Abstract:
A device for handling a fluid includes a corona discharge device and an electric power supply. The corona discharge device includes at least one corona discharge electrode and at least one collector electrode positioned proximate each other so as to provide a total inter-electrode capacitance within a predetermined range. The electric power supply is connected to supply an electric power signal to said corona discharge and collector electrodes so as to cause a corona current to flow between the corona discharge and collector electrodes. An amplitude of an alternating component of the voltage of the electric power signal generated is no greater than one-tenth that of an amplitude of a constant component of the voltage of the electric power signal. The alternating component of the voltage is of such amplitude and frequency that a ratio of an amplitude of the alternating component of the highest harmonic of the voltage divided by an amplitude of the constant component of said voltage being considerably less than that of a ratio of an amplitude of the highest harmonic of the alternating component of the corona current divided by an amplitude of the constant component of the corona current, i.e., (V ac /V dc )≦(I ac /I dc ).

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS  
       [0001]     The instant application is a continuation-in-part (CIP) of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/175,947 filed Jun. 21, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,664,741 issued Dec. 16, 2003 and is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/419,720 filed Oct. 14, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,504,308 issued Jan. 7, 2003 and incorporated herein in its entirety by reference. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0002]     1. Field of the Invention  
         [0003]     The invention relates to electrical corona discharge devices and in particular to methods of and devices for fluid acceleration to provide velocity and momentum to a fluid, especially to air, through the use of ions and electrical fields.  
         [0004]     2. Description of the Related Art  
         [0005]     The prior art as described in a number of patents (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,210,847 of Spurgin and U.S. Pat. No. 4,231,766 of Shannon, et al.) has recognized that the corona discharge device may be used to generate ions and accelerate fluids. Such methods are widely used in electrostatic precipitators and electric wind machines as described in Applied Electrostatic Precipitation published by Chapman &amp; Hall (1997). The corona discharge device may be generated by application of a high voltage to pairs of electrodes, e.g., a corona discharge electrode and an attractor electrode. The electrodes should be configured and arranged to produce a non-uniform electric field generation, the corona electrodes typically having sharp edges or otherwise being small in size.  
         [0006]     To start and sustain the corona discharge device, high voltage should be applied between the pair of electrodes, e.g., the corona discharge electrode and a nearby attractor (also termed collector) electrode. At least one electrode, i.e., the corona discharge electrode, should be physically small or include sharp points or edges to provide a suitable electric field gradient in the vicinity of the electrode. There are several known configurations used to apply voltage between the electrodes to efficiently generate the requisite electric field for ion production. U.S. Pat. No. 4,789,801 of Lee and U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,152,146 and 6,176,977 of Taylor, et al., describe applying a pulsed voltage waveform across pairs of the electrodes, the waveform having a duty cycle between 10% and 100%. These patents describe that such voltage generation decreases ozone generation by the resultant corona discharge device in comparison to application of a steady-state, D.C. power. Regardless of actual benefit of such voltage generation for reducing ozone production, air flow generation is substantially decreased by using a duty cycle less than 100%, while the resultant pulsating air flow is considered unpleasant.  
         [0007]     U.S. Pat. No. 6,200,539 of Sherman, et al. describes use of a high frequency high voltage power supply to generate an alternating voltage with a frequency of about 20 kHz. Such high frequency high voltage generation requires a bulky, relatively expensive power supply typically incurring high energy losses. U.S. Pat. No. 5,814,135 of Weinberg describes a high voltage power supply that generates very narrow (i.e., steep, short duration) voltage pulses. Such voltage generation can generate only relatively low volume and rate air flow and is not suitable for the acceleration or movement of high air flows.  
         [0008]     All of the above technical solutions focus on specific voltage waveform generation. Accordingly, a need exists for a system for and method of optimizing ion induced fluid acceleration taking into consideration all components and acceleration steps.  
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0009]     The prior art fails to recognize or appreciate the fact that the ion generation process is more complicated than merely applying a voltage to two electrodes. Instead, the systems and methods of the prior art are generally incapable of producing substantial airflow and, at the same time, limiting ozone production.  
         [0010]     Corona related processes have three common aspects. A first aspect is the generation of ions in a fluid media. A second aspect is the charging of fluid molecules and foreign particles by the emitted ions. A third aspect is the acceleration of the charged particles toward an opposite (collector) electrode (i.e., along the electric field lines).  
         [0011]     Air or other fluid acceleration that is caused by ions, depends both on quantity (i.e., number) of ions and their ability to induce a charge on nearby fluid particles and therefore propel the fluid particles toward an opposing electrode. At the same time, ozone generation is substantially proportional to the power applied to the electrodes. When ions are introduced into the fluid they tend to attach themselves to the particles and to neutrally-charged fluid molecules. Each particle may accept only a limited amount of charge depending on the size of a particular particle. According to the following formula, the maximum amount of charge (so called saturation charge) may be expressed as: 
 
