Abstract:
The present invention concerns a carbon coated lithium metal phosphate material containing a manganese oxide layer between the LiMnPO4 material or the C/LiMn 1-x  Z x PO 4  material, where Z═Fe, Co, Ni, Mg, Ca, Al, Zr, V, Ti and x=0.01-0.3, and the carbon layer.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0001]    The present invention relates to electrochemically active materials for batteries, in particular for lithium batteries. It more precisely relates to lithium manganese phosphate materials coated with a carbon layer. 
       STATE OF THE ART 
       [0002]    Cathode materials that will reversibly intercalate lithium have been studied extensively in recent years for use as electrode materials in advanced high energy density batteries and they form the cornerstone of the emerging lithium-ion battery industry. 
         [0003]    Lithium ion batteries are prepared from one or more lithium electrochemical cells which include a negative electrode (anode), a positive electrode (cathode) and an electrolyte for facilitating movement of ionic charge carriers between the negative and positive electrodes. The electrodes use two different insertion compounds: one type for the active cathode and one type for the anode materials. Insertion compounds are those that act as a solid host for the reversible insertion of guest atoms. In a lithium-ion battery, lithium is extracted from the cathode material while lithium is concurrently inserted into the anode on charge of the battery. Lithium atoms travel, or “rock”, from one electrode to the other in the form of ions dissolved in a non-aqueous electrolyte. 
         [0004]    Recently, lithium transition-metal (ortho) phosphates have attracted attention as potential Li-ion battery cathode materials due to their lower toxicity, lower cost and better chemical and thermal stability, when compared to the currently used LiCoO 2 . Oxygen ions in the olivine structure form strong covalent bonds with P 5+  and PO 4   3−  tetrahedral polyanions to stabilize the three-dimensional framework 1 . Other lithium transition metal oxides such as LiCoO 2 , LiNiO 2 , LiMnO 2  and LiMn 2 O 4  suffer from significant capacity fade during cycling. This is attributed to structural rearrangements caused during extraction and re-insertion. LiMnPO 4  offers a redox potential of 4.1 V vs. Li + /Li 1.2 , which is considered to be the maximum limit accessible to most liquid electrolytes. Unfortunately lithium manganese phosphate suffers from a low intrinsic electronic and ionic conductivity and hence poor discharge rate capability. The electrochemical performance is especially poor at high current densities, which is the result of slow lithium diffusion kinetics within the grains and the low intrinsic electronic conductivity 3, 4 . To improve its rate performance, one approach is to increase the intrinsic electronic conductivity through cation doping 5-7 . However, the effect of doping has been questioned as the increase of electronic conductivity may arise from the presence of conductive impurities in the samples prepared at high temperature 8 . 
         [0005]    Another approach is to minimize the particle size of the olivine material 9, 10  thereby reducing the diffusion path length for lithium ions in the cathode material and establishing a large contact area with conductive additives such as carbon 11-13 . 
         [0006]    Delacourt et al. 14  synthesized 100 nm diameter particles of LiMnPO 4  by precipitation, which enhanced the reversible capacity to 70 mAh/g at C/20 from only 35 mAh/g for 1 μm diameter particles. Yonemura et al. 4  reached 150 mAh/g of discharge capacity at C/100 with small particles, close to the theoretical capacity of 170 mAh/g. Kwon et al. 15  also reported the electrochemical performance of sol-gel process prepared LiMnPO 4  with various particle sizes in the range of 140 to 160 nm and obtained reversible capacity of 156 mAh/g at C/100. Thus it is evident that particle size is critical in determining useful lithium capacity and charge/discharge rates 16-18 . So far, the production of mesoparticulate LiMPO 4  (M=Fe, Mn) remains a challenge and only a few groups have successfully produced materials of appropriate dimensions to yield the desired electrochemical performance in lithium ion batteries. Hereford a novel approach is required to improve electrochemical performances for this type of electrode materials. According to the present invention, the creation of a specific interface on the LiMnPO 4  material appears to be the best tool to improve electrochemical activity of LiMnPO 4  material. 
       GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
       [0007]    The primary object of this invention is to provide new materials having advantageous electrochemical properties and being useful as electrochemically active materials. 
