Abstract:
In one embodiment, the invention comprises a flash-media controller used for writing new data from an external system to a local flash-memory device. The newly written data may replace old data previously written to the flash-memory device, and may be written directly to unused locations within the flash-memory device. The flash-media controller may comprise a table of block descriptors and sector descriptors used to track specified characteristics of each block and sector of the flash-memory device, thereby allowing for write sequences to non-contiguous sectors within a block. Accordingly, copy operations may be deferred under the expectation that they will eventually become unnecessary, thereby designating old data as having become stale. Once all data within a block has been designated as being stale, the block may be marked as unused and may be made available for subsequent write operations, thereby providing fast write access to the flash-memory device, and significantly reducing the number of required copy operations during data transfer to the flash-memory device.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     1. Field of the Invention 
     This invention relates generally to the field of digital interface design and, more particularly, to digital storage interface design. 
     2. Description of the Related Art 
     In recent years the electronics marketplace has seen a proliferation of appliances and personal electronics devices that use solid-state memory. For example, traditional film cameras have been losing market share to digital cameras capable of recording images that may be directly downloaded to and stored on personal computers (PCs). The pictures recorded by digital cameras can easily be converted to common graphics file formats such as JPEG, GIF or BMP, and sent as e-mail attachments or posted on web pages and online photo albums. Many digital cameras are also capable of capturing short video clips in standard digital video formats, for example MPEG-2, which may also be directly downloaded and stored on PCs or notebook computers. Other devices that typically use solid-state memory include personal digital assistants (PDAs), pocket PCs, video game consoles and MP3 players. 
     The most widely used solid-state memory devices comprise flash-memory chips configured on a small removable card, and are commonly referred to as flash-memory cards. The majority of flash-memory cards currently on the market typically comprise one of four different types: Compact Flash, Multi Media Card (MMC) and the related Secure Digital Card (SD), SmartMedia, and Memory Stick. Most digital cameras, for example, use Compact Flash cards to record images. Many PDA models use Memory Stick cards to hold data. Some MP3 players store music files on Smart Media cards. Generally, data saved by PDAs and other handheld devices using flash-memory cards are also transferred or downloaded to a PC. In the present application, the term “flash-memory” is intended to have the full breadth of its ordinary meaning, which generally encompasses various types of non-volatile solid-state memory devices. 
     Generally, data in flash-memory devices may be erased in units of blocks and written in units of pages. Blocks typically designate a minimum Erasable Unit (EU), and consist of a plurality of pages, which serve as a minimum Read/Write Unit (RWU). A block must typically be erased in its entirety before data can be updated (re-written). In other words, flash-memory is typically used as a file store. File systems usually maintain data on the device in units of 512 bytes, commonly called sectors. The table in  FIG. 1  illustrates the page/block/sector organization of several common flash-memory devices. 
     An external system typically transfers data to a flash-memory device in sets of contiguous sectors using a logical sector address and a sector count. A flash-media controller may be used to translate the logical sector address provided by the external system into a physical sector address on the flash-memory device. By convention, contiguous logical sectors that fall within the address range of a logical block are stored contiguously within the same physical block. The convention to keep sectors contiguous has several motivating factors. One is to avoid the cost of memory intensive look-up tables used to associate each logical sector with a physical sector. For example, a 128 MB flash-memory device will typically have 262,144 sectors. A per-sector lookup table would require at least one megabyte of storage. Another motivating factor is due to external systems typically transferring data in contiguous sectors using a first sector address and a sector count. Keeping the physical sectors contiguous generally erases a time penalty associated with a table lookup for each sector involved in the transfer. 
     Blocks may sometimes contain physically damaged electrical components. Damaged blocks are typically marked as invalid and are not used to store data. External systems are generally not designed to manage invalid blocks. Therefore, the flash-media controller must maintain a table of replacement blocks. This table may be used to translate logical addresses provided by external systems into physical addresses of valid blocks on the flash memory. Since some physical blocks may be invalid, it is not always possible to store logical blocks contiguously on the flash memory device. 
