Abstract:
A method of encoding speech, the method comprising: receiving a signal representative of speech to be encoded; at each of a plurality of intervals during the encoding, determining a pitch lag between portions of the signal having a degree of repetition; selecting for a set of said intervals a pitch lag vector from a pitch lag codebook of such vectors, each pitch lag vector comprising a set of offsets corresponding to the offset between the pitch lag determined for each said interval and an average pitch lag for said set of intervals, and transmitting an indication of the selected vector and said average over a transmission medium as part of the encoded signal representative of said speech.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0001]    The present invention relates to the encoding of speech for transmission over a transmission medium, such as by means of an electronic signal over a wired connection or electromagnetic signal over a wireless connection. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    A source-filter model of speech is illustrated schematically in  FIG. 1   a.  As shown, speech can be modelled as comprising a signal from a source  102  passed through a time-varying filter  104 . The source signal represents the immediate vibration of the vocal chords, and the filter represents the acoustic effect of the vocal tract formed by the shape of the throat, mouth and tongue. The effect of the filter is to alter the frequency profile of the source signal so as to emphasise or diminish certain frequencies. Instead of trying to directly represent an actual waveform, speech encoding works by representing the speech using parameters of a source-filter model. 
         [0003]    As illustrated schematically in  FIG. 1   b,  the encoded signal will be divided into a plurality of frames  106 , with each frame comprising a plurality of subframes  108 . For example, speech may be sampled at 16 kHz and processed in frames of 20 ms, with some of the processing done in subframes of 5 ms (four subframes per frame). Each frame comprises a flag  107  by which it is classed according to its respective type. Each frame is thus classed at least as either “voiced” or “unvoiced”, and unvoiced frames are encoded differently than voiced frames. Each subframe  108  then comprises a set of parameters of the source-filter model representative of the sound of the speech in that subframe. 
         [0004]    For voiced sounds (e.g. vowel sounds), the source signal has a degree of long-term periodicity corresponding to the perceived pitch of the voice. In that case, the source signal can be modelled as comprising a quasi-periodic signal, with each period corresponding to a respective “pitch pulse” comprising a series of peaks of differing amplitudes. The source signal is said to be “quasi” periodic in that on a timescale of at least one subframe it can be taken to have a single, meaningful period which is approximately constant; but over many subframes or frames then the period and form of the signal may change. The approximated period at any given point may be referred to as the pitch lag. The pitch lag can be measured in time or as a number of samples. An example of a modelled source signal  202  is shown schematically in  FIG. 2   a  with a gradually varying period P 1 , P 2 , P 3 , etc., each comprising a pitch pulse of four peaks which may vary gradually in form and amplitude from one period to the next. 
         [0005]    According to many speech coding algorithms such as those using Linear Predictive Coding (LPC), a short-term filter is used to separate out the speech signal into two separate components: (i) a signal representative of the effect of the time-varying filter  104 ; and (ii) the remaining signal with the effect of the filter  104  removed, which is representative of the source signal. The signal representative of the effect of the filter  104  may be referred to as the spectral envelope signal, and typically comprises a series of sets of LPC parameters describing the spectral envelope at each stage.  FIG. 2   b  shows a schematic example of a sequence of spectral envelopes  204   1 ,  204   2 ,  204   3 , etc. varying over time. Once the varying spectral envelope is removed, the remaining signal representative of the source alone may be referred to as the LPC residual signal, as shown schematically in  FIG. 2   a.  The short-term filter works by removing short-term correlations (i.e. short term compared to the pitch period), leading to an LPC residual with less energy than the speech signal. 
         [0006]    The spectral envelope signal and the source signal are each encoded separately for transmission. In the illustrated example, each subframe  106  would contain: (i) a set of parameters representing the spectral envelope  204 ; and (ii) an LPC residual signal representing the source signal  202  with the effect of the short-term correlations removed. 
         [0007]    To improve the encoding of the source signal, its periodicity may be exploited. To do this, a long-term prediction (LTP) analysis is used to determine the correlation of the LPC residual signal with itself from one period to the next, i.e. the correlation between the LPC residual signal at the current time and the LPC residual signal after one period at the current pitch lag (correlation being a statistical measure of a degree of relationship between groups of data, in this case the degree of repetition between portions of a signal). In this context the source signal can be said to be “quasi” periodic in that on a timescale of at least one correlation calculation it can be taken to have a meaningful period which is approximately (but not exactly) constant; but over many such calculations then the period and form of the source signal may change more significantly. A set of parameters derived from this correlation are determined to at least partially represent the source signal for each subframe. The set of parameters for each subframe is typically a set of coefficients of a series, which form a respective vector. 
