Abstract:
A method and apparatus for catalytic production of carbon nanotubes. Catalytic particles are exposed to different process conditions at successive stages wherein the catalytic particles do not come in contact with reactive (catalytic) gases until preferred process conditions have been attained, thereby controlling the quantity and form of carbon nanotubes produced. The method also contemplates methods and apparatus which recycle and reuse the gases and catalytic particulate materials, thereby maximizing cost efficiency, reducing wastes, reducing the need for additional raw materials, and producing the carbon nanotubes, especially SWNTs, in greater quantities and for lower costs.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The present application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 09/587,257, filed Jun. 2, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,413,487 which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. 
    
    
     STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
     This invention was supported by NSF Grant CTS-9726465. The U.S. Government has certain rights to this invention. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     This invention is related to the field of producing carbon nanotubes, and more particularly, but not by way of limitation, to methods and apparatus for producing single-walled carbon nanotubes. 
     Carbon nanotubes (also referred to as carbon fibrils) are seamless tubes of graphite sheets with full fullerene caps which were first discovered as multilayer concentric tubes or multi-walled carbon nanotubes and subsequently as single-walled carbon nanotubes in the presence of transition metal catalysts. Carbon nanotubes have shown promising applications including nanoscale electronic devices, high strength materials, electron field emission, tips for scanning probe microscopy, and gas storage. 
     Generally, single-walled carbon nanotubes are preferred over multi-walled carbon nanotubes for use in these applications because they have fewer defects and are therefore stronger and more conductive than multi-walled carbon nanotubes of similar diameter. Defects are less likely to occur in single-walled carbon nanotubes than in multi-walled carbon nanotubes because multi-walled carbon nanotubes can survive occasional defects by forming bridges between unsaturated carbon valances, while single-walled carbon nanotubes have no neighboring walls to compensate for defects. 
     However, the availability of these new single-walled carbon nanotubes in quantities necessary for practical technology is still problematic. Large scale processes for the production of high quality single-walled carbon nanotubes are still needed. 
     Presently, there are three main approaches for synthesis of carbon nanotubes. These include the laser ablation of carbon (Thess, A. et al.,  Science , 273:483, 1996), the electric arc discharge of graphite rod (Journet, C. et al.,  Nature , 388:756, 1997), and the chemical vapor deposition of hydrocarbons (Ivanov, V. et al.,  Chem. Phys. Lett , 223:329, 1994; Li A. et al.,  Science , 274:1701, 1996). The production of multi-walled carbon nanotubes by catalytic hydrocarbon cracking is now on a commercial scale (U.S. Pat. No. 5,578,543) while the production of single-walled carbon nanotubes is still in a gram scale by laser (Rinzler, A. G. et al.,  Appl. Phys. A. , 67:29, 1998) and arc (Journet, C. et al.,  Nature , 388:756, 1997) techniques. 
     Unlike the laser and arc techniques, carbon vapor deposition over transition metal catalysts tends to create multi-walled carbon nanotubes as a main product instead of single-walled carbon nanotubes. However, there has been some success in producing single-walled carbon nanotubes from the catalytic hydrocarbon cracking process. Dai et al. (Dai, H. et al.,  Chem. Phys. Lett , 260:471 1996) demonstrate web-like single-walled carbon nanotubes resulting from disproportionation of carbon monoxide (CO) with a molybdenum (Mo) catalyst supported on alumina heated to 1200° C. From the reported electron microscope images, the Mo metal obviously attaches to nanotubes at their tips. The reported diameter of single-walled carbon nanotubes generally varies from 1 nm to 5 nm and seems to be controlled by the Mo particle size. Catalysts containing iron, cobalt or nickel have been used at temperatures between 850° C. to 1200° C. to form multi-walled carbon nanotubes (U.S. Pat. No. 4,663,230). Recently, rope-like bundles of single-walled carbon nanotubes were generated from the thermal cracking of benzene with iron catalyst and sulfur additive at temperatures between 1100-1200° C. (Cheng, H. M. et al.,  Appl. Phys. Lett. , 72:3282, 1998; Cheng, H. M. et al.,  Chem. Phys. Lett. , 289:602, 1998). The synthesized single-walled carbon nanotubes are roughly aligned in bundles and woven together similarly to those obtained from laser vaporization or electric arc method. The use of laser targets comprising one or more Group VI or Group VIII transition metals to form single-walled carbon nanotubes has been proposed (WO98/39250). The use of metal catalysts comprising iron and at least one element chosen from Group V (V, Nb and Ta), VI (Cr, Mo and W), VII (Mn, Tc and Re) or the lanthanides has also been proposed (U.S. Pat. No. 5,707,916). However, methods using these catalysts have not been shown to produce quantities of nanotubes having a high ratio of single-walled carbon nanotubes to multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Moreover, metal catalysts are an expensive component of the production process. 
     In addition, the separation steps which precede or follow the reaction step represent a large portion of the capital and operating costs required for production of the carbon nanotubes. Therefore, the purification of single-walled carbon nanotubes from multi-walled carbon nanotubes and contaminants (i.e., amorphous and graphitic carbon) may be substantially more time consuming and expensive than the actual production of the carbon nanotubes. 
     Therefore, new and improved methods of producing nanotubes which enable synthesis of bulk quantities of substantially pure single-walled carbon nanotubes at reduced costs are sought. It is to such methods and apparatus for producing nanotubes that the present invention is directed. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     According to the present invention, a method and apparatus for producing carbon nanotubes is provided which avoids the defects and disadvantages of the prior art. Broadly, the method includes contacting, in a reactor cell, metallic catalytic particles with an effective amount of a carbon-containing gas at a temperature sufficient to catalytically produce carbon nanotubes, wherein a substantial portion of the carbon nanotubes are single-walled nanotubes. 