         [0008]    The invention provides an electroactive lithium manganese phosphate material (LiMnPO 4 ) or doped LiMn i-x Z x PO 4  (where Z═Fe, Co, Ni, Mg, Ca, Al, Zr V, Ti and x=0.01-0.3) material characterized in that it comprises a manganese oxide layer on the LiMnPO 4  material, respectively the LiMn 10x Z x PO 4  material. 
         [0009]    In one embodiment of the invention, the manganese oxide described above is between the LiMnPO 4  material, respectively the LiMn i-x Z x PO 4  material, and a conductive additive such as carbon. 
         [0010]    In one embodiment of the invention, the manganese oxide described above is either Mn 3 O 4  (hausmannite), β-MnO 2  (pyrolusite), MnO (manganosit), MnOOH (groutit) or Mn1.85O.6H 2 O (birnessite). 
         [0011]    In a preferred embodiment, the carbon coated lithium manganese phosphate C/LiMnPO 4  material according to the present invention contains a manganese oxide layer whose concentration is 0.01-5%. 
         [0012]    In another embodiment of the invention, the manganese oxide layer between the LiMnPO 4  material and the conductive additive such as carbon is prepared by oxidizing of LiMnPO 4 . 
         [0013]    The lithium manganese phosphate LiMnPO 4  material according to the present invention contains LiMnPO 4  material with a particle size from about 10 nm to about 1000 nm. 
         [0014]    In one embodiment of the invention, the electrode material described above is obtained by a process including steps where particles of LiMnPO 4  are milled with carbon under air atmosphere. 
         [0015]    In a preferred embodiment, the electrode material is obtained following the process described above where water addition is also used. 
         [0016]    In a particularly preferred embodiment, the electrode material is made following the process mentioned above furthermore including a heat treatment from 130° C. to 300° C., preferably from about 200° C. to 250° C. 
         [0017]    Another object of the present invention is to provide a rechargeable battery comprising the material according to the invention. 
         [0018]    An other object of the invention is to provide an electrochemical device comprising: (a) an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte in contact with and separating the anode and cathode; (b) a cathode current collector in electronic communication with the cathode; and (c) an anode current collector in electronic communication with the anode, wherein at least one of the anode and cathode comprises an electroactive carbon coated material having the chemical formula C/LiMnPO 4  or C/LiMn 1-x  Z x PO 4  , where Z═Fe, Co, Ni, Mg, Ca, Al, Zr, V, Ti and x=0.01-0.3, wherein it comprises a manganese oxide interface layer between the LiMnPO 4  material, respectively the LiMn 1-x  Z x PO 4  material, and the carbon layer. 
         [0019]    Another object of the present invention is to provide a process for manufacturing the materials described above. 
         [0020]    In one embodiment of the invention, the manganese oxide layer can be created by partially oxidation of LiMnPO 4  with oxidising agent like ozone, Nitronium tetrafluoroborate, etc, by coating of LiMnPO 4  particles with manganese oxide layer or by direct high energy milling with carbon under air conditions. 
         [0021]    In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the process used to produce the materials according to the present invention includes steps where particles of LiMnPO 4  are ball milled under air atmosphere. 
         [0022]    In a particularly preferred embodiment, the process described above is carried out under wet conditions. The preferred liquid is water or LiOH solution in weight content ranges from about 0.5% to about 20%, preferably from 3% to 10%, more preferably at 8%. 
         [0023]    In a more particularly preferred embodiment of the invention, the process described above is followed by a heat treatment. The applied temperature ranges from 130° C. to 300° C. for 2 to 20 hours, preferably from 200° C. to 250° C. for 12 hours, more preferably at 230° C. for 12 hours. The heating period is from 2 to 20 hours, preferably 12 hours. 
       DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
       [0024]    The present invention will be described in detail with examples supported by figures. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         [0025]      FIG. 1  shows Raman spectra of all measured samples excited by 514.5 nm laser. 
           [0026]      FIG. 2  shows Raman spectra of LiMnPO 4  grounded with carbon black under argon and dry condition, compared to pure LiMnPO 4 , C/LiMnPO 4  (703061-P-BX2-230) and pure hausmannite. 
           [0027]      FIG. 3  shows the electrochemical performances of carbon coated LiMnPO 4  active material prepared according to the invention and a comparison to a mixture of LiMnPO 4  and carbon known from the prior art. 
       