         [0008]    The effect of this inter-period correlation is then removed from the LPC residual, leaving an LTP residual signal representing the source signal with the effect of the correlation between pitch periods removed. To represent the source signal, the LTP vectors and LTP residual signal are encoded separately for transmission. In the encoder, an LTP analysis filter uses one or more pitch lags with the LTP coefficients to compute the LTP residual signal from the LPC residual. 
         [0009]    The pitch lags, the LTP vectors and the LTP residual signal are sent to the decoder together with the coded LTP residual, and used to construct the speech output signal. They are each quantised prior to transmission (quantisation being the process of converting a continuous range of values into a set of discrete values, or a larger approximately continuous set of discrete values into a smaller set of discrete values). The advantage of separating out the LPC residual signal into the LTP vectors and LTP residual signal is that the LTP residual typically has a lower energy than the LPC residual, and so requires fewer bits to quantize. 
         [0010]    So in the illustrated example, each subframe  106  would comprise: (i) a quantised set of LPC parameters (including pitch lags) representing the spectral envelope, (ii)(a) a quantised LTP vector related to the correlation between pitch periods in the source signal, and (ii)(b) a quantised LTP residual signal representative of the source signal with the effects of this inter-period correlation removed. 
         [0011]    In order to minimise the LTP residual it is advantageous to update the pitch lags frequently. Typically, a new pitch lag is defined every subframe of 5 or 10 ms. However, transmitting pitch lags comes at a cost in bit rate, as it typically takes 6 to 8 bits to encode one pitch lag. 
         [0012]    One approach to reduce the cost in bit rate is to specify the pitch lags to some of the subframes relative to the lag of the preceding subframes. By not allowing lag difference to exceed a certain range, the relative lag requires fewer bits for encoding. 
         [0013]    The restriction on lag difference however can lead to inaccurate or unnatural pitch lags which then affect speech decoding. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0014]    According to one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of encoding speech, the method comprising: 
         [0015]    receiving a signal representative of speech to be encoded; 
         [0016]    at each of a plurality of intervals during the encoding, determining a pitch lag between portions of the signal having a degree of repetition; 
         [0017]    selecting for a set of said intervals a pitch lag vector from a pitch lag codebook of such vectors, each pitch lag vector comprising a set of offsets corresponding to the offset between the pitch lag determined for each said interval and an average pitch lag for said set of intervals, and transmitting an indication of the selected vector and said average over a transmission medium as part of the encoded signal representative of said speech. 
         [0018]    In the preferred embodiment, speech is encoded according to a source filter model whereby speech is modelled to comprise a source signal filtered by a time varying filter. A spectral envelope signal representative of the model filter is derived from the speech signal, along with a first remaining signal representative of the modelled source signal. The pitch lag can be determined between portions of the first remaining signal having a degree of repetition. 
         [0019]    The invention also provides an encoder for encoding speech, the encoder comprising: 
         [0020]    means for determining at each of a plurality of intervals during the encoding of a received signal representative of speech, a pitch lag between portions of said signal having a degree of repetition; 
         [0021]    means for selecting for a set of said intervals a pitch lag vector from a pitch lag code book of such vectors, each pitch lag vector comprising a set of offsets corresponding to the offsets between the pitch lag determined for each said interval and an average pitch lag for said set of intervals; and 
         [0022]    means for transmitting an indication of the selected vector and said average over a transmission medium as part of the encoded signal representative of said speech. 
         [0023]    The invention further provides a method of decoding an encoded signal representative of speech, the encoded signal comprising an indication of a pitch lag vector comprising a set of offsets corresponding to an offset between a pitch lag determined for each interval in said set and an average pitch lag for said set of intervals; 
         [0024]    determining for each interval a pitch lag based on the average pitch lag for said set of intervals and each corresponding offset in the pitch lag vector identified by the indication; and 
         [0025]    using the determined pitch lags to encode other portions of a received signal representative of said speech. 
