Abstract:
The invention relates to the use of a pharmaceutical composition for the local treatment or prevention of a tissue infection at an infection site, the pharmaceutical composition comprising at least two different antibiotics of group A or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof, or an antibiotic of group A and at least one antibiotic of group B or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof. Group A comprises primarily intracellular active antibiotics working as inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase; as inhibitor of gyrase; or as inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis. Group B comprises primarily extracellular active antibiotics working as inhibitor of bacterial cell wall synthesis; or inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis; or by direct destabilization or rupture of the bacterial cell wall. 
     The invention further relates to a pharmaceutical composition for treatment of extracellular and/or intracellular microbial infected cells and/or for the prevention of microbial cell infections comprising at least one antibiotic acting as an inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase and/or at least one antibiotic affecting the bacterial cell wall or its synthesis, and a substrate carrying a pharmaceutical composition. 
     The invention also relates to the use of a combination of at least one antibiotic acting as an inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase and at least one antibiotic affecting the bacterial cell wall or its synthesis as anti-adhesive against microorganisms on surfaces.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO A RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is a National Phase Patent Application of International Patent Application Number PCT/EP2008/006046, filed on Jul. 23, 2008, which claims priority of European Patent Application Number 07075639.0, filed on Jul. 23, 2007. 
     INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 
     The invention relates to the use of a pharmaceutical composition, a pharmaceutical composition, a pharmaceutical composition for treatment of extracellular and/or intracellular microbial infected cells, and a substrate comprising a pharmaceutical composition. The invention relates further to the use of antibiotics as anti-adhesives against microorganisms on surfaces. 
     Infections of bone and tissue are the severest problem of orthopaedics and surgery, in particular due to increasing operation frequency. 30% of all bone infections become chronic despite of treatment. Further, many cases are known in which an infection reoccurred after alleged successful earlier treatment. In 3% of all cases, amputation is the only remaining option. Systemic treatment with antibiotics is difficult since antibiotics penetrate through bone generally only very poorly and thus concentrations being sufficiently high to eliminate an infection are hardly achievable. 
     Local application of antibiotics is better suited for therapy of infections of bone and other tissue than systemic antibiotic therapy since by local application higher concentrations of antibiotics can be achieved at the treatment site than by systemic application. A prerequisite for a successful local antibiotics therapy is a preceding radical surgical therapy, including debridement of all bone or tissue necroses and excision of all foreign material. Local antibiotics carrier known from prior art are bone cements made from polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), beads made from PMMA, collagen fleeces and bone substituents. These carriers are commercially available with a limited number of antibiotics applied onto them: gentamicin, tobramycin, clindamycin, vancomycin and teicoplanin. 
     Though local antibiotics therapy employing the above-mentioned antibiotics have already improved treatment of bone and joint infections, such therapy fails in a significant number of cases (up to 16%). Therapy failure, however, often finally leads to the necessity of an amputation. 
     The major reasons for therapy failure are a) resistances against certain antibiotics, b) ineffectiveness of antibiotics against sessile bacteria, c) intracellular localised bacteria and d) induction of Small Colony Variants. In this context, ineffectiveness according to item b) is due to biofilm formation and cessation of proliferation of the bacteria to be eliminated. Further, in this context, intracellular is to be understood with respect to a cell of the host, i.e. of the subject to be treated. Thus, if bacteria are inside a cell of the host, antibiotics being unable to penetrate to the inner of the cell cannot act on the bacteria to be eliminated. 
     It has been known for some time that Staphylococci can survive inside leucocytes. Further, it is known that strains of  Staphylococcus aureus  showing the so-called Small Colony Variant phenotype can be internalised by keratinocytes and endothelial cells and can persist intracellularly. It was demonstrated that they remain intracellularly inside lysosomes.  S. aureus  of normal phenotype can also be internalised by endothelial cells, fibroblasts and keratinocytes and can remain intracellularly inside lysosomes. 
     It was demonstrated that  S. aureus  isolates display a dichotomy: Whereas cytotoxic strains survive in keratinocytes and fibroblasts and induce significant cytotoxicity to their host cells due to intracellular division, non-cytotoxic strains are killed inside of keratinocytes and fibroblasts, indicating that uptake of  S. aureus  represents an important mechanism of cell-autonomous host defence (Krut, O. et al., Infection and Immunity, 2003, 71: 2716-2723). 
       S. aureus  can also be internalized by osteoblasts, but osteoblasts cannot kill internalized non-cytotoxic staphylococci, instead they can persist over days and weeks inside osteoblasts without proliferation. After lysis of the osteoblasts, the Staphylococci can proliferate again. Intracellular persistence of Staphylococci and possibly other bacteria in osteoblasts and their potential to persist intracellularly inside lysosomes may play a particular role when looking at bone infections. This could be causative for chronic progression of bone infections. 
     Though it is still not known exactly whether pseudomonades, streptococci and enterococci can persist in osteoblasts, intracellular persistence of these bacteria could be shown in general. This intracellular persistence was hitherto only thought to be possibly related with chronic progression of other diseases, but since pseudomonades, streptococci and enterococci are frequent pathogens with respect to bone infections, their intracellular persistence might be causative for chronic progression of bone infections. 
     Based on this assumption, it is explainable why allegedly successfully treated bone infections can re-outbreak even after years. Inside a host cell the bacteria are protected against numerous antibiotics which cannot penetrate the cell membrane (e.g. penicillins, glycopeptides). Though an acute infection being induced by planktonic (floating) bacteria might be treated with these antibiotics, bacteria can remain intracellularly and cause a re-infection after release from the host cell. 
     In prior art, bone and soft tissue infections are treated locally mainly with aminoglycosides (gentamicin, tobramycin) which usually cannot penetrate the cell membrane of host cells. On the other hand, it was reported that aminoglycosides can accumulate in lysosomes of fibroblasts but are inactive due to the low pH of lysosomes. 
     Consequently, antibiotics used in prior art for local therapy of infections of bone and other tissue are not suited to treat all these infections successfully. In particular, local antibiotics carrier containing only gentamicin are ineffective against infections of bacteria showing a Small Colony Variant phenotype and can even induce formation of Small Colony Variant phenotypes. None of the antibiotics used at present for local therapy of infection can eliminate intracellular localized bacteria. 
     WO 2006/064517 discloses an antibiotic composition comprising a first antibiotic inhibiting the bacterial protein synthesis and a second antibiotic not inhibiting the bacterial protein synthesis. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,217,493 discloses an implantable medical device which is coated against biofilm colonization with rifampin and novobiocin, or rifampin and minocycline. 
     Given an embodiment it is possible to provide a pharmaceutical composition for treating and preventing extra- and intracellular infections of cells, especially tissue cells, a substrate carrying such composition, and a method of applying such a composition and substrate. 
     It is further possible to decrease the adhesion rate of microorganisms on different substrate surfaces. 
     In an embodiment of the invention, the local treatment and prevention is done at an infection site. The tissue to be treated can e.g. be soft tissue and/or bone tissue including what is generally denoted as “bone”. The pharmaceutical composition comprises at least two different antibiotics of group A or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof, or an antibiotic of group A and at least one antibiotic of group B or respective pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof. Group A comprises primarily intracellular active antibiotics working as inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase, as inhibitor of gyrase or as inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis. Group B comprises primarily extracellular active antibiotics working as inhibitor of bacterial cell wall synthesis or as inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis or destabilise or rupture the bacterial cell wall directly. 