 Q   p ={(1+2λ/ d   p ) 2 +[1/(1+2λ/ d   p )]*[(ε r −1)/(ε r +2)]*πε 0   d   p   2   E,  
 
 where d p =particle size, ε r  is the dielectric constant of the dielectric material between electrode pairs and ε 0  is the dielectric constant in vacuum. 
 
         [0012]     From this equation, it follows that a certain number of ions introduced into the fluid will charge the nearby molecules and ambient particles to some maximum level. This number of ions represents a number of charges flowing from one electrode to another and determines the corona current flowing between the two electrodes.  
         [0013]     Once charged, the fluid molecules are attracted to the opposite collector electrode in the direction of the electric field. This directed space over which a force F is exerted, moves molecules having a charge Q which is dependent on the electric field strength E, that is, in turn proportional to the voltage applied to the electrodes: 
 
 F=−Q*E.  
 
 If a maximum number of ions are introduced into the fluid by the corona current and the resulting charges are accelerated by the applied voltage alone, a substantial airflow is generated while average power consumption is substantially decreased. This may be implemented by controlling how the corona current changes in value from some minimum value to some maximum value while the voltage between the electrodes is substantially constant. In other words, it has been found to be beneficial to minimize a high voltage ripple (or alternating component) of the power voltage applied to the electrodes (as a proportion of the average high voltage applied) while keeping the current ripples substantially high and ideally comparable to the total mean or RMS amplitude of the current. (Unless otherwise noted or implied by usage, as used herein, the term “ripples” and phrase “alternating component” refer to a time varying component of a signal including all time varying signals waveforms such as sinusoidal, square, sawtooth, irregular, compound, etc., and further including both bi-directional waveforms otherwise known as “alternating current” or “a.c.” and unidirectional waveforms such as pulsed direct current or “pulsed d.c.”. Further, unless otherwise indicated by context, adjectives such as “small”, “large”, etc. used in conjunction with such terms including, but not limited to, “ripple”, “a.c. component,”, “alternating component” etc., describe the relative or absolute amplitude of a particular parameter such as signal potential (or “voltage”) and signal rate-of-flow (or “current”).) Such distinction between the voltage and current waveforms is possible in the corona related technologies and devices because of the reactive (capacitive) component of the corona generation array of corona and attractor electrodes. The capacitive component results in a relatively low amplitude voltage alternating component producing a relatively large corresponding current alternating component. For example, it is possible in corona discharge devices to use a power supply that generates high voltage with small ripples. These ripples should be of comparatively high frequency “f” (i.e., greater than 1 kHz). The electrodes (i.e., corona electrode and collector electrode) are designed such that their mutual capacitance C is sufficiently high to present a comparatively small impedance X c  when high frequency voltage is applied, as follows:  
         X   c     =     1     2   ⁢           ⁢   π   ⁢           ⁢   fC           
 
 The electrodes represent or may be viewed as a parallel connection of the non-reactive d.c. resistance and reactive a.c. capacitive impedance. Ohmic resistance causes the corona current to flow from one electrode to another. This current amplitude is approximately proportional to the applied voltage amplitude and is substantially constant (d.c.). The capacitive impedance is responsible for the a.c. portion of the current between the electrodes. This portion is proportional to the amplitude of the a.c. component of the applied voltage (the “ripples”) and inversely proportional to frequency of the voltage alternating component. Depending on the amplitude of the ripple voltage and its frequency, the amplitude of the a.c. component of the current between the electrodes may be less or greater than the d.c. component of the current. 
 
