Abstract:
Disclosed invention uses a coaxial microwave antenna to enhance ionization in PVD or IPVD. The coaxial microwave antenna increases plasma density homogeneously adjacent to a sputtering cathode or target that is subjected to a power supply. The coaxial microwave source generates electromagnetic waves in a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode. The invention also uses a magnetron proximate the sputtering cathode or target to further enhance the sputtering. Furthermore, for high utilization of expensive target materials, a target can rotate to improve the utilization efficiency. The target comprises dielectric materials, metals, or semiconductors. The target also has a cross section being substantially symmetric about a central axis that the target rotates around. The target may have a substantially circular or annular a cross section.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0001]    Glow discharge thin film deposition processes are extensively used for industrial applications and materials research, especially in creating new advanced materials. Although chemical vapor deposition (CVD) generally exhibits superior performance for deposition of materials in trenches or holes, physical vapor deposition (PVD) is preferred because of its simplicity and lower cost. In PVD, magnetron sputtering is often preferred, as it may have about a hundred times increase in deposition rate and about a hundred times lower required discharge pressure than non-magnetron sputtering. Inert gases, especially argon, are usually used as sputtering agents because they do not react with target materials. When a negative voltage is applied to a target, positive ions, such as positively charged argon ions, hit the target and knock the atoms out. Secondary electrons are also ejected from the target surface. The magnetic field can trap the secondary electrons close to the target and the secondary electrons can result in more ionizing collisions with inert gases. This enhances the ionization of the plasma proximate the target and leads to a higher sputtering rate. It also means that the plasma can be sustained at a lower pressure. In conventional magnetron sputtering, higher deposition rate may be achieved by increasing the power to the target or decreasing the distance from the target. However, a drawback is that magnetized plasma tends to have larger variations in plasma density, because the strength of the magnetic field significantly varies with distance. This non-homogeneity may cause complications for deposition of large areas. Also, conventional magnetron sputtering has relatively low deposition rate. 
         [0002]    Unlike evaporative techniques, the energy of ions or atoms in PVD is comparable to the binding energy of typical surfaces. This would in turn help increase atom mobility and surface chemical reaction rates so that epitaxial growth may occur at reduced temperatures and synthesis of chemically metastable materials may be allowed. By using energetic atoms or ions, compound formation may also become easier. An even greater advantage can be achieved if the deposition material is ionized. In this case, the ions can be accelerated to desired energies and guided in direction by using electric or magnetic fields to control film intermixing, nano- or microscale modification of microstructure, and creation of metastable phases. Because of the interest in achieving a deposition flux in the form of ions rather than neutrals, several new ionized physical vapor deposition (IPVD) techniques have been developed to ionize the sputtered material and subsequently direct the ions toward the substrate using a plasma sheath that is generated by using an RF bias on the substrate. 
         [0003]    The ionization of atoms requires a high density plasma, which makes it difficult for the deposition atoms to escape without being ionized by energetic electrons. Capacitively generated plasmas are usually very lightly ionized, resulting in low deposition rate. Denser plasma may be created using inductive discharges. Inductively coupled plasma may have a plasma density of 1011 ions/cm 3 , approximately 100 times higher than comparable capacitively generated plasma. A typical inductive ionization PVD uses an inductively coupled plasma that is generated by using an internal coil with a 13.56-MHz RF source. A drawback with this technique is that ions with about 100 eV in energy bombard the coil, erode the coils and then generate sputtered contaminants that may adversely affect the deposition. Also, the high energy of the ions may cause damage to the substrate. Some improvement has been made by using an external coil to resolve the problem associated with the internal ICP coil. 
