Abstract:
A method is described for non-contact measuring the capacitance and the equivalent oxide thickness of ultra thin dielectric layer on a silicon substrate. The surface of a dielectric layer is electrically charged by a flux on ions from a corona discharge source until a steady state is reached when the corona flux is balanced by the leakage current across a dielectric. The flux is abruptly terminated and the surface potential of a dielectric is measured versus time. The steady state value of the surface potential is obtained by extrapolation of the potential decay curve to the initial moment of ceasing the corona flux. The thickness of a dielectric layer is determined by using the steady state potential or by using the value of the surface potential after a predetermined time. The method produces highly accurate results for oxide thickness below 40 Å with a demonstrated repeatability of a 0.03 Å in a series of 10 measurements. Alternatively, the rate of surface potential decay is calculated at the initial moment providing a measure of the charge dissipation on a dielectric capacitor. The capacitance of a dielectric layer is calculated from this rate.

Description:
CROSS-RELATED APPLICATION  
       [0001]    Under 35 USC §119(e)(1), this application claims the benefit of provisional application serial number 60/264,571, filed Jan. 26, 2001. 
     
    
     
       BACKGROUND  
         [0002]    The invention relates to semiconductor wafer testing and more particularly to characterizing the thickness and capacitance in the presence of substantial leakage current of a dielectric layer on a semiconductor wafer.  
           [0003]    As is known in the art, semiconductor devices often contain dielectric layers (e.g., silicon dioxide) grown/or deposited on a semiconductor substrate (e.g., silicon). Semiconductor wafers including dielectric layers are used in manufacturing microelectronic devices such as metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) capacitors, MOS-field effect transistors (MOSFET), and related integrated circuits.  
           [0004]    During manufacture of microelectronic devices, the thickness of the dielectric layer must be frequently monitored with high precision. Typically, the dielectric thickness is measured by optical or electrical methods. Optical ellipsometric methods for determining a dielectric thickness are described for example in U.S. Pat. No. 5,343,293 and the references therein. An electrical method for determining the thickness of a dielectric utilizes capacitance measurements of MOS capacitors fabricated, for the test purposes, on the dielectric layer. Once measured, the capacitance can be used to calculate an “equivalent oxide thickness” (EOT), i.e. the thickness of a SiO 2  layer that would produce the same measured capacitance. In other electrical methods, the dielectric thickness can be determined without fabricating MOS test capacitors by charging the surface of the dielectric layer with a corona discharge and measuring the resulting surface potential of the charged dielectric layer with a Kelvin or a Monroe probe. These techniques are discussed, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,485,091, to R. L. Verkuil, and 6,037,797, to J. Lagowski et.al. In these methods a known electric charge ΔQ C  is placed on the surface of a dielectric layer (for example, on the surface of a SiO 2  layer on a silicon wafer) by a precisely calibrated corona discharge source. The dielectric layer thickness can be determined from the value of ΔQ C  /ΔV where ΔV is the change of the dielectric surface potential caused by the charge ΔQc.  
           [0005]    Due to substantial leakage of current across the dielectric layer, via tunneling, the methods described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,485,091 and 6,037,797 are ineffective for determining the thickness of ultra-thin dielectrics films, i.e. dielectric films having an EOT equal to or less than about 40 Å. When leakage current tunnels through the dielectric layer, the charge ΔQ C  is reduced by the amount of charge transported across a dielectric layer during the time of charging and measuring ΔV. In thicker dielectric layers, such as SiO 2 , the leakage current is typically below 10 −12  A/cm 2  for a corona charge, ΔQ C , of about 2×10 −7  C/cm 2 . During a typical measuring time for these techniques, e.g., 100 seconds, the leakage of current via tunneling through the thicker dielectric layer reduces ΔQ C  by about 10 −10  C/cm 2 . The value 10 −10  C/cm 2 , however, is practically insignificant relative to ΔQ C , i.e., 2×10 −7  C/cm 2 . For ultra-thin dielectric layers, the leakage currents are orders of magnitude larger than the leakage currents for thicker dielectric layers, e.g., often exceeding 10 −9  A/cm 2 . As a result, leakage of current over a measuring time of 100 seconds will reduce the value of ΔQ C  by about 10 −7  C/cm 2  and will cause significant errors in calculating the thickness of the dielectric layer. Additionally, in high accuracy measurements on thin dielectric layers, the value of ΔV is typically corrected to account for a voltage drop, ΔV SB , across the semiconductor surface space charge layer by replacing ΔV with the expression ΔV-ΔV SB . Errors in determining the dielectric layer thickness are more severe in this instance because leakage current not only corrupts the value of ΔQ C  but also the calculation of ΔV SB .  
