Abstract:
A method is provided for immunizing against pulmonary inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness associated with infantile RSV infection. This method includes administering an antisense oligonucletide to a subject in need thereof.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    Not applicable. 
       STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
       [0002]    Not applicable. 
       THE NAMES OF THE PARTIES TO A JOINT RESEARCH AGREEMENT 
       [0003]    Not applicable. 
       INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF MATERIAL SUBMITTED ON COMPACT DISC 
       [0004]    The Sequence Listing, which is a part of the present disclosure and is submitted in conformity with 37 CFR §§1.821-1.825, includes a computer readable form and a written sequence listing comprising nucleotide and/or amino acid sequences of the present invention. The sequence listing information recorded in computer readable form (created 22 Oct. 2007; filename: RSV_vaccine_ST25; size: 45.4 KB) is identical to the written sequence listing below. The subject matter of the Sequence Listing is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0005]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0006]    The present invention relates to polynucleotide molecules (e.g., DNA, RNA, etc.). More particularly, the invention relates to antisense oligonucleotides useful for prevention, amelioration, and treatment of wheeze and other diseases related to pulmonary inflammation, pulmonary dysfunction, and airway hyperresponsiveness. In particular, the invention relates to antisense oligonucleotides useful for suppressing IL-4Rα-mediated signaling during a critical developmental period, thereby preventing, ameliorating, and treating RSV-associated airway diseases. 
         [0007]    2. Description of Related Art 
         [0008]    Asthma is epidemic among industrialized countries (Cookson W O &amp; Moffatt M F,  Science  1997; 275:41-42). Although molecular analyses have suggested a genetic basis for this disease state (se e.g., Daniels S E, et al.  Nature  1996; 383:247-50; Van Eerdewegh P, et al.  Nature  2002; 418:426-30), environmental factors are partly responsible. Hypotheses for the proliferation of asthma have focused on exacerbating factors such as air pollution (McBride D E, et al.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med.  1994; 149:1192-97), early exposure to “trigger” antigens (e.g., dust mites, cockroaches) (O&#39;Byrne P M.  J Allergy Clin Immunol.  1988; 81:119-27), tobacco/chemical exposure (Flodin U, et al.  Epidemiology  1995; 6:503-505), and increased amount of time spent outdoors versus indoors (Platts-Mills T A, et al.  Curr Opin Immunol.  1998; 10:634-39). Moreover, the increased incidence of respiratory infections (e.g., respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), rhinovirus, and parainfluenza) associated with greater numbers of people living in high-density urban environments has also been proposed as a predisposing factor in the rising prevalence of asthma (Wang S Z &amp; Forsyth K D.  Clin Exper Allergy.  1998; 28:927-35). Despite intense study of patient populations, the unique circumstances that dictate why one person&#39;s immune responses lead to asthma when others&#39; do not are still obscure. 
         [0009]    Asthma is a respiratory disorder characterized by recurring episodes of paroxysmal dyspnea (sudden shortness of breath), wheezing on expiration due to constriction of bronchi, coughing, and viscous mucoid bronchial secretions (Mosby&#39;s Medical and Nursing Dictionary, 1990). Wheeze is a form of rhonchus (abnormal sounds heard upon auscultation of a respiratory airway obstructed by, e.g., thick secretions), characterized by a high-pitched musical quality and caused by a high-velocity flow of air through a narrowed airway (Id). Wheezes may be heard both during inspiration and expiration, and are associated with asthma, chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary edema, and respiratory infections, among other things. Although the etiology and symptoms of asthma are highly variable among patients, three common characteristic features of asthma exist: reversible variable airflow limitations; specific airway histopathologies due to airway inflammation and damage; and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR, the development of bronchoconstriction in response to nonspecific inflammatory stimuli) (Bochner B S, et al.  Annu Rev Immunol.  1994; 12:295-35). The onset and progression of allergic asthma is accompanied by a complex series of overlapping and concurrent inflammatory responses in the lung orchestrated by CD4+ Th2 lymphocytes (Type 2 T helper cells expressing CD4+). (Gavett S H, et al.  Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol.  1994; 10:587-93. Kon O M &amp; Kay A B.  Int Arch Allergy Immunol.  1999; 118:133-35. Robinson D, et al.  J Allergy Clin Immunol.  1993; 92:313-24. Walker C, et al.  Am Rev Respir Dis.  1992; 146(1):109-15. Kay A B. Ciba Found Symp. 1997; 206:56-67.) These responses include T cell mediated help of antigen-specific immunoglobulin production particularly IgG1 and IgE by B cells (DeKruyff R H, et al.  Semin Immunol.  1993; 5:421-30. Jenmalm M C, et al.  Pediatr Allergy Immunol.  1999; 10:168-77.), expression of Th2 proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-4, -5, -9, and -13) (Hoppler S &amp; Bienz M.  Cell  1994; 76:689-702. Host A H, et al. Ugeskr Laeger [Danish]. 1993; 155:3978-81. Till S, et al.  Immunology  1997; 9153-57.), and the activation of stromal and epithelial cells leading to the release of chemokines that initiate and perpetuate lung inflammatory reactions (Levine S J.  J Investig Med.  1995; 43:241-49.). Asthma-associated pulmonary inflammation is also characterized by cellular infiltrates, which are believed to be involved subsequently in histopathologies and are also thought to be the underlying cause(s) of the accompanying airway obstruction and lung dysfunction. 
         [0010]    For many years, it was thought that “reversible” airflow obstruction meant that asthma was also reversible. Thus, it was anticipated that childhood asthma was a self-limiting disorder that the child would “outgrow.” However, recent evidence suggests that repeated injury to the lung results in structural airway changes that—under some conditions—are irreversible. It is now well recognized that the majority of children with moderate to severe symptoms continue to wheeze and have reduced lung function values as adults. Even though they may consider themselves “symptom-free,” they continue to show reduced lung function and increased bronchial reactivity to both specific and non-specific stimuli (Pedersen S, “Asthma in Children,” In:  Asthma Basic Mechanisms and Clinical Management  (Peter J. Barnes, Ian W. Rodger, and Neil C Thompson, eds., Academic Press 1998), 3d ed., pp. 859-902.). The exact reason(s) for the long-term decline in lung function is uncertain, but pulmonary remodeling is a likely explanation. Supporting evidence comes from a study in which rats were repeatedly exposed to aerosolized ovalbumin (OVA) (Palmans E, et al.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med.  2000; 161:627-35.). This resulted in AHR to carbachol, which was accompanied by structural changes/remodeling of the airways, including goblet cell hyperplasia, increased proliferation of airway epithelium, increased deposition of fibronectin, and increased thickness of the interstitial matrix (Palmans E, 2000). 