         [0026]    The invention further provides a decoder for decoding an encoded signal representative of speech, the decoder comprising: 
         [0027]    means for identifying from a received indication in the encoded signal a pitch lag vector from a pitch lag codebook of such vectors; and 
         [0028]    means for determining a pitch lag for each of a set of intervals from a corresponding offset in the pitch lag vector and an average pitch lag for said set of intervals, said average pitch lag being part of the encoded signal. 
         [0029]    The invention also provides a client application in the form of a computer program product which when executed implements an encode or decode method as hereinabove described. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0030]    For a better understanding of the present invention and to show how it may be carried into effect, reference will now be made by way of example to the accompanying drawings in which: 
           [0031]      FIG. 1   a  is a schematic representation of a source-filter model of speech; 
           [0032]      FIG. 1   b  is a schematic representation of a frame; 
           [0033]      FIG. 2   a  is a schematic representation of a source signal; 
           [0034]      FIG. 2   b  is a schematic representation of variations in a spectral envelope; 
           [0035]      FIG. 3  is a schematic representation of a codebook for pitch contours; 
           [0036]      FIG. 4  is another schematic representation of a frame; 
           [0037]      FIG. 5A  is a schematic block diagram of an encoder; 
           [0038]      FIG. 5B  is a schematic block diagram of a pitch analysis block; 
           [0039]      FIG. 6  is a schematic block diagram of a noise shaping quantizer; and 
           [0040]      FIG. 7  is a schematic block diagram of a decoder. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
       [0041]    In preferred embodiments, the present invention provides a method of encoding a speech signal using a pitch contour codebook to efficiently encode pitch lags. In the described embodiments four pitch lags can be encoded in one pitch contour. A pitch contour index and an average pitch lag can be encoded with approximately 8 and 4 bits. 
         [0042]      FIG. 3  shows a pitch contour codebook  302 . The pitch contour codebook  302  comprises a plurality M (32 in the preferred embodiment) pitch contours each represented by a respective index. Each contour comprises a four-dimensional codebook vector containing an offset for the pitch lag in each subframe relative to an average pitch lag. The offsets are denoted O x,y  in  FIG. 3 , where x denotes the index of the pitch contour vector and y denotes the subframe to which the offset is applicable. The pitch contours in the pitch contour codebook represent typical evolutions over the duration of a frame of pitch lags in natural speech. 
         [0043]    As explained more fully in the following, the pitch contour vector index is encoded and transmitted to the decoder with a coded LTB residual, where they are used to construct the speech output signal. A simple encoding of the pitch contour vector index requires 5 bits. Since some of the pitch contours occur more frequently than others, an entropy coding of the pitch contour index reduces the rate to approximately 4 bits on average. 
         [0044]    Not only does the use of a pitch contour codebook allow for an efficient encoding of four pitch lags, but the pitch analysis is forced to find pitch lags that can be represented by one of the vectors in the pitch contour codebook. Since the pitch contour codebook contains only vectors corresponding to pitch evolutions in natural speech, the pitch analysis is prevented from finding a set of unnatural pitch lags. This has the advantage that the reconstructed speech signals sound more natural. 
         [0045]      FIG. 4  is a schematic representation of a frame according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. In addition to the classification flag  107  and subframes  108  as discussed in relation to  FIG. 1   b,  the frame additionally comprises an indicator  109   a  of the pitch contour vector, and the average pitch lag  109   b.    
         [0046]    An example of an encoder  500  for implementing the present invention is now described in relation to  FIG. 5 . 
         [0047]    The speech input signal is input to a voice activity detector  501 . The voice activity detector is arranged to determine a measure of voicing activity, and spectral tilt and signal to noise estimate, for each frame. The voice activity detector uses a sequence of half-band filter banks to split the signal into four sub-bands: 
         [0048]    0-Fs/16, Fs/16-Fs/8, Fs/8-Fs/4, Fs/4-Fs/2, where Fs is the sampling frequency (16 or 24 kHz). The lowest subband, from 0-Fs/16 is high-pass filtered with a first-order MA filter (H(z)=1−z −1 ) to remove the lowest frequencies. For each frame, the signal energy per subband is computed. In each subband, a noise level estimator measures the background noise level and an SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio) value is computed as the logarithm of the ratio of energy to noise level. Using these intermediate variables, the following parameters are calculated:
       Speech Activity Level between 0 and 1—Based on the Average SNR and a weighted average of the subband energies.   Spectral Tilt between −1 and 1—Based on weighted average of the subband SNRs, with positive weights for the low subbands and negative weights for the high subbands. A positive spectral tilt indicates that most energy sits at lower frequencies.       
 
