Abstract:
A method of testing an array-based semiconductor device for defects during fabrication of the semiconductor device detects defects in said entities forming the semiconductor device at an intermediate stage in the fabrication of multiple types of entities forming the semiconductor device; determines whether the detected defects exceed preselected thresholds for the types of entities in which said detects are detected; if the detected defects do not exceed said preselected thresholds, continues the fabrication of the semiconductor device; and if the detected defects exceed said preselected thresholds, identifies the types of defects detected, repairs the identified defects, and continues the fabrication of the semiconductor device.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application claims the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/890,926, filed May 9, 2013 [Attorney Docket No. 058161-000039USP2], which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/869,399, filed Apr. 24, 2013 [Attorney Docket No. 058161-000039USP1], which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/956,842, filed Nov. 30, 2010 [Attorney Docket No. 058161-000039USPT], which claims priority to Canadian Application No. 2,688,870, filed Nov. 30, 2009 [Attorney Docket No. 058161-000039CAPT], each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
         [0002]    This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/827,404, filed May 24, 2013 [Attorney Docket No. 058161-000039PL03], which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
         [0003]    This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/861,614, filed Aug. 2, 2013 [Attorney Docket No. 058161-000082PL02], and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/814,580, filed Apr. 22, 2013 [Attorney Docket No. 058161-000082PL01], each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. 
     
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0004]    The present disclosure generally relates to active matrix organic light emitting device (AMOLED) displays, and particularly determining aging conditions requiring compensation for the pixels of such displays, and inspection systems for detecting defects and non-uniformities in such displays. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0005]    There is a need for techniques to provide accurate measurement of the display temporal and spatial information and ways of applying this information to improve display uniformity in an AMOLED display. There is also a need to determine baseline measurements of pixel characteristics accurately for aging compensation purposes. 
         [0006]    Both the OLEDs and the thin films transistors (TFTs) used in AMOLED displays can demonstrate non-uniform behavior across display panels due to production problems. Such problems can be corrected if the defects and non-uniformities can be identified at the time the panels are produced, e.g., during or immediately following fabrication. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0007]    In accordance with one embodiment, a system is provided for testing an array-based semiconductor device for defects during fabrication of the semiconductor device by (a) detecting defects in said entities forming the semiconductor device at an intermediate stage in the fabrication of multiple types of entities forming the semiconductor device, (b) determining whether the detected defects exceed preselected thresholds for the types of entities in which said detects are detected, (c) if the detected defects do not exceed said preselected thresholds, continuing the fabrication of the semiconductor device, and (d) if the detected defects exceed said preselected thresholds, identifying the types of defects detected, repairing the identified defects, and continuing the fabrication of the semiconductor device. 
         [0008]    In one implementation, the array-based semiconductor device is an active matrix organic light emitting device (AMOLED) display panel, and the multiple types of entities include at least drive transistors, OLEDs and signal lines. The preselected thresholds may be changed as the number of detected defects increases, and the types of defects may be identified by tests tailored according to the types of entities in which defects are detected. Defects may be detected in the entities by measuring voltages or currents in individual pixels, and comparing the measured values with preselected threshold values for said voltages or currents. The measured current may be the current flowing to a light emitting device of a pixel, and the measured voltage may be the voltage at a connection of a pixel circuit to a light emitting device for that pixel. Defects may be detected in the entities by preselecting a reference level of a current or voltage based on the lowest level of current or voltage in a normal pixel, and comparing a measured current or voltage with the corresponding preselected reference level. 
         [0009]    The foregoing and additional aspects and embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of the detailed description of various embodiments and/or aspects, which is made with reference to the drawings, a brief description of which is provided next. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0010]    The foregoing and other advantages of the invention will become apparent upon reading the following detailed description and upon reference to the drawings. 
           [0011]      FIG. 1  is a block diagram of a AMOLED display with reference pixels to correct data for parameter compensation control; 
           [0012]      FIG. 2A  is a block diagram of a driver circuit of one of the pixels of the AMOLED that may be tested for aging parameters; 
           [0013]      FIG. 2B  is a circuit diagram of a driver circuit of one of the pixels of the AMOLED; 
           [0014]      FIG. 3  is a block diagram for a system to determine one of the baseline aging parameters for a device under test; 
           [0015]      FIG. 4A  is a block diagram of the current comparator in  FIG. 3  for comparison of a reference current level to the device under test for use in aging compensation; 
           [0016]      FIG. 4B  is a detailed circuit diagram of the current comparator in  FIG. 4A ; 
           [0017]      FIG. 4C  is a detailed block diagram of the device under test in  FIG. 3  coupled to the current comparator in  FIG. 4A ; 
           [0018]      FIG. 5A  is a signal timing diagram of the signals for the current comparator in  FIGS. 3-4  in the process of determining the current output of a device under test; 
           [0019]      FIG. 5B  is a signal timing diagram of the signals for calibrating the bias current for the current comparator in  FIGS. 3-4 ; 
           [0020]      FIG. 6  is a block diagram of a reference current system to compensate for the aging of the AMOLED display in  FIG. 1 ; 
           [0021]      FIG. 7  is a block diagram of a system for the use of multiple luminance profiles for adjustment of a display in different circumstances; 
           [0022]      FIG. 8  are frame diagrams of video frames for calibration of pixels in a display; and 
           [0023]      FIG. 9  is a graph showing the use of a small current applied to a reference pixel for more accurate aging compensation. 
           [0024]      FIG. 10  is a diagrammatic illustration of a display having a matrix of pixels that includes rows of reference pixels. 
           [0025]      FIG. 11  is a timing diagram for aging compensation by applying a resetting cycle before programming during which the pixel is programmed with a reset value. 
           [0026]      FIG. 12A  is a circuit diagram of a pixel circuit with IR drop compensation. 
           [0027]      FIG. 12B  is a timing diagram for normal operation of the pixel circuit of  FIG. 12A . 
           [0028]      FIG. 12C  is a timing diagram for a direct TFT readout from the pixel circuit of  FIG. 12A . 
           [0029]      FIG. 12D  is a timing diagram for a direct OLED readout from the pixel circuit of  FIG. 12A . 
           [0030]      FIG. 13A  is a circuit diagram of a pixel circuit with charge-based compensation. 
           [0031]      FIG. 13B  is a timing diagram for normal operation of the pixel circuit of  FIG. 13A . 
           [0032]      FIG. 13C  is a timing diagram for a direct TFT readout from the pixel circuit of  FIG. 13A . 
           [0033]      FIG. 13D  is a timing diagram for a direct OLED readout from the pixel circuit of  FIG. 13A . 
           [0034]      FIG. 13E  is a timing diagram for an indirect OLED readout from the pixel circuit of  FIG. 13A . 
           [0035]      FIG. 14  is a circuit diagram of a biased pixel circuit. 
           [0036]      FIG. 15A  is a circuit diagram of a pixel circuit with a signal line connected to an OLED and pixel circuit. 
           [0037]      FIG. 15B  is a circuit diagram of a pixel circuit with an ITO electrode patterned as a signal line. 
           [0038]      FIG. 16  is a schematic diagram of a pad arrangement for the probing of a panel. 
           [0039]      FIG. 17  is a circuit diagram of a pixel circuit used for backplane testing. 
           [0040]      FIG. 18  is a circuit diagram of a pixel circuit used for full-display testing. 
           [0041]      FIG. 19  is a diagrammatic perspective illustration of a display panel adapted to receive a probe card. 
           [0042]      FIG. 20  is a diagrammatic front elevation of the display panel shown in  FIG. 1 , showing the locations of probe pads for receiving probe cards. 
           [0043]      FIG. 21  is a diagram of a pair of probe pads connected to a multiplexer used to supply probe signals to the probe pads. 
           [0044]      FIG. 22  is a schematic circuit diagram of one of the probe pads illustrated in  FIG. 3  connected to receive the display signals. 
           [0045]      FIG. 23  is a diagrammatic illustration of an inspection system for taking measurements of an AMOLED panel, and various corrective actions that can be taken to fix defects identified by analysis of the measurements. 
           [0046]      FIG. 24  is a schematic circuit diagram of a pixel circuit having a signal WR. 
           [0047]      FIG. 25  is a circuit diagram of a pair of pixel circuits suitable for inspection. 
       
    
    
