Abstract:
An End-Point Prediction scheme is described for voltage-mode buck regulators to generate adaptive output voltage to integrated-circuit systems. Internal nodal voltages of the regulator controller are predicted and set automatically by the proposed algorithms and circuits. The settling time of the regulator can therefore be significantly reduced for faster dynamic responses, even with dominant-pole compensation.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
   This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/699,890, filed Jul. 18, 2005, entitled “End-Point Prediction Scheme for Voltage Regulators,” which application is incorporated in its entirety by reference as if fully set forth herein. 

   FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
   The invention is in the area of End-Point Prediction (EPP) that is a methodology to improve the reference-tracking speed of a regulator. This has important application on the design of regulators, such as buck regulators for generating adaptive output or supply voltages to integrated-circuit systems and other types of regulators. 
   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   Adaptive power supply is an effective power-management solution for performance-power optimization in both digital and mixed-signal systems. Therefore, switched-mode regulators with fast reference tracking to provide fast change of regulated output voltages are becoming important for future IC systems. Pulse-width-modulated (PWM) switched-mode regulator is well-accepted in many mixed-signal systems, as the switching period is fixed and can be designed so that switching noise will not seriously degrade the signal-to-noise ratio of mixed-signal systems. However, PWM regulators generally have slower reference tracking due to the large and off-chip compensation capacitors for the regulator&#39;s stability. As a result, extensive parametric design on controller and compensation network is generally required to improve the tracking speed, and therefore the robustness of this approach is not high. 
   One type of a voltage-mode PWM buck regulator  10  to provide a regulated output voltage (V O ) from an unregulated voltage (V IN ) is shown in  FIG. 1A , as disclosed in R. W. Erickson,  Fundamentals of Power Electronics , Norwell Mass.: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001. The power stage  12  is formed by two power transistors (a PMOSFET: MP and a NMOSFET: MN), an inductor (L O ) and a filtering capacitor (C O ). The error amplifier  14  compares the reference voltage (V REF ) from a voltage reference  16  with scaled V O  generated by resistors  20  and  22  of respective resistances R F1  and R F2 . Thus,
 
 V   O   =V   REF ·( R   F1   +R   F2 )/ R   F2   =V   REF   /b  
         where b=R F2 /(R F1 +R F2 ). An error voltage (V a ) is then generated by error-amplifier  14  and supplied to PWM controller  24  to determine duty cycle (D) in a switching period for voltage regulation. A buck regulator operated in continuous conduction mode (CCM) has a conversion relationship given by       

   
     
       
         
           
             
               V 
               O 
             
             
               V 
               IN 
             
           
           = 
           
             D 
             = 
             
               
                 
                   V 
                   a 
                 
                 - 
                 
                   V 
                   L 
                 
               
               
                 
                   V 
                   H 
                 
                 - 
                 
                   V 
                   L 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
       
       
         
           where V H  and V L  are upper and lower bounds of the ramp signal in the PWM controller  24 . When V REF  from reference  16  is changed, V O  is changed by changing D with different V a . This change in V O  is then fed through an error-amplifier  14  and a compensation network  18  that includes an off-chip compensation capacitor (C C ) to the PWM controller  24 . Since a large compensation capacitor (C C ) is connected at the error-amplifier output for frequency compensation, the large-signal response of V a  is poor and the change of V O  in the prior art is therefore very slow. A dead-time control and power transistor drivers circuit  26  containing one or more power transistor driver(s) may be used to drive the power stage  12 , so that there is no overlap between the times when both transistors MP and MN are on at the same time. The operation of circuits  24  and  26  is conventional and need not be described herein in detail. While the network  18  is shown to contain a single capacitor, it will be understood that it may contain more than one capacitor and one or more resistors as well to achieve one or multiple pole-zero cancellations. 
         
       
     
