Abstract:
A fluorochrome-marked sample is excited with the proper wattage and wavelength of light using an exciter or bandpass filter and beamsplitting mirror device. This causes the sample to emit light of a slightly higher wavelength than that of excitation. A subsequent barrier filter of the proper configuration placed between the sample and the observer allows this longer wavelength to be observed as fluorescence. This technique is particularly useful for viewing large biological specimens such as fish.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
   The present invention relates to a hand-held or bench-top fluorescence detector for fluorescent labeled material. 
   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   Fry stocking is a primary management strategy of the U.S. fish and wildlife Service and cooperating state fishery agencies for restoring populations of fish, for example, restoring Atlantic salmon,  Salmo salar , to the New England states. In order to determine the effectiveness of this strategy in achieving management goals, identification of stocked fish is critical. Therefore, it would be useful to have a technique for marking larval (nonfeeding) fish with a readily recognizable tag or mark capable of being non-lethally detected in fry, parr, smolts, and returning adult fish. 
   A variety of attempts have been made to mark salmonid fry by mechanical or chemical techniques. Unfortunately, none of these methods has been adequately refined or proven practical for marking large numbers of Atlantic salmon fry with a feature that can be non-lethally detected in subsequent life stages of the fish. Kaill et al. (1990) evaluated the use of half-length coded wire tags in emergent pink salmon  Oncorhynchus gorbuscha  and reported short-term retention rates of 93–100% and long-term retention rate estimates of 50–84%. 
   This technique was tested on Atlantic salmon larvae in 1994 by U.S. Fish and Wildlife biologists at the Northeast Fishery Center, Lamar, Pa., but proved to be ineffective and impractical with this species due to the small size of fry (J. W. Fletcher, NEFC, personal communication). In general, chemical marks induced in fish from immersion in dyes or stains produce short-term marks that are detectable only for days, rather than for years. Injecting dyes and stains produces more durable marks, but the fish are subjected to greater stresses during handling and marking (Muncy et al., 1990). Immersion, injection, or feeding of fluorescent chemicals, such as oxytetracycline, can produce a mark on calcified fish tissues that is delectable under ultraviolet light or through fluorometric techniques (Muncy et al., 1990). Oxytetracycline has been used to mark teleost otoliths for subsequent age validation, but the fish must be sacrificed for mark determination. Wilson et al. (1987) reported that calcein, a compound that fluoresces green under long wave ultraviolet light, produced a detectable mark on otoliths of three species of estuarine fish afer a two hour immersion in a calcein solution of 125 mg/L. 
   Calcein chemically binds with calcium and shows a marked increase in fluorescence when complexed with alkaline earth metals (Wallach et al., 1959). Calcein has been used as an indicator to determine the calcium content of limestone and gypsum (Diehl and Ellingboe, 1956), for determining submicrogram quantities of cadmium (Hefley and Jaselskis, 1974), as a stain for angiography (Oncel et al., 1990), and for fitting soft hydrophilic contact lenses (Refojo et al., 1972). 
   Prior methods for detecting fluorescent-labeled organisms required use of a microscope outfitted with the proper filters for detecting fluorescing marks in fish or other biological materials. This created the problem of transporting an expensive, delicate microscope into outdoor and harsh environments, and required that individual specimens be placed onto the microscope stage for examination. Microscope stages are not intended for examination of whole, live specimens. Even specimens which could be partially examined via microscopy were subject to excessive manipulation and focusing time to attempt evaluation for the fluorescing mark. These procedures are prohibitory for efficiently evaluating large-sized specimens or large numbers of individuals while maintaining the life of live specimens if necessary. 
   One conventional detector for incident light fluorescence is the AO Vertical Illuminator for Light Fluorescence microscopy, produced by Reichert Scientific Instruments, Buffalo, N.Y., which is based on microscopy. This conventional illuminator module comprises a tungsten halogen lamp or a mercury vapor lamp to provide a source of excitation energy, collector lens system and filed diaphragm to efficiently control the beam, exciter filters to transmit selected wavelengths, dichroic beamsplitters to selectively reflect and subsequently transmit desirable wavelengths, and barrier filters to bar unwanted wavelengths. The dichroic element reflects excitation energy wavelengths up to a predetermined cutoff point. Longer wavelengths, as emitted by fluorescence energy, pass through the dichroic element and are not deflected from their paths. Excitation energy, which is beamed from the lamp through the exciter filter, is reflected by the dichroic element down through the microscope objective into the specimen. Fluorochromes within a specimen, excited by the energy beam from the objective, emit visible fluorescence energy which returns up though the microscope objective, dichroic element, and barrier filters to the microscope eyepiece or camera. 