         [0011]    Interestingly, human studies have demonstrated that airway remodeling events associated with asthma begin early in life, and in some infants are observable at the pathological level prior to the clinical onset of asthma symptoms (Warner J A.  J Allergy Clin Immunol.  2000; 105:951-59. Group TCAMPR.  N Engl J Med.  2000:343; 1054-63.). The immature lung is saccular (sack-like) in structure, and has a limited gas-exchange capability. Maturation into a mature lung with a large internal surface area capable of highly efficient gas exchange requires thinning of the alveolar walls, extensive subdivision of saccular lung into alveoli, and growth of the pulmonary capillary network (Ad hoc Statement Committee, American Thoracic Society.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med.  2004; 170:319-43.). In humans, this maturation process begins at 36 weeks of gestation. Only 15% of the alveoli have formed at birth, and maturation continues into the third year of life (Dunnill M.  Thorax.  1962; 17:329-33. Burn P, “Structural aspects of prenatal and postnatal development and growth of the lung,” In:  Lung Growth and Development  (John A. McDonald ed., Informa Healthcare 1997), 1st ed., pp. 1-35. Merkus P, et al.  Pediatric Pulmonology.  1996; 21:383-97. Meyrick B &amp; Reid L, “Ultrastructure of alveolar lining and its development,” In:  Development of the Lung: Lung Biology in Health and Disease Series  (W. A Hodson ed., Marcel Dekker 1977), pp. 135-214.). Rodents are also born with the lung in saccular stage, with alveolarization and wall thinning occurring postnatally. At birth, the immature murine lung lacks alveoli, alveolar ducts, and respiratory bronchioles. Alveolarization in the rat occurs on portpartum days 4-7, and respiratory bronchioles are found 10 days after birth (Burn P.  Anat Rec.  1974; 180:77-98.). Interestingly, increased oxidative stress due to mechanical lung ventilation in pre-term human infants causes extensive alveolar fibroproliferation, smooth muscle hyperplasia, and inhibition of distal lung formation, and also leads to long-term pulmonary dysfunction persisting into adulthood (Northway W, et al.  N Engl J Med.  1967; 276:357-68. Kurzner S I, et al.  J. Pediatr.  1988; 112:73-80.). These data suggest that infant lung tissue responds to external environmental factors that can influence pulmonary patterning, extent of lung growth, and long-term physiologic function. 
         [0012]    Three broad influences are currently believed to be the most important factors in the development of asthma: genetics; environmental factors (i.e., exposure to allergens or pathogens); and interactions between these factors and the developing immune/pulmonary system in early life. As a fetus, and shortly after birth, the immune system is prone to Th2 responses (Adkins B.  Int Rev Immunol.  2000; 19(2-3):157-71.). In the fetus this Th2 bias is thought to protect both the mother from cytotoxic Th1 (Type 1 T helper cell) fetal responses and the fetus from maternal rejection (Wegmann T G, et al.  Immunol Today.  1993; 14:353-56.). After birth, the immune system begins to mature in an age- and exposure-dependent manner. In humans, the Th2 cytokine profile persists throughout the first year of life and is accompanied by a relative eosinophilia (Prescott S L, et al.  Lancet.  1999; 353:196-200. Bruce M. Camitta, “The anemias,” In:  Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics  (Ricard E. Behrman, Robert M. Kliegman, and Ann M. Arvin, eds., W.B. Saunders 1996) 15th ed., pp. 1379.). In mice, the Th2 cytokine profile persists until approximately three weeks of age (Becnel D, et al.  Respir Res.  2005; 6:122. You D, et al.  Respir Res.  2006; 7:107.). 
         [0013]    One particular environmental factor—respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), a member of a subgroup of myxoviruses—is the most common cause of bronchiolitis (acute viral infection of the lower respiratory tract) and pneumonia (acute inflammation of the lungs) in humans during infancy. Usually, symptoms begin with fever, runny nose, cough, and sometimes wheezing. During their first RSV infection, approximately 25% to 40% of human infants present signs of bronchiolitis or pneumonia, and they usually recover within 8 to 15 days. Approximately 0.5% to 2% of RSV-infected children require hospitalization, and the majority of these are under 6 months of age. Most human children have serologic evidence of RSV infection by 2 years of age (Glezen W P, et al.  Am J Dis Child.  1986; 140:543-6.). RSV may cause repeated infections throughout one&#39;s life, with community-wide infections usually occurring in late fall, winter, or early spring months. A diagnosis of RSV infection may be made by detection of viral antigens, viral mRNA, or a rise in serum antibodies, by isolation of the virus, or by a combination of these strategies. Most commonly, antigen detection assays are employed. Moreover, infections of cattle and goats with bovine RSV and of sheep with ovine RSV are widespread, and produce significant economic losses (Mallipeddi S K &amp; Samal S K.  J Gen Vir.  1993; 74:2787-91.). Although the development of vaccines against RSV is a pressing research priority, they are either unavailable or present serious drawbacks. 
         [0014]    Several retrospective and prospective human studies have suggested a link between RSV lower respiratory tract infections during infancy and later development of asthma (Sims D G, et al.  Br Med J.  1978; 1:11-14. Pullan C R &amp; Hey E N.  Br Med J  ( Clin Res Ed ). 1982; 284:1665-69. McConnochie K M &amp; Roghmann K J. Pediatrics. 1984; 74:1-10. Mok J Y &amp; Simpson H.  Arch Dis Child.  1984; 59:306-9. Murray M, et al.  Arch Dis Child  1992; 67:482-7. Noble V, et al.  Arch Dis Child.  1997; 76:315-9. Stein R T, et al.  Lancet.  1999; 354:541-5. Sigurs N, et al.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med  2005; 171:137-41. Piippo-Savolainen E, et al.  Allegy Asthma Proc.  2007; 28:163-69. Openshaw P M J.  Clin Exp Immunol.  2003; 131:197-198.). Two ongoing longitudinal studies clearly demonstrate that RSV in early life does increase the risk of wheeze (and perhaps asthma) in later childhood (Stein R T, et al., 1999. Sigurs N, et al., 2005.). 
         [0015]    In one study, 43% of children diagnosed with severe RSV bronchiolitis as infants still experienced asthma or wheeze at 13 years of age, compared to only 8% of control patients (Sigurs N, et al., 2005.). Interestingly, 50% of children who had RSV bronchiolitis also tested positive to aeroallergens, versus 28% of controls (Id.). These results suggest that severe RSV infection during infancy predisposes one not only to the development of asthma or wheeze, but also to the development of allergic disease (Id). Multivariant analysis demonstrated that the highest frequency of wheeze was observed when RSV bronchiolitis and a family history of atopy were present as risk factors (68% of the RSV group as compared to 34% of the control group) (Id). Results obtained from the Tucson Children&#39;s Respiratory Study found that children with even mild RSV infections were four times more likely to have recurrent, frequent wheeze by 6 years of age (Stein R T, et al., 1999.). By 13 years of age, though, the association between wheeze and RSV was no longer significant. This study also showed no relationship between RSV infection and positive skin reactivity tests to aeroallergens (Id). Some factors that may account for the lack of consistency between the prospective studies on the relationship between RSV and the development of asthma are: (i) recruitment of infants (only the sickest infants hospitalized); (ii) inaccuracy of RSV testing, which often requires multiple tests to achieve a positive result; (iii) reliance on parental answers to judge continued wheeze, as with the Tucson Study, (iv) differences in gestational ages of the children recruited; and (v) differences between RSV strains, which may produce different immunological and physiological responses. Cumulatively, the data suggest that RSV bronchiolitis in infancy is associated with an increased risk of wheeze, which may persist for several years and is not adequately explained by allergies or a family history of atopy. 