  
   The effect of large capacitance of the compensation capacitor (C C ) in compensation network  18  on tracking speed of the regulator output voltage is illustrated in  FIG. 1B . As shown in  FIG. 1B , the large capacitance of the compensation capacitor (C C ) causes the error signal V a  at the output of the error amplifier to rise slowly, so that the pulse width signal controlling the pulse width from the PWM controller  24  also causes the duty cycle (e.g. from D n+1  to D n+3  in  FIG. 1B ) and the regulator output voltage V 0  to rise slowly when V REF  is abruptly increased. This is undesirable. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   The invention is based on the recognition that, it is possible to anticipate the end-point value of the error voltage that should be applied to the controller controlling the duty cycle when the reference voltage V REF  is changed, in a scheme referred to herein as end-point prediction. In this scheme tracking speed can be improved by providing the reference voltage to the controller that controls the duty cycle (D) of the power stage (such as by controlling the turning on and off of the stage) in a manner that bypasses the compensation network  18  that includes the large value compensation capacitor (C C ). A change in V REF  will therefore be quickly reflected in a change in duty cycle (D) of the power stage, and in a corresponding change in V a . In this manner, V a  will quickly track a change in V REF . This is the case even for large changes in the value of V REF . 
   In one embodiment of the invention, the regulator comprises a power stage including two or more power semiconductor devices, said stage providing a regulator output in response to an input voltage. One or more power-transistor digital driver(s) turns on/off the power semiconductor devices to control the duty cycle (D) of the power stage. An error amplifier receives as inputs a reference voltage and a signal indicative of the regulator output and provides a single-ended output that is proportional to a difference between the two inputs to the error amplifier. A frequency compensation network connected to the amplifier output (or connected between the amplifier out and the negative input of the amplifier) to stabilize the regulator. A circuit path connects the voltage reference and the amplifier output or a signal derived therefrom to the controller that controls the duty cycle (D) of the power stage. The circuit path connects the reference voltage to the controller in a manner so that the path is substantially unaffected by any delay caused by the frequency compensation network, to provide end-point prediction when the voltage reference changes. Preferably, the path bypasses the frequency compensation network. 
   In one implementation of the above embodiment, the circuit path includes a voltage adder that adds the voltage reference and the amplifier output or a signal derived therefrom and provides the summed signal to the controller. Preferably, a voltage-controlled oscillator supplies substantially input voltage independent and substantially constant frequency ramp and clock signals for use by the controller. The voltage-controlled oscillator also supplies a ramp signal of amplitude V H −V L  directly proportional to the input voltage for use of the controller. 
   Another aspect of the invention is directed to an oscillator that can generate substantially input voltage independent and substantially constant frequency ramp and clock signals. In one embodiment, the oscillator comprises a current mirror circuit. The current mirror circuit includes a circuit providing a current I equal to b(V IN )/R 1 , where V IN  is an input voltage to the oscillator and b is a scaling factor less than or equal to one, and R 1  a resistance. The current mirror circuit also includes a first branch including a capacitor; and a second branch including a resistor of resistance R 1 , said current mirror circuit being such that current I flows through both branches. The oscillator comprises a transistor connected in parallel to said capacitor and a hysteretic comparator providing a periodic clock signal to a gate of said transistor to periodically discharge said capacitor to provide a periodic ramp signal by turning on the transistor periodically, in response to voltages at two terminals of the resistor. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     An embodiment of the invention will now be described by the way of principles of operation and with reference to accompanying drawings, in which 
       FIG. 1A  is the block diagram illustrating a generic voltage-mode buck regulator according to the prior art, 
       FIG. 1B  is a graphical plot of a ramp signal and of an error voltage to illustrate the slow tracking in a conventional regulator, 
       FIG. 2  is the block diagram illustrating the structure of a voltage-mode buck regulator according to an embodiment of the present invention, 
       FIG. 3  is a schematic view of a voltage-controlled oscillator for use in an embodiment of the present invention, 
       FIG. 4  is the logic of the hysteretic comparator in  FIG. 3 , 
       FIG. 5  is the measured results of the used voltage-controlled oscillator in  FIG. 3  at two input voltages, 
       FIG. 6  is the reference tracking of the positive edge of V REF  for V O  by the conventional control of  FIG. 1A , and 
       FIG. 7  is the reference tracking of the negative edge of V REF  for V O  by the control in an embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 8A  is a graphical plot of the reference voltage V REF  and of the error voltage output V a  of the error-amplifier in the regulator of  FIG. 1A . 
       FIG. 8B  is a graphical plot of the reference voltage V REF  and of the error voltage output V a1  of the error-amplifier, and the output V a2  of an adder adding V a1  to V REF  in the regulator of  FIG. 2 . 
   

