasco et al., 2003; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Simon et al., 2003 
               
               
                 14 
                 GDNF 
                 10 
                 μg 
                 CRG 400B 
                 Cell Sciences 
                 Choi-Lundberg et al., 1995; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Lin et al., 1993; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Yang et al., 2004; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Golden et al., 1999; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Henderson et al., 1994 
               
               
                 15 
                 BDNF 
                 10 
                 μg 
                 CRB 600B 
                 Cell Sciences 
                 Simon et al., 2003; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Heinrich 2003; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Mousavi et al., 2004 
               
               
                 16 
                 CT-1 
                 10 
                 μg 
                 CRC 700B 
                 Cell Sciences 
                 Chen et al., 2004; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Bordet et al., 2001; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Dolcet et al., 2001; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Lesbordes et al., 2002; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Nishikawa et al., 2005; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Mitsumoto et al., 2001; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Oppenheim et al., 2001; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Peroulakis et al., 2000; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Sheng et al., 1996 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Composition of Medium 2 
               
             
          
           
               
                 No. 
                 Component(s) 
                 Amount 
                 Catalogue 
                 Source 
                 References 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1 
                 Neurobasal A 
                 500 
                 mL 
                 10888 
                 Invitrogen/ 
                 Brewer et al., 1993 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Gibco 
                   
               
               
                 2 
                 Glutamax 
                 5 
                 mL 
                 35050-061 
                 Invitrogen/ 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Gibco 
                   
               
               
                 3 
                 Antibiotic- 
                 5 
                 mL 
                 15240-062 
                 Invitrogen/ 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Antimycotic 
                   
                   
                   
                 Gibco 
                   
               
               
                 4 
                 B27 Supplement 
                 10 
                 mL 
                 17504-044 
                 Invitrogen/ 
                 Das et al., 2004; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Gibco 
                 Brewer et al., 1993 
               
               
                 5 
                 Cholesterol 
                 5 
                 mL 
                 12531 
                 Invitrogen/ 
                 Jaworska-Wilczynska 
               
               
                   
                 (250X) 
                   
                   
                   
                 Gibco 
                 et al., 2002 
               
               
                 6 
                 TNF-alpha, 
                 10 
                 μg 
                 T6674 
                 Sigma-Aldrich 
                 Caratsch et al., 1994; 
               
               
                   
                 human 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Al-Shanti et al., 2008; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Miller et al., 1988 
               
               
                 7 
                 PDGF BB 
                 50 
                 μg 
                 P4056 
                 Sigma-Aldrich 
                 Husmann et al., 1996; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Jin et al., 1991; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Kudla et al., 1995; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Quinn et al., 1990; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Yablonka-Reuveni 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 et al., 1995 
               
               
                 8 
                 Vasoactive intestinal 
                 250 
                 μg 
                 V6130 
                 Sigma-Aldrich 
                 Gold 1982 
               
               
                   
                 peptide (VIP) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 9 
                 Insulin-like growth 
                 25 
                 μg 
                 12656 
                 Sigma-Aldrich 
                 Malm et al., 2004; 
               
               
                   
                 factor 1 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Zorzano et al., 2003; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Al-Shanti et al., 2008 
               
               
                 10 
                 NAP 
                 1 
                 mg 
                 61170 
                 AnaSpec. Inc. 
                 Gozes et al., 2004; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Aracil et al., 2004 
               
               
                 11 
                 Recombinant 
                 50 
                 μg 
                 P2002 
                 Panvera 
                 Robertson et al., 2000 
               
               
                   
                 Apolipoprotein E2 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 12 
                 Laminin, mouse 
                 2 
                 mg 
                 08-125 
                 Millipore 
                 Langen et al., 2003; 
               
               
                   
                 purified 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Foster et al., 1987; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Hantai et al., 1991; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Kuhl et al., 1986; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Lyles et al., 1992; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Song et al., 1992; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Swasdison et al., 1992 
               
               
                 13 
                 Beta amyloid 
                 1 
                 mg 
                 AG966 
                 Millipore 
                 Wang et al., 2005; 
               
               
                   
                 (1-40) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Yang et al., 2007; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Akaaboune et al., 2000 
               