     External systems also frequently update (re-write) existing data. These updates take place within a few sectors of a block. A flash-media controller must typically establish a set of unused (or erased) pages to receive incoming data. Previously written data that falls outside the range of the current write operation must be preserved. Rewriting data on a flash memory device often entails re-arrangement of existing data using copy operations. As previously noted, this re-arrangement is necessary in order to maintain contiguous data and thereby minimize resources required to locate previously written data. The copy operations are generally time costly and interrupt the continuous flow of data from the external system to the flash memory, thereby reducing the overall write speed of the device. 
     There are currently a variety of methods used for re-arranging existing data on flash-memory devices. Sometimes, random access memory (RAM) or static random access memory (SRAM) resources are used for caching data prior to writing to the flash-memory device. At other times the data may be written to available read/write units and maintaining contiguous data may not even be attempted. One method involves assuming linear (contiguous) writes, and maintaining contiguous data by keeping a next-sector pointer. Relevant examples of current methods are presented in SMIL (SmartMedia™ Interface Library) Software Edition Version 1.00, Toshiba Corporation, published on Jul. 1, 2000, and in SMIL™ Standard 2000 Supplement Vol. 1, issued on Nov. 20, 2000 as part of the SSFDC Forum Technical Reference. 
     Caching solutions typically require significant temporary storage external to the flash-memory device, such as RAM or SRAM. Small inexpensive devices do not have storage sufficient for large re-write operations. Adding external storage resources typically adds significantly to the cost and complexity of the device. Resolving this issue may necessitate a mechanism to eliminate copy operations without requiring temporary storage external to the flash memory. Writing the data to available non-contiguous read/write units generally requires a larger and more complex lookup table. Larger flash memory devices may contain many thousands of read/write units, making the size of the lookup table prohibitive for a small inexpensive flash media controller. 
     Other corresponding issues related to the prior art will become apparent to one skilled in the art after comparing such prior art with the present invention as described herein. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     Various embodiments of a system and method to significantly reduce the number of data copy operations performed during the transfer of data to a flash-memory device are presented. In one embodiment, a memory controller is used to manage non-volatile memory devices, for example flash-memory devices (flash electrically erasable programmable read only memory, otherwise referred to as flash EEPROM), where transferring data to the flash-memory devices is performed such that unnecessary and time costly operations, as well as memory intensive data structures related to the management of the flash memory devices are minimized. The data may be maintained contiguously, thereby minimizing the storage requirements of corresponding lookup tables. Copy operations may be reduced or eliminated by deferring them as long as possible. The size and extent of structures used to describe the deferred copy operations may be limited, in turn minimizing RAM requirements. 
     The non-volatile memory device may be organized into a plurality of minimum erasable-units called blocks, and each block may be organized into a plurality of subunits called sectors. In one set of embodiments, re-write operations to a flash-memory device may be allowed to partially complete by skipping the final copy phase, and a descriptor of the current state of the re-write operation may be maintained in a RAM cache. The descriptor may identify which sectors of a block have been involved in the re-write operation. The descriptor may also be updated as subsequent re-write operations are initiated referencing the same block. The cache may contain descriptors for a plurality of partially re-written blocks. A block&#39;s descriptor may be removed from the RAM cache once all the block&#39;s sectors have been re-written. Upon reaching cache resource limits, the descriptors may be removed from the cache after forcing completion of deferred copy operations. 
     In one embodiment, the flash media controller includes a table of block descriptors—each block being identified as a minimum erasable-unit—that may be configured to hold physical block address information, logical block address information, as well as status information pertaining to the physical and logical blocks. In one embodiment, physical blocks that are partially re-written (when the data is divided across two or more physical blocks) receive a corresponding sector descriptor. Each sector descriptor may contain information about the physical sectors contained in a physical block, as well as information regarding data contained in the physical sectors. When an external system requests a re-write operation, the flash-media controller may locate a candidate block, whose attributes meet a previously determined set of criteria, and designate a candidate physical block based on another set of previously determined criteria. The re-write operation may then be processed using the candidate physical block. 