    
    
     TABLES 
       [0028]    Table 1 gathers the different materials under study. 
         [0029]    Table 2 summarizes Raman bands of the measured samples and comparison to the literature. The bands assignment: ν 2  a ν 4 —symmetric and asymmetric bend of PO 4 , ν 1  a ν 3 —symmetric and asymmetric stretch of PO 4 ; intensities: vw—very weak, w—weak, m—medium, s—strong. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Sample Name 
                 Composition 
                 Comments 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 703061-P 
                 LiMnPO 4   
                 Pure LiMnPO 4  prepared by the “polyol” synthesis 
               
               
                 703061-P-BX1 
                 C/LiMnPO 4   
                 C/LiMnPO 4  prepared by ball milling in humidified 
               
               
                   
                 composite (20% C) 
                 condition (3.2% of water) 
               
               
                 703061-P-BX1-230 
                 C/LiMnPO 4   
                 C/LiMnPO 4  prepared by ball milling in humidified 
               
               
                   
                 composite (20% C) 
                 condition (3.2% of water) dried at 230° C. overnight 
               
               
                 703061-P-BX2 
                 LiMnPO 4   
                 Pure LiMnPO 4  prepared by the “polyol” synthesis, ball 
               
               
                   
                   
                 milled in humidified condition for 4 h without carbon 
               
               
                 703061-P-BX2-230 
                 LiMnPO 4   
                 Pure LiMnPO 4  prepared by the “polyol” synthesis, ball 
               
               
                   
                   
                 milled in humidified condition for 4 h without carbon and 
               
               
                   
                   
                 then dried at 230° C. overnight 
               
               
                 703061-P-BX3 
                 C/LiMnPO 4   
                 C/LiMnPO 4  prepared by ball milling in dried condition 
               
               
                   
                 composite (20% C) 
               
               
                 703061-P-BX3-230 
                 C/LiMnPO 4   
                 C/LiMnPO 4  prepared by ball milling in dried condition 
               
               
                   
                 composite (20% C) 
                 and dried at 230° C. overnight 
               
               
                 Mn 3 O 4   
                 Mn 3 O 4   
                 commercial Mn 3 O 4  (hausmannite) powder, Aldrich 97% 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 LiMnPO 4   
                 C/LiMnPO 4   
                 LiMnPO 4   
                 Mn 3 O 4   
                   
                 β-MnO 2   
                   
               
               
                 703061-P 
                 703061-P-BX1-230 
                 Ref. 1   
                 Mn 3 O 4  (exp.) 
                 Ref. 6   
                 Ref. 6   
                 Assignment 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 315 
                 vw 
                 319 
                 w 
                 300-310 
                 319 
                 vw 
                   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 366 
                 vw 
                 371 
                 w 
                 350-360 
                 377 
                 vw 
               
               
                 412 
                 vw 
                 410 
                 w 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 2   
               
               
                 438 
                 vw 
                 442 
                 m 
                 430 
                 vw 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 2   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 470 
                 vw 
                 480 
                 vw 
                 485 
                 486 
                 w 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 525 
                 w 
                   
                   
                   
                 538 
                 s 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 567 
                 vw 
                 579 
               
               
                 575 
                 w 
                 580 
                   
                 580 
                 vw 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 4   
               
               
                 586 
                 w 
                 590 
                 w 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 4   
               