               
                 14 
                 Human Tenascin-C 
                 100 
                 μg 
                 CC065 
                 Millipore 
                 Hall et al., 2000 
               
               
                   
                 protein 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 15 
                 rr-Sonic hedgehog, 
                 50 
                 μg 
                 1314-SH 
                 R&amp;D Systems 
                 Fan et al., 1994; 
               
               
                   
                 Shh N-terminal 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Munsterberg et al., 1995; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Nelson et al., 1996; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Cossu et al., 1996; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Currie et al., 1996; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Norris et al., 2000; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Brand-Saberi et al., 2005; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Elia et al., 2007; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Pagan et al., 1996; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Bren-Mattison et al., 2002; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Maves et al., 2007; 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Koleva et al., 2005 
               
               
                 16 
                 rr (Agrin C 
                 50 
                 μg 
                 550-AG-100 
                 R&amp;D Systems 
                 Bandi et al., 2008; 
               
               
                   
                 terminal) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Sanes 1997 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Composition of Neurobasal ™ medium 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Molecular 
                 Concentration 
                 Concentration 
               
               
                 No. 
                 Components 
                 Weight 
                 (mg/L) 
                 (mM) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1 
                 Glycine 
                 75 
                 30 
                 4.00E−01 
               
               
                 2 
                 L-Alanine 
                 89 
                 2 
                 2.25E−02 
               
               
                 3 
                 L-Arginine 
                 211 
                 84 
                 3.98E−01 
               
               
                   
                 hydrochloride 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 4 
                 L-Asparagine-H 2 O 
                 150 
                 0.83 
                 5.53E−03 
               
               
                 5 
                 L-Cysteine 
                 121 
                 31.5 
                 2.60E−01 
               
               
                 6 
                 L-Histidine 
                 210 
                 42 
                 2.00E−01 
               
               
                   
                 hydrochloride-H 2 O 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 7 
                 L-Isoleucine 
                 131 
                 105 
                 8.02E−01 
               
               
                 8 
                 L-Leucine 
                 131 
                 105 
                 8.02E−01 
               
               
                 9 
                 L-Lysine 
                 183 
                 146 
                 7.98E−01 
               
               
                   
                 hydrochloride 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 10 
                 L-Methionine 
                 149 
                 30 
                 2.01E−01 
               
               
                 11 
                 L-Phenylalanine 
                 165 
                 66 
                 4.00E−01 
               
               
                 12 
                 L-Proline 
                 115 
                 7.76 
                 6.75E−02 
               
               
                 13 
                 L-Serine 
                 105 
                 42 
                 4.00E−01 
               
               
                 14 
                 L-Threonine 
                 119 
                 95 
                 7.98E−01 
               
               
                 15 
                 L-Tryptophan 
                 204 
                 16 
                 7.84E−02 
               
               
                 16 
                 L-Tyrosine 
                 181 
                 72 
                 3.98E−01 
               
               
                 17 
                 L-Valine 
                 117 
                 94 
                 8.03E−01 
               
               
                 18 
                 Choline chloride 
                 140 
                 4 
                 2.86E−02 
               
               
                 19 
                 D-Calcium 
                 477 
                 4 
                 8.39E−03 
               
               
                   
                 pantothenate 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 20 
                 Folic Acid 
                 441 
                 4 
                 9.07E−03 
               
               
                 21 
                 Niacinamide 
                 122 
                 4 
                 3.28E−02 
               
               
                 22 
                 Pyridoxal 
                 204 
                 4 
                 1.96E−02 
               
               
                   
                 hydrochloride 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 23 
                 Riboflavin 
                 376 
                 0.4 
                 1.06E−03 
               
               
                 24 
                 Thiamine 
                 337 
                 4 
                 1.19E−02 
               
               
                   
                 hydrochloride 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 25 
                 Vitamin B12 
                 1355 
                 0.0068 
                 5.02E+06 
               
               
                 26 
                 i-Inositol 
                 180 
                 7.2 
                 4.00E−02 
               
               
                 27 
                 Calcium Chloride 
                 111 
                 200 
                 1.80E+00 
               
               
                   