     The flash-media controller may reclaim resources at will. Reclamation may be necessary due to resource constraints such as limited storage for sector descriptors or a limited number of unbound blocks. Reclamation may be desired to improve performance of read operations or to simplify fault recovery. Resources associated with a partially re-written block may be reclaimed by first selecting a candidate physical block for reclamation, then selecting a subsequent partially re-written physical block associated with the same logical block. Dormant sectors from the candidate block may be copied to the subsequent block, where a dormant sector may be defined as meeting a previously established set of criteria. The flash-media controller may then update the dirty-sector map associated with the subsequent block to reflect the sectors copied in the prior step, and reclaim the sector descriptor associated with the candidate physical block. Subsequently, the flash-media controller may mark the candidate physical block as unbound in the associated block descriptor. 
     Thus various embodiments of the invention offer a system and method for providing fast write access to flash-memory media while significantly reducing the number of data copy operations performed during the transfer of data to the flash-memory media. New data may be written directly to the flash-memory media without first being cached, and a sequence of re-write operations may target non-contiguous sectors of any given block or blocks. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The foregoing, as well as other objects, features, and advantages of this invention may be more completely understood by reference to the following detailed description when read together with the accompanying drawings in which: 
         FIG. 1  illustrates the organization of several common flash-memory devices, according to prior art; 
         FIG. 2  shows the block diagram of a flash-memory controller according to one set of embodiments of the present invention; 
         FIG. 3  illustrates a table of block descriptors according to one embodiment of the present invention; 
         FIG. 4  illustrates a sector descriptor for a partially written physical block, according to one embodiment of the present invention; 
         FIGS. 5(A-E)  illustrate a sequence of events that occur during a series of consecutive re-write operations, according to one embodiment of the present invention; 
         FIGS. 6(A-C)  illustrate how split-blocks are condensed following a successful re-write operation, according to one embodiment of the present invention; 
         FIG. 7  illustrates how a small file is written, according to one embodiment; 
         FIGS. 8(A-B)  illustrate how a split-block is updated when writing a small file, according to one embodiment of the present invention; and 
         FIG. 9  illustrates how resources are reclaimed in one embodiment of the present invention. 
     
    
    
     While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and will herein be described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the drawings and detailed description thereto are not intended to limit the invention to the particular form disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. Note, the headings are for organizational purposes only and are not meant to be used to limit or interpret the description or claims. Furthermore, note that the word “may” is used throughout this application in a permissive sense (i.e., having the potential to, being able to), not a mandatory sense (i.e., must).” The term “include”, and derivations thereof, mean “including, but not limited to”. The term “coupled” means “directly or indirectly connected”. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     As referenced herein, the terms “flash-memory” and “flash-media” are used interchangeably to mean a special type of electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) that can be erased and reprogrammed in minimum erasable-units, referred to herein as ‘blocks’, instead of one byte at a time. In addition, each block may be organized into subunits called ‘sectors’, where a sector may represent a minimum data size for data stored on a given flash-memory device. While preferred embodiments are described in detail for flash-memory devices organized into blocks and sectors, alternate embodiments featuring other types of non-volatile memory devices organized into minimum erasable-units and subunits are possible and are contemplated. Therefore, it should be understood that “block”, specifically, is used interchangeably with what is referred to generally as “erasable unit” or “EU” for short. As also used herein, “writing a sector” or “writing a subunit” means writing data to the sector or subunit, and a given sector or subunit is “used” when data has been written to it. Similarly, “erasing a sector” or “erasing a subunit” means erasing data that had previously been written to the sector or subunit, and a given sector or subunit is “unused” when no data has been written to it. Furthermore, subunits or sectors are said to be ‘contiguous’ if they have successive physical sector numbers (or addresses). Such subunits or sectors may or may not be physically located next to each other on a given device. Similarly, subunits or sectors are said to be ‘non-contiguous’ if they do not have successive physical sector numbers (or addresses). The same terminology is applicable for erasable-units or blocks and for the entire non-volatile memory device. ‘Intervening copy operations’ refer to the copying of pre-existing data on a given non-volatile memory device from one physical location to another physical location within the non-volatile memory device, or from the non-volatile memory device to an external memory, then back to the non-volatile memory device. 