     In the context of the present description a tissue infection is understood as an extracellular and intracellular infection of tissue cells caused by microorganisms. 
     In order to circumvent resistances against the antibiotics used, particularly in long-term treatments, a combination of at least two antibiotics can be chosen. Such a combination results also in higher efficacy. Though it is generally considerable to use only intracellular active antibiotics, a combination of an intracellular active antibiotic (group A) with an extracellular active antibiotic (group B) may also be chosen. Though antibiotics of group B are not intracellular active, they can inhibit formation of resistances since they act on extracellular bacteria in a bactericidal manner and resistances are only formed in planktonic, proliferating populations of bacteria. Since the extracellular active antibiotics of group B show a different mechanism of action than the antibiotics of group A, parallel resistances can hardly occur. 
     The pharmaceutical composition to be used can comprise further additives, dispersants, solvents or carrier substances etc. known per se. 
     In order to achieve good results in treating infections of bone and other tissue, at least one of the antibiotics chosen should, in an embodiment, fulfil at least one of the following criteria:
         a) It should penetrate the cell membrane of the host cell (i. e. the cell of the subject to be treated inside which the bacteria to be eliminated are located).   b) It should be able to reach the inside of the lysosomes of the host cell.   c) It should be active at low pH (particularly at that pH being present in lysosomes, i. e. ca. pH 4 to pH 5).   d) It should have a bactericidal activity.   e) It should show its bactericidal activity also against non-proliferating bacteria.       

     In an embodiment at least one of the antibiotics chosen fulfils a plurality of the criteria mentioned above. In another embodiment, fulfillment of all of these criteria is achieved. In still another embodiment, a fulfillment of all criteria by all antibiotics chosen is achieved. 
     In an embodiment said antibiotics of group A working as inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase comprise ansamycins, particularly rifamycins. Particularly, rifampin, rifabutin, rifapentine or rifamixin may be chosen. A pharmaceutical composition containing rifampin is particularly suited in eliminating intracellular Staphylococci, which were shown to be eliminated within 3 days after local administration of an according pharmaceutical composition. 
     In a further embodiment said antibiotics of group A working as inhibitor of gyrase comprise fluoroquinolones. The fluoroquinolone moxifloxacin is particularly chosen. 
     In an embodiment said antibiotics of group A working as inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis comprise streptogramins like, e. g., quinupristin or dalfopristin. In an embodiment, a combination of quinupristin and dalfopristin is used. It is to be noted that the pharmaceutical composition to be used may contain more than a single antibiotic of each group (and more than two antibiotics of group A if no antibiotic of group B is used) and thus more than two antibiotics in total. 
     In an embodiment said antibiotics of group B working as inhibitor of bacterial cell wall synthesis or destabilising and rupturing the cell wall directly comprise glycopeptides, fosfomycin and polypeptides. In an embodiment the glycopeptides chosen are vancomycin and teicoplanin. In the same or another embodiment the polypeptides chosen are bacitracin, polymyxin B as well as other polymyxins and daptomycin. 
     In an embodiment said antibiotics of group B working as inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis comprise aminoglycosides. In this context, particularly arbekacin may be chosen. 
     An exemplary pharmaceutical composition to be used comprises a rifamycin and an aminoglycoside. Another exemplary pharmaceutical composition comprises rifampin and arbekacin; such a composition essentially covers the entire germ spectrum to be eliminated and is effective against problematic bacteria like methicillin-resistant  S. aureus  (MRSA) or methicillin-resistant  S. epidermidis  (MRSE). Both antibiotics are effective also against non-proliferating (resting) bacteria and are temperature resistant (heat stable) so that they can be added to a bone cement made of poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA), to PMMA bead chains, and to spacers for revision operations. 
     Another pharmaceutical composition to be used comprises a rifamycin and fosfomycin. Still another pharmaceutical composition comprises rifampin and fosfomycin; such a composition also essentially covers the entire germ spectrum to be eliminated and is also effective against problematic bacteria like MRSA and MRSE. Fosfomycin has the further property that it binds reversibly to hydroxyl apatite and thus remains, even after release from a carrier, longer in a bone than other antibiotics. Further, fosfomycin is the smallest antibiotic known and diffuses or penetrates very well through or into bone tissue. 
     A further pharmaceutical composition to be used comprises a rifamycin and a fluoroquinolone. Another pharmaceutical composition comprises rifampin and moxifloxacin. 
     One object is also addressed by providing a pharmaceutical composition. Such a pharmaceutical composition can be used for the local treatment and prevention of a tissue infection at an infection site, whereby further embodiments of such a use are analogous to those explained above and to which in entirety reference is made hereby. 
     Such a pharmaceutical composition comprises at least two different antibiotics of group A′ or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof, or an antibiotic of group A′ and an antibiotic of group B′ or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof. In this case, group A′ comprises the primarily intracellular active antibiotics ansamycins, particularly rifamycins such as rifampin, rifabutin, rifapentine or rifamixin; fluoroquinolones, particularly moxifloxacin; streptogramins, particularly quinupristin and/or dalfopristin. Group B′ comprises the primarily extracellular active antibiotics glycopeptides, particularly vancomycin or teicoplanin; fosfomycin; polypeptides, particularly bacitracin, daptomycin, or polymyxin B; and aminoglycosides, particularly arbekacin. It is to be noted that glycopeptides cannot be the second antibiotic of a pharmaceutical composition comprising only two antibiotics and comprising an ansamycin as first antibiotic. 
     In an embodiment the pharmaceutical composition comprises only a glycopeptide, a polypeptide or fosfomycin as possible antibiotic of group B′, but no aminoglycosides are used as antibiotic of group B′. In another embodiment no streptogramins are used as antibiotic of group A′. 
     In an embodiment the antibiotics are chosen in such a way that either none or all antibiotics in the pharmaceutical composition work as inhibitors of protein synthesis, i.e. either a) only different streptogramins, or a streptogramin and an aminoglycoside may be used or b) no streptogramins and no aminoglycosides may be used at all. 
     In an alternative embodiment the pharmaceutical composition comprises a rifamycin and an aminoglycoside, particularly rifampin and arbekacin. 
     In another embodiment the pharmaceutical composition comprises a rifamycin and fosfomycin, particularly rifampin and fosfomycin. 
     Such a composition comprises rifamycin and fosmycin in such a concentration that the rifamycin reaches a concentration of 0.005 to 100 μg/ml, preferably 0.006 to 80 μg/ml, most preferably 0.0075 to 20 μg/ml at the site to be treated. Fosfomycin reaches a concentration of 0.1 to 1000 μg/ml, preferably 0.5 to 800 μg/ml, most preferably 10 to 200 μg/ml at the site to be treated. 
     In yet another embodiment the pharmaceutical composition comprises a rifamycin and polypeptide, particularly rifampin and daptomycin. 
     Such a composition comprises rifamycin and daptomycin in such a concentration that the rifamycin reaches a concentration of 0.005 to 100 μg/ml, preferably 0.006 to 80 μg/ml, most preferably 0.0075 to 20 μg/ml at the site to be treated. Daptomycin reaches a concentration of 0.1 to 100 μg/ml, preferably 0.5 to 80 μg/ml, most preferably 1 to 20 μg/ml at the site to be treated. 
     In still another embodiment the pharmaceutical composition comprises a rifamycin and a fluoroquinolone, particularly rifampin and moxifloxacin. 