   For simplicity and description, identical components are labeled by the same numerals or identification in this application. 
   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT 
   In one embodiment, an adaptive output or supply voltage by a buck regulator  100  provides a good approach to save power of integrated-circuit systems. A low output voltage from the regulator is applied to a system in low-power/standby mode, while a high output voltage from the regulator will be applied when the system has to operate in full-power mode. The reference voltage is therefore changed at different modes of operation to vary the output or supply voltage from the buck regulator. The corresponding action by the buck regulator in response to the change of reference voltage is regarded as reference tracking. The reference-tracking speed is important and is preferably fast so that the transition time between low-power/standby mode and full-power mode is short. While the embodiment described involves a buck regulator, it will be understood that the invention is equally applicable to other types of regulators. 
   In the prior art design of  FIG. 1A , there is a large voltage change experienced at the error-amplifier output when the reference voltage is changed to generate different output voltage of the buck regulator. Dominant-pole compensation, which is a robust method to achieve regulator&#39;s stability, will slow down the overall response of the buck regulator due to slew-rate limit by the large compensation capacitor at the error-amplifier output. 
   To solve this problem, in one embodiment, the reference voltage is applied along a circuit path  102  that leads to controller  24 ′ and that bypasses the capacitor of large capacitance C C  in network  18 , so that the rise time of the error signal applied to the controller is substantially unaffected by the capacitance. Preferably, the path includes a voltage adder  104  used to add the error-amplifier output voltage V a1  and the reference voltage V REF , as shown in  FIG. 2 , and the summed voltage signal V a2  is fed to controller  24 ′. In this manner, a change in the reference voltage V REF  is quickly reflected in a change in the error signal applied to controller  24 ′, which causes a commensurate change in the duty cycle D. This then causes a corresponding change in the regulator output V O . The voltage change at the error-amplifier output V a1  is theoretically null while it varies just a little in practice. The reference-tracking speed is hence greatly improved. 
   In this case, V a1 , a node connected with a large compensation capacitor in network  18 , need not experience large voltage transients during reference tracking. According to prior art, the required V a  to determine D is given by 
   
     
       
         
           
             V 
             a 
           
           = 
           
             
               
                 ( 
                 
                   
                     
                       V 
                       H 
                     
                     - 
                     
                       V 
                       L 
                     
                   
                   
                     bV 
                     IN 
                   
                 
                 ) 
               
               · 
               
                 V 
                 REF 
               
             
             + 
             
               V 
               L 
             
           
         
       
     
       
       
         
           When V H  is designed such that 
         
       
     
  
             V   H     =         bV   IN     +       V   L     ⁢             ⁢             ⁢   or   ⁢           ⁢         V   H     -     V   L         bV   IN           =   1           
wherein within tolerances, the relation of V a  and V REF  is given by
   V   a   =V   REF   +V   L            where V H  and V L  are provided by the PWM controller  24 ′.       
   Referring to  FIG. 2 , the error-amplifier output voltage V a1  is substantially equal to V L . During reference tracking, V REF  and V a2  will change rapidly while the error-amplifier output voltage V a1  will be constant. However, this will be the case only when using ideal power transistors and ideal inductor. As a result, there will be a small change on V a1  during tracking in practice. Since there is nearly no large-signal transient at V a1 , the reference tracking is much improved. 
   Hence, when the reference voltage V REF  is changed, V a2  will quickly change with it, thereby causing the duty cycle D controlled by controller  24 ′ and output V O  of stage  12  to also change quickly, tracking the change in the reference voltage at high speed. 
   Stability of power converters is studied by loop-gain analysis. The open-loop gain T(s) of a voltage-mode buck converter in CCM is given by 
   
     
       
         
           
             T 
             ⁡ 
             
               ( 
               s 
               ) 
             
           
           = 
           
             
               ( 
               
                 b 
                 D 
               
               ) 
             
             · 
             
               [ 
               
                 
                   V 
                   O 
                 
                 
                   ( 
                   
                     
                       V 
                       H 
                     
                     - 
                     
                       V 
                       L 
                     
                   
                   ) 
                 
               
               ] 
             
             · 
             
               A 
               ⁡ 
               
                 ( 
                 s 
                 ) 
               
             
             · 
             
               P 
               ⁡ 
               
                 ( 
                 s 
                 ) 
               
             
           
         
       
     
       
       
         
           where A(s) and P(s) are the transfer functions of the error amplifier  14  and power stage  12 , respectively. As V H =bV IN +V L  is used in the proposed EPP scheme, the loop gain of the proposed structure is given by
 
 T ( s )= A ( s )· P ( s )
 
         
       
     
  
