Abstract:
An energy-absorbing “smart” bumper system features a variably controllable valve which is responsive to impact conditions. The initially closed valve opens upon maximization of the pressure reading upon the bumper, and maintains the same open setting (in other words, the same valve area) during such period of pressure maximization. During the succeeding period of pressure declination from maximum, the valve undergoes ongoing adjustment of its open setting (in other words, ongoing adjustment of its valve area) so that the reaction force of the bumper remains constant. The valve closes (in other words, the valve area becomes zero) when the pressure falls abruptly toward zero (an occurrence which correlates with a similar plummet in reaction force, as well as with near or approximate motionlessness of the impacting body), thereby avoiding or curtailing an unwanted rebound effect.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application is a division of U.S. Nonprovisional application No. 09/359,683 filed Jul. 23, 1999, entitled “Tailorable Elastomeric Composite Pneumatic Fender System for Absorbing High Energy Impact,” now U.S. Pat. No. 6,283,677 issued Sep. 4, 2001, incorporated herein by reference, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/096,796 filed Aug. 17, 1998, entitled “Tailorable Elastomeric Composite Pneumatic Fender System for Absorbing High Energy Impact, and Manufacture Thereof,” incorporated herein by reference, and which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Nonprovisional application No. 09/012,007 filed Jan. 22, 1998, entitled “Tailorable Elastomeric Composite System for Absorbing High Energy Impact,” now U.S. Pat. No. 6,053,664 issued Apr. 25, 2000, incorporated herein by reference, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/038,133 filed Mar. 3, 1997. 
    
