Abstract:
The present invention relates to devices which operate on gradient optical forces, in particular, nanoscale mechanical devices which are actuable by gradient optical forces. Such a device comprises a waveguide and a dielectric body, with at least a portion of the waveguide separated from the dielectric body at a distance which permits evanescent coupling of an optical mode within the waveguide to the dielectric body. This results in an optical force which acts on the waveguide and which can be exploited in a variety of devices on a nano scale, including all-optical switches, photonic transistors, tuneable couplers, optical attenuators and tuneable phase shifters. The waveguide can also comprise a gap such that two cantilever bridges are formed.

Description:
[0001]    This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 61/043,607 and 61/117,792, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. 
     
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    The present invention relates to devices which operate on gradient optical forces, and to methods of manufacturing such devices; in particular, nanoscale mechanical devices which are actuable by gradient optical forces. 
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0003]    The optical force is one of the most fundamental properties carried by light. This force is generally considered too small for macroscopic practical use. Yet in the microscopic world, optical tweezers have been widely used to manipulate atoms and micron-sized dielectric particles in free space. 
         [0004]    One natural step forward would be exploiting this principle as a driving force in solid state devices such as electromechanical systems. Indeed, recent experiments have elucidated the radiation force of light in high finesse optical microcavities (see references 1 to 3). However, the large footprints involved in these optical microcavities fundamentally limit the scaling of devices down to nanoscale dimensions where exciting quantum phenomena such as macroscopic quantum coherence, generation of squeezed states and optical entanglement start to manifest. 
         [0005]    Harnessing optical forces on chip would bring transformational advances in electromechanical systems by offering efficient and ultrahigh bandwidth optical coupling to the sub-micron scale devices. This new transduction is fundamentally distinctive from conventional charge based schemes predominately employed in today&#39;s solid state devices. The forces of light stem from two major mechanisms, namely radiation pressure and transverse gradient force. 
         [0006]    Radiation pressure induced forces have been extensively studied in the high finesse optical cavities, where light field is confined inside the cavity and the moment of light is transferred to the mirror forming the cavity and applies a perpendicular force to the mirror. Analogously, radiation pressure is also detected in the high finesse microspheres or disk resonators 6 . The transverse gradient force, on the other hand, results from the lateral gradient of propagating light field and therefore applies a transverse force to a dielectric body. Recently it was theoretically predicted that this seemingly small force could be significant in photonic structures due to enhanced light density in submicron scale photonic waveguides (see reference 4). 
         [0007]    Recent theories predicted that the optical force can be enhanced in a photonic waveguide without the aid of a cavity and can be directly used for electromechanical actuation; however, on-chip detection of the force has been a significant challenge, primarily owing to the lack of efficient nanoscale mechanical transducers in the photonics domain. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0008]    According to a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided an optomechanical device comprising a waveguide and a dielectric body, wherein at least a portion of the waveguide is separated from the dielectric body at a distance which permits evanescent coupling of the optical mode to the dielectric body whereby a transverse gradient force induced by the optical mode causes a displacement of the waveguide. 
         [0009]    The evanescent coupling of the optical mode to the dielectric body results in an optical force due to the transverse gradient force induced by the optical mode. This force is found to be substantial in driving nanomechanical devices. 
         [0010]    Preferably, the waveguide is single mode, or configured for single mode operation. 
         [0011]    Optionally, the waveguide comprises a gap defining a first and a second cantilever portion of the waveguide. 
         [0012]    Cantilevering the waveguide means that a greater range of displacement and hence a greater tuning or attenuation range can be achieved. 
         [0013]    Preferably, the device further comprises one or both of an input coupler to couple an optical mode into the waveguide and an output coupler to couple an optical mode out of the waveguide. 
         [0014]    Optionally, one or both of the input and output couplers comprise a photonic crystal adapted to support a single transverse mode. 
         [0015]    Optionally, the dielectric body comprises a substrate, a second waveguide or a side dielectric body such as a silicon side gate. 
         [0016]    Optionally, one of the first or second cantilever portions is substantially longer than the other of said first or second cantilever portions. 
         [0017]    Having one cantilever arm longer than the other means that one can remain relatively stationary and the other can benefit from an increased range of movement thus resulting in further improved tuning or attenuation ranges. 
         [0018]    Preferably, the input coupler and the output coupler mechanically support the waveguide. 
         [0019]    In this way, the couplers which are normally employed only to couple light into a waveguide may serve a dual purpose thus doing away with the need for additional components which might introduce additional optical losses or mechanical problems. 
         [0020]    According to a second aspect of the present invention, there is provided a system for high resolution detection of displacement and/or optical forces, the system comprising a device according to the first aspect, and a first and second laser coupled to the device and employed in a pump-probe configuration, wherein the first laser is amplitude modulated to produce a corresponding modulation of the optical force on the waveguide and the second laser provides a probe signal to allow interferometric detection of the effects on the waveguide produced by the modulation. 
         [0021]    According to a third aspect of the present invention, there is provided a photonic transistor comprising a gate waveguide which receives an optical signal, a device according to the first aspect, and an optical resonator positioned there between, wherein the optical resonator is coupled to the gate waveguide and to the device waveguide such that modulation of the optical signal produces a corresponding modulation of the optical force on the device waveguide. 
