Abstract:
A method and apparatus for predicting the quality of compaction of beds of material with a vibratory device as a function of the vibration of the compaction device, the material of the bed, the lift thickness, the temperature, among other process parameters is described in this invention. The vibration of the compacting device during the compaction of the bed is compared with the vibration characteristics of the compacting device on a bed of known properties. The quality of compaction of the bed is then estimated based on the knowledge of the process parameters. The output of the apparatus may be used as a visual input to the operator of the compacting device or stored in an electronic format to depict the progress during the compaction process.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
   This application claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/626,596, filed Nov. 10, 2004, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 

   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   1. Field of Invention 
   The present invention relates generally to asphalt compaction, and more particularly, but not by way of limitation, to an improved method and apparatus for determining the degree of compaction of a bed of materials with a vibratory device. 
   2. Brief Description of Related Art 
   Asphalt is often used as pavement. In the asphalt paving process, various grades of aggregate are used. The aggregate is mixed with asphalt cement (tar), and a paver lays down the asphalt mix and levels the asphalt mix with a series of augers and scrapers. The material as laid is not dense enough due to air voids in the asphalt mix. Therefore, a roller makes a number of passes over the layer of asphalt material (mat), driving back and forth, or otherwise creating sufficient compaction to form asphalt of the strength needed for the road surface. 
   One of the key process parameters that is monitored during the compaction process is the compacted density of the asphalt mat. While there are many specifications and procedures to ensure that the desired density is achieved, most of these specifications require only one density reading per 1000 linear feet of the asphalt lane. The process of measuring density of the asphalt mat during the compaction process is cumbersome, time consuming, and is not indicative of the overall compaction achieved unless measurements are taken at a large number of points distributed in a grid fashion, which is difficult to achieve in the field due to cost considerations alone. Failure to meet the target density is unacceptable and remedial measures may result in significant cost overruns. Thus, there is a need to develop an intelligent monitoring system that will predict the compacted mat density in real-time, over the entire pavement surface being constructed. Because the density cannot be measured directly, researchers have attempted different methods for indirect measurements. 
   A method that has found some success involves the study of the dynamical characteristics of the vibratory compactors typically used in the field. The compactor and the asphalt mat can be viewed as a mechanically coupled system. An analytical model representing such a system can be used to predict the amount of compaction energy transferred to the mat as a function of frequency (coupled system). The amount of energy transferred can be viewed as a measure of the effectiveness of compaction. The machine parameters, like frequency and speed, can then be altered to maximize the energy transferred, thereby increasing the compaction. However, this method does not yield the compacted density directly; also, relating the energy dissipation to the compacted density is problematic. Therefore, this approach is not suitable to determine the level of compaction in an asphalt mat. 
   A number of researchers also tried to study the performance of the compactor during soil and asphalt compaction by observing the vibratory response of the compactor. The vibration energy imparted to the ground (sub-grade soil) during compaction also results in a vibratory response of the compactor. The amplitude and frequency of these vibrations are a function of the compactor parameters and the sub-grade. Thus, the observed vibrations of the compactor can be used to predict the properties of the material being compacted. U.S. Pat. No. 5,727,900 issued to Sandstrom discloses using the frequency and amplitude of vibration of the roller as it passes over the ground to compute the shear modulus and a “plastic” parameter of sub-grade soil. These values are then used to adjust the velocity of the compactor and its frequency and amplitude. Thus, this method attempts to control the frequency of the vibratory motors and the forward speed of the compactor for optimal compaction rather than estimate the density of the compacted soil. 
   Others methods involve estimating the degree of compaction by comparing the amplitude of the fundamental frequency of vibration of the compactor with the amplitudes of its harmonics. The compactor is instrumented with accelerometers to measure the vibrations of the compactor during operation. By relating the ratio of the second harmonic of the vibratory signal to the amplitude of the third harmonic, the compacted density is estimated with, in some cases, 80% accuracy. This means that the predicted density is within 1.5% of the actual density of the mat. These results are encouraging and validate the correlation between the observed vibrations and the property of the material being compacted. However, the accuracy of these techniques needs improvement, as the properties of the asphalt pavement are significantly different at 96.5% and 98% target densities. Further these methods are susceptible to variations in the data gathered. 