         SUMMARY  
         [0006]    In general, the invention relates to an apparatus and method for producing non-contact electrical measurements of capacitance and thickness of ultra-thin dielectric layers on semiconductor substrates (wafers). The apparatus and method produces effective and accurate measurements of the dielectric layer thickness despite substantial leakage of current across the layer and no apriori knowledge of the relationship between the leakage current characteristics, i.e., measured electrical properties such as voltage and current, and thickness of the dielectric layer. Ultra-thin dielectric layers have an equivalent oxide thickness equal to or less than about 40 Å. As used herein, the term “dielectric” includes but is not limited to oxides, e.g., SiO 2 , Ta 2 O 5 , Al 2 O 3 , nitrides, e.g. Si 3 N 4 , and barium strontium titianate (BST The non-contact electrical technique can be used to record multiple, repeatable measurements of ultra-thin dielectric capacitance and thickness at the same location on the wafer under highly reproducible conditions.  
           [0007]    In an aspect, the method of determining the thickness of a dielectric layer on a semiconductor wafer includes depositing an electric charge sufficient to cause a steady state condition in which charge current is equal to the leakage current; measuring the potential of the dielectric surface; and comparing the measured parameters to calibrated parameters to derive the dielectric layer thickness.  
           [0008]    In another aspect, the method of determining the thickness of a dielectric layer deposited on a semiconducting wafer includes depositing an ionic charge onto a surface of the dielectric layer deposited on the semiconducting wafer with an ionic current sufficient to cause a steady state condition; measuring, via a non-contact probe, a voltage decay on the dielectric surface as a function of time; and determining the thickness of the dielectric layer based upon the measured voltage decay. The method can further include measuring the voltage decay after terminating the deposition of ionic charge.  
           [0009]    In another aspect, the method of determining the thickness of a dielectric layer deposited on a semiconducting wafer includes depositing an ionic charge onto a surface of the dielectric layer with an ionic current sufficient to cause a steady state condition; ceasing ionic charging after establishing the steady state condition; measuring, via a non-contact probe, a voltage decay on the semiconducting wafer as a function of time after ceasing the ionic charging; analyzing the voltage decay to determine a characteristic of the measured voltage decay, the characteristic of the measured voltage decay being selected from the group consisting of an initial surface potential, V 0 , a surface potential at a time greater than t=0, V D , and an initial rate of voltage decay, dV/dt| t=0 ; and determining the thickness of the dielectric layer based upon the characteristic of the measured voltage decay.  
           [0010]    Embodiments of the invention can include one or more the following. The dielectric layer has a thickness of about 40 Å or less. The steady state condition results when the ionic current equals a leakage current flowing from the semiconducting wafer and across the dielectric layer. The step of determining the thickness of the dielectric layer includes determining the initial surface potential, V 0 , on the dielectric layer from the measured voltage decay. The initial surface potential, V 0 , is determined by extrapolating the measured voltage decay back to t=0. The step of determining the thickness of the dielectric layer further includes using the initial surface potential, V 0 , in a linear expression to calculate an equivalent oxide thickness, T, of the dielectric layer, the linear expression given by the relationship V 0 =aT+b. The coefficients a and b in the linear expression are determined by a calibrating procedure. The calibrating procedure comprises recording a decay voltage on a plurality of semiconducting wafers each having a known dielectric layer thickness, and determining from each measured voltage decay an initial surface potential. The semiconductor wafer is p-type silicon having a doping of about 1×10 15  cm 3 , the dielectric layer is SiO 2 , the corona charge has positive polarity, the thickness of the dielectric layer is about 40 Å or less, a is about 88 mV per Å, and b is about −550 mV. The method further includes rescaling the coefficient b by adding the value Δb, where Δb[mV]=−26 ln(N A2 /N A1 ) in which N A1  is a dopant concentration in a calibrating semiconducting wafer having a known dielectric layer thickness and N A2  is a dopant concentration in the semiconducting wafer being measured. The step of determining the thickness of the dielectric layer includes determining the surface potential at a time greater than t=0 on the dielectric surface from the measured voltage decay. The surface potential is determined at a time of about 1 second after t=0. The step of