         [0022]    Preferably, the photonic transistor further comprises a first laser coupled to the device, whereby modulation of the optical signal within the gate waveguide produces a modulated output at the device output coupler. 
         [0023]    According to a fourth aspect of the present invention, there is provided a photonic switch comprising a device having a cantilevered waveguide according to the first aspect, a control bus, and an optical resonator positioned therebetween, wherein the optical resonator is coupled to the control bus and to the device waveguide such that the optical resonator displaces at least one of the first and second cantilever portions of the device waveguide responsive to an optical signal in the control bus. 
         [0024]    According to a fifth aspect of the present invention, there is provided a measurement device comprising a device having a cantilevered waveguide according to the first aspect, wherein a measurement signal is collected by coupling to the device substrate. 
         [0025]    Optionally, a measurement signal is obtained by measuring the reflection of the optical mode within the device waveguide at the gap. 
         [0026]    According to a sixth aspect of the present invention there is provided a tuneable coupler comprising a device according to the first aspect, the device comprising a second waveguide spaced from and substantially parallel to the first waveguide, said first waveguide and second waveguide optically side-coupled such that the optical force produced by the optical mode causes a relative movement of one waveguide relative to the other so as to modify the coupling intensity therebetween. 
         [0027]    According to a seventh aspect of the present invention there is provided a tuneable phase shifter comprising a device according to the first aspect, wherein an optical force is applied to deflect the device waveguide so as to produce a phase change affecting the optical mode. 
         [0028]    According to an eighth aspect of the present invention synchronised oscillator comprising a device according to the first aspect, the device comprising a second waveguide in series with the first device waveguide. 
         [0029]    Preferably, the device comprises three or more waveguides arranged in said series relationship by connecting the output of each device to the input subsequent device, the output of the last such waveguide resonator coupled to the input of the first such resonator. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         [0030]    The present invention will now be described by way of example only and with reference to the accompanying figures in which: 
           [0031]      FIG. 1  illustrates the substrate coupled waveguide gradient force.  1   a  is a three dimensional schematic illustration of a free-standing waveguide beam  1  supported by two multimode interference structures  2 , with an overlay of the optical mode plot.  1   b  illustrates the result of finite element simulation showing the E x  component of the optical fields in the waveguide  1  evanescently coupled to the dielectric substrate  3  at the separation gap g, with the black curve on the right showing the magnitude of E x  at the cross-section through the centre of the waveguide  1 . E x  is continuous at the bottom surface of the waveguide  1  and at the top surface of the substrate  3 .  1   c  and  1   d  show that the effective refractive index of the waveguide ( 1   c ) and the optical force on the waveguide ( 1   d ) strongly depend on the separation g. 
           [0032]      FIG. 2  illustrates, in schematic form, an experimental set-up and device system.  2   a  shows the measurement set-up.  2   b  is a scanning electron micrograph of a free-standing, 10 micron long NEMS beam  1 .  2   c  shows the finite-difference time-domain simulation of the mode conversion from the MMI coupler  2  into the NEMS beam.  2   d  shows the finite element simulation of the mechanical mode shape of the waveguide beam  1 , with the strain distribution displayed in shading. 
           [0033]      FIG. 3  illustrates the device characterisation and experimental demonstration of the waveguide gradient force.  3   a  shows the typical transmission spectrum of a device, showing the fringing caused by the Fabry-Perot etalon formed by the input and output couplers. The marker at the peak is the actuation wavelength and the marker two fringes to the right is the probe wavelength.  3   b  shows the resonance curves of a 10 micron long waveguide beam at varying modulation levels of the actuation light. When the vibration amplitude exceeds the critical amplitude, the response shows a strong softening nonlinearity. The critical amplitude of 2.5±0.1 nm, determined from the backbone curve, agrees well with a theoretical value of 2.2. Inset, the vibration amplitude versus modulated optical power on the device shows a linear response.  3   c  and  3   d  show the measured noise showing Lorentzian thermomechanical peaks of beams 10 and 13 microns long (respectively). In  3   e , the optical force is measured on devices with various beam lengths and substrate separation sizes. 
           [0034]      FIG. 4  illustrates the measurement of the thermal response of the device.  4   a  is an optical micrograph of the Mach-Zender interferometer (MZI) device  10 . The path length is 100 microns longer at the top arm  11  than the bottom arm  12 . In  3   b , the transmission spectrum of the Mach-Zender device shows the interference fringes expected, with good visibility even after release of the waveguide. The right marker indicates the actuation and the left marker the detection lasers. The inset shows an extinction ratio of ˜30 dB in the range presented.  4   c  is a wide frequency measurement of the effective index response of the MZI device with (upper trace) and without (lower trace) the released NEMS beam. The lower trace has a −log(f) dependence on frequency due to the thermo-optical nonlinear effect. The distinct response shown by the upper trace at low frequency is due to the slow thermal response of the suspended beam.  4   d  shows the dynamic temperature variation of the released NEMS beam versus frequency as well as of the unreleased waveguide.  4   e  shows the measured mechanical resonance response of the beam. The contribution from the optical force is three orders of magnitude higher than that from the thermal force. 