   Attempts have been made to account for some of the variations seen in the vibratory responses of compactors by considering the properties of the mix and the site characteristics, in addition to the vibratory response of the compactor, to estimate density. In one approach a microwave signal is transmitted through the asphalt layer, and the density is estimated based on the transmission characteristics of the wave. While the above techniques have been successful in demonstrating the feasibility of the respective approaches, they need to be further refined before they can be used to predict the density in the field with the required degree of precision. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   The present invention is directed to a method and apparatus for determining the quality of compaction of a bed of material being compacted by a vibratory compactor. More specifically, the present invention enables the prediction of the density of an asphalt mat during the construction of an asphalt pavement. 
   In one aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for determining the density of a material by applying a vibratory energy to a first section of the material with a roller at a predetermined frequency and amplitude. The vibration characteristics of the roller are measured and a signal representing the vibratory characteristics of the roller is produced. The density of the first section of material is measured at selected locations, and the densities of the first section of material is correlated with the vibration signals to produce a density signal. Vibrations are then applied to a second section of material at a predetermined frequency and amplitude, and the vibratory characteristics of the roller relative to the second section of material is measured. A vibratory signal representing the vibratory characteristic of the roller is produced, and the vibratory signal of the roller of the second section of material is compared to the density signal of the first section of material to estimate the compaction of the second section of material. 
   In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for determining the density of an asphalt mat by comparing a vibratory signal derived from a roller rolling the asphalt mat with a predetermined density signal to estimate the compaction of the asphalt mat. 
   In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to an asphalt compaction analyzer system for a roller. The asphalt compaction analyzer system includes at least one sensor mountable on the roller for producing signals indicative of a dynamic property of an asphalt mat as the roller rolls the asphalt mat; and means for estimating the compaction of the asphalt mat in real time based on the signals produced by the at least one sensor. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS 
       FIG. 1  is a schematic illustration of a vibratory roller provided with an asphalt compaction analyzer system constructed in accordance with the present invention. 
       FIG. 2  is a schematic representation of the asphalt compaction analyzer system. 
       FIG. 3  is a graphical representation of a neuron. 
       FIG. 4  is a graphical representation of activation functions of a neuron. 
       FIG. 5  is a schematic representation of four neurons in the hidden layer and two neurons in the output layer. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
   Referring now to  FIG. 1 , a schematic illustration of a vibratory roller  10  commonly used in the field to compact an asphalt mat  12  is shown. The vibratory roller  10  includes two steel drums  14  that are mounted on axles  16  and  18  to which eccentric weights  20  and  22  are attached. The weights are rotated by means of vibration motors (not shown). The rotation of the eccentric weights  20  and  22  within the drums  14  causes an impact force at the contact between the drums  14  and the asphalt mat  12 . The amplitude of these impacts is a function of the displacement of the eccentric weights  20  and  22 . The spacing between subsequent impacts on the asphalt mat  12  is a function of the speed of rotation of the eccentric weights  20  and  22  and the forward speed of the roller  10 . Thus, for a specified roller  10 , the amount of compaction achieved or the density achieved is a function of the frequency and amplitude of the vibrations. 
   The vibratory roller  10  is provided with an asphalt compaction analyzer system  30 , for predicting the density of an asphalt mat constructed in accordance with the present invention. The asphalt compaction analyzer system  30  receives input signals from vibration or movement sensors, such as accelerometers  32  which are connected to the axles  16  and  18  of the vibratory roller  10 . The sensors generate a signal representing the acceleration of the axles to which the rollers  10  are connected, in a vertical and horizontal direction, respectively. 
   The vibratory response of the roller  10  is the primary parameter analyzed to determine the amount of compaction achieved. However, other parameters may affect compaction, such as temperature of the mat  12 . To this end, a temperature sensor, such as infrared sensor  34  may also be mounted on the roller  10  to monitor the temperature of the mat  12 . Other parameters affecting compaction are lift thickness, mix type, and type of roller used. However, these parameters need not be monitored during the process as they are static and can be taken into consideration during analyses. 
   Referring now to  FIG. 2 , the operation of the asphalt compaction analyzer system  30  is based on the hypothesis that the features extracted from the vibration signal of the roller  10  are the primary source to determine the density in real time. The asphalt compaction analyzer system  30  comprises a sensor module  34 , a feature extraction module  36 , a neural network classifier  38 , and a density predictor  40 . 