                 (CaCl2) (anhyd.) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 28 
                 Ferric Nitrate 
                 404 
                 0.1 
                 2.48E+04 
               
               
                   
                 (Fe(NO3)3″9H2O) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 29 
                 Magnesium Chloride 
                 95 
                 77.3 
                 8.14E−01 
               
               
                   
                 (anhydrous) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 30 
                 Potassium Chloride 
                 75 
                 400 
                 5.33E+00 
               
               
                   
                 (KCl) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 31 
                 Sodium Bicarbonate 
                 84 
                 2200 
                 2.62E+01 
               
               
                   
                 (NaHCO3) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 32 
                 Sodium Chloride 
                 58 
                 3000 
                 5.17E+01 
               
               
                   
                 (NaCl) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 33 
                 Sodium Phosphate 
                 138 
                 125 
                 9.06E−01 
               
               
                   
                 monobasic 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 (NaH2PO4H2O) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 34 
                 Zinc sulfate 
                 288 
                 0.194 
                 6.74E+04 
               
               
                   
                 (ZnSO47H2O) 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 35 
                 D-Glucose (Dextrose) 
                 180 
                 4500 
                 2.50E+01 
               
               
                 36 
                 HEPES 
                 238 
                 2600 
                 1.09E+01 
               
               
                 37 
                 Phenol Red 
                 376.4 
                 8.1 
                 2.15E−02 
               
               
                 38 
                 Sodium Pyruvate 
                 110 
                 25 
                 2.27E−01 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Composition of B27 ™ 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Concentration 
               
               
                 No. 
                 Component 
                 (mg/L) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1 
                 L-Alanine 
                 2.00E+00 
               
               
                 2 
                 L-Glutamate 
                 3.70E+00 
               
               
                 3 
                 L-Glutamine 
                 4.41E+02 
               
               
                 4 
                 L-Proline 
                 7.76E+00 
               
               
                 5 
                 Biotin 
                 1.00E−01 
               
               
                 6 
                 Vitamin B12 
                 3.40E−01 
               
               
                 7 
                 Corticosterone 
                 2.00E−02 
               
               
                 8 
                 Progesterone 
                 6.30E−03 
               
               
                 9 
                 Retinol, all trans (Vit. A) 
                 1.00E−01 
               
               
                 10 
                 Retinol, acetate 
                 1.00E−01 
               
               
                 11 
                 Insulin 
                 4.00E+00 
               
               
                 12 
                 T3 (triodo-L-thyronine) 
                 2.00E−03 
               
               
                 13 
                 Na pyruvate 
                 2.50E+01 
               
               
                 14 
                 Lipoic acid (thioctic acid) 
                 4.70E−02 
               
               
                 15 
                 D,L-α-Tocopherol (vit. E) 
                 1.00E+00 
               
               
                 16 
                 D,L-α-Tocopherol acetate 
                 1.00E+00 
               
               
                 17 
                 Catalase 
                 2.50E+00 
               
               
                 18 
                 Glutathione (reduced) 
                 1.00E+00 
               
               
                 19 
                 Superoxide dismutase 
                 2.50E+00 
               
               
                 20 
                 L-Carnitine 
                 2.00E+00 
               
               
                 21 
                 Ethanolamine 
                 1.00E+00 
               
               
                 22 
                 D(+)-Galactose 
                 1.50E+01 
               
               
                 23 
                 HEPES 
                 2.60E+03 
               
               
                 24 
                 Putrescine 
                 1.61E+01 
               
               
                 25 
                 Penicillin 
                 50 IU/mL 
               
               
                 26 
                 Streptomycin 
                 5.00E−01 
               
               
                 27 
                 Selenium 
                 1.60E−02 
               
               
                 28 
                 Zinc sulfate 
                 1.94E−01 
               
               
                 29 
                 Linoleic acid 
                 1.00E+00 
               
               
                 30 
                 Linolenic acid 
                 1.00E+00 
               
               
                 31 
                 Albumin, bovine 
                 2.50E+03 
               
               
                 32 
                 Transferrin 
                 5.00E+00 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
                                   TABLE 5                   Composition of GlutaMax ™            No.   Component   Concentration               1   L-alanyl-L-glutamine dipeptide   200 mM       2   NaCl   0.85%                    
Rat Embryonic Motoneuron Isolation and Co-Culture
 
