Abstract:
Certain nanocrystals possess exceptional optical properties that may make them valuable probes for biological imaging, but rendering these nanoparticles biocompatible requires that they be small enough not to perturb cellular systems. This invention describes a phosphorescent upconverting sub-10 nm nanoparticle comprising a lanthanide-doped hexagonal β-phase NaYF 4  nanocrystal and methods for making the same.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application claims priority to PCT Application PCT/US2012/055587, filed Sep. 14, 2012, which in turn claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/535,529 filed Sep. 16, 2011, which application is incorporated herein by reference as if fully set forth in their entirety. 
     
    
     STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT 
       [0002]    The invention described and claimed herein was made in part utilizing funds supplied by the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 between the U.S. Department of Energy and the Regents of the University of California for the management and operation of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The government has certain rights in this invention. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Field of the Invention 
       [0003]    Nanocrystals that have unusual or exceptional optical properties have shown promise as transformative probes for biological imaging A key requirement for use in bioimaging is that the nanocrystals be biocompatible, and for many experiments this means that they need to be comparable in size to the biomolecules that they intend to label, so as not to interfere with cellular systems. Lanthanide-doped upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) are especially promising probes for single-particle tracking. However, the synthesis of sub-10-nm β-NaYF 4 , the crystal structure that hosts the most efficient upconversion, has not yet been reported, and questions remain about whether small β-Phase sodium yttrium fluorides (β-NaYF 4 ) nanocrystals would retain the exceptional optical properties exhibited by larger UCNPs. 
         [0004]    Synthetic methodologies that enable precise size control have been developed for several nanocrystals that have begun to find wider use in bioimaging, such as gold nanoparticles and semiconductor quantum dots. In addition, the syntheses of these particular nanocrystals can produce nearly mono-dispersable nanocrystals in the size range of most membrane and globular proteins (ca. 4-10 nm). Nanoparticles significantly larger than the biomolecules to which they are targeted may have limited accessibility to smaller subcellular structures, perturb protein trafficking patterns, retard diffusion, interfere with protein function or binding events, or alter pharmacokinetics in whole animal experiments. 
         [0005]    Prior art synthetic methods for phosphorescent upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs), which can be excited with continuous-wave 980-nm lasers and show upconverted phosphorescence at visible or nIR wavelengths, have not been successful at producing bright nanocrystals less than 10 nm in diameter. However, β-Phase nanocrystals of NaYF 4  doped with lanthanide phosphors that have optical transitions in the visible region are especially promising for single particle tracking experiments, as they show no measurable photobleaching and remain consistently luminescent, without the on/off blinking exhibited by other probes, even over hours of continuous excitation. 
         [0006]    Of the different UCNP nanocrystal matrices that have been reported, hexagonal β-phase NaYF 4  has been shown to have superior brightness to other compositions, and are 1-2 orders of magnitude brighter than comparable cubic α-NaYF 4 . Most β-phase NaYF 4  synthetic methods have reported a single size of nanoparticle in the 15- to 40-nm range, with good monodispersity but little apparent control over size. Smaller UCNPs have included 7-nm lanthanide-doped NaYF 4  nanoparticles, but in the cubic α-phase, 11-nm Yb—Tm doped β-phase NaYF 4 , and 11-nm Gd—Yb—Er—Tm doped β-phase NaYF 4 . 
         [0007]    Embodiments of the invention describe synthetic control over lanthanide-doped β-phase NaYF 4 , down to 5 nm in diameter, and demonstrate that, like the &gt;20 nm nanocrystals, these smaller nanocrystals do not blink or photobleach. Alternative embodiments of the invention disclose that an addition of an undoped shell to the smaller nanocrystals leads to 10-nm nanocrystals that are brighter than cores as large as 30 nm. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0008]    The foregoing aspects and others will be readily appreciated by the skilled artisan from the following description of illustrative embodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