           [0035]      FIG. 5  illustrates the tuning of nanomechanical resonance by ( 5   a ) varying the static or “dc” component of the actuation light power and by ( 5   b ) raising the temperature of the substrate. If thermal effects dominated in the device, adding static optical power would have a similar effect on the mechanical properties as raising the temperature. The opposite is shown in  5   a  and  5   b  which rule out the possibility that it is in fact photothermal force and not the optical force that is actuating the device. 
           [0036]      FIG. 6  illustrates the ultrasensitive measurement of the thermomechanical motion of nanocantilevers.  6   a  demonstrates the measurement set-up,  6   b  shows the measured noise power spectral density of the optical detection signal showing the room-temperature thermomechanical resonance peaks of both cantilevers and  6   c  shows the corresponding displacement PSD of the second nanocantilever, showing a displacement measurement noise floor of 40 fm/Hz 1/2 . 
           [0037]      FIG. 7  illustrates optical actuation of the nanocantilevers.  7   a  shows the driven response of the waveguide nanocantilevers. The nanocantilevers are actuated by the gradient optical force generated by the amplitude modulated laser. The phase shows a clear 180° change at each resonance.  7   b  shows the resonance amplitude of the first cantilever at increasing actuation optical power, as marked in the inset. The optical force is determined to be 0.5±0.1 pN/μm/mW from the calibrated resonance amplitude and optical power. 
           [0038]      FIG. 8  shows in schematic form a first example of a practical device embodying one or more aspects of the invention which takes the form of a photonic transistor  20 . 
           [0039]      FIG. 9   a  shows in schematic form a photonic switch  30  embodying the invention, and  9   b  shows a practical application of the photonic switch being employed to cut off an optical sub-circuit which is known to be bad. 
           [0040]      FIG. 10  illustrates end-to-end cantilevered waveguide nanolevers  41 , 42  embodying one or more aspects of the invention. 
           [0041]      FIG. 11  illustrates a light force tuneable photonic coupler  50  embodying one or more aspects of the invention. 
           [0042]      FIG. 12  illustrates a tuneable phase shifter  60  which operates by optical force which embodies one or more aspects of the invention. 
           [0043]      FIG. 13  illustrates in schematic form a tuneable filter  70  which embodies a number of aspects of the invention, namely a cantilevered waveguide  71 , a tuneable coupler  72  and a tuneable phase shifter  73 . 
           [0044]      FIG. 14  illustrates a photonic bus synchronised oscillator  80  that embodies one or more aspects of the invention. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
       [0045]    The Applicant is the first to demonstrate the gradient optical force which beforehand had only been theoretically predicted. Furthermore, the Applicant has demonstrated the practical application of the gradient optical force in a silicon photonic circuit, and further established that this force can be substantial in driving micro- and nanomechanical devices. 
         [0046]    Detection of optical forces in an integrated silicon photonic circuit has been made possible through an embedded nanomechanical resonator. The displacement caused by the optical force is detected through evanescent coupling of the nanomechanical resonator to a dielectric substrate. The Applicant has made the surprising discovery that at modest optical power the optical force produced in this way on a photonic waveguide is significant, with a magnitude comparable to that of most commonly used actuation forces in electromechanical systems. 
         [0047]    The gradient optical force is distinct from radiation pressure which is the result of the transfer of momentum from photons to mechanical structures on which they impinge. The transverse gradient force however originates from the lateral gradient of a propagating light field. Gradient force is generated by asymmetrically engineering the confined lightwave mode in an optical waveguide. It only becomes significant when the cross section of the waveguide is comparable to the wavelength of the guided mode. Due to the strong confinement of light in a submicron waveguide, the optical force is significantly enhanced at smaller dimensions. 
         [0048]    Controlling and harnessing the gradient optical force as taught herein allows solid state devices to operate under new physical principles. Immediate applications include all-optical switching, reconfigurable photonics etc. The following examples illustrate a generic configuration to exhibit the optical force effect which forms the basis for various devices subsequently described, and nanoscale mechanical structures are introduced which, for example, may have masses on the order of picograms and which are significantly affected by tiny optical forces. 
         [0049]    The configuration is schematically shown in  FIG. 1 . Instead of two-coupled waveguides (as described in references 3 and 4), here only one free-standing single mode waveguide  1  is utilized. The force on the single waveguide  1  can be understood similarly to the coupled waveguide pair in which the eigen-energy of the system is dependent on the gap between the waveguide and the substrate. An alternative formalism to derive the force is to consider the asymmetric distribution of the Maxwell stress tensor along the cross-section of the waveguide with the proximity of the substrate. Then the force on the waveguide can be evaluated directly by integration of Maxwell stress tensor on the waveguide surface. The analytical and numerical calculation methods are similar to those disclosed in reference 3. 
         [0050]      FIG. 1   a  is a three-dimensional schematic illustration of a free-standing waveguide beam  1  supported by a multimode interference structure  2  at each end. The overlaid optical mode plot displays the in-plane electrical field distribution of TE mode E x , calculated by finite-element-method (FEM) simulation. The asymmetric guided mode in the free standing waveguide is weakly evanescently coupled with the substrate  3 , and it is the corresponding field gradient that produces a net optical force on the waveguide  1 . 