         [0051]    The encoder  500  further comprises a high-pass filter  502 , a linear predictive coding (LPC) analysis block  504 , a first vector quantizer  506 , an open-loop pitch analysis block  508 , a long-term prediction (LTP) analysis block  510 , a second vector quantizer  512 , a noise shaping analysis block  514 , a noise shaping quantizer  516 , and an arithmetic encoding block  518 . The high pass filter  502  has an input arranged to receive an input speech signal from an input device such as a microphone, and an output coupled to inputs of the LPC analysis block  504 , noise shaping analysis block  514  and noise shaping quantizer  516 . The LPC analysis block has an output coupled to an input of the first vector quantizer  506 , and the first vector quantizer  506  has outputs coupled to inputs of the arithmetic encoding block  518  and noise shaping quantizer  516 . The LPC analysis block  504  has outputs coupled to inputs of the open-loop pitch analysis block  508  and the LTP analysis block  510 . The LTP analysis block  510  has an output coupled to an input of the second vector quantizer  512 , and the second vector quantizer  512  has outputs coupled to inputs of the arithmetic encoding block  518  and noise shaping quantizer  516 . The open-loop pitch analysis block  508  has outputs coupled to inputs of the LTP  510  analysis block  510  and the noise shaping analysis block  514 . The noise shaping analysis block  514  has outputs coupled to inputs of the arithmetic encoding block  518  and the noise shaping quantizer  516 . The noise shaping quantizer  516  has an output coupled to an input of the arithmetic encoding block  518 . The arithmetic encoding block  518  is arranged to produce an output bitstream based on its inputs, for transmission from an output device such as a wired modem or wireless transceiver. 
         [0052]    In operation, the encoder processes a speech input signal sampled at 16 kHz in frames of 20 milliseconds, with some of the processing done in subframes of 5 milliseconds. The output bitstream payload contains arithmetically encoded parameters, and has a bitrate that varies depending on a quality setting provided to the encoder and on the complexity and perceptual importance of the input signal. 
         [0053]    The speech input signal is input to the high-pass filter  504  to remove frequencies below 80 Hz which contain almost no speech energy and may contain noise that can be detrimental to the coding efficiency and cause artifacts in the decoded output signal. The high-pass filter  504  is preferably a second order auto-regressive moving average (ARMA) filter. 
         [0054]    The high-pass filtered input x HP  is input to the linear prediction coding (LPC) analysis block  504 , which calculates 16 LPC coefficients a i  using the covariance method which minimizes the energy of the LPC residual r LPC : 
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         [0055]    where n is the sample number. The LPC coefficients are used with an LPC analysis filter to create the LPC residual. 
         [0056]    The LPC coefficients are transformed to a line spectral frequency (LSF) vector. The LSFs are quantized using the first vector quantizer  506 , a multi-stage vector quantizer (MSVQ) with 10 stages, producing 10 LSF indices that together represent the quantized LSFs. The quantized LSFs are transformed back to produce the quantized LPC coefficients for use in the noise shaping quantizer  516 . 
         [0057]    The LPC residual is input to the open loop pitch analysis block  508 . This is described further below with reference to  FIG. 5B . The pitch analysis block  508  is arranged to determine a binary voiced/unvoiced classification for each frame. 
         [0058]    For frames classified as voiced, the pitch analysis block is arranged to determine: four pitch lags per frame—one for each 5 ms subframe—and a pitch correlation indicating the periodicity of the signal. 
         [0059]    The LPC residual signal is analyzed to find pitch lags for which time correlation is high. The analysis consists of the following three stages. 
         [0060]    Stage 1: The LPC residual signal is input into a first down sampling block  530  where it is twice down sampled. The twice down sampled signal is then input into a second down sampling block  532  where it is again twice down sampled. The output from the second down sampling block  532  is therefore the LPC residual signal down sampled 4 times. 
