Abstract:
A 22 kD sperm protein, SP-22, correlates with fertility and predicts fertility in males. The protein can be assayed to detect decreases in fertility resulting from exposure to toxicants and pollutants which are known or suspected to decrease fertility. If an antibody is generated to this protein, the antibody recognition by sperm in an epididymal sperm sample or ejaculate would reflect the fertility of the sample. This antibody can be used as a contraceptive to inactivate sperm, screen for toxicity, select animals for artificial insemination, and select men for assisted reproductive technologies. The protein itself can be inactivated by gene knockout, which is another approach to contraception, or the protein can be added to sperm from infertile men to make fertility techniques more feasible.

Description:
The present application is a continuation in part of application Ser. No. and PCT/US97/01725 filed Jan. 29, 1997, which is a continuation in part of application Ser. No. 08/593,677, filed Jan. 29, 1996, and now abandoned, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference in the entirety. The present application is based on, and claims priority from, provisional application Ser. No. 60/082,753, filed Apr. 23, 1998. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to a sperm protein which can be used for evaluating, inhibiting, and/or enhancing male fertility, as well as antibodies to the sperm protein. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Sperm production in the testis of human males is far less efficient than sperm production in other mammals, such as rat, rabbit and monkey (Amann, 1970) due to an increased rate of germ cell atresia. Together with this is the fact that a high incidence of sperm in the ejaculate of a fertile man is morphologically abnormal (Wyrobek et al., 1982). Thus, there is a heightened awareness of the possibility that the quantity and quality of sperm in the ejaculates of men are declining because of environmental influences (Sharpe, 1993). A toxicant-induced alteration in the process of sperm maturation during sperm transit through the epididymis, the organ in which sperm acquire fertilizing ability, could render a man infertile. It has been hypothesized that specific proteins are added to sperm in the epididymis which confer fertility. Recently, Klinefelter et al., in  Journal of Andrology  15(4), 318-327 (1994) demonstrated that an 18 kD epididymal sperm surface protein, presumably a plasma membrane protein, was well correlated with fertility, although it was not believed that this protein was predictive of fertility. 
     There continues to be great interest in developing new and improved contraceptives. New contraceptives should be superior to existing products, e.g., oral contraceptives used by millions of women over the last 30 years are not only safe and effective, but even protect women against some cancers. However, other methods of contraception are still needed by many segments of the world&#39;s population, as many women do not have reliable access to oral contraceptives, or may suffer adverse reactions to the hormones used in oral contraceptives. 
     Additionally, fertility testing is becoming more widespread as increasing numbers of apparently infertile couples seek medical assistance in conception. Because reproductive abnormalities of both sexes may affect fertility, assessing male fertility is common in fertility evaluations. While the most common starting point for evaluation of male fertility is an assessment of the sperm count in semen, also important to fertility is sperm motility. Therefore, in male fertility analyses, sperm motility has also been a factor. 
     Currently available techniques for measuring sperm count and sperm motility are microscopic in nature. A quantitative evaluation of sperm morphology and motility requires substantial experience on the part of the laboratory technician. The high level of experience required by laboratory technicians precludes general office evaluation of semen samples and generally requires referral to a specialized laboratory. Even with adequate resources, debris in semen samples can cause erroneous or inconsistent results. 
     Attempts to develop biochemical assays of semen have not resulted in simple procedures which may be performed in either the physician&#39;s office or a dedicated semen evaluation lab. Most biochemical markers have failed to demonstrate correlations with sperm number, motility, or fertility. Activity of fumarase, an enzyme present in semen, has been found to correlate to both sperm count and percentage motility, Crabbe,  J. Reprod. Fert.  51: 73-76 (1977). Crabbe measured fumarase activity by spectrophotometric measurements. Unfortunately, spectrophotometric assays are not generally suitable for office assays because of the cost of these specialized devices as well as the training required for accurate and reproducible operation. 
     Dorian, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,434,057, expanded on Crabbe&#39;s method by providing devices for assessing sperm number and motility in semen samples comprising a solid support having a carrier matrix containing a fumarase substrate and malate dehydrogenase. The sample is applied to the carrier matrix and a visual signal is detected from the solid support resulting from metabolism of the fumarase substrate by fumarase in the sample. While this assay detects motile sperm in a semen sample, there is no method for inhibiting fertility nor of selecting out the most fertile sperm in a sample. 
     Feuchter et al., in U.S. Pat. No. 5,250,417, disclose a method for detecting the ability of sperm to undergo the acrosome reaction to permit determination of the fertility of male mammals. The acrosome reaction is a process by which sperm release hydrolytic enzymes that degrade the zona pellucida, which must be penetrated to enable the sperm and ovum to come into contact, fuse, and complete the fertilization process. 
     In recent years, other studies have targeted different proteins associated with sperm in an attempt to provide new contraceptive alternatives. Major research efforts involve immunological approaches to fertility control. The development of contraceptive vaccines is directed towards the immunoneutralization of reproductive processes or interfering with fertilization by inducing antibodies against oocytes and spermatozoa. Several sperm antigens shown to have high immunocontraceptive potential are human sperm membrane antigen (SP-10) and guinea pig sperm membrane protein (PH-20). SP-10 is a sperm membrane specific antigen of 24-34 kD which was isolated using a monoclonal antibody (MHS-10) that cross-reacts with the entire acrosomal region. It is associated with the outer aspect of the inner acrosomal membrane and the inner aspect of the outer acrosomal membrane of mature human sperm. It has been reproduced recombinantly in an  Escherichia coli  expression system. 
     PH-20, a guinea pig sperm protein of 64 kD, is present on both the plasma membrane and inner acrosomal membrane of sperm. It is essential for adhesion of sperm to the zona pellucida, the initial step in the fertilization process. Active immunization with PH-20 causes infertility in both male and female guinea pigs for a period ranging from six to fifteen months. 
     O&#39;Rand et al., in U.S. Pat. No. 5,175,148, disclose a sperm antigen corresponding to a sperm autoantigenic epitope which can be used as an immunocontraceptive agent as well as for diagnosing autoimmune infertility. The synthetic peptide corresponds to an autoantigenic epitope of rabbit sperm membrane autoantigen. 
     Several other antigens with good immunocontraceptive potential have been identified and investigated in laboratory animals, including lactic dehydrogenase-x, an isoenzyme of lactic dehydrogenase confined to male germ cells. A synthetic peptide based upon a portion of this antigen has been shown to reduce fertility in laboratory animals. Unfortunately, most studies have found that the rate and duration of the immunocontraceptive effects are less than acceptable. A problem in immunological approaches to antifertility research is the need for a safe, effective adjuvant and suitable animal models for evaluating the efficacy and safety of methods. 