     Rat spinal motoneurons were purified from ventral cords of embryonic day 14 (E14) embryos. Briefly, rats were anaesthetized and killed by inhalation of an excess of CO 2 . This procedure was in agreement with the Animal Research Council of University of Central Florida, which adheres to IACUC policies. Ventral spinal cord cells from the embryo were collected in cold Hibernate E/GlutaMAX/antibiotic-antimycotic/B27. The cells were dissociated with 0.05% trypsin-EDTA (Invitrogen) treatment for 15 min. The dissociated cells were layered over a 4 mL step gradient Optiprep diluted 0.505:0.495 (v/v) with Hibernate E/GlutaMAX/antibiotic-antimycotic/B27 and then made to 15%, 20%, 25% and 35% (v/v) in Hibernate E/GlutaMAX/antibiotic-anti-mycotic/B27 followed by centrifugation for 15 min, using 200 g at 4° C. After centrifugation, four bands of cells were obtained. The motoneurons with large somas constituted the uppermost band. These cells present in the uppermost band were collected in fresh Hibernate E/GlutaMAX/antibiotic-anti-mycotic/B27 and centrifuged for 5 min at 200 g and 4° C. The pelleted motoneurons were re-suspended in plating medium then plated on top of muscle cells at a density of 100 cells/mm 2 . Motoneuron plating was performed 30 min after plating of the muscle cells. 
     Immunocytochemistry 
     Neonatal Myosin Heavy Chain (Neonatal MHC) 
     Coverslips were rinsed with PBS, fixed in 20° C. methanol for 5-7 min, washed in PBS, incubated in PBS supplemented with 1% BSA and 0.05% saponin (permeabilization solution), and blocked for 30 min in a permeabilization solution+10% goat serum (blocking solution). Cells were incubated overnight with primary antibody against neonatal MHC (N3.36, IgG, Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank) diluted (1:5) in the blocking solution. Cells were washed with PBS and incubated with AlexaFluor secondary antibody (Invitrogen) (diluted in PBS) for 2 h. The secondary antibody solution was removed and the cells were rinsed using PBS. The coverslips were dried and mounted on glass slides using VectaShield+DAPI mounting medium (Vector Laboratories H-1200) and viewed on a confocal microscope (UltraVIEW LCI, PerkinElmer). 
     Double Staining with Neurofilament 150 and Neonatal Myosin Heavy Chain 
     Co-cultures were processed for immunocytochemistry as described above. Next, cells were incubated overnight at 4° C. with rabbit anti-neurofilament M polyclonal antibody, 150 kD, (Chemicon, AB1981, diluted 1:2000) and neonatal MHC (N3.36, IgG, Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank diluted 1:5). After overnight incubation, the coverslips were rinsed three times with PBS and then incubated with the AlexaFluor secondary antibodies (Invitrogen) for 2 h. After rinsing three times in PBS, the coverslips were mounted with Vectashield+DAPI mounting medium onto glass slides. The coverslips were visualized and images collected using a confocal microscope (UltraVIEW LCI, PerkinElmer). Controls without primary antibody were negative. 
     AChR+Synaptophysin Co-Staining 
     AChRs were labeled as described previously by incubating cultures with 5×10 −8  M of α-bungarotoxin, Alexa Fluor® 488 conjugate (Molecular Probes, B-13422) for 1.5 h at 37° C. before observation (Das et al., 2007 (Neuroscience)). Labeled cultures were fixed with glacial acetic acid and ethanol, washed with PBS, dried, mounted and examined by confocal microscopy. The coverslips which were used for double staining with AChR+synaptophysin for locating the NMJs were processed further. After 1.5 h of α-bungarotoxin labeling of the AChR receptors, the coverslips were fixed, blocked, permeabilized and incubated overnight with synaptophysin antibody (MAB368, diluted 1:1000; Millipore/Chemicon), the pre-synaptic marker present in motoneuron axonal terminals. 
     Data Analysis 
     Statistics were calculated using the following procedure. One coverslip was randomly selected from each experiment (typically, there are six coverslips per experiment). 25 non-overlapping fields of view were used to characterize each coverslip. At the magnification used, 25 fields covers over 40% of the surface area of the coverslip. 
     Results 
     DETA Surface Modification and Characterization 