determining the thickness of the dielectric layer includes using the surface potential at a time greater than t=0, V D , to calculate a dielectric thickness, T, via the expression V D =cT+d, in which the coefficients c and d are derived from a calibrating procedure. The method further includes the step of determining the thickness of the dielectric layer includes using the surface potential at a first time greater than t=0, V D1 , and a second time greater than t=0 and different than the first time, V D2 , to calculate a dielectric thickness, T, via the expression V D1 -V D2 =c 1 T+d 1 , in which the coefficients c 1  and d 1  are derived from a calibrating procedure. The calibrating procedure includes measuring a voltage decay on a plurality of semiconducting wafers each having a known dielectric layer thickness, and determining from each measured voltage decay a surface potential, V D , at the same time in the decay, the time being greater than t=0. The steps of depositing a charge onto a surface of the dielectric layer, measuring the voltage, V 0 , and determining the thickness of the dielectric layer all occur in about 7 seconds or less. The method further includes determining the capacitance of the dielectric layer deposited on the semiconducting wafer. The capacitance is obtained from the relationship C ox =J C /R, where J C  the ionic current at the steady state condition, R is the initial voltage decay rate, dV/dt| t=0 , derived from the measured voltage decay. The voltage decay is measured after terminating the deposition of ionic charge. The steps of depositing ionic charge, measuring the voltage decay, and determining the thickness are performed on a measurement area smaller than a total surface area of the semiconducting wafer. The method further includes depositing a precharging ionic charge on the dielectric layer. The method further includes illuminating the dielectric surface to eliminate the semiconductor surface depletion layer and its contribution to V 0 , V D , and dV/dt| t=0 . The method further includes performing the steps of depositing ionic charge, measuring voltage decay, and determining the dielectric thickness on a plurality of measurement sites on the dielectric layer.  
           [0011]    In ultra-thin dielectric layers, the leakage current mechanism may differ from the mechanism of leakage in thicker dielectrics layers. For example, Fowler-Nordheim (F-N) tunneling dominates in thick SiO 2  layers that exceed 40 Å. In this process, electrons tunnel over a distance of about 40 Å from the Silicon to the SiO 2  conduction band and then travel across the rest of SiO 2  layer. For SiO 2  layers thinner than 40 Å, electrons tunnel directly across the entire dielectric layer, producing much larger currents for lower oxide voltages. For non-SiO 2  dielectrics, leakage current mechanisms, other than F-N tunneling or direct tunneling, such as Schottky emission or Frenkel-Poole emission can be dominant. (For discussion of conduction processes in insulators, see for example, “Physics of Semiconductor Devices” by S. M. Sze, John Wiley &amp; Sons, 1981; p. 402 to 407). As a result, the exact tunneling current equation relating the layer thickness to electrical parameters such as the tunneling leakage current and the voltage drop across a dielectric layer may not be known apriori. Advantageously the method of this invention, unlike the method discussed in U.S. Ser. No. 09/451,652, can be used to determine the thickness of a dielectric layer without knowing apriori the exact tunneling current equation relating the measured electrical parameters to the dielectric layer thickness. The apparatus and methodology can be used to determine dielectric layer thicknesses with a 0.01 Å sensitivity, a factor of 10 better than standard methods, a repeatability of about 0.03 Å for a 30 Å thick dielectric layer and about 0.04 Å for a 17.6 Å thick dielectric layer, and a tolerance to changes in the corona ionic current of about a factor of 20 greater than standard methods.  
           [0012]    The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. 
       
    
    
     DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS  
       [0013]    [0013]FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a wafer measurement system for determining dielectric layer thicknesses.  
         [0014]    [0014]FIG. 2 is a graph of the surface potential decay.  
         [0015]    [0015]FIG. 3 is a graph of calibrating data for ultra-thin SiO 2  dielectric layers recorded with the test system.  
         [0016]    [0016]FIG. 4 is graph of calibrating data for SiO 2  dielectric layers having thicknesses greater than about 40 Å recorded with the test system.  
         [0017]    [0017]FIG. 5 is a graph of tunneling currents as a function of oxide field.  
         [0018]    [0018]FIG. 6 is a graph schematically representing the effects of self-adjusting surface potentials.  
         [0019]    [0019]FIG. 7 is a graph of calibrating data for SiO 2  layers utilizing time delay methodology and negative corona charging.  