     Further, the invention contemplates a method wherein the catalytic particles are exposed to different process conditions at successive stages wherein the catalytic particles do not come in contact with reactive (catalytic) gases until preferred process conditions have been attained thereby controlling the quantity and form of carbon nanotubes produced. The method also contemplates methods and apparatus which recycle and reuse the gases and catalytic particulate materials, thereby maximizing cost efficiency, reducing wastes, reducing the need for additional raw materials, and producing the carbon nanotubes, especially SWNTs, in greater quantities and for lower costs. 
     Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description when read in conjunction with the accompanying figures and appended claims. 
    
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a flowchart showing the process steps of one embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 2  is a cross-sectional view of a reactor which can be used with the process contemplated as one embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 3  is a cross-sectional view through line  3 — 3  of the reactor of FIG.  2 . 
         FIG. 4  is a diagrammatic representation of an apparatus which can be used in the method of the present invention. 
         FIG. 5  is a diagrammatic representation of another apparatus which can be used in the method of the present invention 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     A preferred embodiment of a method contemplated by the invention described herein is characterized by the schematic flowchart shown in FIG.  1 . The process shown in  FIG. 1  is but one embodiment of the present invention and as such it is understood that the present invention is not limited to this example or to other examples shown herein. 
       FIG. 1  shows a series of process steps A-Q which represent a method of continuous catalytic production of carbon nanotubes. In Step A, a quantity of catalytic particles is introduced into a reactor, such as but not limited to, the reactor  10  described elsewhere herein in detail and shown in  FIGS. 2 and 3 , for example. The catalytic particles are any particles comprising a catalyst effective in forming carbon nanotubes. Especially preferred embodiments of the catalytic particles are described elsewhere herein, but it will be understood that the present invention is not to be limited only to the types of catalytic particle explicitly described herein. In any event, the catalytic particles generally comprise a solid support material which first has been impregnated with a metallic catalyst (i.e., a transition metal precursor) then calcined, then preferably processed into a pellet form. The pelletization process can be performed either before or after the support material is impregnated with the catalyst (transition metal precursor). 
     The present method is especially designed for the production of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) because in the present process the reaction conditions (e.g., temperature and duration of exposure to reaction conditions) to which the catalytic particles are exposed are highly controlled at different stages. The ability to regulate temperature and reactive concentrations is important to obtain the high selectivity necessary to produce SWNTs. In the process described herein, these problems have been solved by subdividing the process and the reactor in which the process steps occur, into different stages so the catalytic particles are not contacted with the reactive gas (e.g., CO) until the optimal reaction conditions have been achieved. For example, the yield of nanotubes is affected by the catalyst formulation (e.g., transition metal ratio, type of support, and metal loading), by the operating parameters (e.g., reaction temperature, catalytic gas pressure, space velocity and reaction time), and by pretreatment conditions (e.g., reduction and calcination). 
     After the catalytic particles have been introduced into the reactor, Step B is carried out in which the catalytic particles are treated with a heated inert gas, e.g., He, under high pressure, which functions both to preheat the catalytic particles to a high temperature, for example, 700° C., and to remove air from the catalytic particles in preparation for the subsequent reduction step. In Step C, the catalytic particles are exposed to a reducing gas such as H 2  at 500° C., under high pressure, for example, which reduces, at least partially, the catalyst within the catalytic particles to prepare it for catalysis and the reducing gas is flushed from the catalytic particles by an inert gas such as He heated to 750° C., under high pressure, for example, which also reheats the catalytic particles for the next step. Where used herein, the term “high pressure” or “elevated pressure” is intended to generally represent a range of from about 1 atm to about 40 atm, where 6 atm is preferred. Other elevated pressure levels may be used in other versions of the invention contemplated herein. 
     Step D follows Step C and is the reaction step in which an effective amount of a carbon-containing gas such as CO heated to a suitable reaction temperature such as 750° C. and under high pressure is exposed to the reduced catalytic particles. It is during this stage that carbon nanotubes and amorphous carbon are formed on the catalytic particles. Note that before the catalytic particles have been exposed to the carbon-containing gas, the reducing gas, e.g., H 2 , has been flushed from the flow of catalytic particles by the reheating gas, e.g., an inert gas such as He under high pressure. 
     After Step D, the catalytic particles are subjected to a Step E in which the reacted catalytic particles are exposed to a heated post reaction gas under high pressure such as He heated, for example, to 750° C. which functions to flush the carbon-containing gas remaining from the previous Step D, then the flushed catalytic particles are cooled with a cooling gas such as He or other inert gas under high pressure at a lower temperature, for example, 300° C. or lower. After the reacted catalytic particles have been cooled, they are subjected to a Step F wherein they are exposed to a stream of a heated oxidative gas such as O 2  under high pressure, for example at 300° C., wherein the amorphous carbon particles are burned away from the catalytic particles substantially leaving only carbon nanotubes in the catalytic particles. In Step G, the oxidized catalytic particles are then removed from the reactor for further processing. In Step H, the catalytic particles are subjected to a purification process which results in the separation of the catalyst (which bears the nanotubes) from the support. In a preferred method, the support, such as SiO 2 , is dissolved by treatment with a base such as NaOH, for example, at a concentration of 0.1-1.0 Molar, at a preferred temperature of from about 22° C. to about 70° C. with vigorous stirring or sonication or in any appropriate method known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Alternatively, the support may be soluble in an acid rather than a base, for example, a MgO support, alumina support, or ZrO 2  support, using HCl, HF, HNO 3 , aqua regia, or a sulfo-chromic mixture. Other support materials may require other methods of separation from the catalyst. e.g., using organic solvents such as chloro-compounds, and are also considered to be encompassed by the bounds of the present invention. For example, in an alternative embodiment organic solvents can be used to separate the carbon nanotubes from silica support by extraction after sonication using methods known in the art. 