         [0051]    At a given optical input power, this force on the waveguide  1  strongly depends on the gap between waveguide  1  and substrate  3  as plotted in  FIG. 1   d . The results clearly show that the magnitude of the optical force is on the order of piconewton per micrometer, which is substantial for actuating nanomechanical devices. As the gap is varied, the effective refractive index n eff  of the waveguide system is rapidly modulated, as shown in  FIG. 1   c . Thus the transverse displacement of the waveguide  1  will induce a phase shift in the device which is measured by on-chip phase-sensitive interferometers. This phase shift can be expressed as: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
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         [0000]    where λ is wavelength and/is the length of the nanomechanical beam and δz is the beam displacement. The first term is dominant while the second term is negligible. Through the measuring the motion of the nanomechanical beam, the optical force can be quantified with high sensitivity. 
         [0052]    The force generation scheme discussed here is very universal, and many different device variations might be derived from the Applicant&#39;s generic device design. Such an integrated silicon photonic circuit is essentially CMOS compatible. 
         [0053]    To demonstrate this optical force, the Applicant exploits the high sensitivity offered by nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) integrated in a silicon photonic circuit fabricated with a CMOS compatible process. An example of such a circuit is shown in  FIG. 2 . The simplest form consists of a single mode strip waveguide  1  enclosed by two grating couplers  2  (FIG.  2   b ). To form the air bridge waveguide  1 , a portion of the waveguide  1  is released from the substrate  3  by chemically removing the silicon dioxide layer underneath. This released part of the waveguide  1  becomes an embedded NEMS beam in the photonic circuit. A scanning electron microscope picture of an exemplary suspended, 10 μm long, 500 nm wide beam is shown in  FIG. 2   b . The separation gap between the beam  1  and the substrate  3  can be varied during fabrication by controlling the etching time, and typically achieved in the range of 300-600 nm. 
         [0054]    The use of grating couplers  2  enables efficient coupling of light into and out of the planar waveguides with an out-of-plane optical fibre array. The Applicant has routinely achieved coupling efficiency of 14% (or −8.5 dB) during the fabrication process. 
         [0055]    To provide better mechanical clamping and obtain reproducible devices with varying lengths, two low-loss multimode interference (MMI) devices  2  are fabricated to define and support the suspended waveguide beam  1  as shown in  FIG. 2   c . The MMI design is optimized to provide low optical insertion loss meanwhile maintain high mechanical quality factor. The pair of MMI couplers  2  in the illustrated example introduces additional 6 dB optical loss. 
         [0056]    Nanomechanical devices are known to be superior force sensors (see reference 7). The force applied on the beam  1  induces the device&#39;s nanomechanical motion, which is further amplified if the force is modulated at the device&#39;s mechanical resonance frequency. In the described photonic circuit configuration, the suspended beam  1 , including the air gap, comprises a part of the waveguide. The phase of the propagating light is modulated by the transverse motion of the beam  1 , which changes the air gap size and thus alternates the effective index of the waveguide mode (as illustrated by  FIG. 1   c ). Using an on-chip interferometer, such as a Fabry-Perot or Mach-Zehnder interferometer, this phase change can be read out as transmission amplitude variation through the device. 
         [0057]    In the measurement setup illustrated in  FIG. 2   a , two wavelength tuneable laser sources  5 , 6  are used in a pump-probe scheme; one of which (6) is amplitude modulated to generate a dynamic (i.e. time-varying) optical force on the beam  1  and the other (5) acts as the probe for the displacement readout. The TE mode is selected by the polarization controller  7  and launched into the device through one single-mode polarization-maintaining (PM) fibre aligned with the input coupler. 
         [0058]    Another fibre aligned with the output coupler collects the transmitted signal. The overall transmission of system is near 4×10 −3  (or −24 dB) with most loss at the grating couplers (−10±1 dB each) and the two MMI couplers  2  (−4 dB total). In  FIG. 3   a , the transmission spectrum of a typical device is shown. The grating coupler shows a bandwidth of nearly 20 nm. The transmission oscillates with the wavelength at a periodicity of ˜1.9 nm, corresponding to the free spectral range (FSR) of the Fabry-Perot interferometer formed between the two grating couplers. The fringes allow interferometric detection of the motion of the device, with the wavelength of the actuation laser is set at the maximum slope of the transmission. The probe laser wavelength is offset by 5-10 nm from the actuation wavelength to allow sufficient filtering of actuation light before the photodetector. 
         [0059]    The sensitivity of the system is first calibrated, by measuring the device&#39;s thermomechanical motion. The displacement noise power spectral density (PSD) of the beam at its resonance can be expressed as 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 S 
                 z 
                 
                   1 
                   / 
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               = 
               
                 
                   4 
                    
                   
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                     b 
                   
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                     / 
                     
                       ( 
                       
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             , 
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    where k b  is Boltzmann&#39;s constant, T is the absolute temperature, Q is the mechanical quality factor, ω 0  is the angular resonance frequency and m is the effective mass. For a 10 μm long beam with a resonance frequency of 8.87 MHz and quality factor of 1,850 in vacuum, S z   1/2  is calculated to be 3.8×10 −13  m·Hz −1/2 . This thermomechanical motion induces phase noise in the interferometer and thus the transmitted intensity of the probe light.  FIG. 3   c  shows the measured output noise spectrum at the photodetector with 12.5 mW probe light power. Using calculated displacement noise value, the noise floor of the spectrum corresponds to displacement noise PSD of 7.2×10 −14  m·Hz −1/2 . The total 5 pW·Hz −1/2  optical power noise floor is comprised of detector noise (2.5 pW·Hz −1/2 ) and the noise from the diode laser and laser amplifier (noise figure ˜5 dB). 