     Static contact angle and XPS analysis were used for the validation of the surface modifications and for monitoring the quality of the surfaces. Stable contact angles (40.64°±2.9/mean±SD) throughout the study indicated high reproducibility and quality of the DETA surfaces and these characteristics were similar to previously published results (Das et al., 2004; Das et al., 2007 (Nat. Protocols); Das et al., 2007 (Neuroscience); Das et al., 2006; Das et al., 2003). Based on the ratio of the N is (401 and 399 eV) and the Si 2p 3/2  peaks, XPS measurements indicated that a reaction-site limited monolayer of DETA was formed on the coverslips (Stenger et al., 1992). 
     Temporal Growth Factor Application 
     The formation of the maximal number of neuromuscular junctions was observed using the temporal growth factor application technique described in  FIG. 1 . Upon plating of the motoneurons and skeletal muscle, the cells were treated with medium containing factors that promoted both growth and survival as well as enhancement of NMJ formation (Table 1, Table 2). After 3 days in culture, the entire medium was removed and switched to a minimal formulation, NbActiv4, which facilitated both long-term survival and further development of the NMJs ( FIG. 1 ). Further, three-fourths of the NbActiv4 medium per well was removed and replaced with an equal volume of fresh NbActiv4 medium. When compared to the continuous application of growth factors, the timed application resulted in cultures that lasted for up to 7 weeks as opposed to 10-12 days. 
     Culture Morphology of Motoneuron and Skeletal Muscle Myotube Interactions 
     Phase contrast microscopy was used to visualize motoneuron axons appearing to interact with skeletal muscle myotubes between days 12-15 ( FIG. 2 , A-D). Some of the axonal processes appear to branch and terminate on the myotubes. Furthermore, many of the myotubes exhibited characteristic striation patterns observed after sarcomere formation when the fibers reached approximately 25-30 days in culture ( FIG. 3 , A-D). Quantification of the appearance of striations after this time indicated that the co-cultures contained about twice the number of myotubes showing striations. 
     Immunocytochemical Characterization of Motoneuron and Skeletal Muscle Co-Culture 
     The characteristic protein expression patterns of the motoneurons and myotubes in co-culture were evaluated at day 25. Immunocytochemistry was used to visualize the neurofilament protein expression in the motoneurons and neonatal myosin heavy chain (MHC) expression for the myotubes ( FIG. 4 , A-B). Motoneuron processes were clearly indicated interacting with the skeletal muscle myotubes. A band/I band formation was more visible in the myotubes after staining with the neonatal myosin heavy chain antibody. The immunocytochemical analysis supported the morphological analysis, which had indicated the presence of striations in double the number of myotubes as observed with the muscle only controls. 
     Neuromuscular Junction Formation 
     In order to determine neuromuscular junction formation using this novel medium formulation, the clustering of AChRs using alpha-bungarotoxin and their colocalization with synaptophysin vesicles was analyzed immunocytochemically. The colocalization of these two synaptic markers indicated the proximity of pre-synaptic and post-synaptic structures and was a positive indication of NMJ formation. This technique was used to identify the colocalization of synaptophysin vesicles with the AChR clusters ( FIG. 5 , A-D). The axon+myotube interactions that did not result in the colocalization of pre-synaptic and post-synaptic structures were also identified ( FIG. 6 , A-B). The observation of the negative result defines the difference between colocalization and non-colocalization and emphasizes the positive result observed in this system.  FIG. 7  illustrates NMJ formation between a myotube in culture that did not stain for neonatal myosin heavy chain and a motoneuron. 
     Discussion 
     This work documents the substantial improvement of an in vitro model system for NMJ formation. Specifically, we observed enhanced survivability of the culture resulting in our ability to conduct long-term studies on the motoneuron-skeletal muscle cocultures. This increased survivability resulted in maturation of the skeletal muscle myotubes and a significant improvement in the number of NMJs formed in culture. 
     Previously, we developed the first defined culture model to coculture embryonic motoneuron and fetal skeletal muscle, however this model was not suitable for long-term tissue engineering studies and the myotubes in the culture only expressed an early muscle marker, i.e. fetal myosin heavy chain and none of the myotubes exhibited characteristic striations. In this study, significant improvement over our previous motoneuron-skeletal muscle co-culture model system was documented. This new culture model supported long-term co-culture of both motoneuron and muscle, resulted in a more adult-like morphology of the muscle and a higher density of neuromuscular junctions (NMJ). Our findings were supported by morphological and immunocytochemical data. 