    
     STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST 
     The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to methods and apparatuses for absorbing impact from structures, more particularly to such methods and apparatuses which are implemented at berthing locations for absorbing impact from marine vessels. 
     “Fenders” are bumpers which are utilized at docks, wharves, piers, moorages and anchorages for absorbing kinetic energy of berthing marine vessels. A fender absorbs kinetic energy of the berthing vessel by converting the kinetic energy into potential energy in the fender material system. 
     Fender systems have been used, or considered for use, wherein the potential energy is realized essentially in at least one of the following forms: deflection of a fender pile; compression of a rubber, fender component; deformation of a foam-filled fender; torsion of a fender&#39;s cylindrical shaft; pressurization of a pneumatic fender; fluid motion/pressurization of a hydraulic fender. 
     Foam-filled fenders generally comprise a resilient, closed-cell foam wrapped with an elastomeric skin. The cellular structure of the foam reacts like individual pneumatic fenders by absorbing energy through deformation. The foam-filled fenders have high energy absorbing capabilities with relatively small reaction force and can float with the tide, handling several surface ship types. Since foam-filled fenders are typically large, they can act as a separator and provide a good standoff. 
     The U.S. Navy is currently utilizing composite materials in the fabrication of foam-filled fenders for berthing ships. The current design of a foam-filled fender for U.S. Naval ships includes a cylinder having a urethane foam core, overwraps of nylon, and a urethane sprayed over the cylindrical surface. The U.S. Navy&#39;s foam-filled fender system has demonstrated effectiveness in terms of reacting certain kinds of ship loads against piers, but has yet to be engineered for generic applications. 
     The U.S. Naval fenders currently in use are fabricated for a particular class of ship. U.S. Naval vessels which are characterized by different displacements require different fenders to be employed; one reason for this has been the U.S. Navy&#39;s need to ensure that a particular U.S. Naval ship&#39;s hull loading is maintained below a specific level. Furthermore, fenders of current U.S. Naval design are fixed in terms of the amount of energy which can be reacted. In order to absorb more energy, more or larger current U.S. Naval fenders are required. 
     Although the U.S. Navy&#39;s current foam-filled fender design has been successful in certain modes of practice, it does not lend itself to an analytical design methodology using current design tools. The method for fabricating the U.S. Navy&#39;s current foam-filled fender includes wrapping a urethane foam core with nylon fiber, and spraying urethane onto the fiber as it is wound onto the urethane core material; this technique results in operator-to-operator variance in urethane coating thickness or fiber volume fraction. 
     Accordingly, the mechanism of energy absorption cannot be accurately modeled for current U.S. Navy foam-filled fender systems. The efficacy of a given U.S. Navy foam-filled fender for a particular application requires independent empirical verification. Due to this incapability of advance fender design, the U.S. Navy&#39;s current foam-filled fender system necessarily lacks the versatility to predictably adapt to various configurations of marine vessel and/or berth. 
     Current U.S. Navy fenders are experiencing significant design overloads and are being replaced at an annual cost of millions of dollars per year. Moreover, many pier structures owned by the U.S. Navy and other entities are decrepit or dilapidated. Aging or deteriorating pier structures require renewed analysis to account for degrading mechanical properties. If analytical procedures are not soon established, existing pier structures may be prematurely replaced. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In view of the foregoing, it is an object of the present invention to provide a bumper/fender system which can be used effectively for absorbing impact of a variety of marine vessels at a variety of berthing stations. 
     Another object of the present invention is to provide such a bumper/fender system which can be thus used for both large and small marine vessels. 
     It is a further object of this invention to provide such a bumper/fender system which admits of analytical modeling for purposes of predicting such varied usage. 
     A further object of this invention is to provide such a bumper/fender system which is economical. 
     The present invention is, to some extent, a “variation on a theme” disclosed by Crane et al. at the aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 6,053,664 which is incorporated herein by reference. The invention disclosed by Crane et al. at U.S. Pat. No. 6,053,664 (hereinafter referred to as “Crane et al. &#39;664”) was developed as part of Phase I of an SBIR (“Small Business Innovation Research Program”) project (OSD95-016). The present invention was developed as part of Phase II of the same SBIR project (OSD95-016). However the present invention represents an inventive improvement vis-a-vis&#39; Crane et al. &#39;664, and may be preferable thereto in many practical contexts. 
     Like the invention disclosed by Crane et al. &#39;664, the present invention provides a system for absorbing the impact of a relatively moving body. Also like the invention disclosed by Crane et al. &#39;664, the present inventive system comprises a “bumper” which includes fiber-reinforced high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material. Further like the invention disclosed by Crane et al. &#39;664, the bumper is disposed in suspended fashion, either hanging or floating. Again like the invention disclosed by Crane et al. &#39;664, upon impact by the relatively moving body the bumper reacts so as to strike against a closely situated structural entity. 
     Unlike the invention disclosed by Crane et al. &#39;664, the present invention implements a “smart valve” for the bumper. Furthermore, unlike the invention disclosed by Crane et al. &#39;664, the present invention obviates the need for one or more “deformers” for receiving the bumper after the bumper initially receives the body, energy is dissipated in a different manner. The present invention&#39;s bumper can react against any relatively rigid structural surface (such as a hard solid wall-like structure) which is part of any stable structure, such as a pier, dock, wharf, edifice, etc. 
     The present invention uniquely features a “smart” valve methodology which optimizes the load displacement curve of the inventive fender. The present invention also uniquely features utilization of a reusable winding mandrel in the fabrication of many embodiments of the inventive fender. In the light of the instant disclosure and the disclosure by Crane et al. &#39;664, the ordinarily skilled artisan will appreciate the substantial extent of applicability to the present invention of the teachings and principles according to Crane et al. &#39;664, as well as the significant differences therebetween. 
     To elaborate, the inventive system according to many embodiments of Crane et al. &#39;664 comprises at least two composite structures and at least one housing. Each composite structure includes fiber-reinforced high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material. At least one composite structure is a bumper (e.g., a “cylindroid” bumper which includes a hollow cylindrical axially intermediate portion and two protuberant axially extreme portions) for initially receiving the body. At least one composite structure is a deformer (e.g., a “tension tube”) for consequently receiving a bumper. Each housing is for securing at least one deformer and for suspending at least one bumper. Each bumper is situated adjacent at least one deformer. A cylindroid bumper, for instance, can be disposed horizontally, vertically or obliquely. 
     The inventive system in accordance with the present invention is markedly distinguishable from the inventive system in accordance with Crane et al. &#39;664. In accordance with many presently inventive embodiments, an energy-absorbing system comprises: a structure; fluid contained by the structure; movement-restrictive situation means for the structure; valvular means for permitting escape of the fluid; actuator means for adjusting the valvular means; control means for the actuator means; and, pressure sensing means for informing the control means. 
     Typically according to this inventive energy-absorbing system, the valvular means is closed prior to a collision between a body and the structure. During the collision the valvular means operates in four stages, the four stages consisting of: (i) a first stage wherein the valvular means remains closed; (ii) a second stage wherein, when pressure is approximately maximal, the valvular means opens; (iii) a third stage wherein, when pressure commences to drop, the valvular means remains open so as to adaptively sustain, on an ongoing basis, an approximately steady force associated with the collision; and, (iv) a fourth stage wherein, when pressure approaches zero, the valvular means closes. 
     During the first stage, the valvular means is in statically closed mode; the pressure (against the bumper) is increasing from zero. During the second stage, the valvular means is in statically open mode; the pressure is approximately plateauing at about the maximal value. During the third stage, the valvular means is in dynamically open mode; the pressure is decreasing, while the force is approximately plateauing at about its value existing when the pressure commences to decrease at the outset of the third stage. During the fourth stage, the valvular means returns to statically closed mode; the pressure and the force each decrease steeply or precipitously, to or toward zero. 
     According to many inventive embodiments, especially those involving marine docking applications, the present inventive system for absorbing impact comprises: a bumper for being subjected to impact, wherein the bumper has an interior space and includes fiber-reinforced high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material; means for suspending the bumper; a structure for restraining the bumper when said bumper is subjected to said impact; fluid (liquid or gas) which at least substantially fills the interior space; an outlet valve which regulates the flow of the fluid from the interior space; at least one pressure sensor (e.g., pressure transducer) which sends an electrical output signal relating to the pressure with respect to the wall of the bumper; a processor-controller which receives the electrical output signal and sends an electrical control signal in accordance with the electrical output signal, wherein the processor-controller has a memory containing information for determining, based on the pressure, whether and how the outlet valve should be actuated; and, a servo valve which receives the electrical control signal, wherein the servo valve actuates the outlet valve in accordance with the electrical control signal. 
     Each pressure sensor measures pressure and relays corresponding pressure information to the processor. The processor is typically implemented as a “processor-controller” which monitors sensory signals and conveys corresponding control signals in a feedback control system. The servo valve is typically rendered “smart” by means of a continual feedback loop wherein: Each pressure sensor sends to the processor-controller a sensor signal which is dependent upon the pressure of the bumper; in turn, the processor-controller (which includes algorithmic software for governing its reaction to the sensor output signal received) sends to the servo valve a control signal which is dependent upon the sensor signal(s) received from the pressure sensor(s). Depending upon the control signal received from the processor-controller, the servo valve actuates, or refrains from actuating, the outlet valve (which serves as a pressure relief valve). 
     For some embodiments of the present invention, “actuation” by the servo valve entails causing the initially completely closed outlet valve to regulatively variably open; that is, subsequent to commencement of the impact and upon receipt of the control signal corresponding to the attainment of predetermined conditions related to the pressure (against the bumper wall), the servo valve causes the outlet valve to open correspondingly in terms of extent or proportion. However, it is preferred for most inventive embodiments that “actuation” by the servo valve not only entail causing (permitting) the outlet valve to initially then adjustingly open, but also entail causing (permitting) the outlet valve to finally and completely close anew, all in correspondence with attainment of predetermined conditions. The final, complete closure of the outlet valve reduces or prevents a so-called “rebound” effect. 