     Although most contraceptive research has been directed to use in females, there is an interest in male fertility control both from a scientific as well as a biological viewpoint. Many compounds have been identified as having male antifertility activity in various species, e.g., gossypol, 5-thio-D-glucose, and 6-chlorodeoxyglucose. Studies have also been conducted on the use of androgens to control male fertility. Unfortunately, most compounds identified as useful in controlling male fertility appear either to have irreversible antifertility effects, to be inherently toxic, or to affect libido. It has been demonstrated that sperm count could be depressed in men injected with large doses of androgens. However, there are still questions about the potential utility of androgens as male antifertility agents. The ideal male contraceptive would produce azoospermia without compromising libido or sexual potency, and would be reversible. 
     While numerous sperm proteins (Primakoff et al., 1997; Burks et al., 1995; Wei et al., 1994; O&#39;Rand et al., 1984; Lea et al., 1996; O&#39;Rand et al., 1996; Amman et al., 1998a,b; Hammerstedt et al., 1997; Cohen et al., 1996) as well as seminal plasma proteins (Killian et al., 1993; Killian et al., 1996; Peknicova et al., 1997) have been associated with fertility over the years, in most cases they have been identified based on the demonstration of sperm-egg binding in vitro, a system that differs considerably from the natural environment of sperm. 
     In recent years several proteins have been linked in some way or another to fertilizing capacity of sperm. While most of these proteins are associated with the sperm membrane, some have been identified in seminal plasma. Two of the sperm proteins are quite large. The first of these is a 64 kD sperm membrane protein (PH-20) which was found to localize over the arosome of guinea pig sperm and believed to function during fertilization (Hunnicutt et al., 1996). Antibody to PH-20 has been shown to prevent binding of sperm to the zona pellucida, and males were rendered infertile when PH-20 was administered as an immune vaccine (Primakoff et al., 1997). However, PH-20 has only been described in the guinea pig, and the PH-20 vaccine severely compromises spermatogenesis in older animals, rendering the effect irreversible. In addition, a 95 kD mouse sperm protein was identified as a phosphotyrosine protein ligand for ZP3, a glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of the egg (Burks et al., 1995). Specific peptide fragments of this protein blocked binding of sperm to the zone pellucida in vitro, but inhibition of fertility in vivo has not been demonstrated. 
     Several small sperm proteins have been linked to fertility. Rabbit sperm autoantigen I (RSAI), now referred to as SP-17 (Lea et al., 1996), is a 24 kD protein unique to the testis. This protein appears to be common to rabbit, mouse, and humans, as evidenced by cDNA sequence homology. Monospecific antibodies to this protein have not been used to demonstrate antifertility effects in vivo. There is no protein homology based on cDNA and deduced amino acid sequence between SP-17 and SP-22. 
     Protein D and E are secreted by the epithelium of the epididymis. These proteins have been linked to fertility as the p[lama membrane of the oocyte exposes protein D/E binding domains during sperm-egg fusion (Cohen et al., 1996). Antibody directed against the D/E complex significantly inhibited sperm penetration of zona-free eggs in vitro (Cuasnicu et al., 1990), but no fertility role has yet been demonstrated in vivo. While these proteins have molecular weights of 26 and 32 kD, respectively, the sequence of SP-22, the protein of the present invention, is not related to that of proteins D or E. 
     Wei et al, 1994, recovered a 17 kD protein from a detergent extract of human sperm. Antibody to this glycoprotein localized over the head of sperm from multiple species, but staining was localized over the enter head of the sperm as well as over the principal piece of the tail of the sperm, suggesting a lack of specificity. Thus, while the antibody inhibited fertility in vivo, much of this inhibition appears to result from nonspecific binding. Unfortunately, adequate control data were not shown. The 17 kD protein described by Wei et al. (1994) was never identified in the profile of proteins in the original detergent extract. Thus, it is impossible to determine the relationship of this protein relative to others reported in the literature. It seems that this may be similar to the more recently-described SP-17 described by Lea et al., 1996, but this is impossible to determine, as Wei et al. did not provide amino acid sequence data. 
     Two proteins identified in the seminal fluid, the sperm-free fraction of semen, have been linked to fertility. The first is a 17 kD protein referred to as ACR.3 (Capkova and Peknicova, 1997). This protein is a coating protein rather than an integral membrane protein and is apparently involved in mediating sperm binding to the zona pellucida, as addition of purified ACR.3 to normal sperm actually diminishes their capacity to bind to the zone. The function of these seminal plasma proteins may be to prevent premature capacitation and binding of sperm to the egg. Such membrane stabilizers may be critical to normal fertilization in vivo, but are not diagnostic of fertilizing potential. In fact, antibody to ACR.3 does not inhibit fertilization. The second seminal plasma protein that has been associated with the fertility of bull sperm is a 265 kD protein (Killian et al., 1996), now known as prostaglandin D-synthase (Gerena et all, 1998). This protein may have a more direct influence on fertility, as the addition of seminal plasma from higher fertility bulls increased the ability of sperm from lower fertility bulls to penetrate the egg in vitro. However, neither the direct addition of purified 26 kD protein, nor in vivo function tests, have been performed. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     It is an object of the present invention to overcome the aforesaid deficiencies in the prior art. 
     It is another object of the present invention to provide a means for predicting male fertility in animals as well as in human males. 
     It is another object of the present invention to screen for environmental endocrine disruptors, as endocrine disruption can lead to male-mediated infertility. 
     It is yet another object of the present invention to screen animals and humans exposed to known or suspected endocrine disruptors for fertility. 
     It is still another object of the present invention to select sires for artificial insemination who are good candidates for providing sperm for insemination. 
     It is a further object of the present invention to screen human semen for fertility prior to undertaking assisted reproductive technology techniques to improve the success of these techniques. 
     It is a further object of the present invention to improve fertility in males who fail to express a sufficient amount of SP-22, formerly known as SP-16, in sperm. 
     It is another object of the present invention to provide a reversible male contraceptive. 
     It has now been found that a 22 kD sperm protein, SP-22, formerly identified as SP-16, is very significantly correlated with fertility (p&lt;0.0001; N=52) and predictive of fertility. If an antibody to this protein is generated, the degree of antibody recognition by sperm in an epididymal sperm sample or ejaculate would reflect the fertility of the sample. This antibody can be used as a contraceptive to block the expression of SP-22 to render sperm infertile, screen for toxicity, select superior sires for artificial insemination, and select men for assisted reproductive technologies. The protein itself can be used as a contraceptive vaccine, inactivated by gene knockout, or the protein can be added to sperm from infertile men to make fertility techniques more feasible. 