     The term “catalyst” where used herein may also be used interchangeably with any of the terms “catalyst material,” “metallic catalyst,” “metal catalyst,” “transition metal” and “transition metal precursor.” The term “support” may be used interchangeably with the term “support material” or “support component.” 
     After the support has been separated from the catalyst, the catalyst is further treated in Step I by exposure to strong acid (e.g., 0.1 M to 9 M) thereby causing dissolution of the catalyst and separation from the nanotubes thereby yielding a purified form of the carbon nanotubes in Step J. The carbon nanotubes can then be further processed to yield carbon nanotubes having a greater purity. 
     A key aspect of the present invention is to recycle and reuse the support material and catalyst material to improve the economy of the nanotube production process. Reuse of the metal catalyst is important because the metal catalyst is one of the most expensive components of the entire process. The support is recovered in Step K by precipitation from solution obtained during Step H wherein the base (or acid) is neutralized. “Fresh” support can be added in Step M to the support precipitated in Step K to make up for support material lost during the process. Similarly, the metal catalyst is recovered in Step L by precipitation from solution which the acid (or other dissolution solution) is neutralized. “Fresh” catalyst can be added in Step N to catalyst recovered in Step L to make up for catalyst material lost during the previous steps of the process. The precipitated support and catalyst materials, and fresh support and catalyst materials are combined in a Step O wherein the support material and catalyst are treated using methods well known to those of ordinary skill in the art to cause the support material to be impregnated with the catalyst. The impregnated support is then calcined and pelletized in a Step P, again, using methods well known in the art, to form the catalytic particles to be fed into the reactor. If desired, in a Step Q, additional “fresh” catalytic particles can be added at this stage and combined with the catalytic particles from step P, which together are then fed into the reactor, thereby completing the process of the present invention. The Steps O and P can be modified in any manner which is effective in regenerating the catalytic particles for use in the reactor. 
     Benefits and advantages of the carbon nanotube production method contemplated herein are numerous. The method as contemplated herein can be adjusted to maximize the production of SWNTs due to the fact that the process conditions and parameters can be highly controlled. The process is economical because the process is continuous (although it may be processed in a “batch”) and because materials and gases used in the process are recovered and recycled. Recycling reduces the amount of waste product as well as the amount of raw materials initially required thereby reducing the overall cost of the process. The process results in the catalytic particles being exposed to each gaseous phase for a minimum duration thereby maintaining a more constant reactant concentration (e.g., minimizing CO 2  buildup) which is favorable for obtaining a homogenous nanotube product. The process contemplated herein further enables use of high gas flow rates thereby minimizing the external diffusional effects and maximizing the heat transfer rate. As noted earlier, the solid phase (catalytic particles) retention time can be adjusted independent of the gas phases. This enables the process and apparatus contemplated herein to be used with a wide range of catalysts with different activities. Further, the process is independent of the reaction yield, and the division into separate stages and steps allows different thermal treatments to be used. These factors enable optimization of the gas hour space velocity. Additionally, as noted, initial purification of the product can be done within the reactor (the oxidation or “combustion” step). 
     Effects of Operating Conditions on the Reaction Yield 
     The SWNTs are obtained through the following exemplary exothermic and reversible reacion:
 
2CO(g)⇄C(SWNT)(s)+CO 2 (g)
 
     Under the reaction conditions, the Co:Mo catalyst deactivates due to different phenomena:
         the formation of the SWNTs themselves;   the formation of other carbon species;   the reduction of the Co (or other catalyst) by the CO (or other carbon-containing gas).       

     Since the reaction and the deactivation occur at the same time, in order to maximize the yield of the reaction, it is important to find the conditions under which the formation of the SWNTs is much faster than the deactivation of the catalyst. Many of those conditions are determined by the fact that this reaction is exothermic and reversible. 
     Although high temperatures (above 650° C.) are necessary in order to produce SWNT with high selectivity, if the temperature is too high, (e.g., above 850° C.), the inverse reaction of the nanotube formation increases and the overall reaction rate is lower (the equilibrium of the reaction shifts to the left).
         Keq(600° C.)=0.57 psi −1      Keq(700° C.)=0.047 psi −1      Keq(800° C.)=0.0062 psi −1          

     It is important to note that if the inverse reaction is avoided (e.g., by maintaining a low CO 2  concentration), according to the Arrhenius Law, the higher the temperature, the higher the reaction rate. The upper limit for the temperature will be given in this case by the deactivation of the catalyst due to sintering. 
     Since the moles number in the gaseous phase is higher in the left term of the equation than in the right term, as pressure increases, overall reaction rate of SWNT production increases and the equilibrium of the reactions shifts to the right. For instance, if the reaction is carried out isothermically starting with pure CO at 700° C., the conversion of the CO at the equilibrium shifts from 48% to 75% when the pressure is increased from 14.7 to 150 psi. 