       FIG. 2  illustrates one embodiment of a flash media controller (FMC)  200  used to transfer data from an external system to a flash-memory device. In this embodiment, bus  214  is used for transmitting address information and target data to FMC  200  from a host system, where target data refers to data that is to be written to flash-memory devices  210 . FMC  200  may include a read-only memory (ROM)  204  configured to store control instructions for managing data transfer through flash media interface (FMI)  202  to/from flash-memory devices  210 . The control instructions may be executed by central processing unit (CPU core)  206 , which may be coupled to ROM  204 , FMI  202  and to an address and management block (ADM)  201  via bus  212 . ADM  201  may be configured to partially manage transmission of the target data from ADM  210  to FMI  202  via bus  216 . Control information may also be transmitted to FMI  202  via bus  212 . Data transfer to flash-memory devices  210  may take place according to the control instructions, which may be configured and/or written to reference and/or manage information for various data organization structures and indicators, thereby determining the operation of FMI  202 . 
     As previously mentioned, data organization structures may include blocks and sectors, where a block may be representative of a minimum erasable-unit within any given one of flash-memory devices  210 , and where a sector may be representative of a minimum data size for data stored within a given block. In one set of embodiments, the operation of FMI  202  may include tracking re-write operations on a per-sector basis, and writing new data directly to the flash-memory device. This may be accomplished through both block descriptors and sector descriptors used to track specified characteristics of all blocks within a given flash-memory device, and all sectors within a block. 
     Accordingly, FMC  200  may include a memory element SRAM  208 , which may be used to store a table of block descriptors. The block descriptors may contain information pertaining to physical and logical blocks associated with the given flash-memory device.  FIG. 3  shows the organization of one embodiment of a table  300  of block descriptors and a corresponding flash-media device  306  that contains physical blocks  305 . In one embodiment, table  300  contains one entry for each logical block, as shown in column  301 . Each logical block entry in column  301  may have a corresponding physical block number (or address), shown in column  302 . The physical block number (from column  302 ) may be used by FMC  200  to convert a given logical block address into a physical block address for a given corresponding flash-memory device. The physical block number may also be used to convert a given physical block address into a logical block address for the given corresponding flash-memory device. For example, in  FIG. 3 , logical block 2 (from column  301 ) corresponds to physical block 4 (from column  305 ), as indicated by physical block number ‘4’ in column  302 . 
     Table  300  may also include a flag, shown in column  303 , which may indicate whether a given logical block (from column  305 ) is bound to a physical block. For example, a ‘1’ in column  303  for logical block number ‘2’ (from column  301 ) may indicate that logical block number ‘2’ is bound to physical block number ‘4’ (from  305 ). A flag, shown in column  304 , may indicate whether a given logical block is partially re-written. For example, a ‘1’ in column  304  corresponding to logical block number ‘2’ may indicate that logical block number ‘2’ has been partially re-written. 
     Other embodiments may feature a table of descriptors that contains additional feature descriptors while omitting some of the descriptors previously described. One possible additional descriptor may be a flag indicating whether a given physical block contains damaged components (in which case the physical block is invalid and must not be used to store data). Another possible descriptor may be a flag indicating whether a given logical block is bound to more than one corresponding physical block. In such a case, the physical block number (or address) from column  302  may be considered the base address used for finding a split-block record. An additional flag may be used, similarly to the flag from column  303 , to indicate whether a given physical block is bound to a logical block, and another distinct flag may be used to indicate whether a given physical block is completely erased. 