     SP-22 is unique compared to any putative fertility proteins previously identified in either sperm or seminal plasma. Moreover, a search of the gene database failed to reveal any previously identified protein in male reproductive biology that has any homology with SP-22. Both the amino acid and nucleotide sequence data indicated that SP-22 is highly homologous with DJ-1 (Nagakubo et al., 1997), a protein for which an oncogene role was speculated. These investigators have since abandoned this notion, and, to date, no definitive role exists for DJ-1. 
     The protein SP-22, based upon initial electophoretic runs, was originally thought to be a 16 kD protein, with a pI of 5.5, and was so identified in grandparent application Ser. No. 08/593,677. However, after comparing several types of molecular weight standards, the molecular weight of this protein was found consistently to have an apparent molecular weight of 22 kD in 11% acrylamide gels. For purposes of the present invention, the protein will be identified as SP-22, although in the grandparent application U.S. Ser. No. 08/593,677, the protein was identified as SP-16. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     FIG. 1A depicts the sequences of SP-22 peptides identified by Edman degradation. 
     FIG. 1B is the full length amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:1) of human DJ-1. SP-22 peptides are underlined, Peptide #1 is amino acid residues 46-61 of SEQ ID NO. 5, Peptide #2 is amino acid residues 103-106 of SEQ ID NO. 5, Peptide #3 is SEQ ID NO. 6, and Peptide #4 is amino acid residues 162-169 of SEQ ID NO. 5. 
     FIG. 2 shows SP-22 (SEQ ID NO:5) encoded by alternatively-spliced mRNAs, represented as A (SEQ ID NO:2), B (SEQ ID NO:3), and C (SEQ ID NO:4) wherein SP22A, SEQ ID NO:2, is the nucleotide sequence representing nucleotides 1-975 and coding from nucleotides 190-756 for SP22 protein, amino acid residues 14-202 of SEQ ID NO:5, and SEQ ID NO:3 is the nucleotide sequence coding from nucleotide 52-618 for SP22 protein amino acid residues 14-202 of SEQ ID NO:5. 
     FIG. 3 shows the homology between the human DJ-1 protein (SEQ ID NO:1) and rat SP-22 (SEQ ID NO:4). 
     FIG. 4 shows northern blotting of total mRNA from rat testis, epididymis, brain, liver, and kidney. 
     FIG. 5 shows silver-stained proteins resolved by 2D gel elution. 
     FIG. 6 shows silver-stained proteins, left panel, and the corresponding immunoblot (right panel) SP-22 is indicated with an arrow. 
     FIG. 7 shows immunolocalization of SP-22 on fresh cauda epididymal rat sperm. 
     FIG. 8 show fertility data using affinity-purified, anti-SP22 peptide IgG. 
     FIG. 9 shows the relationship between fertility and SP-22 after exposure to both epididymal and testicular toxicants. 
     FIG. 10 shows the sequence of SP-22A (SEQ ID NOS: 2 and 5). 
     FIG. 11 shows the sequence of SP-22B (SEQ ID NOS: 3 and 5). 
     FIG. 12 shows the sequence of SP-22C (SEQ ID NOS: 4 and 5). 
     FIG. 13 shows the nucleotide (base pairs 190-980 of SEQ ID NO:2) and amino acid sequence of SP-22 (SEQ ID NO:5) amino acids 14-202 representing SP22 sperm protein. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     SP-22 is characterized by the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of FIG.  13 . 
     As noted previously, a number of proteins associated with the sperm membrane, including PH-20, ZP3, SP-17, and proteins D and E, as well as the Wei 17 kD protein, do not localize. In contrast, antibody to SP-22 peptides localizes over a very discrete region of the sperm head, i.e., the ventral anterior surface of the equatorial segment. More importantly, however, the 17 kD protein described by Wei et al., (1994) was never identified in the profile of proteins in the original detergent extract. Thus, it is impassable to determine the relationship of this protein relative to others reported in the literature. It seems that this may be similar to the more recently-described SP-17 (Lea et al., 1996), but this is impossible to determine, as amino acid sequence a data were not provided by Wei et al. (1994). 
     It is clearly evident that SP-22 is unique compared to any putative fertility proteins previously idenntified in either sperm or seminal plasma. Moreover, a search of the gene database failed to reveal any previously identified protein in male reproductive biology that has any homolgy with SP-22. 
     The presence of SP-22 sequences with divergent 5′ ends was not unexpected. Northern blotting of rat tissue RNAs, including testis, detected a 1 kB MRNA in all tissues and an additional 1.5 kB transcript found only in the testis. While a specific tissue of cell type has not been assigned to each sequence at this time, the unique 5′ untranslated region of SP-22 shows some similarity to the 5′ untranslated region of mouse somatic expressed tag sequences homologous with rat SP-22 and would suggest that SP-22B, shown in FIG. 11, represents the 1 kB somatic transcripts. Similarly, the longer 5′ untranslated regions of SP-22A, shown in FIG. 10, suggested that it encodes the 1.5 kB MRNA. This unique untranslated sequence may serve to impart mRNA stability for the subsequent expression of SP-22 in the testis. The additional amino acids encoded by SP-22C, shown in FIG. 12, may represent a protein variant of SP-22. This could also account for testis-specific expression of SP-22, as well as for the fact that the molecular weight of SP-22 is higher than that reported for DJ-1, i.e., 22-26 kD vs. 20.5 kD. Norther blotting with sequence specific probes is needed to relate the different SP-22 sequences to their respective mRNAs and to their relative tissue abundance. 
     A short five-day exposure paradigm and multiple epididymal toxicants were used in an initial study which identified SP-22 (Klinefelter et al., 1997). However, the discovery that SP-22 originates in the testis prompted a study in which animals were exposed for 14 days to a testicular toxicant, bromochloracetic acid, which is a by-product of drinking water disinfection on which the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has requested studies, as it is one of the more prevalent disinfection by-products in drinking water. Previous studies on dibromoacetic acid (Linder et al, 1995, 1997) and dichloroacetic acid (Linder et al., 1997) revealed that the di-substituted haloacetic acids perturbed spermatogenesis, and that within fourteen days, defects (i.e., alterations in sperm motion and morphology) were manifest in epididymal sperm. Therefore, it was hypothesized that bromochloroacetic acid would act similarly. 
     SP-22 levels on sperm was not evaluated in early haloacetic acid studies. Both a quantitative evaluation of SP-22 in extracts of epididymal sperm and fertility following in utero insemination was incorporated in a recent study of bromochloroacetic acid. It was observed that SP-22 levels were diminished in detergent extracts of epididymal sperm in a dose-related manner, with significance achieved at even the lowest dosage. Moreover, the fertility of sperm from the treated rats was significantly decreased and was highly correlated (r 2 =0.90) with the SP-22 levels. 