         [0014]     It has been found that a power supply that is able to generate high voltage with small amplitude ripples (i.e., a filtered d.c. voltage) but provides a current with a relatively large a.c. component (i.e., large amplitude current ripples) across the electrodes provides enhanced ions generation and fluid acceleration while, in case of air, substantially reducing or minimizing ozone production. Thus, the current ripples, expressed as a ratio or fraction defined as the amplitude of an a.c. component of the corona current divided by the amplitude of a d.c. component of the corona current (i.e., I a.c. /I d.c. ) should be considerably greater (i.e., at least 2 times) than, and preferably at least 10, 100 and, even more preferably, 1000 times as large as the voltage ripples, the latter similarly defined as the amplitude of the time-varying or a.c. component of the voltage applied to the corona discharge electrode divided by the amplitude of the d.c. component (i.e., V a.c. /V d.c. ).  
         [0015]     It has been additionally found that optimal corona discharge device performance is achieved when the output voltage has small amplitude voltage alternating component relative to the average voltage amplitude and the current through the electrodes and intervening dielectric (i.e., fluid to be accelerated) is at least 2, and more preferably 10 times, larger (relative to a d.c. current component) than the voltage alternating component (relative to d.c. voltage) i.e., the a.c./d.c. ratio  
         [0016]     introducing the fluid to a corona discharge device including at least one corona discharge electrode and at least one collector electrode positioned proximate said corona discharge electrode so as to provide a total inter-electrode capacitance within a predetermined range; and  
         [0017]     supplying an electric power signal to said corona discharge device by applying a voltage V t  between said corona discharge and collector electrodes so as to induce a corona current I t  to flow between said electrodes, both said voltage V t  and corona current I t  each being a sum of respective constant d.c. and alternating a.c. components superimposed on each other whereby V t =V d.c. +V a.c.  and I t =I d.c. +I a.c. , and wherein V RMS   ˜ V MEAN  and I RMS &gt;I MEAN .  
         [0018]     of the current is much greater by a factor of 2, 10 or even more than a.c./d.c. ratio of the applied voltage. That is, where the electrical power applied to a corona discharge device, such as an electrostatic fluid accelerator, is composed of a constant voltage/current component (e.g., a non-varying-in-time direct current or d.c. component) and a time-varying component (e.g., a pulsed or alternating current (a.c.) component) expressed as whereby V t =V d.c. +V a.c.  and I t =I d.c. +I a.c. , it is preferable to generate a voltage across the corona discharge electrodes such that a resultant current satisfies the following relationships: 
 
V a.c. &lt;&lt;V d.c.  and I a.c. ˜I d.c.  
 
or V a.c. /V d.c. &lt;&lt;I a.c. /I d.c.  
 
or V a.c. &lt;V d.c.  and I a.c. &gt;I d.c.  
 
or V RMS   ˜ V MEAN  and I RMS &gt;I MEAN  
 
 If any of the above requirements are satisfied, then the resultant corona discharge device consumes less power per cubic foot of fluid moved and produces less ozone (in the case of air) compared to a power supply wherein the a.c./d.c. ratios of current and voltage are approximately equal. 
 
         [0019]     To satisfy these requirements, the power supply and the corona generating device should be appropriately designed and configured. In particular, the power supply should generate a high voltage output with only minimal and, at the same time, relatively high frequency ripples. The corona generating device itself should have a predetermined value of designed, stray or parasitic capacitance that provides a substantial high frequency current flow through the electrodes, i.e., from one electrode to another. Should the power supply generate low frequency ripples, then X c  will be relatively large and the amplitude of the alternating component current will not be comparable to the amplitude of the direct current component of the current. Should the power supply generate very small or no ripple, then alternating current will not be comparable to the direct current. Should the corona generating device (i.e., the electrode array) have a low capacitance (including parasitic and/or stray capacitance between the electrodes), then the alternating current again will not be comparable in amplitude to the direct current. If a large resistance is installed between the power supply and the electrode array (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,789,801 of Lee, FIGS. 1 and 2), then the amplitude of the a.c. current ripples will be dampened (i.e., decreased) and will not be comparable in amplitude to that of the d.c. (i.e., constant) component of the current. Thus, only if certain conditions are satisfied, such that predetermined voltage and current relationships exist, will the corona generating device optimally function to provide sufficient air flow, enhanced operating efficiency, and desirable ozone levels. The resultant power supply is also less costly.  
         [0020]     In particular, a power supply that generates ripples does not require substantial output filtering otherwise provided by a relatively expensive and physically large high voltage capacitor connected at the power supply output. This alone makes the power supply less expensive. In addition, such a power supply has less “inertia” i.e., less stored energy tending to dampen amplitude variations in the output and is therefore capable of rapidly changing output voltage than is a high inertia power supply with no or negligible ripples.  
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0021]      FIG. 1A  is a schematic diagram of a power supply that produces a d.c. voltage and d.c.+a.c. current;  
         [0022]      FIG. 1B  is a waveform of a power supply output separately depicting voltage and current amplitudes over time;  
         [0023]      FIG. 2A  is a schematic diagram of a corona discharge device having insufficient interelectrode capacitance to (i) optimize air flow, (ii) reduce power consumption and/or (iii) minimize ozone production;  
         [0024]      FIG. 2B  is a schematic diagram of a corona discharge device optimized to benefit from and cooperate with a power supply such as that depicted in  FIG. 3 ;  
         [0025]      FIG. 3  is a schematic diagram of a power supply that produces a high amplitude d.c. voltage having low amplitude high frequency voltage ripples; and  
         [0026]      FIG. 4  is an oscilloscope trace of a high voltage applied to a corona discharge device and resultant corona current. 
     