         [0060]    To measure the dynamic response of the device, a network analyzer  8  is used to modulate the actuation laser&#39;s amplitude and measure the frequency dependence of the transmitted probe signal. In  FIG. 3   b , the optically driven mechanical response of the devices at varying pump light modulation amplitude is shown. The measured mechanical resonance of the waveguide beam shows a quality factor of ˜2000. The actual optical power on the waveguide beam can be derived from the transmitted power, taking account of the intra-cavity enhancement factor of the Fabry-Perot interferometer (see reference 8). The corresponding driving force on the beam can be calculated from the beam&#39;s vibration amplitude. In this way, the optical force magnitude can be determined at any given optical power. For the beam with a separation of 360 nm from the substrate, the optical force is evaluated to be 0.45 pN/μm/mW. This value agrees well with the theoretical results presented in  FIG. 1   d  and in the literature. 
         [0061]    When excited to high vibration amplitude, the waveguide beam  1  behaves nonlinearly, displaying an uncommon frequency-softening effect due to the residual compressive stress in the silicon film. The critical amplitude of the nonlinearity is given by 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               α 
               c 
             
             = 
             
               
                 
                   
                     ω 
                     0 
                   
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                     ( 
                     
                       L 
                       / 
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                 2 
               
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         [0000]    theoretically and can be determined by fitting the backbone curve which connects the maxima of the resonance response curves. From the data shown in  FIG. 3   b , the critical amplitude is measured to be 2.5 nm, fairly close to the theoretically determined value of 2.14 nm. This provides yet another calibration of the optical force measurement. 
         [0062]    As illustrated in  FIG. 1   d , the optical force is a function of the separation gap g between the waveguide beam  1  and the substrate  3 . To further elucidate the mechanism of the optical force, the Applicant has measured several devices with varying gap sizes as well as the beam lengths; the result of which is shown in  FIG. 3   e . The measured optical force shows clear dependence on the gap size, indicating good agreement with the theoretical model. It is also found the optical force is not dependent on the length of the beam. This rules out the photothermal effect as the mechanism of the observed optical force which should be independent of g but increases with beam length due to thermal heating and expansion from optical absorption. 
         [0063]    The optical force can also be quantified by static force measurement. A static “dc” optical power on the beam will also exert a static force on it. This static optical force is observed experimentally by measuring the resonance frequency shift of the beam due to increased probe light power. During such measurement, the actuation light power and modulation amplitude are kept constant, and the probe light power is tuned. It is clear from the exemplary data presented in  FIG. 5   a  that the resonance frequency shifts upwards with increasing optical power. Again, this rules out the photothermal effect as the cause for the resonance frequency is observed to have a negative temperature coefficient in a careful temperature controlled experiment, as illustrated in  FIG. 5   b . The positive frequency shift can be explained by the increased tension in the beam by the increasing static optical force as more optical power is added. The measurement results show the resonance frequency is tuned by optical power at 7.5 kHz/mW. This frequency shift is intensified by the curvature of the beam due to the buckling caused by the residual stress from the fabrication. A simple finite element modelling produces very accurate estimation of this frequency tuning effect. The fitting to the frequency shift yields a static optical force of 0.5 pN/μm/mW, in good agreement with dynamic force measurement. 
         [0064]    The magnitude of this transverse optical force on the waveguide is comparable with other types of charge-based actuation forces commonly employed in nanomechanical devices, such as capacitive, piezoelectric and magnetic forces. Further, at nanoscale, electromechanical motion signals are exceedingly small. These tiny signals are generally dominated by parasitic signals on the chip, mostly from direct coupling from the electrical actuation signal. In the photonic waveguide, there is minimum cross-talk between photons in the actuation channel and the sensing channels. The all-optical scheme presented herein not only provides efficient actuation, but also significantly improves the signal quality of a nanomechanical resonator. 
         [0065]    Even more significantly, the force generated in optical frequency domain promises an enormous operation bandwidth. This bandwidth is fundamentally limited by the carrier light frequency (2×10 14  Hz). Practically this is limited by the bandwidth of the input-output couplers (2.5 THz) implying  3  orders of magnitude improvement over what has been obtained with known electronic actuators. This extremely wide bandwidth (&lt;ps response time), in combination with the high transduction gain, low readout noise will allow a broad range of exciting experiments and devices based upon ultrafast detection and sub-picosecond stroboscopic measurement. 
         [0066]    Beyond, arrays of spatially separated nanomechanical resonators can be fabricated along a photonic “bus” for efficient synchronization and high speed optical intercommunications. In this way, one can achieve long-range coherent signal processing without locally addressing individual devices. This eventually will lead to large scale integration of nanomechanical structures and enable new device functions in both mechanical and optical domains. 
