Abstract:
Apparatus and methods are disclosed for producing a flux of X-rays, from a plasma, wherein the flux remains rotationally symmetrical about a propagation axis over a period of use, even if the plasma produce flying debris. The plasma can be generated by a laser-plasma source or a discharge-plasma source, for example. The X-rays produced by the plasma are directed by an optical element to a downstream location. To such end, the optical element is located where it is subject to deposition and accumulation of flying debris from the plasma. The optical element has an axis of rotational symmetry. A rotational actuator is situated relative to the optical element and is configured to rotate the optical element about the axis of rotational symmetry during use. Hence, if deposits of flying debris form on the optical element, the deposits will be rotationally symmetrical and thus have an identical affect on the X-ray flux at any angle about the axis of rotational symmetry.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
         [0001]    This invention pertains to, inter alia, X-ray sources, more specifically to X-ray sources useful for any of various X-ray apparatus such as X-ray microscopes, X-ray analysis devices, and X-ray microlithography apparatus. Even more specifically, the invention pertains to X-ray sources that produce X-rays from a plasma produced by a target material highly energized by laser pulses or electrical discharge.  
         BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
         [0002]    Laser-plasma X-ray sources (hereinafter abbreviated as “LPX” sources) produce X-rays from a plasma generated by focusing a pulsed laser light on a target material situated inside a vacuum chamber. The laser light pulses convert the target material into the plasma, from which the X-rays are produced. LPX sources are small but nevertheless generate X-rays having an intensity comparable to the intensity of X-rays produced by undulators. Other small X-ray sources include dense plasma focus (DPF) sources that produce X-rays from an electrically produced discharge plasma. DPF sources also produce large quantities of X-rays, and have a higher conversion efficiency of X-rays to input power, and are lower in cost, than LPX sources.  
           [0003]    In LPX and DPF sources, the target material and any other material located in or near the plasma are atomized, ionized, or generally fragmented (the products of such fragmentation are termed herein “flying debris”). The particles of flying debris propagate to neighboring components (e.g., X-ray optical elements) to which the debris adheres and on which the debris accumulates. These deposits diminish the performance (e.g., reflectivity or transmissivity) of the components. Also, collisions of particles of the flying debris with neighboring optical components damage the components.  
           [0004]    According to one conventional approach to reducing the problem of flying debris in LPX sources, the target material is a gas at room temperature (e.g., nitrogen, carbon dioxide, krypton, and xenon). The gaseous target material is discharged from a nozzle while a pulsed beam of laser light is being irradiated onto the discharge stream of gas. According to another approach, the discharged target material is configured as a gaseous cluster produced by adiabatic expansion. Because they are gaseous, target materials produced in such manners tend not to accumulate on neighboring optical components. However, the plasma itself produces and emits high-velocity atoms, ions, and electrons that collide with the discharge nozzle and with components near the discharge nozzle. These collisions erode the nozzle and the components, producing flying debris that propagates to surrounding regions and accumulates on neighboring optical components. Consequently, an LPX source that produces no flying debris has yet to be realized.  
           [0005]    Meanwhile, to decrease the rate at which flying debris is produced in LPX and DPF sources, efforts have been made to fabricate components of these sources (such as nozzles and electrodes) using materials having high melting points and high hardness, such as tungsten or tantalum. Another approach has been to decrease the operating voltage of the source. Unfortunately, neither approach has resulted in zero flying debris.  
           [0006]    In addition, flying debris is not emitted uniformily in all directions. Rather, the particles tend to be emitted preferentially according to a certain asymmetric angular distribution. For instance, in LPX sources that utilize a gas-jet nozzle, fewer particles of flying debris propagate in the gas-discharge direction (i.e., along the gas-discharge axis). The quantity of flying debris increases with increases in the angle from the discharge axis.  