         [0016]    Previous efforts at creating a human vaccine against RSV produced tragic consequences. In the mid-1960s, an experimental formalin-inactived RSV vaccine was developed and administered parenterally to infants between two and seven months of age (Kim H W, et al.  Am J Epidemiol.  1969; 89:422-434.). The vaccine caused a measurable serum-neutralizing antibody response, but when RSV became prevalent in the community (i.e., when those vaccinated were later infected naturally) 80% of those vaccinated required hospitalization for pneumonia and/or bronchiolitis. Two infants died (Id.). Post-mortem examinations revealed pneumonia and patchy atelectasis, while histologic analysis revealed peribronchiolar eosinophilia (Id.). Further studies in adult mice using formalin-inactivated RSV confirmed the above findings (Power U F, et al.  J. Virol.  2001; 75:12421-30. Peebles R S Jr., et al.  J Infect Dis.  2000; 182:671-77.). Numerous subsequent studies have demonstrated that RSV infection enhances Th2 cytokine responses and eosinophilic infiltration following allergen sensitization and challenge (Becnel D, et al., 2005. You D, et al., 2006. Barends M, et al.  Clin Exp Allergy.  2002; 32:463-71. Peebles R S Jr., et al.  J Med Virol.  1999; 57:186-92.). 
         [0017]    A recent study by Culley, et al. presented the first evidence demonstrating that “infections in early life play an important role” in shaping the secondary response to antigen, and can lead to long-term consequences for the host (Culley F J, et al.  J Exp Med.  2002; 196:1381-86.). Culley, et al. demonstrated that the age of initial infection with RSV played a significant role in the secondary response to rechallenge with RSV. As seen in  FIG. 1 , the immune response of mice initially infected with RSV between 1 and 7 days of age and rechallenged at 12 weeks of age was characterized by increased bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cellularity, including increased eosinophil and neutrophil cell numbers, and increased CD8+ and CD4+ T cell production of intracellular interleukin 4 (IL-4) ( FIG. 1 ). In contrast, the immune response of mice initially infected at 4 weeks of age and rechallenged at 12 weeks of age was characterized by decreased eosinophil and neutrophil cell numbers, decreased CD4+ T cell production of intracellular IL-4, and increased CD4+ T cell production of intracellular interferon gamma (IFN-γ) ( FIG. 1 ). The work of Culley et al. suggests that the pattern of inflammatory cell response in infants may be important during re-infection but does not suggest how pulmonary dysfunction or RSV-related asthma later in life may be prevented. 
         [0018]    The development of Th2 immune response is critically affected by IL-4 and IL-13 ( FIG. 3 ). IL-4 is critical for the commitment of T helper cells to the Th2 lineage (relative to ml) and for IgE isotype switching, while IL-13 plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases including the development of AHR, lung remodeling, and mucus hyperproduction. IL-4 is a ligand for both the IL-4 type I (IL-4Rα and IL-4Rγc) and type II (IL-4Rα and IL-13Rα1) receptor heterodimers, and IL-13 exerts its actions by binding to the type II IL-4R ( FIG. 3 ). IL-4Rα (see, e.g., SEQ ID NO:1,  H. sapiens  IL-4Rα, Accession No. NM — 000418.2) is a high-affinity receptor for IL-4, and binding of IL-4 to this receptor promotes heterodimerization with a second chain (e.g., IL-4Rγc). Heterodimerization of IL-4R, in turn, activates down-stream signaling through members of the Janus kinase family, leading eventually to activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat6) protein and expression of various IL-4 inducible genes. Although a second IL-13 receptor (IL-13Rα2) exists, it is currently thought to be a non-signaling “decoy” receptor. 
         [0019]    Recently, Karras, et al. demonstrated that reduction of IL-4Rα in the lungs (using inhaled antisense oligonucleotides against IL-4Rα) was sufficient to inhibit airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in an adult model of allergen-induced asthma (Karras J G, et al.  Am J Respir Cell Mol. Bid.  2007; 36:276-85.). The findings of Karras, et al. support the use of inhaled IL-4Rα antisense oligonucleotides as a therapy for preexisting asthma and asthma exacerbations by essentially blocking Th2 effector cell function. In contrast, the present invention focuses on the use of IL-4R antisense oligonucleotides in the blocking the initiation of Th2 cellular differentiation and effector function in response to infant RSV infection, thereby inhibiting the pathophysiologic sequelae (e.g. persistent airway dysfunction and Th2 inflammatory responses upon subsequent exposure to RSV) that it initiates. 
         [0020]    The technical problem underlying the present invention was therefore to overcome these prior art difficulties by inhibiting IL-4Rα in infants around the time that the T helper cell response is being influenced by RSV infection to develop as a Th2 response. The solution to this technical problem is provided by the embodiments characterized in the claims. 
       BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0021]    The present invention provides methods of immunizing against RSV-induced pulmonary inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness by administering at least one antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) to a subject in need thereof, wherein the subject is an infant and said infant is infected with a respiratory syncytial virus, the ASO is between 10 and 40 nucleotides in length, the ASO is targeted to a nucleic acid molecule encoding IL-4Rα, the first 5 and last 5 nucleotides at the 5′ and 3′ ends of the ASO are 2′-O-methoxyethyl nucleotides, the nucleotides between the first 5 and last 5 nucleotides at the 5′ and 3′ ends are 2′-deoxynucleotides, every internucleoside linkage is a phosphorothioate linkage, and every cytidine residue is a 5-methylcytidine. It is preferred that the ASO be single-stranded, and it is preferred that the route of ASO administration is inhalatory, and administration is most preferably to the nasal cavity and/or sinus. The ASO may be delivered using any kind of standard delivery device, including but not limited to nebulizers, inhalers (nasal and pulmonary), dry powder inhalers, and metered dose inhalers. When the subject in need thereof is a human, it is preferred that the subject is in the first year of life. It is also preferred, when the subject in need thereof is a human in the first year of life, that the ASO is targeted to nucleotides 167-265 of SEQ ID NO:1; the ASO may bear at least 75% sequence identity with the complement of nucleotides 167-265 of SEQ ID NO:1. It is also preferred, when the subject in need thereof is a human in the first year of life, that the ASO is targeted to nucleotides 357-515 of SEQ ID NO:1; the ASO may bear at least 75% sequence identity with the complement of nucleotides 357-515 of SEQ ID NO:1. When the subject in need thereof is a non-human primate, it is preferred that the subject is in the first 6 months of life. It is also preferred, when the subject in need thereof is a non-human primate in the first 6 months of life, that the ASO is targeted to nucleotides 89-154 of SEQ ID NO:9; the ASO may bear at least 75% sequence identity with the complement of nucleotides 89-154 of SEQ ID NO:9. It is also preferred, when the subject in need thereof is a non-human primate in the first 6 months of life, that the ASO is targeted to nucleotides 279-437 of SEQ ID NO:9; the ASO may bear at least 75% sequence identity with the complement of nucleotides 279-437 of SEQ ID NO:9. When the subject in need thereof is a bovine, it is preferred that the subject is in the first 8 weeks of life. It is also preferred, when the subject in need thereof is a bovine in the first 8 weeks of life, that the ASO is targeted to nucleotides 37-135 of SEQ ID NO:10; the ASO may bear at least 75% sequence identity with the complement of nucleotides 37-135 of SEQ ID NO:10. It is also preferred, when the subject in need thereof is a bovine in the first 8 weeks of life, that the ASO is targeted to nucleotides 227-385 of SEQ ID NO:10; the ASO may bear at least 75% sequence identity with the complement of nucleotides 227-385 of SEQ ID NO:10. 