   Methods for monitoring using fluorescence include that shown in Rao et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,628,310. This method is for transdermal measurements of the fluorescence lifetime of an implanted element. This method, however, requires implantation of the fluorescent device. 
   Krauthamer, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,239,998, discloses a method and apparatus for detecting fluorescence emitted at a remote situs, namely, tissue stained with a voltage-sensitive dye. This method and apparatus are designed to record the electrical activity of tissues stained with voltage-sensitive dyes rather than to detect marked tissues. 
   Harte, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,056,724, discloses a fluorometric system for detection of sample substances derived from biological fluid, or tissue targeted with fluorochromes. This apparatus requires that the sample substance be coated over a surface on a solid substrate, which means that it cannot be used to detect fluorescence in whole animals. 
   Thus, there is a need for batch-marking small organisms such as fish and other animals, along with a need for practical, non-lethal field detection of the mark in order to differentiate between groups of organisms, such as hatchery-reared vs wild fish. There is a need for a portable device which can withstand the rigors of outdoor field work and be used to examine samples too large for standard microscopy. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   It is an object of the present invention to overcome the aforesaid deficiencies in the prior art. 
   It is another object of the present invention to provide a device for determining the presence or absence of a fluorescent marker in calcified biological tissues and other materials after exposure to a fluorochrome. 
   It is a further object of the present invention to provide a device for use in the field to differentiate between marked and unmarked individuals without the aid of a microscope. 
   According to the present invention, the proper combination of light, light filters, and other lenses with the known properties of the fluorochrome chemical being detected results in visible detection of the chemical as it fluoresces a characteristic color after it becomes bound to calcified tissues of biological origin. 
   For purposes of the present invention, any fluorochrome or fluorescing material which can be applied to a biological, natural, or synthetic material which is capable of being labeled such that fluorescence occurs can be detected with the device of the present invention. Filters and lenses in the device can be interchanged with other filters and lenses to detect specific fluorochromes or fluorescing material. 
   A fluorochrome-marked sample is excited with the proper wattage and wavelength of light using an exciter or bandpass filter. This causes the sample to emit light of a slightly higher wavelength than that of excitation. A subsequent barrier filter of the proper configuration placed between the sample and the observer allows this longer wavelength to be observed as fluorescence. A beamsplitting mirror device may or may not be incorporated to deflect the light path and/or enhance fluorescence detection. This technique is particularly useful for viewing large biological specimens such as fish. 
   The device of the present invention is particularly useful for samples in which microscopic examination is not practical or desirable, e.g., because of the size of the sample to be examined, the physical nature of the location when detection must occur, or other limitations. 
   In one embodiment of the invention, a set of eyeglasses made of the same glass used for the longpass barrier filter are worn by the operator to view the specimen from any vantage point as long as light from the detector strikes the specimen. This allows the operator greater freedom of movement and does not restrict the sample size. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       FIG. 1  shows a hand-held fluorescence detection device for detecting visible fluorescence emitted from fluorescent-labeled samples. 
       FIG. 2  shows a bench-top fluorescence detection device for detecting visible fluorescence emitted from fluorescent-labeled samples. 
       FIG. 3  shows detection of a sample using eyeglasses having the same glass used for the long pass barrier filter. 
       FIG. 4  shows a hand-held calcein detector. 
       FIG. 5  shows a cutaway view of a fluorochrome detector. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
   The present invention permits gross examination of fish or other biological or non-biological material for the presence or absence of a fluorochrome dye, which is manifested as visible fluorescence. The presence of fluorescence from the organism or material being examined is a verification of past marking of the sample. 
   Apparatus 