           [0007]    For X-ray illumination purposes as exploited in X-ray microlithography apparatus, for example, illumination-optical systems have been proposed that utilize fly-eye mirrors. In this regard, reference is made to FIG. 7(B) depicting a system that receives a collimated beam  702  of X-rays that is reflected successively from two fly-eye mirrors  703 ,  704  before being reflected by illumination mirrors  705 - 706  to a reflective reticle  707 . From the reticle  707 , the X-rays are reflected by a projection-mirror array  708  to a substrate  709 . As shown in FIG. 7(A), a typical fly-eye mirror  700  comprises multiple arc-shaped micro-elements grouped together. Each fly-eye mirror, such as that shown in FIG. 7(A), facilitates the achievement of a constant X-ray intensity distribution at the reticle  707 . (See Japan Kôkai Patent Document No. Hei 11-312638). If X-rays incident to a fly-eye mirror have an axially symmetric distribution of X-ray intensity around the center axis of the fly-eye mirror, then the beamlets of reflected X-ray light from the various micro-elements of the fly-eye mirror reinforce each other and make uniform the intensity distribution of X-ray light at the reticle. However, if the X-ray beam incident to the fly-eye mirror is asymmetric around the center axis of the fly-eye mirror, then the fly-eye mirror will not adequately compensate for intensity variations of the incident beam. Consequently, the intensity distribution of the X-ray beam reflected from the fly-eye mirror will not be uniform at the reticle.  
           [0008]    The angular distribution of X-rays radiated from a gas-nozzle LPX generally is rotationally symmetric around the gas-discharge axis. If a paraboloidal mirror (i.e., a mirror having a reflective surface configured as a paraboloid of revolution) were situated such that its axis of revolution is coincident with the gas-discharge axis, then X-rays reflected by the paraboloidal mirror should be a collimated beam having an intensity distribution nearly symmetrical to the gas-discharge axis. Thus, an X-ray flux suitable for the illumination-optical system described above could be formed. However, the angular distribution, relative to the gas-discharge axis, of emitted flying debris typically is not symmetrical. Rather, the angular distribution of the flying debris depends upon the plasma producing the debris and on the position of the nozzle (in the case of a gas-discharge LPX source) or the electrode (in the case of a discharge-plasma DPF source).  
           [0009]    As a result of the phenomena summarized above, operation of an X-ray source for a long period of time is accompanied by a progressively more asymmetric distribution of X-ray intensity produced by the source, due to the axially asymmetric accumulation of flying debris on neighboring optical components. With respect to use of such a source in an X-ray microlithography apparatus, this asymmetric distribution of X-rays results in variations in the axial distribution of X-rays illuminating a reticle, with corresponding inaccuracies in the transfer of a reticle pattern to a substrate.  
         SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
         [0010]    In view of the shortcomings of conventional apparatus and methods as summarized above, an object of the invention is to make any deposits of flying debris on an X-ray optical component situated adjacent the X-ray source rotationally symmetric about a propagation axis of the X-rays. Thus, the intensity distribution of the X-ray flux from the source is maintained rotationally symmetric, even in situations in which the X-ray source exhibits an asymmetrical distribution of emissions of flying debris.  
           [0011]    Another object is to provide X-ray optical systems, situated adjacent the X-ray source, configured to rotate one or more neighboring optical components about the optical axis (propagation axis) of the X-ray beam. As a result, in the context of X-ray microlithography for example, the intensity distribution of the X-ray beam at the reticle remains uniform about the optical axis. In an X-ray microlithography apparatus, this axial uniformity of the beam allows the reticle pattern to be transferred accurately to the substrate.  
           [0012]    To such ends, and according to a first aspect of the invention, X-ray sources are provided that generate X-rays from a plasma produced by directing pulsed laser light onto a target material in a vacuum chamber evacuated to a subatmospheric pressure. An embodiment of such a source includes a device for directing an X-ray flux from the plasma to a downstream optical system. The device comprises an optical element contained in the vacuum chamber and situated such that X-rays from the plasma are incident on the optical element. The optical element has an axis of rotational symmetry and is configured to direct the X-ray flux to the downstream optical system. The device also comprises a rotational actuator situated relative to the optical element and configured to rotate the optical element about the axis.  
           [0013]    By rotating the optical element, the distribution of any deposited flying debris on the optical element is rotationally symmetric. As a result, for example, even if the angular distribution of produced flying debris were asymmetric, the intensity distribution of the X-rays propagating from the optical element is axially symmetric.  
