Abstract:
Systems and methods are disclosed for reducing boundary-related artifacts in logs taken from resistivity logging tools. Such tools often exhibit “horns” at boundaries between formation beds having different resistivities. A boundary indicator signal serves to identify the location of these boundaries. When derived from an azimuthally-sensitive resistivity tool, the bed boundary indicator may have a magnitude and shape that serves to nearly eliminate the horns even in high-dip angle environments. Logs that are processed to eliminate these artifacts are expected to be more accurate and thus easier to interpret.

Description:
BACKGROUND 
       [0001]    The gathering of downhole information has been done by the oil industry for many years. Modern petroleum drilling and production operations demand a great quantity of information relating to the parameters and conditions downhole. Such information typically includes the location and orientation of the wellbore and drilling assembly, earth formation properties, and drilling environment parameters downhole. The collection of information relating to formation properties and conditions downhole is commonly referred to as “logging”, and can be performed during the drilling process itself. 
         [0002]    Various measurement tools exist for use in wireline logging and logging while drilling. One such tool is the resistivity tool, which includes one or more antennas for transmitting an electromagnetic signal into the formation and one or more antennas for receiving a formation response. When operated at low frequencies, the resistivity tool may be called an “induction” tool, and at high frequencies it may be called an electromagnetic wave propagation tool. Though the physical phenomena that dominate the measurement may vary with frequency, the operating principles for the tool are consistent. In some cases, the amplitude and/or the phase of the receive signals are compared to the amplitude and/or phase of the transmit signals to measure the formation resistivity. In other cases, the amplitude and/or phase of the receive signals are compared to each other to measure the formation resistivity. 
         [0003]    When plotted as a function of depth or tool position in the borehole, the resistivity tool measurements are termed “logs” or “resistivity logs”. Such logs may provide indications of hydrocarbon concentrations and other information useful to drillers and completion engineers. However, such logs may exhibit limited spatial resolution and boundary-related artifacts that make interpretation difficult, particularly in situations where the borehole penetrates formations at an angle. Various techniques exist for processing logs to improve resolution and reduce artifacts, but such techniques may not be feasible for use in a real-time environment. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0004]    In the following detailed description of the various disclosed embodiments, reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings in which: 
           [0005]      FIG. 1  shows an illustrative logging while drilling environment; 
           [0006]      FIG. 2  shows an illustrative resistivity logging tool having tilted receiver antennas; 
           [0007]      FIG. 3  provides a coordinate system for describing antenna orientation; 
           [0008]      FIG. 4  shows a flowchart of an illustrative processing method to reduce artifacts in resistivity logs; 
           [0009]      FIG. 5  shows illustrative logs of compensated phase difference, bed boundary indicator, and processed phase difference; 
           [0010]      FIG. 6  shows illustrative resistivity logs determined from the compensated and processed phase differences; and 
           [0011]      FIG. 7  shows an illustrative conversion of phase difference to resistivity. 
       
    
    