       [0048]    While the present disclosure is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and will be described in detail herein. It should be understood, however, that the present disclosure is not intended to be limited to the particular forms disclosed. Rather, the present disclosure is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. 
       DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0049]      FIG. 1  is an electronic display system  100  having an active matrix area or pixel array  102  in which an array of active pixels  104   a - d  are arranged in a row and column configuration. For ease of illustration, only two rows and columns are shown. External to the active matrix area which is the pixel array  102  is a peripheral area  106  where peripheral circuitry for driving and controlling the area of the pixel array  102  are disposed. The peripheral circuitry includes a gate or address driver circuit  108 , a source or data driver circuit  110 , a controller  112 , and an optional supply voltage (e.g., Vdd) driver  114 . The controller  112  controls the gate, source, and supply voltage drivers  108 ,  110 ,  114 . The gate driver  108 , under control of the controller  112 , operates on address or select lines SEL[i], SEL[i+1], and so forth, one for each row of pixels  104  in the pixel array  102 . In pixel sharing configurations described below, the gate or address driver circuit  108  can also optionally operate on global select lines GSEL[j] and optionally /GSEL[j], which operate on multiple rows of pixels  104   a - d  in the pixel array  102 , such as every two rows of pixels  104   a - d . The source driver circuit  110 , under control of the controller  112 , operates on voltage data lines Vdata[k], Vdata[k+1], and so forth, one for each column of pixels  104   a - d  in the pixel array  102 . The voltage data lines carry voltage programming information to each pixel  104  indicative of brightness of each light emitting device in the pixel  104 . A storage element, such as a capacitor, in each pixel  104  stores the voltage programming information until an emission or driving cycle turns on the light emitting device. The optional supply voltage driver  114 , under control of the controller  112 , controls a supply voltage (EL_Vdd) line, one for each row of pixels  104   a - d  in the pixel array  102 . 
         [0050]    The display system  100  may also include a current source circuit, which supplies a fixed current on current bias lines. In some configurations, a reference current can be supplied to the current source circuit. In such configurations, a current source control controls the timing of the application of a bias current on the current bias lines. In configurations in which the reference current is not supplied to the current source circuit, a current source address driver controls the timing of the application of a bias current on the current bias lines. 
         [0051]    As is known, each pixel  104   a - d  in the display system  100  needs to be programmed with information indicating the brightness of the light emitting device in the pixel  104   a - d . A frame defines the time period that includes a programming cycle or phase during which each and every pixel in the display system  100  is programmed with a programming voltage indicative of a brightness and a driving or emission cycle or phase during which each light emitting device in each pixel is turned on to emit light at a brightness commensurate with the programming voltage stored in a storage element. A frame is thus one of many still images that compose a complete moving picture displayed on the display system  100 . There are at least two schemes for programming and driving the pixels: row-by-row, or frame-by-frame. In row-by-row programming, a row of pixels is programmed and then driven before the next row of pixels is programmed and driven. In frame-by-frame programming, all rows of pixels in the display system  100  are programmed first, and all of the frames are driven row-by-row. Either scheme can employ a brief vertical blanking time at the beginning or end of each frame during which the pixels are neither programmed nor driven. 
         [0052]    The components located outside of the pixel array  102  may be disposed in a peripheral area  106  around the pixel array  102  on the same physical substrate on which the pixel array  102  is disposed. These components include the gate driver  108 , the source driver  110  and the optional supply voltage control  114 . Alternately, some of the components in the peripheral area can be disposed on the same substrate as the pixel array  102  while other components are disposed on a different substrate, or all of the components in the peripheral area can be disposed on a substrate different from the substrate on which the pixel array  102  is disposed. Together, the gate driver  108 , the source driver  110 , and the supply voltage control  114  make up a display driver circuit. The display driver circuit in some configurations may include the gate driver  108  and the source driver  110  but not the supply voltage control  114 . 
         [0053]    The display system  100  further includes a current supply and readout circuit  120 , which reads output data from data output lines, VD [k], VD [k+1], and so forth, one for each column of pixels  104   a ,  104   c  in the pixel array  102 . A set of column reference pixels  130  is fabricated on the edge of the pixel array  102  at the end of each column such as the column of pixels  104   a  and  104   c . The column reference pixels  130  also may receive input signals from the controller  112  and output data signals to the current supply and readout circuit  120 . The column reference pixels  130  include the drive transistor and an OLED but are not part of the pixel array  102  that displays images. As will be explained below, the column reference pixels  130  are not driven for most of the programming cycle because they are not part of the pixel array  102  to display images and therefore do not age from the constant application of programming voltages as compared to the pixels  104   a  and  104   c . Although only one column reference pixel  130  is shown in  FIG. 1 , it is to be understood that there may be any number of column reference pixels although two to five such reference pixels may be used for each column of pixels in this example. Each row of pixels in the array  102  also includes row reference pixels  132  at the ends of each row of pixels  104   a - d  such as the pixels  104   a  and  104   b . The row reference pixels  132  include the drive transistor and an OLED but are not part of the pixel array  102  that displays images. As will be explained the row reference pixels  132  have the function of providing a reference check for luminance curves for the pixels which were determined at the time of production. 
         [0054]      FIG. 2A  shows a block diagram of a driver circuit  200  for the pixel  104  in  FIG. 1 . The driver circuit  200  includes a drive device  202 , an organic light emitting device (“OLED”)  204 , a storage element  206 , and a switching device  208 . A voltage source  212  is coupled to the drive transistor  206 . A select line  214  is coupled to the switching device to activate the driver circuit  200 . A data line  216  allows a programming voltage to be applied to the drive device  202 . A monitoring line  218  allows outputs of the OLED  204  and or the drive device  202  to be monitored. Alternatively, the monitor line  218  and the data line  216  may be merged into one line (i.e. Data/Mon) to carry out both the programming and monitoring functions through that single line. 
         [0055]      FIG. 2B  shows one example of a circuit to implement the driver circuit  200  in  FIG. 2A . As shown in  FIG. 2B , the drive device  202  is a drive transistor which is a thin film transistor in this example that is fabricated from amorphous silicon. The storage element  206  is a capacitor in this example. The switching device  208  includes a select transistor  226  and a monitoring transistor  230  that switch the different signals to the drive circuit  200 . The select line  214  is coupled to the select transistor  226  and the monitoring transistor  230 . During the readout time, the select line  214  is pulled high. A programming voltage may be applied via the programming voltage input line  216 . A monitoring voltage may be read from the monitoring line  218  that is coupled to the monitoring transistor  230 . The signal to the select line  214  may be sent in parallel with the pixel programming cycle. As will be explained below, the driver circuit  200  may be periodically tested by applying reference voltage to the gate of the drive transistor. 
         [0056]    There are several techniques for extracting electrical characteristics data from a device under test (DUT) such as the display system  100 . The device under test (DUT) can be any material (or device) including (but not limited to) a light emitting diode (LED), or OLED. This measurement may be effective in determining the aging (and/or uniformity) of an OLED in a panel composed of an array of pixels such as the array  102  in  FIG. 1 . This extracted data can be stored in lookup tables as raw or processed data in memory in the controller  112  in  FIG. 1 . The lookup tables may be used to compensate for any shift in the electrical parameters of the backplane (e.g., threshold voltage shift) or OLED (e.g., shift in the OLED operating voltage). Despite using an OLED display in  FIG. 1  in these examples, the techniques described herein may be applied to any display technology including but not limited to OLED, liquid crystal displays (LCD), light emitting diode displays, or plasma displays. In the case of OLED, the electrical information measured may provide an indication of any aging that may have occurred. 
         [0057]    Current may be applied to the device under test and the output voltage may be measured. In this example, the voltage is measured with an analog to digital converter (ADC). A higher programming voltage is necessary for a device such as an OLED that ages as compared to the programming voltage for a new OLED for the same output. This method gives a direct measurement of that voltage change for the device under test. Current flow can be in any direction but the current is generally fed into the device under test (DUT) for illustration purposes. 
         [0058]      FIG. 3  is a block diagram of a comparison system  300  that may be used to determine a baseline value for a device under test  302  to determine the effects of aging on the device under test  302 . The comparison system uses two reference currents to determine the baseline current output of the device under test  302 . The device under test  302  may be either the drive transistor such as the drive transistor  202  in  FIG. 2B  or an OLED such as the OLED  204  in  FIG. 2B . Of course other types of display devices may also be tested using the system shown in  FIG. 3 . The device under test  302  has a programming voltage input  304  that is held at a constant level to output a current. A current comparator  306  has a first reference current input  308  and a second reference current input  310 . The reference current input  308  is coupled to a first reference current source  312  via a switch  314 . The second current input  310  of the comparator  306  is coupled to a second reference current source  316  via a switch  318 . An output  320  of the device under test  302  is also coupled to the second current input  310 . The current comparator  306  includes a comparison output  322 . 
         [0059]    By keeping the voltage to the input  304  constant, the output current of the device under test  302  is also constant. This current depends on the characteristics of the device under test  302 . A constant current is established for the first reference current from the first reference current source  312  and via the switch  314  the first reference current is applied to the first input  308  of the current comparator  306 . The second reference current is adjusted to different levels with each level being connected via the switch  318  to the second input  310  of the comparator  306 . The second reference current is combined with the output current of the device under test  302 . Since the first and second reference current levels are known, the difference between the two reference current levels from the output  322  of the current comparator  306  is the current level of the device under test  302 . The resulting output current is stored for the device under test  302  and compared with the current measured based on the same programming voltage level periodically during the lifetime operation of the device under test  302  to determine the effects of aging. 
         [0060]    The resulting determined device current may be stored in look up tables for each device in the display. As the device under test  302  ages, the current will change from the expected level and therefore the programming voltage may be changed to compensate for the effects of aging based on the base line current determined through the calibration process in  FIG. 3 . 
         [0061]      FIG. 4A  is a block diagram of a current comparator circuit  400  that may be used to compare reference currents with a device under test  302  such as in  FIG. 3 . The current comparator circuit  400  has a control junction  402  that allows various current inputs such as two reference currents and the current of the device under test such as the pixel driver circuit  200  in  FIG. 1 . The current may be a positive current when the current of the drive transistor  202  is compared or negative when the current of the OLED  204  is compared. The current comparator circuit  400  also includes an operational trans-resistance amplifier circuit  404 , a preamplifier  406  and a voltage comparator circuit  408  that produces a voltage output  410 . The combined currents are input to the operational trans-resistance amplifier circuit  404  and converted to a voltage. The voltage is fed to the preamplifier and the voltage comparator circuit  408  determines whether the difference in currents is positive or negative and outputs a respective one or a zero value. 
         [0062]      FIG. 4B  is a circuit diagram of the components of the example current comparator system  400  in  FIG. 4A  that may be used to compare the currents as described in the process in  FIG. 3  for a device under test such as the device  302 . The operational trans-resistance amplifier circuit  404  includes an operational amplifier  412 , a first voltage input  414  (CMP_VB), a second voltage input  416  (CMP_VB), a current input  418 , and a bias current source  420 . The operational trans-resistance amplifier circuit  404  also includes two calibration switches  424  and  426 . As will be explained below, various currents such as the current of the device under test  302 , a variable first reference current and a fixed second reference current as shown in  FIG. 3  are coupled to the current input  418  in this example. Of course, the fixed second reference current may be set to zero if desired. 
         [0063]    The first reference current input is coupled to the negative input of the operational amplifier  412 . The negative input of the operational amplifier  412  is therefore coupled to the output current of the device under test  302  in  FIG. 3  as well as one or two reference currents. The positive input of the operational amplifier  412  is coupled to the first voltage input  414 . The output of the operational amplifier  412  is coupled to the gate of a transistor  432 . A resistor  434  is coupled between the negative input of the operational amplifier  412  and the source of the transistor  432 . A resistor  436  is coupled between the source of the transistor  432  and the second voltage input  416 . 
         [0064]    The drain of the transistor  432  is coupled directly to the drain of a transistor  446  and via the calibration switch  426  to the gate. A sampling capacitor  444  is coupled between the gate of the transistor  446  and a voltage supply rail  411  through a switch  424 . The source of the  446  is also coupled to the supply rail  411 . The drain and gate of the transistor  446  are coupled to the gate terminals of transistors  440  and  442 , respectively. The sources of the transistors  440  and  442  are tied together and coupled to a bias current source  438 . The drains of the transistors  442  and  440  are coupled to respective transistors  448  and  450  which are wired in diode-connected configuration to the supply voltage rail  411 . As shown in  FIG. 4B , the transistors  440 ,  442 ,  448  and  450  and the bias current source  438  are parts of the preamplifier  406   
         [0065]    The drains of the transistors  442  and  440  are coupled to the gates of the respective transistors  452  and  454 . The drains of the transistors  452  and  454  are coupled to the transistors  456  and  458 . The drains of the transistors  456  and  458  are coupled to the respective sources of the transistors  460  and  462 . The drain and gate terminals of the transistors  460  and  462  are coupled to the respective drain and gate terminals of the transistors  464  and  466 . The source terminals of the transistors  464  and  466  are coupled to the supply voltage rail  411 . The sources and drains of the transistors  464  and  466  are tied to the respective sources and drains of transistors  468  and  470 . The gates of the transistors  456  and  458  are tied to an enable input  472 . The enable input  472  is also tied to the gates of dual transistors  468  and  470 . 
         [0066]    A buffer circuit  474  is coupled to the drain of the transistor  462  and the gate of the transistor  460 . The output voltage  410  is coupled to a buffer circuit  476  which is coupled to the drain of the transistor  460  and the gate of the transistor  462 . The buffer circuit  474  is used to balance the buffer  476 . The transistors  452 ,  454 ,  456 ,  458 ,  460 ,  462 ,  464 ,  466 ,  468  and  470  and the buffer circuits  474  and  476  make up the voltage comparator circuit  408 . 
         [0067]    The current comparator system  400  may be based on any integrated circuit technology including but not limited to CMOS semiconductor fabrication. The components of the current comparator system  400  are CMOS devices in this example. The values for the input voltages  414  and  416  are determined for a given reference current level from the first current input  418  (I ref ). In this example, the voltage levels for both the input voltages  414  and  416  are the same. The voltage inputs  414  and  416  to the operational amplifier  412  may be controlled using a digital to analog converter (DAC) device which is not shown in  FIG. 4 . Level shifters can also be added if the voltage ranges of the DACs are insufficient. The bias current may originate from a voltage controlled current source such as a transimpedance amplifier circuit or a transistor such as a thin film transistor. 
         [0068]      FIG. 4C  shows a detailed block diagram of one example of a test system such as the system  300  shown in  FIG. 3 . The test system in  FIG. 4C  is coupled to a device under test  302  which may be a pixel driver circuit such as the pixel driver circuit  200  shown in  FIG. 2 . In this example, all of the driver circuits for a panel display are tested. A gate driver circuit  480  is coupled to the select lines of all of the driver circuits. The gate driver circuit  480  includes an enable input, which in this example enables the device under test  302  when the signal on the input is low. 
         [0069]    The device under test  302  receives a data signal from a source driver circuit  484 . The source circuit  484  may be a source driver such as the source driver  120  in  FIG. 1 . The data signal is a programming voltage of a predetermined value. The device under test  302  outputs a current on a monitoring line when the gate driver circuit  480  enables the device. The output of the monitoring line from the device under test  302  is coupled to an analog multiplexer circuit  482  that allows multiple devices to be tested. In this example, the analog multiplexer circuit  482  allows multiplexing of 210 inputs, but of course any number of inputs may be multiplexed. 
         [0070]    The signal output from the device under test  302  is coupled to the reference current input  418  of the operational trans-resistance amplifier circuit  404 . In this example a variable reference current source is coupled to the current input  418  as described in  FIG. 3 . In this example, there is no fixed reference current such as the first reference current source in  FIG. 3 . The value of first reference current source in  FIG. 3  in this example is therefore considered to be zero. 
         [0071]      FIG. 5A  is a timing diagram of the signals for the current comparator shown in  FIGS. 4A-4C . The timing diagram in  FIG. 5A  shows a gate enable signal  502  to the gate driver  480  in  FIG. 4C , a CSE enable signal  504  that is coupled to the analog multiplexer  482 , a current reference signal  506  that is produced by a variable reference current source that is set at a predetermined level for each iteration of the test process and coupled to the current input  418 , a calibration signal  508  that controls the calibration switch  426 , a calibration signal  510  that controls the calibration switch  424 , a comparator enable signal  512  that is coupled to the enable input  472 , and the output voltage  514  over the output  410 . The CSE enable signal  504  is kept high to ensure that any leakage on the monitoring line of the device under test  302  is eliminated in the final current comparison. 