               
                 625 
                 w 
                 626 
                 m 
                 620 
                 sh 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 4   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 652 
                 s 
                 658 
                 s 
                 650-668 
                 665 
                 s 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 720 
                 vw 
                   
                   
                   
                 750 
                 vw 
               
               
                 760 
                 vw 
               
               
                 945 
                 s 
                 948.5 
                 s 
                 945 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 1   
               
               
                   
                   
                 999 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 3   
               
               
                 1003 
                 w 
                 1006 
                 m 
                 1000 
                 vw 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 3   
               
               
                 1015 
                 sh 
                 1018 
                 w 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 3   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 1040 
                 w 
               
               
                 1061 
                 vw 
                 1067 
                 m 
                 1058 
                 vw 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 3   
               
               
                 1075 
                 sh 
                 1080 
                 w 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 ν 3   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 1350 
                 s 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 D 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 1600 
                 s 
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 G 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0030]    The following examples are intended to be merely illustrative of the present invention, and not limiting thereof in either scope or spirit. 
       Examples  
       [0031]    Synthesis o LiMnPO 4 /C Material Using a Process According to the Invention 
         [0032]    In a first step, pure LiMnPO 4  (703061-P) was prepared by a process known from the prior art. For example, the international patent application WO 2007/049815 disclosed a method for manufacturing LiMnPO 4  having an excellent crystalline and a high purity. An other example of process is disclosed in the international patent application WO 2007/113624 and described “polyol” synthesis of pure LiMnPO 4 . 
       Example 1 
       [0033]    The LiMnPO 4 /carbon composite (703061-P-BX3) was obtained by high energy milling of LiMnPO 4  with carbon black under air atmosphere. 
         [0034]    16 g of powder of LiMnPO 4  and 4 g of carbon black (Ketjenblack EC-600-JD—SSA≈1500 m 2 /g) was placed in a 250 mL stainless steel container. A high energy milling with a planetary ball mill (Retsch PM4000) using 9 stainless steel balls of 20 mm diameter was applied for four hours under air atmosphere. The speed of milling was fixed to 300 rpm. A composite of LiMnPO 4 /carbon composite was then obtained. 
       Example 2 
       [0035]    The LiMnPO 4 /carbon composite (703061-P-BX1) was prepared by high energy milling under air and humidified conditions (3.2% of water). Alternatively LiOH water solution can be used. 
         [0036]    16 g of powder of LiMnPO 4 , 0.512 mL of water and 4 g of carbon black (Ketjenblack EC-600-JD—SSA≈1500 m 2 /g) was placed in a 250 ml stainless steel container. A high energy milling with a planetary ball mill (Retsch PM4000) using 9 stainless steel balls of 20 mm diameter was applied for four hours under air atmosphere. The speed of milling was fixed to 300 rpm. A composite of LiMnPO 4 /carbon composite was then obtained. 