           [0009]      FIG. 1  illustrates the effect of addition of increasing oleylamine on the size and phase of the NaYF 4  nanocrystal according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0010]      FIG. 4  illustrates the dependence of NaYF 4  nanoparticle size and phase on reaction temperature for 45-min reactions with 0.75M oleylamine according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0011]      FIG. 5  illustrates the PL stability and uninterrupted emission of β-NaYF 4 : 2% Er 3+ , 20% Yb 3+  core and β-NaYF 4 : 2% Er 3+ , 20% Yb 3+ /NaYF 4  core/shell heterostructures under 980 nm continuous excitation at powers of 10 6  W/cm 2  according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0012]      FIG. 6  illustrates the PL intensities (λ ex =980 nm) of small and larger β-NaYF 4 : 2% Er 3+ , 20% Yb 3+  nanocrystals in hexane compared to core/shell heterostructures. 
           [0013]      FIG. 7  illustrates the XRD of samples prepared determined to have 93% β-phase (black) and 98% β-phase (blue) by Rietveld fitting. The 5.4 nm nanocrystals (blue) show more intensity at 2θ=28 degrees compared to the 7.5 nm nanocrystals, yet are determined to have less % β-phase. This shows the error in the determination of % phase using Rietveld fitting, as well as peak broadening observed for the smaller nanocrystals according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0014]      FIG. 8  illustrates XRD of samples prepared with a 1:4 (black) and 1:8 (blue) Y 3+  to F −  ratio at 310° C. heated for 45 min. The sample with 1:8 ratio shows many other impurities besides the α or β-phase NaYF 4  according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0015]      FIG. 9  illustrates percent β-phase NaYF 4  in each reaction, as determined by Rietveld fitting, with increasing OM at 310° C. with 45 min reaction time. Averages of 5-12 runs for each concentration of oleylamine, and error bars show standard deviation according to an embodiment of the invention according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0016]      FIG. 10  illustrates the effect of reaction time at 310° C. on the a) % of β-phase NaYF 4  in each reaction according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0017]      FIG. 11  illustrates the size of the nanocrystals with (orange circles) and without (blue squares) 0.75 M oleylamine. Percent β-phase as determined by Rietveld fitting of powder X-ray diffraction and size determined by DLS according to an embodiment of the invention according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0018]      FIG. 12  illustrates the photoluminescence after 980 nm excitation for 250-μL aliquots of a reaction in xylene with increasing reaction time from 15 to 60 minutes at 310° C. with 0.75 oleylamine according to an embodiment of the invention according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0019]      FIG. 13  illustrates the percent β-phase NaYF 4  in each reaction, as determined by Rietveld fitting, with increasing reaction temperature with 750 mM OM and 45 min reaction time. Averages of 5-12 runs for each concentration of oleylamine, and error bars show standard deviation according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0020]      FIG. 14  illustrates the comparison of the dependence of NaYF 4  nanoparticle size and phase on reaction temperature for 45-min reactions with 0.75M oleylamine (black circles) and 1.12M oleylamine (red squares). Sizes determined by DLS according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0021]      FIG. 15  illustrates the scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) images of representative β-NaYF 4  nanoparticle samples at each reaction temperature of a) 310° C. b) 315° C., c) 318° C. and d) 320° C. and at different oleylamine concentrations e) 0.112M, f) 0.75M, g) 0.37M and h) no oleylamine. Average diameters of the nanoparticle synthesized at these temperatures and oleylamine concentrations are a) 6.0 nm, b) 6.1 nm, c) 7.0 nm, d) 8.0 nm, e) 6.25 nm, f) 7.1 nm, g) 6.0 nm, h) 14.0 nm. Scale bar in each image is 10 nm according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0022]      FIG. 16  illustrates the photoluminescence of 5.4 nm core nanoparticles on glass with excitation of 980 nm over 1 s showing the absence of blinking. Data points are every 10 ms according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0023]      FIG. 17  illustrates the TEM of the core/shell β-NaYF 4 : 20% Yb, 2% Er/β-NaYF 4  nanoparticles. Average diameter of the nanoparticles is 9.5±2 nm. (b) Powder X-ray diffraction showing that the core/shell nanocrystals remain β-NaYF 4  according to an embodiment of the invention. 