     The CO 2  produced during the reaction also plays a very important role. The CO 2  not only dilutes the CO (or other reactive gas) but it also increases the importance of the inverse reaction. Both phenomena conduct to a lower reaction rate and they can even inhibit the reaction completely if the equilibrium conditions are reached. As mentioned above, the effects of CO 2  are exacerbated with higher temperature and lower pressure. At 800° C. and 14.7 psi, a CO 2 /reactive gas ratio is low as 0.083 is enough to inhibit the reaction if there is no other gas present. Since the CO 2  is produced during the reaction, it is important to use high flow rates of the reactive gas in order to maintain a low CO 2 /reactive gas ratio during the process. 
     The presence of an inert gas in the fed stream also may have undesirable effects. It not only decreases the reaction by diluting the reactive gas, but it also shifts the equilibrium of the reaction to the left, reducing the overall reaction rate even more due to the effect of the inverse reaction. 
     Therefore, especially preferred operating conditions are a high reactive gas concentration, a temperature in the range of 650-850° C., high pressure (above 70 psi), and a high space velocity (above 30,000 h −1 ). 
     In general, the method for producing single-walled carbon nanotubes comprises contacting catalytic particles with an effective amount of a carbon-containing gas heated to a temperature of from about 500° C. to 1200° C., preferably from about 600° C. to about 900° C., and more preferably from about 650° C. to about 850° C., more preferably from about 700° C. to 800° C., and most preferably about 750° C. 
     The phrase “an effective amount of a carbon-containing gas” as used herein means a gaseous carbon species present in sufficient amounts to result in deposition of carbon on the catalytic particles at elevated temperatures, such as those described herein, resulting in formation of carbon nanotubes. 
     As noted elsewhere herein, the catalytic particles as described herein include a catalyst preferably deposited upon a support material. The catalyst as provided and employed in the present invention is preferably bimetallic and in an especially preferred version contains at least one metal from Group VIII including Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ir, Pt, and at least one metal from Group VIb including Cr, W, and Mo. Specific examples of bimetallic catalysts which may be employed by the present invention include Co—Cr, Co—W, Co—Mo, Ni—Cr, Ni—W, Ni—Mo, Ru—Cr, Ru—W, Ru—Mo, Rh—Cr, Rh—W, Rh—Mo, Pd—Cr, Pd—W, Pd—Mo, Ir—Cr, Ir—W, Ir—Mo, Pt—Cr, Pt—W, and Pt—Mo. Especially preferred catalysts of the present invention comprise Co—Mo, Co—W, Ni—Mo and Ni—W. The catalyst may comprise more than one of the metals from each group. 
     A synergism exists between the at least two metal components of a bimetallic catalyst in that metallic catalytic particles containing the catalyst are much more effective catalysts for the production of single-walled carbon nanotubes than metallic catalytic particles containing either a Group VIII metal or a Group VIb metal alone as the catalyst. 
     The ratio of the Group VIII metal to the Group VIb metal in the metallic catalytic particles where a bimetallic catalyst is used may also affect the selective production of single-walled carbon nanotubes. The ratio of the Group VIII metal to the Group VIb metal in a bimetallic catalyst is preferably from about 1:10 to about 15:1, and more preferably about 1:5 to about 2:1. Generally, the concentration of the Group VIb metal (e.g., Mo) will exceed the concentration of the Group VIII metal (e.g., Co) in metallic catalytic particles employed for the selective production of single-walled carbon nanotubes. 
     The metallic catalytic particles may comprise more than one metal from each of Groups VIII and VIb. For example, the metallic catalytic particles may comprise (1) more than one Group VIII metal and a single Group VIb metal, (2) a single Group VIII metal and more than one Group VIb metal, or (3) more than one Group VIII metal and more than one Group VIb metal and in a preferred version excludes Fe. 
     The catalyst particles may be prepared by simply impregnating the support with the solutions containing the transition metal prescursors. The catalyst can also be formed in situ through decomposition of a precursor compound such as bis (cyclopentadienyl) cobalt or bis (cyclopentadienyl) molybdenum chloride. 
     The catalyst is preferably deposited on a support such as silica (SiO 2 ), MCM-41 (Mobil Crystalline Material-41), alumina (Al 2 O 3 ), MgO, Mg(Al)O (aluminum-stabilized magnesium oxide), ZrO 2 , molecular sieve zeolites, or other oxidic supports known in the art. 
     The metallic catalytic particle, that is, the catalyst deposited on the support, may be prepared by evaporating the metal mixtures over flat substrates such as quartz, glass, silicon, and oxidized silicon surfaces in a manner well known to persons of ordinary skill in the art. 
     The total amount of bimetallic catalyst deposited on the support may vary widely, but is generally in an amount of from about 1% to about 20% of the total weight of the metallic catalytic particle, and more preferably from about 3% to about 10% by weight of the metallic catalytic particle. 
     In an alternative version of the invention the bimetallic catalyst may not be deposited on a support, in which case the metal components comprise substantially 100% of the metallic catalytic particle. 
     Examples of suitable carbon-containing gases which may be used herein include aliphatic hydrocarbons, both saturated and unsaturated, such as methane, ethane, propane, butane, hexane, ethylene and propylene; carbon monoxide; oxygenated hydrocarbons such as acetone, acetylene and methanol; aromatic hydrocarbons such as toluene, benzene and naphthalene; and mixtures of the above, for example carbon monoxide and methane. Use of acetylene promotes formation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes, while CO and methane are preferred feed gases for formation of single-walled carbon nanotubes. The carbon-containing gas may optionally be mixed with a diluent gas such as helium, argon or hydrogen. 