   Referring to  FIG. 1 , light generated by a hand-held illuminator (AC or battery-powered)  1  passes through an exciter or bandpass filter  3 , allowing only a first predetermined wavelength or range of wavelengths of light to pass through. This filter is held in place by a mount  2  and a lens holder  4 . The light beam strikes the beamsplitter  10  and is directed down toward a specimen  12 , which is excited by the incident light. The beamsplitter  10  is held to the light source by means of adapter  5 , and an extension tube  6  provides mechanical clearance. If the specimen contains sufficient fluorochrome, the specimen will emit light of a slightly longer wavelength than that of the incident light. This emitted light will be reflected upwards from the specimen and through the beamsplitter  10  upwardly towards the line of sight. From the beamsplitter, the emitted light will then pass through the barrier or longpass filter  8  where only light greater than a second predetermined wavelength, which is longer than the first predetermined wavelength, will be allowed to pass to the eye of the observer (line of sight  13 ). Alternatively, as shown in  FIG. 3 , an operator wearing eyeglasses  14  equipped with the same lenses as in the barrier or long pass filter  8  can view the emitted fluorescence from any vantage point and is not limited by the geometry of the hand-held device. The presence of fluorochrome in the specimen will cause a visible fluorescence to occur. The achromatic lens  7  will provide some magnification of the fluorescing object to the viewer. A barrier filter  8  and achromatic lens  7  are held to the beam splitter by a threaded lens holder  9 . 
   Where the indicator is calcein, the first predetermined wavelength is approximately 490 nm, and the second predetermined wavelength is approximately 520 nm. The emitted fluorescence is green. However, the first and second predetermined wavelengths can be adjusted by substituting specific filters and beamsplitters depending upon the fluorochrome used. 
   There is no preferred difference between excitation and emission wavelengths. For example, calcein has a range of 500–550 nanometers for emission. The emission wavelength of the fluorochrome used must be sufficiently higher than the excitation wavelength of the fluorochrome. 
   The greater the amount of light (lumens) striking the sample though the illuminator, the greater the detection sensitivity for fluorescence will be. It has been found that any 100-watt or greater fiber optic light source can be used in the present invention. Wattage is not the ultimate determination of the power of the detector, but what is determinative is how much light (watts, lumens, etc.) of the proper wavelength actually strikes the sample. While light, such as produced by light bulbs, is composed of a wide range of wavelengths, the filters placed into the device allow only those specific wavelengths already present in their respective quantities to pass through. 
   Any type of light may be used to excite the fluorochrome, including light from a mercury vapor lamp, a tungsten halogen, xenon, laser, or any combination of light sources. 
   The preferred condition for detecting fluorescence with the device of the present invention is a completely dark environment, so that the fluorescence is most easily visible. However, certain fluorochromes, such as calcein, can be detected under low to moderate lighting as well. Also, as some fluorochromes may not be readily detected in acidic or basic environments, the particular fluorochrome used may be chosen based upon its activity in the particular environment in which it is to be used. 
   In another embodiment of the present invention, the device rests on a flat surface such as a table or bench top. In addition, a fiber-optic light source can be used rather than a standard illuminator. All of the filters and lenses are similar to the device described above, except that they are all housed in a single structure known as a fluor-cluster, which is positioned at the tip of a flexible fiber optic gooseneck or light guide. This embodiment provides a larger target area for detecting fluorescence, since a higher power light source can be used. This embodiment makes it possible to examine multiple organisms or samples simultaneously, depending upon the size of the sample. Large numbers of samples can be processed more efficiently than would be possible by examining one sample at a time. 
   This alternative embodiment is shown in  FIG. 2 . Light generated by a power supply  21  travels through a flexible light guide  22  and is directed through and processed by an exciter or bandpass filter  24 . An adapter  23  facilitates attachment of the light guide  22  to a fluor-cluster housing  27 . The light hits a beamsplitter  26  and is directed downwards towards the specimen  28 . If the specimen contains sufficient fluorochrome, it will emit light of a slightly longer wavelength than that of the incident light. This emitted light will be reflected upwards from the specimen  28  through a beamsplitter  26  and travel towards the line of sight. Emitted light will then pass through a barrier or longpass filter  25 , where only light having a wavelength longer than that of the incident light will be allowed to pass to the eye of the observer (line of sight). The presence of a fluorochrome in the specimen will cause a visible fluorescence to occur. 
     FIG. 4  shows a hand-held fluorochrome detector  40  including fluor-cluster filter housing  41  using a battery-operated light source (not shown). Optional filter glasses can be used so that the operator can view a sample from any vantage point as long as the excitation light is visible. 
     FIG. 5  shows a cutaway view of the filter housing  50  of the fluorochrome detector of the present invention, including an achromatic lens for magnification  51 , a longpass barrier filter  52 , a coated beamsplitter  53 , head cap screws  54  to secure the two halves of the filter housing, a bandpass exciter filter  57 , and a retaining ring groove  56 . 
   The filter housing is interchangeable between the benchtop and hand-held fluorochrome detectors. 
   Principles of Fluorescence Detection 