         [0072]    In a first phase  520 , the gate enable signal  502  is pulled high and therefore the output of the device under test  302  in  FIG. 4C  is zero. The only currents that are input to the current comparator  400  are therefore leakage currents from the monitoring line of the device under test  302 . The output of the reference current  506  is also set to zero such that the optimum quiescent condition of the transistors  432  and  436  in  FIGS. 4B and 4C  is minimally affected only by line leakage or the offset of the readout circuitry. The calibration signal  508  is set high causing the calibration switch  426  to close. The calibration signal  510  is set high to cause the calibration switch  424  to close. The comparator enable signal  512  is set low and therefore the output from the voltage comparator circuit  408  is reset to a logical one. The leakage current is therefore input to the current input  418  and a voltage representing the leakage current of the monitoring line on the panel is stored on the capacitor  444 . 
         [0073]    In a second phase  522 , the gate enable signal  502  is pulled low and therefore the output of the device under test  302  produces an unknown current at a set programming voltage input from the source circuit  484 . The current from the device under test  302  is input through the current input  418  along with the reference current  506  which is set at a first predetermined value and opposite the direction of the current of the device under test. The current input  418  therefore is the difference between the reference current  506  and the current from the device under test  302 . The calibration signal  510  is momentarily set low to open the switch  424 . The calibration signal  508  is then set low and therefore the switch  426  is opened. The calibration signal  510  to the switch  424  is then set high to close the switch  424  to stabilize the voltage on the gate terminal of the transistor  446 . The comparator enable signal  512  remains low and therefore there is no output from the voltage comparator circuit  408 . 
         [0074]    In a third phase  524 , the comparator enable signal  512  is pulled high and the voltage comparator  408  produces an output on the voltage output  410 . In this example, a positive voltage output logical one for the output voltage signal  514  indicates a positive current therefore showing that the current of the device under test  302  is greater than the predetermined reference current. A zero voltage on the voltage output  410  indicates a negative current showing that the current of the device under test  302  is less than the predetermined level of the reference current. In this manner, any difference between the current of the device under test and the reference current is amplified and detected by the current comparator circuit  400 . The value of the reference current is then shifted based on the result to a second predetermined level and the phases  520 ,  522  and  524  are repeated. Adjusting the reference current allows the comparator circuit  400  to be used by the test system to determine the current output by the device under test  302 . 
         [0075]      FIG. 5B  is a timing diagram of the signals applied to the test system shown in  FIG. 4C  in order to determine an optimal bias current value for the bias current source  420  in  FIG. 4B  for the operational trans-resistance amplifier circuit  404 . In order to achieve the maximum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for the current comparator circuit  400  it is essential to calibrate the current comparator. The calibration is achieved by means of fine tuning of the bias current source  420 . The optimum bias current level for the bias current source  420  minimizes the noise power during the measurement of a pixel which is also a function of the line leakage. Accordingly, it is required to capture the line leakage during the calibration of the current comparator. 
         [0076]    The timing diagram in  FIG. 5B  shows a gate enable signal  552  to the gate driver  480  in  FIG. 4C , a CSE enable signal  554  that is coupled to the analog multiplexer  482 , a current reference signal  556  that is produced by a variable reference current source that is set at a predetermined level for each iteration of the calibration process and coupled to the current input  418 , a calibration signal  558  that controls the calibration switch  426 , a comparator enable signal  560  that is coupled to the enable input  472 , and the output voltage  562  over the output  410 . 
         [0077]    The CSE enable signal  554  is kept high to ensure that any leakage on the line is included in the calibration process. The gate enable signal  552  is also kept high in order to prevent the device under test  302  from outputting current from any data inputs. In a first phase  570 , the calibration signal  556  is pulled high thereby closing the calibration switch  426 . Another calibration signal is pulled high to close the calibration switch  424 . The comparator enable signal  558  is pulled low in order to reset the voltage output from the voltage comparator circuit  408 . Any leakage current from the monitoring line of the device under test  302  is converted to a voltage which is stored on the capacitor  444 . 
         [0078]    A second phase  572  occurs when the calibration signal to the switch  424  is pulled low and then the calibration signal  556  is pulled low thereby opening the switch  426 . The signal to the switch  424  is then pulled high closing the switch  424 . A small current is output from the reference current source to the current input  418 . The small current value is a minimum value corresponding to the minimum detectable signal (MDS) range of the current comparator  400 . 
         [0079]    A third phase  574  occurs when the comparator enable signal  560  is pulled high thereby allowing the voltage comparator circuit  408  to read the inputs. The output of the voltage comparator circuit  408  on the output  410  should be positive indicating a positive current comparison with the leakage current. 
         [0080]    A fourth phase  576  occurs when the calibration signal  556  is pulled high again thereby closing the calibration switch  426 . The comparator enable signal  558  is pulled low in order to reset the voltage output from the voltage comparator circuit  408 . Any leakage current from the monitoring line of the device under test  302  is converted to a voltage which is stored on the capacitor  444 . 
         [0081]    A fifth phase  578  occurs when the calibration signal to the switch  424  is pulled low and then the calibration signal  556  is pulled low thereby opening the switch  426 . The signal to the switch  424  is then pulled high closing the switch  424 . A small current is output from the reference current source to the current input  418 . The small current value is a minimum value corresponding to the minimum detectable signal (MDS) range of the current comparator  400  but is a negative current as opposed to the positive current in the second phase  572 . 
         [0082]    A sixth phase  580  occurs when the comparator enable signal  560  is pulled high thereby allowing the voltage comparator circuit  408  to read the inputs. The output of the voltage comparator circuit  408  on the output  410  should be zero indicating a negative current comparison with the leakage current. 
         [0083]    The phases  570 ,  572 ,  574 ,  576 ,  578  and  580  are repeated. By adjusting the value of the bias current, eventually the rate of the valid output voltage toggles between a one and a zero will maximize indicating an optimal bias current value. 
         [0084]      FIG. 6  is a block diagram of the compensation components of the controller  112  of the display system  100  in  FIG. 1 . The compensation components include an aging extraction unit  600 , a backplane aging/matching module  602 , a color/share gamma correction module  604 , an OLED aging memory  606 , and a compensation module  608 . The backplane with the electronic components for driving the display system  100  may be any technology including (but not limited to) amorphous silicon, poly silicon, crystalline silicon, organic semiconductors, oxide semiconductors. Also, the display system  100  may be any display material (or device) including (but not limited to) LEDs, or OLEDs. 
         [0085]    The aging extraction unit  600  is coupled to receive output data from the array  102  based on inputs to the pixels of the array and corresponding outputs for testing the effects of aging on the array  102 . The aging extraction unit  600  uses the output of the column reference pixels  130  as a baseline for comparison with the output of the active pixels  104   a - d  in order to determine the aging effects on each of the pixels  104   a - d  on each of the columns that include the respective column reference pixels  130 . Alternatively, the average value of the pixels in the column may be calculated and compared to the value of the reference pixel. The color/share gamma correction module  604  also takes data from the column reference pixels  130  to determine appropriate color corrections to compensate from aging effects on the pixels. The baseline to compare the measurements for the comparison may be stored in lookup tables on the memory  606 . The backplane aging/matching module  602  calculates adjustments for the components of the backplane and electronics of the display. The compensation module  608  is provided inputs from the extraction unit  600  the backplane/matching module  602  and the color/share gamma correction module  604  in order to modify programming voltages to the pixels  104   a - d  in  FIG. 1  to compensate for aging effects. The compensation module  608  accesses the look up table for the base data for each of the pixels  104   a - d  on the array  102  to be used in conjunction with calibration data. The compensation module  608  modifies the programming voltages to the pixels  104   a - d  accordingly based on the values in the look up table and the data obtained from the pixels in the display array  102 . 
         [0086]    The controller  112  in  FIG. 2  measures the data from the pixels  104   a - d  in the display array  102  in  FIG. 1  to correctly normalize the data collected during measurement. The column reference pixels  130  assist in these functions for the pixels on each of the columns. The column reference pixels  130  may be located outside the active viewing area represented by the pixels  104   a - d  in  FIG. 1 , but such reference pixels may also be embedded within the active viewing areas. The column reference pixels  130  are preserved with a controlled condition such as being un-aged, or aged in a predetermined fashion, to provide offset and cancellation information for measurement data of the pixels  104   a - d  in the display array  102 . This information helps the controller  112  cancel out common mode noise from external sources such as room temperature, or within the system itself such as leakage currents from other pixels  104   a - d . Using a weighted average from several pixels on the array  102  may also provide information on panel-wide characteristics to address problems such as voltage drops due to the resistance across the panel, i.e. current/resistance (IR) drop. Information from the column reference pixels  130  being stressed by a known and controlled source may be used in a compensation algorithm run by the compensation module  608  to reduce compensation errors occurring from any divergence. Various column reference pixels  130  may be selected using the data collected from the initial baseline measurement of the panel. Bad reference pixels are identified, and alternate reference pixels  130  may be chosen to insure further reliability. Of course it is to be understood that the row reference pixels  132  may be used instead of the column reference pixels  130  and the row may be used instead of columns for the calibration and measurement. 
         [0087]    In displays that use external readout circuits to compensate the drift in pixel characteristics, the readout circuits read at least one of current, voltage and charge from the pixels when the pixels are supplied with known input signals over time. The readout signals are translated into the pixel parameters&#39; drift and used to compensate for the pixel characteristics change. These systems are mainly prone to the shift in the readout circuitry changes due to different phenomena such as temperature variation, aging, leakage and more. As depicted in  FIG. 10 , rows of reference pixels (the cross hatched pixels in  FIG. 10 ) may be used to remove these effects from the readout circuit, and these reference rows may be used in the display array. These rows of reference pixels are biased in a way that they are substantially immune to aging. The readout circuits read these rows as well as normal display rows. After that, the readout values of the normal rows are trimmed by the reference values to eliminate the unwanted effects. Since each column is connected to one readout circuit, a practical way is to use the reference pixels in a column to tune its normal pixels. 
         [0088]    The major change will be the global effects on the panel such as temperature which affects both reference pixel and normal pixel circuits. In this case, this effect will be eliminated from the compensation value and so there will be a separated compensation for such phenomena. 
         [0089]    To provide compensation for global phenomena without extra compensation factors or sensors, the effect of global phenomena is subtracted from the reference pixels. There are different methods to calculate the effect of the global phenomena. However, the direct effects are: 
         [0090]    Average reference value: here, the average value of the reference pixel values is used as effect of global phenomena. Then this value can be subtracted from all the reference pixels. As a result, if the reference values are modified with a global phenomenon it will be subtracted from them. Thus, when the pixel measured values are being trimmed by the reference values, the global effect in the pixel values will stay intact. Therefore, it will be able to compensate for such an effect. 
         [0091]    Master reference pixels: another method is to use master reference pixels (the master references can be a subset of the reference pixels or completely different ones). Similar to the pervious method, the average value of master references is subtracted from the reference pixel circuits resulting in leaving the effect of global phenomena in the pixel measured values. 
         [0092]    There are various compensation methods that may make use of the column reference pixels  130  in  FIG. 1 . For example in thin film transistor measurement, the data value required for the column reference pixel  130  to output a current is subtracted from the data value of a pixel  104   a - d  in the same column of pixels in the active area (the pixel array  102 ) to output the same current. The measurement of both the column reference pixels  130  and pixels  104   a - d  may occur very close in time, e.g. during the same video frame. Any difference in current indicates the effects of aging on the pixels  104   a - d . The resulting value may be used by the controller  112  to calculate the appropriate adjustment to programming voltage to the pixels  104   a - d  to maintain the same luminance during the lifetime of the display. Another use of a column reference pixel  130  is to provide a reference current for the other pixels  104  to serve as a baseline and determine the aging effects on the current output of those pixels. The reference pixels  130  may simplify the data manipulation since some of the common mode noise cancellation is inherent in the measurement because the reference pixels  130  have common data and supply lines as the active pixels  104 . The row reference pixels  132  may be measured periodically for the purpose of verifying that luminance curves for the pixels that are stored for use of the controller for compensation during display production are correct. 
         [0093]    A measurement of the drive transistors and OLEDs of all of the driver circuits such as the driver circuit  200  in  FIG. 2  on a display before shipping the display take 60-120 seconds for a 1080p display, and will detect any shorted and open drive transistors and OLEDs (which result in stuck or unlit pixels). It will also detect non-uniformities in drive transistor or OLED performance (which result in luminance non-uniformities). This technique may replace optical inspection by a digital camera, removing the need for this expensive component in the production facility. AMOLEDs that use color filters cannot be fully inspected electrically, since color filters are a purely optical component. In this case, technology that compensates for aging such as MAXLIFE™ from Ignis may be useful in combination with an optical inspection step, by providing extra diagnostic information and potentially reducing the complexity of optical inspection. 
         [0094]    These measurements provide more data than an optical inspection may provide. Knowing whether a point defect is due to a short or open driver transistor or a short or open OLED may help to identify the root cause or flaw in the production process. For example, the most common cause for a short circuit OLED is particulate contamination that lands on the glass during processing, shorting the anode and cathode of the OLED. An increase in OLED short circuits could indicate that the production line should be shut down for chamber cleaning, or searches could be initiated for new sources of particles (changes in processes, or equipment, or personnel, or materials). 
         [0095]    A relaxation system for compensating for aging effects such as the MAXLIFE™ system may correct for process non-uniformities, which increases yield of the display. However the measured current and voltage relationships or characteristics in the TFT or OLED are useful for diagnostics as well. For example, the shape of an OLED current-voltage characteristic may reveal increased resistance. A likely cause might be variations in the contact resistance between the transistor source/drain metal and the ITO (in a bottom emission AMOLED). If OLEDs in a corner of a display showed a different current-voltage characteristic, a likely cause could be mask misalignment in the fabrication process. 
         [0096]    A streak or circular area on the display with different OLED current-voltage characteristics could be due to defects in the manifolds used to disperse the organic vapor in the fabrication process. In one possible scenario, a small particle of OLED material may flake from an overhead shield and land on the manifold, partially obstructing the orifice. The measurement data would show the differing OLED current-voltage characteristics in a specific pattern which would help to quickly diagnose the issue. Due to the accuracy of the measurements (for example, the 4.8 inch display measures current with a resolution of 100 nA), and the measurement of the OLED current-voltage characteristic itself (instead of the luminance), variations can be detected that are not visible with optical inspection. 
         [0097]    This high-accuracy data may be used for statistical process control, identifying when a process has started to drift outside of its control limits. This may allow corrective action to be taken early (in either the OLED or drive transistor (TFT) fabrication process), before defects are detected in the finished product. The measurement sample is maximized since every TFT and OLED on every display is sampled. 
         [0098]    If the drive transistor and the OLED are both functioning properly, a reading in the expected range will be returned for the components. The pixel driver circuit requires that the OLED be off when the drive transistor is measured (and vice-versa), so if the drive transistor or OLED is in a short circuit, it will obscure the measurement of the other. If the OLED is a short circuit (so the current reading is MAX), the data will show the drive transistor is an open circuit (current reading MIN) but in reality, the drive transistor could be operational or an open circuit. If extra data about the drive transistor is needed, temporarily disconnecting the supply voltage (EL_VSS) and allowing it to float will yield a correct drive transistor measurement indicating whether the TFT is actually operational or in an open circuit. 
         [0099]    In the same way, if the drive transistor is a short circuit, the data will show the OLED is an open circuit (but the OLED could be operational or an open circuit). If extra data about the OLED is needed, disconnecting the supply voltage (EL_VDD) and allowing it to float will yield a correct OLED measurement indicating whether the OLED is actually operational or in an open circuit. 
         [0100]    If both the OLED and TFT in a pixel behave as a short circuit, one of the elements in the pixel (likely the contact between TFT and OLED) will quickly burn out during the measurement, causing an open circuit, and moving to a different state. These results are summarized in Table 1 below. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 OLED 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Short 
                 OK 
                 Open 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Drive transistor 
                 Short 
                 n/a 
                 TFT max 
                 TFT max 
               