     In an especially preferred embodiment of the method claimed herein, the catalytic particle formulation is a Co—Mo/silica catalyst/support, with a Co:Mo molar ratio of about 1:2. Monometallic Co catalysts or those with a higher Co:Mo ratio tend to result in low selectivity with significant production of defective multi-walled nanotubes and graphite. In the temperature range investigated, without Co, Mo is essentially inactive for nanotube production. The catalytic particles are pre-treated in hydrogen, for example, at 500° C. Without this pre-reduction step, or with pre-reduction at higher temperatures (i.e., not enough reduction or too much reduction) the catalyst is not effective and produces less SWNT. Other supports such as alumina may result in a poor Co—Mo interaction, resulting in losses of selectivity and yield. 
     A high space velocity (above 30,000 h −1 ) is preferred to minimize the concentration of CO 2 , a by-product of the reaction, which inhibits the conversion to nanotubes. A high CO (or other reactive gas) concentration is preferred to minimize the formation of amorphous carbon deposits, which occur at low CO (reactive gas) concentrations. The preferred temperature range is characterized in that below 650° C. the selectivity toward SWNT is low; and above 850° C., the conversion is low due to the reversibility of the reaction (exothermic) and the deactivation of the catalyst. Therefore, the optimal temperature is between 700° C.-800° C.; more preferably between 725° C. and 775° C. and most preferably around 750° C. 
     The production process contemplated herein has been designed in such a way to effect a rapid contact of the preferred catalyst formulation with a flow of highly concentrated CO (or other reactive gas) at around 750° C. The quality of the SWNT produced by this method may be determined by a combination of characterization techniques involving Raman Spectroscopy, Temperature Programmed Oxidation (TPO) and Electron Microscopy (TEM). 
     The preferred methodology therefore comprises contacting a flow of CO gas (or other reactive gas in a high concentration) over the catalytic particles at about 750° C. for 1 hour at a high space velocity (above 30,000/h) under high pressure (above 70 psi). 
     If the conditions indicated above are followed, a high yield of SWNT (about 20-25 grams of SWNT per 100 grams of initial catalyst loaded in the reactor) and high selectivity (&gt;90%) is obtained. 
     Operation 
     A preferred embodiment of an apparatus for carrying out the process contemplated herein is shown in  FIGS. 2 and 3 . The apparatus is a reactor identified by reference numeral  10 . The reactor  10  is constructed of three concentric chambers, an inner chamber  12 , a middle chamber  14  having an inner space  15  (also referred to herein as a lumen)and an outer chamber  16 . The inner chamber  12  is subdivided into a plurality of inlet (gas receiving) chambers including a preheating gas inlet chamber  20   a , a reducing gas inlet chamber  20   b , a reheating gas inlet chamber  20   c , a reaction gas inlet chamber  20   d , a post reaction gas inlet chamber  20   e , a cooling gas inlet chamber  20   f , and a combustion gas inlet chamber  20   g . Each gas inlet chamber  20   a - 20   g  has at least one corresponding gas inlet,  22   a - 22   g , respectively, and has at least one corresponding gas outlet  24   a - 24   g , respectively. The inner chamber  12  further comprises a closed upper end  26  and a closed lower end  28 . 
     The middle chamber  14  has an upper end  30  (also referred to herein as an input end) which has an input conduit  32  for feeding catalytic particles into the middle chamber  14 , and has a lower end  34  (also referred to herein as an output end) which has an output conduit  36  for removing reacted catalytic particles from the reactor  10 . The middle chamber  14  also is constructed at least partially of a porous material (including, for example, a perforated metal or screen) for forming a porous (or perforated) wall portion  38  of the middle chamber  14 . The porous material may be any material which is permeable to gas introduced into the reactor  10  but which is impermeable to catalytic particles introduced into the inner space  15  contained by the middle chamber  14  and which can withstand the operating conditions of the reactor  10 . Such materials are known to persons of ordinary skill in the art. The entire reactor  10  must be constructed of materials able to withstand the process condition to which they are exposed, as will be understood by a person of ordinary skill in the art. 
     The outer chamber  16  is constructed of a plurality of outlet (outputting chambers)chambers including a preheating gas outlet chamber  40   a , a reducing gas outlet chamber  40   b , a reheating gas outlet chamber  40   c , a reaction gas outlet chamber  40   d , a post reaction gas outlet chamber  40   e , a cooling gas outlet chamber  40   f , and a combustion gas outlet chamber  40   g . Each gas outlet chamber  40   a - 40   g  has a porous wall portion  42   a - 42   g , respectively, for receiving gas into each gas outlet chamber  40   a - 40   g , and has at least one corresponding gas outlet  44   a - 44   g , respectively, through which gas is eliminated from each corresponding outlet chamber  40   a - 40   g , respectively. 
     Each gas outlet chamber  40   a - 40   g  is positioned across from each gas inlet chamber  20   a - 20   g  such that gas leaving each gas inlet chamber  20   a - 20   g  under high pressure passes across the porous wall portions  42   a - 42   g , respectively and into each gas outlet chamber  40   a - 40   g , respectively. 
     In use, a quantity of catalytic particles  48  are continuously fed into the reactor  10  through the input conduit  32 , and into the inner space  15  of the middle chamber  14 . An inert preheating gas  50   a  is introduced under high pressure through gas inlet  22   a  into preheating gas inlet chamber  20   a  and therefrom through gas outlet  24   a  whereby the inert preheating gas  50   a , heats the catalytic particles  48  which are adjacent preheating gas inlet chamber  20   a  to a desired predetermined temperature. The inert preheating gas  50   a  then passes across the porous portion  42   a  into preheating gas outlet chamber  40   a  and out of the preheating gas outlet chamber  40   a  via gas outlet  44   a . In a preferred embodiment, the preheating temperature is about 700° C., but in alternative embodiments the preheating temperature can be in the range of from about 500° C. to about 1200° C. 