           [0014]    In this embodiment, the optical element can be, for example, an X-ray reflective mirror. The X-ray reflective mirror can be, for example, a multi-layer mirror, a grazing-incidence mirror, a spherical mirror, a paraboloidal mirror, a planar mirror, an ellipsoidal mirror, or an a spherical mirror. Stated another way, the mirror can comprise a reflective surface having, for example, any of the following profiles: spherical, paraboloidal, planar, ellipsoidal, or a spherical, or any combination of these profiles. Alternatively, the optical element can be an optical filter or a diffractive element.  
           [0015]    This embodiment can include a position detector, a controller, and a positional actuator. The position detector is situated and configured to detect a position of the optical element, and is connected to the controller. The positional actuator, to which the optical element is mounted, also is connected to the controller. The positional actuator is configured, when commanded by the controller, to move the optical element as required for maintaining a desired position of the optical element, based on a signal from the position detector. The positional actuator can comprise an X-direction linear stage, a Y-direction linear stage, and a Z-direction linear stage. It also can include a device for tilting the optical element to realign the axis of rotational symmetry of the element with another axis, such as the propagation axis of the X-rays propagating from the element. The position detector can have any of several possible configurations, such as a contact-needle displacement gauge or a device employing a laser and a light receiver (e.g., photodiode). In the latter instance, the laser is directed at the optical element and the light receiver is oriented so as to receive laser light reflected from the optical element. In any event, with an X-ray source including these features, any variation of the orientation of the optical axis of the X-ray flux can be maintained within specified tolerances during rotation of the optical element.  
           [0016]    According to another aspect of the invention, X-ray sources are provided. An embodiment of such a source comprises a vacuum chamber, an X-ray generator, an optical element, and an actuating device. The X-ray generator is situated within the vacuum chamber and is configured to produce a plasma sufficiently energized so as to produce X-rays. The optical element is contained in the vacuum chamber and is situated such that X-rays from the plasma are incident on the optical element. The optical element has an axis of rotational symmetry and is configured to direct the X-ray flux in a downstream direction (such as to an X-ray optical system). The actuating device is situated relative to the optical element and is configured to rotate the optical element about the axis. The X-ray generator can be, for example, a laser plasma X-ray device or a plasma-discharge X-ray device. As noted above, the optical element can be an X-ray reflective mirror or an optical filter (e.g., a filter transmissive to X-rays but not to visible light). This embodiment also can include a position detector, a controller, and a positional actuator as summarized above.  
           [0017]    According to another aspect of the invention, X-ray optical systems are provided that include any of the X-ray sources summarized above.  
           [0018]    The foregoing and additional features and advantages of the invention will be more readily apparent from the following detailed description, which proceeds with reference to the accompanying drawings. 
       
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0019]    [0019]FIG. 1 is a schematic elevational view of an LPX X-ray source according to the first representative embodiment.  
         [0020]    [0020]FIG. 2 is a schematic elevational view of an LPX X-ray source according to the second representative embodiment.  
         [0021]    [0021]FIG. 3(A) is a plan view of the paraboloidal mirror (as viewed from a location on the mirror axis but downstream of the mirror) used in the second representative embodiment, showing the positions and orientations of semiconductor lasers and respective photodiodes used to detect mirror orientation.  
         [0022]    [0022]FIG. 3(B) is a plan view of the light-receiving surface of a photodiode as used in the configuration of FIG. 3(A).  
         [0023]    [0023]FIG. 4 is a schematic elevational view of an alternative configuration of the second representative embodiment, employing a DPF X-ray source.  
         [0024]    [0024]FIG. 5 is a schematic elevational view of another alternative configuration of the second representative embodiment, employing a planar mirror.  
         [0025]    [0025]FIG. 6 is a schematic elevational view of yet another alternative configuration of the second representative embodiment, employing a paraboloidal grazing-incidence mirror.  
         [0026]    [0026]FIG. 7(A) is a plan view of a fly-eye mirror as used in a conventional X-ray optical system as used in an X-ray microlithography apparatus.  
         [0027]    [0027]FIG. 7(B) is a schematic diagram of the optical system in a conventional X-ray microlithography apparatus. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
       [0028]    Certain embodiments of X-ray sources according to the invention generate X-rays from a plasma produced by focusing pulsed laser light on a target material inside a reduced-pressure chamber. Other embodiments generate X-rays from a plasma produced by converting a target material into a plasma using an electrical discharge. An X-ray optical element is used to receive the X-rays from the plasma and guide the X-rays to a downstream X-ray optical system.  