               
                 (TFT) 
                   
                   
                 OLED min 
                 OLED min 
               
               
                   
                 OK 
                 TFT min 
                 TFT OK 
                 TFT OK 
               
               
                   
                   
                 OLED max 
                 OLED OK 
                 OLED min 
               
               
                   
                 Open 
                 TFT min 
                 TFT min 
                 TFT min 
               
               
                   
                   
                 OLED max 
                 OLED OK 
                 OLED min 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0101]      FIG. 7  shows a system diagram of a control system  700  for controlling the brightness of a display  702  over time based on different aspects. The display  702  may be composed of an array of OLEDs or other pixel based display devices. The system  700  includes a profile generator  704  and a decision making machine  706 . The profile generator  704  receives characteristics data from an OLED characteristics table  710 , a backplane characteristics table  712  and a display specifications file  714 . The profile generator  704  generates different luminance profiles  720   a ,  720   b  . . .  720   n  for different conditions. Here, to improve the power consumption, display lifetime, and image quality, the different brightness profiles  720   a ,  720   b  . . .  720   n  may be defined based on OLED and backplane information. Also, based on different applications, one can select different profiles from the luminance profiles  720   a ,  720   b  . . .  720   n . For example, a flat brightness vs. time profile can be used for displaying video outputs such as movies whereas for brighter applications, the brightness can be drop at a defined rate. The decision making machine  706  may be software or hardware based and includes applications inputs  730 , environmental parameter inputs  732 , backplane aging data inputs  734  and OLED aging data inputs  736  that are factors in making adjustments in programming voltage to insure the proper brightness of the display  702 . 
         [0102]    To compensate for display aging perfectly, the short term and long term changes are separated in the display characteristics. One way is to measure a few points across the display with faster times between the measurements. As a result, the fast scan can reveal the short term effects while the normal aging extraction can reveal the long term effects. 
         [0103]    The previous implementation of compensation systems uses a normal driving scheme, in which there was always a video frame shown on the panel and the OLED and TFT circuitries were constantly under electrical stress. Calibration of each pixel occurred during a video frame by changing the grayscale value of the active pixel to a desired value which caused a visual artifact of seeing the measured sub-pixel during the calibration. If the frame rate of the video is X, then in normal video driving, each video frame is shown on the pixel array  102  in  FIG. 1  for 1/X of second and the panel is always running a video frame. In contrast, the relaxation video driving in the present example divides the frame time into four sub-frames as shown in  FIG. 8 .  FIG. 8  is a timing diagram of a frame  800  that includes a video sub-frame  802 , a dummy sub-frame  804 , a relaxation sub-frame  806  and a replacement sub-frame  808 . 
         [0104]    The video sub-frame  802  is the first sub-frame which is the actual video frame. The video frame is generated the same way as normal video driving to program the entire pixel array  102  in  FIG. 1  with the video data received from the programming inputs. The dummy sub-frame  804  is an empty sub-frame without any actual data being sent to the pixel array  102 . The dummy sub-frame  804  functions to keep the same video frame displayed on the panel  102  for some time before applying the relaxation sub-frame  806 . This increases the luminance of the panel. 
         [0105]    The relaxation sub-frame  806  is the third sub-frame which is a black frame with zero gray scale value for all of the red green blue white (RGBW) sub-pixels in the pixel array  102 . This makes the panel black and sets all of the pixels  104  to a predefined state ready for calibration and next video sub-frame insertion. The replacement sub-frame  808  is a short sub-frame generated solely for the purpose of calibration. When the relaxation sub-frame  806  is complete and the panel is black the data replacement phase starts for the next video frame. No video or blank data is sent to the pixel array  102  during this phase except for the rows with replacement data. For the non-replacement rows only the gate driver&#39;s clock is toggled to shift the token throughout the gate driver. This is done to speed up the scanning of the entire panel and also to be able to do more measurement per each frame. 
         [0106]    Another technique is used to further alleviate the visual artifact of the measured sub-pixel during the replacement sub-frame  808 . This has been done by re-programming the measured row with black as soon as the calibration is done. This returns the sub-pixel to the same state as it was during the relaxation sub-frame  806 . However, there is still a small current going through the OLEDs in the pixels, which makes the pixel light up and become noticeable to the outside world. Therefore to re-direct the current going through the OLED, the controller  112  is programmed with a non-zero value to sink the current from the drive transistor of the pixel and keep the OLED off. 
         [0107]    Having a replacement sub-frame  808  has a drawback of limiting the time of the measurement to a small portion of the entire frame. This limits the number of sub-pixel measurements per each frame. This limitation is acceptable during the working time of the pixel array  102 . However, for a quick baseline measurement of the panel it would be a time-consuming task to measure the entire display because each pixel must be measured. To overcome this issue a baseline mode is added to the relaxation driving scheme.  FIG. 8  also shows a baseline frame  820  for the driving scheme during the baseline measurement mode for the display. The baseline measurement frame  820  includes a video sub-frame  822  and a replacement sub-frame  824 . If the system is switched to the baseline mode, the driving scheme changes such that there would only be two sub-frames in a baseline frame such as the frame  820 . The video sub-frame  822  includes the normal programming data for the image. In this example, the replacement (measurement sub-frame)  824  has a longer duration than the normal replacement frame as shown in  FIG. 8 . The longer sub-frame drastically increases the total number of measurements per each frame and allows more accurate measurements of the panel because more pixels may be measured during the frame time. 
         [0108]    The steep slope of the ΔV shift (electrical aging) at the early OLED stress time results in a curve of efficiency drop versus ΔV shift that behaves differently for the low value of ΔV compared to the high ΔV ranges. This may produce a highly non-linear Δη-ΔV curve that is very sensitive to initial electrical aging of the OLED or to the OLED pre-aging process. Moreover, the shape (the duration and slope) of the early ΔV shift drop can vary significantly from panel to panel due to process variations. 
         [0109]    The use of a reference pixel and corresponding OLED is explained above. The use of such a reference pixel cancels the thermal effects on the ΔV measurements since the thermal effects affect both the active and reference pixels equally. However, instead of using an OLED that is not aging (zero stress) as a reference pixel such as the column reference pixels  130  in  FIG. 1 , a reference pixel with an OLED having a low level of stress may be used. The thermal impact on the voltage is similar to the non-aging OLED, therefore the low stress OLED may still be used to remove the measurement noise due to thermal effects. Meanwhile, due to the similar manufacturing condition with the rest of OLED based devices on the same panel the slightly stressed OLED may be as a good reference to cancel the effects of process variations on the Δη-ΔV curve for the active pixels in a column. The steep early ΔV shift will also be mitigated if such an OLED is used as a reference. 
         [0110]    To use a stressed-OLED as a reference, the reference OLED is stressed with a constant low current (⅕ to ⅓ of full current) and its voltage (for a certain applied current) must be used to cancel the thermal and process issues of the pixel OLEDs as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             W 
             = 
             