     One object is also achieved by a pharmaceutical composition for the treatment of extracellular and/or intracellular microbial infected cells and/or for the prevention of microbial infections of cells comprising at least one antibiotic acting as an inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase, at least one antibiotic affecting the bacterial cell wall or its synthesis, and/or at least one antibiotic acting as a gyrase inhibitor. 
     The treatment preferably occurs locally or systemically. 
     Advantageously, ansamycins, particularly rifamycins such as rifampin, rifabutin, rifapentine or rifamixin are used as inhibitors of bacterial RNA polymerase. As antibiotics affecting the bacterial cell wall or its synthesis glycopeptides, particularly vancomycin or teicoplanin, fosfomycin and polypeptides, particularly bacitracin and daptomycin are chosen. As a gyrase-inhibitors fluoroquinolones, particularly moxifloxacin, is applied. 
     Rifamycin is used in concentrations between 0.005 to 100 μg/ml, preferably 0.006 to 80 μg/ml, most preferably 0.0075 to 20 μg/ml. Fosfomycin is used in concentrations of 1 to 1000 μg/ml, preferably 5 to 800 μg/ml, most preferably 10 to 200 μg/ml. Moxifloxacin is applied in a concentration between 0.1 to 500 μg/ml, preferably 0.5 to 200 μg/ml, most preferably 1 to 100 μg/ml. Daptomycin is used in concentrations of 0.1 to 100 μg/ml, preferably 0.5 to 80 μg/ml, most preferably 1 to 20 μg/ml. The same concentrations are preferably used in a combination of rifamycin, fosfomycin, daptomycin and/or moxifloxacin. 
     The pharmaceutical composition is especially effective in case of infected cells such as osteoblasts, leucocytes, erythrocytes, keratinocytes, fibroblasts, fat cells, muscle cells and/or endothelial cells. 
     Furthermore, the pharmaceutical composition is effective against microbial infection caused by gram-negative and/or gram-positive bacteria, preferably by the Staphyloccoci type, most preferably by  Staphylococcus aureus.    
     In an embodiment the pharmaceutical compositions to be used further comprise a biofilm formation inhibitor. Every substance reducing or inhibiting at least partially the attachment of germs, especially bacteria on a surface or the ability of germs to accumulate on a surface to form a biofilm on that surface is considered as biofilm formation inhibitor. 
     In an embodiment salicylic acid or a pharmaceutical active derivative or salt thereof is used as biofilm formation inhibitor. Particularly, a combination of salicylic acid and an aminoglycoside may be used. Salicylic acid enhances the microbial activity of aminoglycosides against bacteria, especially against  E. coli  and  Klebsiella pneumoniae : Salicylates enter a cell in a protonated form, thereby increasing the membrane potential of the cell. This, in turn, simplifies the uptake of aminoglycosides into the interior of the cell. 
     Even salicylic acid itself shows an effect on bacteria. Growth of encapsulated  Klebsiella pneumoniae  in the presence of salicylate results in reduced synthesis of capsular polysaccharides. The loss of capsular material exposes the cell surface of  K. pneumoniae  to the host defence mechanisms, thus shortening the time required for infection clearance. Salicylic acid reduces the ability of bacteria to adhere onto surfaces and to form biofilms. Though salicylic acid does not provide 100% protection against biofilm formation, it supports the effect of antibiotics. 
     Acetylsalicylic acid and/or its predominant metabolite salicylic acid exhibit definable impacts both in vitro and in vivo on microbial virulence phenotypes. Bacterial virulence factors help mediate infection by bacteria in a host organism. The following effects have been noted: reduction of adhesion to relevant biomatrices, reduction of capsule production, mitigation of biofilm formation, and diminution of vegetation growth, intravegetation bacterial proliferation, and hematogenous dissemination in experimental infective endocarditis. Salicylic acid also regulates positively the translation of specific gene loci including multiple antibiotic-resistance loci. Further, it induces cytoplasmic proteins; and increases quinolone resistance. 
     The synthesis of some types of fimbriae in  E. coli  e.g. colonization factor antigen, P fimbriae and type 1 fimbriae are reduced following growth in the presence of salicylate. Because fimbriae play a critical role in the attachment of  E. coli  to epithelial surfaces, salicylate treatment might prevent infection caused by some strains of fimbriated  E. coli . Salicylate also limits adherence of  E. coli  to silastic catheters. 
     Chemotaxis in bacteria is modulated through regulation of flagella rotation. This rotation, when counterclockwise, leads to swimming along a linear trajectory and, when clockwise, leads to tumbling. Salicylate is recognized as a chemorepellant by the  E. coli  tsr gene product. This recognition leads to prolonged tumbling of motile  E. coli  and ultimately causes cells to migrate away from salicylate. Swarming behaviour of  E. coli  is also inhibited by salicylate in a concentration-dependent manner. Production of the flagellum itself in  E. coli  is inhibited by growth in the presence of salicylate. This is mediated by inhibiting the production of flagellin, the protein monomer constituting the flagella. It has also been speculated that inhibition of flagella synthesis and motility in  E. coli  by salicylate is due to reduced synthesis in OmpF synthesis, which may be required for flagella assembly. 
     Biofilms consist of microorganisms and other matter encased in a polysaccharide matrix of microbial origin. Growth of  Pseudomonas aeruginosa  and  Staphylococcus epidermidis  in the presence of salicylate reduces the production of extracellular polysaccharide required for biofilm formation. The reduction in biofilm formation decreases the ability of these organisms to adhere to contact lenses and medical polymers. A component of biofilm production in  S. epidermidis  is extracellular slime which is composed of a complex mixture of polysaccharides, teichoic acids and proteins. Production of slime-associated proteins and teichoic acids is inhibited in  S. epidermidis  by salicylate. 
     In case of  S. aureus , salicylic acid mitigates two distinct virulence phenotypes that are of key relevance for matrix binding, i.e. to fibrinogen and fibronectin, and α-hemolysin activity. These effects are specifically associated with salicylic acid-mediated reduction in the expression of the respective structural genes, i.e., fnbA, fnbB, and hla. In addition to the suppression of matrix protein binding and cytolytic profiles, enhanced exoenzyme and protein A production occurs in the presence of salicylic acid. These findings raise the likelihood that salicylic acid executed its antimicrobial effects through one or more global regulatory networks rather than a decrease in general gene transcription. Global regulon sarA and the global regulon agr are mitigated by salicylic acid, corresponding to the reduced expression in of the hla and fnbA genes in vitro. It should be noted that  S. aureus  virulence parameters were not completely suppressed by salicylic acid but were reduced, in a drug concentration-dependent manner, by a maximum of approximately 50%. 
     In an embodiment the infected tissue to be treated is acutely or chronically infected. A combination of an acute and a chronic infection, i.e. the acute infection overlying the chronic infection, might also be treated. 
     The object is also achieved by providing a substrate for medical purposes according to claim  21 . The substrate is preferably used as carrier of the pharmaceutical composition when locally treating and preventing the tissue infection. In a further embodiment the substrate is also used locally after removal of the infected tissue as a supplement in surgical debridement. 
     In one embodiment the substrate can be soaked with the pharmaceutical composition to be used. In another embodiment the pharmaceutical composition can be dispersed in a base material of the substrate. In still another embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition can be polymerised with the base material. Thus, it is possible to coat the substrate with the pharmaceutical composition and/or to incorporate the pharmaceutical composition into the substrate. 
     In a preferred embodiment the substrate underwent special treatment e.g. sand blasting or hydroxyl apatite coating before the pharmaceutical composition is applied. 
