Abstract:
The present invention relates generally to substrates for making polymers and methods for making polymers. The present invention also relates generally to polymers and devices comprising the same.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/761,499, filed Feb. 6, 2013, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     
    
     FIELD 
       [0002]    The present invention relates generally to substrates for making polymers and methods for making polymers. The present invention also relates generally to polymers and devices comprising the same. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0003]    Conjugated polymeric systems have been an area of research as some can provide conductive and light emitting and absorbing properties and thus have utility in electronics, molecular electronics and optoelectronics. Conjugated polymers have been made from various monomers and by various methods to yield a variety of polymers each with unique physical and electrical properties. These polymers include poly acetylenes, poly(pyrrole)s, polyanilines, polyazines, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), polycarbazoles, polyindoles, polyazepines poly(thiophene)s, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), poly(fluorene)s, polyphenylenes, polypyrenes, polyazulenes, polynaphthalenes and polybenzimidazoles. These are generally linear polymers with variable chain lengths that are described in the literature. 
         [0004]    Polyarylenes are a group of aromatic conjugated polymers that are branched and dendritic. Polyarylenes are made by the reaction of alkynes or with aromatic halides in the presence of metal catalysts. These are generally granular, globular or have a coil morphology. Variations of these polymers include polymers made with branched side chains or dendritic structures and polymers with branched monomers incorporated with more than one site for polymer extension. These later polymers result in branched polymers, where the conjugated backbone bifurcates. Each has unique electronic, optical and magnetic properties. However, because all of these reactions are unidirectional, all of the polymers eventually terminate, forming powders or microspheres and do not form a networked solid material. 
         [0005]    The present invention addresses previous shortcomings in the art by providing polymers, substrates for making the polymers, methods for making the polymers, and devices comprising the same. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0006]    Embodiments according to the invention are directed to substrates, polymers, methods, and devices. In some embodiments, a substrate of the present invention may be used to prepare a polymer of the present invention. Thus, in some embodiments provided is a substrate as described herein. Pursuant to these embodiments, provided herein is a polymer as described herein. 
         [0007]    Also provided herein are methods for preparing a polymer of the present invention. One aspect of the present invention comprises a method of preparing an organic polymer, comprising polymerizing a multifunctional synthetic organic substrate with an oxidase to form said organic polymer. 
         [0008]    An additional aspect of the present invention comprises a method of preparing an organic polymer, comprising polymerizing a multifunctional organic substrate with an oxidizing agent to form said organic polymer. 
         [0009]    In a further aspect of the present invention, provided is a device, such as, but not limited to, an electrochemical device, comprising a polymer of the present invention. 
         [0010]    The foregoing and other aspects of the present invention will now be described in more detail with respect to other embodiments described herein. It should be appreciated that the invention can be embodied in different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0011]      FIGS. 1A-D  show polymer sheet networks prepared using compound 2 and either 5-hydroxyindole, serotonin, or indole. A) Compound 2 and 5-hydroxyindole networked polymer at 200× magnification. B) Compound 2 and serotonin networked polymer at 200× magnification. C) Compound 2 and indole networked polymer at 200× magnification. D) Compound 2 and indole networked polymer at 400× magnification. 
           [0012]      FIG. 2  shows the synthesis of the following multifunctional substrates (from top to bottom): 3-indole azadiene, thianaphthene-3-azadiene, 5-indole azadiene, and 3-pyrrole azadiene. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0013]    The present invention will now be described more fully hereinafter. This invention may, however, be embodied in different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. 
         [0014]    The terminology used in the description of the invention herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. As used in the description of the invention and the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. 
         [0015]    Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of the present application and relevant art and should not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. The terminology used in the description of the invention herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. All publications, patent applications, patents and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety for the teachings relevant to the sentence and/or paragraph in which the reference is presented. In case of a conflict in terminology, the present specification is controlling. 
         [0016]    Also as used herein, “and/or” refers to and encompasses any and all possible combinations of one or more of the associated listed items, as well as the lack of combinations when interpreted in the alternative (“or”). 
         [0017]    Unless the context indicates otherwise, it is specifically intended that the various features of the invention described herein can be used in any combination. 