     After the catalytic particles  48  have been heated they are moved into a position adjacent reducing gas inlet chamber  20   b  and are reduced by a heated reducing gas  50   b  such as H 2  which is introduced under high pressure through gas inlet  22   b  into reducing gas inlet chamber  20   b  and therefrom through gas outlet  24   b  wherein the heated reducing gas  50   b  passes across the catalytic particles  48 , through the porous wall portion  42   b , into the reducing gas outlet chamber  40   b , and out of the reducing gas outlet chamber  40   b  via the gas outlet  44   b . In a preferred embodiment, the temperature of the heated reducing gas  50   b  is about 500° C., but in alternative embodiments the temperature of the heated reducing gas  50   b  may be in the range of from about 400° C. to about 800° C. Preferably, the heated reducing gas  50   b  is H 2 , but may be NH 3  or, CH 4  in other embodiments or mixtures of these gases and other gases, for example. 
     After the catalytic particles  48  have been reduced by heated reducing gas  50   b , they are moved into a position adjacent reheating gas inlet chamber  20   c  and are reheated after being cooled during reduction by an inert reheating gas  50   c  such as He which is introduced under high pressure through gas inlet  22   c  into reheating gas inlet chamber  20   c  and therefrom through gas outlet  24   c  wherein the reheating gas  50   c  passes across catalytic particles  48 , through the porous wall portion  42   c , into the reheating gas outlet chamber  40   c , and out of the reheating gas outlet chamber  40   c  via the gas outlet  44   c . In a preferred embodiment the temperature of the reheating gas  50   c  is about 750° C., but in alternative embodiments the temperature of the reheating gas  50   c  is in the range of from about 600° C. to about 1200° C. Preferably the reheating gas  50   c  is He, but may be Ar, or N 2 , in other embodiments, for example, or other inert gases or mixtures thereof. 
     After the catalytic particles  48  have been reheated by reheating gas  50   c , they are moved into a position adjacent reaction gas inlet chamber  20   d  and are exposed to a heated carbon-containing reaction gas  50   c  such as CO which is introduced under high pressure through gas inlet  22   d  into reaction gas inlet chamber  20   d  and therefrom through gas outlet  24   d  wherein the heated carbon-containing reaction gas  50   d  passes across catalytic particles  48 , through the porous wall portion  42   d , into the reaction gas outlet chamber  40   d , and out of the reaction gas outlet chamber  40   d , via the gas outlet  44   d . This stage of the process is shown in detail in FIG.  3 . In a preferred embodiment the temperature of the heated carbon-containing reaction gas  50   d  is about 750° C., but in alternative embodiments the temperature of the heated carbon-containing reaction gas  50   d  is in the range of from about 500° C. to about 1200° C. Preferably the heated carbon-containing reaction gas  50   d  is CO, but may be CH 4 , C 2 H 4 , or C 2 H 2  or mixtures thereof, in other embodiments for example, but may be any carbon-containing gas which functions in accordance with the present invention. 
     After the catalytic particles  48  have been reacted with the heated carbon-containing reaction gas  50   d , they are moved into a position adjacent post reaction gas inlet chamber  20   e  and are flushed of the heated carbon-containing reaction gas  50   d  while at the reaction temperature by a heated post reaction gas  50   e  such as He which is introduced under high pressure through gas inlet  22   e  into post reaction gas inlet chamber  20   e  and therefrom through gas outlet  24   e  wherein the heated post reaction gas  50   e  passes across catalytic particles  48 , through the porous wall portion  42   e , into the post reaction gas outlet chamber  40   e , and out of the post reaction gas outlet chamber  40   e  via the gas outlet  44   e . In a preferred embodiment, the temperature of the heated post reaction gas  50   e  is about 750° C., i.e., the same temperature as the heated reaction gas  50   d , but in alternative embodiments the temperature of the heated post reaction gas  50   e  is in the range of from about 300° C. to about 800° C. Preferably the post reaction gas  50   e  is He, but may be N 2  or Ar, in other embodiments for example, or any other inert gas or mixtures thereof which function in accordance with the present invention. 
     After the catalytic particles  48  have been cleared of the heated carbon-containing reaction gas  50   d  by the heated post reaction gas  50   e , they are moved into a position adjacent cooling gas inlet chamber  20   f  and are cooled in preparation for combustion of amorphous carbon by cooling gas  50   f  such as He which is introduced under high pressure through gas inlet  22   f  into cooling gas inlet chamber  20   f  and therefrom through gas outlet  24   f  wherein the He cooling gas  50   f  passes across catalytic particles  48 , through the porous wall portion  42   f , into the cooling gas outlet chamber  40   f , and out of the cooling gas outlet chamber  40   f  via the gas outlet  44   f . In a preferred embodiment, the temperature of the cooling gas  50   f  is considerably lower than the temperature of the post reaction gas  50   d , for example about 22° C., but in alternative embodiments the temperature of the cooling gas  50   f  is in the range of from about 0° C. to about 300° C. Ideally, the temperature of the cooling gas  50   f  is a moderate temperature sufficient to cool the catalytic particles  48  to a temperature lower than or about equal to that under which the following step will be carried out. Preferably, the cooling gas  50   f  is He, but may be N 2 , or Ar, in other embodiments for example, or other inert gases or mixtures thereof. 