               
                 
                   V 
                   pixelOLED 
                 
                 - 
                 
                   V 
                   refOLED 
                 
               
               
                 V 
                 refOLED 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    In this equation, W is the relative electrical aging based on the difference between the voltage of the active pixel OLED and the reference pixel OLED is divided by the voltage of the reference pixel OLED.  FIG. 9  is a graph  900  that shows a plot  902  of points for a stress current of 268 uA based on the W value. As shown by the graph  900 , the W value is a close-to-linear relation with the luminance drop for the pixel OLEDs as shown for a high stress OLED. 
         [0111]    In  FIG. 11  a timing diagram  1100  for pixel compensation that involves resetting the pixel circuit before programming. Depending on the process parameters, the pixel circuits after being driven can suffer from adverse artifacts such as charge trapping or fast light transitions. For example, amorphous or poly-silicon processes can lead to charge trapping in which the pixel circuit retains residual amounts of charge in the storage capacitor following the driving cycle. Metal oxide processes can cause the pixel circuits to be more susceptible to light transitions, during which the pixel changes rapidly, such as during fast video sequences. Before the pixel current is measured (to compensate for aging, process non-uniformities, or other effects), these artifacts can affect the calibration of the pixel circuits. To compensate for these artifacts, the timing sequence  1100  has a resetting cycle  1102 . During the resetting cycle  1102 , the pixel circuit to be measured is programmed with a reset voltage value corresponding to a maximum or a minimum voltage value, which is dependent upon the process used to fabricate the display array. For example, in a display array fabricated according to an amorphous or poly-silicon process, the reset voltage value can correspond to a full black value (a value that causes the pixel circuit to display black). For example, in a display fabricated using a metal oxide process, the reset voltage value can correspond to a full white value (a value that causes the pixel circuit to display white). 
         [0112]    During the resetting cycle  1102 , the effect of the previous measurement on the pixel circuit (e.g., remnant charge trapping in the pixel circuit) is removed as well as any effects due to short term changes in the pixel circuit (e.g., fast light transitions). Following the resetting cycle  1102 , during a calibration cycle  1104 , the pixel circuit is programmed with a calibration voltage based on previously extracted data or parameters for the pixel circuit. The calibration voltage can also be based on a predefined current, voltage, or brightness. During the calibration cycle  1104 , the pixel current of the pixel circuit is then measured, and the extracted data or parameters for the pixel circuit is updated based on the measured current. 
         [0113]    During a programming cycle  1106  following the calibration cycle  1104 , the pixel circuit is programmed with a video data that is calibrated with the updated extracted data or parameters. Then, the pixel circuit is driven, during a driving cycle  1108  that follows the programming cycle  1106 , to emit light based on the programmed video data. 
         [0114]      FIG. 12A  illustrates a pixel circuit with IR drop compensation. V monitor  and V data  can be the same line (or connected together) because V monitor  has no role during programming and V data  has no role during measurement cycle. Transistors Ta and Tb can be shared between rows and columns. Signal line EM (emission) can be shared between columns. 
         [0115]      FIG. 12B  is a timing diagram illustrating normal operation of the pixel circuit shown in  FIG. 12A . The signal WR is active and the programming data (V P ) is written into the capacitor C S . At the same time, the signal line EM is off and so the other side of the capacitor C S  is connected to a reference voltage, V ref . Thus the voltage stored in the capacitor C S  is (V ref -V P ). During the driving (emission) cycle, the signal line EM is active and WR is off. Thus, the gate-source voltage of becomes V ref -V P  and independent of V DD . 
         [0116]      FIG. 12C  is a timing diagram for a direct TFT readout of the circuit of  FIG. 12A . The pixel circuit is programmed with a calibrated voltage for a known target current. During the second cycle, RD is active and the pixel current is read through V monitor . The V monitor  voltage during the second cycle should be low enough that the OLED does not turn ON. The calibrated voltage is modified until the pixel current becomes the same as the target current. The modified calibrated voltage is used as a point in TFT current-voltage characteristics to extract its parameter. One can also apply a current to the pixel through V monitor  while WR is active and the V data  is set to a fixed voltage. At this point, the created voltage on V monitor  is the TFT gate voltage for the corresponding current. 
         [0117]      FIG. 12D  is a timing diagram for a direct OLED readout in the circuit of  FIG. 12A . The pixel circuit is programmed with an off voltage so that TFT does not provide any current. During the second cycle, RD is active and the OLED current is read through V monitor . The V monitor  voltage during the second cycle is pre-calibrated based for a known target current. The V monitor  voltage is modified until the OLED current becomes the same as the target current. The modified V monitor  voltage is used as a point in the OLED current-voltage characteristic to extracts its parameter. One can extend the signal line EM off all the way to the end of the readout cycle while keeping the write line WR active. In this case, the remaining pixel operations for reading the OLED will be the same as the previous steps. One can also apply a current to the OLED through V monitor . At this point the created voltage on V monitor  is the TFT gate voltage for the corresponding current. 
         [0118]      FIG. 13A  illustrates a pixel circuit with charge-based compensation. The V monitor  readout line can be shared between adjacent columns, and the transistors Ta and Tb can be shared between rows. The V monitor  line can be or connected to the same line as the V data  line as well. In this case, the V data  line can be a fixed voltage (V ref ). 
         [0119]      FIG. 13B  is a timing diagram illustrating a normal operation of the pixel circuit shown in  FIG. 13A . While the WR (write) and RD (readout) lines are active, the programming voltage V P  and the reference voltage V ref  are applied to the pixel circuit through the V data  lines and the V monitor  line. The reference voltage V ref  should be low enough so that OLED does not turn on. The readout line RD can turn off sooner than the write line WR. During this time gap, the transistor T 1  will start to charge the V OLED  and so compensate for part of the TFT variation because the charge generated will be a function of a TFT parameter. The pixel is also independent of IR drop because the source of the transistor T 1  is disconnected from the power supply voltage V dd  during the programming cycle. 
         [0120]    A TFT direct readout is depicted in the timing diagram of  FIG. 13C . The pixel circuit is programmed with a calibrated voltage for a known target current. During the second cycle, RD is active and the pixel current is read through the V monitor  line. The V monitor  voltage during the second cycle should be low enough that the OLED does not turn on. The calibrated voltage is modified until the pixel current becomes the same as the target current. The modified calibrated voltage is used as a point in the TFT current-voltage characteristics to extracts its parameter. One can also apply a current to the pixel through V monitor  while the write line WR is active and the data line V data  is set to a fixed voltage. At this point the created voltage on V monitor  is the TFT gate voltage for the corresponding current. 
         [0121]    A direct OLED readout cycle is depicted in the timing diagram of  FIG. 13D . The pixel circuit is programmed with an off voltage so that TFT T 1  does not provide any current. During the second cycle, the readout line RD is active and the OLED current is read through the V monitor  line. The V monitor  voltage during the second cycle is pre-calibrated for a known target current. The V monitor  voltage is modified until the OLED current becomes the same as the target current. The modified V monitor  voltage is used as a point in the OLED current-voltage characteristics to extracts its parameter. One can extend the emission line EM off all the way to the end of the readout cycle and keep the WR active. In this case, the remaining pixel operations for reading OLED will be the same as previous steps. One can also apply a current to the OLED through V monitor . At this point the created voltage on V monitor  is the TFT gate voltage for the corresponding current. 
         [0122]    An indirect OLED readout is depicted in the timing diagram of  FIG. 13E . Here the pixel current is read out in a manner similar to the operation depicted in  FIG. 12 . The only difference is that during the programming RD is off and so the gate voltage of the transistor T 1  is set to the OLED voltage. Thus, the calibrated voltage needs to consider the effect of the OLED voltage and the TFT parameter to make the pixel current equal to the target current. One can use this calibrated voltage and the voltage extracted from the direct TFT readout to extract the OLED voltage. For example, subtracting the calibrated voltage extracted by this process from the calibrated voltage extracted by the TFT direct readout will result to the effect of OLED if the two target currents are the same. 
         [0123]      FIG. 14  illustrates a biased pixel circuit in which a second reference voltage Vref 2  can be the same as the power supply voltage V dd , the transistors Ta and Tb can be shared with columns and rows, the transistors Td and Tc can be shared with rows, and the pixel monitor line V monitor  can be shared with columns. In normal operation, the write line WR and the readout line RD are active and the emission line EM is disabled, the pixel voltage monitoring line V monitor  is connected to a reference current Iref and the data line V data  is connected to a programming voltage from the source driver. The gate of T 1  is charged to a bias voltage related to the reference current and so that the voltage stored in the capacitor C S  is a function of V P  and a bias voltage. 
         [0124]    One can use the systems described herein to analyze panels during different stage of fabrication to detect defects. The major detection steps can be carried out after backplane fabrication, after OLED fabrication, and/or after full assembly. At each stage the information provided by the systems described above can be used to identify the defects which can then be repaired with different methods, such as laser repair. 
         [0125]      FIG. 15A  illustrates a pixel circuit with a Signal line connected to the OLED and the TFT, and  FIG. 15B  illustrates a pixel circuit and an ITO electrode patterned as a signal line. To be able to measure the panel, there should be either a direct path to each pixel to measure the pixel current, as depicted in  FIG. 15A , or one can use a partial electrode patterning for the measurement path. In the latter case, the electrode (e.g., ITO or any other material) is patterned to vertical lines first, as depicted in  FIG. 15B , and then the electrode is patterned to pixels after the measurement is finished. 
         [0126]      FIG. 16  illustrates a typical arrangement for a panel and its signals during a test. Every other signal is connected to one pad through a multiplexer having a default stage that connects the signal to a default value. Every signal can be selected through the multiplexer to either program the panel or measure the current/voltage/charge from the pixel. 
         [0127]      FIG. 17  illustrates a pixel circuit that can be used for a factory test to identify defects in the pixels after backplane fabrication. The following tests are defined based on the pixel circuit illustrated in  FIG. 17 , but similar tests can be conducted with different pixel circuits. 
         [0128]    In a first test: 
         [0129]    WR is high (Data=high and Data=low and Vdd=high). 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 I data     —     high  &lt; I th     —     high   
                 I data     —     high  &gt; I th     —     high   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 I data     —     low  &gt; I th     —     low   
                 NA 
                 T1: short 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ∥ B: stock at high 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (if data current is high, B is 
               
               
                   
                   
                 stuck at high) 
               
               
                 I data     —     low  &lt; I th     —     low   
                 T1: open 
                 T1: OK 
               
               
                   
                 ∥ T3: open 
                 &amp;&amp; T2: ? 
               