     Subsequent to commencement of the impact, upon receipt of the control signal corresponding to the attainment of a first predetermined condition related to the pressure (i.e., pressure is at about a maximum value), the servo valve allows the outlet valve to open (i.e., move to an open position); the pressure remains at the maximum value until it begins to drop. Then, upon receipt of the control signal corresponding to the attainment of a second predetermined condition related to the pressure (i.e., pressure is beginning to drop from the maximum value), the servo valve allows the outlet valve to move, remaining open in such a manner as to approximately maintain constancy of the reaction force associated with the impact; depending on the position of the butterfly valve core along the axial translation of the outlet valve, this movement of the butterfly valve core can result in either an increase in the flow of water through the outlet valve, or a decrease in the flow of water through the outlet valve. Then, upon receipt of the control signal corresponding to the attainment of a third predetermined condition related to the pressure (i.e., pressure abruptly drops, approaching zero, said abrupt drop corresponding to cessation or near cessation of motion of the object which impacts the bumper), the servo valve allows the outlet valve to close (i.e., move to the closed position). 
     The servo valve (which controls the position of the outlet valve) is typically an electromechanical device such as a solenoid valve or an electronically-controlled actuator. For many inventive embodiments the servo valve is a solenoid valve which comprises a solenoid and a pneumatic actuator. The pneumatic actuator actuates with compressed air which is controlled by the solenoid. When the processor sends the appropriate signal to the solenoid, the solenoid causes the pneumatic actuator to be actuated, which in turn allows the outlet valve to move (e.g., move in the “open” direction) or close (e.g., move in the “closed” direction). Depending upon the position of the butterfly valve along the axial translation of the valve, the rate of flow of water will vary, thereby controlling the pressure in and on the fender. 
     For some embodiments of the present invention, the servo valve is an electronically-controlled actuator; that is, “opening” and “closing” of the outlet valve is achieved by means of an electronically-controlled actuator, rather than by means of the combination of a pneumatic actuator with a solenoid. When the processor sends the appropriate signal to the electronically-controlled actuator, it causes the outlet valve to vary its position. 
     In inventive practice, the ordinarily skilled artisan is aware that an electronically-controlled actuator and a pneumatic actuator-with-solenoid combination are two alternative means for varying the position of the outlet valve (in other words, “opening” and “closing” the outlet valve), and is acquainted with methods and techniques for effectuating each. The person of ordinary skill in the art is familiar with commercially available electronically-controlled actuators which may be suitably implemented, as well as with commercially available pneumatic actuators and solenoids which may be suitably implemented in combination. Depending upon the particular inventive embodiment practiced, a pneumatic actuator may prove to be slightly more responsive than an electronic actuator, or vice versa; nevertheless, neither approach to inventively practicing the servo valve can necessarily be recommended over the other. 
     In typical inventive practice, the bumper includes an axially symmetrical cylindroid structural wall which surrounds an interior space (e.g., cavity or hollow). The cylindroid structural wall includes a cylindrical axially intermediate portion and two protuberant axial end portions which are rounded or tapered (e.g., convexo-concave). The outlet valve is typically situated in the vicinity of the extreme axial end of the cylindroid bumper, approximately coincident with the imaginary axis of the bumper. Some inventive embodiments provide a plurality of outlet valves (thus perhaps requiring plural servo valves); for instance, two outlet valves can be provided for a cylindroid bumper wherein each outlet valve is oppositely situated at an extreme axial end. 
     For purposes of receiving the anticipated impact, the cylindroid bumper can be disposed any which way—horizontally, vertically or obliquely—typically so that its axis of symmetry lies in a vertical plane which is generally directed so as to face or meet the anticipated impacting entity (such as a ship which is berthing). Preferably, the fluid which fills or substantially fills the cavity is liquid rather than gaseous. In testing conducted by the U.S. Navy, water was the liquid of choice. According to this invention, the composite bumper structure can contain a fluid, either gaseous (e.g., air) or liquid (e.g., water); however, in inventive practice, since a liquid (as compared with a gas) better lends itself to regulation of pressurization and to control of fluid motion, liquidity of the bumper&#39;s fluid contents is generally preferable to gaseousness thereof. 
     Many embodiments of the present inventive system are “self-contained” in the sense that all the components are joined with or integrated with the bumper. The pressure sensor(s) and the outlet valve(s) are in engagement with the bumper&#39;s structural wall. The servo valve(s) and the processor-controller means (such as one or more microprocessors, each of which is small enough to fit) may be each contained within the bumper&#39;s cavity (inside the bumper&#39;s structural wall), or either or both may be external to the bumper&#39;s cavity; preferably, the servo valve and the processor are in relatively close proximity. 
     Conventional bumper systems are dependent upon adaptation of size and/or number of fenders in order to suit different marine vessels in terms of energy absorption; by comparison, the inventively “smart” bumper system is readily adaptable to diverse marine vessels. Fenders currently utilized for U.S. Navy vehicles are fabricated for a particular class of ship. Vessels with different displacements require different fenders to be employed. One reason for this is to ensure that the hull loading is kept below a specific level. Also, the energy that can be reacted by the U.S. Navy&#39;s current design is fixed; that is, to absorb more energy, more or larger fenders are required. 
     By contrast, the inventive “smartness” attribute endows an inventive fender with sufficient versatility and universality for utilization in connection with varieties of marine vessels and berthing stations. The inventive fender can readily be tailored and analyzed particularly in terms of its “smartness.” The inventive fender system is susceptible of analysis using conventional techniques and is tailorable to numerous pier configurations as well as to numerous types and sizes of ships and other marine vessels. The present invention permits anticipatory tailoring of fenders for desired applications so as to avoid overpressurization on the prospectively impacting marine vessel hulls. 
     In accordance with many embodiments of the present invention, an apparatus comprises a machine having a memory. The machine contains a data representation pertaining to the impact of an object upon a fluid-filled bumper for being subjected to the impact. The data representation is generated during the impact, for availability for containment by the machine, by the method comprising: receiving an electrical output signal from at least one pressure sensor, the electrical output signal pertaining to the pressure of said bumper; based on the electrical output signal, estimating the mass and the velocity of the object; and based on the estimated mass and velocity, establishing an electrical control signal for controlling the degree of actuation of an outlet valve which regulates the flow of the fluid from the bumper. 
     Many inventive embodiments provide energy-dissipating apparatus comprising a bumper, at least one variable valve, at least one sensor and a computer. The bumper has a cavity and contains fluid in the cavity. The at least one variable valve is for variably releasing the fluid from the bumper. The bumper has an elastomeric quality and is adaptable to situation so that the variably releasing can affect the velocity of an object which collides with the bumper. The at least one sensor is for sensing the pressure in relation to said bumper. The computer is in communication with the at least one variable valve and with the at least one sensor. The computer is capable of controlling the variably releasing of the fluid from the bumper, whereby the velocity is associated with an earlier period of approximate constancy of a pressure value in relation to the colliding, and whereby the velocity is associated with a later period of approximately constancy of a force value in relation to the colliding. The earlier period is approximately coincident with an approximate increasing tendency in the force value. The later period is approximately coincident with an approximate decreasing tendency in the pressure value below the pressure value existing in the earlier period. 
     Also according to many embodiments of this invention, a computer program product comprises a computer useable medium having computer program logic recorded thereon for enabling a computer to variably control the valvular release of fluid from a bumper. The computer program logic comprises: in anticipation of the object colliding with the bumper, means for enabling the computer to define a maximum pressure value relating to the colliding; while the object collides with the bumper, means for enabling the computer to periodically obtain sensed pressure values relating to the colliding, the sensed pressure values deriving from at least one sensor for sensing the pressure in relation to the bumper; while the object collides with the bumper, means for enabling the computer, based on the sensed pressure values, to compute force values relating to the colliding; and, while the object collides with the bumper, means for enabling the computer, based on the maximum pressure value, the sensed pressure values and the computed force values, to compute control values corresponding to the valvular release. 
     The inventive bumper system is versatile especially in that the “smart” aspect thereof lends itself to broad applicability to a variety of marine vessels. The inventive “smart” valve arrangement can be varied to apply to different maximum hull pressures while maintaining the optimum load stroke curve for maximum energy dissipation. A marine vessel&#39;s contact region can be designed to keep the hull loading below a specific threshold value. In addition, the “smart” valve can determine when the ship velocity is zero, whereupon the outlet valve closes completely, thereby eliminating any rebound typically experienced with conventional fender design. 
     Moreover, the materials utilized for the present invention have demonstrated long term durability in sea water environments, and therefore should be capable of greater longevity than are the fenders which are currently being used. Furthermore, the capability of the inventive fender system to allow for higher berthing speeds without overloading either pier structures or ship hulls will greatly benefit both U.S. Naval and commercial shipping. Commercially, for both container traffic and ferry traffic, the increased berthing speeds will result in shorter times for off-loading and on-loading. Shorter turn-around times will result in lower shipping costs. 
     Iincorporated herein by reference is the following report which was issued pursuant to SBIR contract between the U.S. Navy and “performing organization” Production Products Manufacturing &amp; Sales Company, Inc., 1285 Dunn Road, St. Louis, Mo.:  Elastomeric Composite Bumpers,  Second Quarterly Progress Report, May 19, 1997 thru Aug. 18, 1997, sponsored by the Office of Naval Research (ONR), Contract No. N00014-97-C-0117, Contract Effective Date Feb. 18, 1997, Contract Expiration Date Feb. 18, 1999; “Distribution authorized to U.S. Government agencies only; report contains proprietary data produced under SBIR contract. Other requests shall be referred to the performing organization listed above.” This report includes pages 1 through 27 plus its “Appendix A” (commencing at page 28) which includes pages C-1 through C-8, D-1 through D-7 and I-1 through I-2. 