         [0061]    The down sampled signal output from the second down sampling block  532  is input into a first time correlator block  534 . The first time correlator block is arranged to correlate the current frame of the down sampled signal to a signal delayed by a range of lags, starting from a shortest lag of 32 samples corresponding to 500 Hz, to a longest lag of 288 samples corresponding to 56 Hz. 
         [0062]    All correlation values are computed in a normalized manner according to 
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         [0063]    where l is the lag, x(n) is the LPC residual signal, downsampled in the first two stages, and N is the frame length, or, in the last stage, the subframe length. 
         [0064]    It can be shown that the pitch lag with maximum correlation value leads to a minimum residual energy for a single-tap predictor, where the residual energy is defined by 
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         [0065]    Stage 2: The down sampled signal output from the first down sampling block  530 , is input into a second time correlator block  536 . The second time correlator block  536  also receives lag candidates from the first time correlator block. The lag candidates are a list of lag values for which the correlations are (1) are above a threshold correlation and (2) above a multiple between 0 and 1 of the maximum correlation found over all lags. The lag candidates produced by the first stage are multiplied by 2 to compensate for the additional downsampling of the input signal to the first stage. 
         [0066]    The second time correlator block  536  is arranged to measure time correlations for the lags that had sufficiently high correlations in the first stage. The resulting correlations are adjusted for a small bias towards short lags to avoid ending up with a multiple of the true pitch lag. 
         [0067]    The lag having the highest adjusted correlation value is output from the second time correlator block  536  and input into a comparator block  538 . The unadjusted correlation value for this lag is compared to a threshold value. The threshold value is computed using the formula, 
         [0000]        thr= 0.45−0.1 SA+ 0.15 PV+ 0.1Tilt, 
         [0068]    where SA is the Speech Activity between 0 and 1 from the VAD, PV is a Previous Voiced flag: 0 if the previous frame was unvoiced and 1 if it was voiced, and Tilt is the Spectral Tilt parameter between −1 and 1 from the VAD. The threshold formula is chosen such that a frame is more likely to be classified as voiced if the input signal contains active speech, the previous frame was voiced or the input signal has most energy at lower frequencies. As all of these are typically true for a voiced frame, this leads to more reliable voicing classification. 
         [0069]    If the lag exceeds the threshold value the current frame is classified as voiced and the lag with the highest adjusted correlation is stored for a final pitch analysis in the third stage. 
         [0070]    Stage 3: The LPC residual signal output from the LPC analysis block is input into the third time correlator  540 . The third time correlator also receives the lag (best lag) with the highest adjusted correlation determined by the second time correlator. 
         [0071]    The third time correlator  540  is arranged to determine an average lag and a pitch contour that together specify a pitch lag for every subframe. To find the average lag, a narrow range of average lag candidates is searched for lag values of −4 to +4 samples around the lag with highest correlation from the second stage. For every average lag candidate, a codebook  302  of pitch contours is searched, where each pitch contour codebook vector contains four pitch lag offsets O, one for each subframe, with values between −10 and +10 samples. For each average lag candidate and each pitch contour vector, four subframe lags are computed by adding the average lag candidate value to the four pitch lag offsets from the pitch contour vector. For these four subframe lags, four subframe correlation values are computed and averaged to obtain a frame correlation value. The combination of average lag candidate and pitch contour vector with highest frame correlation value constitutes the final result of the pitch lag estimator. 
         [0072]    In pseudo code this can be described as: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
           