         [0067]    The strong coupling of light and mechanical oscillation will produce a host of interesting new phenomena that finds practical use as described further herein and in a host of other envisaged applications, such as mechanical Kerr effect, optomechanical parametric amplifications, all-optically controlled tuneable filters, couplers, (de)modulators, mixers etc. On the fundamental fronts, recently we have evidenced huge stride in advancing micro and nanomechanical systems to approaching quantum regimes. 
         [0068]    The techniques presented herein seamlessly integrate nanomechanical devices that are size-matched to photonic waveguides meanwhile offers highest engineering flexibility. The elucidated optical force allows efficient coupling between optical field and mechanical vibration at the smallest obtainable mechanical and optical volumes, simultaneously providing high bandwidth and the sensitivity that is required for coherent control of nanomechanical structures. It is foreseeable that ultra-high frequency, active cooled or self cooled, practical quantum devices could become a realistic prospect through exploitation of the transverse optical forces as presented herein. 
         [0069]    The devices disclosed herein were fabricated on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer. The silicon layer is thinned down by thermal oxidation and subsequent wet etch. The devices (waveguides and couplers) were then patterned by electron beam lithography and a plasma dry etching process. The cantilevers are then released from the substrate using a photo-lithography patterned mask and buffered oxide etching (BOE). 
         [0070]    In addition to achieving all-photonic transduction of the nanomechanical beam, it is possible to detect the displacement of the beam without having to employ interferometric techniques. 
         [0071]    An exemplary cantilevered waveguide  40  is illustrated in  FIG. 10 . The waveguide is similar to the waveguide described above, however during fabrication a gap  43  is created such that the suspended waveguide is cantilevered. 
         [0072]    Movement of the cantilever modulates the total transmission of the circuit and as such the displacement is measured in the transmitted optical signal. The Applicant has demonstrated displacement sensitivity of 40 fm/Hz 1/2  at room temperature, which is comparable with state-of-the-art milli-kelvin detection techniques of similar nanomechanical devices. 
         [0073]    In the illustrated waveguide the cantilevers  41 , 42  are 3 μm long with a lateral gap  43  between them of 200 nm. The estimated optical loss caused by this relatively small (compared to the optical wavelength) is ˜3 dB.  FIG. 10   c  presents the simulated transmission from one cantilever to the other as a function of the vertical offset of the left cantilever. The asymmetry in the transmission profile is due to the additional coupling of the optical fields in the waveguide to the substrate. 
         [0074]    An exemplary measurement setup is illustrated in  FIG. 6   a . An array of fibres is aligned to the grating couplers to provide convenient input and output of optical signals. Light from two tuneable diode lasers  5 , 6  at different wavelengths is coupled into the device which is mounted in a vacuum chamber with a base pressure of 1×10 −5  Torr. The first laser  6  is amplitude modulated to apply an optical actuation force to the device. The second detection laser  5  is used in CW mode and its transmission through the circuit is measured with a photodetector. A narrow band etalon filter  9  removes the light at the actuation wavelength before reaching the photodetector in order to optimize the measurement dynamic range. The frequency response and noise spectrum of the photodetector signal is then measured with a network/spectrum analyzer  8 . 
         [0075]    The sensitivity of the system is first assessed by measuring the thermomechanical motion of the devices when the actuation laser is turned off. In  FIG. 6   b , the noise power spectrum density (PSD) of the transmitted detection laser signal in a wide frequency range is displayed. The applied optical power at the input coupler is 50 mW; the calibrated power on the first cantilever is −7.5 mW; after propagating through the circuit 200 pW power is received at the photodetector. 
         [0076]    The spectrum shows two prominent peaks at 13.07 and 13.36 MHz, corresponding to the out-of-plane fundamental mechanical resonances of the two cantilevers. The difference of their resonance frequency is due to the slight misalignment of the etching window during the wet etching, causing a different undercut at the clamping point. The two resonances show nearly identical quality factors of −4500 in vacuum. The spectral density of thermomechanical displacement noise at the resonance frequency is 
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         [0000]    where k B  is the Boltzmann constant, T 0  is the absolute temperature (300K), Q is the mechanical quality factor, ω 0  is the angular resonance frequency and m the modal mass of the cantilever. The two thermomechanical resonances have different values due to their different resonant frequencies. 
         [0077]    By comparing the expected displacement noise with the measured noise spectrum, we can determine the displacement sensitivity R 0 =δT/δz of the system, which is found to be 1.6 μm −1 , close to the numerical prediction at ˜25 nm offset ( FIG. 8   d ). In  FIG. 6   d , the noise floor of the measured noise spectrum is 16 pW/Hz&#39; 1/2 , translates to 40 fm/Hz 1/2  displacement resolution at 7.5 mW optical power on the left cantilever. The noise level is constituted by the 13 pW/Hz 1/2  noise equivalent power (NEP) of the photodetector and the 9 pW/Hz 1/2  shot-noise of the 200 μW optical signal. The achieved displacement sensitivity is remarkable considering the simple room temperature measurement configuration. By improving the grating couplers and using a higher power laser source, the detection sensitivity can reach the shot-noise limit and be further improved as P −1/2 . 