     Thus, it has now successfully been demonstrated that SP-22 levels on epididymal sperm are compromised by chemicals which compromise both testicular and epididymal function. This established the feasibility of and an SP-22-based assay of epididymal and ejaculated sperm as a diagnostic indicator of compromised sperm quality, i.e., fertility, in either toxicological or epidemiological settings. Additionally, the existence of SP-22 on ejaculated sperm from multiple species (i.e., bull, stallion, human) established the feasibility of using such an SP-22-based diagnostic to evaluate the fertility of sperm from these species when artificial breeding, herd sires, and assisted reproductive technologies (in vitro fertilization vs. in utero insemination) are considered. 
     As indicated above during discussion of the 95 kD phosphotyrosine protein discovered on the mouse sperm membrane, specific peptides inherent to this protein were able to block the binding of sperm to the zone pellucida of the egg. Presumably, these peptides competed for binding of native sperm protein. More recently, Amann et al. (1998a, b) have used small peptides comprising the saposin subunits of the prosaposin or SGP-1 protein to enhance binding of sperm to an egg membrane substrate. In this assay, increased sperm binding indicated increased fertilizing ability. 
     In the present studies, highly specific SP-22 IgG was used to negate the fertility of sperm in vivo. Since the epitope recognized by this IgG represents 15 and 8 amino acid peptide sequences of SP-22, it can be reasoned that similar site-directed, small molecule recognition has been achieved. Moreover, it seems that one or both of these peptide targets may be pivotal in the function of SP-22. This, these and other site-directed antagonists or agonists might serve to modulate (i.e., abate or enhance) the fertility of sperm. 
     The sperm protein SP-22 is completely novel to the field of reproductive biology. SP-22 is synthesized in the testis and can be recovered from testicular sperm before they enter the epididymis. SP-22 is an integral component of the sperm membrane, and is a component of ejaculated sperm from other species including bull, stallion, and human. SP-22 is highly correlated with fertility following exposure to testicular toxicants as well as epididymal toxicants. Moreover, SP-22 is a causal modulator of fertility, as anti-SP-22 peptide IgG can effectively block the fertility of sperm. 
     Since characteristic sequences of SP-22 are known, cf. FIG. 1, it is possible to prepare functional derivatives of SP-22 as well. By “functional derivative” is meant a fragment, variant, analog, agonist, or chemical derivative of SP-22, which terms are defined below. 
     A “functional derivative” retains at least a portion of the amino acid sequence of SP-22, which permits its utility in accordance with the present invention, namely, determining or affecting male fertility. A “fragment” of SP-22 refers to any subset of the SP-22 molecule, that is, a shorter peptide. The fragments of interest are those which can be used to determine or affect male fertility. 
     A “variant” of SP-22 refers to a molecule which is substantially similar to either the entire SP-22 protein or fragment thereof. Variant peptides may be covalently prepared by direct chemical synthesis of the variant peptide, using methods well known in the art. 
     Alternatively, amino acid sequence variants of SP-22 can be prepared by mutation in the DNAs which encode the synthesiszed SP-22. Such variants include, for example, deletions from, or insertions or substitutions of, residues within the amino acid sequence. Any combination of deletion, insertion, and substitution may also be made to arrive at the final constructs, provided that the final construct possesses the desired activity. Obviously, the mutations that will be made in the DNA encoding the variant peptide must not alter the reading frame and preferably will not create complementary regions that could produce secondary mRNA structure (cf. European Patent Publication No. EP 75,444). 
     At the genetic level, these variants ordinarily are prepared by site-directed mutagenesis, as exemplified by Adelman et al., DNA 2: 183, 1983, of nucleotides in the DNA encoding the peptide molecule, thereby producing DNA encoding the variant, and thereafter expressing the DNA in recombinant cell culture. The variants typically exhibit the same qualitative biological activity as the nonvariant peptide. 
     An “analog” of SP-22 refers to a molecule which is substantially similar to either the entire molecule or a fragment thereof. The analog may be prepared by chemical synthesis. 
     A “chemical derivative” of SP-22 contains additional chemical moieties not normally part of the SP-22 amino acid sequence. Covalent modifications of the amino acid sequence are included within the scope of this invention. Such modifications may be introduced into the SP-22 by reacting targeted amino acid residues of the peptide with an organic derivatizing agent that is capable of reacting with selectee side chains or terminal residues. 
     Amino terminal residues can be reacted with succinic or other carboxylic acid anhydrides. Other suitable reagents for derivatizing alpha-amino-containing residues include amidoesters such as methyl picolinimidate; pyridoxal phosphate; pyridoxal; chloroborohyride; trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid; O-methylisourea; 2,4-pentanedione; and transaminase-catalyzed reacted with glyoxylate. 
     Specific modifications of tyrosyl residues per se have been studied extensively, with particular interest in introducing spectral labels into tyrosyl residues by reaction with aromatic diazonium compounds or tetranitromethane. Most commonly, N-acetylimidazole and tetranitromethane are use to form O-acetyl tyrosyl species and 3-nitro derivatives, respectively. 
     Carboxyl side groups such as aspartyl or glutamyl are selectively modified by reaction with carbodiimides (R′N—C—N—R′) such as 1-cyclohexyl-3-[2-morpholinyl-(4-ethyl)]carbodiimide or 1-ethyl-3-(4-azonia-4,4-dimethylpentyl)carbodiimide. Furthermore, aspartyl and glutamyl residues are converted to asparaginyl and glutaminyl residues by reaction with ammonium ions. 
     As used herein, the term “muteins” or “variants” refers to analogs of SP-22 in which one or more of the amino acid residues of the natural SP-22, preferably 1-10, and more preferably 1-5, residues, or even only a single residue, are replaced by different amino acid residues or are deleted, or one or more amino acid residues, such as 1-10, 1-5, or only one residue are added to the natural sequence of SP-22. These muteins are prepared by known synthesis techniques and/or site-directed mutagenesis techniques, or by any other known technique suitable therefor. The substitutions are preferably conservative, see, e.g., Schulz et al.,  Principles of Protein Structure,  Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978; and Creighton,  Proteins: Structure and Molecular Properties,  W. H. Freeman &amp; Co,., San Francisco, 1983; both of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. 