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 Given lag_init as the lag from stage 2 with highest correlation: 
               
               
                 init: max_cor = −1; 
               
               
                 For each lag_candidate = lag_init − 4 ... lag_init + 4: 
               
               
                  For each pitch_contour_candidate in the pitch contour codebook: 
               
               
                  For each subframe_index = 0...3 
               
               
                   subframe_lag = lag_candidate + pitch_contour_candidate[ 
               
               
                   subframe_index ]; 
               
               
                   correlations[ subframe_index ] = { insert correlation equation, or say 
               
               
                 “compute correlation”? } 
               
               
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                  average_correlation = sum( correlations ) / 4; 
               
               
                  if average_correlation &gt; max_cor 
               
               
                   best_lag = lag_candidate; 
               
               
                   best_pitch_contour = pitch_contour_candidate; 
               
               
                  end 
               
               
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                 end 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0073]    For voiced frames, a long-term prediction analysis is performed on the LPC residual. The LPC residual r LPC  is supplied from the LPC analysis block  504  to the LTP analysis block  510 . For each subframe, the LTP analysis block  510  solves normal equations to find 5 linear prediction filter coefficients b i  such that the energy in the LTP residual r LTP  for that subframe: 
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         [0074]    is minimized. 
         [0075]    The LTP coefficients for each frame are quantized using a vector quantizer (VQ). The resulting VQ codebook index is input to the arithmetic coder, and the quantized LTP coefficients are input to the noise shaping quantizer. 
         [0076]    The high-pass filtered input is analyzed by the noise shaping analysis block  514  to find filter coefficients and quantization gains used in the noise shaping quantizer. The filter coefficients determine the distribution over the quantization noise over the spectrum, and are chosen such that the quantization is least audible. The quantization gains determine the step size of the residual quantizer and as such govern the balance between bitrate and quantization noise level. 
         [0077]    All noise shaping parameters are computed and applied per subframe of 5 milliseconds. First, a 16 th  order noise shaping LPC analysis is performed on a windowed signal block of 16 milliseconds. The signal block has a look-ahead of 5 milliseconds relative to the current subframe, and the window is an asymmetric sine window. The noise shaping LPC analysis is done with the autocorrelation method. The quantization gain is found as the square-root of the residual energy from the noise shaping LPC analysis, multiplied by a constant to set the average bitrate to the desired level. For voiced frames, the quantization gain is further multiplied by 0.5 times the inverse of the pitch correlation determined by the pitch analyses, to reduce the level of quantization noise which is more easily audible for voiced signals. The quantization gain for each subframe is quantized, and the quantization indices are input to the arithmetically encoder  518 . The quantized quantization gains are input to the noise shaping quantizer  516 . 
         [0078]    Next a set of short-term noise shaping coefficients a shape, i  are found by applying bandwidth expansion to the coefficients found in the noise shaping LPC analysis. This bandwidth expansion moves the roots of the noise shaping LPC polynomial towards the origin, according to the formula: 
         [0000]      a shape, i =a autocorr, i  g i    
         [0079]    where a autocorr, i  is the ith coefficient from the noise shaping LPC analysis and for the bandwidth expansion factor g a value of 0.94 was found to give good results. 
         [0080]    For voiced frames, the noise shaping quantizer also applies long-term noise shaping. It uses three filter taps, described by: 
         [0000]        b   shape =0.5 sqrt(PitchCorrelation) [0.25, 0.5, 0.25]. 
         [0081]    The short-term and long-term noise shaping coefficients are input to the noise shaping quantizer  516 . The high-pass filtered input is also input to the noise shaping quantizer  516 . 
         [0082]    An example of the noise shaping quantizer  516  is now discussed in relation to  FIG. 6 . 
         [0083]    The noise shaping quantizer  516  comprises a first addition stage  602 , a first subtraction stage  604 , a first amplifier  606 , a scalar quantizer  608 , a second amplifier  609 , a second addition stage  610 , a shaping filter  612 , a prediction filter  614  and a second subtraction stage  616 . The shaping filter  612  comprises a third addition stage  618 , a long-term shaping block  620 , a third subtraction stage  622 , and a short-term shaping block  624 . The prediction filter  614  comprises a fourth addition stage  626 , a long-term prediction block  628 , a fourth subtraction stage  630 , and a short-term prediction block  632 . 