   The stability of the voltage-gain buck regulator is independent of V O . Stability of the proposed buck regulator can be achieved by dominant-pole compensation. A low frequency pole, which ensures complex poles due by the power stage located after the unity-gain frequency of the loop gain, is created at the error-amplifier output. 
   As the input voltage V IN  to the regulator changes, the frequency of the ramp signal in controller  24 ′ may also change. As a further improvement, a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is used in controller  24 ′ to provide a ramp signal with V H =bV IN +V L  and a substantially constant switching frequency despite changes in the input voltage V IN  to the regulator. The ramp signal amplitude needs to change from V L  to V H =bV IN +V L  with a constant switching frequency. V L  is provided by controller  24 ′. The VCO  150  design is shown in  FIG. 3 , which is one of the embodiments. When the resistor ratio R B2 /(R B1 +R B2 ) of the VCO  150  is also designed as substantially b, which is defined as the ratio R F2 /(R F1 +R F2 ), the current I in resistor  152  of resistance R 1  is given by
 
 I=bV   IN   /R   1  
 
   The voltages across resistors  151  and  152  are the same, due to the effect of amplifier  154 . This current I is copied by the current mirror  156  into two current branches. One branch  156   a  is to charge a capacitor  160  of capacitance C 1  to form the ramp signal, while another branch  156   b  is used to convert the voltage at node  164  to V H . The hysteretic comparator  158  with logics shown in  FIG. 4  compares the amplitude of the ramp signal V I  at node  168  with V H  and V L  at the two terminals of resistor  170  and at the two inputs of comparator  158  to turn on and off the NMOS transistor  162  that is connected in parallel with capacitor  160  of capacitance C 1  to discharge the ramp voltage back to V L . The charge stored in capacitor  160  is given by
 
 Q=I/f=C   1 ·( V   H   −V   L )
         where f is the switching frequency of the designed buck converter, and hence
 
 bV   IN /( f·R   1 )= C   1 ·[( bV   IN   +V   L )− V   L ]
   to give the relationship of switching frequency of
 
 f= 1 /R   1   C   1  
       

   The switching frequency is therefore independent of V IN  and is fixed by the design of R 1  and C 1 , and the ramp amplitude changes between V L  and V H =bV IN +V L . Hence, VCO  150  provides a ramp signal and a clock signal that are substantially the same despite changes in V IN . In the design, V L  is set to about 0.2V so that V a1 ≈0.2V to allow the error amplifier to operate in the high-gain region. The voltage-controlled oscillator  150  also supplies a ramp signal of amplitude V H −V L  directly and substantially proportional to the input voltage V IN  for use by the controller. 
   While the voltage controller oscillator circuit  150  of  FIG. 3  can be advantageously used for the regulator of  FIG. 2  for generating substantially constant frequency ramp and clock signals independent of the input voltage, it will be understood that circuit  150  may also be used for such similar purposes either alone or in combination with other circuits. Such and other variations are within the scope of this application. 
   A buck regulator in accordance with this embodiment of invention has been fabricated.  FIG. 5  shows the measured ramp signals by the invented VCO at V IN =2.4V and V IN =3.3V. The preset V L  is 0.2V and b is set to ⅓. Therefore, V H  is 1.2V and 1.5V, respectively, which agrees with the experimental results well using the stated algorithm. Thus,  FIG. 5  illustrates the fact that the frequency of the ramp signal remains substantially unchanged despite changes in V IN  and V H    FIG. 6  and  FIG. 7  show the reference tracking of both positive and negative edges of V REF  for both V O  by the conventional (e.g. that of  FIG. 1A ) and the EPP controls (that of  FIG. 2 ), respectively. The tracking speed by EPP is faster than the conventional control. The signals in  FIG. 8A  shows V a  (input of the PWM controller) for the conventional controls. As predicted, V a  is slowed down by the large compensation capacitor in network  18  to generate new V O  slowly in response to a change in V REF . However, V a2  in the EPP scheme of  FIG. 2  changes much faster to provide a change in V O  quickly as shown in  FIG. 8B  in response to a change in V REF . It is noted that there is a small change on V a1  due to the non-ideal power transistors and inductor on non-zero on-resistance and series-equivalent resistance. Since the change is small, it does not degrade the tracking speed significantly. Some of the aspects of the embodiment of this invention are also described in the article, “A Voltage-Mode PWM Buck Regulator With End-Point Prediction,” Siu et al., IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems—II: Express Briefs, Vol. 53, No. 4, April 2006, pp. 294-298. 
   While the invention has been described above by reference to various embodiments, it will be understood that changes and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention, which is to be defined only by the appended claims and their equivalent. All references referred to herein are incorporated herein by reference.