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT  
       [0027]      FIG. 1A  is a block diagram of a power supply suitable to power a corona discharge device consistent with an embodiment of the invention. High voltage power supply (HVPS)  105  generates a power supply voltage  101  ( FIG. 1B ) of varying amplitude V ac+dc . Voltage  101  has superimposed on an average d.c. voltage of V dc  an a.c. or alternating component of amplitude V ac  having an instantaneous value represented by the distance  103  (i.e., an alternating component of the voltage). A typical average d.c. component of the voltage  101  (V dc ) is in the range of 10 kV to 25 kV and more preferably equal to 18 kV. The ripple frequency “f” is typically around 100 kHz. It should be noted that low frequency harmonics, such as multiples of the 60 Hz commercial power line frequency including 120 Hz may be present in the voltage wave-form. The following calculation considers only the most significant harmonic, that is the highest harmonic, in this case 100 kHz. The ripples&#39; peak-to-peak amplitude  103  (V ac  being the a.c. component of the voltage  101 ) may be in the range of 0 to 2000 volts peak-to-peak and, more preferably, less than or equal to 900V, with an RMS value of approximately 640V. Voltage  101  is applied to the pair of electrodes (i.e., the corona discharge electrode and the attractor electrode). Resistor  106  represents the internal resistance of HVPS  105  and the resistance of the wires that connect HVPS  105  to the electrodes, this resistance typically having a relatively small value. Capacitor  107  represents the parasitic capacitance between the two electrodes. Note that the value of capacitor  107  is not constant, but may be roughly estimated at the level of about 10 pF.  
         [0028]     Resistor  108  represents the non-reactive d.c. ohmic load resistance R characteristic of the air gap between the corona discharge and attractor electrodes. This resistance R depends on the voltage applied, typically having a typical value of 10 mega-Ohms.  
         [0029]     The d.c. component from the HVPS  105  flows through resistor  108  while the a.c. component primarily flows through the capacitance  107  representing a substantially lower impedance at the 100 kHz operating range than does resistor  108 . In particular, the impedance X c  of capacitor  107  is a function of the ripple frequency. In this case it is approximately equal to: 
 
 X   c =1/(2π fC )=1/(2*3.14*100,000*10*10 −12 )=160 kΩ
 
 The a.c. component I a.c.  of the current flowing through capacitance  107  is equal to 
 
 I   a.c.   =V   a.c.   /X   c =640/160,000=0.004 A=4 mA. 
 
 The d.c. component I dc  of the current flowing through the resistor  108  is equal to 
 
 I   dc   =V   dc   /R= 18 kV/10 MΩ=1.8 mA. 
 
 Therefore the a.c. component I ac  of the resulting current between the electrodes is about 2.2 times greater than the d.c. component I dc  of the resulting current. 
 