   Excitation energy is beamed from a light source through an exciter filter, a filter located between the light source and the sample to screen out undesired wavelengths of light and allow a select band of excitation radiation to pass through to the sample. Selected wavelengths of light energy which pass through an exciter filter are able to cause a sample or specimen which contains material such as a fluorochrome compound, to emit light energy of some greater wavelength value. The emitted light energy then passes through a barrier filter which blocks out unwanted background illumination allowing the observer to detect visible fluorescence. 
   Also incorporated into the present invention is a dichroic beamsplitter. This is a highly efficient beamsplitter that selectively reflects virtually all of the desirable short wavelength exciting light to the specimen, and selectively transmits the longer wavelength fluorescence emitted from the specimen for detection by the observer. The dichroic beamsplitter reflects excitation energy wavelengths up to a predetermined cutoff point. Longer wavelengths, such as those emitted by fluorescence energy, pass through the beamsplitter and are not deflected from their paths. The beamsplitter enhances but is not critical to the detection of fluorescence. It also serves to redirect all desired wavelengths of light at an angle of 90 degrees from the light source to the line of sight through the detection device to facilitate observation of fluorescence by the observer. 
   Marking Specimens 
   While the method and apparatus of the present invention can be used for detecting fluorescence in any type of material, they are particularly useful in detecting fish which have been labeled as fry, or other animals that have been labeled and released to the wild or are subjects of experimental comparison to determine, after a period of time, which of the animals are still extant. 
   One method for labeling fish fry is by immersion in a solution of a suitable fluorescent material, such as calcein. Fish can be immersed at any age, which for Atlantic salmon can be performed as early as prior to the onset of exogenous feeding, approximately 60 days post-hatch. 
   In one method of labeling fish fry, solutions of 125 mg/L calcein and 250 mg/L calcein were prepared. Test jars were filled with hatchery water minus 300 mL. Two hundred larvae were placed into each jar, followed by 300 mL of one of the calcein solutions mixed to achieve the desired chemical concentrations. Single-bubble aeration was introduced via 3.2 mm diameter plastic tubing to prevent oxygen depletion during the static, 48 hour immersion. Ambient-temperature water was allowed to flow around the outside of the test jars to keep water temperatures stable. At the end of 48 hours, water quality characteristics (pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen) were recorded and fresh flow-through water was introduced to all jars, thereby flushing the calcein solutions. 
   At the onset of exogenous feeding, live brine shrimp  Artemia  sp., supplemented with a formulated dry diet, were introduced equitably into each replicate daily. As reported in Mohler,  North American Journal of Fisheries Management  17:751–756, 1997, samples were taken from the fins of fish and samples were viewed under fluorescent microscopy. 
   Gross examination of the fish at ten days postimmersion under fluorescent microscopy revealed that al fish from both calcein treatments has acquired a mark that was detected as apple-green fluorescence in visible bony structures. 
   After 234 days postimmersion the calcein marks were generally retained at the point of origin. Loss of brilliance at the distal edge of the marked area of the caudal fin suggested that some calcein diffused into developing fin ray tissue during growth. However, if the proper area is located in the sample area of the detection device, detection is reliable. Later, unpublished experiments showed that calcein can be induced into calcified tissues in as little as 7 minutes by immersing fish into hyper-osmotic solutions of saltwater (1–5% salinity) for 3.5 minutes followed immediately by a 3.5 minute bath in a concentrated calcein solution (0.5–1.0%). This technique induced a calcein mark on fin rays and bones of Atlantic salmon with greater consistency and brilliance than previously reported using a passive immersion for 24–48 hours in duration. 
   The device of the present invention makes it possible to examine much larger samples than was possible with the prior art. Moreover, living macro-organisms, such as fish, can be non-lethally examined. The device of the present invention can be readily transported into harsh environmental conditions for field work, and a large number of samples can be quickly examined. The device of the present invention provides a wider field of view of detection of fluorescence than that of the prior art, and is less expensive the previously used microscopes. 
   As noted above, any fluorochrome can be used in the present invention as long as the emission wavelength is sufficiently longer than the excitation wavelength to be detected by the device described herein. Of course, for a live sample, the fluorochrome is chosen to be non-toxic. Other considerations for non-live samples include non-reactivity with the sample material. 
   The following list of fluorochromes is meant to illustrate types of fluorochromes that can be used, including their excitation and emission spectra. However, this list is for purposes of illustration only, and is not meant to be limiting. 
   