         [0022]    It is also an object of this invention to inhibit or suppress IL-4Rα expression using at least one antisense oligonucleotide sequence targeted to IL-4Rα to inhibit or substantially reduce the initiation of a Th2 immune response in infant RSV infection, thereby reducing the likelihood of later development of pulmonary inflammation and/or airway hyperresponsivenses. It is a further object of the invention to block signaling through IL-4Rα in an infant infected with RSV to allow for an increased Th1 immune response to infantile RSV infection initially and upon subsequent re-infection as an adult. 
       DEFINITIONS 
       [0023]    The following definitions are provided to give a clear understanding of the specification and appended claims. 
         [0024]    The acronym “ASO” as used herein means anti-sense oligonucleotide. 
         [0025]    The acronym “dpi” as used herein means days post-infection. 
         [0026]    The acronyms “MR” and “MM” as used herein mean mismatch antisense-oligonucleotide. 
         [0027]    The acronym “TCID 50 ” as used herein means tissue culture infectious dose—the quantity of virus that will produce cytopathology in 50% of inoculated cultures. 
         [0028]    As used herein, “airway resistance” means the opposition to motion of air caused by frictional forces, which is a function of airflow rate, airway caliber, and other variables. It is the ratio of pressure difference between the mouth, nose, or other airway opening and the alveoli to the simultaneously measured volumetric gas flow rate. In respiratory physiology, it describes mechanical factors that limit access of inspired air to pulmonary alveoli, and so determine airflow. 
         [0029]    As used herein, “elastance” means the reciprocal of compliance. It is a measure of the change in pressure achieved per unit change in volume, or of stiffness. “Compliance” is the volume change per unit of pressure change across an elastic structure, such as a lung. 
         [0030]    As used herein, “immunization” means a process by which resistance to RSV—or to the sequelae following and resulting from RSV infection, including but not limited to enhanced airway resistance, mucus hyperproduction, enhanced Th2 cytokine production, pulmonary inflammation, and airway hyperresponsivenses—is induced or augmented 
         [0031]    As used herein, “infant” as applied to human beings refers to a child in the two years of life; as applied to mice, “infant” refers to a mouse in the first twelve days of life; as applied to non-human primates, “infant” refers to an animal in the first 6 months of life; as applied to bovines, “infant” refers to an animal in the first 8 weeks of life; as applied to members of the genus  Ovis , “infant” refers to an animal in the first 2 weeks of life; as applied to members of the genus  Capra , “infant” refers to an animal in the first 2 weeks of life. 
         [0032]    As used herein, the acronym “RSV” means “respiratory syncytial virus,” which is an RNA virus that causes disease of the respiratory tract. When one is tainted with RSV disease or the infectious properties of RSV (e.g., when one&#39;s body has been invaded by RSV, or when one exhibits symptoms consistent with RSV illness), one is said to be “infected” with RSV or have an “RSV infection.” “Infantile RSV infection” means RSV infection in an infant. 
         [0033]    By “expression” or “gene expression” is meant transcription (e.g., from a gene) and, in some cases, translation of a gene into a protein, or “gene product” (e.g., cytokines). In the process of expression, a DNA chain coding for the sequence of gene product is first transcribed to a complementary RNA, which is often a messenger RNA, and, in some cases, the transcribed messenger RNA is then translated into the gene product—a protein. The terms are also used to mean the degree to which a gene is active in a cell or tissue, measured by the amount of mRNA in the tissue and/or the amount of protein expressed. 
         [0034]    By “gene” is meant a nucleic acid (e.g., deoxyribonucleic acid, or “DNA”) sequence that comprises coding sequences necessary for the production of a polypeptide or precursor (e.g., messenger RNA, or “mRNA”). The polypeptide may be encoded by a full length coding sequence or by any portion of the coding sequence, so long as the desired activity or functional properties (e.g., enzymatic activity, ligand binding, signal transduction, etc.) are retained. The term also encompasses the coding region of a structural gene and the sequences located adjacent to the coding region on both the 5′ and 3′ ends, for a distance of about 1 kb on either end, such that the gene is capable of being transcribed into a full-length mRNA. The sequences located 5′ of the coding region and which are present on the mRNA are referred to as 5′ untranslated sequences, and form the 5′ untranslated region (5′ UTR). The sequences located 3′ or downstream of the coding region and which are present on the mRNA are referred to as 3′ non-translated sequences, and form the 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR). The term “gene” encompasses both cDNA and genomic forms of a gene. The genomic form or clone of a gene usually contains the coding region interrupted with non-coding sequences termed “introns” (also called “intervening regions” or “intervening sequences”). Introns are segments of a gene which are transcribed into nuclear RNA (hnRNA); introns may contain regulatory elements such as enhancers. Introns are removed or “spliced out” from the nuclear or primary transcript, and therefore are absent from the mRNA transcript. mRNA functions during translation to specify the sequence or order of amino acids in a nascent polypeptide. 
         [0035]    By “nucleotide” is meant a monomeric structural unit of nucleic acid (e.g., DNA or RNA) consisting of a sugar moiety (a pentose: ribose, or deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous heterocyclic base. The base is linked to the sugar moiety via a glycosidic bond (at the 1′ carbon of the pentose ring) and the combination of base and sugar is called a nucleoside. When the nucleoside contains a phosphate group bonded to the 3′ or 5′ position of the pentose, it is referred to as a nucleotide. When the nucleotide contains one such phosphate group, it is referred to as a nucleotide monophosphate; with the addition of two or three such phosphate groups, it is called a nucleotide diphosphate or triphosphate, respectively. The most common, nucleotide bases are derivatives of purine or pyrimidine, with the most common purines being adenine and guanine, and the most common pyrimidines being thymidine, uracil, and cytosine. A sequence of operatively linked nucleotides is typically referred to herein as a “base sequence” or “nucleotide sequence” or “nucleic acid sequence,” and is represented herein by a formula whose left-to-right orientation is in the conventional direction of 5′-terminus to 3′-terminus. 
         [0036]    As used herein, the term “oligonucleotide,” refers to a short length of single-stranded polynucleotide chain. Oligonucleotides are typically fewer than 100 residues long (e.g., between 15 and 50). Oligonucleotides are often referred to by their length. For example, a 24 residue oligonucleotide is referred to as a “24-mer”. Oligonucleotides can form secondary and tertiary structures by self-hybridizing or by hybridizing to other polynucleotides (any polymer comprised of nucleotide monomers covalently bonded in a chain). Such structures can include, but are not limited to, duplexes, hairpins, cruciforms, bends, and triplexes. Nucleotides are the basic unit of DNA, and consist of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine), a phosphate molecule, and a deoxyribose molecule. When linked together, they form oligonucleotide molecules. “Antisense oligonucleotides,” then, are single strands of RNA or DNA that are complementary to a particular RNA or DNA sequence. Antisense RNA oligonucleotides may prevent translation of complementary RNA strands by binding to them. Antisense DNA oligonucleotides may bind to complementary coding or non-coding RNA, thus targeting the DNA/RNA hybrid for degradation by the enzyme RNase H and so suppressing or preventing expression of the protein encoded by that RNA. 