         [0018]    Moreover, the present invention also contemplates that in some embodiments of the invention, any feature or combination of features set forth herein can be excluded or omitted. To illustrate, if the specification states that a complex comprises components A, B and C, it is specifically intended that any of A, B or C, or a combination thereof, can be omitted and disclaimed. 
         [0019]    As used herein, the transitional phrase “consisting essentially of” (and grammatical variants) is to be interpreted as encompassing the recited materials or steps “and those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s)” of the claimed invention. See, In re Herz, 537 F.2d 549, 551-52, 190 U.S.P.Q. 461, 463 (CCPA 1976) (emphasis in the original); see also MPEP §2111.03. Thus, the term “consisting essentially of” as used herein should not be interpreted as equivalent to “comprising.” 
         [0020]    The term “about,” as used herein when referring to a measurable value, such as an amount or concentration and the like, is meant to refer to variations of up to ±20% of the specified value, such as, but not limited to, ±10%, ±5%, ±1%, ±0.5%, or even ±0.1% of the specified value, as well as the specified value. For example, “about X” where X is the measurable value, can include X as well as a variation of ±20%, ±10%, ±5%, ±1%, ±0.5%, or ±0.1% of X. A range provided herein for a measurable value may include any other range and/or individual value therein. 
         [0021]    It will be understood that when an element or layer is referred to as being “on,” “connected to,” or “coupled with” another element or layer, it can be directly on, connected, or coupled with the other element or layer or intervening elements or layers may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on,” “directly connected to,” or “directly coupled with” another element or layer, there are no intervening elements or layers present. 
         [0022]    “Moiety” or “moieties,” as used herein, refer to a portion of a molecule, such as a portion of a substrate, typically having a particular functional or structural feature. For example, a moiety may comprise a linking group (a portion of a molecule connecting at least two other portions of the molecule). In some embodiments, a moiety may be a reactive portion of a substrate. 
         [0023]    “Substituted” as used herein to describe a chemical structure, group, or moiety, refers to the structure, group, or moiety comprising one or more substituents. As used herein, in cases in which a first group is “substituted with” a second group, the second group is attached to the first group whereby a moiety of the first group (typically a hydrogen) is replaced by the second group. The substituted group may contain one or more substituents that may be the same or different. 
         [0024]    “Substituent” as used herein references a group that replaces another group in a chemical structure. Typical substituents include nonhydrogen atoms (e.g., halogens), functional groups (such as, but not limited to, amino, sulfhydryl, carbonyl, hydroxyl, alkoxy, carboxyl, silyl, silyloxy, phosphate and the like), hydrocarbyl groups, and hydrocarbyl groups substituted with one or more heteroatoms. Exemplary substituents include, but are not limited to, alkyl, lower alkyl, halo, haloalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heterocyclo, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, lower alkoxy, thioalkyl, hydroxyl, thio, mercapto, amino, imino, halo, cyano, nitro, nitroso, azido, carboxy, sulfide, sulfone, sulfoxy, phosphoryl, silyl, silylalkyl, silyloxy, boronyl, and modified lower alkyl. 
         [0025]    “Alkyl” as used herein alone or as part of another group, refers to a linear (“straight chain”), branched chain, and/or cyclic hydrocarbon containing from 1 to 30 or more carbon atoms. In some embodiments, the alkyl group may contain 1, 2, or 3 up to 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 carbon atoms. Representative examples of alkyl include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, sec-butyl, iso-butyl, tert-butyl, n-pentyl, isopentyl, neopentyl, n-hexyl, 3-methylhexyl, 2,2-dimethylpentyl, 2,3-dimethylpentyl, n-heptyl, n-octyl, n-nonyl, n-decyl, and the like. “Lower alkyl” as used herein, is a subset of alkyl and refers to a straight or branched chain hydrocarbon group containing from 1 to 4 carbon atoms. Representative examples of lower alkyl include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, tert-butyl, and the like. The term “alkyl” or “loweralkyl” is intended to include both substituted and unsubstituted alkyl or loweralkyl unless otherwise indicated and these groups may be substituted with groups such as, but not limited to, polyalkylene oxides (such as PEG), halo (e.g., haloalkyl), alkyl, haloalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heterocyclo, heterocycloalkyl, hydroxyl, alkoxy (thereby creating a polyalkoxy such as polyethylene glycol), alkenyloxy, alkynyloxy, haloalkoxy, cycloalkoxy, cycloalkylalkyloxy, aryloxy, arylalkyloxy, heterocyclooxy, heterocyclolalkyloxy, mercapto, alkyl-S(O) m , haloalkyl-S(O) m , alkenyl-S(O) m , alkynyl-S(O) m , cycloalkyl-S(O) m , cycloalkylalkyl-S(O) m , aryl-S(O) m , arylalkyl-S(O) m , heterocyclo-S(O) m , heterocycloalkyl-S(O) m , amino, carboxy, alkylamino, alkenylamino, alkynylamino, haloalkylamino, cycloalkylamino, cycloalkylalkylamino, arylamino, arylalkylamino, heterocycloamino, heterocycloalkylamino, disubstituted-amino, acylamino, acyloxy, ester, amide, sulfonamide, urea, alkoxyacylamino, aminoacyloxy, nitro or eyano, where m=0, 1, 2 or 3. 
         [0026]    “Alkenyl” as used herein alone or as part of another group, refers to linear (“straight chain”), branched chain, and/or cyclic containing from 1 to 30 or more carbon atoms (or in loweralkenyl 1 to 4 carbon atoms) which include 1 to 10 or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. In some embodiments, the alkenyl group may contain 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 carbon atoms. Representative examples of alkenyl include, but are not limited to, methylene (═CH 2 ), vinyl (—CH═CH 2 ), allyl (—CH 2 CH═CH 2 ), 2-butenyl, 3-butenyl, 4-pentenyl, 3-pentenyl, 2-hexenyl, 3-hexenyl, 2,4-heptadiene, and the like. The term “alkenyl” or “loweralkenyl” is intended to include both substituted and unsubstituted alkenyl or loweralkenyl unless otherwise indicated and these groups may be substituted with groups such as those described in connection with alkyl and loweralkyl above. 