     
       
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
                 
                 
             
             
                 
               Spectral Data 
                 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Fluorochrome 
               Excitation 
               Emission 
             
             
                 
                 
             
             
                 
               Acridin yellow 
               470 
               550 
             
             
                 
               Acridin organe + DNA 
               502 
               526 
             
             
                 
               Acridin orange + RNA 
               460 
               526 
             
             
                 
               Acriflavin-Feulgen 
               480 
               550–600 
             
             
                 
               Adrenaline 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               Alizarin complexon 
               530–560 
               580 
             
             
                 
               Allophycocyanin 
               630 
               660 
             
             
                 
               AMCA 
               345 
               425 
             
             
                 
               7-Amino-actinomycin D 
               555 
               655 
             
             
                 
               Amino-methylcumarine 
               354 
               441 
             
             
                 
               6-Amino-Quinolin 
               360 
               443 
             
             
                 
               Atebrin 
               436 
               490 
             
             
                 
               Auramin 
               460 
               550 
             
             
                 
               Auraphospinmin 
               460 
               550 
             
             
                 
               BAO (Ruch) 
               280 
               460 
             
             
                 
               BCECF 
               430/480 
               520 
             
             
                 
               Berberine sulfate 
               430 
               550 
             
             
                 
               BOBO-1 
               462 
               481 
             
             
                 
               BOBO-3 
               570 
               602 
             
             
                 
               BODIPY 
               503 
               512 
             
             
                 
               BODIPY 581/591 
               584 
               592 
             
             
                 
               phalloidin 
             
             
                 
               Calcein 
               495 
               500–550 
             
             
                 
               Calcein blue 
               375 
               420–450 
             
             
                 
               Calcium Crimson 
               588 
               611 
             
             
                 
               Calcium Green 
               506 
               534 
             
             
                 
               Calcium Orange 
               554 
               575 
             
             
                 
               Calcofluorwhite 
               440 
               500–520 
             
             
                 
               Cascade blue 
               376/399 
               423 
             
             
                 
               Catecholamine 
               410 
               470 
             
             
                 
               Chinacrin 
               450–490 
               515 
             
             
                 
               Chlorotetracycline 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               Chromomycin/mitramycin 
               436–460 
               470 
             
             
                 
               Coriphosphin 
               460 
               575 
             
             
                 
               CPM 
               385 
               471 
             
             
                 