         [0004]    Another technique for increasing plasma density is using a microwave frequency source. It is well known that at low frequencies, electromagnetic waves do not propagate in a plasma, but are instead reflected. However, at high frequencies such as typical microwave frequency, electromagnetic waves effectively allow direct heating of plasma electrons. As microwaves input energy into the plasma, collisions can occur to ionize the plasma so that higher plasma density can be achieved. Typically, horns are used to inject microwave or a small stub antenna is placed in the vacuum chamber adjacent to the sputtering cathode for inputting the microwave into the chamber. However, this technique does not provide a homogeneous assist to enhance plasma generation. It also does not provide enough plasma density to sustain its own discharge without the assistance of the sputtering cathode. Additionally, scale up of such systems for large area deposition is limited to a length on the order of 1 meter or less because of non-linearity. 
         [0005]    There still remains a need for providing a high density homogeneous discharge adjacent to a sputtering cathode to increase localized ionization efficiency and depositing films over large areas. There is also a need for lowering the energy of the ions to reduce surface damage to the substrate and thus reduce defect densities. There is a further need to affect the microstructure growth and deposition coverage such as gapfill in narrow trenches and to enhance film chemistry through controlling ion density and ion energy in the bulk plasma and proximate the substrate surface. 
       BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0006]    Embodiments of the invention use a coaxial microwave antenna to enhance ionization in PVD or IPVD. The coaxial microwave antenna increases plasma density homogeneously adjacent to a sputtering cathode or target that is subjected to a power supply. The coaxial microwave source generates electromagnetic waves in a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode. Embodiments of the invention also use a magnetron proximate the sputtering cathode or target to further enhance the sputtering. Furthermore, for high utilization of expensive target materials, a target can rotate to improve the utilization efficiency. The target comprises dielectric materials, metals, or semiconductors. The target also has a cross section being substantially symmetric about a central axis that the target rotates around. In a specific embodiment, the target may have a substantially circular or annular cross section. 
         [0007]    In one set of embodiments of the invention, a coaxial microwave source may be disposed outside a target to assist PVD or IPVD. The target may be subjected to an AC, RF or pulsed power to cause it to act as a cathode if the target comprises a dielectric material or a semiconductor. The target may be subjected to a DC voltage to cause it to act as a cathode if the target comprises a metal. The coaxial microwave source may be linear and generates electromagnetic waves in a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode. A planar microwave source may comprise a plurality of parallel coaxial microwave line sources. 
         [0008]    In another set of embodiments of the invention, a magnetron or a plurality of magnetrons may be added proximate a target that is configured to rotate for higher material utilization. The target is subjected to at least one of the DC, AC, RF or pulsed power. A coaxial microwave source is located outside the target as a secondary source to enhance ionization. The magnetrons may help confine secondary electrons and further enhance ionization. In a special case of one magnetron inside the target, the magnetron is preferably in a horizontal position and proximate the bottom of the target to enhance localized ionization above the substrate. Moreover, in the case of a plurality of magnetrons such as two magnetrons inside the target, the magnetrons are preferably positioned at an angle to the horizontal position. The two magnetrons may be located symmetrically about the vertical central axis of the target. Furthermore, magnetrons may locate outside the targets for providing magnetic field adjacent to the target surface to enhance ionization. An electric potential may be formed between the magnetrons to further enhance ionization. 
         [0009]    Embodiments of the invention still further include a configuration of two rotatable targets for depositing a film over a substrate, where an antenna is outside the two targets. The two targets are disposed substantially symmetrically about the antenna. Proximate each of the targets, a magnetron or a plurality of magnetrons may be added for localized ionization enhancement. 
         [0010]    Additional embodiments and features are set forth in part in the description that follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the specification or may be learned by the practice of the invention. A further understanding of the nature and advantages of the present invention may be realized by reference to the remaining portions of the specification and the drawings. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0011]      FIG. 1  illustrates a simplified schematic for microwave-assisted rotatable sputtering deposition with a coaxial microwave source outside a rotatable target. 
           [0012]      FIG. 2  shows a simplified schematic for a twin configuration of microwave-assisted rotatable sputtering deposition with a coaxial microwave source outside a rotatable target. 