     After the catalytic particles  48  have been cooled by cooling gas  50   f , they are moved into a position adjacent combustion gas inlet chamber  20   g  wherein the amorphous carbon residue produced during the reaction step can be burned off in a combustion (oxidation) step (without affecting the nanotubes) by a heated combustion gas  50   g  containing O 2  (e.g., 2% to 5%) which is introduced under high pressure through gas inlet  22   g  into combustion gas inlet chamber  20   g  and therefrom through gas outlet  24   g  wherein the heated combustion gas  50   g  passes across catalytic particles  48 , through the porous wall portion  42   g , into the combustion gas outlet chamber  40   g , and out of the combustion gas outlet chamber  40   g  via the gas outlet  44   g . In a preferred embodiment, the temperature of the heated combustion gas  50   g  is about 300° C., but in alternative preferred embodiments the temperature of the heated combustion gas  50   g  is in the range of from about 280° C. to about 320° C. Preferably the heated combustion gas  50   g  is O 2 2-5% in a gas mixture, but may be air or an air mixture with He, in other embodiments, for example, or may be any other gas which functions in accordance with the present invention to cause oxidation of the amorphous carbon on the catalytic particles  48 . 
     After the catalytic particles  48  have been subjected to the oxidation process to remove amorphous carbon, they are moved to the lower end  34  of the middle chamber  14  of the reactor  10  and are passed out of the reactor  10  through the output conduit  36  for further purification and processing as explained elsewhere herein. 
     Apparatus for inputting, driving, and outputting the catalytic particles  48  into, through, and out of the reactor  10  are not shown but such mechanisms are well known in the art, and may include devices such as slide valves, rotary valves, table feeders, screw feeders, screw conveyors, cone valves and L valves for controlling and driving the flow of catalytic particles  48  into and out of the reactor  10 . The flow rate of the catalytic particles  48  is controlled independently of gas flow in the reactor  10 , and flow rates of each gas  50   a - 50   g , in one embodiment, may not be controlled independently of one another, or in an alternate embodiment may be controlled independently thereby enabling the process conditions and parameters to be adjusted on an individual basis. 
     The present invention contemplates that the reactor  10 , as shown and described herein, is constructed so as to enable the gases supplied to the reactor  10 , such as gases  50   a - 50   g , to be recycled after having been output from the reactor  10 . For example, inert preheating gas  50   a , e.g., He, is collected from gas outlet  44   a , purified if necessary, mixed with additional inert preheating gas  50   a  to replace lost gas, reheated and pressurized, and reintroduced at gas inlet  22   a . Similarly, heated reducing gas  50   b , e.g., H 2 , is collected from gas outlet  44   b , purified if necessary, mixed with additional heated reducing gas  50   b , reheated and pressurized, and reintroduced at gas inlet  22   b . In a similar manner, reheating gas  50   c , e.g., He, is collected from gas outlet  44   c , purified if necessary, mixed with additional reheating gas  50   c , reheated and pressurized and reintroduced at gas inlet  22   c . Further, heated carbon-containing reaction gas  50   d , e.g., CO, is collected from gas outlet  44   d , purified if necessary, mixed with additional heated carbon-containing reaction gas, reheated and pressurized and reintroduced at gas outlet  22   d . Similarly, heated post reaction gas  50   e , e.g., He, is collected from gas outlet  44   e , purified if necessary, mixed with additional heated post reaction gas  50   e , reheated and pressurized and reintroduced at gas inlet  22   e . Cooling gas  50   f , e.g., He, is collected from gas outlet  44   f , purified if necessary, mixed with additional cooling gas  50   f , cooled, pressurized and reintroduced at gas inlet  22   f . Finally, heated combustion gas  50   g , e.g., O 2 , is collected from gas outlet  44   g , purified, for example, to remove combustion products such as CO 2 , mixed with additional heated combustion gas  50   g  and reheated and pressurized, and reintroduced at gas inlet  22   g . Methods of mixing gases, purifying them, and reheating and repressurizing them are known to persons of ordinary skill in the art, so further discussion herein of such methods is not deemed necessary. 
     As noted herein, the apparatus shown in  FIGS. 2 and 3  and in the portion of the present specification relating thereto describes but one type of apparatus which may be employed to carry out the method contemplated herein. Other apparatuses which may also be used are shown in  FIGS. 4 and 5  and are further described below. 