         [0020]    [0020]FIG. 8 is a graph schematically representing a time delay methodology based on two delayed measurements. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
       [0021]    The methodology for measuring ultra-thin dielectric layer thicknesses includes depositing an electric charge using a corona current, J C , from a corona discharge source, onto a dielectric layer of a semiconductor wafer to produce a steady state condition in which the leakage current, J LEAK , equals J C ; terminating the corona current; measuring electrical parameters of the wafer, such as the dielectric potential or the potential decay rate; and comparing the measured electrical parameters to calibrated parameters to derive the ultra-thin dielectric thickness.  
         [0022]    Referring to FIG. 1, a computer controlled test system  10  is used to measure the oxide thickness of a top dielectric layer  13   a  placed on a semiconductor wafer  5  on a testing site  15   a.  An example of the computer controlled test system  10  can be found in U.S. Pat. application Ser. No. 09/451,652 by Lagowski et al. which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference.  
         [0023]    Semiconducting wafer  5  includes a semiconductor substrate wafer  11  (e.g., silicon) disposed between overlying and underlying dielectric layers (e.g., SiO 2 , Ta 2 O 5 , A 1   2 O 3 , Si 3 N 4 , and barium strontium titanate (BST))  13   a,    13   b.  Semiconductor substrate wafer  11  is connected to the ground potential via a back-contact device  17  in electrical contact with grounded wafer chuck  18 . Test system  10  measures the oxide thickness by depositing electric charge onto a surface  15  of top dielectric layer  13   a,  and then monitoring the voltage decay due to current flow through this dielectric layer into or from semiconductor substrate wafer  11 .  
         [0024]    Test system  10  includes a computer  12  that controls components of the system to apply electric charge to and measure the voltage decay rate, ΔV/Δt, at testing site  15   a.  Computer  12  also calculates an initial surface potential, V 0 , i.e., the steady state surface potential that results when the electric charging is first terminated, an initial rate of voltage decay, R=dV 0 /dt| t=0 , the oxide capacitance, and the oxide thickness from voltage data obtained for testing site  15   a.  The term “initial” denotes values of surface potential and decay rate that are extrapolated back to time zero, t=0, i.e., the moment of ceasing corona charging of the dielectric layer. The system  10  includes a testing device that contains a charging station  14  and a charge measuring station  19  both of which are translatable, using a solenoid  20 , relative to a chuck  18 .  
         [0025]    Wafer  5  is held, e.g., by vacuum suction, onto chuck  18 , which is formed of an electrically conductive material (e.g., aluminum) and is connected to ground potential. A back-contact device  17  protrudes through dielectric layer  13   b  making electrical contact to semiconductor substrate wafer  11 , and connecting it to the ground potential. An example of a back-contact device capable of protruding through dielectric layer  13   b  can be found in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/295,919 by Lagowski et al. which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference. Chuck  18  is mounted on a moveable stage (not shown in FIG. 1) which can position wafer  11  under charging station  14  (X 1 -position) and charge measuring station  19  (X 2 -position). Charging station  14  and the charge measuring station  19  are spaced apart from each other on a mount  21  at a fixed distance X 0 , e.g., about 2 cm, between their centers. Solenoid  20  is used to translate charging station  14  and measuring station  19  by a distance X 0  such that the measuring station is precisely above the wafer at the X 1 -position, i.e., the position previously occupied by the charging station.  
         [0026]    Charging station  14  includes a corona discharge source  16  and a light source  23 . Corona discharge source  16  includes a corona charging wire  14   a  which receives a high voltage potential of either a positive or negative polarity as needed and a corona-confining electrode ring  14   b,  e.g., a metal ring, held at ground potential or a bias so that corona charge is deposited uniformly on a surface  15  of dielectric layer  13   a  preferably within a radius of about 6 to about 10 mm. Charging station  14  is able to produce a controlled ionic discharge flux (ionic) current suitable for depositing charge with a flux adjustable from about 10 −6  to about 5×10 −6  A/cm 2 . In general, test system  10  deposits a corona ionic current on the oxide to reach, in less than about 10 seconds, a steady state condition in which the tunneling current, J LEAK , flowing across dielectric layer  13   a  is equal to corona ionic current, J C , without generating traps in the dielectric that result from large corona ion fluxes. Typically, for ultra-thin dielectric layers, a corona ionic current of about 2 μA/cm 2  will reach a steady state condition in about 3 seconds without creating dielectric traps. The control of the corona ionic current results from adjusting the high voltage corona power supply current, the height of corona electrode above the wafer, and/or the bias voltage applied between the corona charging wire and the ion flux confining electrode.  