     Within the scope of the present description is also a coating made of a support material in which the pharmaceutical composition is present e.g. in a dispersed form. Such support material can include polylactides. The support material with the dispersed pharmaceutical composition is then applied as a coating onto the substrate—either directly onto the surface of the latter or onto a layer being already present on that surface or on another layer. 
     In an embodiment the substrate comprises a fleece, a fabric, a polymethyl methacrylate, a copolymer of methylmethacrylate and methylacrylate, a resorbable polymer, polyethylene, a metal or a metal alloy e.g. a Ti6Al4V alloy or another titaniumium alloy, a ceramic, a bone cement, particularly made from a polymeric material or from calcium phosphate and/or a bone substitute. Thus, PMMA bead chains consisting mainly of a copolymer of methylmethacrylate and methylacrylate as well as glycine and a specific pharmaceutical composition to be administered as local antibiotics carrier are a possible substrate. Further, the bone cement may be intended to be used for spacer and for revision operations. 
     In case of PMMA bead chains, the following mode of use is possible: firstly, the pharmaceutical composition is dispersed within the PMMA base material. The powder is heated to 180° C. and filled into forms by injection moulding. The pharmaceutical composition is being distributed all over the base material and can diffuse from the inner parts of a PMMA bead towards the surface, where it may interact with bacteria being present around the PMMA bead chain. The PMMA bead chains may comprise 0.1-10 wt %, preferably 0.5-8 wt %, most preferably 1-5 wt % antibiotic(s). 
     In another embodiment, particularly in case of revision operations, the substrate is an implantable prosthesis, wherein joint prostheses and particularly knee, hip, shoulder, elbow prostheses as well as vertebral implants are respective examples. Furthermore, all implants for trauma surgery like screws, plate, etc. may be used as substrate. The substrate coating may comprise 10-1000 μg/cm 2 , preferably 20-500 μg/cm 2 , most preferably 50-300 μg/cm 2  antibiotic(s) per cm 2  substrate surface area. 
     In an embodiment the fleece or fabric comprises a natural or synthetic fibre, which can be biodegradable, wherein polylactide (polylactic acid) is an exemplary material. In another embodiment the fleece or fabric comprises collagen, wherein the fleece may consist essentially of collagen. In the latter case, the collagen fleece is also completely biodegradable. The fleece may comprise 0.01-10 mg/cm 2 , preferably 0.1-8 mg/cm 2 , most preferably 0.5-5 mg/cm 2  antibiotic(s) per cm 2  fleece. 
     Further a method for locally treating a subject with a pharmaceutical composition is described, the pharmaceutical composition comprising:
         at least two different antibiotics of group A or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof or   an antibiotic of group A and at least one antibiotic of group B or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof, wherein
           group A comprises intracellular active antibiotics working as
               inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase,   inhibitor of gyrase or   inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis and   
               group B comprises extracellular active antibiotics working
               as inhibitor of bacterial cell wall synthesis,   as inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis or   by direct destabilisation or rupture of the bacterial cell wall.   
               
               

     This method may be particularly used for treating a tissue infection of said subject, wherein the tissue may be, e.g., soft tissue and/or bone tissue and/or bone. These infections might occur due to a surgical operation, particularly due to an operation related to implanting an implant into a human or non-human body. Thus, the treatment might be applied to a human or non-human body. 
     With respect to further embodiments of this aspect reference is made the explanations given above which are analogously applicable for said method, particularly regarding the substrate to be used and the antibiotics to be chosen. 
     A second object is achieved by using a combination of at least antibiotic acting as an inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase and at least one antibiotic affecting the bacterial cell wall or its synthesis as anti-adhesives against microorganisms on surfaces. 
     The inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase is preferably selected from the group comprising ansamycins, particularly rifamycins such as rifampin, rifabutin, rifapentine or rifamixin. 
     The antibiotic affecting the bacterial cell wall or its synthesis is preferably selected from the group comprising glycopeptides, particularly vancomycin or teicoplanin, fosfomycin and polypeptides, particularly bacitracin or daptomycin. A preferred combination comprises rifamycin and fosfomycin. 
     In a further embodiment the microorganisms are gram-negative and/or gram-positive bacteria, preferably of the Staphyloccoci type, most preferably  Staphylococcus aureus.    
     The combination of the at least one inhibitor of bacterial RNA polymerase and the at least one antibiotic affecting the bacterial cell wall or its synthesis is preferably attached or coated onto surfaces made of metal, preferably titanium, steel or metal alloy, ceramics, and bone cement or hydroxyl apatite. 
     When coated on a substrate the combination may comprise rifamycin and fosfomycin in a concentration between 10 and 1000 μg/cm 2 , preferably 20 to 500 μg/cm 2 , most preferably 50-200 μg/cm 2 , respectively. 
     Advantageously, the antiadhesive effect is accompanied by a bactericidal effect on the tissue surrounding the coated surfaces. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Examples of embodiments are explained in further detail by means of the following figures and examples. 
         FIG. 1  shows CFU of  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P in cell culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells. 
         FIG. 2  shows CFU of  S. aureus  BAA44 in cell culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells. 
         FIG. 3   a  shows metabolic activity of osteoblastic MG63 cells after infection with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P followed by addition of rifampin to the cell culture supernatant after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 3   b  shows metabolic activity of osteoblastic MG63 cells after infection with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P followed by addition of fosfomycin to the cell culture supernatant after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 3   c  shows metabolic activity of osteoblastic MG63 cells after infection with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P followed by addition of fosfomycin, rifampin and their combination to the cell culture supernatant after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 3   d  shows metabolic activity of osteoblastic MG63 cells after infection with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P followed by addition of after adding a mixture containing 10 μg/ml fosfomycin and 0.006-0.0075 μg/ml rifampin to the cell culture supernatant after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 3   e  shows metabolic activity of osteoblastic MG63 cells after infection with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P followed by addition of moxifloxacin to the cell culture supernatant after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 4   a  shows CFU of  S. aureus  BAA44 located in osteoblastic MG63 cells after adding fosfomycin to the cell culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 4   b  shows CFU of  S. aureus  BAA44 located in osteoblastic MG63 cells after adding rifampin to the cell culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 4   c  shows CFU of  S. aureus  BAA44 located in osteoblastic MG63 cells after adding a mixture containing 50 μg/ml fosfomycin and 2.5-40 μg/ml rifampin to the cell culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 4   d : shows CFU of  S. aureus  BAA44 located in osteoblastic MG63 cells after adding a mixture containing 25-400 μg/ml fosfomycin and 2.5 μg/ml rifampin to the cell culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracelluar bacteria. 
         FIG. 4   e  shows CFU of  S. aureus  BAA44 located in osteoblastic MG63 cells after adding fosfomycin, rifampin and a mixture containing 50 μg/ml fosfomycin and 10 μg/ml rifampin to the cell culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 4   f  shows CFU of  S. aureus  BAA44 located in osteoblastic MG63 cells after adding fosfomycin, rifampin and a mixture containing 25 μg/ml fosfomycin and 2.5 μg/ml rifampin to the cell culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 4   g : shows CFU of  S. aureus  BAA44 located in osteoblastic MG63 cells after adding fosfomycin, rifampin and a mixture containing 50 μg/ml fosfomycin and 20 μg/ml rifampin to the cell culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells after treatment with lysostaphin to remove extracellular bacteria. 