               
                   
                   
                 &amp;&amp; T3: OK 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0130]    Here, I th     —     low  is the lowest acceptable current allowed for the Data=low, and I th     —     high  is the highest acceptable current for Data=high. 
         [0131]    In a second test: 
         [0132]    Static: WR is high (Data=high and Data=low); 
         [0133]    Dynamic: WR goes high and after programming it goes to low (Data=low to high and Data=high to low). 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 I static     —     high  &lt; I th     —     high     —     st   
                 I static     —     high  &gt; I th     —     high     —     st   
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 I dyn     —     high  &gt; I th     —     high     —     dyn   
                 ? 
                 T2: OK 
               
               
                 I dyn     —     high  &lt; I th     —     high     —     dyn   
                 T2: open 
                 T2: short 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0134]    I th     —     high     —     dyn  is the highest acceptable current for data high with dynamic programming. 
         [0135]    I th     —     high     —     low  is the highest acceptable current for data high with static programming. 
         [0136]    One can also use the following pattern: 
         [0137]    Static: WR is high (Data=low and Data=high); 
         [0138]    Dynamic: WR goes high and after programming it goes to low (Data=high to low). 
         [0139]      FIG. 18  is an example pixel circuit that can be used for testing the full display. In a test of the full display: 
         [0140]    T 1  and OLED current are measured through the V monito r line; 
         [0141]    Condition 1: T 1  is OK from the backplane test. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 I oled  &gt; I oled     —     high   
                 I oled  &lt; I oled     —     low   
                 I oled  is OK 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 I tft  &gt; I tft     —     high   
                 x 
                 x 
                 x 
               
               
                 I tft  &lt; I tft     —     low   
                 OLED: short 
                 OLED: open 
                 OLED: open 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ∥ T3: open 
               
               
                 I tft  is OK 
                 x 
                 OLED: open 
                 OLED: ok 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0142]    I tft     —     high  is the highest possible current for TFT current for a specific data value. 
         [0143]    I tft     —     high  is the lowest possible current for TFT current for a specific data value. 
         [0144]    I oled     —     high  is the highest possible current for OLED current for a specific OLED voltage. 
         [0145]    Ioled_low is the lowest possible current for OLED current for a specific OLED voltage. 
         [0146]    In another test: 
         [0147]    Measuring T 1  and OLED current through monitor; 
         [0148]    Condition 2: T 1  is open from the backplane test. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 I oled  &gt; I oled     —     high   
                 I oled  &lt; I oled     —     low   
                 I oled  is OK 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 I tft  &gt; I tft     —     high   
                 X 
                 X 
                 X 
               
               
                 I tft  &lt; I tft     —     low   
                 OLED: short 
                 OLED: open 
                 OLED: open 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ∥ T3: open 
               
               
                 I tft  is OK 
                 x 
                 x 
                 x 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0149]    In a further test: 
         [0150]    Measuring T 1  and OLED current through monitor; 
         [0151]    Condition 3: T 1  is short from the backplane test. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 I oled  &gt; I oled     —     high   
                 I oled  &lt; I oled     —     low   
                 I oled  is OK 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 I tft  &gt; I tft     —     high   
                 X 
                 X 
                 X 
               
               
                 I tft  &lt; I tft     —     low   
                 OLED: short 
                 OLED: open 
                 OLED: open 
               
               
                   
                   
                 ∥ T3: open 
               
               
                 I tft  is OK 
                 x 
                 x 
                 x 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0152]    Detected defects can be corrected by making compensating adjustments in the display. For defects that are darker than the sounding pixels, one can use surrounding pixels to provide the extra brightness required for the video/images. There are different methods to provide this extra brightness, such as: 
         [0153]    (1) Using all immediate surrounding pixels, divide the extra brightness between each of them. The challenge with this method is that in most of the cases, the portion assigned to each pixel will not be generated by that pixel accurately. Since the error generated by each surrounding pixel will be added to the total error, the error will be very large, reducing the effectiveness of the correction. 
         [0154]    (2) Using one or two of the surrounding pixels to generate the extra brightness required by defective pixel, one can switch the position of the active pixels in compensation to minimize the localized artifact. 
         [0155]    During the lifetime of the display, some soft defect can create stuck-on (always bright) pixels, which tends to be very annoying for the user. The real-time measurement of the panel can identify the newly generated stuck-on pixel, and then extra voltage can be applied through the monitor line to kill the OLED, turning it to a dark pixel. Also, the compensation method described above can be used to reduce the visual effect of the dark pixels. 
         [0156]    The above described methods of extracting baseline measurements of the pixels in the array may be performed by a processing device such as the  112  in  FIG. 1  or another such device which may be conveniently implemented using one or more general purpose computer systems, microprocessors, digital signal processors, micro-controllers, application specific integrated circuits (ASIC), programmable logic devices (PLD), field programmable logic devices (FPLD), field programmable gate arrays (FPGA) and the like, programmed according to the teachings as described and illustrated herein, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the computer, software and networking arts. 
         [0157]    In addition, two or more computing systems or devices may be substituted for any one of the controllers described herein. Accordingly, principles and advantages of distributed processing, such as redundancy, replication, and the like, also can be implemented, as desired, to increase the robustness and performance of controllers described herein. 
         [0158]    The operation of the example baseline data determination methods may be performed by machine readable instructions. In these examples, the machine readable instructions comprise an algorithm for execution by: (a) a processor, (b) a controller, and/or (c) one or more other suitable processing device(s). The algorithm may be embodied in software stored on tangible media such as, for example, a flash memory, a CD-ROM, a floppy disk, a hard drive, a digital video (versatile) disk (DVD), or other memory devices, but persons of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that the entire algorithm and/or parts thereof could alternatively be executed by a device other than a processor and/or embodied in firmware or dedicated hardware in a well-known manner (e.g., it may be implemented by an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a programmable logic device (PLD), a field programmable logic device (FPLD), a field programmable gate array (FPGA), discrete logic, etc.). For example, any or all of the components of the baseline data determination methods could be implemented by software, hardware, and/or firmware. Also, some or all of the machine readable instructions represented may be implemented manually. 
         [0159]      FIG. 19  illustrates a system for inspecting an OLED display panel  1210  at one or more stages of the fabrication of the panel  1210  (e.g., a TFT backplane, a fully fabricated panel, or a fully completed and sealed panel). The display panel  1210  is coupled to a computer  1214  through measurement electronics  1211  and a probe card  1212 , to provide the capability of testing and verifying the panel at each processing step. For example, after finishing the TFT backplane, the probe card system can be used to measure the performance of the TFT backplane by itself. If the TFT backplane is acceptable, then the panel  1210  is passed to the next step which can be the OLED deposition stage. After the OLED deposition is completed, the panel  1210  can be measured for proper OLED deposition before sealing. After sealing, the panel  1210  can be measured again before it is sent to an assembly process. 
         [0160]    As can be seen in  FIG. 20 , the illustrative display panel  1210  has probe pads  1220  formed along three of the four edges of the panel. Probe pads can also be formed inside the panel, preferably before the OLED deposition stage. The probe pads  1220  are used to supply test signals to the numerous pixel circuits on the display panel  1210 , via bonding pads  1230  formed at the outer ends of the various signal lines leading to the pixel circuits. 
         [0161]      FIG. 21  illustrates the connection of the probe pads  1220  to the bonding pads  1230  through a multiplexer (MUX)  1240 , to reduce the required number of probe pads, which in turn permits the pad pitch to be increased. To ensure that the other signals connected to the probe pads  1220  are biased properly, the MUX  1240  needs to be capable of connecting each probe pad  1220  to a common signal (Vcom) for each group of signals (e.g., source signals, gate signals, etc.). 
         [0162]      FIG. 22  illustrates a MUX  1240  with common signal control and two or more panels signals for each probe pad  1220 .  FIG. 22  illustrates h panel signals connected to one probe pad  1220 , thus requiring 2h controlling signals for connection to the probe pads  1220  or connection to the common signals. The connections of the panel signals to the probe pad  1220  are controlled by first switches  1241  and  1242 , and the connections of the common signals Vcom to the panel signal lines are controlled by second switches  1243  and  1244 . 
         [0163]    The proper pad pitch for full panel probing is typically about 150 μm. As illustrated by the data in Table 1, the pad pitch for most conventional configurations meets the minimum pad pitch requirements. However, using multiplexing ratios of 2:1 or greater permits the pad pitch to be increased, resulting in much simpler probe cards, as also illustrated by the data in Table 1: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Pad pitch for different display sizes and resolutions. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Gate Pad 
                 Source Pad 
                 EIC Pad 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Pitch 
                 Pitch 
                 Pitch 
               
               
                   
                 Panel 
                 MUX 
                 (μm) 
                 (μm) 
                 (μm) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 55″ HD 
                 1:1 
                 295 
                 330 
                 330 
               
               
                   
                 55″ HD 
                 2:1 
                 592 
                 661 
                 661 
               
               
                   
                 55″ HD 
                 8:1 
                 2370 
                 2645 
                 2645 
               
               
                   
                 55″ UD 
                 1:1 
                 148 
                 165 
                 165 
               
               
                   
                 55″ UD 
                 2:1 
                 295 
                 330 
                 330 
               
               
                   
                 55″ UD 
                 8:1 
                 1185 
                 1132 
                 1132 
               
               
                   
                 78″ UD 
                 1:1 
                 222 
                 222 
                 222 
               
               
                   
                 78″ UD 
                 2:1 
                 444 
                 445 
                 445 
               
               
                   
                 78″ UD 
                 8:1 
                 1777 
                 1781 
                 1781 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0164]    As depicted in  FIG. 23 , an electronic measuring system  1213  mounted on the probe card  1212  can measure the electrical characteristics of every TFT and every OLED device in a display panel  1210  and identify defects and non-uniformities. This data is supplied to a GUI  1214 , where the data can be used to fine-tune every process step, to achieve higher yields, faster process ramp-up, and lower line monitoring costs. Examples of the various process steps that can be fine tuned are illustrated in  FIG. 23 , namely, a sputtering and PECVD module  1250 , a process annealing module  1251 , a patterning module  1252 , a laser repair module  1253 , an inkjet printing module  54  and an evaporation module  1255 . The end result is a complete display panel  1256 . 
         [0165]    The circuitry depicted in  FIG. 23  takes data from the measurement electronics  1213 , analyzes that data, and displays it in a wide variety of reports, tables, and pictures. Some of the views are described in the following table: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                 View 
                 Description 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 TFT Absolute 
                 View the absolute measurement replacement values 
               
               
                 LUT 
                 for each pixel on the panel. 
               
               
                 TFT Filtered 
                 View the filtered replacement values used to 
               
               
                 LUT 
                 calculate delta values. 
               
               
                 TFT Base 
                 View the factory shipment values of the panel 
               
               
                 LUT 
                 to determine how much the pixels have aged 
               
               
                   
                 (baseline). 
               
               
                 TFT Delta 
                 View the difference between the current average 
               
               
                 LUT 
                 measured value and the baseline values (used to 
               
               
                   
                 determine compensation). 
               
               
                 TFT Histogram 
                 View the number of times a pixel has been measured 
               
               
                 LUT 
                 since the last time the histogram was reset. This 
               
               
                   
                 lookup table is primarily used for priority scan 
               
               
                   
                 algorithm. 
               
               
                 TFT Pixel 
                 View either the current state of the measurement 
               
               
                 State LUT 
                 state machine or the last comparison values for 
               
               
                   
                 each pixel. 
               