         [0030]     The operation of device  100  may be described with reference to the timing diagram of  FIG. 1B . When the ionization current reaches some maximum amplitude (I max ), ions are emitted from the corona discharge electrode so as to charge ambient molecules and particles of the fluid (i.e., air molecules). At this time maximum power is generated and maximum ozone production (in air or oxygen) occurs. When the current decreases to I min , less power is generated and virtually no ozone is produced.  
         [0031]     At the same time, charged molecules and particles are accelerated toward the opposite electrode (the attractor electrode) with the same force (since the voltage remains essentially constant) as in the maximum current condition. Thus, the fluid acceleration rate is not substantially affected and not to the same degree as the ozone production is reduced.  
         [0032]     Acceleration of the ambient fluid results from the moment of ions forming the corona discharge electrodes to the attractor electrode. This is because under the influence of voltage  101 , ions are emitted from the corona discharge electrode and create an “ion cloud” surrounding the corona discharge electrode. This ion cloud moves toward the opposite attractor electrode in response to the electric field strength, the intensity of which is proportional to the value of the applied voltage  101 . The power supplied by power supply  105  is approximately proportional to the output current  102  (assuming voltage  101  is maintained substantially constant). Thus, the pulsated nature of current  102  results in less energy consumption than a pure d.c. current of the same amplitude. Such current waveform and relationship between a.c. and d.c. components of the current is ensured by having a low internal resistance  106  and small amplitude alternating component  103  of the output voltage. It has been experimentally determined that most efficient electrostatic fluid acceleration is achieved when relative amplitude of the current  102  alternating component (i.e., I ac /I dc ) is greater than the relative amplitude of voltage  101  alternating component (i.e., V ac /V dc ). Further, as these ratios diverge, additional improvement is realized. Thus, if V ac /V dc  is considerably less than (i.e., no more than half) and, preferably, no more than 1/10, 1/100, or, even more preferably, 1/1000 that of I ac /I dc , (wherein V ac  and I ac  are similarly measured, e.g., both are RMS, peak-to-peak, or similar values) additional efficiency of fluid acceleration is achieved. Mathematically stated a different way, the product of the constant component of the corona current and the time-varying component of the applied voltage divided by the product of the time-varying component of the corona current and the constant component of the applied voltage should be minimized, each discrete step in magnitude for some initial steps providing significant improvements:  
               I     d   ⁢           ⁢   c       ×     V     a   ⁢           ⁢   c             I     a   ⁢           ⁢   c       ×     V     d   ⁢           ⁢   c           ≤   1     ;           ⁢   .01   ;           ⁢   .001   ;           ⁢   .0001   ;   …       
 