         FIG. 5   a : shows CFU of  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P per titanium disc after 1.5 h incubation of  S. aureus  on vancomycin or rifampin/fosfomycin coated titanium disc, which were either washed once or thrice before incubation. 
         FIG. 5   b : shows CFU of  S. epidermidis  ATTC 35984 per titanium disc after 2 h incubation with  S. epidermis  on rifampin/fosfomycin coated titanium discs, which were washed twice before incubation. 
         FIG. 5   c : shows CFU of  S. aureus  BAA44 per titanium disc after 1.5 h incubation of with  S. aureus  on vancomycin or rifampin/fosfomycin coated titanium discs, which were washed either once or twice before incubation. 
         FIG. 5   d : shows CFU of  S. aureus  BAA44 on titanium discs or in the supernatant after overnight incubation of  S. aureus  with vancomycin or rifampin/fosfomycin coated titanium discs in Minimal Medium. 
         FIG. 6 : shows CFU of in osteoblastic MG63 cells intracellular located or to osteoblastic MG63 cells adhered  S. aureus  BAA44 after incubation overnight with  S. aureus  BAA44 and antibiotics. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     1. Use of Rifampin and Fosfomycin or their Combination for the Treatment of Extracellular Infections 
     1.1. Use of Rifampin and Fosfomycin or their Combination for the Treatment of Extracellular Infections of Osteoblastic MG63 Cells Infected with  Staphylococcus aureus  subsp.  aureus  Rosenbach (ATTC 6538P) 
     Osteoblastic MG63 cells were detached with the cell detachment medium Accutase 24 hours before infection. The cell number was determined using the Neubauer counting chamber. Cells were seeded onto uncoated 24 well plates with a cell density of 1.5×10 4  cells/cm 2  in 1 ml DMEM (Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium) with 10% FCS (fetal calf serum), 1% Glutamax-I and 1% Natrium Pyruvat and incubated at 37° C. and 5% CO 2 . 
     An overnight culture of  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P was prepared by infecting 5 ml Caso-Bouillon medium with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P. The cultures were incubated with shaking (450 U/min) over night at 37° C. 100 μl of the overnight cultures were transferred into 5 ml Caso Boulillon medium and incubated for 2 h at 37° C. with shaking (450 U/min) prior to infection. 
     The cell culture supernatant of the osteoblastic MG63 cells was removed with a pipette from the wells. 1 ml containing 1×10 6    S. aureus  ATTC 6538P cells was added to each well. Two 24 well plates were incubated with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P. The combined osteoblastic cells and bacteria were incubated for 1.5 h at 37° C. under 5% CO 2  atmosphere. The presence of bacteria was determined using a microscope. 
     After 1.5 h the supernatant was removed and the wells were carefully washed twice with 37° C. warm DMEM without additives. It was microscopically checked, if not too many cells were detached during the washing procedure. During the washing only the planktonic cells were removed, bacteria adhered to cells and the cell culture plastics were visible in great numbers. Afterwards 1 ml of cell culture complete medium was added to each well containing following antibiotics:
         100 μg/ml gentamicin   1 μg/ml rifampin   100 μg/ml fosfomycin disodium   1 μg/ml rifampin+100 μg/ml fosfomycin disodium   1 μg/ml rifampin+100 μg/ml gentamicin       

     No negative control without antibiotics was used since the strong bacterial growth in absence of antibiotics would damage the osteoblastic cells. 
     After incubation for 24 h, 100 μl of the cell culture supernatant was streaked out on Caso agar plates (Casein-peptone soymeal-peptone broth) directly, e.g. in case of rifampin, fosfomycin, rifampin/fosfomycin and rifmpicin/gentamicin, or after appropriate dilution, e.g. 1:100 in case of gentamicin, and incubated overnight at 37° C. The supernatant of two wells per group was streaked out. 
     The person skilled in the art will recognize that the above given description is just one possibility out of many alternatives. 
     The CFU (colony forming unit) of the supernatant was determined and is shown in  FIG. 1 . 
       FIG. 1  shows clearly a sensitivity of  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P located in the culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells towards the different antibiotics with the exception of gentamicin Although the used concentrations were high compared to the MIC values (minimal inhibitory concentration) determined for this  S. aureus  strain, the bacteria could not be removed completely with the antibiotic treatment. This is due to the fact that the bacteria settled on the surface of the cells or the cell culture plastic, which results in reduced sensitivity to antibiotics. This simulates the in vivo situation where staphylococci readily bind to the extracellular matrix and foreign bodies. The effect of rifampin, fosfomycin and the combination of rifampin/gentamicin is moderate, whereas the combination rifampin/fosfomycin shows a strong, synergistic effect. 
     1.2. Use of Rifampin and Fosfomycin or their Combination for the Treatment of Extracellular Infections of Osteoblastic MG63 Cells Infected with  Staphylococcus aureus  subsp.  aureus  (BAA44) 
     The experimental set up for the infection of osteoblastic MG63 cells infected with  S. aureus  BAA44, a MRSA strain with additional resistance against multiple antibiotics, was basically the same as above. 
     Following antibiotics were used:
         100 μg/ml vancomycin   10 μg/ml rifampin   100 μg/ml fosfomycin   10 μg/ml rifampin+100 μg/ml fosfomycin   10 μg/ml rifampin+100 μg/ml vancomycin.       

     After incubation for 24 h 100 μl of the cell culture were streaked out on Caso agar plates (Casein-peptone soymeal-peptone broth) directly, e.g. in case of vancomycin, rifampin/fosfomycin and rifampin/vancomycin, or after appropriate dilution, e.g. 1:100 in case of rifampin and fosfomycin, and incubated overnight at 37° C. The supernatant of two wells per group was streaked out. 
     The person skilled in the art will recognize that the above given description is just one possibility out of many alternatives. 
     The CFU (colony forming unit) of the supernatant was determined and is shown in  FIG. 2 . 
       FIG. 2  shows clearly a sensitivity of  S. aureus  BAA44 located in the culture supernatant of osteoblastic MG63 cells towards the different antibiotics. It is pointed out that it was necessary to adapt the CFU values logarithmical. 
     Rifampin in the used concentration shows as expected hardly any efficacy, since  S. aureus  BAA44 is a rifampin resistant strain. Also the antibiotic effect of fosfomycin is relatively small. However, the combination rifampin/fosfomycin shows a strong, synergistic effect on extracellular  S. aureus  BAA44, which was surprising and not expected due to the weak effect of the single compounds. 
     The effect of the combined rifampin/fosfomycin is even slightly better than the effect of vancomycin, which is one of the most important antibiotics for the treatment of MRSA infections. The combination of vancomycin and rifampin also shows a slight synergistic effect. It is noteworthy that the concentration of vancomycin used in this experiment was very high to increase the otherwise weak bactericidal effect of vancomycin. A concentration of 100 μg/ml vancomycin cannot be achieved with intravenous application. 
     2. Use of Different Antibiotics, i.e. Rifampin and Fosfomycin or their Combination for the Treatment of Intracellular Infections 
     2.1. Use of Different Antibiotics, i.e. Rifampin and Fosfomycin or their Combination for the Treatment of Intracellular Infections of Osteoblasts MG63 Infected with  Staphylococcus aureus  subsp.  aureus  Rosenbach (ATTC 6538P) 
     The experimental set up for determination of intracellular infection of osteoblastic MG63 cells infected with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P was essentially the same as above. 
     However, in order to eliminate extracellular  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P each cell culture was treated with lysostaphin after infection before adding the antibiotics. 