           [0013]      FIG. 3  shows a simplified schematic for a configuration of microwave-assisted rotatable magnetron sputtering deposition with two rotatable targets and a magnetron inside each of the targets. 
           [0014]      FIG. 4  depicts an alternative schematic for microwave-assisted rotatable magnetron sputtering deposition with two rotatable targets and two magnetrons inside each of the targets. 
           [0015]      FIG. 5  provides a configuration of microwave-assisted rotatable magnetron sputtering deposition with a microwave source outside a target and two magnetrons inside the target. 
           [0016]      FIG. 6  depicts a different simplified schematic for a coaxial microwave-assisted rotatable magnetron sputtering deposition, where a microwave source and magnetrons locate outside a target. 
           [0017]      FIG. 7  is an exemplary simplified microwave-assisted rotatable PVD deposition system. 
           [0018]      FIG. 8  is a flow chart for illustrating simplified deposition steps for forming a film on a substrate. 
           [0019]      FIG. 9A  provides a simplified schematic of a planar plasma source consisting of 4 coaxial microwave line sources. 
           [0020]      FIG. 9B  provides an optical image of a planar microwave source consisting of 8 parallel coaxial microwave plasma sources. 
           [0021]      FIG. 10  is a graph showing the improved plasma efficiency in using pulsed microwave power when compared to continuous microwave power. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     1. Overview of Microwave-Assisted PVD 
       [0022]    Microwave-assisted PVD has been developed to achieve higher plasma densities (e.g. 1012 ions/cm 3 ) and higher deposition rate, as a result of improved power coupling and absorption at 2.45 GHz when compared to a typical radio frequency (RF) coupled plasma sources at 13.56 MHz. One drawback of the RF plasma is that a large portion of the input power is dropped across a plasma sheath (dark space). By using microwave plasma, a narrow plasma sheath is formed and more power can be absorbed by the plasma for creation of radical and ion species, which increases the plasma density and reduces collision broadening of the ion energy distribution to achieve a narrow energy distribution. 
         [0023]    Microwave plasma also has other advantages such as lower ion energies with a narrow energy distribution. For instance, microwave plasma may have low ion energy of 1-25 eV, which leads to lower damage when compared to RF plasma. In contrast, standard planar discharge would result in high ion energy of 100 eV with a broader distribution in ion energy, which would lead to higher damage, as the ion energy exceeds the binding energy for most materials of interest. This ultimately inhibits the formation of high quality crystalline thin films through introduction of intrinsic defects. With low ion energy and narrow energy distribution, microwave plasma helps in surface modification and improves coating properties. 
         [0024]    In addition, lower substrate temperature (e.g. lower than 200° C., for instance at 100° C.) is achieved as a result of using microwave plasma source, as increased plasma density at lower ion energy helps reduce defect density of films. Such a lower temperature allows better microcrystalline growth in kinetically limited conditions. Also, standard planar discharge without magnetrons normally requires pressure greater than about 50 mtorr to maintain self-sustained discharge, as plasma becomes unstable at pressure lower than about 50 mtorr. The microwave plasma technology described herein allows the pressure to range from about 10 −6  torr to 1 atmospheric pressure. Therefore, processing windows (e.g. temperature and pressure) are extended by using a microwave plasma source. 
         [0025]    In the past, one drawback associated with microwave source technology in the vacuum coating industry was the difficulty in maintaining homogeneity during the scale up from small wafer processing to very large area processing. Microwave reactor designs in accordance with embodiments of the invention address these problems. Arrays of coaxial plasma line sources have been developed to deposit substantially uniform coatings of ultra large area (greater than 1 m 2 ) at high deposition rate to form dense and thick films (e.g. 5-10 μm thick). 
         [0026]    An advanced pulsing technique has been developed to control the microwave power for generating plasma, and thus to control the plasma density and plasma temperature. This advanced pulsing technique may reduce the thermal load disposed over substrate. This feature is relevant when the substrate has a low melting point or a low glass transition temperature, such as in the case of a polymer substrate. The advanced pulsing technique allows high power pulsing into plasma with off times in between pulses, which reduces the need for continuous heating of the substrate. Another aspect of the pulsing technique is significant improvement in plasma efficiency compared to continuous microwave power. 