       [0012]    While the described embodiments are susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific examples thereof are shown for illustrative purposes and will be described in detail below. It should be understood, however, that the drawings and detailed description thereto are not intended to limit the claims to the particular examples described, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. 
       NOTATION AND NOMENCLATURE 
       [0013]    Certain terms are used throughout the following description and claims to refer to particular system components and configurations. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, companies may refer to a component by different names. This document does not intend to distinguish between components that differ in name but not function. In the following discussion and in the claims, the terms “including” and “comprising” are used in an open-ended fashion, and thus should be interpreted to mean “including, but not limited to . . . ”. Also, the term “couple” or “couples” is intended to mean either an indirect or a direct electrical connection. Thus, if a first device couples to a second device, that connection may be through a direct electrical connection, or through an indirect electrical connection via other devices and connections. In addition, the term “attached” is intended to mean either an indirect or a direct physical connection. Thus, if a first device attaches to a second device, that connection may be through a direct physical connection, or through an indirect physical connection via other devices and connections. 
       DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0014]    The foregoing background section identifies various potential shortcomings of existing resistivity logging systems and methods that are at least in part addressed by the systems and methods disclosed below. Some resistivity logging system embodiments include an azimuthally sensitive resistivity tool that makes at least one formation resistivity measurement and at least one boundary detection measurement that can be combined to reduce boundary-related artifacts in the formation resistivity measurement. Various logging method embodiments employ the boundary detection measurement to operate on the formation resistivity measurement to reduce boundary-related artifacts in a number of ways. 
         [0015]    As one illustrative context for the disclosed systems and methods,  FIG. 1  shows a well during drilling operations. A drilling platform  2  is equipped with a derrick  4  that supports a hoist  6 . Drilling is carried out by a string of drill pipes connected together by “tool” joints  7  so as to form a drill string  8 . The hoist  6  suspends a kelly  10  that lowers the drill string  8  through rotary table  12 . Connected to the lower end of the drill string  8  is a drill bit  14 . The bit  14  is rotated and drilling accomplished by rotating the drill string  8 , by use of a downhole motor near the drill bit, or by both methods. 
         [0016]    Drilling fluid, termed mud, is pumped by mud recirculation equipment  16  through supply pipe  18 , through drilling kelly  10 , and down through the drill string  8  at high pressures and volumes to emerge through nozzles or jets in the drill bit  14 . The mud then travels back up the hole via the annulus formed between the exterior of the drill string  8  and the borehole wall  20 , through a blowout preventer, and into a mud pit  24  do the surface. On the surface, the drilling mud is cleaned and then recirculated by recirculation equipment  16 . 
         [0017]    Logging while drilling (LWD) sensors  26  are located in the drillstring  8  near the drill bit  14 . Sensors  26  include directional instrumentation and a modular resistivity tool with tilted antennas for detecting bed boundaries. The directional instrumentation measures the inclination angle, the horizontal angle, and the rotational angle (a.k.a. “tool face angle”) of the LWD tools. As is commonly defined in the art, the inclination angle is t e deviation from vertically downward, the horizontal angle is the angle in a horizontal plane from true North, and the tool face angle is the orientation (rotational about the tool axis) angle from the high side of the well bore. In some embodiments, directional measurements are made as follows: a three axis accelerometer measures the earth&#39;s gravitational field vector relative to the tool axis and a point on the circumference of the tool called the “tool face scribe line”. (The tool face scribe line is drawn on the tool surface as a line parallel to the tool axis.) From this measurement, the inclination and tool face angle of the LWD tool can be determined. Additionally, a three axis magnetometer measures the earth&#39;s magnetic field vector in a similar mariner. From the combined magnetometer and accelerometer data, the horizontal angle of the LWD tool can be determined. In addition, a gyroscope or other form of inertial sensor may be incorporated to perform position measurements and further refine the orientation measurements. 