         [0078]    When the actuation laser  6  is turned on and its amplitude is modulated, an oscillating gradient optical force is applied to the waveguide cantilevers  41 , 42 . Photothermal excitation can be neglected because it is found to be three orders of magnitude weaker than the gradient optical force. The temperature rise from photothermal absorption is estimated to be on millikelvin level, due to the low absorption coefficient at telecomm wavelength and the high thermal conductivity of silicon. The driven response of the devices in amplitude and phase is shown in  FIG. 7 . The two cantilevers  41 , 42  show different resonant amplitudes. This is expected because the actuation optical powers on the two cantilevers are different due to the loss (˜3 dB) occurring at the gap between them. Thus we can attribute the resonance peak at 13.07 MHz to the cantilever on the left, whose amplitude is around twice that of the one at 13.87 MHz since the light is launched into the devices from the left coupler. 
         [0079]    Using the calibrated responsivity R 0  of the system, the vibration amplitude can be determined from the measured signal. At the resonance frequency, the driving force F is related to the vibration amplitude a(ω 0 ) of the cantilever by F=k a(ω 0 )/Q. In  FIG. 7   b , the resonant response of the first cantilever is measured in dependence of laser modulation amplitude, showing a linear relationship. The optical force can then be derived as ˜0.5±0.1 pN/mW/μm, in close agreement with the measured value in similar state-of-the-art photonic circuits. The measurement error is mostly due to the uncertainty in determining of the actual optical power on the device. 
         [0080]    The gradient optical force originates from the asymmetric optical field gradient in the waveguide due to coupling with the substrate. Therefore, this force, as well as the optical detection method described above, is intrinsically wideband. Thus, this complete optical transduction scheme can potentially gain unprecedented operation bandwidth. The amplitude modulation detection that is applied here is essentially a non-interferometric method. It is distinct from interferometric methods in which the mechanical motion induced optical phases shift is measured. Thus the measurement does not require a coherent light source and is immune to the phase noise of the laser. For practical sensing applications, the non-interferometric detection method is especially attractive because integrated low-cost light sources can be used. With future development of other integrated photonic components, including light sources, modulators and detectors, an entire coupled nanomechanical-nanophotonic system can be realized on a single chip. Such a compact, robust system with high sensitivity will find a wide range of applications, such as chemical and biological sensing and optical signal processing. 
         [0081]    The Applicants have been able to create a number of devices that make use of the present invention, some of which are now described to illustrate the practical application of the above techniques. 
         [0082]      FIG. 8  illustrates in schematic form a first practical embodiment of the present invention, taking the form of what might be termed a photonic transistor  20 . The photonic transistor comprises a gate waveguide  21  which serves as a signal input for a control signal. A high Q optical resonator  22  is coupled to the gate waveguide  21  so as to enhance the input optical signal; for the purposes of this example the resonator  22  is a microdisk resonator but may be a of a ring or racetrack type. 
         [0083]    A second waveguide  23  (shown schematically) is coupled to the optical resonator and, in accordance with the invention, is suspended (i.e. spaced from the substrate) so as to form a nanomechanical resonator. The interaction between the optical resonator  22 , which acts as a force amplifier, and the suspended waveguide  23  (nanomechanical resonator) means that a CW optical signal propagating within the waveguide  23  can be modulated by an optical signal within the gate waveguide  21 . This is analogous to an electronic transistor whereby the current at the base determines whether charge may flow between the emitter and collector. 
         [0084]    In the photonic transistor, a high optical Q and a high mechanical Q can result in the input signal in the gate waveguide  21  being amplified, much in the same way that an electronic transistor is employed in a common emitter amplifier. In this way, a small input modulation can result in, effectively, an amplification of this modulation within the suspended waveguide  23 . 
         [0085]      FIG. 9  illustrates in schematic form a second practical embodiment of the present invention, taking the form of what might be termed a photonic switch  30 . In this embodiment, two cantilevered waveguides  31 , 32  are embedded in a photonic circuit. As described above, the buckling of one cantilever by an applied optical force modifies the transmission of that waveguide. 
         [0086]    The photonic switch can be used in the opposite sense to prevent an optical signal being relayed to a part of the optical circuit that is bad by cutting off that part of the circuit. 
         [0087]      FIG. 9   b  illustrates such a practical example. A signal bus  35  within an optical circuit has a number of branches, one of which is connected to a sub-circuit  36  which is known to be bad. This branch has a cantilevered waveguide  32  in accordance with the present invention and is operatively controlled by a control bus  31  by way of a disk resonator  33  to which both are optically coupled. A signal sent to the control bus  31  causes a displacement of one of the cantilevered portions of the waveguide  32 , thus “cutting off” the bad sub-circuit  36 . 
         [0088]    In addition, because the cantilevered waveguide permits variable attenuation of an optical signal, the photonic switch  30  can also be used to control the amount of optical power within an optical signal that is passed on to various sub-circuits forming part of a larger photonic circuit. In  FIG. 9   b  above, it is clear that a control signal of less power would cause a smaller displacement of the cantilevered portion of the waveguide  32  and attenuate, rather than cut off, the optical signal. 
         [0089]    Note that in such embodiments, it is advantageous that one of the cantilevered portions of the waveguide is substantially elongate compared to the relatively shorter other cantilevered portion. Having such a longer cantilevered portion means that a greater range of displacement can be achieved; the other cantilevered portion being shorter means that it is comparatively stationary while the other is free to move. However, having two cantilevered portions of more or less equal length may still serve the same purpose although the same degree of tuning may be harder to achieve. 