               CTC 5-cyano-2,3- 
               602 
               — 
             
             
                 
               ditolyl-Tetrazolium- 
             
             
                 
               Chlorid 
             
             
                 
               Cyanine Cy2 
               489 
               505 
             
             
                 
               Cyanine Cy3 
               575 
               605 
             
             
                 
               Cyanine Cy5 
               640 
               705 
             
             
                 
               Dansylamide 
               340 
               578 
             
             
                 
               Dansylchloride 
               380 
               475 
             
             
                 
               DAO 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               DAPI + DNA 
               359 
               461 
             
             
                 
               DASPMI 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               DiBAC4 Dibutylbarbituric 
               439 
               516 
             
             
                 
               acid trimethine oxonol 
             
             
                 
               DIDS thiocyanato-stilbene 
               342 
               418 
             
             
                 
               DilC3/4/12/22 
               540–560 
               556–575 
             
             
                 
               indocarbocyanine 
             
             
                 
               DiOC2/7/16 carbocyanine 
               550 
               580 
             
             
                 
               DiSC1/2/3/6 
               559 
               585 
             
             
                 
               thiacarbocyanine 
             
             
                 
               Diaminonapytylsulfanic 
               340 
               525 
             
             
                 
               acid 
             
             
                 
               DPH 
               350 
               452 
             
             
                 
               Dopamin 
               340 
               490–520 
             
             
                 
               DTAF 
               495 
               528 
             
             
                 
               Ethidium bromide + DNA 
               510 
               595 
             
             
                 
               Euchrysin 
               430 
               540 
             
             
                 
               Evans blue 
               550 
               611 
             
             
                 
               Fastblue 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               Feulgen 
               480 
               560 
             
             
                 
               FIF-Falk 
               405 
               435 
             
             
                 
               Fluo-3 
               480 
               520 
             
             
                 
               FLURAM Fluorescamine 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               FDA Fluoresceindiacetate 
               499 
               — 
             
             
                 
               FITC Fluorescein- 
               490 
               525 
             
             
                 
               isothiocyanate 
             
             
                 
               Fluorogold 
               350–395 
               530–600 
             
             
                 
               Blue FluoSpheres 
               360 
               415 
             
             
                 
               Crimson FluoSpheres 
               625 
               645 
             
             
                 
               Red FluoSpheres 
               580 
               605 
             
             
                 
               Dark Ref FluoSpheres 
               650 
               690 
             
             
                 
               Yello-Green FluoSpheres 
               490 
               515 
             
             
                 
               FURA-2 
               340/380 
               500/530 
             
             
                 
               Generic blue/green 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               combination 
             
             
                 
               GFP blue (Green Fluoresc. 
               382 
               448 
             
             
                 
               Protein) 
             
             
                 
               GFP green 
               471 
               503 
             
             
                 
               GFP Mutant W 
               458 
               480 
             
             
                 
               GFP Wild Type 
               396 
               508 
             
             
                 
               Haematoporphyrin 
               530–560 
               580 
             
             
                 
               Hoechst 33258 
               365 
               480 
             
             
                 
               (Bisbenzmid) 
             
             
                 
               Hoechst 33342 
               355 
               465 
             
             
                 
               (Bisbenzimid) 
             
             
                 
               ImaGene Green substrates 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               ImaGene Red substrates 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               Indo-1 
               360 
               410/480 
             
             
                 
               Life/Dead 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               Viability/Cytotoxity Kit 
             
             
                 
               Lissamin-Rodamin B 
               535 
               580 
             
             
                 
               Lucifer Yellow 
               428 
               540 
             
             
                 
               Magdal red 
               540 
               570 
             
             
                 
               Mepacrin 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               Merocyanine 
               555 
               578 
             
             
                 
               MEQ, methoxy- 
               344 
               442 
             
             
                 
               ethylquinoliniuum 
             
             
                 
               4-Metylumbelliferon 
               360 
               450 
             
             
                 
               Methyl green/pyronin 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               stilbene 
             
             
                 
               Mithramycin 
               420 
               575 
             
             
                 