       Example 3  
       [0037]    The LiMnPO 4 /carbon composite (703061-P-BX1-230) was prepared by high energy milling under air and humidified conditions (3.2% of water) as describe in example 2 and then dried at 230° C. overnight. 
       Comparative Example 
       [0038]    The LiMnPO 4 /carbon composite (sample A) was prepared by simple grinding of LiMnPO 4  with 20 weight % of carbon black under argon and then dried at 230° C. overnight. 
       Example 4 
       [0039]    The LiMnPO 4  particles prepared as described in WO 2007/113624 was treated with manganese acetate water solution. The acetate was in following calcinations step by 400° C. decomposed to manganese oxide. The resulting LiMnPO 4  coated with manganese oxide layer was than coated with carbon so that the manganese oxide layer creates the interface between the active phosphate layer and carbon. 
       Example 5  
       [0040]    A positive electrode composition of LiMnPO 4 /carbon composite active material as described in example 4 was prepared by mixing of the active material (composite) with graphite (KS4 from Timcal) and a binder (polyvinylidene difluoride—PVDF) with the mass ratio (87.5:5:7.5), in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinon. The slurry was then coated on a carbon precoated aluminium foil, serving as the current collector. The N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinon was subsequently evaporated under vacuum at 80° C. overnight. The electrode was then dry at 160° C. overnight under vacuum. 
         [0041]    Structural Analysis of the Materials According to the Invention 
         [0042]    Micro-Raman analyses of the materials according to the invention were performed on a multichannel Renishaw In Via Reflex spectrometer coupled with a Peltier-cooled CCD detector. Excitation was provided by the 785 nm line of a diode laser or 514.5 nm line of the Ar +  laser. The samples were scanned from 100 to 3700 cm −1  wavenumber shift at a spectral resolution of 2 cm −1 . Calibration has been carried out using the Si mode at 520.2 cm −1 . The scanning parameter for each Raman spectrum was taken usually as 10 seconds and 10 (for pure samples) to 30 (for samples with acetylene black) scans were accumulated for each experimental run to provide better signal-to-noise ratios. Multiple spot analyses were carried out on different regions of the same sample to check for spectral reproducibility. 
         [0043]    The three samples obtained according to examples 1 to 3 were compared to samples prepared following a process known from the prior art, these samples being without carbon (pure LiMnPO 4 ). 
         [0044]    The Raman spectra of all studied samples are shown in  FIG. 1  and  FIG. 2 . The spectra of LiMnPO 4  are normalized for the intensity of the ν 1  band of PO 4  at 945 cm −1 . The main bands of the measured samples and comparison to literature data are given in Table 2. 
         [0045]    The spectrum of pure LiMnPO 4  prepared by polyol synthesis (703061-P) reveals Raman bands characteristic for this olivine-type structure 1 . The strongest band in the spectrum centred at ca. 945 cm −1  is assigned as the ν 1  symmetric stretching vibration of the PO 4  tetrahedron. In the 1000-1100 cm −1  region weak bands can be assigned as ν 3  antisymmetric stretching vibrations of the PO 4  tetrahedron (1003, 1015, 1061 and 1075 cm −1 ). In the low to mid-frequency region (bellow 700 cm −1 ) bending vibrations of the PO 4  tetrahedron appear, namely ν 2  (symmetric) at 412 and 438 cm −1  and ν 4  (antisymmetric) at 620, 586 and 575 cm −1 . Very weak bands bellow 400 cm −1  belongs to Mn—O external modes and lattice vibrations. The Li-involving motions are not allowed in Raman, since the Li cations in LiMnPO 4  occupy the 4a sites with C i  symmetry 1 . 
         [0046]    The Raman spectra of the other two pure LiMnPO 4  samples (703061-P-BX2 and 703061-P-BX2-230) show a minor contamination with carbon, as documented by weak broad bands centred at ca. 1350 and 1600 cm −1 , corresponding to D and G bands, respectively of disordered carbon. Despite that, the positions and relative intensities of the LiMnPO 4  bands remain unchanged. 