         [0033]      FIG. 2A  shows the corona discharge device that does not satisfy the above equations. It includes corona discharge electrode  200  in the shape of a needle, the sharp geometry of which provides the necessary electric field to produce a corona discharge in the vicinity of the pointed end of the needle. The opposing collector electrode  201  is much larger, in the form of a smooth bar. High voltage power supply  202  is connected to both of the electrodes through high voltage supply wires  203  and  204 . However, because of the relative orientation of discharge electrode  200  perpendicular to a central axis of collector electrode  201 , this arrangement does not create any significant capacitance between the electrodes  200  and  201 . Generally, any capacitance is directly proportional to the effective area facing between the electrodes. This area is very small in the device shown in the  FIG. 2A  since one of the electrodes is in the shape of a needle point having minimal cross-sectional area. Therefore, current flowing from the electrode  200  to the electrode  201  will not have a significant a.c. component. Corona discharge devices arrangements similar to that depicted in  FIG. 2A  demonstrate very low air accelerating capacity and comparatively substantial amount of ozone production.  
         [0034]      FIG. 2B  shows an alternative corona discharge device. A plurality of corona discharge electrodes are in the shape of long thin corona discharge wires  205  with opposing collector electrodes  206  in the shape of much thicker bars that are parallel to corona wires  205 . High voltage power supply  207  is connected to corona discharge wires  205  and collector electrode  206  by respective high voltage supply wires  209  and  210 . This arrangement provides much greater area between the electrodes and, therefore creates much greater capacitance therebetween. Therefore, the current flowing from corona wires  205  to collector electrodes  206  will have a significant a.c. component, providing that high voltage power supply  207  has sufficient current supplying capacity. Corona discharge devices arrangements like shown in the  FIG. 2B  provide greater air accelerating capacity and comparatively small ozone production when powered by a high voltage power supply with substantial high frequency current ripples but small voltage ripples (i.e., alternating components).  
         [0035]      FIG. 3  is a schematic diagram of a high voltage power supply circuit  300  capable of generating a high voltage having small high frequency ripples. Power supply  300  includes high voltage dual-winding transformer  306  with primary winding  307  and secondary winding  308 . Primary winding  307  is connected to a d.c. voltage source  301  through a half-bridge inverter (power transistors  304 ,  313  and capacitors  305 ,  314 ). Gate signal controller  311  produces control pulses at the gates of the transistors  304 ,  313  through resistors  303  and  317 . An operating frequency of these pulses is determined by values selected for resistor  310  and capacitor  316 . Secondary winding  308  of transformer  306  is connected to bridge voltage rectifier  309  including four high voltage high frequency power diodes. Power supply  300  generates a high voltage output between the terminal  320  and ground which is connected to the electrodes of corona discharge device.  
         [0036]      FIG. 4  depicts oscilloscope traces of the output current and voltage waveform, high voltage  401  at the corona discharge device and together with the resultant current  402  produced and flowing through the array of electrode. It can be seen that voltage  401  has a relatively constant amplitude of about 15,300 V with little or no alternating component. Current  402 , on the other hand, has a relatively large alternating current component (ripples) in excess of 2 mA, far exceeding the current mean value (1.189 mA).  
         [0037]     Measurements of system performance verify improved efficiency and enhanced removal and elimination of particulates present in air processed by the system. In particular, it has been found that systems employing various embodiments of the invention exhibit a dust collection efficiency exceeding 99.97% for the removal of dust particles of 0.1 μm and larger. Thus, the system ensures that most particles achieve some maximum charge, i.e., no further charges (e.g., ion) may be associated with each particle. This leads to the conclusion that the corona technology according to embodiments of the invention is functional to fully charge all particles of interest such that any increase in current would not further enhance system performance, particularly when the system is primarily used for air cleaning versus general fluid acceleration and control.  
         [0038]     It has further been determined that the various embodiments of the invention operate efficiently regardless of relationship of the applied high voltage to the ground. For example, in one case the corona electrodes may be connected to, for example, positive high voltage potential while the corresponding collector electrodes are connected to the ground. In another embodiment the corona electrodes may be connected to ground while the collecting electrodes are connected to a high negative potential without affecting efficiency of the resultant device. Thus, for example, the embodiment depicted in  FIG. 1B  includes corona electrodes connected to a high positive voltage while the corona electrodes of the embodiment depicted in  FIG. 3  are connected to a negative voltage. Thus, the relevant consideration is the relative potential difference applied between the corona and collecting electrodes instead of the voltage difference of either relative to an arbitrary or fixed ground potential. Various embodiments of the invention include configurations wherein the corona electrode, the collecting electrode, or neither electrode is maintained at or close to ground potential (i.e., within ±50 V, preferably within ±10 V and more preferably within ±5 V of ground potential, ground potential being a reference typically considered to be 0 V).  
         [0039]     It has been found that preferred embodiments of the invention exhibit enhanced efficiency when high voltage and current ripples are in at least the ultrasonic frequency, i.e. when the frequency of alternating (i.e., a.c.) components of the corona voltage (V a.c. ) and current (I a.c. ) are well in excess of 20 kHz. The advantages include at least two factors. A first factor takes into consideration acoustic noise generated by devices operating at audible or near-audible frequencies. That is, even ultrasonic frequencies can disturb and distress pets which are often capable of hearing such high frequency (i.e., super-sonic to humans) sounds. A second factor considers operating frequency in comparison to the distance traveled by particles passing through an electrostatic air cleaning device according to embodiments of the invention. That is, based on a relatively high fluid (e.g., air) velocity, fluid (e.g. air) molecules and particles present therein may pass most or all important portions of collection elements (e.g., the front parts or leading edges of the collecting electrodes) without being fully charged if the ripples frequency is low. Accordingly, this again dictates use of some minimum frequency for voltage or current varying (e.g., alternating or pulsed) components of the device operating voltage and current. In particular, it has been determined that such varying (e.g., a.c.) components should have a frequency that is at least ultrasonic, and, in particular above, 20-25 kHz and, more preferably, having a frequency in the 50+ kHz range. The frequency characteristic may also be defined such that a combination of the main frequency and an amplitude level thereof minimizes the generation of undesirable sounds to an imperceivable or imperceptible level, e.g., is inaudible to humans and/or animals, i.e., requires that the alternating component of the voltage V a.c.  have a main frequency well in excess of an audible sound level.  
         [0040]     In summary, the present invention includes embodiments in which a low inertia power supply is combined with an array of corona discharge elements presenting a highly reactive load to the power supply. That is, the capacitive loading of the array greatly exceeds any reactive component in the output of the power supply. This relationship provides a constant, low ripple voltage and a high ripple current. The result is on a highly efficient electrostatic fluid accelerator with reduced ozone production.  
         [0041]     It should be noted and understood that all publications, patents and patent applications mentioned in this specification are indicative of the level of skill in the art to which the invention pertains. All publications, patents and patent applications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference in its entirety.