     Other objects, advantages and features of this invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of the invention when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     In order that the present invention may be clearly understood, it will now be described, by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawing, wherein like numbers indicate the same or similar components, and wherein: 
     FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic elevation view of an embodiment of an inventive bumper system wherein a cylindroid bumper is suspended vertically. 
     FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic axially-longitudinal cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an inventive cylindroid bumper such as shown in FIG.  1 . 
     FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic axially-longitudinal view of an embodiment of an outlet/servo valve system such as shown in FIG.  2 . 
     FIG. 4 a,  FIG. 4 b,  FIG. 4 c,  FIG. 4 d  and FIG. 4 e  are diagrammatic axially-longitudinal views of various valve core positions for an embodiment of an outlet valve such as shown in FIG.  3 . 
     FIG. 5 is a graph representing outlet valve area as a function of valve core position. 
     FIG. 6 is a graph representing a target force/displacement curve in relation to the impacting of a body (such as described by the berthing of a marine vessel) with respect to the inventive bumper system. 
     FIG. 7 is a graph representing a simulation of the berthing of a 128,800 lbm ship (four thousand lbm ship in units of lb-sec 2 /in) at six inches per second. 
     FIG. 8 is a flow diagram of an embodiment of algorithmic valvular control logic in accordance with the present invention. 
     FIG. 9 is a diagrammatic axially-longitudinal partial cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an inventive removable mandrel, implemented for inventively fabricating a cylindroid bumper. 
     FIG. 10 is a partial and enlarged view of the removable mandrel shown in FIG.  9 . 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     Referring now to FIG. 1, inventive fender system  10  includes hollow glass-fiber-reinforced polyurethane reaction fender  14 , which is in a position to react to an impact from a marine vessel in such a way as to consequently collide with rigid solid restraining wall  16 . Reaction fender  14  is positioned proximately in front of restraining wall  16 , slightly touching or nearly touching restraining wall  16 . Reaction fender  14 , similar in cylindroid shape to many existing bumpers, includes cylindrical fender portion  44  and two dome-like fender end portions  46 . Each fender end portion  46  has an axially extreme end region  47  which is approximately coincident with the imaginary axis of symmetry of reaction fender  14 . Reaction fender  14  is poised for being loaded by a marine vessel at the longitudinal front side  70  of cylindrical fender portion  44 . 
     Reaction fender  14  is suspended loosely—either gravitationally (i.e., hanging) or buoyantly (i.e., floating)—by one or more lines, wires, ropes, belts, cords, cables, etc. As shown in FIG. 1, rope  22  can be attached either to upper structural support  17  (for gravitationally suspending reaction fender  14 ) or to lower structural support  19  (for buoyantly suspending reaction fender  14 ). Rope  22  is attached to fender  14  by engaging threaded eyebolt  50  which is coupled with plug assembly  48  (shown in FIG. 2) located at one of the two axially extreme ends  47 . Fluid outlet valve  80  shown in FIG. 2 is preferably placed at the axially extreme end  47  which is opposite that which connects rope  22 . A buoyantly suspended fender  14  can, for some such embodiments, be permitted to float while being mechanically restricted (e.g., by guides, rails or slides) to essentially vertical movement. Some inventive embodiments include one or more pulley mechanisms, such as pulleys  52  which is connected either to upper structural support  17  or to lower structural support  19 , thereby selectively raising or lowering fender  14 . 
     In accordance with the present invention, reaction fender  14  has been rendered a “smart” fender. In addition to reaction fender  14 , inventive fender system  10  includes “smart” system components. 
     With reference to FIG. 2, reaction fender  14  has fender wall  15  which encloses interior space  13 . Hollow cylindrical tube  88  is provided axially so as to pass through and be attached at the two holes which remained at axially extreme ends  47  following the below-described fender fabrication process (which includes removal of an inflatable mandrel). Interior space  13  is filled with water  90  which is surrounded by fender wall  15  and surrounds the outside surface of tube  88  so as to be subject to regulation by “smart” outlet valve  80 , located at an end  47  (the righthand end  47  as shown in FIG.  2 ). 
     Located at the opposite end  47 ′ (the lefthand end  47 ′ as shown in FIG.  2 ), plug assembly  48  is shown in FIG. 2 to include spring-loaded pressure relief valve  49  (a type of safety valve) which operates in the manner of many conventional pressure relief valves. Relief valve  49  is activated (opens) upon attainment of an upper (overpressurization) limit or threshold, and is again activated (recloses) upon attainment of a lower pressurization limit or threshold (e.g., upon return to normal operating conditions). 
     Microprocessor  84  controls solenoid-type servo valve  82 , which in turn controls the position of outlet valve  80 . Microprocessor  84 , which is positioned within tube  88 , receives from at least one pressure sensor  86  (e.g., a transducer which engages fender wall  15 ) an output signal providing sensory information relating to the input load. Servo valve  82 , which is also positioned within tube  88 , receives from microprocessor  84  a control signal based on the processing of the sensory information. A power supply system (such as that which includes a rechargeable battery  89  shown in FIG. 2) is in connection with the feedback loop. 
     Upon appropriate command from microprocessor  84 , servo valve  82  causes (permits) outlet valve  80  to open. Subsequently, upon further appropriate command from microprocessor  84 , servo valve  82  causes (permits) outlet valve  80  to regulate the flow of water by means of movement (in either valvular axial direction), along valve shaft  83 , of valve core  81 . 
     A single pressure sensor  86  is shown in FIG. 2; many inventive embodiments preferably implement a plurality of pressure sensors  86 . Pressure sensor(s)  86  in fender  14  is(are) monitored by microprocessor  84  to determine the ship&#39;s velocity and effective mass which must be stopped by the bumper. Some embodiments provide linear potentiometer means for measuring valve core  81  position. Shown further hereinbelow with reference to FIG. 8 is an embodiment of computer source code (e.g., for microprocessor  84 ) pertaining to algorithmic control in accordance with the present invention. Software including this source code has been developed which optimizes the shape of the “load stroke curve” so as to minimize the load and maximize the energy absorbed. 
     The inventive “smart” bumper is groundbreaking in its ability to tailor the load stoke curve using this computer-controlled hydraulic energy absorption strategy. Inventive fender system  10  represents a computer-controlled servomechanistic approach—a fresh approach to energy absorption. Inventive fender system  10  can be tailored to optimize the interaction between fender  14  and structural wall  16 . Fender  14  can be tailored to meet bumper design requirements with the load stroke curve optimized and the hull load minimized. 
     With reference to FIG. 3, the terms “outlet valve” and “servo valve” refer to different components. Outlet valve  80  is the large valve which controls the flow of water from fender  14 . Servo valve  82  is the small electronic solenoid valve which controls the position of piston  85 . Hourglass-shaped valve core  81  is mounted on valve piston  85 . Piston  85  is inserted in valve cylinder  87 , which is filled with fluid so that the position of piston  85  (and hence, of valve core  81 ) can be controlled by servo valve  82 . Water forced from fender  14  by the impacting ship provides the force required to push valve core  81 . The fluid forced through servo valve  82  is stored in an accumulator. In the current U.S. Navy prototype, the fluid is forced back into cylinder  87  manually. A full-scale inventive design may preferably include a spring to force valve core  81  back to its original closed position after fender  14  has refilled. 
     Reference now being made to FIG. 4 a  through FIG. 4 e  and FIG. 5, outlet valve  80  describes an “hourglass-shaped” or “butterfly-shaped” configuration. Outlet valve  80  includes hourglass-shaped (butterfly-shaped) valve core  81  and complementarily hourglass-shaped (butterfly-shaped) valve shaft  83 . Valve core  81  is movable within valve shaft  83  and along valvular axis v. The amount of water which is allowed to pass through outlet valve  80  is determined by the position of hourglass-shaped valve core  81  with respect to hourglass-shaped valve shaft  83 . It is readily understood by the ordinarily skilled artisan who reads this disclosure that regulative variability of the outlet valvular means is an important aspect of the present invention, and that thus characterized valvular types and designs other than the “butterfly” or “hourglass” arrangement represented in FIG.  3  through FIG. 5 can also be practiced in accordance with the present invention. 
     As shown in FIG. 4 a,  outlet valve  80  is closed (i.e., valve core  81  is in the fully closed position) prior to a collision between a body and the structure. During the first stage of a collision between fender  14  and an incoming marine vessel, outlet valve  80  remains closed for a period of time; during this first stage period, pressure (as measured by pressure sensor  86 ) increases. 
     The inception of the second stage is that point in time wherein fluid pressure (as measured by pressure sensor  86 ) is approximately maximal, whereupon outlet valve  80  opens; that is, valve core  81  moves in valvular axial direction V R  either to a partially open position (such as shown in FIG. 4 b ) or the fully open position (such as shown in FIG. 4 c ). During the second stage time period, once outlet valve  80  opens it remains open in static mode. 
     The inception of the third stage is that point in time wherein pressure (as measured by pressure sensor  86 ) begins to drop, whereupon valve core  81  adaptively moves in valvular axial direction V R  to one or more other partially open positions (such as shown in FIG. 4 d ). During the third stage time period, outlet valve  80  remains open, in variable mode, so as to adaptively sustain an approximately steady force associated with the collision. In other words, throughout the third stage time period, valve core  81  will move generally in valvular axial direction V R  whereby, in ongoingly adaptive fashion, valve core  81  starts moving (initiates or reinitiates movement), continues to move, and stops moving (ceases movement) in suitable frequencies, speeds and durations—i.e., however fast, however long, and however often as appropriate for effectuating a constant level of marine vessel hull force upon fender  14 . At the outset of the third stage, valve core  81  may remain motionless for a brief time period before recommencing movement (such a hesitation being illustrated in FIG.  7 ). 
     The inception of the fourth stage is that point in time wherein pressure (as measured by pressure sensor  86 ) begins to precipitously drop toward zero, whereupon valve core  81  moves in valvular axial direction V R  to the fully closed position (such as shown in FIG. 4 e ). The point at which the measured pressure begins to precipitously drop is approximately correspondent to or approximately concurrent with: (a) the point at which the reaction force begins to precipitously drop; and, (b) the point at which maximum deflection has been reached—i.e., the overall displacement (caused by the marine vessel hull) of fender  14  (e.g., in inches) begins to level off to constancy. 