           [0024]      FIG. 18  illustrates the photoluminescence of 9.5 nm core/shell nanoparticles on glass with excitation of 980 nm over 1 s showing the absence of blinking. Data points are every 10 ms according to an embodiment of the invention. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0025]    In the discussions that follow, various process steps may or may not be described using certain types of manufacturing equipment, along with certain process parameters. It is to be appreciated that other types of equipment can be used, with different process parameters employed, and that some of the steps may be performed in other manufacturing equipment without departing from the scope of this invention. Furthermore, different process parameters or manufacturing equipment could be substituted for those described herein without departing from the scope of the invention. 
         [0026]    These and other details and advantages of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
         [0027]    Some embodiments of the invention address synthetic control over β-phase NaYF 4  nanocrystal size utilizing a rare-earth trifluoroacetate decomposition reaction, a 2-step sequence that first produces β-phase nanocrystals that are then heated to 330° C. to form monodisperse 20-30 nm β-NaYF 4 . Attempts to isolate sub 10-nm β-phase nanocrystals from this embodiment were partially successful, although eliminating oleic acid from the reaction did produce 10-nm β-NaYF 4  in the first step. These particles were strongly prone to aggregation and could not be transferred to water as individual nanocrystals. 
         [0028]    Because trifluoroacetate decomposition requires cleavage of a covalent bond to produce F − , it was understood that this may be inefficient at producing F −  and would limit nucleation, leading to fewer, larger nanoparticles. As a more efficient F −  source, embodiments of the invention combined ammonium fluoride (NH 4 F) with oleylamine and undertook a combinatorial screen varying reaction temperature, time, Y 3+ :F −  ratio, Na +  stoichiometry, and surfactant concentrations. In a typical reaction, rare-earth oleates were prepared from their chlorides and heated along with solid NH 4 F, sodium oleate, and other surfactants in 1-octadecene to 300-330° C. (see below for further details). Reactions under these conditions produced either pure β-phase nanocrystals or mixtures of α- and β-phases. Phase diagrams of bulk sodium yttrium fluorides suggest that β-phase formation is disfavored under most conditions, except a narrow window in which the 1:1:4 stoichiometry of Na + , Y 3+ , and F −  is strictly maintained. 
         [0029]      FIG. 2  illustrates the effect of the addition of increasing oleylamine on the size and phase of the NaYF 4 : 2% Er 3+ , 20% Yb 3+  nanocrystals. Reactions were heated at 310° C. for 45 min, and sizes determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS) in hexane. β-Phase nanoparticles are shown as blue triangles, α-phase or mixed phases as orange circles, and averages as closed black circles. 
         [0030]    While previous reports have suggested that sub-stoichiometric Y 3+ :F −  ratios favor the formation of β-phase NaYF 4 , it was determined that at reaction temperatures of 310° C. or higher, the 1:4 ratio was ideal for β-phase formation (see  FIG. 8 ). We observed much stronger effects on nanocrystal size and phase by varying the composition of surfactants, with increasing oleylamine concentrations leading to smaller nanocrystals ( FIG. 1 ). The smallest β-NaYF 4  nanocrystals, 5 nm in diameter ( FIG. 2 ), could be synthesized in 750 mM oleylamine at 310° C., consistent with previous observations that oleylamine can modulate NaYF 4  size. In all of these reactions, we observed a trade-off between smaller size and β-phase formation, with higher temperatures favoring larger nanocrystals and consistent formation of the desired β-NaYF 4 . Increasing oleylamine concentrations also favored β-NaYF 4  formation, allowing for lower reaction temperatures that produce smaller nanocrystals. Surprisingly, at the highest oleylamine concentrations only mixtures were observed ( FIGS. 1 and 9 ). 
         [0031]    The smallest UCNPs were then characterized.  FIG. 3  illustrates TEM images of the β-NaYF 4 : 2% Er 3+ , 20% Yb 3+  nanoparticles with an average diameter of 5.4±0.6 nm. Lattice spacing is 3.5 Å.  FIG. 3  illustrates Powder XRD of precipitated 5-nm nanocrystals, with the standard pattern for β-NaYF 4  shown as green lines. Marked peaks (*) are NaF impurities. 