       2. Exemplary Microwave-Assisted Rotatable Sputtering Deposition 
       [0027]      FIG. 1  shows a simplified microwave-assisted rotatable sputtering deposition system  100  with a target. Target  106  in a cylindrical tube form can rotate around the center of the target to provide higher utilization of the target material, which is often very expensive. Antenna  110  is a coaxial microwave plasma line source, and is located outside the target  106  on a central axis  118 . A gas supply  112  located on the central axis  118  above the target  106  provides a continuous flow of inert gases, such as argon, helium, xenon, and mixtures thereof, to act as sputtering agents. The gas supply  112  may also be located in between the target  106  and substrate  102  (not shown). Plasma  104  is formed proximate the outer surface of the target  106 . A film of the target material may be formed on the substrate  102  located below the target  106 . The substrate  102  may be biased to attract ions to form a film on the substrate  102 . 
         [0028]    In an alternative embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 2 , a configuration  200  comprises two rotatable targets positioned substantially symmetrically about a microwave source or antenna. Again, target  206  is configured to rotate for providing higher utilization of the target material. Antenna  210  comprises a coaxial microwave line source and is located outside the target at the centerline  210 . A gas supply  212  located along the central axis  218  above the two targets provides a continuous flow of inert gases such as argon, helium, xenon and mixtures thereof, to act as sputtering agents, although the gas supply  212  may be in any position between the target  206  and substrate  202 . Plasma  204  is formed proximate the outer surface of the target  206 . A film of the target material is formed on the substrate  202  located below the target  206 . The substrate  202  may be biased to attract ions to form a film on the substrate  202 . 
         [0029]    In another embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 3 , a configuration  300  comprises two rotatable targets with one magnetron in each of the targets. Again, the two targets are positioned substantially symmetrically about a microwave source or antenna. Target  306  can rotate to provide higher utilization of the target materials. Antenna  310  comprises a coaxial microwave source and is located outside the target  306  at the centerline  318 . Magnetron  314  may be in a horizontal position and proximate the bottom of the target. As illustrated by magnetic field line  316  in  FIG. 3 , the magnetic field is generated outside the target  306  and localized above substrate  302 . This magnetic field helps confine secondary electrons proximate the target surface and enhances collision and thus ionization. 
         [0030]    The inventors performed experiments to show that the deposition efficiency may increase about 60 times by using a secondary microwave source to assist in magnetron sputtering. The plasma homogeneity is also significantly improved as a result of microwave injection. 
         [0031]    A gas supply  312  located along the central axis  318  above the two targets  306  provides a continuous flow of inert gases such as argon, to act as sputtering agents. Plasma  304  is formed proximate the outer surface of the target  306 . A film of the target material is formed on the substrate  302  located below the target  306 . The substrate  302  may be biased to attract ions to form a film on the substrate  302 . 
         [0032]      FIG. 4  provides another configuration  400  with two rotatable targets, where the two rotatable targets  406  are positioned substantially symmetrically about a coaxial microwave source (antenna)  410 . Two magnetrons  414  are located inside each of the two rotatable targets  406 . The two magnetrons  414  are tilted from a vertical central axis  418  at an angle and are in a substantially symmetrical position relative to the central axis  418 . Magnetic field line  416  shows that the magnetic field extends downward and outside the target  406 . An electric potential  422  may exist between the two magnetrons and may therefore further enhance ionization. A gas supply line  412  is located on the central axis  420  above the target  406 . Plasma  404  is generated outside the target  406  and above substrate  402 . 