     The types of such substitutions which may be made in the protein or peptide molecules of the present invention may be based on analysis of the frequencies of amino acid changes between a homologous protein of different species, such as those presented in Table 1-2 of Schulz et al., op. cit., and FIGS. 3-9 of Creighton, op. cit. Based upon such analysis, conservative substitutions may be defined herein as exchanges within one of the following five groups: 
     I. Small aliphatic, nonpolar or slightly polar residues: 
     Ala, Ser, Thr, Pro, Gly 
     II. Polar, negatively charged residues and their amides: 
     Asp, Asn, Glu, Gln 
     III. Polar, positively charged residues: 
     His, Arg., Lys 
     IV. Large, aliphatic nonpolar residues: 
     Met, Leu, Ile, Val, Cys 
     V. Large aromatic residues: 
     Phe, Try, Trp 
     Within the foregoing groups the following five substitutions are considered “highly conservative”: 
     Asp/Glu 
     His/Arg/Lys 
     Phe/Tyr/Trp 
     Met/Leu/Ile/Val 
     Semi-conservative substitutions are defined to be exchanges between two of groups (I)-(V) above which are limited to supergroup (A), comprising (I), (II), and (III) above, or to supergroup (B), comprising (IV) and (V) above. Substitutions are not limited to the genetically encoded, or even the naturally occurring amino acids. When the epitope is prepared by peptide synthesis, the desired amino acid may be used directly. Alternatively, a genetically encoded amino acid may be modified by reacting it with an organic derivatizing agent that is capable of reacting with selected side chains or terminal residues. 
     Screening with SP-22 Antibody 
     It is apparent from the above description of SP-22 antibodies that a wide variety of diagnostic tests is possible using the antibodies of the invention. In attempting to diagnose causes of infertility, an immunoassay to detect decreased levels of SP-22 on sperm is a useful adjunct to known hormone assay. Further uses of the antibodies include testing livestock for candidates of artificial insemination: the higher the levels of SP-22 in the potential donor, the more likely artificial insemination is to be successful. Isolation of SP-22 allows production of antisera containing antibody to SP-22 for possible crossreaction with other species, including human SP-22. This antibody enables preparation of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). 
     For example, to evaluate antibody binding, polystyrene microwells were precoated with extract of a particular epididymal sperm (rat) or ejaculate (horse, bull, human) sample containing an unknown amount of SP-22. Next, SP-22 antibody was added, followed by the addition of avidin-biotin-peroxidase complex. A precipitate formed when a substrate such as DAB is oxidized by peroxidase in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. A standard curve for SP-22 was generated using increasing known amounts of SP-22. The amount of SP-22 in a sample is then determined by the optical density of the colored precipitate in the sample and the linear regression obtained from the set of SP-22 standards. 
     Aside from ELISA, the amount of SP-22 present on the surface of sperm in a sample (epididymal or ejaculate, animal or human) can be determined using quantitative fluorescence spectroscopy or fluorescent light microscopy. For this, sperm are incubated with SP-22 antibody and then with labelled Rhodamine or FITC-conjugated second antibody. It is first necessary to determine the relationship between fluorescence of a sample in a fluorometer or a microscopic image, and the optical density of SP-22 separated by two dimensional gel electrophoroesis. Once this is established, fluorescence can be related to fertility. 
     It is also important to determine the relationship between the number of sperm in a sample which express SP-22 (i.e., fluoresce), the degree of the expression or fluorescence, and fertility. This is particularly true for men considering assisted reproductive technologies. For example, if only a critical number (X) of sperm is needed to express a threshold amount (Y) of SP-22 for a successful attempt at fertility, it is possible to selectively remove those sperm not expressing SP-22 in the ejaculate and use only those sperm that do express a sufficient amount of SP-22, for assisted reproductive technologies such as intra uterine transfer or IVF following dissociation of SP-22 expressing sperm from the SP-22 antibody. 
     To determine if there is a relationship between the number of sperm expressing SP-22 and the extent to which they express it, sperm binding SP-22 antibody or antagonist are evaluated by quantitative indirect fluorescence microscopy. For this, Rhodamine or FITC immunolabeling is performed on an aliquot of sperm equivalent to that used for in utero insemination, and the number of sperm that fluoresce is determined along with the relative degree of fluorescence of individual sperm in a sample. The resulting fluorescence histograms are related to fertility assessed by artificial (in utero) insemination. To determine whether a critical number of SP-22 expressing sperm are requisite to fertility, an aliquot equivalent to that used for in utero insemination is subjected to immunoabsorption. Polystyrene microwells are precoated with SP-22 antibody and sperm in the ejaculate are allowed to bind. Those sperm not binding are washed away, antibody-bound sperm are recovered following dissociation of the antibody with incubation in 0.1 M lithium diiodosalicylate, and increasing numbers of these SO-22 expressing sperm are inseminated in utero. 
     Conservative amino acid substitutions according to the present invention, e.g., as presented above, are known in the art and would be expected to maintain the biological and structural properties of the polypeptide after such amino acid substitutions. Most deletions, insertions, and substitutions according to the present invention are those which do not produce radical changes in the characteristics of the protein or peptide molecules. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the effect of substitution can be evaluated by routine screening assays, either immunoassays or bioassays. For example, a mutant typically is made by site-specific mutagenesis of the peptide molecule-encoding nucleic acid, expression of the mutant nucleic acid in recombinant cell culture, and, optionally, purification from the cell culture, or a biological sample containing SP-22, for exmaple by immunoaffinity chromatography using a specific antibody on a column to absorb the mutant by binding to at least one epitope. 
     SP-22 Amino Acid Sequencing 
     Cauda epididymal sperm were extract for one hour as described previously (Klinefelter et al., 1997) using 80 nM n-octyl-β-glucopyranoside (OBG) in 10 mM Tris, pH 7.2, to which 0.2 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride was freshly added. The extract was then concentrated, desalted, and assayed for protein prior to HPLC separation. Fractions highly enriched in SP-22 were obtained by reverse phase C4 HPLC using a linear gradient of 20-80% acetonitrile in water with 0.1% TFA. SP-22-containing fractions were pooled and aliquots equivalent to 60 μg of protein were loaded for separation on two dimensional 14% SDS-PAGE. Gels were then stained with Coomassie Blue and the SP-22 spots punched out and frozen for use in subsequent peptide sequencing. Isolated SP-22 protein then was subjected to tryptic digestion, and the resulting peptide mixture was separated by HPLC. Peaks representing homogeneous peptides were selected for sequence determination by Edman degradation, a dn the resulting peptide sequences were matched against NCBI GenBank protein sequences using the BLAST program. 
     FIG. 1A shows the SP-22 peptides identified by Edman degradation. FIG. 1B shows the full length amino acid sequence of human DJ1. In the Figure, * indicates that one of the threonines (T) in peptide #3 is a Serine (S) in SP-22. * indicates that the initial amino acid after the lysine (K) cleavage site, i.e., valine (V), was ambiguous upon sequencing. 