         [0032]    This window of sub-10-nm β-NaYF 4  formation could be further refined with changes in reaction time. Increasing the reaction time from 15 min to 60 min led to significant increases in the fraction of β-NaYF 4  in the presence of oleylamine ( FIG. 10 ), but only small increases in nanoparticle diameter ( FIG. 11 ). The increasing β-phase of the nanoparticles is also shown by an increase in the PL intensity with increasing reaction time ( FIG. 12 ). This increase in β-phase over time is suggestive of a direct α- to β-phase conversion facilitated by heat and oleylamine, although the nature of this transition is not known. 
         [0033]    We observed some variability in these conditions to consistently produce only β-phase NaYF 4 , as determined by XRD, with some reactions yielding mixtures of α and β phases. The percentage of β-phase nanoparticles in the mixed-phase samples increases with addition of oleylamine up to 750 mM ( FIG. 9 ). At temperatures above 310° C. the nanoparticles formed are increasingly β-phase ( FIG. 13 ), although this also increases the size of the nanocrystals for a given concentration of oleylamine ( FIGS. 4 and 14 ). Given these constraints, we identified a window in which β-NaYF 4  doped with Yb 3+  and Er 3+  could be prepared with diameters from 4.5 to 15 nm ( FIG. 15 ), and these particles are easily dispersed in organic solvents such as hexane or chloroform in concentrations, up to 50 mg/mL. 
         [0034]      FIG. 4  illustrates the dependence of NaYF 4  nanoparticle size and phase on reaction temperature for 45-min reactions with 0.75M oleylamine. β-Phase nanoparticles are shown as blue triangles, α- or mixed phase as orange circles, and average as black closed circles. Sizes determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS). 
         [0035]    While the optimization of the phase enhances the brightness of these UCNPs, we questioned whether reducing their size would make them susceptible to photobleaching or blinking. Larger β-NaYF 4 : 2% Er 3+ , 20% Yb 3+  nanocrystals (ca. 25 nm diameter) can withstand continuous 980-nm excitation at single-particle powers under ambient conditions for over an hour at without any observable photobleaching or blinking, a remarkable stability for phosphors that may be due to the sequestration of a large fraction of the lanthanides within the NaYF 4  matrix. Because phosphors exposed to air are prone to quenching and the smaller nanocrystals have a much larger fraction of lanthanides at the nanocrystal surface, we examined whether they share the stability and continuous emission of the larger UCNPs. UCNP luminescence was monitored for over an hour under continuous wave 980-nm excitation at 10 6  W/cm 2  ( FIG. 5 a   ), showing that the luminescence from 5-nm nanoparticles remains photostable after prolonged photoexcitation, similar to larger UCNPs. Like the larger nanocrystals, on/off blinking is also not observed ( FIG. 16 ). 
         [0036]    We did observe that reducing the size of UCNPs cores reduced their brightness, a phenomenon that others have attributed to the coupling of a larger fraction of lanthanide activators to surface vibrational modes that promote non-radiative relaxation. Previous work has shown that addition of a NaYF 4  shell without dopants increases the brightness and lifetime of UCNP phosphorescence. A 2-nm shell was added to the 5-nm UCNPs, with the shell thickness confirmed by TEM ( FIG. 17 ) and inductively coupled plasma elemental analysis (ICP) (Table 1). Optical characterization of these core/shell heterostructures confirms that the shell dramatically increases their brightness, conferring &gt;50-fold higher quantum yields (QYs) compared to the 5-nm cores (Table 2), and these heterostructures also do not photobleach or blink ( FIGS. 5 and 18 ). The emission of these heterostructures is in fact larger than that of comparable 30-nm cores, when normalized to the absorbance at 980 nm ( FIG. 6 ). 
         [0037]    The increased QY of the core/shell heterostructures likely arises from the dampening of high-energy vibrations originating at the surface by the 2-nm shells, which contain a sufficient number of unit cells (˜4) of the low-phonon energy NaYF 4  lattice. The outermost 2 nm of a 30-nm core should also passivate the rest of that nanocrystal, but we find that the 30-nm cores exhibit comparable QYs to the smaller core/shell heterostructures. This suggests that energy excited in the Yb 3+  sensitizers migrates rapidly via Yb 3+ -Yb 3+  resonant energy transfer to the surface. These analyses demonstrate that synthetic control over UCNP size can enable the determination of critical length scales for vibrational quenching and energy migration in UCNPs. 
         [0038]      FIG. 5  illustrates (a) PL stability and uninterrupted emission of β-NaYF 4 : 2% Er 3+ , 20% Yb 3+  core and β-NaYF 4 : 2% Er 3+ , 20% Yb 3+ /NaYF 4  core/shell heterostructures under 980 nm continuous excitation at powers of 10 6  W/cm 2 , and (b) PL intensities (λ ex =980 nm) of small and larger β-NaYF 4 : 2% Er 3+ , 20% Yb 3+  nanocrystals in hexane compared to core/shell heterostructures. Spectra are normalized to absorbance at 980 nm. 