         [0018]    In a some embodiments, downhole sensors  26  are coupled to a telemetry transmitter  28  that transmits telemetry signals by modulating the resistance to mud flow in drill string  8 . A telemetry receiver  30  is coupled to the kelly  10  to receive transmitted telemetry signals. Other telemetry transmission techniques are well known and may be used. The receiver  30  communicates the telemetry to a surface installation (not shown) that processes and stores the measurements. The surface installation typically includes a computer system of some kind, e.g. a desktop computer, that may be used to inform the driller of the downhole measurements such as formation resistivity and/or relative position and distance between the drill bit and nearby bed boundaries. 
         [0019]    The drill bit  14  is shown penetrating a formation having a series of layered beds  34  dipping at an angle. A first (x,y,z) coordinate system associated with the sensors  26  is shown, and a second coordinate system (x″,y″,z″) associated with the beds  32  is shown. The bed coordinate system has the z″ axis perpendicular to the bedding plane, has the y″ axis in a horizontal plane, and has the x″ axis pointing “downhill”. The angle between the z-axes of the two coordinate systems is referred to as the “dip” and is shown in  FIG. 1  as the angle β. 
         [0020]    Referring now to  FIG. 2 , an illustrative resistivity tool  102  is shown. The subassembly  102  is provided with one or more regions  106  of reduced diameter. A wire coil  104  is placed in the region  106  and spaced away from the surface of  102  by a constant distance. To mechanically support and protect the coil  104 , a non-conductive filler material (not shown) such as epoxy, rubber, fiberglass, or ceramics may be used in the reduced diameter regions  106 . The transmitter and receiver coils may comprise as little as one loop of wire, although more loops may provide additional signal power. The distance between the coils and the tool surface is preferably in the range from 1/16 inch to ¾ inch, but may be larger. 
         [0021]    Coils  104  and  116  are coaxial with tool  102 , meaning that the axes of coils  104  and  116  coincide with the tool axis. The illustrated tool  102  further includes a first angled recess  108  having a tilted coil antenna  110 , and a second angled recess  112  having a second tilted coil antenna  114 . The term “tilted” indicates that the plane of the coil is not perpendicular to the tool axis.  FIG. 3  shows an antenna that lies within a plane having a normal vector at an angle of θ with the tool axis and at an azimuth of a with respect to the tool face scribe line. When θ equals zero, the antenna is said to be coaxial, and when θ is greater than zero the antenna is said to be tilted. 
         [0022]    In some contemplated embodiments, coils  104  and  116  are used as transmitter antennas, and coils  110  and  114  are used as receiving antennas. However, one of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the transmitting and receiving roles may be readily interchanged. Moreover, in some alternative embodiments, coils  104  and  116  may be tilted while coils  110  and  114  are coaxial. In operation, a transmitter coil  104  transmits an interrogating electromagnetic signal which propagates through the well bore and into the surrounding formation. Signals from the formation reach receiver coils  110 ,  114 , inducing a signal voltage that is detected and measured to determine an amplitude attenuation and phase shift between coils  110  and  112 . The measurement is repeated using transmitter  116 . From the measured attenuation and phase shifts, the resistivity of the formation can be estimated using conventional techniques. 
         [0023]    In the illustrated embodiment of  FIG. 2 , the receiver coils are tilted with a 45° angle between the normal and the tool axis. Angles other than 45° may be employed, and in some contemplated embodiments, the receiver coils are tilted at unequal angles or are tilted in different azimuthal directions. In many cases, the tool  102  will rotate during the drilling (and logging) process, so that resistivity measurements can be made with the tilted coils oriented in different azimuthal directions. These measurements may be correlated with tool orientation measurements to enable detection of boundary distances and directions. In other embodiments, virtual antenna steering may be used to synthesize a measurement from any desired antenna orientation given measurements from a sufficiently diverse set of fixed antennas. Further details on virtual antenna steering are available in U.S. Pat. No. 6,181,138, “Directional resistivity measurements for azimuthal proximity detection of bed boundaries,” to T. Hagiwara and H. Song. 