         [0029]    First Representative Embodiment  
         [0030]    This embodiment is depicted in FIG. 1. The X-ray source is an LPX source. X-rays are produced from a plasma  603  generated by discharging a target gas from a nozzle  600  at ultrasonic velocity while irradiating the discharged target gas with a pulsed laser light  602 . Discharge of target gas through the nozzle  600  is controlled by a pulse valve  601 . The generated X-rays have a nearly uniform intensity distribution within a plane parallel to the laser-incidence plane (a horizontal plane in the figure).  
         [0031]    A paraboloidal mirror  604  having a focal point in the middle of the plasma is situated as shown in the figure. The paraboloidal mirror  604  reflects the X-rays emitted from the plasma  603  and produces a collimated X-ray light flux  611  having an axially symmetric intensity distribution. The paraboloidal mirror  604  also directs the X-ray light flux  611  toward a downstream optical system. The paraboloidal mirror  604  is coated with multiple thin-film layers so as to be reflective to X-rays having a specified wavelength. The multi-layer period varies in a controlled manner across the reflective surface of the mirror  604  so as to maximize the reflectivity of the mirror at various locations on the mirror surface. The axis of rotational symmetry of the paraboloid is oriented so as to pass through the center of the plasma  603 . Thus, the rotational axis of the paraboloidal mirror  604  is coincident with the optical axis of X-rays reflected from the mirror  604  (this optical axis is the axis of symmetry of the X-ray source).  
         [0032]    A rotational actuator  605  is situated relative to the paraboloidal mirror  604  and is configured to rotate the mirror  604  about its axis of rotational symmetry. The rotational actuator  605  is mounted via linear stages  608 ,  609 ,  610  on tilt stages  606 ,  607 . The tilt stages  606 ,  607  are oriented perpendicularly to one another. The linear stages  608 ,  609 ,  610  also are oriented perpendicularly to one another in three dimensions. The combination of the tilt stages  606 ,  607  and linear stages  608 - 610  are a representative example of various mechanisms that can be utilized for accurately positioning and rotating the mirror  604 .  
         [0033]    Contact-type displacement sensors  612 ,  613  are mounted, with respective orientations that are perpendicular to each other, on the side and rear surfaces (in the figure) of the paraboloidal mirror  604 . (The direction orthogonal to the plane of the page is not depicted.) The particular configuration of the depicted displacement sensor  612  is exemplary only. Any of various types of displacement sensors can be employed. To facilitate displacement sensing, the side and rear surfaces (in the figure) of the paraboloidal mirror  604  extend very accurately parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the axis of rotational symmetry of the mirror  604 . The output of each displacement sensor  612 ,  613  is routed to a computer or other processor (not shown but well understood in the art) as a representative controller. During rotation of the mirror  604 , any change in the rotational axis of the mirror  604  is detected by the displacement sensors  612 ,  613  as a corresponding shift in mirror position. Data from the displacement sensors  612 ,  613  are processed by the computer. If the computer determines that the magnitude of shift exceeds applicable specifications, then the computer initiates actuation of the tilt stages  606 ,  607  and/or the linear stages  608 ,  609  to return the mirror position to within specification.  
         [0034]    Thus, by providing in this embodiment respective devices for detecting mirror position, for controlling mirror position, and for actuating a drive mechanism to restore proper mirror position, displacement of the optical axis of X-rays reflected by the rotating mirror  604  is maintained within specification so as to ensure that any flying debris deposited on downstream optical components is distributed uniformly about the axis. If the accuracy of the mirror-rotation mechanism is sufficiently high for maintaining axial displacement of the rotating mirror within the maximal angular spread of the X-ray light flux accommodated by the downstream optical system, then the devices for detecting mirror position, controlling mirror position, and actuating drive mechanisms to restore mirror position can be omitted.  