         [0037]    DNA molecules are said to have “5′ ends” and “3′ ends” because mononucleotides are joined to make oligonucleotides in a manner such that the 5′ phosphate of one mononucleotide pentose ring is attached to the 3′ oxygen of its neighbor in one direction, via a phosphodiester linkage. Therefore, an end of an oligonucleotide is referred to as the “5′ end” if its 5′-phosphate is not linked to the 3′ oxygen of a mononucleotide pentose ring. Alternatively, it is the “3′ end” if its 3′ oxygen is not linked to a 5′ phosphate of a subsequent mononucleotide pentose ring. These ends are also referred to as “free” ends because they are not linked to upstream or downstream mononucleotides, respectively. A double stranded nucleic acid molecule may also be said to have 5′- and 3′ ends, wherein the “5′” refers to the end containing the accepted beginning of the particular region, gene, or structure, and the “3” refers to the end downstream of the 5′ end. A nucleic acid sequence, even if internal to a larger oligonucleotide, may also be said to have 5′ and 3′ ends, although these ends are not free ends. In such a case, the 5′ and 3′ ends of the internal nucleic acid sequence refer to the 5′ and 3′ ends that said fragment would have were it isolated from the larger oligonucleotide. 
         [0038]    By “protein” or “polypeptide” is meant a sequence of amino acids of any length, constituting all or a part of a naturally-occurring polypeptide or peptide, or constituting a non-naturally occurring polypeptide or peptide (e.g., a randomly generated peptide sequence or one of an intentionally designed collection of peptide sequences). A “test protein” or “test polypeptide” is a protein used according to the methods of the present invention to measure or test interaction between nucleic acids and said test protein or test polypeptide. 
         [0039]    As used herein, the term “target” refers to an RNA sequence complementary to an oligonucleotide sequence. Thus, the “target” is bound by an oligonucleotide bearing a sequence complementary to the target. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0040]    For a further understanding of the nature, objects, and advantages of the present invention, reference should be had to the following detailed description, read in conjunction with the following drawings, wherein like reference numerals denote like elements. 
           [0041]      FIG. 1  is adapted from Culley, et al. 2002, and shows that age at initial RSV infection predicts immune response to re-challenge with RSV. 
           [0042]      FIG. 2  shows schematically that infection with RSV induces a skewed immune response biased toward Th2 cells, and away from a balanced Th1/Th2 response. 
           [0043]      FIG. 3  shows the relationship between IL-4Rα and other receptors of the interleukin-4 and -13 receptor families, as well as the downstream effects of IL-4 and IL-13 signaling via heterodimers comprising IL-4Rα. 
           [0044]      FIG. 4  shows a schematic of the experimental protocol used to study the role of IL-4Rα in the induction of Th2 skew and pulmonary dysfunction associated with infantile RSV infection. Mice were treated with IL4-Rα antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) or an IL-4Rα mismatch oligonucleotide (MM), and initially infected with RSV at 7 days of age. 
           [0045]      FIG. 5  shows the effect of IL-4Rα ASO therapy on pulmonary function. Mice receivin IL-4Rα ASO therapy (AR) demonstrated reduced airway resistance and elastance following infantile RSV infection as compared to mismatch ASO (MR) treated animals. Lung function was measured at 109 dpi. Data are plotted as percent change over baseline. Significant difference compared with MR values (*: p&lt;0.05; **: p&lt;0.01). MR and RSV groups were not statistically different (n=3). 
           [0046]      FIG. 6  shows lung histopathology demonstrating airway structure and pulmonary inflammation (hematoxylin and eosin, H&amp;E) and mucus production (periodic acid-Schiff, PAS) at 116 dpi. Scale bar=50 μm (H&amp;E) or 200 μm (PAS). 
           [0047]      FIG. 7  shows that IL-4Rα ASO therapy reduced airway inflammation. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was isolated at 1 dpi. Data are expressed as mean±SEM. Significant difference compared with RSV values (*p: p&lt;0.05). 
           [0048]      FIG. 8  shows that IL-4Rα ASO therapy reduced CD4+ T lymphocyte numbers in the lung following infantile RSV infection. Infant mice were treated with IL-4Rα ASO (AR group) or IL-4Rα MM (MR group) or saline (RSV group) and then initially infected with RSV at 7 days of age. As a control, infant mice were also sham infected (Sham group). Lung cells were isolated at 10 dpi. Data are expressed as mean±SEM. Significant difference compared with RSV values (**: p&lt;0.05). 
           [0049]      FIG. 9  shows that IL-4α ASO therapy alters expression of cytokine IL-13 in BALF, following RSV infection. BALF was isolated at 1 dpi. Data are expressed as mean±SEM (n=3). Significant difference compared with RSV values (*: p&lt;0.05). 
           [0050]      FIG. 10  shows a schematic of the experimental protocol used to study the ability of the IL-4Rα ASO vaccine strategy to inhibit the Th2 response and pulmonary dysfunction associated with secondary infections with RSV. Mice were treated with IL-4Rα ASO or IL-4Rα MM and then initially infected at 7 days of age. Secondary infections were performed on protocol day 103, when the mice had matured to adults. 
           [0051]      FIG. 11  shows the effect of IL-4Rα ASO therapy on pulmonary function following secondary RSV infection. Mice receiving IL-4Rα ASO therapy (ARR) demonstrated reduced airway resistance ( FIG. 11A ) and elastance ( FIG. 11B ) following secondary RSV infection as compared to MM (MRR) treated animals or mice receiving RSV only (RR). Lung function was measured at 111 dpi. Data were normalized to baseline. Significant difference compared with MRR values (*:p&lt;0.05; **:p&lt;0.01). Sham and ARR groups were not statistically different (n=3). 
           [0052]      FIG. 12  shows the sequence comparison between IL-4Rα proteins of human ( Homo sapiens , amino acids 27-121 of SEQ ID NO:5, Accession No. NM — 000418.2), macaque ( Macaca mulatta , amino acids 27-121 of SEQ ID NO:6), mouse ( Mus musculus , amino acids 27-122 of SEQ ID NO:7, Accession No. NM — 001008700.3), and bovine ( Bos taurus , amino acids 27-124 of SEQ ID NO:8, Accession No. NM — 001075142.1). 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
       [0053]    Before the subject invention is further described, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the particular embodiments of the invention described below, as variations of the particular embodiments may be made and still fall within the scope of the appended claims. It is also to be understood that the terminology employed is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments, and is not intended to be limiting. Instead, the scope of the present invention will be established by the appended claims. 
         [0054]    In this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. 