     In one embodiment, each split-block—that is, a physical block that is partially re-written; an occurrence when data is divided across two or more physical blocks—has a corresponding split-block record, otherwise referred to as a sector descriptor. Each split-block record may contain a ‘next physical block’ field, which represents a pointer to the next record in the split-block list. In this case, a next record may be indicating a preceding partially re-written physical block that is associated with the same logical block. A NULL value in the ‘next’ field of a given record may indicate that the record is the last one in the list. Each split-block record may also include a ‘physical address’ field containing the physical address of the corresponding block. For the first entry in the list, the value in the ‘physical address’ field may match the corresponding physical block number (or address), shown in column  302  of table  300 . Additional fields may include a ‘dirty sector’ and a ‘live sector’ field, indicating the number of sectors in the block that contain data (including both “live” and “stale” sectors), and the number of sectors in the block that contain current data (that is, sectors that have not been replaced by a new block), respectively. 
     In one embodiment, each split-block record also includes a dirty-sector bitmap indicative of whether a given sector in the physical block contains data. The bitmap may contain a bit corresponding to each sector in the physical block. A clear-bit may indicate that a corresponding sector is unused, while a set-bit may indicate that the corresponding sector contains data. In one set of embodiments, an unused sector may actually contain all ‘1’s, while a sector considered ‘used’ may contain data other than all ‘1’s. The data may be stale—no longer current—due to a subsequent re-write operation, or it may be live. 
       FIG. 4  illustrates one embodiment of a sector descriptor for a partially written physical block. In this embodiment, sector descriptor  400  has a next physical block number  401  for a preceding partially re-written physical block associated with the same logical block, which in this example is ‘12’. Sector descriptor  400  also includes a dirty-sector bitmap, which contains a flag  403  corresponding to each sector in the physical block  402 . In one embodiment, if the flag is clear (set to 0) then it indicates that the sector is unused, and if the bit is set (set to 1) then it indicates that the corresponding sector contains data. 
     In one embodiment, physical sector metadata is stored in a redundant area of the flash-memory device, the metadata being associated with each sector comprised in a physical block. The metadata may include a logical block address, a block version identifying the most recent version of each sector, and a flag indicating whether a sector has been erased. The physical sector metadata may be used in conjunction with the block descriptors and the split-block records (or sector descriptors) to track sector and block characteristics for each logical block. It should be noted that when the respective block descriptor flag indicates that a physical block has been erased—as described above—there is no need to further check the metadata to determine whether any sectors have been written. 
     In one set of embodiments, when an external system requests a re-write operation to any one of flash-memory devices  210 , FMC  200  may operate as follows. A candidate physical block with the following attributes may be located: 
     1.) The physical block is already associated with the given logical block. 
     2.) The physical block is partially re-written. 
     3.) The sectors associated with the re-write operation are unused. 
     If a candidate physical block is not available, then an unbound physical block may be bound to the logical block and may become a new candidate physical block. A sector descriptor may be associated with the candidate physical block, and the next physical block number may be set to the most recent preceding physical block associated with the same logical block. The re-write operation may be processed using the candidate physical block. Finally, the dirty-sector map may be updated to indicate that the sectors associated with the re-write operation contain data. 
     FMC  200  may reclaim resources at will. In one embodiment, resources associated with a partially re-written block are reclaimed as follows. FMC  200  may select a candidate physical block for reclamation. FMC  200  may then select a subsequent partially re-written physical block associated with the same logical block, and may proceed to copy all dormant sectors from the candidate block to the subsequent block, where a dormant sector may be defined as meeting the following criteria: 
     a.) The sector is marked as dirty in the candidate physical block. 
     b.) The sector is marked as unused in the subsequent physical block. 
     Subsequently, FMC  200  may update the dirty-sector map associated with the subsequent block to reflect the sectors copied in the prior step, and may reclaim the sector descriptor associated with the candidate physical block. Finally, FMC  200  may mark the candidate physical block as unbound in the associated block descriptor. 
     In another embodiment, the dirty-sector bitmap is replaced with a dirty-sector list. In this embodiment, each element in the list may describe a range of sectors that contain data. The range may contain the number of a first sector that contains data, and the count of contiguous sectors that contain data. In yet another embodiment, the flag used in the block descriptor to indicate if a block is partially re-written is eliminated, and FMC  200  may determine that the block is re-written based on the existence of a sector descriptor. In yet another embodiment, the sector descriptor is written to the redundant area associated with each page or sector of the flash-memory device, allowing FMC  200  to recover the sector descriptor later. This may enable FMC  200  to recover data consistency after system shutdown and restart, or to reclaim resources without merging partially re-written blocks. In yet another embodiment, where the external system issues a sequence of re-write operations targeting dispersed (scattered) sectors that reside in distinct blocks on the flash-memory device, FMC  200  maintains a plurality of sector descriptor lists associated with each partially re-written logical block. 