     As shown in FIG. 5, the position of valve core  81  determines the passable valve area of, and consequently the rate of flow from, outlet valve  80 . During the period of pressure maximization, outlet valve  80  undergoes an adjustment of its valve core  81  from a closed position to a particular open position. During the ensuing period of pressure declination from maximum, outlet valve  80  undergoes a continual adjustment of the position of its valve core  81  in such a way that the reaction force of the bumper remains constant. At the two extreme positions of valve core  81 , outlet valve  80  is completely closed (i.e., the passable valve area is zero). Each position of valve core  81  corresponds to a specific passable valve area, and hence to a specific flow rate. 
     After the collision, fender  14  is refilled. Many inventive embodiments provide, for or as part of outlet valve  80 , a spring-type mechanism which will force valve core  81  to reposition to the fully open position—i.e., to move in valvular axial direction V L  from the fully closed position (shown in FIG. 4 e ) to the fully open position (shown in FIG. 4 a ), whereupon outlet valve  80  is again ready to proceed through the four inventive collisional stages. 
     Still referring to FIG. 4 a  through FIG. 4 e  and FIG. 5, and now referring to FIG.  6  and FIG. 7, the four inventive collisional stages are graphically illustrated in FIG.  6  and FIG. 7, respectively, in theory and in practice. FIG. 6 is an idealized profile of an inventive force/displacement curve. The first, second, third and fourth stages are indicated in FIG. 6 by Roman numerals “I,” “II,” “III” and “IV,” respectively. 
     FIG. 7 depicts simulation results obtained by the U.S. Navy and Production Products Manufacturing &amp; Sales for berthing of ship having an initial velocity approximately equal to 6 inches per second (or 0.34 miles per hour) and a mass approximately equal to 128,800 lbm in conventional engineering units (or 4,000 pounds mass in units of lb-sec 2 /in; or 772 tons). Pressure (pounds per square inch), force (kips, wherein 1 kip equals 1,000 pounds), displacement (inches) and valve core  81  position (inches) are represented in FIG.  7 . 
     As shown in FIG. 7, roughly speaking, the first stage begins at zero seconds, the second stage begins at about 0.8 seconds, the third stage begins at about 1.6 seconds, and the fourth stage begins at about 4.5 seconds. FIG. 7 shows that, during the beginning of the fourth stage, valve core  81  remains stationary (i.e., valve core  81  pauses) for about 0.9 seconds until commencing movement (at about 2.5 seconds) from its second stage position. 
     During the first stage, outlet valve  80  is in statically closed mode; the fluid pressure is increasing from zero. Outlet valve  80  is held closed as the pressure increases to the allowable hull pressure. The rate of change in the pressure is also being analyzed during the first state to estimate the effective mass and velocity of the impacting marine vessel. 
     During the second stage, outlet valve  80  is in statically open mode; the fluid pressure is approximately plateauing at about the maximal value. Fender  14  enters the second stage once the maximum hull pressure is reached. During the second stage, outlet valve  80  is opened to allow some flow in order to maintain the allowable hull pressure until the force required to dissipate all of the kinetic energy in the marine vessel at the maximum fender displacement is reached. The required force is calculated using the mass and velocity estimates from the first stage. 
     During the third stage, outlet valve  80  is in dynamically open mode; the fluid pressure is decreasing, while the force is approximately plateauing at about its value existing when the fluid pressure commences to decrease at the outset of the third stage. During the third stage, a constant force is maintained until the marine vessel stops. Since the contact area with the marine vessel is constantly increasing, the (fluid) pressure in the fender will decrease throughout the third stage; however, since the flow rate will eventually decrease due to the reduced velocity of the marine vessel, outlet valve  80  will have to adjust—that is, valve core  81  will have to more to one or more less open (more closed) positions in order to maintain the optimal force. The hourglass shape of outlet valve  80  allows this stage three modulation to occur. 
     During the fourth stage, outlet valve  80  returns to statically closed mode; 
     maximum deflection having been reached, the fluid pressure decreases steeply or precipitously to or toward zero. The fourth stage is characterized by a beneficial anti-rebound effect. 
     Especially with reference again to FIG.  1  and FIG. 2, generally speaking, during operation of inventive fender system  10 , an incoming ship impacts fender  14 , whereupon fender  14  impacts restraining wall  16 . Basically, a buckling elastomeric composite fender  14  acts as a mechanical force which absorbs energy. A water-filled fender  14  basically acts to exert a hydrodynamic force in addition to the mechanical force; thus, a water-filled fender  14  creates a standing column of water to absorb energy in addition to that absorbed by the buckling elastomeric composite fender. The loading upon reaction fender  14  and restraining wall  16  is generally expected to occur over a period of several seconds, thus resulting in low loads on both fender system  10  and the ship&#39;s hull. Accordingly, the ship is effectively reacted in a forgiving manner. By way of elaboration, inventive fender system  10  essentially functions as described hereinbelow. 
     Fender  14  is utilized to initially react the incoming ship. Fender  14  is conventional in appearance, having a design, in terms of size and shape, which has been shown to provide an adequate target for the incoming ship. Prior to impact, fender  14  is ready to be deflected (generally in the direction shown by unidirectional arrow i) by a marine vessel which strikes fender  14  (generally in the same direction shown by unidirectional arrow i in FIG.  1 ). 
     When the ship begins to impact fender  14 , fender  14  begins to partially deform; however, water outlet valve  80  initially remains closed. At a certain point in time, in the time period during which the ship reacts against fender  14 , servo valve  82  opens water outlet valve  80 . Outlet valve  80  opens once fender  14  is subjected to the maximum hull pressure of the specific ship. When this maximum ship hull pressure is reached, outlet valve  80  opens so that the maximum pressure exerted by fender  14  on the ship hull is constant. Hence, while the ship hull pressure decreases from its maximum level, outlet valve  80  adaptively shifts its open position so that the “pressure” (reaction force) exerted by fender  14  on the ship hull is constant. 
     Accordingly, as water  90  is forced out of fender  14 , fender wall  15  displaces at a constant pressure/force. In this manner, the maximum energy possible is absorbed or dissipated by fender system  10 . This pressure/force constancy, along with its associated maximization of energy absorption and dissipation, represents a major improvement of the present invention over existing fender designs. According to inventive fender system  10 , fender  14  exhibits a constant stiffness with displacement. In contrast, existing fenders exhibit an increase in stiffness with displacement. 
     To further explain the operation of inventive fender system  10 , while the ship contacts fender  14 , microprocessor  84  determines the effective mass and velocity of the ship. Pressure sensor  86  is monitored by microprocessor  84  whereby estimates pertaining to the mass and velocity are continually updated based on new information. The current approach by the U.S. Navy and Production Products Manufacturing &amp; Sales Company, Inc. has involved estimating the kinetic energy and momentum of the ship after each time step. While inventive fender system  10  is estimating the mass and velocity, it is using this information to control the position of valve core  81  in fender  14 . 
     Outlet valve  80  is designed to begin opening immediately after the pressure exerted by the ship reaches a predetermined maximum hull pressure. As outlet valve  80  opens, water  90  is forced out of fender  14 . The controlling of the position of outlet valve  80  enables fender  14  to exert a constant hull pressure/force until the ship is brought to a stop. This control enables inventive fender system  10  to dissipate the maximum energy possible. 
     Immediately after the ship is completely stopped, outlet valve  80  closes so that the ship does not rebound. Fender  14  does not return to its extended position when the ship&#39;s motion ceases. This valve closure capability, along with its associated rebound avoidance, represents yet another major improvement of the present invention over existing fender designs. In contrast, existing fenders return to their original shape and thereby rebound the marine vessel. 
     “Phase II” Testing 
     The inventive fender system according to related application Crane et al. &#39;664 was developed during “Phase I” of the above-noted SBIR contract between the U.S. Navy and Production Products Manufacturing &amp; Sales. The inventive fender system according to the instant application was developed during “Phase II” of the SBIR contract. Pursuant to the SBIR contract, a similar series of tests was conducted during each phase of the contract. 
     During SBIR “Phase II,” a one-half scale demonstration apparatus was built and implemented to demonstrate the operation of inventive fender system  10 . The demonstration apparatus included inventive fender system  10  and a hydraulic loading system which was used for simulating the berthing of a ship. Inventive fender system  10  was loaded at varying rates and put through numerous cycles, in order to assess the control characteristics of inventive fender system  10 . 
     The hydraulic loading system included a large wooden platform attached to a hydraulic actuator through a lever arm arrangement. Inventive fender system  10  was loaded by a paddle which was mounted on a hinge which was connected to the test floor. The paddle provided a large, flat loading panel to simulate the side of a ship hitting fiber-reinforced urethane fender  14 . The hydraulic loading system was capable of moving the paddle up to speeds of about three miles per hour. A series of tubes to allow the water to be forced out of fender  14  was run from the smart valve assembly to some water containers. 
     In these initial “Phase II” trials, the prototype bumper developed in “Phase I” was retrofitted with a computer-controlled valve. The overall “smart” valve concept in accordance with the present invention was validated in these tests. It was demonstrated that the outlet valve could be controlled with a simple, off-the-shelf solenoid valve and microprocessor, and that the size and speed of the impacting ship could be detected by analyzing pressure changes in the bumper. It was shown that the desired load/deflection behavior could be obtained with further development of the control algorithm. Repeated tests on the E-Glass/polyurethane bumper showed that it has the ability to return to its original shape after severe distortion/deflection. 
     Accordingly, the superior performance of the inventive “smart” bumper has been demonstrated in these initial “Phase II” trials. The inventors plan to test a second generation prototype inventive “smart” bumper in the near future. The second generation prototype includes utilization of inflatable tooling with a foam shell to create a monocoque structure which will be less expensive to manufacture and which will provide exceptional long-term performance. The inventive smart valve concept is essentially the same as in the earlier prototype, but this inventive version will be fabricated from PVC and mounted internally. 
     Control Algorithm 
     Reference is now made to FIG. 8, which shows an inventive smart bumper flow diagram. A computer algorithm has been written to simulate the operation of the inventive fender system. Hereinbelow is an embodiment of a source code (computer printout) pertaining to algorithmic control in accordance with the present invention. This inventive algorithmic software shows the ship hull speed, the energy dissipated, and the smart valve position. Such an algorithm can be used to determine the maximum energy dissipation possible for the given design. Therefore, the inventive fender system could afford appropriate berthing for numerous ship classes. 
     The inventive smart bumper is computer-controlled based on prior knowledge input to it; however, the computer can be operator-controlled and is adaptable based on knowledge gained during repeated ship impacts with various size ships. This allows the tailoring of the load-stroke curve of the inventive bumper to optimize the energy. 
     