   Target density is specified as a percentage of the density achieved on a control strip. That is, a control strip asphalt mat  42  is first laid on a sub grade  44  and compacted as shown in  FIG. 1 . On the control strip asphalt mat  42  the vibratory roller  10  is operated in one direction during a first pass (represented by AC in  FIG. 1 ) and data from the sensors is collected and stored. Then the roller  10  is moved in an opposite direction and again a set of data is collected for a second pass (represented by CD in  FIG. 1 ). As shown in the  FIG. 1 , the control strip asphalt mat  42  under controlled set of conditions is compacted for a plurality of different passes. For example, the control strip asphalt mat  42  may be compacted for several passes. After compaction, the density measures on the different thickness strips are obtained using conventional equipment and techniques, such as using a nuclear density gauge and also obtaining core samples to measure density in the laboratory. The data or the signals obtained during compaction on the control strip asphalt mat  42  are processed and used as a reference to predict the density during compaction in the field. 
   Referring again to  FIG. 2 , the sensor module  34  receives signals from the sensors, such as the accelerometers, temperature sensors, GPS sensor, and user input data, and processes or filters such signals to eliminate noise and other undesirable quantities. Low pass and band pass filters may be used to isolate frequency of interest in the signal. The output from the sensor module  34  is fed to the feature extraction module  36 . The extraction module  36  extracts those frequency components of the signal that are indicative of the level of compaction. Typically, but not by way of limitation, these are the fundamental frequency of vibration and its harmonics. It is noted that there are a number of parameters like the mix type, mix temperature, sub-grade characteristics, and type of roller that influence the density, and thereby the properties, of the finished pavement. These parameters can be considered to be of two types: static parameters and dynamic parameters. Static parameters are those parameters that are known and do not change over the duration of the construction of the asphalt pavement. Typical static parameters are the aggregate size, gradation, number of fractured faces, type of asphalt binder and quantity used, the type of roller used for compacting the asphalt mat, and number of rollers. Because these parameters are known they do not need to be sensed. The dynamic parameters are those process parameters that change over the duration of the construction of the pavement. These include the environmental parameters (ground temperature, air temperature, wind speed), material parameters (temperature of the hot mix asphalt, lay down temperature, lift thickness), process parameters (speed of the roller, frequency of vibratory motors, number of passes), and machine parameters (vibration of the machine). 
   The vibration signals sensed by the accelerometers  32  will be used to determine the number of spectral components (frequencies and their amplitudes) needed to determine the salient features of the vibration signal. This is done using a computationally efficient algorithm, such as a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). However, narrow band, band pass filters may also be used. Data collected from the accelerometers  32  operating in a controlled field environment will be used to design the FFT algorithm of the feature extractor module  36 . 
   The accelerometers  32  mounted on the axles  16  and  18  of the roller  10  will provide the data input to the feature extraction module  36 . A spectrogram of the input signal will be analyzed to verify if the frequency content and trends match with those seen in laboratory testing. By comparing the spectrogram of the signal with a known spectrum obtained during laboratory testing, the feature extraction module  36  will be reconfigured to include more spectral components if there exist any discrepancy in the signals compared. If discrepancies exist, then the feature extractor module  36  will be modified to include more spectral components to adequately represent the essential features. 
   To predict the density of the asphalt mat  12  in real-time from the vibratory signals obtained from the roller  10 , the relationship between the various process parameters like mix type, sub-grade characteristics, mat temperature, and type of roller is modeled. This is accomplished using a number of techniques borrowed from the digital signal processing field, primarily in the area of pattern recognition and classification. Traditionally, this involved constructing a multi-dimensional map relating the accelerometer readings and the process parameters to the density or level of compaction of the asphalt mat  12 . Once this map is developed, then given the accelerometer  32  reading during compaction and the knowledge of the process parameters, the density can be computed by a “look-up table” of the multi-dimensional map. However, the development of such a map is difficult in practice. Ignoring some of the process parameters in the model will lead to partial solutions or solutions that are not accurate. 
   In the present invention, the accelerometers  32  outputs are obtained when compacting the test strip to a specified density. Thereafter, the accelerometer  32  readings during compaction are compared to the known signal to estimate the amount of compaction achieved. Therefore, it is necessary to have an adaptive pattern recognition system that can first “learn” the desired signal characteristics before it can “classify” the vibratory signals. The adaptive pattern recognition system can be implemented, for example, by means of the neural network classifier  38 , or alternatively, by fuzzy logic classifier or numerical technologies. The features extracted from the accelerometer  32  output can be classified into different classes representative of the amount of compaction achieved. A brief background on the neural network technique and its application in classification pertaining to the present invention. 