         [0039]    Embodiments of the invention have used a combinatorial screen to identify reaction conditions that permit the synthesis of lanthanide-doped β-NaYF 4  nanocrystals with controlled diameters from 4.5 to 15 nm, which are comparable in size to many proteins, making them suitable for a variety of cellular imaging experiments. Embodiments of the invention show that nanocrystals less than ¼ th  the diameter of previously characterized UCNPs retain their continuous emission and extreme resistance to photobleaching, and that 10-nm core/shell nanocrystals are brighter than 30-nm cores. These findings show that more biocompatible sizes of UCNP can be synthesized without sacrificing brightness or stability. This synthesis should be useful for nanocrystals to be used in extended single-molecule tracking experiments, as well as for novel lanthanide-doped nanocrystals with varying excitation and emission spectra that will be critical for multi-color upconverting imaging. 
       Nanoparticle Synthesis 
       [0040]    Reagents: 
         [0041]    Yttrium (III) chloride (anhydrous powder, 99.99%), ytterbium (III) chloride (anhydrous powder, 99.99%), and erbium (III) chloride (anhydrous powder, 99.9%) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and stored in a N 2  desiccator. Sodium Oleate (Pfaltz and Bauer, 97%) was purchased from VWR. Anhydrous NH 4 F was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and stored under N 2 . Oleic Acid and 1-octadecene (tech. grade, 90%) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Oleylamine (80-90%) was purchased from Acros. 
         [0042]    Flask Synthesis of NaYF 4 : 
         [0043]    20% Yb, 2% Er. To a 50-mL round bottom flask, yttrium chloride (0.39 mmol, 76.1 mg), ytterbium chloride (0.1 mmol, 27.9 mg) and erbium chloride (0.01 mmol, 2.7 mg) were added. Oleic acid (2.7 g), oleylamine (2 g) and 1-octadecene (3.5 g) were added. (For reactions without oleylamine, 5.5 g of 1-octadecene was added instead of 3.5 g). The solution was stirred and then placed under vacuum and heated to 110° C. for 1 hour. After 1 hour, the reaction was brought under N 2 . Solid sodium oleate (1.25 mmol, 380 mg) and anhydrous NH 4 F (2 mmol, 74 mg) were added under N 2 . The reaction was then heated to 310° C. The reaction was stirred at 310° C. for 30 min-1 hour under N 2  and then cooled rapidly by removal of the heating mantle and air cooling. When the reaction had cooled to 75° C., absolute ethanol (9 mL) was added to the reaction solution to precipitate the NaYF 4  20% Yb, 2% Er nanoparticles. The reaction was transferred to a centrifuge tube and allowed to cool to room temperature. The solution was centrifuged at 3000×g for 2-3 min to precipitate the nanoparticles completely. The supernatent was discarded and the white solid (˜80 mg) was suspended in minimal hexanes to break up the pellet. The nanoparticles where then precipitated again with addition of ethanol (˜5 mL) and centrifuged at 3000×g for 3 min. This washing procedure was repeated 2 more times to ensure washing of the reaction surfactants as well as any NaF impurities that were formed. 
         [0044]    Automated (WANDA) Synthesis of NaYF 4 : 
         [0045]    RE: A stock solution of rare-earth oleate was prepared, for Yb, Er doped NaYF 4 , by addition of yttrium chloride (3.51 mmol, 685 mg), ytterbium chloride (0.9 mmol, 252 mg) and erbium chloride (0.09 mmol, 25 mg) to a 100 mL round bottom flask. Oleic acid (24.4 g) and 1-octadecene (14.2 g) were added. The suspension was stirred and then placed under vacuum and heated to 110° C. After 1 hour, the stock solution was cooled to room temperature and brought under N 2  in a glove box equipped with the automated nanoparticle synthesis robot. To each reaction vial, solid sodium oleate (1.25 mmol, 380 mg) and anhydrous NH 4 F (2 mmol, 74 mg) were added, followed by the rare-earth oleate stock solution (4.38 g) and oleylamine (0-10 mmol) and additional 1-octadecene (such that the total mass of ODE+OM=5.5 g). The reaction vials were loaded onto the WANDA platform. The reactors were heated at 30° C./min up to temperatures of 280-330° C. and held at that temperature for 30 min-60 min. The reactors were cooled to 75° C. after which 9 mL of absolute ethanol was added to precipitate the nanoparticles. Aliquots were removed by the robot at appropriate time-points to monitor the reaction. 
         [0046]    Synthesis of Core/Shell NaREF 4 /NaYF 4 : 