       
         
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
               
               
             
               
             
           
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 /* 
                   
               
               
                   
                 Program BUMPER.C 
               
               
                   
                 C source code for TERN 16-bit Embedded Microcontroler 
               
               
                   
                 Author: Kerry T. Slattery 
               
               
                   
                 Date of last revision: 10 August 1998 
               
               
                 */ 
               
             
          
           
               
                 #include &lt;stdlib.h&gt; 
               
               
                 #include &lt;dos.h&gt; 
               
               
                 #include &lt;math.h&gt; 
               
               
                 #include “ve.h” 
               
               
                 #include “ser1.h” 
               
               
                 #include “ad.h” 
               
               
                 void interrupt far tb_isr(void); 
               
               
                 void initialize (void); 
               
               
                 unsigned int timbas_count,timbas_count0,timbas_count1, 
               
               
                 timbas_count2; unsigned char i,interval,ledd,flag; 
               
               
                 long j; 
               
               
                 long ipress,ipressthr,ipressmax,ipress0,idpress; 
               
               
                 int vvv; 
               
               
                 long sumx1,sumy1,sumx2,sumxy,alpha1000,beta1000,vt1000,vt10002; 
               
               
                 long n,itime,itimetostop; 
               
               
                 long timetostop1000,bumperstroke1000,valvestroke1000,deltafullrange; 
               
               
                 unsigned int ptoidp,dtoide1; 
               
               
                 long idexpected,idactual,idfullrange; 
               
               
                 void main (void) 
               
             
          
           
               
                 { 
                   
               
               
                   
                 initialize (); 
               
               
                   
                 ve_init(); 
               
               
                   
                 ad_init(); 
               
               
                   
                 timbas_count=0; 
               
               
                   
                 interval=3; /* timebase interrupt every 131.072 ms */ 
               
               
                   
                 time_base init(interval); 
               
               
                   
                 i=1; 
               
               
                   
                 time_base_interrupt(i,tb_isr); 
               
               
                   
                 enable (); 
               
               
                   
                 ipress=0; 
               
               
                   
                 pokeb (0xfff0,0x11,0x40); 
               
               
                   
                 pokeb (0xfff0,0x10,0xf7); 
               
               
                 /* 
                 Sleep Phase - waiting for indicator of possible berthing */ 
               
               
                 /* 
                 In the simulation,this is receiving a clean signal from the A/D card */ 
               
               
                   
                 pokeb (0xfff0,0x00,(unsigned char) (peekb (0xfff0,0) &amp;0xdf)); /* 
               
               
                   
                 Set P05=low 
               
               
                 */ 
                   
               
               
                   
                 vvv=100; 
               
               
                   
                 ledd=0; 
               
               
                   
                 led(ledd); 
               
             
          
           
               
                 while (vvv&gt;50) 
               
               
                 { 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 vvv=ce ad12(′0′); 
               
             
          
           
               
                 } 
               
               
                 ledd=1; 
               
               
                 led(ledd); 
               
               
                 /* Phase 0 - waiting for a crossing of the threshold pressure */ 
               
               
                 while (ipress&lt;ipressthr) 
               
               
                 { 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 ipress=ce_ad12(′0′); 
               
             
          
           
               
                 } 
               
               
                 timbas_count1=timbas_count; 
               
               
                 timbas_count0=timbas count1; 
               
               
                 ipress0=ipress; 
               
               
                 sumx1=0; 
               
               
                 sumx2=0; 
               
               
                 sumyl=0; 
               
               
                 sumxy=0; 
               
               
                 n=0; 
               
               
                 ledd=0; 
               
               
                 led(ledd); 
               
               
                 /* Phase 1 - determining velocity with the valve closed */ 
               
               
                 while (ipress&lt;ipressmax) 
               
               
                 { 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 while (timbas_count==timbas_count0) 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 { ledd=0; } 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 timbas_count0=timbas_count; 
               
               
                   
                 ipress=ce_ad12 (′0′); 
               
               
                   
                 itime=timbas_count-timbas_count1; 
               