         [0084]    The first addition stage  602  has an input arranged to receive the high-pass filtered input from the high-pass filter  502 , and another input coupled to an output of the third addition stage  618 . The first subtraction stage has inputs coupled to outputs of the first addition stage  602  and fourth addition stage  626 . The first amplifier has a signal input coupled to an output of the first subtraction stage and an output coupled to an input of the scalar quantizer  608 . The first amplifier  606  also has a control input coupled to the output of the noise shaping analysis block  514 . The scalar quantiser  608  has outputs coupled to inputs of the second amplifier  609  and the arithmetic encoding block  518 . The second amplifier  609  also has a control input coupled to the output of the noise shaping analysis block  514 , and an output coupled to the an input of the second addition stage  610 . Ahe other input of the second addition stage  610  is coupled to an output of the fourth addition stage  626 . An output of the second addition stage is coupled back to the input of the first addition stage  602 , and to an input of the short-term prediction block  632  and the fourth subtraction stage  630 . An output of the short-term prediction block  632  is coupled to the other input of the fourth subtraction stage  630 . The fourth addition stage  626  has inputs coupled to outputs of the long-term prediction block  628  and short-term prediction block  632 . The output of the second addition stage  610  is further coupled to an input of the second subtraction stage  616 , and the other input of the second subtraction stage  616  is coupled to the input from the high-pass filter  502 . An output of the second subtraction stage  616  is coupled to inputs of the short-term shaping block  624  and the third subtraction stage  622 . An output of the short-term shaping block  624  is coupled to the other input of the third subtraction stage  622 . The third addition stage  618  has inputs coupled to outputs of the long-term shaping block  620  and short-term prediction block  624 . 
         [0085]    The purpose of the noise shaping quantizer  516  is to quantize the LTP residual signal in a manner that weights the distortion noise created by the quantisation into parts of the frequency spectrum where the human ear is more tolerant to noise. 
         [0086]    In operation, all gains and filter coefficients and gains are updated for every subframe, except for the LPC coefficients, which are updated once per frame. The noise shaping quantizer  516  generates a quantized output signal that is identical to the output signal ultimately generated in the decoder. The input signal is subtracted from this quantized output signal at the second subtraction stage  616  to obtain the quantization error signal d(n). The quantization error signal is input to a shaping filter  612 , described in detail later. The output of the shaping filter  612  is added to the input signal at the first addition stage  602  in order to effect the spectral shaping of the quantization noise. From the resulting signal, the output of the prediction filter  614 , described in detail below, is subtracted at the first subtraction stage  604  to create a residual signal. The residual signal is multiplied at the first amplifier  606  by the inverse quantized quantization gain from the noise shaping analysis block  514 , and input to the scalar quantizer  608 . The quantization indices of the scalar quantizer  608  represent an excitation signal that is input to the arithmetically encoder  518 . The scalar quantizer  608  also outputs a quantization signal, which is multiplied at the second amplifier  609  by the quantized quantization gain from the noise shaping analysis block  514  to create an excitation signal. The output of the prediction filter  614  is added at the second addition stage to the excitation signal to form the quantized output signal. The quantized output signal is input to the prediction filter  614 . 
         [0087]    On a point of terminology, note that there is a small difference between the terms “residual” and “excitation”. A residual is obtained by subtracting a prediction from the input speech signal. An excitation is based on only the quantizer output. Often, the residual is simply the quantizer input and the excitation is its output. 
         [0088]    The shaping filter  612  inputs the quantization error signal d(n) to a short-term shaping filter  624 , which uses the short-term shaping coefficients a shape,i  to create a short-term shaping signal s short (n), according to the formula: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 s 
                 short 
               
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         [0089]    The short-term shaping signal is subtracted at the third addition stage  622  from the quantization error signal to create a shaping residual signal f(n). The shaping residual signal is input to a long-term shaping filter  620  which uses the long-term shaping coefficients b shape,i  to create a long-term shaping signal s long (n), according to the formula: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
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                 long 
               