     For this purpose the bacterial suspension was removed from each well and the cells were washed once with warm DMEM containing 10% FCS. 250 μl 25 μg/ml lysostaphin solution was added to each well. The cells were incubated for 10 min at 37° C. Afterwards no extracellular bacteria could be observed microscopically. The lysostaphin solution was removed completely and the cells were washed once with 1 ml warm DMEM. Afterwards the antibiotic solutions having the following compositions were added:
         100 μg/ml vancomycin   100 μg/ml gentamicin   0.01-100 μg/ml rifampin   10-1000 μg/ml fosfomycin   1 μg/ml rifampin+100 μg/ml fosfomycin   1 μg/ml rifampin+100 μg/ml gentamicin   1-100 μg/ml moxifloxacin       

     The infected cells were incubated for 24 h at 37° C. under CO 2  atmosphere. 
     In order to determine the metabolic activity of osteoblastic MG63 cells after infection, the cell supernatant was removed and 1 ml of warm fresh cell culture medium was added to each well. Afterwards 200 μl of MTT solution (3[4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenaltetrazoliumbromide) was added to each well. The cultures were incubated for 2 h at 37° C. under 5% CO 2  atmosphere. The cell culture supernatant was removed and the formazan, which was formed due to metabolic activity, was solubilised with 1 ml isopropanol. 200 μl of each suspension were transferred to a 96 well microtiter plate and the absorbance at 540 nm was measured with an ELISA reader (Tecan). 
     The absorbance at 540 nm is an indicator for the metabolic activity of the osteoblastic MG63 cells. The intracellular propagation of the cytotoxic  S. aureus  strain ATTC 6538P in osteoblastic MG63 cells leads to the death of the infected cell. The lower the extinction is the lower is the metabolic activity of the cells and thus the stronger is the infection of the cells with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P. 
     The person skilled in the art will recognize that the above given description is just one possibility out of many alternatives. 
       FIGS. 3   a - d  show the influence of the different antibiotics on the metabolic activities of osteoblastic MG63 cells. 
     Vancomycin is unable to penetrate into the cell and thus does not influence the intracellular propagation of  S. aureus  inside the osteoblastic cells. Therefore, the metabolic activity of the osteoblastic cells is strongly reduced due to the infection with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P ( FIGS. 3   a - d ). The same applies to gentamicin. Nevertheless, in combination of gentamicin with rifampin the metabolic activity was higher than for rifampin alone (data not shown). 
     Rifampin on the other hand is able to reduce the cell death caused by  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P drastically ( FIG. 3   a ). Already small concentrations (0.006 μg/ml) are sufficient in increasing the metabolic activity. 
     Fosfomycin also influences the intracellular propagation of  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P and thus the metabolic activity of the infected osteoblastic cells ( FIG. 3   b ). 10 μg/ml fosfomycin increases the metabolic activity only slightly, whereby 100 μg/ml had the maximal effect and almost doubled the metabolic activity. This result is surprising since so far it has not been known that fosfomycin is be able to penetrate into cells. It is only known that fosfomycin can penetrate into neutrophils. 
     The combination of rifampin and fosfomycin also leads to an increase of metabolic activity ( FIG. 3   d ), even showing a synergistic effect ( FIG. 3   c ). 
     Also the application of 1 to 100 μg/ml moxifloxacin can inhibit intracellular growth of  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P and thus increase the metabolic activity up to more than two fold ( FIG. 3   e ). 
     2.2. Use of Rifampin, Fosfomycin or their Combination for the Treatment of Intracellular Infections of Osteoblasts MG63 Infected with  Staphylococcus aureus  subsp.  aureus  (BAA44) 
     The experimental set up for determination of intracellular infection of osteoblastic MG63 cells infected with  S. aureus  BAA44 was essentially the same as above described for  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P. 
     Because the non-cytotoxic  S. aureus  BAA44 persists in osteoblasts and does not divide intracellularly like the cytotoxic strain  S. aureus  ATTC6538P, the intracellular localisation of  S. aureus  BAA44 does not result in cell death of the osteoblastic cells. The intracellular infection of the osteoblastic MG63 cells with  S. aureus  BAA44 could therefore not be determined on basis of the metabolic activity of the cells and was determined via cell lysis and counting of the intracellular CFU instead. 
     Antibiotic solutions having the following compositions were added:
         100 μg/ml vancomycin   2.5-40 μg/ml rifampin   25-400 μg/ml fosfomycin   and their mixtures in different ratios as given below.       

     The infected cells were incubated with the antibiotics for 24 h at 37° C. under 5% CO 2  atmosphere. 
     Afterwards the cells are washed once with PBS pH 7.4 (phosphate buffer solution) followed by lysis with 1 ml 0.1% Triton X100 in ringer&#39;s solution. The lysates were treated for 5 min with ultrasound. The lysates are thoroughly resuspended with a pipette. Only one 24 well plate was handled and the other plates were stored at 4° C. in order to minimize bacterial growth in the lysate. 100 μl lysate were undiluted streaked out on Caso agar plates, incubated over night at 37° C. and the colonies were counted. 
       FIGS. 4   a - 4   g  show the CFU value per well as an indicator for the degree of intracellular  S. aureus  BAA44 infections of osteoblastic MG63 cells. The lower the CFU value is the lower is the infection rate of the osteoblastic cells with  S. aureus  BAA44. This correlates to the efficacy of the added antibiotic. Due to the weak intracellular growth of  S. aureus  BAA44, a decrease in CFU is caused by the bactericidal effect of the antibiotics. 
     Fosfomycin in concentration between 50-400 μg/ml shows a good efficacy on the infection rate with intracellular located  S. aureus  BAA44 ( FIG. 4   a ). Surprisingly the effect of fosfomycin can be achieved at concentrations allowing for intravenous application (100-400 μg/ml, preferably 132-297 μg/ml in serum). Because of its excellent tissue penetration high fosfomycin concentrations are also achieved in bone. Therefore, fosfomycin is successfully applied in the treatment of osteomyelitis. 
     The person skilled in the art will recognize that the above given description is just one possibility out of many alternatives. 
     Although  S. aureus  BAA44 is a rifampin resistant strain rifampin shows a good intracellular potency ( FIG. 4   b ). 
     Rifampin and fosfomycin show clearly a synergistic effect in varying concentration ratios ( FIG. 4   c - g ). 
     Even in case of the rifampin resistant  S. aureus  BAA44 the applied concentrations were sufficient enough in order to allow a systemic treatment of bone infections. Therefore, the combination of rifamycin and fosfomycin is suitable for treating osteomyelitis and can also be applied systemically. 
     3. Use of a Combination of Rifampin and Fosfomycin as Anti-Adhesives on Surfaces of Medical Substrates 
     3.1. Adhesion of  Staphylococcus aureus  subsp.  aureus  Rosenbach (ATTC 6538P) on a Titanium Substrate Coated with Rifampin and Fosfomycin 
     An overnight culture of  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P was prepared by infecting 5 ml Caso-Bouillon medium with  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P. The cultures were incubated with shaking (450 U/min) over night at 37° C. 100 μl of the overnight cultures were transferred into 5 ml Caso Boulillon medium and incubated for 2 h at 37° C. with shaking (450 U/min). The bacterial density was determined photometrically. The bacterial suspension was diluted 1:2 in Caso Bouillon prior measurement. A bacterial suspension with a density of 1×10 5  CFU/ml in Caso Boullion with 10% FCS was used for the adhesion experiments. 