         [0027]    “Conjugated,” as used herein, refers to a moiety or compound comprising at least two double bonds with a single bond between the two double bonds. Thus, a conjugated compound comprises two double bonds that alternate with a single bond. For example, a diene may be conjugated. Conjugated dienes comprise double bonds on adjacent carbons; that is, the two double bonds are separated by one single bond. In a conjugated diene, there are four adjacent triagonal, sp 2 -hybridized carbons. Each carbon bears a p orbital comprising one electron. Not only does the pair of p orbitals of each double bond overlap to form pi-bonds, but there is also some overlap across the formal carbon-carbon single bond. 
         [0028]    Examples of conjugated double bonds are depicted below: 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0029]    A further example of a conjugated moiety and/or compound is one that comprises two or more nitrogen atoms within the conjugated system as illustrated below: 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0030]    In certain embodiments, a conjugated moiety or compound may be aromatic. The term “aryl” is used herein to refer to an aromatic moiety or compound, “Aryl” may be a single aromatic ring or multiple aromatic rings that are fused together, linked covalently, or linked to a common group, such as, but not limited to, a methylene or ethylene moiety. The common linking group also may be a carbonyl, as in benzophenone, or oxygen, as in diphenylether, or nitrogen, as in diphenylamine. The term “aryl” specifically encompasses heterocyclic aromatic compounds. The aromatic ring(s) may comprise phenyl, naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, biphenyl, azulenyl, indanyl, indenyl, diphenylether, diphenylamine, pyridyl, pyrimidinyl, imidazolyl, thienyl, furyl, pyrazinyl, pyrrolyl, pyranyl, isobenzofuranyl, chromenyl, xanthenyl, indolyl, isoindolyl, indolizinyl, triazolyl, pyridazinyl, indazolyl, purinyl, quinolizinyl, isoquinolyl, quinolyl, phthalazinyl, naphthyridinyl, quinoxalinyl, isothiazolyl, benzo[b]thienyl, and benzophenone, among others. In particular embodiments, the term “aryl” means a cyclic aromatic comprising about 5 to about 50 or more carbon atoms, and includes 5- and 6-membered hydrocarbon and heterocyclic aromatic rings. 
         [0031]    In some embodiments, a substrate of the present invention may comprise a conjugated moiety and/or may be conjugated. In some embodiments, a substrate of the present invention may comprise an aromatic moiety and/or may be aromatic. 
         [0032]    “Multiamine,” as used herein, refers to a compound comprising two or more amines. A multiamine may comprise 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or more amines. A multiamine may comprise two or more terminal and/or pendant amine groups that may be primary amine groups. In some embodiments, a multiamine comprises two amities and thus is a diamine. In some embodiments, a multiamine comprises three amines and thus is a triamine. Exemplary multiamines include, but are not limited to, hydrazine, triaminobenzene, ethylenediamine, and any combination thereof. 
         [0033]    According to some embodiments of the present invention, provided herein are substrates that may be used to prepare a conjugated polymer. “Substrate,” as used herein, refers to a compound that can be polymerized to form a polymer. A substrate may be polymerized using chemical oxidative polymerization and/or enzymatic oxidative polymerization. In some embodiments, a substrate may be acted on by an enzyme. For example, a substrate may be oxidized by an enzyme. In other embodiments, a substrate may not be acted on by an enzyme. In some embodiments, a substrate may be polymerized using an oxidizing agent. A substrate may be a synthetic substrate or a natural substrate, either of which may be polymerized using chemical oxidative polymerization and/or enzymatic oxidative polymerization. 
         [0034]    “Synthetic,” as used herein in reference to a substrate, refers to a substrate that is not a natural substrate of an oxidase. Thus, a synthetic substrate is not found in nature as a substrate for an oxidase and thus is an unnatural substrate. In some embodiments, a synthetic substrate may be synthetically prepared, and optionally one or more compounds may be obtained or derived from nature and used to synthetically prepare a synthetic substrate. 
         [0035]    “Natural,” as used herein in reference to a substrate, refers to a substrate that is a natural substrate of an oxidase. Thus, a natural substrate is found in nature as a substrate for an oxidase. In some embodiments, a natural substrate may be synthetically prepared, and optionally one or more compounds may be obtained or derived from nature and used to synthetically prepare a natural substrate. 
         [0036]    “Organic,” as used herein, refers to a compound, substrate, and/or polymer comprising carbon. In some embodiments, an organic substrate may comprise a metal, such as, but not limited to copper, gold, aluminum, lithium, calcium, sodium, tungsten, zinc, iron, platinum, tin, magnesium, lead, titanium, potassium, silver, rubidium, and any combination thereof. In certain embodiments, an organic substrate is exposed, contacted, and/or doped with a metal and/or metal containing compound such that the metal becomes incorporated with the substrate and/or forms a complex with the substrate. 
         [0037]    In certain embodiments, a substrate of the present invention is multifunctional. “Multifunctional,” as used herein in reference to a substrate, refers to an organic substrate that comprises at least two moieties that are configured to provide polymerization in more than one direction. A multifunctional organic substrate may comprise 2, 3, 4, 5, or more moieties that may be the same and/or different. In some embodiments, a multifunctional substrate may be a synthetic substrate. In other embodiments, a multifunctional substrate may be a natural substrate. Exemplary multifunctional organic substrates include, but are not limited to, those shown in Scheme 1. 