   An artificial neural network is an interconnection of information processing elements called neurons. The block diagram of a typical neuron is shown in  FIG. 3 . The neuron includes three main elements: (i) a set of connecting links, called synapses characterized by a weight, (ii) an adder for summing up the input signals weighted by the respective synapses, and (iii) an activation function for limiting the output of the neuron. Typical activation functions for the neurons are shown in  FIG. 4A-4C . More specifically,  FIG. 4A  shows a threshold function,  FIG. 4B  shows a piecewise linear function, and  FIG. 4C  shows a Sigmold function for varying slope parameter a. A multi-layer neural network  38  can be constructed using these computational elements as shown in  FIG. 5 . Networks like this have been successfully applied to the classification of objects from the spectral characteristics of their radar images. Neural networks have a natural ability for pattern classification. To exploit this property, the network is trained using standard back-propagation methods by presenting it with the features extracted from the accelerometer  32  outputs, as discussed below. 
   The features extracted from the accelerometer  32  outputs form the input to the neural network classifier  38 . The number of input nodes of the neural network classifier  38  are selected based on the number of features that are extracted. The number of output nodes depend on the resolution of the classification that is desired. In order to train the neural network  38 , the data sets for the training must first be collected. This can be done in the field by adopting a rolling plan as shown in  FIG. 1 . More specifically, after each pass of the roller, the starting point is staggered so that the section AC reflects the property of the asphalt mat after one pass of the roller  10 . Similarly, the section CD represents the property of the asphalt after a second pass. Typically, four to five passes of compaction are carried out. Once the process of compaction is complete, core from the sections AC, CD, DE, and EF are extracted after the asphalt mat has cooled and the density of the cores are measured using conventional methods. 
   The density information is used to calibrate the nuclear density readings and will also serve as the training data for the neural network  38 . The neural network  38  is trained using the vibratory signals collected and the density information until it can correctly classify the signals. 
   Based on the signals collected during different passes and the features extracted a multi layer neural network  38  is trained to classify the incoming signals. Training of the neural network  38  in the simplest way can be thought of as assigning a particular density value that is obtained by two different measures on the control strip to the signal related to that particular pass. Thus, whenever neural network  38  is given an input signal that has the features for example corresponding to the signal obtained from pass  2  then the network classifies the signal and assigns a particular class which in turn is the density value corresponding to the second pass. 
   Once the neural network classifier  38  is trained, the network automatically classifies the features extracted from the accelerometer  32  outputs into classes representative of the density. At this stage, it is assumed that the sub-grade  44  and machine characteristics do not alter over the entire length of the pavement. Thus, the classification of the extracted features is indicative of the properties of the asphalt mat  12 . The output of the neural network  38  is then used by the density predictor  40  to predict the density of the asphalt mat  12  during compaction. 
   The density predictor  40  is configured to present the output of the neural network  38  in a user friendly manner, such as an audio and/or visual signal. For example, the density predictor  40  could indicate if the density of the asphalt mat  12  is equal to that of the asphalt control strip  42  with a visual signal. The density predictor  40  can also read in the process information, such as the mat temperature and the GPS input, to provide the user maps of the density or the temperature of the mat versus the position of the roller  10 , for each roller pass. The density predictor  40  may also be configured to factor in the mat temperature, lift thickness, and vehicle speed, and predict the density of the mat based on the classification of the acceleration signal. This would then enable one to account for variations in the process parameters and predict changes in the sub-grade characteristics. 
   Thus, the density predictor  40  takes the signals from the sensors as input and displays the percentage density achieved as output. Output can be displayed as a set of colored lights on a display panel such that each color corresponds to a particular percentage or a range of density achieved. A second method of observing the output is a continuous signal that relates the position of the roller  10  versus percentage density achieved. To obtain the second method of display GPS sensors  48  and antenna  50  ( FIG. 1 ) are mounted on the roller  10  to obtain the position of the roller  10 . 
   From the above description, it is clear that the present invention is well adapted to carry out the objects and to attain the advantages mentioned herein, as well as those inherent in the invention. While a presently preferred embodiments of the invention have been described for purposes of this disclosure, it will be understood that numerous changes may be made which will readily suggest themselves to those skilled in the art and which are accomplished within the spirit of the invention disclosed and as defined in the appended claims.