         [0024]    As suggested in U.S. Pat. No. 7,138,803, “Electromagnetic Wave Resistivity Tool Having a Tilted Antenna for Geosteering within a Desired Payzone,” to Michael Bittar, the receivers of tool  102  have azimuthal sensitivities in opposite directions when receiving from the different transmitters. The phase differences in response to the first and second transmitters can be expressed as: 
         [0000]      δ T1 (γ)=Φ R1T1 (γ)−Φ R2T1 (γ)   (1) 
         [0000]      δ T2 (γ)=Φ R2T2 (γ)−Φ R1T2 (γ)   (2) 
         [0000]    where, e.g., Φ R2T1  represents the phase of Receiver  2 &#39;s voltage signal in response to the signal sent by Transmitter  1 , and angle γ is the rotational orientation of the tool. Apart from a longitudinal shift in tool position, 
         [0000]      δ T2 (γ)≅δ T1 (γ+180°).   (3) 
         [0000]    This observation will be helpful to the understanding relationships between the various alternative bed boundary indicators below. 
         [0025]      FIG. 4  shows a flowchart of an illustrative method for generating a resistivity log using the tool of  FIG. 2 . This method may be performed by a processor in the tool alone or in cooperation with a surface computing facility. Beginning in block  405 , the tool&#39;s position is determined. This position determination may include tool orientation and eccentricity, but at a minimum it includes a determination of the tool&#39;s depth or position along the length of the borehole so as to permit later correlation with independent measurements of formation properties from other sources. In block  410 , the first transmitter transmits an electromagnetic signal, which propagates through the formation and induces a voltage signal in each of the two receivers. The received signals may be combined to determine an amplitude ratio (attenuation) and a phase difference in the electromagnetic fields at the receiver positions. In block  415 , a similar attenuation and phase difference is measured with respect to the second transmitter. The measurements of blocks  410  and  415  are preferably performed quickly enough so that tool motion during and between the two measurements is negligible or easily compensable. 
         [0026]    In block  420 , a bed boundary indicator is calculated from the attenuation and/or phase measurements of blocks  410  and  415 . The bed boundary indicator is a signal having a magnitude that is near zero for distant boundaries and grows larger for nearby boundaries. The polarity of the bed boundary indicator may be indicative of whether the boundary is with a bed of higher or lower resistivity than the current bed. The bed boundary indicators described hereafter are derived from observations in opposite azimuthal directions. One bed boundary indicator is: 
         [0000]        I (γ)=δ T1 (γ)−δ T1 (γ+180°).   (4) 
         [0000]    Equations (3) and (4) can be combined to create an alternative bed boundary indicator: 
         [0000]        I (γ)=δ T1 (γ)−δ T2 (γ).   (5) 
         [0000]    Or, rather than simply comparing in opposite directions, an integral or average may be used as a baseline for determining the indicator: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     
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         [0000]    where γ is now expressed in radians. As yet another alternative, equations (6) and (7) may be averaged or added together (after accounting for the longitudinal shift): 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
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         [0000]    A potential advantage of using measurements from both transmitter antennas (and accounting for the appropriate longitudinal shift) is that the inherent errors of the phase measurement circuitry (perhaps due to thermal drift) can be automatically compensated. 
         [0027]    The foregoing bed boundary indicators have been based on the measured phase shift. An alternative basis for the bed boundary indicators is the attenuation: 
         [0000]      δ T1 (γ)=ln( A   R1T1 (γ))−ln( A   R2T1 (γ))   (9) 
         [0000]      δ T2 (γ)=ln( A   R2T2 (γ))−ln( A   R1T2 (γ))   (10) 
         [0000]    where, e.g., A R1T2  represents the amplitude of Receiver  1 &#39;s voltage signal in response to the signal sent by Transmitter  2 . The foregoing bed boundary indicator equations (4)-(8) can be based on the values taken from equations (9) and (10). 
         [0028]    Monotonic functions of the phase and/or attenuation can also be incorporated into the bed boundary indicator calculations without departing from the scope and spirit of the claims. One particularly suitable example of a monotonic function is the formation resistivity that the tool is designed to calculate.  FIG. 7  illustrates one possible resistivity function, though in practice other parameters may be included in the resistivity determination to account for formation dip, borehole size, tool eccentricity, etc. Representing the monotonic (e.g., resistivity) function by R(.), equations (4)-(8) become: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                       
                   