         [0027]    Test system  10  can deposit either a positive or negative charge on the surface. Typically, test system  10  positively charges the surface with a positive corona discharge because a negative corona discharge is more difficult to control with respect to charging uniformity. Non-uniform surface charging can produce non-uniformity in the initial voltage, V 0 , which in turn would generate errors in deriving the oxide thickness. As will be described in greater detail below, non-uniformities in surface charging can be overcome by deriving a dielectric layer thickness from electrical parameters measured after a specific delay time relative to the moment of ceasing the corona charging, rather than at a time t=0.  
         [0028]    Charge measuring station  19  includes a light source  25  and a contact potential sensor  22 , such as a Kelvin probe or a Monroe-type probe, which is used to measure the contact potential of dielectric layer  13   a  with respect to a reference electrode  30 , i.e., the contact potential difference V CPD  respectively. Sensors of these types are described, respectively, in G. W. Reedyk and M. M. Perlman: Journal of the Electrochemical Society, Vol. 115, p. 49 (1968); and in R. E. Vosteen: Conference Records, 1974 IEEE-IAS 9th Annual Meeting, p. 799, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. An example of a commercially available device is the Isoprobe model 162 by Monroe Electronics, Lyndonville, N.Y. 14098. Typically, electrode  30  is separated from the top surface of the dielectric film by an air gap of about fraction of about a millimeter. The oxide surface potential, V, measured with respect to a vibrating reference Kelvin or Monroe electrode is often referred to as contact potential difference. The change of V caused by a dose of corona charge on the wafer&#39;s surface is equal to the change in the voltage drop across the dielectric layer (ΔV OX ) plus the change in the semiconductor surface barrier (ΔV SB ); 
           ΔV   CPD   =ΔV   OX   +ΔV   SB   (1) 
         [0029]    The dielectric surface potential, V, decays with time, t, after charging, i.e., V=V(t), due to a neutralization of charge by leakage current, J(t), flowing across the dielectric.  
         [0030]    Test system  10  includes light sources  23 ,  25 , preferably green or blue light emitting diodes, to illuminate testing site  15   a  during charging (light source  23 ) and during measuring (light source  25 ) thereby reducing the value of V SB  by collapsing the surface depletion region in the semiconductor. Illuminating the dielectric surface is especially necessary in the case of positive charging of an oxide, e.g., SiO 2 , on the most frequently used substrate in IC-fabrication, i.e., p-type silicon. This specific case, i.e., a SiO 2  film on p-type Si substrate, is used as an example to illustrate the method. For p-type (n-type) silicon substrates, positive (negative) corona charge creates a very large depletion layer surface barrier, V SB , ranging from 10 to 200 volts, which in dark would decay slowly after terminating corona charging. Illuminating test site  15   a  efficiently generates excess minority carriers (electrons in the p-type Si and holes in n-type Si) in a silicon depletion layer beneath the Si/SiO 2  interface rapidly collapsing the depletion layer and removing the contribution to V. Without illumination, the potential drop across the silicon depletion region would dominate the non-contact potential measurements and thereby prevent reliable measurement of the oxide thickness. For silicon, light having a wavelength less than 1 μm produces electron-hole pairs which can suppress V SB . Typically, green or blue diodes are used that emit light at a wavelength of about 500 nm to 350 nm. Shorter wavelengths of light are not desired since they can change trap occupation in the dielectric layer.  
         [0031]    In operation, computer  12  sends a signal to move chuck  18  into position below charging station  14 . Computer  12  presets these charging conditions, such as ionic current and charging duration, (i.e., the fluence value determined by a charging current multiplied by the charge time) and sends signals to activate the charging station&#39;s light source  23  and to activate the corona discharge source  16 . After depositing the charge onto testing site  15   a  of dielectric surface  15 , computer  12  sends signals to turn the discharge source off, to turn on the charge measuring station&#39;s light source, to turn off the discharge station&#39;s light source, and to move the charge measuring station, via the solenoid, to position the contact potential sensor above the charged surface of the wafer, i.e., above testing site  15   a.  This set of operations is done fast enough, e.g., typically about 50 milliseconds, to reduce the amount of charge neutralized prior to starting the measurement.  