         [0000]    Scheme 1: Exemplary multifunctional organic substrates comprising two, three, or four moieties for polymerization. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0038]    In some embodiments, a multifunctional organic substrate comprises at least two reactive moieties. In certain embodiments, a multifunctional organic substrate comprises at least three reactive moieties. “Reactive moiety” and “reactive moieties,” as used herein, refer to moieties that can be oxidized by an oxidase and/or an oxidizing agent. Exemplary reactive moieties include, but are not limited to, an indole, a pyrrole, a catechol, a tyrosyl, a catecholamine, thianaphthene, derivatives thereof, and any combination thereof. In certain embodiments, a substrate comprises one or more reactive moieties selected from the group consisting of a 6-hydroxyindole, a 5-hydroxyindole, a 5,6-dihydroxyindole, derivatives thereof, and any combination thereof. “Derivative” and grammatical variations thereof, as used herein, refer to a compound that is formed from, or can be regarded as formed from, a structurally related compound. In some embodiments, a derivative may be attached to and/or a portion of a compound. Thus, a derivative may refer to a moiety attached to a parent compound and thus one or more of groups of the moiety (generally hydrogen atoms) may be removed in order to attach the moiety to the parent compound. For example, substrate  1  of Scheme 1 shows three indole derivatives that are each separately attached to the parent compound and substrates  12  and  13  of Scheme 1 each show two catechol derivatives (with the hydroxyl groups of the catechol derivatives having a different placement in substrates  12  and  13 ) that are each separately attached to the parent compound. 
         [0039]    In certain embodiments, a reactive moiety may comprise a conjugated moiety. A substrate of the present invention may comprise one or more, such as 2, 3, 4, or more, reactive moieties each of which may comprise a conjugated moiety. In some embodiments, a reactive moiety may comprise an aromatic moiety. A substrate of the present invention may comprise one or more, such as 2, 3, 4, or more, reactive moieties each of which may comprise an aromatic moiety. 
         [0040]    As those skilled in the art will recognize, a polymerization reaction may occur or involve one or more reactive sites within a moiety. Thus, a reactive moiety may have at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more reactive sites. For example, as shown in Scheme 2, for 5,6-dihydroxyindole, polymerization may occur or take place at the C2, C3, C4, and/or C7 position, and a bond may be created between at least one of these reactive sites and at least one reactive site of another reactive moiety. 
         [0000]    Scheme 2: Chemical structure of 5,6-dihydroxyindole. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0000]    A reactive site within a moiety of a substrate of the present invention may be modified and/or blocked with a substituent, such as, but not limited to an alkyl. This may cause a polymerization reaction to occur or involve one or more different reactive sites within a reactive moiety of a substrate. 
         [0041]    A substrate of the present invention may comprise two or more reactive moieties that may be joined by a linker. “Linker” as used herein refers to a moiety that serves as a point of attachment for two or more reactive moieties that may be same and/or different. Two or more reactive moieties may be bound covalently to a linker or may be fused to a linker. A linker may be a conjugated moiety, and in some embodiments a linker may be an aromatic moiety. In certain embodiments, a method of the present invention may result in a linker becoming conjugated. For example, polymerization of a substrate using either an oxidase or an oxidizing agent may result in a conjugated linker. 
         [0042]    In some embodiments, a substrate of the present invention is monomeric. “Monomeric,” as used herein in reference to a substrate, refers to a substrate that has not been linked or bound to another substrate. Thus, the substrate is not oligomeric or polymeric. While a substrate may have one or more of the same moieties within the substrate, a monomeric substrate does not comprise two or more substrates that have been linked together. For example, the substrates provided in Scheme 1 are monomeric as they have not been linked to another substrate. 
         [0043]    In some embodiments, a substrate of the present invention comprises a substrate as described herein. In certain embodiments, a substrate of the present invention comprises a substrate provided in Scheme 1 and/or a substrate described in the examples provided herein. A substrate of the present invention may be used to prepare a polymer of the present invention. In some embodiments, a substrate, which may be a multifunctional organic substrate that may be synthetic, may comprise a conjugated moiety having two or more reactive moieties attached. The conjugated moiety may comprise a unit, an alkenyl, and/or an aryl. The two or more reactive moieties may be the same and/or different and may comprise an indole derivative, a pyrrole derivative, a catechol derivative, a tyrosyl derivative, a thianaphthene derivative, and/or a catecholamine derivative. In some embodiments, the substrate may comprise three reactive moieties. In some embodiments, a reactive moiety may be attached to the conjugated moiety via a linker that may be conjugated. 
         [0044]    In some embodiments, a polymer of the present invention comprises a polymer as described herein. In certain embodiments, a polymer of the present invention comprises a polymer described in the examples provided herein. A method of the present invention may be used to prepare a polymer of the present invention. In some embodiments, a substrate of the present invention may be used in a method of the present invention to prepare a polymer of the present invention. 