     Differently coated 2 cm titanium discs were used as samples:
         titanium discs sand blasted as negative control,   titanium discs sand blasted and coated with 200 μg/cm 2  vancomycin,   titanium discs simultaneously coated with 50 μg/cm 2  rifampin and 200 μg/cm 2  fosfomycin calcium,   titanium discs coated in a first step with 50 μg/cm 2  rifampin and in a second step with 200 μg/cm 2  fosfomycin calcium, and   titanium discs coated in a first step with 200 μg/cm 2  fosfomycin calcium and in a second step with 50 μg/cm 2  rifampin.       

     After coating the titanium discs were washed either one time or three times with PBS. The coated and uncoated titanium discs were incubated for 5 min at room temperature with 5 ml PBS. This was repeated two more times. In the third circle the titanium discs were incubated for 1 h at room temperature. Before removing the PBS solution the titanium discs were turned or swiveled in order to increase the detachment of the antibiotics. Afterwards the titanium discs were transferred into sterile 12 well plates. 
     The different titanium samples were incubated with 2 ml bacterial suspension for 1.5 h at 37° C. without shaking. 
     Afterwards the bacterial suspension was removed and the discs were washed three times with 2.5 ml PBS. After the last washing cycle each discs was placed in 10 ml sterile ringer&#39;s solution. Only one disc of each group was simultaneously examined while the other discs were stored at 4° C. The titanium discs in the ringer&#39;s solution were exposed to ultra sound for 10 min in order to detach the adhered bacteria. The suspensions comprising the detached bacteria were diluted (1:10, 1:100) and streaked out on a Caso agar plate. The agar plates were incubated over night at 37° C. and the next day the colonies were counted. 
     The person skilled in the art will recognize that the above given description is just one possibility out of many alternatives. 
       FIG. 5   a  shows the CFU of  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P per titanium disc after incubation for 1.5 h with the bacteria. Vancomycin had only an anti-adhesive effect after one washing step, but did not reveal any anti-adhesive effect after three washing steps. In fact, the number of  S. aureus  cells adhered to the vancomycin coated discs was identical to the uncoated discs. However, the combination rifampin and fosfomycin showed a strong anti-adhesive effect. The effect depended only slightly on the number of washing steps. Obviously, the rifampin/fosfomycin coating was less likely to be removed completely from the titanium surface by several washing steps than vancomycin. 
     The order of coating the discs with rifampin and fosfomycin—together, first rifampin then fosfomycin; first fosfomycin then rifampin—does not seem to influence the effect ( FIG. 5   a ). 
     3.2. Adhesion of  Staphylococcus epidermis  ATTC 35984 on a Titanium Substrate Coated with a Combination of Rifampin and Fosfomycin 
     The experimental set up was essentially the same as described above for  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P. 
     Differently coated 2 cm titanium discs were used as samples:
         titanium discs (sand blasted) as negative control,   titanium discs coated in a first step with 50 μg/cm 2  rifampin and in a second step with 200 μg/cm 2  fosfomycin calcium, and   titanium discs coated in a first step with 200 μg/cm 2  fosfomycin calcium and in a second step with 50 μg/cm 2  rifampin.       

     The coated titanium discs were washed three times with 5 ml PBS before incubation with  S. epidermis.    
     The person skilled in the art will recognize that the above given description is just one possibility out of many alternatives. 
     The experimental results for  S. epidermis  ( FIG. 5   b ) support the results found in case of  S. aureus  ATTC6538P. The adhesion of  S. epidermis  ATTC 35984 on uncoated titanium was lower than the adhesion of  S. aureus  ATTC6538P. This can relate to the fact that  S. epidermis  preferably attaches to plastics or hydroxyapatite but less to titanium. Although the titanium discs were washed three times before incubation with the bacteria, the combination rifampin and fosfomycin shows a strong anti-adhesive effect. 
     3.3. Adhesion of  Staphylococcus aureus  BAA44 on a Titanium Substrate Coated with a Combination of Rifampin and Fosfomycin 
     The experimental set up was essentially the same as described above for  S. aureus  ATTC 6538P. 
     The following coated 2 cm titanium discs were used as samples:
         titanium discs sand blasted as negative control,   titanium discs coated with 200 μg/cm 2  vancomycin   titanium discs sand blasted and coated in a first step with 50 μg/cm 2  rifampin and in a second step with 200 μg/cm 2  fosfomycin calcium.       

     The coated titanium discs were washed either once or twice with 5 ml PBS before incubation with  S. aureus  BAA44 for 1.5 h. 
     The person skilled in the art will recognize that the above given description is just one possibility out of many alternatives. 
       FIG. 5   c  shows the CFU on the discs after incubation with  S. aureus  BAA44. Vancomycin reduced the adhesion of  S. aureus  BAA44 only if the disc were washed once: After two washing steps all vancomycin seems to be removed and no reduction of bacterial adhesion could be observed. Despite the rifampin-resistance of  S. aureus  BAA44 the combination rifampin/fosfomycin had a strong anti-adhesive effect, which was only slightly diminished if the discs were washed twice instead of once before incubation with the bacteria. 
     3.4. Bactericidal Activity of Titanium Substrate Coated with Rifampin and Fosfomycin Against  S. aureus  BAA44 
     An overnight culture of  S. aureus  BAA44 was prepared by infecting 5 ml Caso-Bouillon medium with  S. aureus  BAA44. The cultures were incubated with shaking (450 U/min) over night at 37° C. 100 μl of the overnight cultures were transferred into 5 ml Caso Boulillon medium and incubated for 2 h at 37° C. with shaking (450 U/min) prior to the incubation with the titanium discs. The bacterial density was determined photometrically. 
     A bacterial suspension with a density of 1×10 4  CFU/ml in Minimal Medium (PBS, 0.2% ammonium chloride, 0.2% sodium sulphate, 0.25% glucose, 1% Caso Bouillon, 50 μg/ml glucose-6-phosphate) was used in the adhesion assay. The Minimal Medium was used instead of Caso Bouillon to minimize the bacterial growth. 
     Differently coated 2 cm titanium discs were used as samples:
         titanium discs (sand blasted) as negative control,   titanium discs (sand blasted) coated with 200 μg/cm 2  vancomycin,   titanium discs coated in a first step with 300 μg/cm 2  fosfomycin calcium and in a second step with 70 μg/cm 2  rifampin.       

     After coating, the titanium discs were washed three times with 2.5 ml PBS at room temperature. 
     The different titanium samples were incubated with 2 ml bacterial suspension for 15.5 h at 37° C. without shaking. 
     Afterwards the CFU in the supernatant as well as the adhered bacteria on the titanium discs were analysed. The supernatant was diluted 1:10 in PBS, 100 μl of the dilution were streaked out on Caso agar plates. The discs were washed four times with 2.5 ml PBS to remove not adherent bacteria. After the last washing cycle each discs was placed in 10 ml sterile ringer&#39;s solution. Only one disc of each group was simultaneously examined while the other discs were stored at 4° C. The titanium discs in the ringer&#39;s solution were exposed to ultra sound for 10 min in order to detach the adhered bacteria. The suspensions comprising the detached bacteria were diluted (1:10, 1:100, 1:1000) and streaked out on a Caso agar plate. The agar plates were incubated over night at 37° C. and the next day the colonies were counted. 
     The person skilled in the art will recognize that the above given description is just one possibility out of many alternatives. 