         [0033]      FIG. 5  shows a different configuration  500  with one rotatable target  506  and magnetrons  514 . Similar to  FIG. 4 , an antenna  510  is outside the target  506  on a central axis  518 . The two magnetrons  514  are substantially symmetrically positioned inside the target  506  relative to the central axis  518 . Magnetic field line  516  shows that the magnetic field extends downward and outside the target  506 . An electric potential  520  may exist between the two magnetrons to further increase ionization. A gas supply line  512  is located at the central axis  518 . Plasma  504  is formed outside the targets  506 .  FIG. 6  shows a configuration  600  similar to the configuration  500  shown in  FIG. 5  except that the magnetrons are outside the target  606 . 
       3. Sputtering Cathode and Conditions for Sustaining Plasma Discharge 
       [0034]    For a target comprising a metal, such as aluminum, copper, titanium, or tantalum, a DC voltage may be applied to the target to cause the target to act as a cathode and the substrate to act as an anode. The DC voltage would help accelerate free electrons. The free electrons collide with sputtering agents such as argon (Ar) atoms from argon gas to cause excitation and ionization of Ar atoms. The excitation of Ar results in gas glow. The ionization of Ar generates Ar +  and secondary electrons. The secondary electrons repeat the excitation and ionization process to sustain the plasma discharge. 
         [0035]    Proximate the cathode, positive charges build up as the electrons move much faster than ions because of their smaller mass. Therefore, fewer electrons collide with Ar so that fewer collisions with the high energy electrons result in mostly ionization rather than excitation. A cathode dark space (plasma sheath) that is also called Crookes dark space is formed proximate the cathode. Positive ions entering the dark space are accelerated toward the cathode or target and bombard the target so that atoms are knocked out from the target and then transported to the substrate. Also, secondary electrons are generated to sustain the plasma discharge. If the distance between cathode to anode is less than the dark space, few excitations occur and discharge can not be sustained. On the other hand, if the Ar pressure in a chamber is too low, there would be larger electron mean free path such that secondary electrons would reach anode before colliding with Ar atoms. In this case, discharge also can not be sustained. Therefore, a condition for sustaining the plasma is 
         [0000]        L*P&gt; 0.5 (cm-torr) 
         [0000]    where L is the electrode spacing and P is the chamber pressure. For instance, if a spacing between target and substrate is 10 cm, P should be greater than 50 mtorr. 
         [0036]    The mean free path λ of an atom in a gas is given by: 
         [0000]      λ(cm)˜5×10 −3 /P(torr) 
         [0000]    If P is 50 mtorr, λ is about 0.1 cm. This means that sputtered atoms or ions typically have hundreds of collisions before reaching the substrate. This reduces the deposition rate significantly. In fact, the sputtering rate R is inversely proportional to the chamber pressure and the spacing between target and substrate. Therefore, lowering required chamber pressure for sustaining discharge increases deposition rate. 
         [0037]    With a secondary microwave source proximate the sputtering cathode, the sputtering system allows to run the cathode at a lower pressure, lower voltage and possibly higher deposition rate. By decreasing operational voltage, atoms or ions have lower energy so that damage to the substrate is reduced. With the high plasma density and lower energy plasma from microwave assist, high deposition rate can be achieved along with lower damage to the substrate. 
         [0038]    Referring to  FIGS. 1-6  again, targets  106 ,  206 ,  306 ,  406 ,  506  and  606  may be made of dielectric material, such as silicon oxide, aluminum oxide, or titanium oxide. The targets may be applied by AC, RF, or pulsed power to accelerate free electrons. 
       4. Exemplary Microwave-Assisted Rotatable Sputtering Deposition 
       [0039]      FIG. 7  depicts a simplified schematic, cross-sectional diagram of a microwave-assisted rotatable sputtering deposition system  700 . The system may be used to practice embodiments of the invention. The system  700  includes a vacuum chamber  748 , two rotatable targets  716 , a coaxial microwave antenna  710  that is positioned between the two targets  716 , a magnetron  714 , a substrate supporting member  724 , a vacuum pump system  726 , a controller  728 , a gas supply system  740 , and a shield  754  for protecting the chamber walls and the sides of the substrate supporting member  724  from sputtering deposition. The following references, i.e. U.S. Pat. No. 6,620,296 B2, U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. US 2007/0045103 A1, and U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. US2003/0209422 A1, are cited here for exemplary physical vapor deposition (PVD) magnetron sputtering systems used by Applied Materials and others. The entire contents of each of the foregoing patents are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. 