               
                   
                 idpress=ipress-ipress0; 
               
               
                   
                 ipress0=ipress; 
               
               
                   
                 sumx1=sumx1+itime; 
               
               
                   
                 sumx2=sumx2+itime*itime; 
               
               
                   
                 sumy1=sumy1+idpress; 
               
               
                   
                 sumy=sumxy+itime*idpress; 
               
               
                   
                 n++ 
               
               
                   
                 if (sumx2 !=sumx1*sumx1/n) beta1000=1000* 
               
             
          
           
               
                 (sumxy-sumx1*sumy1/n)/(sumx2-sumx1*sumx1/n); 
               
               
                 /* alpha1000=1000*sumy1/n-beta1000/n*sumx1; */ 
               
               
                 /* converting slope to actual units &gt; *58.2 for time{circumflex over ( )}2 and/ptoidp for 
               
               
                 pressure */ 
               
               
                 /* sqrt of the slope/3.2 gives the velocity in inches/second */ 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 if (beta1000&gt;0) vt10002=beta1000*58200L/ptoidp*10/32; 
               
             
          
           
               
                 } 
               
               
                 ledd=1; 
               
               
                 led(ledd); 
               
               
                 flag=0; 
               
               
                 for (j=0; j&lt;200 &amp;&amp; flag==0; j++) 
               
               
                 { 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 if (j*j*10000&gt;vt10002) 
               
               
                   
                 { 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 vt1000=j*100; 
               
               
                   
                 flag=1; 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 } 
               
             
          
           
               
                 } 
               
               
                 if (vt1000&gt;0) timetostop1000=2*bumperstroke1000*1000/vt1000; 
               
               
                 itimetostop=timetostop1000*7629/1000/1000; 
               
               
                 timbas_count2=timbas_count; 
               
             
          
           
               
                 /* 
                 Phase 2 - Move Valve */ 
               
               
                 /* 
                 Assume that valve moves at constant velocity */ 
               
               
                 /* 
                 Functions for valve velocity in terms of ship velocity and mass 
               
               
                   
                 are being developed and will be included in later revisions */ 
               
             
          
           
               
                 timbas_count0=timbas_count2; 
               
               
                 n=0; 
               
               
                 idactual=ce_ad12 (′1′); 
               
               
                 while (idactual&lt;idfullrange) 
               
               
                 { 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 while (timbas_count==timbas_count0) 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 { ledd=ledd; } 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 timbas_count0=timbas_count; 
               
               
                   
                 itime=timbas_count-timbas_count2; 
               
               
                   
                 if (itimetostop&gt;0) idexpected=idfullrange*itime/itimetostop; 
               
               
                   
                 idactual=ce_ad12 (′1′); 
               
               
                   
                 if (idexpected&lt;=idactual) 
               
               
                   
                 { 
               
               
                   
                 pokeb (0xfff0,0x00,(unsigned char) (peekb (0xfff0,0) &amp;0xdf)); /* 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Set P05=low (close servovalve) */ 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 ledd=0; 
               
               
                   
                 n++; 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 } 
               
               
                   
                 if (idexpected&gt;idactual) 
               
               
                   
                 { 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 pokeb(0xfff0,0x00,(unsigned char) (peekb(0xfff0,0)| 
               
             
          
           
               
                 0x20)); /* Set P05=high (open servovalve) */ 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 ledd=1; 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 } 
               
               
                   
                 led (ledd); 
               
             
          
           
               
                 } 
               
               
                 j=0; 
               
               
                 while (j&lt;n) 
               
               
                 { 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 if (timbas_count/16*16==timbas_count) 
               
               
                   
                 { 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 ledd=1; 
               
               
                   
                 j++ 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 } 
               
               
                   
                 if ((timbas_count+8)/16*16==timbas_countt8) ledd=0; 
               
               
                   
                 led (ledd); 
               
             
          
           
               
                 } 
               
               
                 return (0); 
               
               
                 } 
               
               
                 /* 
               
               
                 Function: timbas_isr 
               
               
                 Time Base Interrupt handler. Increment timbas_count 
               
               
                 */ 
               
               
                 void interrupt far tb_isr(void) 
               
               
                 { 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 time_base_interrupt(0,tb_isr); 
               
               
                   
                 fint(); 
               
               
                 /* 
                 bunch of comments in printout */ 
               
               
                   
                 timbas_count++; 
               
               
                   
                 time_base_interrupt(1,tb_isr); 
               
             
          
           
               
                 } 
               
               
                 /* 
               
               
                 Function: initialize 
               
               
                 Define constants for the bumper 
               
               
                 */ 
               
               
                 void initialize (void) 
               
               
                 { 
               
               
                 long ifullrange,vfullrange,vmin,vmax,pfullrange,pressthr,pressmax; 
               
             
          
           
               
                 /* 
                 30 psi transducer with 1 volt=0 psi to 5 volt=30 psi */ 
               
               
                   
                 ifullrange=4096; 
               
               
                   
                 vfullrange=5; 
               
               
                   
                 vmin=1; 
               
               
                   
                 vmax=5; 
               
               
                   
                 pfullrange=30; 
               
               
                   
                 pressthr=1; /* psi */ 
               
               
                   
                 pressmax=10; /* psi */ 
               
               
                   
                 ippressthr=ifullrange/vfullrange* (pressthr* (vmax-vmin)/ 
               
             
          
           
               
                 pfullrange+vmin); 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 ipressmax=ifullrange/vfullrange* (pressmax* (vmax-vmin)/ 
               
             
          
           
               
                 pfullrange+vmin); 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 ptoidp=ifullrange/vfullrange* (vmax-vmin)/pfullrange; 
               
               
                   
                 valvestroke1000=4000; 
               
               
                   
                 bumperstroke1000=16000; 
               
               
                   
                 vmin=0; 
               
               
                   
                 vmax=5; 
               
               
                   
                 deltafullrange=4; 
               
               
                   
                 dtoide1=ifullrange/vfullrange*deltafullrange/(vmax-vmin); 
               
               
                   
                 idfullrange=ifullrange* (vmax-vmin)/vfullrange*99/100; 
               
             
          
           
               
                 } 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     In addition, the inventive fender system will make it possible to maintain records of the force exerted on the pier structures, in order to establish repair schedules. More detailed discussion follows of the inventive control algorithmic program which is set forth hereinabove. 
     Threshold Pressure Prediction 
     Hourglass outlet valve  80  on fender  14  begins in a closed position. After a ship impact is detected (currently by reading an internal pressure greater than 1.0 psi), outlet valve  80  is held closed until the desired pressure is reached. This will be the allowable hull pressure, unless it is determined that a lower pressure will be adequate to stop the ship. In order to cause the pressure to stabilize at this level, valve core  81  should be set to the appropriate location on valve shaft  83  so as to maintain the hull pressure at the expected flow rate when that pressure is reached. The time at which the hull pressure will be reached must be anticipated in order to open servo valve  82  ahead of time so as to allow this to occur; this anticipation is accomplished by microprocessor  84 . 
     Pressure values above 1.0 psi are recorded and a nonlinear regression analysis is performed to determine, in the following pressure-time relationship, the values of the coefficients α and β which give the best fit to the data:        P   =     β                   t   α                              
     These coefficients are then used to predict the time at which the hull pressure will be reached. 
     A second relationship is under development to determine the servo valve  82  “open time” required to change the position of valve core  81  by a desired amount. The open time is a function of: 
     the current pressure, p; 
     the current valve core position, vp 0 , 
     the current valve core velocity, v 0 ; and, 
     the desired change in valve core position, Δvp. 
     Multivariable regression analysis was performed on preliminary test data to develop the following relationship: 
     
       
         Open Time=(−0.00103 p− 0.00947 v   0 +0.0239 vp   0 +0.245 Δvp+ 0.0306)(1/1.385) 
       