         [0035]    Second Representative Embodiment  
         [0036]    An X-ray source (LPX source) according to this embodiment is shown in FIG. 2. X-rays are generated by a plasma produced by irradiation of laser light on a gaseous target material. The X-ray source is contained within a chamber  100  defining an interior space evacuated by a vacuum pump (not shown but well understood in the art). The pressure of the interior space is reduced to a level at which X-rays radiating from the plasma are not absorbed or excessively attenuated en route. The target-gas-delivery device in this embodiment is a gas nozzle  101  (desirably made of an inert metal such as stainless steel) from which the target gas (e.g., krypton) is discharged. Discharge from the gas nozzle  101  is controlled by a pulse valve  113 . Target gas discharged from the nozzle  101  that is not converted into the plasma is evacuated to the external environment through an evacuation port  104  located axially opposite the nozzle  101  and connected to the vacuum pump. Any other target gas circulating in the vacuum chamber  100  is evacuated through the vacuum port  104  by the vacuum pump discussed above.  
         [0037]    The laser is incident along an optical axis, passing through the center of the plasma  102 , extending perpendicularly to the plane of the page of FIG. 2. I.e., the laser pulses are incident at the plasma  102  from below the plane of the page along an axis perpendicular to the plane of the page. Pulsed laser light emitted from the laser device (not shown but well understood in the art) is focused by a condenser lens (not shown) at a position 0.5 mm from the tip of the nozzle  101 , along the axis of the nozzle, to produce the plasma  102 . The shape of the plasma  102  is filamentous, with a length of approximately 300 μm along the optical axis of the laser and approximately 100 μm perpendicular to the optical axis of the laser. The plasma  102  is produced approximately 500 μm toward the condenser lens from directly in front of the nozzle  101 .  
         [0038]    A paraboloidal mirror  103  and the nozzle  101  are situated such that the plasma  102  is formed substantially at the focal point of the mirror  103 . Regarding the X-rays emitted from the plasma  102 , only those X-rays of a specified wavelength (e.g., 13 nm) are reflected by the mirror  103 . To such end, the paraboloidal mirror  103  is coated with multiple thin-film layers. X-rays reflected from the mirror  103  are collimated and pass through a filter  110  that is opaque to visible light but transmissive to X-rays. By way of example, the filter  110  comprises a thin film of zirconium (Zr), 150 nm thick, formed on a mesh of nickel (Ni). The mesh is supported by a holder  111 . The X-rays passing through the filter  110  propagate to a downstream X-ray optical system (not shown).  
         [0039]    The mirror  103  is supported by a stage assembly, comprising an annular ultrasonic motor  105  situated and configured to rotate the paraboloidal mirror  103  around its axis of rotational symmetry. The stage assembly also comprises three axially orthogonal stages  106 ,  107 ,  108  for determining and controlling the position of the mirror  103 , and a tilting stage  109  for controlling the inclination of the mirror  103 . The stages  108 ,  109  are mounted behind the mirror  103 , and the stages  106 ,  107  are displaced laterally from the stages  108 ,  109 . The stages  106 - 109  can be driven by respective motors or other actuators from outside the vacuum chamber  100 .  
         [0040]    In this embodiment, a set of multiple (desirably three) semiconductor lasers and respective photodiodes is used for detecting the position and inclination of the paraboloidal mirror  103 . The semiconductor lasers and photodiodes are disposed adjacent the paraboloidal mirror  103  at positions that do not block X-rays reflected by the mirror  103 . The semiconductor lasers are positioned at 120° relative to each other. The respective photodiodes also are positioned at 120° from each other, but angularly between the lasers. This scheme is depicted in FIG. 3(A) so as to be understood readily, wherein FIG. 3(A) represents a view, from a location on the mirror axis but downstream of the mirror  103 , toward the mirror  103 . A laser beam from the semiconductor laser  201  strikes a point on the surface of the paraboloidal mirror  103  and is reflected toward a respective photodiode  204 . Respective laser beams from the other two semiconductor lasers  202 ,  203  are likewise reflected by the surface of the mirror  103  toward respective photodiodes  205 ,  206 . Hence, the points on the surface of the mirror  103  irradiated by the laser beams are at 120° relative to each another.  