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         [0090]    where “lag” is measured as a number of samples. 
         [0091]    The short-term and long-term shaping signals are added together at the third addition stage  618  to create the shaping filter output signal. 
         [0092]    The prediction filter  614  inputs the quantized output signal y(n) to a short-term prediction filter  632 , which uses the quantized LPC coefficients a i  to create a short-term prediction signal p short (n), according to the formula: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
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         [0093]    The short-term prediction signal is subtracted at the fourth subtraction stage  630  from the quantized output signal to create an LPC excitation signal e LPC (n). The LPC excitation signal is input to a long-term prediction filter  628  which uses the quantized long-term prediction coefficients b i  to create a long-term prediction signal p long (n), according to the formula: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
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         [0094]    The short-term and long-term prediction signals are added together at the fourth addition stage  626  to create the prediction filter output signal. 
         [0095]    The LSF indices, LTP indices, quantization gains indices, pitch lags and excitation quantization indices are each arithmetically encoded and multiplexed by the arithmetic encoder  518  to create the payload bitstream. The arithmetic encoder  518  uses a look-up table with probability values for each index. The look-up tables are created by running a database of speech training signals and measuring frequencies of each of the index values. The frequencies are translated into probabilities through a normalization step. 
         [0096]    An example decoder  700  for use in decoding a signal encoded according to embodiments of the present invention is now described in relation to  FIG. 7 . 
         [0097]    The decoder  700  comprises an arithmetic decoding and dequantizing block  702 , an excitation generation block  704 , an LTP synthesis filter  706 , and an LPC synthesis filter  708 . The arithmetic decoding and dequantizing block  702  has an input arranged to receive an encoded bitstream from an input device such as a wired modem or wireless transceiver, and has outputs coupled to inputs of each of the excitation generation block  704 , LTP synthesis filter  706  and LPC synthesis filter  708 . The excitation generation block  704  has an output coupled to an input of the LTP synthesis filter  706 , and the LTP synthesis block  706  has an output connected to an input of the LPC synthesis filter  708 . The LPC synthesis filter has an output arranged to provide a decoded output for supply to an output device such as a speaker or headphones. 
         [0098]    At the arithmetic decoding and dequantizing block  702 , the arithmetically encoded bitstream is demultiplexed and decoded to create LSF indices, LTP indices, quantization gains indices, average pitch lag, pitch contour codebook index, and a pulses signal. 
         [0099]    The four subframe pitch lags are obtained by, for each subframe, adding the corresponding offset from the pitch contour codebook vector indicated by the pitch contour codebook index to the average pitch lag. 
         [0100]    The LSF indices are converted to quantized LSFs by adding the codebook vectors of the ten stages of the MSVQ. The quantized LSFs are transformed to quantized LPC coefficients. The LTP indices and gains indices are converted to quantized LTP coefficients and quantization gains, through look ups in the quantization codebooks. 
         [0101]    At the excitation generation block, the excitation quantization indices signal is multiplied by the quantization gain to create an excitation signal e(n). 
         [0102]    The excitation signal is input to the LTP synthesis filter  706  to create the LPC excitation signal e LPC (n) according to: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
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                   LPC 
                 
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         [0103]    using the pitch lag and quantized LTP coefficients b i . 
         [0104]    The LPC excitation signal is input to the LPC synthesis filter to create the decoded speech signal y(n) according to: 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
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         [0105]    using the quantized LPC coefficients a i . 
         [0106]    The encoder  500  and decoder  700  are preferably implemented in software, such that each of the components  502  to  632  and  702  to  708  comprise modules of software stored on one or more memory devices and executed on a processor. A preferred application of the present invention is to encode speech for transmission over a packet-based network such as the Internet, preferably using a peer-to-peer (P2P) network implemented over the Internet, for example as part of a live call such as a Voice over IP (VoIP) call. In this case, the encoder  500  and decoder  700  are preferably implemented in client application software executed on end-user terminals of two users communicating over the P2P network. 
         [0107]    It will be appreciated that the above embodiments are described only by way of example. Other applications and configurations may be apparent to the person skilled in the art given the disclosure herein. The scope of the invention is not limited by the described embodiments, but only by the following claims.