     Methods 
     Cauda epididymal sperm were extracted for one hour as described previously (Klinefelter et al., 1997) using 80 mM n-octyl-β-glucopyranoside (OBG) in 10 mM Tris buffer, pH 7.2., to which 0.2 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride was freshly added. The extract was then concentrated, desalted, and assayed for protein prior to HPLC separation. Fractions highly enriched in SP-22 were obtained by reverse phase C4 HPLC using a linear gradient of 20-80% acetonitrile in water with 0.1% TFA. SP-22-containing fractions were pooled and aliquots equivalent to 60 μg of protein were loaded for separation by two dimensional 14% SDS-PAGE. Gels were then stained with Coomassie Blue and the SP-22 spots punched out and frozen for use in subsequent peptide sequencing. Isolated SP-22 protein then was subjected to tryptic digestion and the resulting peptide mixture separated by HPLC. Peaks representing homogeneous peptides were selected for sequence determination by Edman degradation, and the resulting peptide sequences were matched against NCBI GenBank protein sequences using the BLAST program. 
     Sequencing SP-22 cDNA and Northern Blotting 
     The partial amino acids identified for SP-22 were substantially homologous with human DJ-1 (Nagakubo et al., 1997), and a rat testis cDNA library (Stratagene, LaJolla, Calif.) was screened with an EST cDNA (Accession NO. AA388672) encoding a mouse DJ-1 homolog. A DJ-1 cDNA probe was prepared by random primer labeling with [ 3 2 p]-dCTP (Amersham, Arlington Heights, Ill.) using a Prime-It II kit (Stratagene). Library screening an bacteriophage isolation was carried out using the method of Benton and Davis (1977). 
     SP-22 insert DNA was sequenced using the dideoxynucleotide termination method of Sanger et al., 1977, using the SequiTherm Excel Kit (Epicenter Technologies, Madison, Wis.). Sequence data were assembled using the MacVector analysis package (Oxford Molecular Products, Oxford, England). 
     To evaluate the tissue specificity of SP-22, total RNA was isolated from multiple reproductive and somatic tissues. Northern blotting to 10 μg total RNA was performed as described by Welch et al., 1992, with a stringent wash temperature of 60° C. and an exposure time of 20 hours. 
     SP-22 Peptide Antibody Location 
     Peptides #1 and #4 (FIG. 1A) obtained by Edman degradation were used together as antigen to generate polyclonal antibody. For this, each peptide was synthesized, conjugated to carrier protein, and the two peptide-carrier protein conjugates were used to immunize two four year old female Broder Leicester Merino Sheep (service provided by Chiron Tehcnologies, Raleigh, N.C.). Specifically, each conjugate was emulsified in 1 ml of Freund&#39;s complete adjuvant (approx. 0.3 mg each peptide) followed by intramiuscular injection. Similar injections were administered two and six weeks later using Freund&#39;s incomplete adjuvant. Serum, was collected two weeks after the final injection. 
     Peptides #1 and #4 (2 mg each) were also coupled to CNBr-activated Sepharose and used for affinity purification of anti-SP-22 peptide IgG. Briefly, 10 ml of immune serum were mixed with 1 ml peptide-linked Thiopropyl-Sepharose 6B overnight at 4° C. Bound anti-SP-22 peptide IgG was eluted with 0.1 M glycine-HCl, pH 2.5. IgG was subsequently neutralized, desalted, concentrated, and assayed. 
     Affinity-purified anti-SP-22 peptide IgG (2 mg/ml) was used to localize SP-22 in both two dimensional gels and on sperm. For immunoblotting, proteins in sperm extracts were first resolved by mini-two dimensional gel electrophoresis, and subsequently transferred onto PVDF membranes. The blotted membranes were incubated for one hour at 34° C. in DPBS with 1% BSA containing 10% normal rabbit serum. Next, affinity purified anti-SP-22 peptide IgG (1:1000) was added and blots were allowed to shake overnight at 4° C. Biotinylated rabbit anti-sheep IgG and ABC reagents were added as per Vectastain instructions and the peroxidase reaction product was visualized using the VIP substrate kit. To control for nonspecific binding, pre-immune serum was used in place of the affinity-purified anti-SP-22 peptide IgG. 
     For immunocytochemistry, cauda epididymal (rat) or ejaculated sperm (bull, human) were washed twice with DPBS and either fixed in Zamboni&#39;s fixative containing 0.1 Triton X-100 for one hour at 4° C. or incubated directly in blocking buffer (DPBS containing 1% BSA and 10% normal rabbit serum) for one hour at 34° C. Fixed sperm were incubated in blocking buffer after fixation. Blocking buffer was removed after centrifugation and sperm (10×10 μl (20 μg) affinity-purified anti-SP-22 peptide IgG (1:100) for one hour. After washing, FITC-labeled rabbit anti-sheep IgG (1:25) was added for one hour. Sperm were washed again and mounted using anti-fade mounting medium. The Specificity of immunostaining was verified by adding 20 μg of peptides #1 and #4 (10 μg each) n in conjunction with the affinity-purified anti-SP-22 peptide IgG, demonstrating that small molecular antagonist to SP-22 can be used in a fashion similar to antibodies to SP-22, i.e. interfering with activity. 
     The functional regions of SP-22 have been identified as the following peptides: 
     VTVAGLAGKDPVQCSR (residues 33-48 of SEQ ID NO:1) 
     EILK residues 90-93 of SEQ ID NO:1) 
     TSHPLAK (residues 137-143 of SEQ ID NO:5) 
     DGLILTSR residues 149-156 of SEQ ID NO:1) 
     It was found that these peptides can directly affect fertility per se. If one of these peptides is added to sperm concurrently with an antibody to SP-22, the antibody does not affect fertility, i.e., fertility remains normal. 
     Modulation of Fertility with SP-22 Peptide Antibody 
     Artificial (in utero) insemination in the rat was conducted as previously described (Klinefelter et al., 1997). Briefly, 10×10 6  cauda epididymal sperm were incubated for five minutes at 34° C. either with or without 10 μl of the affinity-purified anti-SP-22 IgG, and 5×10 6  were injected into each uterine horn of LHRH-synchronized, cervically-stimulated adult females while under halothane anesthesia. Nine days later, the inseminated females were sacrificed and the number of implants and corpora lutea were enumerated. Fertility was expressed as the number of implants relative to the number of corpora lutea. 