         [0041]    Each photodiode  204 ,  205 ,  206  has a respective light-reception surface  208  that is partitioned into four portions  208   a - 208   d , as shown in FIG. 3(B). Each portion produces a respective electrical signal from respective incident light of the reflected laser beam. These electrical signals are routed to the computer (discussed above).  
         [0042]    In a situation in which the nozzle  101 , the paraboloidal mirror  103 , and the downstream optical system are all aligned with each other, the respective signals output from the photodiodes  204 - 206  (3 photodiodes&gt;4 portions each=12 signals) are received by, stored in, and processed by the computer. This situation represents an “initial state” of the system. Upon starting up this X-ray source, rotation of the paraboloidal mirror  103  commences, as effected by the ultrasonic motor  105 . The rotational velocity of the mirror is a function of the rate at which flying debris from the plasma adhere to and accumulate on neighboring structures. If the rate of production of flying debris by the plasma is low, then a low rotational velocity is permissible. Conversely, higher-velocity rotation is necessary if the rate of particle adhesion is high. By way of example, the LPX of this embodiment tends to emit low quantities of flying debris, so the rotational velocity of the mirror  103  can be one revolution per hour.  
         [0043]    In any event, if alignment of the mirror  103  shifts during rotation, then the positions at which the respective reflected laser beams from the semiconductor lasers  201 - 203  reach the respective photodiodes  204 - 206  change accordingly. These changes produce corresponding changes in the magnitudes of respective signals produced by the portions  208   a - 208   d  of the light-reception surface  208  in each photodiode  204 - 206 . If the differences in electrical outputs from the portions  208   a - 208   d  of the light-reception surfaces in the photodiodes  204 - 206 , relative to the initial conditions, exceeds predetermined thresholds, then the computer will detect an excessive misalignment of the mirror  103  and will cause the inclination stage  109  and the linear stages  106 - 108  to apply corrective positioning of the mirror  103  to return the electrical signals to within specifications.  
         [0044]    In addition, the direction of mirror shift can be ascertained from the signal changes in the four portions  208   a - 208   d  of the respective light-reception surface  208  of each photodiode  204 - 206 , allowing the stages  106 - 109  to be actuated appropriately to correct the shift. Hence, changes in the optical axis of the X-rays reflected from the mirror  103  are maintained within specifications so as not to have any adverse effect on downstream optical systems, even while rotating the mirror  103 . In addition, there is no loss in the axial symmetry of the X-rays reflecting from the mirror  103 , even if the angular distribution of the flying debris is asymmetrical.  
         [0045]    In this embodiment, the X-ray filter  110  is located in the chamber  100 . As a result, flying debris from the plasma also can accumulate on the filter  110 . If the angular distribution of the flying debris is asymmetric, then the debris will accumulate asymmetrically on the filter  110 . As a result, the flux of X-rays transmitted by the filter  110  will become asymmetric. Therefore, in this embodiment, an annular ultrasonic motor  112  (or analogous actuator) is installed on the perimeter of the holder  111  on which the X-ray filter  110  is mounted, so as to rotate the filter  110  around the center axis of the X-ray flux. The filter rotation prevents degradation of the symmetry of the transmitted X-ray flux, by ensuring that the quantity of flying debris accumulating on the filter  110  is axially symmetric relative to the X-ray optical axis. In this embodiment, since the rate of change in the transmissivity of the filter  110  is miniscule, even if some shift occurs in the rotational axis of the filter  110 , a filter-position sensor is not normally necessary (and hence is not shown).  
         [0046]    By rotating the filter  110  as described above, variations in the transmission of X-rays through the filter  110  can be ameliorated (e.g., variances arising by variances in the thickness of the filter material and/or of the mesh support members). This is especially effective whenever the X-ray source of this embodiment is used for performing microlithographic exposures, as in soft X-ray (EUV) microlithography apparatus and methods. The respective rotational velocities of the mirror  103  and filter  110  may be equal, or they may be different according to the operating status of the X-ray source. In addition, the respective directions of rotation of the mirror and filter may be the same or different.  
         [0047]    Although a paraboloidal mirror  103  is used in this embodiment, it will be understood that the mirror alternatively can be a spherical mirror or an ellipsoidal mirror. The mirror also may be a rotationally symmetrical a spherical mirror. The mirror surface (whether spherical, paraboloidal, ellipsoidal, and/or a spherical) can be formed on a single substrate, or alternatively on a substrate divided into multiple segments conjoined into a single unit or situated adjacent one another.  