         [0045]    According to some embodiments of the present invention, a method of preparing an organic polymer is provided, the method comprising polymerizing a multifunctional synthetic organic substrate with an oxidase to form the organic polymer. In some embodiments, the multifunctional synthetic organic substrate may be a substrate shown in Scheme 1. “Oxidase,” as used herein, refers to an enzyme that oxidizes a substrate. Exemplary oxidases include, but are not limited to, phenol oxidase, a polyphenol oxidase, a catechol oxidase, a tyrosinase, a laccase, monophenol monooxygenase, phenolase, monophenol oxidase, cresolase, monophenolase, tyrosine-dopa oxidase, monophenol monooxidase, monophenol dihydroxyphenylalanine:oxygen oxidoreductase, N-acetyl-6-hydroxytryptophan oxidase, dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine oxygen oxidoreductase, o-diphenol:O 2  oxidoreductase, catecholase, o-diphenol oxidase, monophenol oxidase, cresolase, and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a method of the present invention may comprise polymerizing a multifunctional synthetic organic substrate comprising at least two reactive moieties with an oxidase to form an organic polymer. In certain embodiments, a method of the present invention may comprise polymerizing a multifunctional synthetic organic substrate comprising at least three reactive moieties with an oxidase to form an organic polymer. When a multifunctional synthetic organic substrate comprises at least two reactive moieties, a networked organic polymer may be formed. 
         [0046]    “Networked,” as used herein in reference to a polymer of the present invention, refers to a cross-linked polymer (i.e., a polymer comprising one or more polymer chains that are linked together either directly through covalent attachment and/or through a moiety or group), wherein the polymer chains of the cross-linked polymer are interconnected at two or more locations within the polymer chains. In some embodiments, the cross-links (i.e., the linkages connecting the one or more polymer chains) in a networked polymer of the present invention comprise a conjugated moiety. In certain embodiments, a cross-linked and/or networked polymer of the present invention may comprise a —C═N—N═C— unit and/or a —C═N—R—N≡C— unit, where R is a conjugated moiety and/or an aryl. In some embodiments, one or more cross-links of a cross-linked and/or networked polymer of the present invention may comprise a —C═N—N═C— unit and/or a —C═N—R—N═C— unit, where R is a conjugated moiety and/or an aryl. 
         [0047]    A method of the present invention may comprise co-polymerizing a multifunctional synthetic organic substrate with an additional substrate using an oxidase to form an organic polymer. The additional substrate may be any organic compound. In some embodiments, an additional substrate may comprise a natural substrate of an oxidase. In some embodiments, an additional substrate may comprise multifunctional organic substrate, such as, but not limited to, a different multifunctional synthetic organic substrate. In some embodiments, the substrate may be a substrate shown in Scheme 1. Thus, the formed organic polymer may comprise one or more different units. 
         [0048]    Prior to or concurrently with the polymerizing step, a metal may be added to the substrate and/or reaction mixture. Thus, a substrate and/or organic polymer may be doped with a metal, ionic liquid, ionomer, and/or other dopant(s) and may provide a doped organic polymer. In some embodiments, a dopant may oxidize or reduce the conjugated polymer. In some embodiments, doping a substrate and/or organic polymer may increase the electrical properties of the organic polymer. 
         [0049]    In certain embodiments, after the polymerizing step, the organic polymer may be reacted with an oxidizing agent. This may provide further cross-linking in the organic polymer. Exemplary oxidizing agents include, but are not limited to, ammonium persulfate, iron (III) chloride, hydrogen peroxide, urea peroxide, melamine peroxide, sodium perborate, potassium perborate, sodium percarbonate, potassium percarbonate, potassium persulfate, sodium persulfate, ferric nitrate, diammonium cerium nitrate, iron sulfate, ozone, potassium periodate, and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an organic substrate may be co-reacted with the organic polymer and oxidizing agent. The organic substrate according to some embodiments may comprise a multifunctional organic substrate. 
         [0050]    According to further embodiments of the present invention, provided is a method of preparing an organic polymer, the method comprising polymerizing a multifunctional organic substrate with an oxidizing agent to form said organic polymer. In some embodiments, the multifunctional synthetic organic substrate may be a substrate shown in Scheme 1. Exemplary oxidizing agents for use in the method include, but are not limited to, those described herein. In some embodiments, a method of the present invention may comprise polymerizing a multifunctional organic substrate comprising at least two reactive moieties with an oxidase to form an organic polymer. In certain embodiments, a method of the present invention may comprise polymerizing a multifunctional organic substrate comprising at least three reactive moieties with an oxidase to form an organic polymer. When a multifunctional organic substrate comprises at least two reactive moieties, a networked organic polymer may be formed. 
         [0051]    A method of the present invention may comprise co-polymerizing a multifunctional organic substrate with an additional substrate using an oxidizing agent to form an organic polymer. The additional substrate may be any organic compound. In some embodiments, an additional substrate may comprise a natural substrate of an oxidase. In some embodiments, an additional substrate may comprise a different multifunctional organic substrate. In some embodiments, the substrate may be a substrate shown in Scheme 1. Thus, the formed organic polymer may comprise one or more different units. 