       FIG. 4  shows an apparatus  58  comprising a reactor  60  used as a component in a continuous fluidized bed process. Catalytic particles  82  are fed via an input conduit  62  into a reducing chamber  64  and are reduced in a manner similar to that discussed previously. A reducing gas such as H 2 , can be input through gas inlet  68  and removed through gas cutlet  70 . After the reduction step, the catalytic particles  82  can be fed, via any appropriate mechanism, through an output channel  66  into a reheating chamber  72  wherein the catalytic particles  82  are heated to an appropriate reaction temperature via an inert heating gas such as He which is introduced into reheating chamber  72  via gas inlet  76  and which can be removed via gas outlet  78 . The catalytic particles  82 , after heating are passed via output channel  74  into the reactor  60  wherein they are subjected to reaction conditions by inputting a carbon-contained gas as discussed previously (e.g., CO) via a gas inlet  80  which results in the catalytic particles  82  being maintained as a “fluidized bed”  83  wherein the carbon nanotube formation process occurs. Light catalytic particles  85  may be lofted out of the fluidized bed  83  and carried out with exhaust gas through an exhaust conduit  84  into a light particle trap  88  which filters the light catalytic particles  85  from the exhaust gas which is eliminated via exhaust outlet  90 . The light catalytic particles  85  are thereby recovered and passed through a trap output  92  via a light particle conduit  94  into a catalytic particle treatment unit  96  for further processing and recycling of the light catalytic particles  85 . Meanwhile the catalytic particles  82  which comprise the fluidized bed  83 , after an appropriate exposure to reaction conditions within the reactor  60 , are removed from the reactor  60  via a particle output  86  and enter a cooling chamber  98  wherein an inert cooling gas such as He at a lower temperature is introduced via gas inlet  102  thereby cooling the reacted catalytic particles  82 . The cooling gas is removed via gas outlet  104 . The catalytic particles  82  then leave the cooling chamber  98  via output conduit  100  and enter an oxidation chamber  105 . In the oxidation chamber  105 , the catalytic particles  82  are exposed to an oxidative gas such as O 2  which enters via a gas inlet  106  wherein the amorphous carbon residue on the catalytic particles  82  are removed. Gases are eliminated from the oxidation chamber  105  via gas outlet  107  and the catalytic particles  82  leave via the output conduit  18  and pass through a particle conduit  110  into the catalytic particle treatment unit  96 . In the catalytic particle treatment unit  96 , the catalyst is separated from the support component of the catalytic particles  82  and  85 , and the carbon nanotubes are separated from the catalyst by processes previously discussed. The carbon nanotubes are output via product output  112  for additional purification. The catalyst and support components are transferred via a separation output conduit  114  to a catalyst and support recovery unit  116  wherein the catalyst is recovered, for example, by precipitation, and the support is recovered, for example, by precipitation, and the catalyst and support are reconstituted in a manner previously described to form catalytic particles  82  which can be reused in the process. The catalytic particles  82  thus recovered are transferred via a feeding conduit  118  back into the reducing chamber  64  for reuse, and may be mixed with fresh catalytic particles  82  which enter via a fresh catalytic particle input  120 . As previously explained, the gases used in the apparatus  58  of  FIG. 4  are preferably recovered and recycled for use within the apparatus  58 . 
       FIG. 5  shows an apparatus  128  which comprises a reactor  130  used as a component in a quasi-continuous batch and fluidized bed process. Portions of the apparatus  128  rely on batch-type processes while portions rely on a fluidized bed-type process, as explained below. Catalytic particles  144  are fed via an input conduit  132  into a reducing/heating chamber  134  wherein the catalytic particles  144  are reduced in a manner similar to that discussed previously but in a batch process rather than in a continuous process. The catalytic particles  144 , having been reduced, are then reheated in the same reducing/heating chamber  134  in which they were reduced. The gases used for reducing and heating are introduced via gas inlet  138  and are removed via gas outlet  140 . The reducing process thereby alternates with the reheating process. After reheating, the catalytic particles  144  pass out of the reducing/heating chamber  134  via output conduit  136  and pass through a reactor input  142  into the reactor  130  where they are exposed to a carbon-containing gas via gas inlet  149  thereby forming the catalytic particles  144  into a fluidized bed  150  as described previously for the apparatus  58  of  FIG. 4 , and wherein the carbon nanotube formation process begins. As with the fluidized bed process described above, light catalytic particles  145  may be lofted out of the fluidized bed  150  and carried out with exhaust gas through an exhaust conduit  146  into a light particle trap  151  which filters the light catalytic particles  145  from the exhaust gas which is eliminated via exhaust outlet  152 . The light catalytic particles  145  are thereby recovered and passed through a trap output  154  via a light particle conduit  156  into a catalytic particle treatment unit  158  for further processing and recycling of the light catalytic particles  145 . Meanwhile the catalytic particles  144  which comprise the fluidized bed  150  after an appropriate exposure to reaction conditions within the reactor  130  are removed from the reactor  130  via a particle output  148  and enter a cooling/oxidizing chamber  160  wherein an inert cooling gas such as He at a lower temperature is introduced via gas inlet  166  thereby cooling the reacted catalytic particles  144 . The cooling gas is removed via gas outlet  168 . The catalytic particles  144 , having been cooled, can now be exposed to an oxidative gas such as O 2  via the gas inlet  166  wherein amorphous carbon residues on the catalytic particles  144  are removed. Gases are eliminated from the cooling/oxidizing chamber  160  via gas outlet  168  and the catalytic particles  144 , now oxidized leave via an output conduit  162  and pass through a particle conduit  164  into the catalytic particle treatment unit  158 . In the catalytic particle treatment unit  158  the catalyst is separated from the support component of the catalytic particles  144  and  145 , and the carbon nanotubes are separated from the catalyst by processes previously discussed. The carbon nanotubes are output via product output  170  for additional purification. The catalyst and support components are transferred via a separation output conduit  172  to a catalyst and support recovery unit  174  wherein the catalyst is recovered, for example, by precipitation, and the support is recovered, for example, by precipitation, and the catalyst and support are reconstituted in a manner previously described to form catalytic particles  144  which can be reused in the process. The catalytic particles  144  thus recovered are transferred via a feeding conduit  176  back into the reducing/heating chamber  134  for reuse, and may be mixed with fresh catalytic particles  144  which enter via a fresh catalytic particle input  178 . As previously explained, the gases used in the apparatus  128  of  FIG. 5  are preferably recovered and recycled for use within the apparatus  128 . 
     Changes may be made in the construction and the operation of the various components, elements and assemblies described herein or in the steps or the sequence of steps of the methods described herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the following claims.