         [0047]    As can be seen in the  FIG. 1 , the spectra of LiMnPO 4 -Carbon composite (LiMnPO 4 —C) samples show the presence of at least 3 distinct phases: 
         [0048]    Disordered carbon with D and G bands centred at ca. 1350 and 1600 cm −1 , respectively. LiMnPO 4  with the bands as stated above for the phase pure material. 
         [0049]    Unknown phase(s) characterized mainly by the presence of a strong band at 650-665 cm −1  (the exact position depends on a particulate grain and especially on the laser power) and weak bands at ca. 315, 370, 475, 525 and 720 cm −1 . In the higher frequency region a new band at ca. 1040 cm −1  appears. 
         [0050]    As can be seen from  FIG. 1  and Table 2, the band positions of Mn 3 O 4  hausmannite correspond exactly to most of those of the unknown phase in LiMnPO 4 /C. Comparison to literature data supports this assignment, the variation in the 655 cm −1  band position (Mn Π —O stretching vibration) was observed previously 22-24 . However, Mn 3 O 4  is known to be one of the most stable manganese oxides under the laser beam, therefore the presence of e.g. β-MnO 2  (pyrolusite) MnO (manganosit), MnOOH (groutit) or Mn1.85O.6H 2 O (birnessite) can not be excluded. The remaining unassigned bands in the spectra of LiMnPO 4 /C at ca. 525 and 715 cm −1  may be attributed to these oxides 3 . 
         [0051]    So, the three samples prepared according to the invention (examples 1 to 3) show an intermediate layer constituted of manganese oxide. In fact, the presence of a third phase (besides LiMnPO 4  and carbon black) is unambiguously evidenced from the presented data and also from our previous measurements on different sample batches. 
         [0052]    A clear increase of the intensity of the band at 655 cm −1  may be observed in the series: 703061-P-BX3 (example 1)→703061-P-BX3-230 (dried condition, dried at 230° C.)→703061-P-BX1 (example 2)→703061-P-BX1-230 (example 3), which means that the relative content of the unknown phase is the higher for the samples ball-milled in humid conditions (example 2) and also higher when dried at 230° C. overnight (example 3). 
         [0053]    Functional Analysis of the Materials According to the Invention 
         [0054]    The materials described in the present invention were used to formulate a cathode electrode. The electrode for electrochemical testing was prepared by tape casting a N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) slurry of the LiMnPO 4 /C material (90 wt %) with poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF) binder (5 wt %) and acetylene black (5 wt %) on an aluminium current collector. After drying at 160° C. under vacuum, the electrodes were compressed into 23 mm φ disks with a thickness of 50-60 μm, the active material loading being 8 mg/cm 2 . The cells were assembled in Swagelok™ fittings using Li metal foil as the counter electrode with a microporous polymer separator (Celgard 2400™) and liquid electrolyte mixtures containing 1M LiPF 6  in a solvent mixture of propylene carbonate (PC), ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) (1:1:3 by volume). The electrochemical properties of LiMnPO 4  electrodes were measured by galvanostatic charge/discharge and cyclic voltammetry using an Arbin BT 2000 electrochemical measurement system. 
         [0055]    In the  FIG. 3  can be seen the electrochemical performance at different discharging rates for the three samples according to examples 1 to 3. These samples were compared to a sample A which is a mixture of LiMnPO 4  and carbon (no coating process) prepared following a process known from the prior art. 