         [0052]    Prior to or concurrently with the polymerizing step, a metal may be added to the substrate and/or reaction mixture. Thus, a substrate and/or organic polymer may be doped with a metal, ionic liquid, ionomer, and/or other dopant(s) and may provide a doped organic polymer. In some embodiments, a dopant may oxidize or reduce the conjugated polymer. In some embodiments, doping a substrate and/or organic polymer may increase the electrical properties of the organic polymer. 
         [0053]    In certain embodiments, after the polymerizing step, the organic polymer may be reacted a second time with an oxidizing agent. This may provide further cross-linking in the organic polymer. In some embodiments, an organic substrate may be co-reacted with the organic polymer and oxidizing agent. The organic substrate according to some embodiments may comprise a multifunctional organic substrate. 
         [0054]    In some embodiments, a method of the present invention may comprise polymerizing a synthetic organic substrate comprising an aldehyde, such as, but not limited to, at least two or three aldehydes, with an oxidase to form an organic polymer, then reacting the organic polymer with a multiamine to cross-link the organic polymer. As those skilled in the art will recognize, an organic polymer may already comprise cross-links and thus the reacting step may comprise providing further or additional cross-links within the organic polymer. In certain embodiments, a networked polymer may be formed. 
         [0055]    In some embodiments, a method of the present invention may comprise polymerizing a synthetic organic substrate comprising a ketone, such as, but not limited to, at least two or three ketones, with an oxidase and/or oxidizing agent to form an organic polymer, then reacting the organic polymer with a multiamine to cross-link the organic polymer. As those skilled in the art will recognize, an organic polymer may already comprise cross-links and thus the reacting step may comprise providing further or additional cross-links within the organic polymer. In certain embodiments, a networked polymer may be formed. 
         [0056]    A substrate of the present invention and/or a method of the present invention may provide a conjugated organic polymer, which may be cross-linked and/or networked. An organic polymer of the present invention may itself be novel and/or may have novel electrical and/or light emitting and/or light absorbing properties. An organic polymer of the present invention may have an energy band gap of less than about 3 eV, such as, but not limited to, an energy band gap of about 0 to about 2.75 eV, about 1 to about 2.5 eV, or about 1.5 to about 2 eV. 
         [0057]    According to further embodiments of the present invention, provided is an electrochemical device comprising a polymer of the present invention, such as, but not limited to, a conjugated organic polymer. An electrochemical device according to embodiments of the invention may comprise a working electrode, a counter electrode, and a polymer of the present invention (e.g., a conjugated organic polymer), wherein said working electrode is in operative communication with said counter electrode, and the polymer is in operative communication with said working electrode or said counter electrode. In certain embodiments, the polymer may be conjugated, and may optionally comprise a metal. The polymer may have an energy band gap of less than about 3 eV. 
         [0058]    In some embodiments, a polymer of the present invention (e.g., a conjugated organic polymer) is disposed on at least a portion of a working electrode. The polymer may be directly or indirectly in contact with at least a portion of a working electrode. In certain embodiments, a polymer of the present invention (e.g., a conjugated organic polymer) may be interposed between a working electrode and a counter electrode. In some embodiments, an electrochemical device comprises a polymer of the present invention (e.g., a conjugated organic polymer) that may be in the form of a coating in contact with or on a working electrode and/or a counter electrode. 
         [0059]    An electrochemical device of the present invention encompasses all types of devices to perform electrochemical reactions, including, but not limited to, photovoltaic reactions. Exemplary electrochemical devices include, but are not limited to, a battery; a fuel cell; a solar cell; a light emitting diode including an organic light emitting diode; a light emitting electrochemical cell; a transistor; a photo-conductor drum; a memory device; a capacitor including a supercapacitor, an ultracapacitor, and/or an electric double-layer capacitor; a radio frequency identification device (RFID); or a device formed of a combination thereof; and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, light emitting diode comprises a polymer of the present invention (e.g., a conjugated organic polymer). 
         [0060]    The present invention is explained in greater detail in the following non-limiting Examples. 
       EXAMPLES 
     Example 1 
       [0061]    All reactions were carried out in approximately 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer, pH 6.5 with approximately 5 mM substrate and mushroom tyrosinase (polyphenol oxidase) Sigma T3824 in an amount of 100 to 10,000 units. Reaction volumes varied from 200 μl to 2 ml. In cases where substrates were not completely solubilized, then a saturated solution was used as the limit of solubility. In some cases, a solution of DMSO was used to increase solubility of the substrates. The enzyme was tested and shown to retain activity up to 50% DMSO. These cases are indicated in Table 1. The reactions were observed over a 24 hour period for the production of polymers, and the presence and color of polymer and solution was recorded. 
         [0062]    The production of polymers in each reaction was visible as a precipitate in the well of a 96 well plate or in the reaction mixture on a glass slide. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Testing of polymer production in enzymatic tyrosinase (polyphenyl oxidase) 
               