         [0040]    Target  716  comprises a dielectric material or a metal that is deposited on a substrate  720  to form a film  718 . The target  716  is configured to be rotated for maximizing the utilization of the target material. The target  716  is typically structured for removable insertion into the sputtering system  700 . The target  716  is periodically replaced with new targets given that the PVD process erodes away the to-be-deposited material of each target. 
         [0041]    Both DC power supply  738  and the high frequency or pulsed power supply  732  are coupled through a device to the target  716 . The device may be a switch  736 . The switch  736  selects power from either the DC power supply  738  or the power from the AC, RF or pulsed power supply  732 . A relatively negative voltage source  738  provides a DC cathode voltage of a few hundred volts. The specific cathode voltage varies with design. As the target can act as a source of negatively charged particles, the target may also be referred to as the cathode. Those skilled in the art will realize that there may be many ways for switching DC and RF power that would fulfill the function. Furthermore, in some embodiments, it may be advantageous to have both DC and RF power coupled to the target simultaneously. 
         [0042]    The sputtering rate may be further increased by using a magnetron as illustrated in  FIG. 7  in addition to the microwave-assist. A magnetron  714  is generally positioned near the target  716 , for example inside the target as shown in  FIG. 7 . The magnetron  714  has opposed magnets (S, N) for creating magnetic field within the chamber near by the magnetron  714 . The magnetic field confines secondary electrons, for charge neutrality, so that the ion density would increase to form a high density plasma  750  within the chamber adjacent to the magnetron  714 . The magnetron  714  is stationery about the central axis of the target  716  to achieve full coverage during sputtering of the target  716 . The magnetron  714  may have variable sizes, positions, and a number of shapes for controlling the degree of plasma ionization. The magnetron  714  may have any shapes, among others, an oval, a triangle, a circle, and a flattened kidney shape. The magnetron  714  may also have an unbalanced design, i.e. the magnetic flux of the outer pole may be greater than the magnetic flux produced by the inner pole. A few references are provided here, e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 5,242,566 for a flattened kidney shape magnetron, U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,265 for a triangularly shaped outer pole, U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,825 for different shapes of magnetron. Each of the foregoing patents is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. 
         [0043]    The coaxial microwave antenna  710  may be subjected to a pulsed or continuous power  752  to radiate microwaves. The microwaves input energy into the plasma and the plasma is heated to enhance ionization and thus increase plasma density. The coaxial microwave antenna  710  may comprise a plurality of coaxial microwave antennas. The length of coaxial antenna  710  may be up to approximately 3 m in some embodiments. One aspect of the coaxial microwave antenna  710  is to provide homogeneous discharge adjacent to sputtering cathode or target  716 . This would allow uniform deposition of a large area over substrate  720 . 
         [0044]    For the purpose of controlling the deposition of sputtered layer  718  on substrate  720 , the substrate  720  may be biased by a RF power  830  coupled to the substrate supporting member  724  which is provided centrally below and spaced apart from the target  716 , usually within the interior of the shield  754 . The bias power may have a typical frequency of 13.56 MHz, or more generally between 400 kHz to about 500 MHz. The supporting member is electrically conductive and is generally coupled to ground or to another relatively positive reference voltage so as to define a further electrical field between the target  716  and the supporting member  724 . The substrate  720  may be a wafer, such as a silicon wafer, or a polymer substrate. The substrate  720  may be heated or cooled during sputtering, as a particular application requires. A power supply  762  may provide current to a resistive heater  764  embedded in the substrate supporting member  724 , commonly referred to as a pedestal, to thereby heat the substrate  720 . A controllable chiller  760  may circulate chilled water or other coolants to a cooling channel formed in the pedestal. It is desirable that the deposition of film  718  be uniform across the entire top surface of the substrate  720 . 