         [0032]    Once measuring station  19  is above charged testing site  15   a,  the computer acquires the measured data of the surface potential, V, vs. time, t, as shown in FIG. 2. The typical time period of acquiring the data is about 3 seconds. Based on the measured voltage decay, the computer calculates the time derivative of V as dV/dt, determines an initial surface potential, V 0 , by extrapolating the measured voltage back to the initial time, t=0, at which the corona charging was terminated, and the initial rate of decay, R=dV/dt| t=0 . The computer can derive these values by fitting the measured voltage decay to a polynomial expression or other appropriate mathematical model. Typically, the computer begins measuring the surface potential decay after terminating corona charging and then monitors and samples the voltage decay at a rate sufficient to facilitate an accurate determination of the initial surface potential value V 0 , the initial decay rate R=dV/dt| t=0 , and the oxide thickness. For example, the computer can being monitoring the decay less than about 200 milliseconds after terminating corona charging and continue monitoring the surface potential at a sampling rate of about 10 voltage measurements per seconds or more so that the computer can accurately determine the initial surface potential value V 0 , the initial decay rate R=dV/dt| t=0 , and the oxide thickness in about 3 seconds, after terminating the corona charging or in less than the total time of 7 seconds after initiating corona charging of the dielectric surface.  
         [0033]    After calculating the initial surface potential, the computer can determine an equivalent oxide thickness, (EOT), by using the relationship: 
           V   0   =aT+b   (2) 
         [0034]    where the coefficients a and b are empirical parameters determined from calibrating measurements obtained from a calibrating procedure. The calibrating procedure includes measuring the surface potential and determining V 0  for several different thicknesses of SiO 2  layers on silicon (e.g., p-type with known doping concentration). Each of the calibrating measurements are conducted with the same predetermined corona flux that achieves the steady state condition without generating corona stress and dielectric traps. In general, the corona flux is predetermined by depositing a corona flux sufficient to cause the steady state condition but small enough not to generate corona stress and dielectric traps. The latter can be ascertained by monitoring the stress-induced leakage current (SILC). Methods for measuring SILC are described for example in U.S. patent application Serial No. 09/451,652 by Lagowski et al. A predetermined corona charge between about 1 μA/cm 2  to 2 μA/cm 2  produces a steady state condition in dielectric layers having thicknesses of about 40 Å or less without generating SILC or traps in under 5 seconds. For calibration, each thickness of the SiO 2  layers must be known (e.g. from high precision optical measurements performed immediately after oxidation to avoid thickness error associated with adsorbed water or organic contaminants). The calibrating corona charging and V 0  measurements, typically, are performed on the same surface location used to record the optical thickness measurement.  
         [0035]    Referring to FIG. 3, the coefficients a and b are determined from the plot of V 0  vs. T using a linear regression. For positive corona charging of ultra-thin dielectric layers, e.g., less than about 40 Å, V 0  increases with oxide thickness with a rate of about 0.0878 volt per angstrom (or 87.8 mV per Å) for p-type silicon. Typically, Test system 10 can measure the surface potential with a precision of 1 mV and thereby determine the dielectric thickness with a precision of 0.01 Å. The coefficient b is in this case negative and equals −0.5472 volts (or −547 mV). This value of b is representative if the reference electrode used for the potential measurements is made of platinum. This coefficient can be scaled for different electrodes, e.g., different electrode materials, by considering different electrode work functions. It can also be scaled to account for different wafer doping concentrations between the calibrated wafers and the measured wafers. For instance, b can be rescaled by adding the value Δb [mvolt]=−26 ln(N A2 /N A1 ) where N A1  and N A2  are the dopant concentration in the calibration wafer and the measured wafer respectively. The coefficient b also includes a correction for the semiconductor space charge contribution to the surface voltage, ΔV SB . For example, in p-type substrates, ΔV SB  is related to the inversion space charge layer, or the accumulation layer for positive and negative corona charge, respectively. Although illuminating the wafer, as described above, eliminates contributions from the depleted surface space charge layer, illuminating the wafer does not completely eliminate the inversion or accumulation space charge layer. Test system  10  can also be used to derive an EOT for dielectric layers thicker than about 40 Å. Test system  10  follows the same protocol used in determining EOT&#39;s for the ultra-thin dielectric layers, except that the computer uses different values of coefficients a and b.  
         [0036]    Referring to FIG. 4, the coefficient a=0.074 volt per angstrom (or about 74 mV per Å), and coefficient b=−0.55, can be determined by from a linear regression of calibrating data, i.e., known oxide thicknesses greater than 40 Å and measured V 0  of the known oxide thicknesses.  