               
                 reaction. 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Substrate Tested 
                 Result 
                 Notes 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Tyrosine* 
                 ++ 
                 Black powdery polymer precipitate 
               
               
                 N-methyl tyrosine 
                 ++ 
                 Black powdery polymer precipitate, N can be 
               
               
                   
                   
                 blocked. 
               
               
                 Tyramine* 
                 +++ 
                 Black sticky polymer precipitate. Forms faster 
               
               
                   
                   
                 than tyrosine. Some iridescence in films 
               
               
                   
                   
                 formed at surface. 
               
               
                 Tyramine HCl* 
                 +++ 
                 Black brown sticky polymer precipitate. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 Forms faster than tyrosine. Some iridescence. 
               
               
                 5-hydroxyindole* 
                 +++ 
                 Black polymer precipitate. 
               
               
                 6 Hydroxyindole 
                 ++ 
                 Black polymer precipitate. 
               
               
                 2 Hydroxy carbazole** 
                 − 
                 Darker brown than control but no clear 
               
               
                   
                   
                 polymer. May be quinone. 
               
               
                 Harmalol HCl dehydrate** 
                 − 
                 No reaction. 
               
               
                 Indole 
                 − 
                 No reaction. 
               
               
                 Beta phenylethylamine HCL 
                 +/− 
                 Some white precipitate, may be polymer or 
               
               
                   
                   
                 compound coming out of solution. 
               
               
                 Crosslinking Substrates Tested 
               
               
                 1,3,5 Tris(4hydroxyphenyl)benzene 
                 + 
                 Cloudy precipitate with a slight brown/orange 
               
               
                 (20% DMSO) 
                   
                 color in solution. Color may indicate the 
               
               
                   
                   
                 quinone. 
               
               
                 2,6 dihydroxnaphthalene 
                 + 
                 Some precipitate, may be polymer or 
               
               
                   
                   
                 compound coming out of solution. After 
               
               
                   
                   
                 24 hours there was some dark color to the 
               
               
                   
                   
                 polymer indicating some polymer formed. 
               
               
                 Mixtures tested 
               
               
                 Tyrosine + Tyramine 
                 +++ 
                 Black polymer precipitate. 
               
               
                 Tyrosine + 2-Hydroxy carbazole** 
                 +++ 
                 Black polymer precipitate. 
               
               
                 Tyrosine + Harmalol HCl** 
                 +++ 
                 Reacts faster than Tryosine alone, harmalol 
               
               
                   
                   
                 may be incorporated as a reactant. 
               
               
                 Tyrosine + 1,3,5-Tris (4- 
                 +++ 
                 Black polymer precipitate. 
               
               
                 hydroxyphenyl) benzene** 
               
               
                 Tyramine + 2-Hydroxy carbazole** 
                 +++ 
                 Black polymer precipitate. 
               
               
                 Tyramine + Harmalol HCl** 
                 +++ 
                 Reacts faster than Tryosine alone, harmalol 
               
               
                   
                   
                 may be incorporated as a reactant. 
               
               
                 Tyramine + 1,3,5-Tris (4- 
                 +++ 
                 Black polymer precipitate. 
               
               
                 hydroxyphenyl) benzene** 
               
               
                 2-Hydroxy carbazole** + Harmalol 
                 + 
                 Fine dark precipitate 
               
               
                 HCl** 
               
               
                 2-Hydroxy carbazole** + 1,3,5-Tris 
                 − 
               
               
                 (4-hydroxyphenyl) benzene** 
               
               
                 Harmalol HCl + 1,3,5-Tris (4- 
                 − 
               
               
                 hydroxyphenyl) benzene** 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *Reported substrate for phenol oxidases. 
               
               
                 **Dissolved in 20% DMSO. 
               
               
                 +++ Reacted within about 1 hour; 
               
               
                 ++ reacted within about 3 hours; 
               
               
                 + reacted within about 24 hours; 
               
               
                 +/− inconclusive results; 
               
               
                 − no reaction. 
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 2 
     Creation of Networked Polymer Sheets with Compound 2 
       [0063]    In 50 μl of DMSO, 10 mg of compound 2 (Scheme 3) was dissolved and added to 10 mg of either indole, 5-hydroxyindole, 6-hydroxyindole, or serotonin that was dissolved in 50 μl DMSO. 
         [0000]    Scheme 3: Chemical structure of compound 2. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0064]    The samples were polymerized by oxidation with 100 μl of 0.8 M ammonium persulfate in water in the case of indole and 5-hydroxyindole and 100 μl of 0.2 M ammonium persulfate in water in the case of 6-hydroxyindole and serotonin. These were compared to solutions of 50 μl 5-hydroxyindole, 6-hydroxyindole, and serotonin polymerized with equal volumes of the same concentrations of ammonium persufate without compound 2. Sheets of networked polymer were produced and examined microscopically at 200× and 400× magnification as shown in  FIGS. 1A-D . 6-hydroxyindole did not network into a polymer sheet under these conditions. Controls of indole, 5-hydroxyindole and 6-hydroxyindole alone only formed amorphous dark particulate precipitates. 
       Example 3 
       [0065]    Indole and pyrrole (40 mg each) were dissolved in 200 μl of acetonitrile. Pyrrole-3-azadiene, indole-5-azadiene and indole-3-azadiene (i.e., azadiene multifunctional organic substrates) were each dissolved in 200 μl of DMSO. Fifty microliters of the azadiene multifunctional organic substrates were separately added to 50 μl of indole and 50 μl of the pyrrole solutions. Then 100 μl of 0.8M ammonium persulfate was added to each. Additionally 50 μl of indole, pyrrole, and each multifunctional organic substrate was combined with 50 μl of 0.8 M ammonium persulfate. After polymers were formed a sample of each polymer was dried on a glass slide with a heat gun and conductivity measured with a two point method using a keithey Model 2110-120-GPIB digital multimeter. Results are shown in Table 2. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Organic polymers crosslinked with multifunctional organic substrates. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Polymer 
                 Resistivity 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Poly indole 
                 100 kohms 
               