         [0090]    It is of note that a cantilever has a greater range of movement than a continuous beam and as such even having cantilevered portions of similar length can produce a larger attenuation range. 
         [0091]    A further application of such a device is as a nanomechanical optical modulator, whereby the light passing through the photonic circuit can be modulated. To effect such modulation, a corresponding modulation would be applied to the control line. In a similar fashion to the photonic transistor shown in  FIG. 8  and described above, such modulation could of course be amplified, thus allowing a comparatively smaller control signal modulation to effect a larger modulation within the optical circuit. 
         [0092]    A combination of a number of such photonic switches clearly may be used to provide a comprehensive array of controls over an optical circuit; determining which sub-circuits receive an optical signal, the power of the optical signal that said sub-circuit receives, as well as providing protection in the form of automatic or selective cut-offs to either protect sub-circuits or isolate non-working sub-circuits. 
         [0093]    For metrological applications, a cantilevered waveguide as illustrated in  FIG. 10  can be used as a scanning probe  40 .  FIG. 10   a  is an optical microscope image of end to end coupled waveguide nanocantilevers  41 , 42  in the middle of a waveguide and a grating coupler at each end.  FIG. 10   b  is a scanning electron microscope image of the suspended portion, clearly showing the separation  43  in the suspended waveguide that creates the two cantilevers  41 , 42 . As described in detail above, relatively minor displacement of the cantilevers results in a dramatic effect on the transmission of the device. 
         [0094]      FIG. 11  illustrates a tuneable coupler  50  in a photonic filter in which two freely suspended waveguides  51 , 52  extend parallel to, and are optically side-coupled to, one another. A tuneable coupler is an essential component in a photonic filter and the coupler illustrated here tunes the gap between the waveguide  51  and the optical resonator  53 . An all-optical device such as this does away with the need for material doping and electrode deposition because unlike state-of-the-art tuneable couplers no thermal heating or electrostatic tuning is required. 
         [0095]    When an optical force is applied, i.e. by inserting a “tweezer” light signal into the second waveguide  52 , the suspended waveguides  51 , 52  move with respect to each other, thus modifying the gap therebetween. The change in the gap causes a corresponding modification of the coupling intensity between the waveguides  51 , 52  and also between the first waveguide  51  and the optical resonator  53 . 
         [0096]    If the ring resonator is used as a wavelength filter, achieving a high extinction ratio requires close matching between the amplitude loss per round trip and the coupling coefficient. However, precision matching is difficult to achieve with state-of-the-art microfabrication techniques. The illustrated coupler  50  allows precise control of the gap spacing between the waveguide  51  and the microresonator  53  and as such highest extinction can be achieved.  FIG. 11   b  illustrates the change in the gap caused by the “tweezer” light signal, and  FIG. 11   c  demonstrates how in this example a 30 dB extinction ratio may be achieved within 50 nm of tuning. 
         [0097]    Tuneable phase shifting can also be realised in a device  60 , as illustrated in  FIG. 12 , which is fabricated as a portion of a waveguide or embedded in a microresonator to achieve precise phase matching. The major advantage of this is the negligible insertion loss that can be achieved. 
         [0098]    The phase tuning is achieved by changing the refractive index of the waveguide  61 . An analogy may be drawn between a tuneable capacitor consisting of two parallel plates in which the gap can be modified. The variance of this gap in the optical system is provided by the optical force which in turn provides the phase tuning. 
         [0099]    The coupling between the waveguide  61  and the dielectric substrate  62  from which it is spaced acts like an electromagnetic buffer that stores then releases energy in the form of light, thus introducing a phase shift to a propagating optical signal. 
         [0100]    When the device  60  is placed in a microresonator, the phase tuning effect can be significantly enhanced because the circulating power is enhanced by the optical finesse of the microresonator, adding proportionately to the optical force. 
         [0101]    Tuneable switches (e.g.  71 ), phase shifters (e.g.  73 ), and couplers (e.g.  72 ) can be further used as building blocks to assemble more complex photonic filters (e.g.  70 ). These filters could be engineered to have multiple poles and zeros depending on the numbers and the topologies of these tuneable components. Although there are many configurations one can devise for actual filter implementation, we exemplify a typical filter construction  70  in  FIG. 13  which represents a two-pole two-zero filter. The mechanically-deformable tuneable devices  71 , 72 , 73  are utilized as active control elements to set the coupling ratios and phases of each individual ring resonator  74 , which in turn determine the zeros and the poles of the filter. 
         [0102]    A synchronised oscillator  80  is illustrated in  FIG. 14 . A series of (example shown: four) nanomechanical resonators  81 , 82 , 83 , 84  are fabricated on the same photonic bus  85 . The light travelling along the bus passes from one resonator to the next and thus provides a synchronising force on all the nanomechanical resonators. 
         [0103]    In addition, the light may be further looped back from the last resonator  84  to the first resonator  81  which enhances said synchronisation. Such synchronised oscillators will be ideal for us as ultrastable signal sources because of the very low phase noise that can be achieved in such a configuration. 
         [0104]    Further modifications and improvements may be added without departing from the scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. 
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