         [0055]    In humans, RSV bronchiolitis is associated with wheeze/asthma in later life. In infant mice, where the pulmonary and immune systems are still developing, a very transient RSV infection initiates “immunological events” that produce long-term effects on subsequent immune responses and pulmonary function. This closely mimics observations from human children hospitalized for severe RSV-induced bronchiolitis as infants, and demonstrates the relevance of results from the mouse model to human infant RSV infections. Together, these data suggest that infant RSV infection initiates immunological and physiological changes that are determined both by the pathogen itself and by a critical window of immaturity of the immune system. The prior art does not suggest, though, how the long-term effects caused by RSV infection during the critical period might be prevented, nor does it suggest use of an IL-4Rα ASO to prevent RSV-induced asthma. As the present invention demonstrates, protection during this critical window of immunological immaturity provides long-term benefits in attenuating subsequent airway dysfunction. 
         [0056]    A correlation between RSV infection and wheeze/asthma has been noted previously, but identifying the causes of this connection—and the potential therapeutic avenues—has proven elusive. The most commonly-accepted models for studying this link use adult animals, yet the adult lung and the adult immune system are markedly different from those of the infant. By comparing infant and weanling mouse models of RSV infection, the present inventor has demonstrated that RSV infection in infants selectively induces pulmonary inflammation and permanently alters airway function (Becnel D, et al., 2005. You D, et al., 2006). In contrast, RSV infection of weanlings (3 wk of age) elicits only transient airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness (Becnel D, et al., 2005.). These data help to explain human epidemiological data, which indicated that early infection with RSV—if severe enough to require hospitalization—is correlated with the development of persistent wheeze and childhood asthma (Sigurs N.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med.  2001; 163:S2-6.). Most human children have been infected by RSV at least once, before their second birthday. However, the timing and severity of that initial infection varies considerably. Some children (including newborns and infants) develop severe disease and require hospitalization, while others do not. Those requiring hospitalization, though, are most often newborns and infants. The present inventor&#39;s data and that of others (Culley F J, et al., 2002. Sigurs N., 2001. Dakhama A, et al.  J Immunol.  2003; 175:1876-83.) suggest that one&#39;s age at initial RSV infection is a critical risk factor associated with subsequent development of wheeze/asthma and subsequent T-cell immune responses upon later RSV re-infection. 
         [0057]    The present inventor has also shown that if mice are infected with RSV as infants, and then subsequently exposed to allergen as adults, they develop an “asthma-like” response including enhanced airway resistance, mucus hyperproduction, enhanced Th2 cytokine production (mainly IL-4, -5, and -13 in the BALF and eosinophilia (You D, et al., 2006). Culley, et al. clearly demonstrated that age of initial infection is also important in determining subsequent T-cell memory, with infection of infants resulting in a largely Th2 polarized T-cell memory response (Culley F J, et al., 2002). The present inventor extended that observation by demonstrating that age at initial infection is critically important in determining the immuno-physiologic response to RSV and may explain why some children develop long-term wheeze/asthma following RSV bronchiolitis and others do not. 
         [0058]    The present inventor extended the observations of Culley, et al. by assessing lung pathology, airway responsiveness, and cytokine production after primary infection of weanling (21 days of age) and infant mice (7 days of age) (Becnel D, et al., 2005. You D, et al., 2006). Mice infected with RSV as infants (7 days of age) demonstrated altered pulmonary function and pathology as adults (103 d of age), which was exacerbated when combined with subsequent allergen exposure (Becnel D, et al., 2005. You D, et al., 2006). Mice infected during infancy exhibited long-term pulmonary inflammation, enhanced levels of IL-13, increased amounts of mucus-production, and significant airway remodeling (You D, et al. 2006). In contrast, there was no evidence of airway hyperresponsiveness in adult mice infected with RSV as weanlings (21 days of age), and after the infection resolved the lungs were pathologically similar to the lungs from control mice (i.e. no evidence of mucus production, pulmonary inflammation, or subepithelial fibrosis). Furthermore, delaying the age of primary infection (3 wk vs. &lt;1 wk) protected against the subsequent development of airway resistance upon re-infection, which was correlated with a significant reduction in pulmonary IL-13 levels compared to mice infected as infants (Becnel D, et al., 2005. You D, et al., 2006). Cumulatively, these findings suggest that RSV infection in infants elicits a Th2 immune response and establishes a Th2-biased memory response to subsequent infections and perhaps to other viruses or antigens (se, e.g.,  FIG. 2 ). The mechanisms underlying the diminished capacity of the infant immune system to develop a Th1 immune response to RSV and to resist re-infection remain, at best, poorly understood. 
         [0059]    The IL-4Rα antisense oligonucleotides are administered once daily for two days prior to infection of the infant with RSV and through two days after RSV infection. Both IL-4Rα antisense oligonucleotides and RSV are administered intranasally (i.n.). Data from this inventor&#39;s studies in mice suggest that employing IL4Rα-ASO as a vaccine strategy prevents RSV-induced bronchiolitis and the subsequent development of wheeze and/or asthma associated with infantile RSV infection, since RSV bronchiolitis induces long-term wheeze or asthma predominantly when acquired by human infants. Therefore, timing of vaccine administration is critical. The IL-4Rα antisense oligonucleotide used in the inventor&#39;s initial studies is targeted to nucleotides 1411-1421 (located in exon 11) of the mouse IL-4Rα gene (e.g., NCBI Accession No. NM — 001008700). Karras, et al. reported administration of this IL-4Rα ASO as an aerosol directly to the lungs of adult mice to relieve symptoms of asthma in an acute ovalbumin (OVA) challenge model of allergic asthma, but the present invention discloses the surprising finding that intranasal administration of IL-4Rα ASO to infant mice may prevent susceptibility to RSV-related asthma in the first instance. 
         [0060]    In addition, non-human variants of RSV also exist and cause similar respiratory sequelae. For example, bovine RSV is a major concern in the cattle industry, ovine RSV in the sheep industry, and caprine RSV in the goat industry (Stott E J &amp; Taylor G,  Arch Virol  1985; 84(1-2):1-52). We therefore anticipate that application of this same vaccine strategy (IL-4Rα antisense oligonucleotides+RSV) will prevent RSV-induced bronchiolitis and the development of subsequent wheeze associated with infantile RSV infection. 
         [0061]    IL-4Rα signaling is important in regulating the infant immune response to RSV. The amount of IL-13 in the BALF of infant mice infected with RSV is significantly elevated. In both humans and animal models, IL-13 has been implicated in multiple pathologies associated with allergies and asthma, including the development of airway hyperreactivity (AHR), lung remodeling, and mucus hyperproduction. IL-13 signals through the type II IL-4 receptor (IL-4R), a heterodimeric complex, composed of the IL-4Rα and IL-13Rα1 chains. Although a second IL-13 receptor exists, IL-13Rα2, it is currently thought to be a “decoy” receptor acting to negatively regulate IL-13 signaling. We hypothesized that inhibition of IL-4Rα would inhibit (or substantially reduce) the initiation of a Th2 immune response in our infant RSV infection model and reduce the development of AHR in these mice. Furthermore, suppressing IL-4 signaling through IL-4Rα may allow for an increased Th1 immune response to infant RSV infection initially and upon subsequent re-infection as an adult. 
       EXAMPLE 1 
       [0062]    IL-4Rα ASO therapy protects mice against the development of RSV-induced airway hyperreactivity. 