               
                 TFT Region 
                 Show the priority of each region in the priority 
               
               
                 Priority 
                 scan algorithm. 
               
               
                 OLED Absolute 
                 View the absolute measurement replacement values 
               
               
                 LUT 
                 for each pixel on the panel OLED layer. 
               
               
                 OLED Filtered 
                 View the filtered replacement values used to 
               
               
                 LUT 
                 calculate delta values. 
               
               
                 OLED Base LUT 
                 View the factory shipment values of the panel to 
               
               
                   
                 determine how much the pixels have aged (baseline). 
               
               
                 OLED Histogram 
                 View the number of times a pixel has been measured 
               
               
                   
                 since the last time the histogram was reset. 
               
               
                 OLED Pixel 
                 View either the current state of the measurement 
               
               
                 State 
                 state machine or the last comparison values for 
               
               
                   
                 each pixel. 
               
               
                 OLED Region 
                 Show the priority of each region in the priority 
               
               
                 Priority 
                 scan algorithm. 
               
               
                 Dead Pixels 
                 Show which pixels were either dead at point of 
               
               
                 LUT 
                 manufacture or have since been determined to be 
               
               
                   
                 unresponsive. Note that dead pixels are not 
               
               
                   
                 compensated. 
               
               
                 Combine Delta 
                 The combined TFT and OLED delta values used to 
               
               
                 LUT 
                 determine the final compensation. 
               
               
                 Scratch LUT 
                 A temporary LUT View to allow users to manipulate 
               
               
                   
                 the data without making modifications to the 
               
               
                   
                 system tables or to simply “backup” a table. 
               
               
                 Statistics 
                 Reports the performance statistics and the current 
               
               
                   
                 frame rate. Use these statistics to compare the 
               
               
                   
                 time required to process and display the current 
               
               
                   
                 data in MaxLife Viewer vs. the time it would 
               
               
                   
                 actually take if the display was not required. 
               
               
                 Pixel Trends 
                 View the pixel state to determine if there are 
               
               
                   
                 unsettled pixels and view comparative levels. 
               
               
                   
                 Allows you to obtain a visual representation of 
               
               
                   
                 uncertainty zones and look at specific defective 
               
               
                   
                 pixels. 
               
               
                   
                 Use this option to obtain active measurements 
               
               
                   
                 over time; determine how many times a pixel was 
               
               
                   
                 measured before it settled. 
               
               
                 Uniformity 
                 Select a LUT table, then analyze the uniformity. 
               
               
                 Report 
               
               
                 Offset 
               
               
                 Character- 
                 Plots the V-to-I voltage DAC code to the probability 
               
               
                 ization 
                 of a comparator result flip. 
               
               
                 Hardware 
                 View the current hardware configuration parameters. 
               
               
                 Configuration 
               
               
                 Display 
                 Adds the Display Controls to the bottom of the 
               
               
                 Controls 
                 current tab. 
               
               
                   
                 These options allow you to set the frame refresh 
               
               
                   
                 rate in frames per second. 
               
               
                   
                 Drag the slider to the left or right to speed up or 
               
               
                   
                 slow down the refresh rate. Slower speeds are more 
               
               
                   
                 visible to the naked eye. 
               
               
                 CLI View 
                 Issues commands from MaxLife Viewer to the system. 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0166]    A wide variety of different circuitry and algorithms may be used for extracting measurements of different parameters from the display panel at different stages of its fabrication, such as the extraction systems described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/835,124 filed Mar. 15, 2013 and entitled “Systems and Methods for Extraction of Threshold and Mobility Parameters in AMOLED Displays,” which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
         [0167]    The inspection system can identify many potential defects and problems (e.g., with sputtering and PECVD steps, that can be used to identify the likely cause of the defect or problem so that the fabricating process can be immediately fine-tuned to correct the problem). Examples of such issues and their likely causes are the following: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                 Issue identified by MaxLife ™ 
                   
               
               
                 inspection system 
                 Likely cause 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Line defect (open circuit 
                 Particle defect during deposition, 
               
               
                 on metal lines) 
                 poor adhesion, contaminated substrate 
               
               
                   
                 and poor step coverage. 
               
               
                 High resistance or non- 
                 Non-uniform sputtering process, 
               
               
                 uniform resistance on metal 
                 contaminated sputter gas or process 
               
               
                 lines 
                 chamber. 
               
               
                 Non-uniform TFT contact 
                 Problem with n+ layer PECVD step, 
               
               
                 resistance 
                 incomplete via etch or photoresist 
               
               
                   
                 stripping process. 
               
               
                 Vt or mobility of TFTs out 
                 Problem with a-Si layer PECVD step 
               
               
                 of specification 
                 (contamination during deposition, 
               
               
                   
                 process parameter drift or film stress) 
               
               
                 Open TFT channel 
                 Problem with a-Si or n+ layer deposi- 
               
               
                   
                 tion (particle contamination during 
               
               
                   
                 deposition/contaminated substrate) 
               
               
                 Gate shorted to fixed 
                 Incomplete metal patterning and/or 
               
               
                 voltage 
                 damaged dielectric layers from 
               
               
                   
                 particles or ESD 
               
               
                 Source or gate shorted to 
                 Damaged dielectric layers (pinholes) 
               
               
                 drain 
                 from particles or ESD 
               
               
                 Open or high resistance 
                 Incomplete via etching. 
               
               
                 contacts 
               
               
                 Out of spec capacitance 
                 Non-uniform dielectric layer deposi- 
               
               
                   
                 tion or drift in deposition process 
               
               
                   
                 parameters. 
               
               
                 Line defect (crossover 
                 Pinhole in the dielectric layers from 
               
               
                 short) 
                 particles or ESD 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0168]    For defects that cannot be directly identified by a single measurement of the inspection system, the first measurement can reveal that a problem exists, and specify additional tests that will conclusively identify the exact defect. One example is the identification of line defects, which can be detected by any of the following procedures:
       1. Measuring the current of different lines: if the current is higher than a threshold, the pixel is shorted.   2. Applying pulse to measure the charge transfer: if the amount of charge transfer is smaller than a threshold, the line is open.   3. For a signal with connection to DC current (e.g., Vdd and Vmonitor), the current can be measured to detect the open defect       
 
         [0172]    Defects in the thin film transistors (TFTs) can also be detected. For example, in the situation where the pixel circuit in  FIG. 24  has a signal WR measured as high (while Vdata=high, and also while Vdata=low, and Vdd=high), an additional test needs to be performed. Table 1 shows the different conditions and what the results mean. 
         [0173]    To detect problems with process annealing, the exact Vt and mobility of each TFT can be used to adjust process annealing parameters, as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Issue identified by MaxLife ™ 
                   
               
               
                   
                 inspection system 
                 Likely cause 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
                 Vt and/or mobility of TFTs is higher 
                 Laser power drift 
               
               
                   
                 or lower than specification 
               
               
                   
                 Small scale non-uniformity of Vt 
                 Intermittent laser power 
               
               
                   
                 and/or mobility of TFTs 
                 output 
               
               
                   
                 Large scale non-uniformity of Vt 
                 Laser repeatability 
               
               
                   
                 and/or mobility of TFTs 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0174]    The number and types of defects can be used to identify problems in patterning (particles, under/over exposure, etc.), as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                 Issue identified by MaxLife ™ 
                   
               
               
                 inspection system 
                 Likely cause 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 High-resistance metal lines 
                 Pattern definition or metal etch 
               
               
                   
                 process. Poor line width control. 
               
               
                 Open or high resistance 
                 Poor via pattern definition/photo- 
               
               
                 contacts 
                 resist residue 
               
               
                 Gate shorted to fixed 
                 Pinholes in the dielectric layers. 
               
               
                 voltage 
               
               
                 Abnormal capacitance or 
                 Mask alignment error (rotation), 
               
               
                 resistance in corners of 
                 photoresist thickness non-unifor- 
               
               
                 panel 
                 mity. 
               
               
                 Large scale capacitance or 
                 Pattern alignment error or exposure 
               
               
                 resistance, non-uniformity 
                 power fluctuation. 
               
               
                 Adjacent metal lines shorted 
                 Particles in photoresist/pattern 
               
               
                   
                 definition. 
               
               
                 Pattern stitching defects 
                 Stepper alignment failure 
               
               
                 Repetitive defect 
                 Exposure masks damage or contami- 
               
               
                   
                 nated. 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0175]    The defect location and defect type can be used to pinpoint areas suitable for laser repair (removing material) or ion beam deposition (adding material), as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                 Issue identified by MaxLife ™ 
                   
               
               
                 inspection system 
                 Repair Step 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Gate shorted to fixed 
                 Give exact pixel location to laser 
               
               
                 voltage 
                 repair system 
               
               
                 Short on metal lines 
                 Identify the metal lines that are 
               
               
                   
                 shorted. 
               
               
                 Open circuit on metal lines 
                 Identify the metal lines that are 
               
               
                   
                 open. 
               
               
                 Open or high resistance 
                 Quickly identify the number and 
               
               
                 TFT contacts 
                 location of the defective pixels. 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0176]    The uniformity data can also be used to continuously calibrate each print head used for inkjet printing, in real-time. The system knows which print head was used to print each pixel, and thus problems with individual print heads can be detected. The print head used to print those pixels can then be immediately adjusted, as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                 Issue identified by MaxLife ™ 
                   
               
               
                 inspection system 
                 Likely cause 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Dead pixels 
                 Printhead occasionally putting down 
               
               
                   
                 too little material, causing shorts 
               
               
                 Stuck-on pixel 
                 Printhead occasionally putting down 
               
               
                   
                 too little material 
               
               
                 High-resistance pixels 
                 The printhead printing those pixels 
               
               
                   
                 may be putting down too much material 
               
               
                 Uniformity of OLED&#39;s 
                 Flow control of printhead malfunc- 
               
               
                 voltage is poor 
                 tioning 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0177]    The exact failure mode of every OLED device can be used to tune the evaporation process, as follows: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                 Issue identified by MaxLife ™ 
                   
               
               
                 inspection system 
                 Likely cause 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 All pixels from one printhead 
                 Problem with calibration of 
               
               
                 are too high (or too low) 
                 printhead 
               
               
                 resistance 
               
               
                 Short-circuit OLED 
                 Too little organic material being 
               
               
                   
                 deposited, causing shorts 
               
               
                 High-resistance pixels 
                 Too much organic material being 
               
               
                   
                 deposited 
               
               
                 OLED voltage too high 
                 Too much organic material being 
               
               
                   
                 deposited 
               
               
                 Long-range Uniformity of 
                 Problem with substrate rotation or 
               
               
                 OLED&#39;s voltage is poor 
                 evaporator too close to substrate 
               
               
                 Short-range uniformity of 
                 Problem with thermal evaporation 
               
               
                 OLED&#39;s voltage is poor 
                 temperature control 
               
               
                 Open-circuit OLED 
                 Particles during evaporation 
               
               
                 Short to cathode or anode 
                 Particles during evaporation 
               
               
                 Partial short (low resistance) 
                 Too little organic material being 
               
               
                   
                 deposited 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0178]    The electrical characteristics (collected during TFT and OLED inspection) can be loaded into a lookup table, and used to correct for all TFT and OLED non-uniformities. 
         [0179]    Additional defects can be identified once both the OLEDs and TFTs have been deposited. The first measurement can identify that a problem exists, and specify additional tests that will conclusively identify the exact defect. 
         [0180]    If test samples are created around the periphery of the panel, then more details about the global process parameters can be extracted. Typically this is done by cutting off the test samples from a small percentage of displays and putting them in a separate characterization system. However, with the present inspection system, this can be done as part of panel characterization, for every panel, as follows:
       Metal lines can be created and resistance measured. This can test both metal deposition steps and etching.   Semiconductor layers to be annealed can have their characteristics and uniformity tested.   Structures can be used at different locations around the panel to test alignment.   OLED structures can be used to test evaporation and inkjet printing steps.       
 