     Large files or large sets of small files may typically be written to sequential sectors across the flash-memory device. Splitting the blocks during the transfer operation (that is, during the re-write operations) may eliminate redundant data copies. For example, in case a file larger than the size of a block is to be written, the write operation may be split into multiple writes, each write transferring data of a specified size that is smaller than the size of a block, and preferably larger than the size of a sector.  FIGS. 5A through 5E  show the sequence of events that occur during a series of consecutive re-write operations according to one embodiment, in which FMC  200  executes the re-write operations across block boundaries. In the diagrams of  FIGS. 5A-E ,  FIG. 6A-C ,  FIG. 7 ,  FIGS. 8A-B , and  FIGS. 9A-D , the abbreviation ‘US’ refers to unused sectors, meaning that the sectors do not contain useful data, ‘PD’ refers to sectors containing previously written data, ‘ND’ refers to new data from a host, and ‘SD’ refers to sectors containing stale data, where stale data refers to data targeted to be updated by the (illustrated) re-write operation. 
       FIG. 5A  shows the start of the operation, beginning with a set of three previously written blocks  504 ,  506 , and  508 . In other words, blocks  504 ,  506 , and  508  contain previously written data. The external system (for example, a personal computer acting as a host) may issue a re-write command, targeting an address that may currently correspond to tail section  505  of physical block  504 . As shown in  FIG. 5A , data to be written to the flash-memory device is represented by new-data  502 . As noted, physical block  504  contains the first part of the data to be updated, shown as tail portion  505 , which can be overwritten with a head portion of new data  502 . The physical blocks containing the contiguous sectors of the rest of the existing data are represented by blocks  506  and  508 . Previously written blocks  504 ,  506 , and  508  currently represent the physical blocks referenced by address/addresses targeted by the host. FMC  200  may begin the re-write operation by acquiring an unused physical block  510 , which is a physical block that contains no data, and generate a ‘split-block’. Alternately, FMC  200  may allocate a new block that contains all stale data, erase the new block since all data contained therein is stale, designate the new block as the unused physical block, and generate a ‘split-block’. 
     In generating the ‘split-block’, FMC  200  may write the head portion of new data  502  to the tail section  510  of newly allocated physical block  509 . Thus, tail section  510  may now correspond to stale data section  505  of physical block  504 . In other words, whereas the address targeted by the host prior to the start of the write operation referenced tail section  505  of physical block  504 , that target address may now reference tail section  510  of physical block  509 , as re-allocated by FMC  200 . This condition/reallocation may be recorded in the split-block record (stored in SRAM  208 , for example) by FMC  200 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 5B , FMC  200  may next allocate new physical block  520 , and continue writing a second portion of new data  502  to the head section  522   a  of physical block  520 . Similarly to the previous ‘split-block’, the address (targeted by the host) that originally referenced head section  512   a  of physical block  506  may now reference head section  522   a  of physical block  520 , as also re-allocated by FMC  200 . Thus, data in head section  512   a  of physical block  506  may also be designated as stale by FMC  200 . 
       FIG. 5C  illustrates a third portion of new data  502  being written to a center section of physical block  520 , shown as section  522   b  that also comprises previously written head section  522   a . Again, the address (targeted by the host) that originally referenced section  512   b  (also comprising previously written head section  512   a ) of physical block  506  may now reference section  522   b  of physical block  520 , as also re-allocated by FMC  200 . 
       FIG. 5D  illustrates a fourth portion of new data  502  being written to the tail section of physical block  520 , shown as section  522   c  that also comprises previously written section  522   b . Again, the address (targeted by the host) that originally referenced section  512   c  (also comprising previously written section  512   b ) of physical block  506  may now reference section  522   c  of physical block  520 , as also re-allocated by FMC  200 . 