         [0047]    Undoped NaYF 4  shells were grown on the lanthanide-doped cores using a method modified from that of Abel, et al. 27  YCl 3  was heated to 110° C. in oleic acid and ODE for 1 hour. The solution was cooled to ˜60° C. and the stock solution of nanoparticle cores in hexane was added. The hexane was removed by vacuum then the solution cooled to room temperature after which NH 4 F (2 mmol, 74 mg) and sodium oleate (1.25 mmol, 381 mg) were added. The solution was then heated to 280° C. for 30 min, then cooled rapidly and 10 mL of ethanol was added when the solution reached &lt;75° C. Nanoparticles were precipitated and cleaned as described for the UCNP cores. 
       Characterization 
       [0048]    X-Ray Diffraction: 
         [0049]    An aliquot (1 mL) of a stock solution of the nanoparticles in hexane was precipitated with addition of ethanol (˜2 mL). The nanoparticle slurry was spotted onto glass coverslips or silicon wafers multiple times until an opaque white film formed. The sample was then allowed to air dry completely. XRD patterns were obtained on a Bruker AXS D8 Discover GADDS X-ray Diffractometer system with Cu Kat radiation (λ=1.5406 Å) from 28 of 15° to 65°. 
         [0050]    For combinatorial screenings, the reaction mixture (250 μL) was spotted onto a glass crystallization plate (Symyx). The nanoparticles were precipitated from the reaction mixture onto the plate by addition of ethanol (˜700 μL). The plate was centrifuged to concentrate the precipitated nanoparticles to the bottom of the wells. The supernatant was removed with a pipette and the plate dried in a vacuum desiccator overnight. XRD patterns were obtained on each sample directly on the glass plate from 28 of 15° to 65°. For Rietveld refinement, fitting of the XRD patterns to α and β-phase NaYF 4  was performed in PANalytical X&#39;Pert HiScore Plus software. Due to the peak broadening for the small nanocrystals, fittings of samples containing 8% or less of each phase may appear identical to that of the pure phase 
         [0051]    Photoluminescence Spectroscopy: 
         [0052]    The emission spectra of the NaYF 4 : 20% Yb, 2% Er nanoparticles were recorded on a Horiba-Jobin Yvon Fluorolog II modified with a fiber-coupled 1 W continuous wave 980-nm laser excitation source (Sheaumann) and a Micromax 96-well plate reader. The photoluminescence was measured in solid-state samples spotted onto either a clear polypropylene 96-well plate or onto a 96-well glass crystallization plate (Symyx). 
         [0053]    For determination of PL quantum yields, the UCNP stock solutions in hexane (500 μL) were placed in a quartz sample holder, which was inserted into an integrating sphere (Horiba Jobin-Yvon). The excitation laser to the integrating sphere and the emission to the Fluorolog II were routed using fiber optics. The excitation intensity was measured after passing through a 2.5% neutral density filter. Excitation and emission spectra were corrected for the sensitivity of the detector over the appropriate wavelengths. 
         [0054]    Photostability measurements of UCNP photoluminescence were performed by exciting a thin film of UCNPs on a glass coverslip with a 980 nm continuous-wave laser (Thorlabs TCLDM9, 300 mW diode) at 10 6  W/cm 2 . A high numerical-aperture objective (Nikon Plan Apo, 100×, 1.4 oil) was used to focus the laser and collect PL emission, which was then routed in free space to an avalanche photo diode (Micro Photon Devices, PDM series SPAD) for PL intensity measurements. A 750 nm short pass filter (Thorlabs) was used to filter residual excitation light after collection. The excitation density was determined from the measured laser power at the back aperture of the objective and the area of the focused excitation spot. PL intensity was recorded over 4000 sec by a 1 MHz digital counter (RHK Technologies) measuring photon counts from the SPAD. 
         [0055]    Lifetime measurements. Time-resolved measurements of the PL emission from UCNPs were performed by modulating the excitation laser with a function generator (SRS, Model DS340) connected to a voltage amplifier (SRS, Model SIM983). The laser-pulse edge and rep-rate were 1 μs and 250 Hz, allowing a 2 ms window for PL decay. The measured photon counts from the SPAD and the trigger signal from the function generator were recorded simultaneously by a Time Correlated Single Photon Counter (TCSPC) (PicoQuant, PicoHarp 300). The time-arrival of PL emission referenced to laser-pulse edge was calculated using a software program customized in MatLab. 
         [0056]    Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS): 
         [0057]    The size of the nanocrystals was determined by DLS measurements on a Malvern Zetasizer. Samples were prepared from hexane stock solutions of the NaYF 4  20% Yb, 2% Er nanoparticles by dilution with hexane and filtered through a PTFE 0.2 μm syringe filter (Pall) into a quartz cuvette. The diameters of the nanoparticles in each sample were determined based on the fitting by volume. 