         [0045]    Vacuum pump  726  can pump the chamber  748  to a very low base pressure in the range of 10 −8  torr. A gas source  740  connected to the chamber  748  through a mass flow controller  742  supplies inert gases such as argon (Ar), helium (He), xenon (Xe), and/or combinations thereof. The gases may be flowed into the chamber near the top of the chamber as illustrated in  FIG. 7  above the target  716 , or in the middle of the chamber (not shown) between the substrate  720  and target  716 . The pressure of the gases inside the chamber is typically maintained between 0.2 mtorr and 100 mtorr. 
         [0046]    A microprocessor controller  728  controls the mass flow controller  742 , a high frequency power supply  732 , a DC power supply  738 , a microwave power supply  752 , a bias power supply  730 , a resistive heater  764  and a chiller  760 . The controller  728  may include, for example, a memory such as random access memory, read only memory, a hard disk drive, a floppy disk drive, or any other form of digital storage, local or remote, and a card rack coupled to a general purpose computer processor (CPU). The controller operates under the control of a computer program stored on the hard disk or through other computer programs, such as stored on a removable disk. The computer program dictates, for example, the timing, mixture of gases, DC or RF power applied on targets, biased RF power for substrate, pulsed power or continuous power to the microwave source, substrate temperature, and other parameters of a particular process. 
       5. Exemplary Deposition Process 
       [0047]    For purposes of illustration,  FIG. 8  provides a flow diagram of a process that may be used to form a film on a substrate. First, a sputtering target is loaded into a processing chamber at block  804 . A coaxial microwave antenna is positioned inside the sputtering target at block  806  to generate microwaves. An electric voltage is applied to a sputtering cathode target by a power source at block  808 . The power source is at least one of DC, AC, RF or pulsed power. The power of the microwaves may be modulated at block  810 , for instance, by a power supply using a pulsing power or a continuous power. Then, gases such as sputtering agents are flowed into the processing chamber at block  812 . 
         [0048]    The carrier gases may act as a sputtering agent. For example, the carrier gas may be provided with a flow of H 2  or with a flow of inert gas, including a flow of He or even a flow of a heavier inert gas such as Ar. The level of sputtering provided by the different carrier gases is inversely related to their atomic mass. Flow may sometimes be provided of multiple gases, such as by providing both a flow of H 2  and a flow of He, which mix in the processing chamber. Alternatively, multiple gases may sometimes be used to provide the carrier gases, such as when a flow of H 2 /He is provided into the processing chamber. 
         [0049]    As indicated at block  814 , a plasma is formed from the gases by a sputtering cathode and further enhanced by microwaves at a frequency ranging from 1 GHz to 10 GHz, for example, commonly at 2.45 GHz (a wavelength of 12.24 cm). In addition, a higher frequency of 5.8 GHz is often used when power requirement is not as critical. The benefit of using a higher frequency source is that it has smaller size (about half size) of the lower frequency source of 2.45 GHz. 
         [0050]    In some embodiments, the plasma may be a high-density plasma having an ion density that exceeds 10 12  ions/cm 3 . Also, in some instances the deposition characteristics may be affected by applying an electrical bias to the substrate. Application of such a bias causes the ionic species of the plasma to be attracted to the substrate, sometimes resulting in increased sputtering. The environment within the processing chamber may also be regulated in other ways in some embodiments, such as controlling the pressure within the processing chamber, controlling the flow rates of the gases and where they enter the processing chamber, controlling the power used in generating the plasma, controlling the power used in biasing the substrate and the like. Under the conditions defined for processing a particular substrate, material is thus deposited over the substrate as indicated at block  816 . 