         [0048]    In this embodiment, the light-receiving surface  208  of each photodiode  204 - 206  was divided into four portions  208   a - 208   d.  However, the number of portions is not limited to four. Alternatively, each light-receiving surface  208  can be divided into two, three, or more portions, or not divided at all. The photodiodes  204 - 206  can be one-dimensional (as in photodiode arrays), or two-dimensional (as in CCDs).  
         [0049]    Although semiconductor lasers were used in this embodiment to measure displacements of the mirror  103 , other measuring devices alternatively can be used such as contact-needle displacement gauges (see FIG. 1), over-current sensors, ultrasonic sensors, electrostatic capacity sensors, etc.  
         [0050]    The mirror can be disposed in any orientation relative to the plasma. FIG. 4 shows an example configuration employing a discharge-plasma X-ray source (dense-plasma focus, or DPF source). In FIG. 4, only the electrodes (anode  300 , cathode  301 ) of the DPF source are shown, and the power supply is not shown. A multilayered paraboloidal mirror  305  is situated laterally adjacent the electrode. Also not shown are a mirror-drive mechanism and a device for detecting mirror position.  
         [0051]    If the mirror is planar it can be rotated using the direction of a normal ray as an axis. FIG. 5 shows a situation in which a multilayer planar mirror  404  is used, together with a gas-jet LPX used to generate X-rays from a plasma  402 . The multilayer planar mirror  404  is rotated about the normal-ray axis AA. Not shown are a mirror-drive mechanism and a device for detecting mirror position. A laser beam  403  is focused at the location of the plasma  402 .  
         [0052]    Whereas a multilayer mirror is used in the embodiments described above, a grazing-incidence mirror alternatively can be used for achieving full reflection of incident X-rays. An example configuration employing a grazing-incidence paraboloidal mirror  502  is shown in FIG. 6, used in conjunction with a DPF for generating the X-rays. In this figure, only the electrodes (anode  500 , cathode  501 ) of the DPF source are shown; the power supply is not shown. The DPF source produces a plasma  504  at the location shown, relative to the mirror  502 .  
         [0053]    In FIG. 6, the mirror  502  is rotated about its axis of symmetry (axis B-B), which is the propagation axis of X-rays reflected from the mirror  502 . (The mirror-drive mechanism and device for detecting mirror position are not shown.) Although the mirror  502  has a paraboloidal reflective surface, the mirror  502  alternatively can have an ellipsoidal reflective surface or a reflective surface having a combination of these profiles (e.g., a Walter mirror). Item  503  is an axial beam stop useful for producing a collimated beam.  
         [0054]    Although LPXs were used in several of the embodiments described above in which gas jets were used, LPXs employing mechanisms in which the target material is discharged in clusters, a liquid jet, liquid droplets, microdroplets, or microparticles alternatively can be used. The target material used for LPXs or discharge-plasma X-ray sources is not limited to krypton. Alternatively, the target material can be, e.g., xenon (Xe), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), or lithium (Li), or a mixture or compound of any of these substances.  
         [0055]    As an alternative to using a DPF source for generating X-rays, other configurations of discharge-plasma X-ray sources alternatively can be used. For example, a Z-pinch plasma source or a capillary-discharge plasma source can be used.  
         [0056]    By employing a rotating reflective optical element (onto which X-rays generated from the plasma are initially incident), or other rotating optical element in the vicinity of the plasma, flying debris will accumulate in an axially symmetrical fashion on the optical element, even if the flying debris is emitted from the plasma in a spatially irregular distribution. As a result, the axial symmetry of the X-ray flux reflected or transmitted by the optical element is maintained. Consequently, there is no decrease in the performance of a downstream optical system requiring an axially symmetrical X-ray flux, even if the X-ray source is operated for a long period of time.  
         [0057]    Whereas the invention has been described in connection with multiple representative embodiments, it will be understood that the invention is not limited to those embodiments. On the contrary, the invention is intended to encompass all modifications, alternatives, and equivalents as may be included within the spirit and scope of the invention, as defined by the appended claims.