         [0037]    Referring to FIG. 5, a plot illustrates the “self adjustment” of V 0 , i.e., the robustness of the above described methodology to deviations in the corona ionic current. The robustness results from the steady state condition and the strong dependence of the tunneling leakage current, J LEAK,  on the electric field, F. The voltage drop across a dielectric layer is related to the electric field by V=T·F, where T is the thickness of the dielectric layer. Under a steady state condition J LEAK  equals the corona ionic current, J C , such that for every value of J C  that produces a steady state condition, the initial surface potential, V 0 , assumes a value equal to T·F in which F is dictated by the tunneling current characteristics shown in the plot. Different values of J C  result in different values of V 0 . For instance, tunneling current characteristics  210  and  220  correspond to a semiconducting wafer including a SiO 2  layer having a thickness of 27 Å and 15 Å respectively. Focusing on characteristic  210 , a typical corona ionic current of about 1 μA/cm 2  corresponds to a field, F, of about 7.25 MV/cm. A change in the corona ionic current of about ±30%, which still produces a steady state condition, results in a change of field, F, of about ±0.05 MV/cm and a relative change in V 0  of only about ±0.7%. Similarly, characteristic  220  reveals that a change in the corona ionic current of about ±30%, at a corona ionic current of about 1 μA/cm 2 , only results in a change of V 0  of only about ±2.5%. Changes in V 0  due to changes in corona ionic current are significantly smaller than the deviation of current. The steady state condition facilitates dielectric thickness measurements that are robust and tolerant of significant changes in corona ionic current either between different test systems or repeat measurements of wafers on the same test system due to changes in ambient conditions such as humidity and temperature. The steady state condition also facilitates self-adjustments of the oxide surface charge, Q C , and the surface barrier, V SB . As a result, the steady state condition methodology facilitates excellent quantative matching of thickness measurements performed on different semiconductor monitoring tools, e.g., the testing systems described above.  
         [0038]    In certain embodiments for achieving extremely accurate measurements, the test system  10  employs a method of measuring the surface potential at a delayed time after terminating corona charging. This method further reduces errors in determining the dielectric layer thickness due to deviations of the initial surface potential, V 0 , caused by different corona ionic currents. Referring to FIG. 6, a surface potential curve  310  results from applying corona flux  1  and a surface potential curve  320  results from applying corona flux  2  to the dielectric. The difference between corona flux  1  and  2  results in different initial surface potential values. As described above with respect to FIG. 5, at 1 μA/cm 2 , a deviation of 30% in the corona ionic current causes a deviation, ΔV 0 , of about ±2.5% in a 15 Å thick dielectric layer and about ±0.7% in a 27 Å thick dielectric layer of SiO 2 . The errors in Vo cause equivalent errors in the calculated dielectric layer thickness, T (see equation 2). Test system  10  reduces the errors in T by determining the surface potential from the voltage decay at a time, Δt, after t=0, i.e., the surface potential, V D , at the delayed time. After the steady state condition is reached, the potential decay obeys a logarithmic time dependence given by 
         1 /V ( t )= a+b  ln( t+t   0 )  (3) 
         [0039]    where t 0  depends on the value of the corona ionic current. As the corona charging increases the value of t 0  decreases and vice versa. For a 27 Å thick dielectric layer of SiO 2 , to is about 0.05 seconds when the corona ionic current is about 1 μA/cm 2 , but increases to about 0.5 seconds when the corona ionic current decreases by a factor of ten to 0.1 μA/cm 2 . After t 0 , the surface potential decay curves resulting from different corona ionic currents merge such that differences between the delayed measured surface potentials, ΔV D , have decreased relative to the differences between the initial measured surface potentials, ΔV 0 . In general, the surface potential, V D , is determined using a delay time t larger than t 0 . For example, V D  can be determined at a time delay of about 1.2 seconds for a corona current of 2 μA/cm 2 . If necessary, the relationship 
           ΔV   D   αΔV   0 ( t   0 /( t+t   0 ))  (4) 
         [0040]    can be used to determine the length of a time delay needed to reduce errors in V 0  by a specific amount. For instance, when t 0  is 0.05 seconds, a delay time, t, of 1 second will reduce errors caused by deviations in corona ionic current by about a factor of 20, i.e., ΔV D α0.05ΔV 0 . Test systems that determine the surface potential after a time delay are particularly useful in negating instabilities of the corona ionic current magnitude, typically found in negative corona discharges. As shown in FIG. 7, for negative corona charging, V D  scales linearly with T via the relationship given by equation 2. Coefficients a and b are determined by fitting calibrating data, V D  and known T, to a linear regression. Of course, these coefficients are different than those determined for calibrating data from positive corona charging. V D  calibrating data are recorded for each known thickness at the same corona ionic current and time delay. V D  also scales linearly with a positive corona charging. Advantageously, when using negative corona charging, as opposed to positive corona charging, the coefficient “a” is large, i.e., larger for negative charging than for positive charging. Large values for “a” provide a larger sensitivity in measuring the dielectric thickness.  