         [0185]    The traditional diagnostic tools used in light modulating displays (e.g. AMLCD) are not useful for emissive displays (e.g. AMOLED). This is mainly due to the significant difference between modulating pixels and emissive pixel structure. In addition, emissive pixel circuits are more complicated and so using traditional optical diagnostic tools cannot identify the details. 
         [0186]    Although for repair and defect analysis multiple tests are needed, to avoid the delay required for a detailed scan on all the semiconductor device, a quick scan is done to identify the faulty entities (in an array case, the entities are pixels and signal lines). If the detected defects are within acceptable preselected thresholds, the fabrication process is continued. If at least one defect category passes an acceptable threshold, a more detailed scan is conducted to identify the defects in more detail to determine whether the detected defects can be repaired. If the answer is affirmative, the defects are repaired, and then the fabrication process is continued. 
         [0187]    The thresholds can be dynamic. For example, if two different defects are detected, the threshold of each defect can be different from when only one defect is detected in the panel. 
         [0188]    The detailed scan can be optimized based on the results of the quick scan. For example, if the quick scan has not detected any line defects, the line tests can be avoided in the detailed scan. 
         [0189]    In the quick scan, one (or more than one) voltage or one (or more than one) current from a pixel is measured. If the measured values of a pixel are within acceptable ranges, the pixel passes the quick scan. If the measured values of a pixel are outside the acceptable range the pixel is tagged as faulty. 
         [0190]    The measured voltages or currents are preferably affected by most of the possible defects. For example, the current supplied to a light emissive element and/or the voltage at the connection between a pixel circuit and an emissive element are good candidates for the quick scan measurement. 
         [0191]    One example of a quick scan begins by defining a reference current or voltage that is the lowest level encountered in a normal pixel. Alternatively, the reference current or voltage may be lower than the lowest level encountered in a normal pixel, by a defined margin. The measured pixel current or voltage is then compared with the reference level. If the measured value is larger than the reference value, the pixel passes this test. If the measured level is smaller than the reference level, the pixel fails this test. The result of the test can be different based on the measured parameter. For example, if the measured value is the drive TFT current, the TFT can be open, whereas if the measured value is the OLED current, the OLED can be shorted. 
         [0192]    Alternatively, the pixel may pass the test if the measured value is smaller than the reference value. If the measured level is larger than the reference level, the pixel fails this test. Here again, the result of the test can be different based on the measured parameter. For example, if the measured value is the drive TFT current, the TFT can be open, whereas if the measured value is the OLED current, the OLED can be shorted. 
         [0193]    A combination of the two tests can reveal more defects. 
         [0194]    The detailed scan may be carried out with either a separate bias (monitor) line, as depicted in  FIG. 24 , or with a shared bias (monitor) line, as depicted in  FIG. 25 . 
         [0195]    When conducting a line scan with a separate monitor line, if the number of faulty pixels in a column or row is more than a threshold, that row or column is tagged with a possible faulty line. Other examples of identifying defective columns are the following: 
         [0196]    1. If a column or row is shorted to another column or row, one can measure the current of the two of them (or the driver) while all the column (or row) has the same voltage and measure the current when at least one of the lines has a different voltage. In the case of a short, the current needed to drive the two lines will be higher. 
         [0197]    2. If the two columns are shorted, programming one pixel in a row will affect the other pixel current/voltage (despite programming the said other pixel for a different current/voltage such as zero). In this case, measuring the current/voltage of the adjacent pixel can identify the shorted column (or row). 
         [0198]    3. The static current (voltage) going to each line can be measured under different biasing conditions. This static current (voltage) can be measured indirectly through its effect on the driver currents. For example, if the driver operating current changes dramatically with changes in the biasing condition of one line (or is higher than a threshold), that means the line is shorted. 
         [0199]    4. The transient current (voltage) is measured. If the measured current is not within a threshold range, the line can be tagged as open. For example, if a transient voltage (current) signal is applied to the monitor line, it will create a transient current (voltage) as a function of parasitic capacitance. Knowing the range of parasitic capacitance, the range of current (voltage) can be calculated. If the current (voltage) is out of that range, one can tag the line as open. Another method to estimate the signal range is to do the measurement for the entire panel, and the outliers can be detected and tagged as open (if smaller than the range) or shorted (if larger than the range). 
         [0200]    5. A line is charged to a voltage. Knowing the range of parasitic capacitance of the line, one can estimate the range of charge stored in the line. Measuring the line charge stored in the line and comparing it to the range can indicate whether the line is short, open or normal. If the charge is smaller than the estimated range, the line is open. If the charge is within the range, the line is normal. And if the charge does not change, the line is shorted. Another method to estimate the charge range is to do the measurement for the entire panel, and the outliers can be detected and tagged as open (if smaller than the range) or shorted (if larger than the range). 
         [0201]    When testing the transistor T 2  and T 3  with a separate monitor line as depicted in  FIG. 24 , the test procedure can be used for other generally-OFF biasing switches which connect a bias line to the signal during programming cycles. Here, the signal can be the signal from Vdd or a signal through the monitor line. Both static and dynamic test procedurse can be used, as follows: 
         [0202]    Static:
       1. switch is ON   2. bias voltage is high or bias is low   3. switch turns off   4. bias voltage keeps its (if it is high during programming goes low and vice versa)       
 
         [0207]    Dynamic: switch goes high and after programming it goes to off (bias voltage=low) to:
       1. switch is ON   2. bias voltage is high or bias is low   3. switch turns off   4. bias voltage is changed its (if it is high during programming goes low and vice versa).       
 
         [0212]    If at least one measured current or one measured voltage is typically affected by bias voltages, and the switch performance is the same for high and low bias voltage in a static case, the switch is likely open. If this is not the case, and the current or voltage is not the same for the corresponding cases in static and dynamic operation, then the switch is likely shorted. 
         [0213]    A detailed scan procedure for a drive transistor (e.g., T 1 ) is as follows: 
         [0214]    Measure the current or voltage of the TFT at at least one operation point.
       1. If the currents (voltages) are high at all the points, T 1  (drive TFT) is shorted.   2. If the currents (voltages) are normal at all the points, T 1  (drive TFT) is normal.   3. If the currents (voltages) do not change and are similar to a zero operation point, and the switch test is working, T 1  (drive TFT) is open.   4. If the currents are negative (or different direction of the TFT) (or voltages are low), the OLED is shorted.       
 
         [0219]    Some of the conclusions can be made with measurement at just one point. 
         [0220]    A detailed scan procedure for an OLED is as follows: 
         [0221]    Measure the current or voltage of the OLED at at least one operation point.
       1. If the currents are high (or voltage is low) (in OLED direction), the OLED is shorted.   2. If the currents (voltages) are normal, the OLED is normal.   3. If the currents (voltages) do not change and are similar to a zero operation point, and the switch test is working, the OLED is open.   4. If the currents are positive (or different direction of the OLED) (or voltages are high), the TFT is shorted.       
 
         [0226]    When using a shared monitor line as depicted in  FIG. 25 , the test procedures described above for a line scan can be applied. In addition, if the data lines are shorted between two pixels with shared monitor lines, the two pixels will result in the same current (or voltage) independent of which data line is used to program the two pixels. This can be used to identify the short data line defect. If the line used for measurement is shared with a plurality of pixels and it is not possible to separate it from the element under test with any switch for some pixels, different approaches are needed for measuring different defects. 
         [0227]    For group tests, any of the above tests on a drive TFT and/or an OLED can be used for groups of TFTs and/or OLEDs. The only difference is that the results will show the collective performance of the devices. For example, it can identify that one of the drive TFTs or OLEDs in a group is defective. 
         [0228]    For discriminating tests, the following examples use a monitor line shared between a small number of adjacent pixels in a row (controlled with the same RD and WR signals), and they can be applied to other similar structures. 
         [0229]    To measure a device that can be turned off with other control signals (e.g., drive TFT through Vdata), the device of one pixel stays active, and the devices in other pixels are turned off. In this case, tests similar to those used for pixels with separated lines can be performed. For example, measuring a drive TFT in a pixel can be done as follows:
       1. Measure the current (voltage) of a drive TFT (T 1 ) at one (or more) operational points while the drive TFT of other pixels connected to the same monitor lines are off.   2. Repeat step (1) for all the drive TFTs of the pixel connected to the same monitor line.   3. If the currents (voltages) are within normal range, all the drive TFTs are fine.   4. If the measured currents (voltages) of a pixel connected to the monitor line are not changing and are similar to a zero operation point, the drive TFT of that pixel is likely open (assuming the switch TFT tests passed).   5. If the measured currents (voltages) are high and their level is not changed by a pixel sharing the monitor line, the drive TFT of that pixel is likely shorted. For example, if T 1   — 1 is shorted, when the current of T 1   — 1 is measured (T 1   — 2 is off), the current will be I short . When T 1   — 2 is measured, the current will be I short +I T1     —     2 . As can be seen, only a change in the operation point of T 1   — 2 can affect the measured current.   6. If the currents (voltages) are low for all the sub-pixels but the current changes slightly at different operation points, the OLED is likely shorted. For example, if the OLED connected to T 1   — 1 is shorted, the current measured for T 1   — 1 and T 1   — 2 will be I short −I T1     —     1  and I short −I T1     —     2 , respectively. The measured current will change by changing the operation points of the TFTs, but the current will be much lower than the normal case.       
 
         [0236]    When testing biasing switches as analog devices, the ON voltages of the switches are set to voltages that push the switches into the saturation regime of operation. As a result, if the drive TFT or OLED is shorted to a fixed voltage, the current (or voltage) will not saturate the measurement device, and the effect of adding the current (or voltage) of other pixels into the line will be more substantial. For example if T 1   — 1 is shorted, the voltage at B1 — 1 will be almost Vdd. When measuring T 1   — 1, the current will be I T3     —     1  since T 3   — 1 is in saturation and controls the current. When measuring T 1   — 2 (the voltage at node A — 2 can be high enough to make T 1   — 2 full ON), the current will be I T3     —     1 +I T3     —     2 . Therefore, T 1   — 1 is likely shorted, based on the two measured results. The same operation can be used to determine whether an OLED is shorted. 
         [0237]    To reduce the effect of one of the biases of the devices that might be shorted, the voltage connected to an OLED, such as Vss, may be set close to the voltage of a monitor line so that it has minimal effect on the TFT measurement. Similar settings can be done for TFT shorts, by setting Vdd close to the voltage of a monitor line. 
         [0238]    The effect of an OLED (or TFT) may be transferred on another device (e.g., a drive TFT). For example:
       1. All the drive TFTs in pixels sharing a bias line (monitor line) are off except for one pixel.   2. The voltage of at the electrode of the OLED is allowed to be set by the OLED (e.g., the switches that affect the voltage are off, for example, in the case of the pixel in  FIG. 2 , T 3   — 1 and T 3   — 2 are OFF).   3. Then the current of the drive TFT is measured.   4. If the OLED is open, the current of the drive TFT will be close to zero (or the voltage at drive TFT terminal connected to the OLED will be high).   5. If the OLED is normal, the pixel current will be within a normal range.   6. If the OLED is shorted, another test may be needed (e.g., biasing switches to act as analog devices).       
 
         [0245]    While particular embodiments and applications of the present invention have been illustrated and described, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the precise construction and compositions disclosed herein and that various modifications, changes, and variations can be apparent from the foregoing descriptions without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.