         [0058]    Electron Microscopy (STEM and TEM): 
         [0059]    For electron microscopy, dilute samples (7 μL) of nanoparticles in hexanes were dropped onto Ultrathin Carbon Film/Holey Carbon, 400 mesh copper or 300 mesh Au grids (Ted Pella, Inc.). The grids were washed with ethanol and then hexanes. Images of the nanoparticles were obtained using a Zeiss Gemini Ultra-55 Analytical Scanning Electron Microscope. Dark-field images were collected in transmission (STEM) mode with 30 kV beam energy. TEM images were also obtained using a JEOL 2100-F 200 kV Field-Emission Analytical Transmission Electron Microscope. 
         [0060]    Elemental Analysis with ICP: 
         [0061]    The amounts of Na, Y, Yb, and Er in each sample were determined with ICP. Samples and standards were analyzed on a Varian 720-ES ICP Optical emission Spectrometer. Standards (Sigma Aldrich) were diluted in 7% nitric acid to give standards with a concentrations from 200 ppb to 5 ppm. Samples of UCNPs (1 mL of stock in hexane, ˜5 mg/mL) were digested with concentrated nitric acid (1-2 mL) and stirred with gentle heating (50° C.). The samples were then diluted by addition to 8 mL of water. 
         [0062]      FIG. 7  illustrates the XRD of samples prepared determined to have 93% β-phase (black) and 98% β-phase (blue) by Rietveld fitting. The 5.4 nm nanocrystals (blue) show more intensity at 2θ=28 degrees compared to the 7.5 nm nanocrystals, yet are determined to have less % β-phase. This shows the error in the determination of % phase using Rietveld fitting, as well as peak broadening observed for the smaller nanocrystals. 
         [0063]      FIG. 8  illustrates XRD of samples prepared with a 1:4 (black) and 1:8 (blue) Y 3+  to F −  ratio at 310° C. heated for 45 min. The sample with 1:8 ratio shows many other impurities besides the cc or β-phase NaYF 4 . 
         [0064]      FIG. 9  illustrates the percent β-phase NaYF 4  in each reaction, as determined by Rietveld fitting, with increasing OM at 310° C. with 45 min reaction time. Averages of 5-12 runs for each concentration of oleylamine, and error bars show standard deviation. 
         [0065]      FIG. 10  illustrates the effect of reaction time at 310° C. on the % of β-phase NaYF 4  in each reaction and  FIG. 11  illustrates the effect of reaction time at 310° C. on the size of the nanocrystals with (orange circles) and without (blue squares) 0.75 M oleylamine. Percent β-phase as determined by Rietveld fitting of powder X-ray diffraction and size determined by DLS. 
         [0066]      FIG. 12  illustrates the Photoluminescence after 980 nm excitation for 250-μL aliquots of a reaction in xylene with increasing reaction time from 15 to 60 minutes at 310° C. with 0.75 oleylamine. 
         [0067]      FIG. 13  illustrates the percent β-phase NaYF 4  in each reaction, as determined by Rietveld fitting, with increasing reaction temperature with 750 mM OM and 45 min reaction time. Averages of 5-12 runs for each concentration of oleylamine, and error bars show standard deviation. 
         [0068]      FIG. 14  illustrates comparison of the dependence of NaYF 4  nanoparticle size and phase on reaction temperature for 45-min reactions with 0.75M oleylamine (black circles) and 1.12M oleylamine (red squares). Sizes determined by DLS. 
         [0069]      FIG. 15  illustrates a scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) images of representative β-NaYF 4  nanoparticle samples at each reaction temperature of a) 310° C. b) 315° C., c) 318° C. and d) 320° C. and at different oleylamine concentrations e) 0.112M, f) 0.75M, g) 0.37M and h) no oleylamine. Average diameters of the nanoparticle synthesized at these temperatures and oleylamine concentrations are a) 6.0 nm, b) 6.1 nm, c) 7.0 nm, d) 8.0 nm, e) 6.25 nm, f) 7.1 nm, g) 6.0 nm, h) 14.0 nm. Scale bar in each image is 10 nm. 
         [0070]      FIG. 16  illustrates a photoluminescence of 5.4 nm core nanoparticles on glass with excitation of 980 nm over 1 s showing the absence of blinking. Data points are every 10 ms. 
         [0071]      FIG. 17  illustrates a TEM of the core/shell β-NaYF 4 : 20% Yb, 2% Er/β-NaYF 4  nanoparticles. Average diameter of the nanoparticles is 9.5±2 nm. (b) Powder X-ray diffraction showing that the core/shell nanocrystals remain β-NaYF 4 . 
         [0072]    Referring to Table 1, the theoretical values for the core/shell are those based on the amount of core and shell by volume expected for core nanocrystals of 5.4 nm with a 2 nm shell as is seen in TEM. Experimental values suggest a thinner shell of ˜1.5 nm. Given the polydispersity of the core/shell sample, this fits within the expected range. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Elemental analysis of core and core/shell nanoparticles as 
               