         [0063]    Mouse IL-4Rα ASO were designed, screened for inhibition of target mRNA, and provided by Isis Pharmaceuticals. The mouse IL-4Roc ASO 5′-CCGCTGTTCTCAGGTGACAT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:3) and an IL-4Rα mismatch ASO 5′-CCACTCATCACTGCTGACTT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:4) were each synthesized with chimeric design, wherein nucleotides 1-5 and 16-20 are 2′-O-methoxyethyl nucleotides, nucleotides 6-15 are 2′-deoxynucleotides, every internucleoside linkage is a phosphorothioate linkage, and every cytidine residue is a 5-methyl cytidine. Seven day old BALB/c mice were inoculated intranasally (i.n.) with RSV (RSV group), while cohorts of mice were treated with either IL-4Rα ASO (AR group,) or a 7-base mismatch control oligonucleotides (MR group). The oligonucleotides were administered i.n. at a dose of 100 μg/kg once daily, starting two days before RSV infection and continuing through two days after infection ( FIG. 4 ). Prior to infection, mice were anesthetized with isoflurane (induction at 3% isoflurane and maintenance, if necessary, at 0.5% isoflurane). The mice were held upright with the neck fully extended. A 10 μl drop of RSV (2×10 5  TCID 50 /g body weight) or vehicle (as sham control) was placed over nostrils with a micropipette (i.n. infection), which the mice readily inhaled. The same procedure and volume were used for i.n. administration of ASO or MM. In this manner, the following three groups of mice were generated and allowed to mature: 1) RSV infected mice (RSV); 2) RSV infected mice treated with IL-4Rα ASO (AR); and 3) RSV infected mice treated with MM ASO (MR). Once mature, on protocol day 109, pulmonary function testing was performed. Briefly, lung resistance to methacholine (MeCh, 2-acetyloxypropyl-trimethyl-azanium, CAS No. 55-92-5, 50 mg/mL in isotonic saline) was assessed using the forced oscillation technique as previously described (Becnel D, et al. 2005. You D, et al. 2006.). Anesthetized mice were mechanically ventilated with a tidal volume of 10 ml/kg and a frequency of 2.5 Hz using a computer controlled piston ventilator (FlexiVent, SQREQ; Montreal, Canada). Lung resistance and elastance data were collected and analyzed using the single compartment model, normalized to baseline lung resistance/elastance for each mouse, and plotted as the normalized resistance/elastance. Baseline measurements were obtained for each mouse after inhalation of saline. The mice that received IL-4Rα ASO as infants exhibited improved lung function (i.e. decreased airway resistance and decreased elastance) compared with infant control mice infected with RSV and with infant mice treated with the MM ASO ( FIG. 5 ). No difference in airway response was found between RSV infected mice either treated or not treated with MM ASO. 
       EXAMPLE 2 
       [0064]    IL-4Rα ASO therapy reduces CD4+ T lymphocyte numbers following infant RSV infection. 
         [0065]    Lymphocytes were isolated from whole lung homogenates at 10 dpi, stained for CD3, CD4, and CD8, and analyzed by flow cytometry. Mice receiving IL-4Rα ASO therapy (AR) demonstrated significantly reduced CD4+ T cell numbers (p&lt;0.05) following infant RSV infection as compared to mismatch IL-4Rα ASO treated animals (MR) and to RSV-infected animals receiving no ASO (RSV). 
       EXAMPLE 3 
       [0066]    IL-4Rα ASO therapy reduces pulmonary inflammation following infant RSV infection. 
         [0067]    The above data indicated that pulmonary inflammation might be reduced in the mice treated with IL-4Rα ASO. Therefore, we isolated BALF from each group of mice at 1 dpi. We found that the number of lymphocytes in the BALF was significantly decreased in the IL-4Rα ASO treated mice (AR) compared with either the RSV group ( FIG. 7 ) or the RSV/MR group. Infant RSV infection predominantly induces a mononuclear cell infiltration of the BALF and, interestingly, IL-4Rα ASO treatment reduced this population of cells the most. Furthermore, IL-4Rα ASO treatment induced a slight increase in the number of neutrophils recruited to the BALF compared to RSV infection alone (3.66×10 4 ±1.27×10 3  vs. 1.69×10 4 ±5.77×10 3 ; mean±SEM). 
       EXAMPLE 4 
       [0068]    IL-4Rα ASO therapy reduces RSV-induced Th2 cytokine levels in BALF. 
         [0069]    To explore the mechanism(s) responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity and improved lung function following treatment of RSV-infected infants with IL-4Rα ASO, we quantified Th2 cytokines, including IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-13 and the Th1 cytokine, IFN-γ, in the BALF at 1 dpi. Cytokine levels were measured from 50 μL of cell-free BALF using a high-throughput multiplex cytokine assay system (X-Plex Mouse Assay, BioRad) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. Each sample was analyzed in triplicate on the Bio-Plex 200 system (BioRad). A broad sensitivity range of standards ranging from 1.21 to 37,312 μg/mL (depending on the analyte) was used to quantitate a dynamic range of cytokine concentrations, and to provide the greatest sensitivity. The concentrations of analytes in these assays were quantified using a standard curve, and a 5-parameter logistic regression was performed to derive an equation that was used to predict the concentration of the unknown samples. IL-13 levels were significantly decreased in the BALF, while IL-6 levels appeared to increase following treatment with IL-4Rα ASO ( FIG. 9 ). Data for IL-4, IL-5, and IFN-γ are not displayed because they were below the level of sensitivity for this assay at this time point. The elevation of IL-6 is particularly interesting because it has been shown to increase lung branching in the fetus (Nogueira-Silva C, et al.  Pediatr Res.  2006; 60:530-36.) and possibly provides a mechanism by which the immune system hastens the development of the lung. 
       EXAMPLE 5 
       [0070]    IL-4Rα ASO therapy reduces pulmonary pathologies associated with infant RSV infection. 
         [0071]    Mouse lung histopathology was assessed at 109 dpi. IL-4Rα ASO therapy seemed to abolish mucus hyperproduction in the airways and to decrease peribronchiolar and perivascular lymphocytic infiltration ( FIG. 6 ). This data is in contrast to age-matched controls animals that were infected with RSV as infants and developed moderate pulmonary inflammation and exhibited significant mucus hyperproduction. 
       EXAMPLE 6 
       [0072]    IL-4Rα ASO vaccination is correlated with improved pulmonary function after secondary RSV infection. 