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         [0029]    In block  425  ( FIG. 4 ), a compensated phase difference is determined. The compensated phase difference is the average of the phase differences in response to the first and second transmitters (with an appropriate longitudinal position shift to align the centers of each transmitter-receiver arrangement): 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
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                                   γ 
                                   ) 
                                 
                               
                               + 
                               
                                   
                               
                                
                               
                                 
                                   δ 
                                   
                                     T 
                                      
                                     
                                         
                                     
                                      
                                     2 
                                   
                                 
                                  
                                 
                                   ( 
                                   γ 
                                   ) 
                                 
                               
                             
                             ] 
                           
                           / 
                           2 
                         
                          
                         
                            
                           γ 
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   16 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    The compensated phase difference (or compensated attenuation measurement) offers a more symmetric response to formation beds than do the individual measurements in response to the first and second transmitters.  FIG. 5  shows an illustrative log of compensated phase difference  502  as a function of depth for a model formation. The model formation has a fifty-foot thick bed with a resistivity of 50 Ωm between underlying and overlying beds having a resistivity of 1 Ωm. Note that the compensated phase difference  502  exhibits “horns”, i.e., overshoots in the measurement at the bed boundaries. These artifacts in the response may appear to indicate the presence of additional beds where in fact they do not exist. 
         [0030]    In block  430 , the compensated measurement is processed to remove the artifacts. In some embodiments, the processing includes adding a function of the bed boundary indicator to suppress the horns, e.g.: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     δ 
                     P 
                   
                   = 
                   
                     
                       δ 
                       C 
                     
                     + 
                     
                       
                         k 
                         · 
                         
                           1 
                           
                             2 
                              
                             π 
                           
                         
                       
                        
                       
                         
                           ∫ 
                           
                             - 
                             π 
                           
                           π 
                         
                          
                         
                           
                              
                             
                               I 
                                
                               
                                 ( 
                                 γ 
                                 ) 
                               
                             
                              
                           
                            
                           
                               
                           
                            
                           
                              
                             γ 
                           
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   17 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    where k is chosen to provide optimal removal of the horns. In some embodiments, k=−½. The compensation can alternatively be done in the resistivity domain: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     R 
                      
                     
                       ( 
                       
                         δ 
                         P 
                       
                       ) 
                     
                   
                   = 
                   
                     
                       R 
                        
                       
                         ( 
                         
                           δ 
                           C 
                         
                         ) 
                       
                     
                     + 
                     
                       
                         k 
                         · 
                         
                           1 
                           
                             2 
                              
                             π 
                           
                         
                       
                        
                       
                         
                           ∫ 
                           
                             - 
                             π 
                           
                           π 
                         
                          
                         
                           
                              
                             
                               I 
                                
                               
                                 ( 
                                 γ 
                                 ) 
                               
                             
                              
                           
                            
                           
                               
                           
                            
                           
                              
                             γ 
                           
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   18 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0031]    In block  432 , the processed phase difference δ P  (or the resistivity determined from the processed phase difference, R(δ P )) is plotted as a function of tool position. As additional measurements are made, processed, and plotted, the user is provided with a formation resistivity log. In block  434 , a check is made to determine if additional measurements are available. If so, the process repeats, beginning with block  405 . 
         [0032]    The foregoing method has been described as a simple sequence of actions for illustrative purposes. In practice, various method actions may be performed concurrently and independently by different tool components. In some embodiments, transmitters of different frequencies maybe used to enable simultaneous measurements using both transmitters. 
         [0033]    As mentioned above,  FIG. 5  shows an illustrative log of the compensated phase difference  502 , as calculated from equation (5) for a fifty-foot bed of 50 Ωm resistivity. A log of the bed boundary indicator  504  as calculated from equation (5) is also shown. Finally, there is shown a log of the processed phase difference  506  that results from the calculation of equation (17). A comparison of logs  502  and  506  reveal that the disclosed processing method nearly eliminates the horns from the response. 
         [0034]      FIG. 6  shows two illustrative resistivity logs. The first log of resistivity  602  is calculated from the compensated phase difference log  502 , while the second log of resistivity  604  is calculated from the processed phase difference log  506 . A comparison of the resistivity logs reveals that a substantial improvement in accuracy results from the processing method described in  FIG. 4 . Preferably, the compensate resistivity or phase difference log### 
         [0035]    In some system embodiments, the azimuthally-directed resistivity R(γ) logs are used alone or in conjunction with the bed boundary indicator I(γ) to determine distance and direction to nearby bed boundaries. In some cases, it is possible to estimate the formation resistivity on the far side of the boundary. 
         [0036]    While the present invention has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, those skilled in the art will appreciate numerous modifications and variations therefrom. For example, the bed boundary indicator signal may be derived from a different set of transmitter and/or receiver antennas than the resistivity signal. It is intended that the appended claims cover all such modifications and variations as fall within the true spirit and scope of this present invention.