     Finally,  FIG. 5E  illustrates the tail portion of new data  502  being written to the head section  528  of newly allocated physical block  526 . As previously, the address (targeted by the host) that originally referenced head section  524  of physical block  508  may now reference head section  528  of physical block  526 , as also re-allocated by FMC  200 . Note also that at this point physical block  506  may be designated as containing all stale data, and may thus be erased and marked as an available physical block for subsequent re-write operations. 
     In one set of embodiments, FMC  200  may condense split-blocks following a successful re-write operation, as illustrated in  FIGS. 6A through 6C .  FIG. 6A  shows the status of the split-blocks as they appear at the end of a re-write operation, for example the end status of a re-write operation as illustrated in  FIG. 5E . As shown in  FIG. 6B , FMC  200  may write the previously written data sectors of physical blocks  604  and  604  to the unused sectors of physical blocks  610  and  614 , respectively. FMC  200  may now designate physical blocks  602  and  604  as being available as candidate blocks for future re-write operations, ending up with physical blocks  610 ,  612 , and  614  holding the previously written data and the new data, as shown in  FIG. 6C . 
       FIG. 7  illustrates how a small file (a file of smaller size than a block) may be written, according to one embodiment. FMC  200  may designate new candidate physical block  704  and write the new data to section  708  as shown. The address (targeted by the host) that originally referenced section  706  of physical block  702  may now reference section  708  of physical block  704 , as re-allocated by FMC  200 . Data in section  706  may be designated as stale by FMC  200 . 
       FIGS. 8A-B  illustrate how a split-block may be updated when writing a small file, according to one embodiment. As shown in  FIG. 8A , upon the host requesting a re-write operation, FMC  200  may access physical block  804 , which already contains a section  808  of previously written data. Again, the address originally targeted by the host may have been referencing section  806  of physical block  802 , but may now be referencing section  808  of physical block  804 , as previously re-allocated by FMC  200  (for example in a write operation as shown in  FIG. 7 ). FMC  200  may write new data  810  to physical block  804 , as shown in  FIG. 8B . 
       FIGS. 9A-D  illustrate how resources are reclaimed in one embodiment. In this embodiment, there may be multiple physical blocks associated with the same logical block.  FIG. 9A  shows a split-block comprising physical blocks  604  and  610 , where previously written data in section  612  may represent data that has overwritten the now stale data shown in section  606 . As shown, FMC  200  may allocate a new block  614  to service a new re-write operation that may be initiated by the host to write new data  602 . New data  602  may be written to section  616  of newly allocated physical block  614 , as illustrated in  FIG. 9B . In this example, the new re-write operation results in a portion of new data  602  overwriting a portion of the previously written data shown in section  612 . Therefore, as shown in  FIG. 9C , data from physical blocks  610  and  614  may be merged together in physical block  614 , where the non-updated portion of the previously written data in section  612  may be copied to the corresponding sectors  618  in physical block  614 . Physical block  610  may then be erased and made available as a potential candidate block for future re-write operations. As shown in  FIG. 9D , the result may be a single split-block comprising physical blocks  604  and  614 . 
     In summary, referring to  FIGS. 9A-D , FMC  200  may reclaim resources by copying data from a predecessor block (in this example sectors  612  of physical block  610 ) to a subsequent block (physical block  614 ). The predecessor block (physical block  610 ) may then be reclaimed. Note that reclaiming resources at this point may not necessarily be required. It may be preferable to defer the reclamation in case the external system issues a re-write of the data that would otherwise have been merged (the portion of the data in sectors  612  that was copied to sectors  618 ). 
     Although the embodiments above have been described in considerable detail, other versions are possible. Numerous variations and modifications will become apparent to those skilled in the art once the above disclosure is fully appreciated. It is intended that the following claims be interpreted to embrace all such variations and modifications. Note the section headings used herein are for organizational purposes only and are not meant to limit the description provided herein or the claims attached hereto.