               NBD-Amine 
               460–485 
               534–542 
             
             
                 
               NBD - chloride 
               480 
               510–545 
             
             
                 
               Nile redt 
               485 
               525 
             
             
                 
               Noradrenaline 
               340 
               490–520 
             
             
                 
               Olivomycin 
               350–480 
               470–630 
             
             
                 
               Oxytetracyclin 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               Pararosaniline-Feulgen 
               560 
               625 
             
             
                 
               PBFI 
               340/380 
               420 
             
             
                 
               Phosphine 
               465 
               565 
             
             
                 
               C-Phycocyanine 
               605 
               645 
             
             
                 
               R-Phycocyanine 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               B-Phycoerythrine 
               546/565 
               575 
             
             
                 
               R-Phycoerythrine 
               480–550 
               578 
             
             
                 
               PKH 26 (Sigma) 
               551 
               567 
             
             
                 
               POPO-1 
               434 
               456 
             
             
                 
               POPO-3 
               534 
               570 
             
             
                 
               Primulin 
               410 
               550 
             
             
                 
               Propidium iodide 
               536 
               617 
             
             
                 
               Pyren 
               343 
               380–400 
             
             
                 
               Pyrolidin-Methyltetra- 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
               cycline 
             
             
                 
               Pyronin 
               490–580 
               530–610 
             
             
                 
               QUIN 2 
               340/365 
               490 
             
             
                 
               Quinacrine mustard 
               440 
               510 
             
             
                 
               Resorufin 
               571 
               585 
             
             
                 
               Rhodamine 
               540–560 
               580 
             
             
                 
               Rhodamine 123 
               540–560 
               580 
             
             
                 
               Rhodamin Phalloidin 
               550 
               575 
             
             
                 
               Rhodol green 
               500 
               525 
             
             
                 
               Acid fuchsine 
               540 
               630 
             
             
                 
               SBFI 
               340/380 
               420 
             
             
                 
               Serotonin 
               365 
               520–540 
             
             
                 
               SNARF 
               480 
               600/650 
             
             
                 
               Stilbene SITS, SITA 
               365 
               460 
             
             
                 
               Sulfaflavin 
               380–470 
               470–580 
             
             
                 
               Tetracycline 
               390 
               560 
             
             
                 
               Tetrametylrhodamin 
               540 
               566 
             
             
                 
               Texas red 
               595 
               620 
             
             
                 
               Thioflavin 
               430 
               550 
             
             
                 
               Thiazin red 
               510 
               580 
             
             
                 
               TMA-DPH 
               355 
               430 
             
             
                 
               TOTO-1 + DNA 
               509 
               533 
             
             
                 
               TOTO-3 + DNA 
               642 
               661 
             
             
                 
               TRITC 
               540 
               580 
             
             
                 
               XRITC 
               560 
               620 
             
             
                 
               YOYO-1 
               491 
               509 
             
             
                 
               YOYO-3 
               642 
               660 
             
             
                 
               Xylenol orange 
               377 
               610 
             
             
                 
               Immunogold, Silver 
               — 
               — 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   The foregoing description of the specific embodiments will so fully reveal the general nature of the invention that others can, by applying current knowledge, readily modify and/or adapt for various applications such specific embodiments without undue experimentation and without departing from the generic concept, and, therefore, such adaptations and modifications should and are intended to be comprehended within the meaning and range of equivalents of the disclosed embodiments. It is to be understood that the phraseology or terminology employed herein is for the purpose of description and not of limitation. The means, materials, and steps for carrying out various disclosed functions may take a variety of alternative forms without departing from the invention. 
   Thus, the expressions “means to . . . ” and “means for . . . ”, or any method step language, as may be found in the specification above and/or in the claims below, followed by a functional statement, are intended to define and cover whatever structural, physical, chemical, or electrical element or structure, or whatever method step, which may now or in the future exist which carries out the recited functions, whether or not precisely equivalent to the embodiment or embodiments disclosed in the specification above, i.e., other means or steps for carrying out the same function can be used; and it is intended that such expressions be given their broadest interpretation. 
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