         [0041]    Referring to FIG. 8, a method using two delayed time measurements of the surface potential is illustrated. In this approach V D1  is measured after time interval Δt 1  and V D2  is measured after time interval Δt 2 , in which both times are delayed relative to terminating corona charging. The thickness of a dielectric layer, T, can be determined from the expression 
           V   D1   −V   D2   =c   1   T+d   1   (5) 
         [0042]    where c 1  and d 1  are the parameters determined from calibrating measurements. The calibrating measurements are recorded as discussed above with respect to single measurements of the surface voltage, i.e., same corona charging, except that the voltage decay is sampled at the same two time delays for several semiconductor wafers having known dielectric thicknesses. The doping correction to the surface voltage is constant over the voltage decay. As a result, measuring the relative voltage change at two specific delay times within the decay and taking their difference eliminates the need to correct the parameter d 1  to account for differences in doping levels between the semiconductor wafers used in the calibrating measurements and those being tested. The dual decay measurements also provides a parameter d 1  that is insensitive to changes in the work function of the reference electrodes used in potential measurements.  
         [0043]    In alternative embodiments, test system  10  can determine dielectric layer thicknesses from capacitance measurements by using the initial rate of the voltage decay, R=dV 0 /dt, after ceasing the corona charging. Assuming test system  10  reaches the steady state condition, at the moment of ceasing corona charging J LEAK =J C  and J LEAK  equals  
                      Q   c            t       =         C   ox          (            V          t       -            V   SB            t         )       .             (   5   )                               
 
         [0044]    C OX  is the capacitance and is equal to ∈ 0  ∈ OX/ T where ∈ 0  is the permittivity of free space and ∈ OX  is the dielectric constant of dielectric layer. The value of C OX  is determined from initial value of the voltage decay rate, R=dV/dt| t=0 , according to the expression 
           C   OX   =J   C /( R−R   SBO ).  (6) 
         [0045]    where J C  is the known corona flux, R=dV SB /dt is measured, and R SBO  is the rate of the surface barrier decay that constitutes a small correction to R of about 5% or less. For high precision measurements R SBO  can be calculated from surface electrostatic equations that take into account Quantum corrections and Fermi Dirac Statistics. Such calculations can be done using treatment developed for MOS capacitors in strong inversion or accumulation as described by C. Raynaud et.al in Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. Vol 592, p. 159 (2000). In some embodiments, such as in performing preliminary or low level manufacturing controls, R SBO  can be neglected such that C OX =J C /R. In general, neglecting R SBO  may be justified when the electric field is high in both the dielectric layer and in the semiconductor. In low electric field measurements of T, the contribution from the surface barrier changes, dV SB , usually cannot be neglected since doing so can cause C OX  to be underdetermined by about 30% to 50% for SiO 2  dielectrics having thicknesses at or below about 40 Å.  
         [0046]    In some instances of high humidity or high surface ionic contamination, a dissipation of charge deposited on a dielectric, may be enhanced by the surface leakage. The magnitude of this process can be reduced by reducing the magnitude of the lateral surface charge gradient between the measurement site and the area surrounding the measurement site. Reducing the lateral surface charge gradient can be accomplished by predepositing corona charge of the same polarity as the one used in the thickness measurements, described above, and on an area larger than the measurement site. Corona charge can be predeposited over an area including or surrounding the measurement site. For example, corona precharging can be deposited over the whole dielectric surface with a uniform blanket of corona charge. A suitable device for a whole wafer corona charging is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,037,797 by Lagowski et al. A device of this type can be readily incorporated into the apparatus for measuring the dielectric thickness. The amount of corona precharging depends on the amount of corona charging necessary to produce a steady state condition in the measurement site, i.e., measurement charging. If the measurement charging is large, a small precharge may not reduce the lateral surface charge gradient. In general, the amount of corona precharging is of sufficient magnitude relative to the measurement charging necessary for establishing the steady state condition so that corona charge in the measurement site does not dissipate, laterally, into surrounding areas when the testing system is measuring the voltage decay. Several combinations of corona precharging and measurement charging can be employed. For example, the precharging and measurement charging can be equal or one charging can be greater than the other. A number of embodiments of the invention have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.