     The results are shown in  FIG. 5   d . The bacterial growth in the negative controls was reduced by using Minimal Medium, but nevertheless the bacterial CFU in the supernatant increased ten times during the incubation period. Surprisingly, more CFU could be found adhered to the uncoated disc than in the supernatant. 
     Vancomycin reduced the bacterial growth in the cell culture supernatant compared to the uncoated control slightly, but the adherence of the bacteria was even more reduced. However, vancomycin could not exhibit any bactericidal effect and more than 50,000 CFU could be found on the vancomycin coated titanium samples. 
     Although the titanium discs were washed three times before the adhesion assay, the fosfomycin/rifampin combination displayed a clear bactericidal activity against the rifampin-resistant strain BAA44. No CFU could be detected in the supernatant and less than 100 CFU adhered to the titanium surface. This corresponds to a 86,000-fold reduction in bacterial adherence compared to uncoated titanium and a 470-fold reduction compared to the vancomycin coating. 
     It was expected that a soluble antibiotic coating without carrier matrix e.g. polymer matrix unfolds its efficacy by dissolving into the tissue fluid after implantation. The colonization of the implant or prosthesis is then hampered by killing the planktonic bacteria before colonization and reduction of bacterial propagation due to the efficacy of the dissolved antibiotics. After several washing steps the amount of rifampin and fosfomycin left on the discs, and thus available in the supernatant, was still high enough for showing antibacterial efficacy in the supernatant. Therefore, the rifampin/fosfomycin coating is stable enough to get in contact with tissue fluids and blood during implantation and is still effective in preventing bacterial adherence to the implant surface and the surrounding tissue. This property is especially important for staphylococci infections, because staphylococci do not adhere exclusively to implants but to the extracellular matrix of tissue as well. 
     4. Use of Rifampin and Daptomycin or their Combination for Treatment of Acute Infection of Osteoblasts MG63 Cells with  Staphylococcus aureus  subsp.  aureus  (BAA44) 
     Osteoblastic MG63 cells were detached with the cell detachment medium Accutase 24 hours before infection. The cell number was determined using the Neubauer counting chamber. Cells were seeded onto uncoated 24 well plates with a cell density of 1.5×10 4  cells/cm 2  in 1 ml DMEM (Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium) with 10% FCS (fetal calf serum), 1% Glutamax-I and 1% Natrium Pyruvat and incubated at 37° C. and 5% CO 2 . 
     An overnight culture of  S. aureus  BAA44 was prepared by infecting 5 ml Caso-Bouillon medium with  S. aureus  BAA44. The cultures were incubated with shaking (450 U/min) over night at 37° C. 100 μl of the overnight cultures were transferred into 5 ml Caso Boulillon medium and incubated for 2 h at 37° C. with shaking (450 U/min) prior to infection. 
     The cell culture supernatant of the osteoblastic MG63 cells was removed with a pipette from the wells. 1 ml containing 1×10 6    S. aureus  BAA44 CFU was added to each well containing also antibiotics having the following compositions:
         50 μg/ml vancomycin   2.5 μg/ml rifampin   1.25-10 μg/ml daptomycin   and their mixtures in different ratios as given below.       

     The combined osteoblastic cells, bacteria, and antibiotic compositions were incubated for 18 h at 37° C. under 5% CO 2  atmosphere. 
     Afterwards the cells were washed once with PBS pH 7.4 (phosphate buffer solution) followed by lysis with 1 ml 0.1% Triton X100 in ringer&#39;s solution. The lysates were thoroughly resuspended with a pipette. Only one 24 well plate was handled and the other plates were stored at 4° C. in order to minimize bacterial growth in the lysate. The lysates were diluted 1:10 in PBS, 100 μl of diluted lysate were streaked out on Caso agar plates, incubated over night at 37° C. and the colonies were counted. 
     The person skilled in the art will recognize that the above given description is just one possibility out of many alternatives. 
     Because the cells were not treated with lysostaphin after infection, the CFU value per well ( FIG. 6 ) is an indicator for the degree of intracellular infection of osteoblastic MG63 cells with  S. aureus  BAA44 as well as for  S. aureus  BAA44 adhered extracellularly to osteoblastic MG63 cells. The lower the CFU value is the lower is the infection rate of the osteoblastic cells with  S. aureus  BAA44. This correlates to the efficacy of the added antibiotic. 
     Because the strain is rifampin-resistant the effect of 2.5 μg rifampin was less than for vancomycin and daptomycin, but overgrowth of the MG63 cells with planktonic  S. aureus  BAA44 was prevented efficacious (data not shown) 
     Daptomycin alone showed good efficacy already in concentrations of 1.25 μg/ml and 2.5 μg/ml, whereas 5 μg/ml and 10 μg/ml could eradicate the infection completely. 
     Despite the ineffectiveness of rifampin alone, the combination 2.5 μg/ml rifampin and 1.25 μg/ml or 2.5 μg/ml daptomycin respectively was synergistic in eliminating all intracellular and extracellular adhered bacteria. 
     Because vancomycin is only weak bactericidal a very high concentration of vancomycin was used in this experiment to increase its efficacy. This concentration can never be achieved by intravenous application of vancomycin. However, several hundred  S. aureus  could escape vancoymicin by invading the osteoblastic cells, a phenomenon that has relevance in vivo especially in the treatment of bone infections. 
     Daptomycin is in contrast to glycopeptides like vancomycin rapidly bactericidal and the bactericidal activity is concentration dependent. Therefore the higher concentrations of 5 and 10 μg/ml could eliminate all bacteria before they were able to invade the osteoblastic cells. 
     Local application of rifampin and daptomycin could be an efficient treatment for acute bone infections. Daptomycin eliminates in high concentrations very efficiently all extracellular bacteria and thus prevents infection of new osteoblasts, while rifampin is able to eradicate intracellular infected osteoblasts. 
     5. Coated or Impregnated Substrates for Medical Purposes 
     Rifampin was diluted in methanol in a concentration of 30-40 mg/ml. Fosfomycin calcium was suspended in ultrapure water in a concentration of 100-140 μg/ml. No further additives were used. The titanium endoprosthesis with different surface modifications (sand-blasted, porous coated, or hydroxyapatite coated) was coated directly with the antibiotic solutions using the ink-jet or the spray coating process. The surface can be coated with rifampin first, followed by fosfomycin calcium, the other way around, or both antibiotics simultaneously. The resulting covering density was 50-70 μg/cm 2  rifampin and 300-350 μg/cm 2  fosfomycin. 
     Rifampin, fosfomycin disodium, and fosfomycin calcium were incorporated into collagen fleeces during the production process of the fleeces. Rifampin and fosfomycin disodium were added dissolved in acidified buffer, while fosfomycin calcium was added in watery suspension. The final concentrations were 0.1-0.2 mg rifampin per cm 2  collagen fleece and 0.5 mg-2 mg fosfomycin per cm 2  collagen fleece, whereas fosfomycin disodium and fosfomycin calcium could contribute in varying proportions to the final concentration of fosfomycin. 
     Rifampin and fosfomycin disodium were mixed with two different polymers on PMMA basis, zirconium dioxid, and glycine. Rifampin was added in an amount of 0.5-1.5% of the total weight, while fosfomycin disodium was added in an amount of 2.5-7.5% of the total weight. The polymer/antibiotic mixture was heated to 160-180° C. and PMMA beads were manufactured directly on metal wires by injection moulding. 
     The person skilled in the art will recognize that the above given description is just one possibility out of many alternatives. 
     Numerous modifications and variations of practicing the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings and therefore will fall within the scope of the following claims.