               
                 determined by ICP 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                 9.5 nm 
                 9.5 nm 
               
               
                   
                 5 nm core 
                 5 nm core 
                 Core/shell 
                 Core/shell 
               
               
                 element 
                 (experimental) 
                 (theoretical) 
                 (Experimental) 
                 (theoretical) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Na 
                 1.5 
                 1 
                 1.0 
                 1 
               
               
                 Y 
                 0.79 
                 0.78 
                 0.92 
                 0.85 
               
               
                 Yb 
                 0.18 
                 0.20 
                 0.064 
                 0.038 
               
               
                 Er 
                 0.017 
                 0.020 
                 0.006 
                 .0038 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Photoluminescence quantum yields and lifetimes for the 5-nm 
               
               
                 diameter β-phase NaYF 4 :20% Yb, 2% Er core 
               
               
                 nanoparticles, 9-nm diameter β-phase NaY F 4:20% Yb, 
               
               
                 2% Er/NaYF 4  core/shell nanoparticles, and 30-nm cores. Q Y   
               
               
                 measured with laser power of ~10 3  W cm −2 . 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 relative 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Lifetimes 
                 brightness 
               
               
                   
                   
                 QY 1  (%) 
                 (μs) 2   
                 @540 nm 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 5 nm core 
                 0.021 
                 40 
                 0.12 
               
               
                   
                 9.5 nm 
                 1.4 
                 176 
                 5.7 
               
               
                   
                 core/shell 
               
               
                   
                 30 nm core 
                 0.025 
                 204 
                 1 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   1 QY measured with laser power of ~10 3  W cm −2   
               
               
                   
                   2 Lifetime measured at power of 10 6  W cm −2   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0073]      FIG. 18  illustrates the photoluminescence of 9.5 nm core/shell nanoparticles on glass with excitation of 980 nm over 1 s showing the absence of blinking. Data points are every 10 ms. 
         [0074]    This invention has been described herein in considerable detail to provide those skilled in the art with information relevant to apply the novel principles and to construct and use such specialized components as are required. However, it is to be understood that the invention can be carried out by different equipment, materials and devices, and that various modifications, both as to the equipment and operating procedures, can be accomplished without departing from the scope of the invention itself.