     
     When the required open time is less than the predicted time to reach the hull pressure, servo valve  82  is opened for the required time. 
     Valve Core Velocity Control 
     With the current inventive servo valve system, it is not possible to close the servo valve while the flow rate exceeds a critical level. This flow rate is proportional to the velocity of the valve core. 
     A step was added to the control algorithm to automatically close the servo valve when the velocity of the valve core exceeds the selected, critical value. These checks maintain control of the valve core. 
     Mass/Velocity Prediction 
     In order to create a fully adaptive rendering system in accordance with the present invention, the fender must be able to detect the effective mass and velocity of the ship and to automatically adjust its response to produce the optimum load/deflection response. In order to minimize cost and maximize reliability, this should be accomplished with a minimum level of instrumentation. Instrumentation on the current fender design includes a transducer (pressure sensor) monitoring the fender pressure, and a linear potentiometer measuring the valve core position. 
     In theory, the two unknowns (mass and velocity) could be calculated using simple physics with a couple of pressure readings. In practice, however, since some noise will be experienced in the pressure readings and the force acting on the ship can only be estimated from the fender pressure and valve opening history, mass and velocity can only be estimated, and the estimates must be continually updated based upon new information. 
     The current inventive approach involves estimating the kinetic energy and momentum of the ship after each time step; this is done by the microprocessor. Changes in these values between three points in time can be used to calculate the mass and initial velocity. Various averaging schemes are being evaluated at this time to provide the most robust estimate of mass and velocity at the earliest possible time in the docking. 
     Simulation 
     A simple time domain simulation program was developed to test the control algorithm. In the simulation, a mass and initial velocity of the ship are selected along with other system parameters such as fender dimensions, hull pressure, and valve geometry. 
     One “loop” in the program calculates the actual response of the docking ship using simple physics relationships. At the same time, another section of the program reads the current pressure in the simulated fender—adjusted by some level of random noise—and attempts to: (i) determine the mass and velocity; (ii) make servo valve opening/closing decisions; and, (iii) cause the simulated ship to stop at the maximum allowable deflection of the fender. The simulation is still under development, and more realism is being added to model each component of the system accurately. 
     Reference again being made to FIG. 7, shown in the graph are the results of one simulation based on the characteristics of the current inventive subcomponent fender system. This berthing involves a 4,000 lbm (772 ton) ship having an initial velocity of 6 in/sec (0.34 mi/hr). 
     The allowable hull pressure is 10 psi and the target deflection if the fender is set at 16 inches. As the pressure approaches 10 psi (0.8 seconds), the outlet valve is allowed to open to a position at which this pressure can be maintained. Minor adjustments to the valve core position allow this pressure to be maintained until a cross-over point is reached (2.5 seconds) where the valve core must begin to close in order to maintain the same force level. At this point the valve core must move past the halfway point of hourglass-shaped valve shaft so that the outlet valve will begin to close as the valve core displaces farther. 
     During the constant pressure phase (0.8 to 1.8 seconds) the control algorithm is continuously updating the estimates of the mass and velocity of the ship. When the force reaches a level at which the ship can be stopped within the remaining allowable deflection, the pressure is allowed to drop in order to maintain this force as the contact area increases. In this simulation the maximum deflection reached 16.28 inches—about ¼ inch from the target value. 
     A more realistic model of the outlet valve/servo valve dynamics which includes uncertainty is currently being added to the simulation. The results are not expected to be as smooth as in the current simulation; however, these results have demonstrated the capability of the current approach to produce the desired response. 
     Fiber-Reinforced High Strain-To-Failure Viscoelastic Matrix Material Crane et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,744,221 issued Apr. 28, 1998, entitled “Flexible High-Damping Composite Structures and Fabrication Thereof,” incorporated herein by reference, disclose unique composite structures which are made using conventional resin transfer molding (“RTM”) technique or conventional filament winding technique. According to Crane et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,744,221, high strain-to-failure viscoelastic material (such as, for example, polyurethane or polyurethane/urea) is used as the matrix material in association with conventional RTM or conventional filament winding; i.e., fiber fabric material or individually stranded fiber tow material is used as the fiber reinforcement material for high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material. The structures disclosed by Crane et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,744,221 afford desired structural performance and superior performance in terms of flexibility, damping and damage-tolerance. 
     Crane et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,053 issued Aug. 5, 1997, entitled “High-Energy-Absorbing Enclosure for Internal Explosion Containment,” incorporated herein by reference, adopts the teachings of Crane et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,744,221, particularly insofar as such teachings pertain to the making of composite structures using conventional RTM and the use of fiber fabric material as the fiber reinforcement material for high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material. Crane et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,053 disclose utilization of polyurethane as a highly viscoelastic matrix material, having strain-to-failure of 400% to 500%, compared to a conventional polymer used in composites which has a strain-to-failure on the order of 5% to 10%. Crane et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,053 also disclose utilization of polyurethane in combination with urea (“polyurethane/urea”) as a highly viscoelastic matrix material having properties similar to polyurethane alone. The disclosure of Crane et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,654,053 uniquely features utilization of fiber-reinforced high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material in the context of explosion containment. 
     The present invention, like Crane et al. &#39;664, uniquely features utilization of fiber-reinforced high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material in the context of impact absorption. This invention adopts the teachings of Crane et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,744,221, particularly insofar as such teachings pertain to the making of composite structures using conventional filament winding and the use of individually stranded fiber tow material as the fiber reinforcement material for high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material. Filament wound fiber-reinforced high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material comprises a plurality of single-stranded tows and high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material contiguously disposed in relation to at least some of the tows. The fiber-reinforced high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material can be deformed elastically to large strains, has demonstrably high energy-absorbing characteristics, and is relatively lightweight. 
     The elastic properties and other beneficial properties of fiber-reinforced high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material avail the present invention. This invention uniquely configures at least one bumper structure (such as reaction fender  14 ) which is inclusive of fiber-reinforced high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material so as to provide a highly effective system for impact absorption. 
     Filament winding is a technique which is known in the art for the manufacture of cylindrical structures (e.g., tubes and pipes); spherical structures, and other surfaces of revolution. Typically, the filament winding process involves utilization of a resin bath through which dry fibers are passed and then wound; this type of filament winding is known as “wet winding.” In this technique the wind angle, band width and tow tension are controlled. Alternatively, the filament winding process typically utilizes prepreg tape in favor of wet winding technique in order to achieve tighter control on fabricated properties. The filament winding art has conventionally utilized, for structural applications, fibers having appropriate strength characteristics (e.g., glass or carbon fibers) in conjunction with a conventional (e.g, epoxy) resin matrix. 
     Inventive implementation of conventional filament winding technique advantageously permits precise selectivity of the fiber content of each composite structure in terms of both fiber volume fraction and fiber orientation; hence, the inventive bumper system uniquely lends itself in these respects to modulation or “fine tuning” in accordance with system requirements. 
     In inventive practice, the structural considerations for most embodiments will require that each composite structure have a fiber content of at least about 50% by volume. For many inventive embodiments, the content in each composite structure of the single-stranded tows is preferably in the range from about 50% to about 70% by volume. 
     Besides fiber volume fraction and fiber orientation, other inventive bumper system parameters which can selectively be varied or adapted in accordance with application requirements include: size and shape of each composite structure; matrix material for each composite structure; number and arrangement/configuration of the composite structures; the internal contents of each composite bumper structure. 
     According to this invention, reaction fender  14  is made via filament winding using highly viscoelastic material so as to have a high fiber volume and no core. The fiber-reinforced high-strain-to-failure matrix material has unique absorption properties, can be deformed severely and still return to it&#39;s original shape, and has excellent damage tolerance and abrasion resistance. Highly viscoelastic matrix material performs very well at large strains and, in general, exhibits a remarkable ability to return to form. Although highly viscoelastic matrix material suffers from an initial loss of stiffness when subjected to large tensile strains, this material can then be cycled extensively with little further degradation. 
     The terms “high strain-to-failure viscoelastic material” and “highly viscoelastic material” are used herein interchangeably. The word “highly” in the term “highly viscoelastic material” is defined by either of two characteristics, viz., either “strain-to-failure” or “loss factor.” A “highly viscoelastic material,” as defined herein, is a viscoelastic material which either (a) has a loss factor in the range between about 0.4 and 0.8, or (b) has a strain-to-failure in the range between about 300% and 500%. Since a “high strain-to-failure viscoelastic material” (i.e., as defined herein, a viscoelastic material having a strain-to-failure in the approximate range of 300% to 500%) will virtually invariably have a loss factor in the approximate range of 0.4 to 0.8, and vice versa, the terms “high strain-to-failure viscoelastic material” and “highly viscoelastic material” are considered herein to be synonymous. 
     The term “fiber-reinforced highly viscoelastic matrix material,” as considered herein, is synonymous with the term “fiber-reinforced high-strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material” and refers to composite material which includes fibers and highly (high strain-to-failure) viscoelastic matrix material which are, to a substantial degree, in a contiguous relationship; i.e., fiber-reinforced highly (high-strain-to-failure) viscoelastic matrix material is fiber-reinforced matrix material wherein the matrix material is highly (high strain-to-failure) viscoelastic matrix material. 
     Stated on page one (first paragraph) of Read, B. E., &amp; Dean, G. D.,  The Determination of Dynamic Properties of Polymers and Composites,  John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York, 1978 is the following: “The low-strain mechanical behaviour of unreinforced and reinforced polymeric materials may be described as viscoelastic. In response to forces which vary sinusoidally with time their deformations will also be sinusoidal but, even at frequencies well below those required to excite sample resonance vibrations, will lag in phase behind the applied loads. The dynamic properties may then be specified by means of two basic quantities. One of these quantities, the dynamic storage modulus, provides a measure of the effective stiffness of the material and is proportional to the peak energy stored and recovered during each cycle of deformation. The other quantity, known as the loss factor or damping factor, is proportional to the ratio of net energy dissipated per cycle as heat to the peak stored energy.” In accordance with Read et al.&#39;s definition of “viscoelastic” as thus quoted, a “highly viscoelastic material” is suggested to be a viscoelastic material wherein the deformations significantly lag behind the applied force; this correlates with a material which has high damping. 
     With regard to damping and particularly with regard to loss factor, conventional metals have a loss factor of about 0.001. Structural composites have a loss factor in the approximate range of 0.007 to 0.015. A “lossy rubber” has a loss factor in the approximate range of 1 to 10; see Read et al., pages 190-195. A lossy rubber is a highly viscoelastic material which has virtually no structural characteristics and is used solely as a parasitic damping treatment (i.e., an add-on material). Highly viscoelastic materials having structural characteristics have a loss factor in the approximate range of 0.4 to 0.8, which is significantly higher than the loss factor for most structural materials but not as high as the loss factor for lossy rubber materials. These characterizations of materials are known to persons of ordinary skill in the art. 
     With regard to strain-to-failure, there are two types of organic matrices, viz., “thermoplastic” and “thermoset.” 
     For thermoplastic systems, the range of strain-to-failure is approximately 4% to 60%. For thermoset systems, the range of strain-to-failure is approximately 1.5% to 5%. Nicholls, David J., “Effect of Stress Biaxiality on the Transverse Tensile Strain-to-Failure of Composites, Whitney, James M., Editor,  Composite Materials: Testing and Design  ( Seventh Conference, Philadelphia,  1984), American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1986, pages 109-114, is instructive regarding comparison of conventional thermoplastic and thermoset systems in terms of strain-to-failure. 
     For thermoplastic composites, the absolute upper limit of strain-to-failure for conventional matrix materials is about 95% (see Nicholls, page 112, Table 1) or about 100% (see Nicholls, page 109, abstract: “Thermoplastic matrices are now available with neat resin strain-to-failure values of up to 100%.”). 
     The ordinarily skilled artisan knows that conventional thermosets include polyester, vinylester and epoxy. Typical thermoplastics are known by the ordinarily skilled artisan to include PPS (polyphenylene sulfide), PEEK (poly ether ether ketone) and PEI (polyetherimide). These material systems are known to the ordinarily skilled artisan as conventional matrix composites. 
     The term “high strain-to-failure viscoelastic” is used in the instant disclosure to define a distinct genre of material which, according to the invention, is to be used as matrix material. The range of strain-to-failure for high-strain-to-failure viscoelastic materials is about 300% to 500%, more typically about 350% to 450%; this 300% to 500% strain-to-failure range represents a quantum jump vis-a-vis the strain-to-failure range for conventional matrix materials. 
     The aforedescribed disparity in terms of strain-to-failure for “conventional” materials versus “high strain-to-failure viscoelastic” materials is well understood in the art. Hence, the contradistinctive delimitations of the terms “conventional matrix material” and “high-strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material” are readily appreciated by the ordinarily skilled artisan who reads the instant disclosure. 
     Utilization of viscoelastic material as matrix material is disclosed by the following U.S. patents: U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,954,377; 5,108,262; 5,308,675; 5,447,765. Fisher and Crane U.S. Pat. No. 4,954,377 disclose utilization of a highly viscoelastic material such as, for example, butyl or nitrile rubber, or any other highly viscoelastic material, that exhibits molecular interaction when subjected to shearing forces. Fisher and Crane U.S. Pat. No. 4,954,377 disclose that the general characteristics of the viscoelastic material in the cured condition are such as exhibit a capacity to withstand a high strain to failure and a high damping loss factor. Crane U.S. Pat. No. 5,108,262 discloses utilization of a highly viscoelastic matrix material such as urethane, polyurethane, nitrile rubber, or other such material having a high vibration damping loss factor. Crane et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,308,675 disclose utilization of viscoelastic material including rubber such as natural and nitrile rubber, urethane, polyurethane, and other high strain to failure material (strain to failure greater than 60%) and which have a high damping loss factor (greater than 0.1). 
     Fender Fabrication 
     Now with reference to FIG.  9  and FIG. 10, an important aspect of the manufacture of the inventive fender is that it preferably be made in one piece. A one-piece fender (such as a one-piece fender  14 ) would probably be preferable for many inventive embodiments, especially in terms of production costs and structural performance optimization. Therefore, pursuant to the above-noted SBIR contract between the U.S. Navy and Production Products Manufacturing &amp; Sales, a new manufacturing method was devised for making an inventive fender having a cylindroid shape (cylindrical with tapered ends). 
     According to Crane et al. &#39;664, the cylindrical shape with tapered ends was wound and cut to allow the removal of the mandrel. The two sections were then bonded together using a winding technique. However, since the present invention requires the containment of water under pressure, the present inventors believe that an adhesively bonded system is not desirable for practicing the present invention. The inventive method described herein produces a unitary or one-piece bumper structure which is better suited to withstand the rigors of present inventive practice. 
     According to the inventive method for fabricating the present inventive fender, the present inventors designed and manufactured a collapsible, reusable mandrel  98 , over which the fiber-reinforced urethane could be wound, but which could then be removed after the part was cured. Collapsible mandrel  98  was made so as to include a rubber-coated or “rubberized” cloth. The cloth material was combined with an elastomeric material so that mandrel  98  would have a fluid tight quality. The elastomerically imbued cloth was sewn in sections with a rib structure configuration; this was necessary to provide enough support for the filament winding process. 
     Mandrel  98  was attached to a central steel pipe  92  which had a fitting (not shown) for applying air and was capped at both ends. Mandrel  90  functioned like an inflatable bladder, not unlike one which is commonly found enclosed in a football. After inflating mandrel  98 , a foam (e.g., polyurethane) layer  94  was attached to the outside of mandrel  98 , using velcro strips (not shown) which were bonded to the exterior surface of mandrel  98 . A circumferential collar  96  kept the assembly in place. The fiber-reinforced urethane was then wound over foam layer  94 . After this material was allowed to cure, the rubber-coated cloth mandrel  98  was deflated and removed, such as photographically depicted in FIG. Z-2 of Crane et al. &#39;664. 
     As shown in FIG.  9  and FIG. 10, foam layer  94  served as a sort of “casing” for the bladder-like mandrel  98 , which was held to shape by foam layer  94  in a manner analogous to the containment of the internal bladder by the external “pigskin” of a football. Some inventive embodiments provide, instead of a foam casing  94 , a leather or canvas casing  94  which is stitched together to provide the final shape of the bumper component (e.g., fender  14 ). Once the bumper is made, mandrel  98  and pipe  92  are removed from the bumper; however, depending on the inventive embodiment, casing  94  can either remain with the bumper, or be removed and reused. 
     After the filament winding was completed (thus leaving an inventive composite cylindroid bumper structure similar to that shown in FIG. Z-1 of Crane et al. &#39;664), a six-inch diameter PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipe was attached to the axial ends of the cylindroid bumper structure; the PVC pipe was passed through the holes where the inflatable mandrel had been removed. A microprocessor, a solenoid-type servo valve and an outlet valve (at one end of the PVC pipe) were installed inside the circumference defined by the PVC pipe, whereby the outlet valve was situated at one axial extreme end of the PVC pipe, and the servo valve and microprocessor were situated in relatively close proximity to the outlet valve. A non-valvular plug assembly was used to close out the other axial extreme end of the bumper structure. Alternatively, it may be preferable that a safety valvular plug assembly, such as plug assembly  48  which includes pressure relief valve  49  shown in FIG. 2, be used to close out the other axial extreme end of the bumper structure. 
     Current plans by the U.S. Navy and Production Products Manufacturing &amp; Sales Company, Inc. call for the fabrication of full scale bumpers which are about four feet in diameter and between about eight to ten feet in axial length. 
     Fender Shape 
     In accordance with the present invention, a reaction fender can be any hollow composite structure, containing material which is gaseous or liquid, having a circumferential surface about its imaginary longitudinal axis, and including fiber-reinforced high strain-to-failure viscoelastic matrix material. A structure which is said herein to have a circumferential surface about its longitudinal axis is intended herein to refer not only to a structure having a curvilinear surface which is axially symmetrical about a longitudinal axis, but to also refer to a structure having a generally curvilinear surface or a substantially curvilinear surface which is generally symmetrical or substantially symmetrical about a longitudinal axis. 
     Although the method, apparatus and system according to this invention admit of application to structures having aspects of asymmetricality and rectilinearity, many applications thereof preferably are for structures which substantially are axially symmetrical structures and hence better advance the fabrication, analysis, tailoring and system mechanics in accordance with this invention. Such structures include those of which a substantial portion is, approximately, a circular cylinder (e.g., fender  14  shown in FIG.  1  and FIG. 2; see also, FIG. Z-1 of Crane et al. &#39;664), non-circular (e.g., flattened, oblate or elliptical) cylinder, circular conical segment, non-circular (e.g., flattened, oblate or elliptical) conical segment, sphere, prolate sphere, circular spheroid, non-circular (e.g., flattened, oblate or elliptical) spheroid, circular ellipsoid and non-circular (e.g., flattened, oblate or elliptical) ellipsoid. The circumferential planar cross-sections for these axially symmetrical structures are approximately either circular or non-circular (e.g., flattened, oblate or elliptical). A “cylindroid” structure is one of which a substantial portion approximately is a circular cylinder or a non-circular cylinder. 
     Many composite bumper structures for which the present invention may be practiced have shapes which are substantial or general analogues of these axially symmetrical shapes and which lend themselves to fabrication via conventional filament winding technique. Even rectangular and other entirely rectilinear structural shapes admit of practice in accordance with the present invention, lending themselves to fabrication via conventional RTM technique; such rectilinear bumpers would preferably have an identifiable axis of virtual symmetry so as to promote fabricability, tailorability, analyzability and mechanical viability in accordance with the teachings of the present invention. 
     Other embodiments of this invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from a consideration of this disclosure or practice of the invention disclosed herein. Various omissions, modifications and changes to the principles described may be made by one skilled in the art without departing from the true scope and spirit of the invention which is indicated by the following claims.