         [0073]      FIG. 10  shows a schematic of the experimental protocol used to study the ability of the IL-4Rα ASO vaccine strategy to inhibit the Th2 response and pulmonary dysfunction associated with secondary infections with RSV. Mice were treated daily with IL-4Rα ASO or IL-4Rα MM from 5 to 9 days of age and were initially infected with RSV at 7 days of age (protocol day zero). Viral titer was measured 4 and 8 days post-infection, to ensure that infection had occurred. Secondary RSV infections were performed on protocol day 103, by which time the mice had matured to adults. Viral titer was measured again on protocol days 107 and 111, and lung functional analyses were performed on protocol day 109. As seen in  FIG. 11 , IL-4Rα ASO therapy administered during initial RSV infection of infant mice produces significant beneficial effects when these mice are re-infected with RSV as adults. On protocol day 109, lung resistance to increasing doses of methacholine (MeCh; 0, 12.5, 25, and 50 mg/ml in isotonic saline) was assessed using the forced oscillation technique as previously described (Becnel D, et al. 2005. You D, et al. 2006.). Anesthetized mice were mechanically ventilated with a tidal volume of 10 mL/kg and a frequency of 2.5 Hz using a computer controlled piston ventilator (FlexiVent, SCIREQ; Montreal, Canada). Lung resistance and elastance data were collected and analyzed using the single compartment model, normalized to baseline lung resistance/elastance for each mouse, and plotted as the normalized resistance/elastance. Baseline measurements were obtained for each mouse after inhalation of saline. Upon re-infection with RSV, mice that had received IL-4Rα ASO therapy during the initial RSV infection (ARR) demonstrated dramatically reduced airway resistance ( FIG. 11A ) and reduced airway elastance ( FIG. 11B ) when compared to mice treated with mismatch IL-4Rα ASO (MRR) or to mice receiving RSV alone (RR). The airway resistance and elastance profiles for ARR mice were not significantly different from the profiles of the sham-infected mice (SHAM). 
         [0074]    Although IL-4Rα protein sequences of different species are not identical, they share regions of marked sequence conservation. Most notably, the region about amino acids 76-78 of  H. sapiens  IL-4Rα (SEQ. ID NO:5) shares significant homology with macaque (SEQ ID NO:6), mouse (SEQ. ID NO:7) and bovine (SEQ ID NO:8) IL-4Rα proteins, as shown by the boxed region of the protein sequence alignments of  FIG. 12 , as well as with the corresponding regions from IL-4Rα protein sequences of other species (e.g.,  Pan troglodytes , not shown). In addition, this region is implicated in atopic asthma (Deichmann K, et al.  Biochem Biophys Res Commun.  1997; 231:696-97. Mitsuyasu H, et al.  Nat Genet.  1998; 19:119-20. Noguchi E, et al.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med.  1999; 160:342-45.). As disclosed in published U.S. patent application publication no. 2007/0161594 (corresponding to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/548,657), antisense oligonucleotides targeted to human IL-4Rα may inhibit human IL-4Rα mRNA to differing degrees. In particular, antisense oligonucleotides targeted about the regions including nucleotides 167 to 265 (containing the transcription and translation start sites) and 357 to 515 of SEQ ID NO:1 may be particularly useful for inhibiting human IL-4Rα mRNA (se, e.g., Id at Table 5). Consequently, antisense oligonucleotides targeted to human IL-4Rα are expected to be useful for the methods of this invention, generally, and antisense oligonucleotides targeted to nucleotides 167 through 265 (containing the transcription and translation start sites) and 357 through 515 of SEQ ID NO:1 are expected to be particularly useful for the methods of this invention. Because RSV infects animals other than humans (including, but not limited to cows, sheep, and goats), and because these other animals also express IL-4Rα proteins, antisense oligonucleotides directed at the IL-4Rα sequences of other animals—and particularly at those regions with homology to nucleotides 167 to 265 (e.g., containing the transcription and translation start sites of the non-human IL-4Rα sequences) and 357 to 515 of SEQ ID NO:1—may also be useful for the methods of this invention. In particular, for non-human primates those regions are nucleotides 89-154 and 279-437 of SEQ ID NO:9, and for bovines those regions are nucleotides 37-135 and 227-385 of SEQ ID NO:10. 
       EXAMPLE 7 
       [0075]    IL-4Rα ASO therapy protecting human infants against development of RSV-induced airway hyperreactivity. 
         [0076]    Human IL-4Rα ASOs are designed to target different regions of human IL-4Rα, and screened for inhibition of IL-4Rα RNA. Each human IL-4Rα ASO is 20 nucleotides in length (a 20-mer), with chimeric design, wherein nucleotides 1-5 and 16-20 are 2′-O-methoxyethyl nucleotides, nucleotides 6-15 are 2′-deoxynucleotides, every internucleoside linkage is a phosphorothioate linkage, and every cytidine residue is a 5-methyl cytidine. Infant humans with symptoms of RSV infection or with active RSV infection (e.g., as shown by a test for RSV) are given at least one human IL-4Rα ASO intranasally at a dose of 1 μg/kg to 500 μg/kg at least once, and optionally once daily thereafter for as long as clinical signs of active RSV infection are evident (e.g., by detection of viral antigens, viral mRNA, or a rise in serum antibodies, by isolation of the virus, or by a combination of these strategies). 
         [0077]    IL-4Rα ASO therapy protecting infant cattle against development of RSV-induced airway hyperreactivity. 
         [0078]    Bovine IL-4Rα ASOs are designed to target different regions of bovine IL-4Rα, and screened for inhibition of IL-4Rα RNA. Each bovine IL-4Rα ASO is 20 nucleotides in length (a 20-mer), with chimeric design, wherein nucleotides 1-5 and 16-20 are 2′-O-methoxyethyl nucleotides, nucleotides 6-15 are 2′-deoxynucleotides, every internucleoside linkage is a phosphorothioate linkage, and every cytidine residue is a 5-methyl cytidine. Infant bovines with symptoms of bovine RSV infection or with active bovine RSV infection (e.g., as shown by a test for bovine RSV) are given at least one bovine IL-4Rα ASO intranasally at a dose of 1 μg/kg to 500 μg/kg at least once, and optionally once daily thereafter for as long as clinical signs of active bovine RSV infection are evident (e.g., by detection of viral antigens, viral mRNA, or a rise in serum antibodies, by isolation of the virus, or by a combination of these strategies). 
         [0079]    Data from the inventor&#39;s preliminary studies using IL-4Rα ASO in infant mice suggest that employing IL-4Rα ASO in infant humans as a part of a novel vaccine strategy could prevent RSV-induced bronchiolitis and the development of subsequent wheeze and/or asthma associated with severe infant RSV infection. This is evidenced in infant mice by the overall improvement in lung function, which correlated with decreases in RSV-induced pulmonary inflammation, mucus production, and IL-13 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Furthermore, the inventor&#39;s data also suggest a role for IL-13 in RSV-induced airway dysfunction. This is in contrast to the study performed by Park and colleagues (Park J W, et al.  J Allergy Clin Immunol.  2003; 112:1078-87.), which showed no role for IL-13 in primary RSV infection of adult BALB/c mice. In sum, this inventor&#39;s data suggest that interventional therapy with ASOs targeted to human IL-4Rα and administered to infant humans during initial RSV infection may be of significant benefit, preventing childhood wheeze and potentially life-long lung dysfunction. 
         [0080]    All references cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as though each reference was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. The citation of any reference is for its disclosure prior to the filing date and should not be construed as an admission that the present invention is not entitled to antedate such reference by virtue of prior invention. 
         [0081]    It will be understood that each of the elements described above, or two or more together may also find a useful application in other types of methods differing from the type described above. Without further analysis, the foregoing will so fully reveal the gist of the present invention that others can, by applying current knowledge, readily adapt it for various applications without omitting features that, from the standpoint of prior art, fairly constitute essential characteristics of the generic or specific aspects of this invention set forth in the appended claims. The foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only, the scope of the present invention is to be limited only by the following claims.