         [0056]    As can be seen from  FIG. 3 , the LiMnPO 4 /C cathode material of curve 1 prepared as show in the Comparative example which contains no detectable manganese oxide (haussmanite) see  FIG. 2  at the LiMnPO 4 /carbon interface shows very low electrochemical performance. LiMnPO 4 /C cathode materials according to the invention are shown in curves 2-4. The material realized according to example 2 show electrochemical performance superior to the one prepared according to the example 1. The material realized according to example 3 show electrochemical performance superior to the one prepared according to the example 2. So, the electrochemical performances of the three samples (examples 1 to 3) having an increasing concentration of manganese oxides (hausmannite) as detected in  FIG. 1  are improved. 
         [0057]    We can conclude that the LiMnPO 4 /C material prepared by high energy milling both under air and wet conditions and then dried at 230° C. (example 3) shows the best electrochemical performances. 
       REFERENCES  
       [0058]    1. A. K. Padhi, K. S. Nanjundaswamy, and J. B. Goodenough,  J. Electrochem. Soc.  144, (4), 1188-1194 (1997). 
         [0059]    2. A. Yamada, and S. C. Chung,  J. Electrochem. Soc.  148, (8), A960-A967 (2001). 
         [0060]    3. C. Delacourt, L. Laffont, R. Bouchet, C. Wurm, J. B. Leriche, M. Morcrette, J. M. Tarascon, and C. Masquelier,  J. Electrochem. Soc.  152, (5), A913-A921 (2005). 
         [0061]    4. M. Yonemura, A. Yamada, Y. Takei, N. Sonoyama, and R. Kanno,  J. Electrochem. Soc.  151, (9), A1352-A1356 (2004). 
         [0062]    5. C. H. Chen, J. T. Vaughey, A. N. Jansen, D. W. Dees, A. J. Kahaian, T. Goacher, and M. M. Thackeray,  J. Electrochem. Soc.  148, (1), A102-A104 (2001). 
         [0063]    6. S. Q. Shi, L. J. Liu, C. Y. Ouyang, D. S. Wang, Z. X. Wang, L. Q. Chen, and X. J. Huang,  Phys. Rev. B  68, (19), -(2003). 
         [0064]    7. S. Y. Chung, J. T. Bloking, and Y. M. Chiang,  Nature Mater.  1, (2), 123-128 (2002). 
         [0065]    8. P. S. Herle, B. Ellis, N. Coombs, and L. F. Nazar,  Nature Mater.  3, (3), 147-152 (2004). 
         [0066]    9. A. Yamada, S. C. Chung, and K. Hinokuma,  J. Electrochem. Soc.  148, (3), A224-A229 (2001). 
         [0067]    10. P. P. Prosini, M. Carewska, S. Scaccia, P. Wisniewski, and M. Pasquali,  Electrochim. Acta  48, (28), 4205-4211 (2003). 
         [0068]    11. C. H. Mi, X. B. Zhao, G. S. Cao, and J. P. Tu,  J. Electrochem. Soc.  152, (3), A483-A487 (2005). 
         [0069]    12. S. T. Myung, S. Komaba, N. Hirosaki, H. Yashiro, and N. Kumagai,  Electrochim. Acta  49, (24), 4213-4222 (2004). 
         [0070]    13. H. Huang, S. C. Yin, and L. F. Nazar,  Electrochem. Solid - State Lett.  4, (10), A170-A172 (2001). 
         [0071]    14. C. Delacourt, P. Poizot, M. Morcrette, J. M. Tarascon, and C. Masquelier,  Chem. Mater.  16, (1), 93-99 (2004). 
         [0072]    15. N.-H. Kwon, T. Drezen, I. Exnar, I. Teerlinck, M. Isono, M. Graetzel,  Electrochemical and Solid - State Letters  9, (6), A277-A280 (2006). 
         [0073]    16. G. T. K. Fey, R. F. Shiu, V. Subramanian, and C. L. Chen,  Solid State Ionics  148, (3-4), 291-298 (2002). 
         [0074]    17. Y. Q. Hu, M. M. Doeff, R. Kostecki, and R. Finones,  J. Electrochem. Soc.  151, (8), Al279-Al285 (2004). 
         [0075]    18. P. P. Prosini, M. Lisi, D. Zane, and M. Pasquali,  Solid State Ionics  148, (1-2), 45-51 (2002). 
         [0076]    19. R. Yazami, N. Lebrun, M. Bonneau, and M. Molteni,  J. Power Sources  54, (2), 389-392 (1995). 
         [0077]    20. V. Srinivasan, and J. Newman,  J. Electrochem. Soc.  151, (10), A1517-A1529 (2004). 
         [0078]    21. A. S. Andersson, and J. O. Thomas,  J. Power Sources  97-8, 498-502 (2001). 
         [0079]    22. Julien, C. M.; Massot, M.; Poinsignon, C. Lattice vibrations of manganese oxides—Part 1. Periodic structures.  Spectrochimica Acta Part A - Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy  60, (3), 689-700 (2004). 
         [0080]    23. Bernard, M. C.; Goff, A. H. L.; Thi, B. V.; Detorresi, S. C. Electrochromic Reactions in Manganese Oxides .1. Raman Analysis.  J. Electrochem. Soc.  140, (11), 3065-3070 (1993). 
         [0081]    24. Lutz, H. D.; Muller, B.; Steiner, H. J. Lattice Vibration-Spectra .59. Single-Crystal Infrared and Raman Studies of Spinel Type Oxides.  Journal of Solid State Chemistry  90, (1), 54-60 (1991).