               
                   
                 Polyindole polymer with pyrrole-3-azadiene 
                 400 kohms 
               
               
                   
                 Polyindole polymer with indole-5-azadiene 
                  1 Mohms 
               
               
                   
                 Polyindole polymer with indole-3-azadiene 
                 100 kohms 
               
               
                   
                 Polypyrrole 
                 100 kohms 
               
               
                   
                 Polypyrrole with pyrrole-3-azadiene 
                 300 kohms 
               
               
                   
                 Polypyrrole with indole-5-azadiene 
                 200 kohms 
               
               
                   
                 Polypyrrole with indole-3-azadiene 
                 300 kohms 
               
               
                   
                 Pyrrole-3-azadiene only 
                 115 kohms 
               
               
                   
                 Indole-5-azadiene only 
                 200 kohms 
               
               
                   
                 Indole-3-azadiene only 
                 200 kohms 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 4 
       [0066]    Multifunctional organic substrates were synthesized as set forth in Table 3. Two hundred milligrams of pyrrole-3-carboxaldehyde, indole-5-carboxaldehyde and indole-3-carboxaldehyde were dissolved in 15 ml of ethanol. To this 35 μl of 64% hydrazine monohydrate in water was added. The reaction proceeded for 1-3 days and crystals of the multifunctional organic azadiene substrates were collected on filter paper with a Buchner funnel. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Synthesis of multifunctional organic substrates. 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Reactant 1 
                 Reactant 2 
                 Solvent 
                 Product 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Indole-3- 
                 Hydrazine 
                 Ethanol 
                 Indole-3-azadiene 
               
               
                 carboxaldehyde 
               
               
                 Indole-5- 
                 Hydrazine 
                 Ethanol 
                 Indole-5-azadiene 
               
               
                 carboxaldehyde 
               
               
                 Pyrrole-3- 
                 Hydrazine 
                 Ethanol 
                 Pyrrole-3-azadiene 
               
               
                 carboxaldehyde 
               
               
                 Thianaphthene-3- 
                 Hydrazine 
                 Ethanol 
                 Thianaphthene-3- 
               
               
                 carboxaldehyde 
                   
                   
                 azadiene 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       Example 5 
       [0067]    6-hydroxyindole, 6-hydroxyindole-3-carboxaldehyde, 1,2-dihydroxybenzene (catechol), 2,3-dihydroxybenzaldehyde, and 3,4-dihydroxybenezaldehyde were used as substrates for phenol oxidases. 
         [0068]    6-hydroxyindole, 6-hydroxyindole-3-carboxaldehyde, 1,2-dihydroxybenzene (catechol), 2,3-dihydroxybenzaldehyde, and 3,4-dihydroxybenezaldehyde were dissolved in water at a concentration of 0.03 g/ml. Ten microliters of each was diluted into 90 microliter of 5 mM potassium phosphate buffer and 2 μl of mushroom tyrosinase (phenyl oxidase, 200 Units) was added. The reactions were allowed to proceed for up to 3 hours. Polymers were formed in all reactions and appeared as black or green precipitates indicating these substituted substrates can react with phenol oxidases. Buffer alone with no substrates were used as controls and were negative for polymer formation. 
       Example 6 
       [0069]    Multifunctional organic substrates were synthesized as set forth in Table 4. 
         [0000]                                      TABLE 4                   Dimer cross-linking substrates.            Reactant 1   Reactant 2   Solvent   Product               Indole-3-carboxaldehyde   Hydrazine   Ethanol   Indole-3-azadiene       Indole-5-carboxaldehyde   Hydrazine   Ethanol   Indole-5-azadiene       Pyrrole-3-carboxaldehyde   Hydrazine   Ethanol   Pyrrole-3-azadiene       Thianaphthene-3-   Hydrazine   Ethanol   Thianaphthene-3-       carboxaldehyde           azadiene                      FIG. 2  shows (from top to bottom) the synthesis of the 3-indole azadiene, thianaphthene-3-azadiene, 5-indole azadiene, and 3-pyrrole azadiene.
 
         [0070]    The foregoing is illustrative of the present invention, and is not to be construed as limiting thereof. The invention is defined by the following claims, with equivalents of the claims to be included therein. All publications, patent applications, patents, patent publications, and other references cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entireties for the teachings relevant to the sentence and/or paragraph in which the reference is presented.