     Quantification of SP-22 to Detect Alterations in Fertility Due to Testicular Toxicants 
     Bromochloroacetic acid (BCA), a naturally-occurring by-product of drinking water disinfection, was administered to adult male rats in water by gavage in graded doses, i.e., 0, 8, 24, and 72 mg/kg body weight. The rats were dosed daily for fourteen days. On day fifteen, sperm from the proximal cauda epididymis were prepared for artificial insemination as described above. The sperm remaining after insemination were washed and extracted with 80 mM n-octyl-β-glucopyranoside (OBG) in 10 mM Tris, pH 7.2. The extract was then concentrated, desalted, and protein concentration was determined prior to separation on 14% mini, two-dimensional SDS-PAGE gels. The silver-stained SP-22 protein was background corrected and the integrated optical density was correlated with the fertility of these sperm. 
     SP-22 Amino Acid Sequencing 
     Four peptides were obtained as shown in FIG.  1 . Each peptide was relatively short in length and each was flanked by trypsin cleavage sites at Lys (K) or Arg(R). Peptides #1, 2, and 4 matched sequences in the DJ-1 protein recently described in human Hela cells (Nagakubo et al., 1997). Moreover, five of the seven amino acids contained within peptide #3 following Edman degradation matched the DJ-1 sequence. Of the two amino acids in peptide #3 which did not match DJ-1 sequence, one is now known to be erroneous (i.e., G should be H), and the other represents a T (human DJ-1) to S (rat SP-22) substitution in the DNA sequence (FIG.  2 ). Comparisons of human DJ-1 with expressed sequence tagged clones from mouse indicated that these peptides were also perfectly conserved between human and mouse. 
     FIG. 1A shows the SP-22 peptides identified by Edman degradation, and FIG. 1B shows the full length amino acid sequence of human DJ-1. *Indicates that one of the threonines (T) in peptide #3 is a serine (S) in SP-22. * Indicates that the initial amino acid after the lysine (K) cleavage site, i.e., valine (V), was ambiguous upon sequencing. 
     Cloning and Sequencing SP-22 cDNA 
     Sequencing of SP-22 cDNAs obtained from a rat testis cDNA library indicated that SP-22 was encoded by three distinct mRNA sequences (SP-22A, SP-22B, SP-22C) with divergent 5′ sequences (FIG.  2 ). While almost the entire coding region was conserved, the SP-22C transcript is predicted to encode at least additional thirteen amino acids at the 5′ terminus and would produce a protein of 202 amino acid residues. The other two transcripts, SP-22A and SP-22B, encode 189 amino acids that are identical to the remaining SP-22C residues. 
     Of the four peptides derived from direct peptide sequencing of purified SP-22, FIG. 1, peptides #1, 2, and 4 were found to match the predicted SP-22 amino acid sequence exactly. Peptide #3 was found to contain a single discrepancy where glycine was predicted rather than histidine. The 3′ untranslated region of the SP-22 cDNAs contained a typical polyadenylation signal (AATAAA), although three separate sites of polyadenylation were observed. Database searches using the SP-22 sequence indicated a substantial homology (91% identity) with the human DJ-1 protein (FIG. 3) and suggest that SP-22 and DJ-1 are members of the same protein family. All matching with DJ-1 was confined to the 189 amino acid residues common to the three SP-22 transcripts. 
     FIG. 2 demonstrates that SP-22 is encoded by alternatively-spliced mRNAs. The divergent 5′ ends of three SP-22 cDNAs designated A (plain text), B (italics), and C (underlined), are shown with the remaining sequence representing nucleotides conserved between all three sequences. Putative coding sequences are shown in bold. The SP-22 sequence is predicted to have an additional thirteen amino acids of coding sequence not found in he SP-22A or SP-22B sequences. Amino acid sequences derived from sequencing SP-22 peptides are underlined. Peptide sequencing results matched perfectly with the exception of peptide #3, where a histidine (H*) was observed in place of glycine (G). The canonical polyadenylation signal (AATAAA) is underlined. Observed multiple polyadenylation sites are indicated by asterisks. 
     FIG. 3 illustrates the substantial homology of rat SP-22 with human DJ-1 protein. The 189 amino acids of SP-22 conserved between all SP-22 sequences (upper) are compared with the complete DJ-1 sequence (lower). Sequence identities are indicated by solid bars, conservative substitutions are shown by a colon, and divergent residues are indicated by gaps. All peptide sequences are identical between SP-22 and DJ-1 with the exception of peptide #3, where the observed threonine (T) to serine (S) change was observed both in the directed and predicted amino acid sequences. The high degree of identity suggests that SP-22 and DJ-1 belong to the same family of proteins. 
     FIG. 4 shows that Northern blotting of total RNA from rat testis (T), epididymis (E), brain (B), liver (L), and kidney (K) revealed the presence of a 1.0 kb mRNA in all tissues. However, a 1.5 kb transcript also appeared in the testis lane, indicating the presence of a testis-specific SP-22 mRNA. 
     Peptide Antibody Localization 
     Affinity-purified anti-SP-22 peptide IgG recognized SP-22 in the detergent extract of cauda epididymal sperm, solubilized membranes isolated from cauda epididymal sperm, and a detergent extract of sperm recovered from the rat testis 18 hours after efferent duct ligation (FIG.  5 ). No signal was detected on blots incubated with preimmune serum. The fact that a slightly more basic protein at the same apparent molecular weight was also recognized by the affinity-purified anti-SP-22 peptide IgG suggests that post-translationally modified variants of SP-22 exist. When affinity-purified anti-SP-22 peptide IgG was used to probe immunoblots of detergent extracts of bull, rabbit, stallion, and human sperm, a pattern of immunorecognition identical to that seen for the rat was evident (FIG.  6 ), suggesting that SP-22 and its isoform(s) are present in the sperm membrane regardless of species. 
     Affinity purified anti-SP-22 IgG localized over the sperm head of both fixed and fresh cauda epididymal sperm from the rat (FIG.  7 ). Fluorescent staining was specific to the anterior aspect of the equatorial segment of the head. Staining was completely ablated by co-incubating anti-SP-22 IgG with SP-22 peptides. Staining of the equatorial segment of the human sperm head was also evident. 
     Modulation of Fertility with SP-22 Peptide Antibody 
     When cauda epididymal sperm were incubated for five minutes with anti-SP-22 peptide antibody just prior to insemination into the uterine horns of receptive females, fertility was significantly reduced (FIG.  8 ). Indeed, while fertility of sperm that was not incubated with antibody averaged 83% (ranging from 64 to 100%), only one of the six females inseminated with sperm that were incubated with antibody had any implants. The fertility of this one female was below normal (44%). 