       6. Exemplary Coaxial Microwave Source and Features 
       [0051]      FIG. 9A  shows a schematic of a simplified system including a planar coaxial microwave source  902  consisting of 4 coaxial microwave line sources  910 , a substrate  904 , a coaxial power provider  908  and an impedance matched rectangular waveguide  906 . The coaxial microwave line source may be formed from a coaxial cable by replacing an outer conductive layer through using an electrically conductive plasma. The microwave propagation along the coaxial microwave line source experiences a high attenuation by converting electromagnetic wave energy into heating plasma. 
         [0052]    The coaxial cable is an electrically conducting cable comprising a substantially round inner conducting center wire being surrounded by a dielectric spacer and then an outer cylindrical conducting layer. Electromagnetic field may be present substantially in the dielectric spacer between the inner conducting center wire and outer cylindrical conducting layer. 
         [0053]    In the coaxial microwave line source  910 , microwaves are radiated into the chamber in a transversal electromagnetic (TEM) mode where no electric or magnetic field is along the axial or longitudinal direction. This is different from waveguide where electromagnetic waves propagate in a transverse electric (TE) or transverse magnetic (TM) mode. In the TE mode, the electric field is entirely transverse, but the magnetic field has longitudinal components. On the other hand, in the TM mode, the magnetic field is entirely transverse, but the electric field has longitudinal components. 
         [0054]    A tube that comprises a dielectric material of a high heat resistance and a low dielectric loss, such as quartz or alumina, acts as the interface between the waveguide and the vacuum chamber. Between the dielectric layer and the waveguide, an atmospheric pressure is maintained by using gases such as air or nitrogen to help cool the waveguide. Microwaves can leak through the dielectric material and ignite a plasma discharge in the processing chamber. 
         [0055]      FIG. 9B  shows an optical image of a planar coaxial microwave source consisting of 8 parallel coaxial microwave line sources. The length of each coaxial microwave line may be up to approximately 3 m in some embodiments. 
         [0056]    Typically, the microwave plasma line uniformity is about +/−15%. The inventors have performed experiments to demonstrate that approximately +/−1.5% of homogeneity over 1 m 2  can be achieved in dynamic array configuration and 2% over 1 m 2  in static array configurations. This homogeneity may be further improved to be below +/−1% over large areas. 
         [0057]    Furthermore, when plasma density increases to above 2.2×10 11 /cm 3 , the plasma density starts to saturate with increasing microwave power. The reason for this saturation is that the microwave radiation is reflected more once the plasma density becomes dense. Due to the limited power in available microwave sources, microwave plasma line sources of any substantial length may not achieve optimal plasma conditions i.e. very dense plasma. Pulsing microwave power into magnetron allows for much higher peak energy into the antenna than continuous microwave, such that the optimal plasma condition can be approached. 
         [0058]      FIG. 10  shows graph which illustrates the improved plasma efficiency of pulsing microwave over continuous microwave, assuming that the pulsing microwave has the same average power as the continuous microwave. Note that continuous microwave results in less disassociation as measured by the ratio of nitrogen radical N 2 + over neutral N 2 . A 31% increase in plasma efficiency can be achieved by using pulsed microwave power. 
         [0059]    While the above is a complete description of specific embodiments of the present invention, various modifications, variations and alternatives may be employed. Moreover, other techniques for varying the parameters of deposition could be employed in conjunction with the coaxial microwave source. Examples of the possible variations include but are not limited to various configurations of rotatable targets assisted with a coaxial microwave antenna with or without magnetrons, different shapes of magnetron, the DC, RF or pulsed power to the target, the microwave source, linear or planar, pulsed or continuous power to the microwave source, the RF bias condition for the substrate, the temperature of the substrate, the pressure of deposition, and the flow rate of inert gases and the like. 
         [0060]    Having described several embodiments, it will be recognized by those of skill in the art that various modifications, alternative constructions, and equivalents may be used without departing from the spirit of the invention. Additionally, a number of well known processes and elements have not been described in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present invention. Accordingly, the above description should not be taken as limiting the scope of the invention.