     We developed this serum-free medium, supplemented with growth factors that supported the survival, proliferation and fusion of fetal rat myoblasts into contractile myotubes, in a semi-empirical fashion. The rationale for selecting the growth factors was based on the distribution of their cognate receptors in the developing myotubes in rat fetus (Arnold et al., 1998; Brand-Saberi et al., 2005; Olson et al., 1992). Tables 1 and 2 reference the literature where these individual growth factors, hormones and neurotransmitters were observed to support muscle and neuromuscular junction development. The composition in Table 1 is the formulation used for a previously published medium utilized for motoneuron-muscle co-culture and adult spinal cord neuron culture (Das et al., 2007 (Neuroscience); Das et al., 2008 (Exp. Neurology); Das et al., 2005; Das et al., 2007 (Biomaterials)). Table 2 lists the twelve additional factors identified in muscle development and neuromuscular junction formation that enabled the increased survivability of the system. Further addition of the factors in Table 2 promoted formation of characteristic striation in the muscle in the culture. The use of NbActiv4 for the maintenance of the cells significantly improved the survival of the skeletal muscle derived myotubes despite the fact that the original purpose of the development of NbActiv4 was for the long-term maintenance and synaptic connectivity of fetal hippocampal neurons in vitro (Brewer et al., 2008). 
     In our previous co-culture model, we did not observe the expression of neonatal MHC proteins in the myotubes. Interestingly, when this same medium and protocol was used to culture pure skeletal muscle we observed certain striking differences. The pure muscle culture survived longer, exhibited characteristic striations, but only a very small percentage of myotubes expressed N3.36 (Das et al., 2009 (Biomaterials)). To the best of our understanding, the N3.36 expression in skeletal muscle in culture is influenced by the motoneurons either physically or by certain trophic factors secreted in the presence of this modified medium and NbActiv4. This observation needs further studies in order to dissect the molecular pathways regulating N3.36 expression in pure skeletal muscle culture and in skeletal muscle-motoneuron co-culture. Also, the potential regulation of MHC class switching independent of neuronal innervation/denervation represents an interesting topic for further study. This system would have applications in developing therapies for muscle-nerve diseases such as ALS, spinal muscular atrophy, spinal cord injury and myasthenia gravis. 
     Conclusions 
     The development of robust NMJ formation, long-term survival of motoneuron             skeletal muscle co-cultures and selective MHC class switching is documented in this research. This improved system supports the goal of creating a physiologically relevant tissue engineered motoneuron           skeletal muscle construct and puts within reach the goal of developing functional bio-hybrid devices to analyze NMJ activity. This defined model can also be used to map the developmental pathways regulating NMJ formation and MHC class switching. Furthermore, we believe this serum free culture system will be a powerful tool in developing advanced strategies for regenerative medicine in ALS, stretch reflex arc development and integrating motoneuron+skeletal muscle with bio-hybrid prosthetic devices. Due to the use of a serum-free defined culture system this also has applications for new high-throughput screening systems for use in drug discovery research and toxicology investigations.
     Accordingly, in the drawings and specification there have been disclosed typical preferred embodiments of the invention and although specific terms may have been employed, the terms are used in a descriptive sense only and not for purposes of limitation. The invention has been described in considerable detail with specific reference to these illustrated embodiments. It will be apparent, however, that various modifications and changes can be made within the spirit and scope of the invention as described in the foregoing specification and as defined in the appended claims. 
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