     Correlation of SP-22 with Infertility Induced by a Testicular Toxicant 
     The fertility of proximal cauda epididymal sperm from rats exposed to the common drinking water disinfection by-product BCA was decreased significantly at even the lowest dose tested, i.e., 8 mg/kh. The background-corrected, integrated optical density of SP-22 in silver-stained mini, two dimensional gels of protein from detergent extracts of proximal cauda sperm was highly correlated (r 2 =0.90) with the fertility of sperm from these rats (FIG.  9 ). The dose response between the amount of SP-22 in a detergent extract of epididymal sperm and the fertility of these sperm was no-linear, i.e, threshold-like. 
     FIG. 5A shows silver-stained proteins (left) and immunolocalization with affinity-purified, anti-SP-22 peptide IgG (right). The arrows indicate the locations of SP-22. 
     FIG. 5B shows silver-stained protein in a plasma membrane preparation of cauda epididymal sperm (left) and immunolocalization of SP-22 peptide (right). 
     FIG. 5C shows silver-stained proteins in a detergent extract of rat testis sperm (left) and immmunlocalization of SP-22 (right). Migration of molecular weight markers is indicated on the left. The apparent molecular weight of SP-22 is 28 kD on these 14% acrylamide gels. It should be noted that two less abundant, slightly more acidic protein variants, and one equally abundant, slightly more basic variant, all at the same apparent molecular weight, are also recognized by the affinity-purified, anti-SP-22 peptide IgG, suggesting that other charged variants of SP-22 exist. 
     FIG. 6 shows silver-stained proteins (left panels) in detergent extracts of fresh rat, rabbit, horse, bull, and human sperm and the corresponding immunoblot (right panels) using affinity-purified, anti-SP-22 peptide IgG. The arrows indicate the localization of SP-22. It should again be noted that charged variants of SP-22 are also recognized by the anti-peptide IgG. 
     FIG. 7A shows immunolocalization of SP-22 on fresh cauda epididymal rat sperm using the affinity-purified, anti-SP-22 peptide IgG. There was intense staining over the ventral, anterior surface of the sperm head. 
     FIG. 7B shows that fluorescent staining is completely ablated by co-incubation of affinity-purified, anti-SP-22 peptide IgG with SP-22 peptide. 
     FIG. 7C shows immunolocalization of SP-22 on fresh human sperm. There was intense staining over the anterior region of the head. 
     FIG. 8 shows fertility data using affinity-purified anti-SP-22 peptide IgG. When cauda epididymal sperm from the rat were inseminated without pre-incubation with affinity-purified anti-SP-22 peptide IgG, fertility, expressed as the number of implants over the number of corpora lutea on day 9 of gestation averaged 83% (N=6). In contrast thereto, when sperm were incubated briefly i.e., for about five minutes with anti-SP-22 peptide IgG just prior to insemination in utero, fertility was significantly decreased (p&lt;0.05) to only 7% (N=6). In fact, only one recipient had any implants at all. Incubation is preferably induced with 25-200 mg of affinity purified peptide Ig G/50×10 6  sperm, or 0.5-5 mg/million sperm. 
     Concurrent addition of any of the peptides with the antagonist or antibody negated the antibody effect, i.e., fertility was not affected. 
     FIG. 9 (Top) shows the relationship between fertility and SP-22 after exposure to both epididymal and testicular toxicants. It was previously demonstrated (Klinefelter et al., 1997) that the fertility of cauda epididymal rat sperm was high correlated (r 2 =0.83) to the background-corrected, integrated optical density of SP-22 silver stained in two dimensional gels of detergent extracts following exposure to a variety of epididymal toxicants. 
     FIG. 9 (Bottom) shows that the fertility of cauda epididymal rat sperm which was also highly correlated (r 2 =0.90) to the corrected, integrated optical density of SP-22 following exposure to the testicular toxicant bromochloroacetic acid. Once again, the relationship was non-linear, i.e., threshold-like. 
     Antibodies to SP-22 
     Antibodies to SP-22 can be prepared by any conventional means, and they can be either polyclonal or monoclonal. They may be raised in rabbits, mice, or other animals or tissue culture cells derived therefrom, or can be products or cells of human origin. They may also be produced by recombinant DNA technology either in a form identical to that of the native antibody or as chimeric molecules, constructed by recombination of antibody molecules of human or animal origin or in other forms chosen to make the antibodies most suitable for use in therapy. 
     For preparation of the antibodies, either purified SP-22 or a peptide identical to the known sequences of fragments thereof, e.g., to the N-terminal protein sequence, may be used to immunize animals. A further possibility is to fuse one of the nucleotide sequences coding an active fragment of SP-22 to the gene coding for Protein A, to express the antibody. The antibody is then purified by affinity chromatography on a Sepharose column and used to immunize animals. 
     Preparation of Antibodies to SP-22 
     Antibodies (both polyclonal and monoclonal) to SP-22 may be prepared for diagnostic and therapeutic uses, including but not limited to fertility control (contraception) and fertility assessment (screening). 
     “Antibody” in this context refers to a synthetic protein which binds SP-22 and negates its biological function. Antibodies to SP-22 are prepared by either polyclonal or monoclonal techniques: 
     A. Polyclonal Antibody Production 
     For polyclonal antibody production, adult mice or rabbits are immunized with 25 or 100 mg of SP-22 suspended in Freund&#39;s complete adjuvant. This preparation is injected subcutaneously and is followed by booster injections of SP-22 mixed with incomplete adjuvant. Sera obtained after the final booster injection are checked for titer, affinity, and specificity. 
     Specifically, for rabbits, 100 micrograms of SP-22 protein as obtained above, or peptides which are analogs of SP-22, were solubilized in 0.5 mL physiological saline and emulsified with an equal volume of Freund&#39;s adjuvant to prepare inoculum sites in the back. Two New Zealand White female rabbits, weight 2.5-3.5 kg, were bled via the marginal ear vein for pre-immune serum. Appropriately 50 microliters of inoculum was injected into 20 sites within the shaved area. The rabbits were boosted in similar fashion four weeks later. Two weeks later, the rabbits were bled again via the marginal ear vein, and sera containing the polyclonal antibodies is obtained. 
     To produce antiserum to SP-22, a detergent extract of cauda epididymal sperm was chromatographed by reverse-phase HPLC and fractions enriched in SP-22 were run in analytical two dimensional gels. Coomassie-stained SP-22 punches were subsequently subjected to electroelution and the electroeluted material was desalted, concentrated, and assayed for protein. After verifying that the concentrated electroeulted material was SP-22, 25 micrograms were mixed with Freund&#39;s complete adjuvant and injected subcutaneously into each of six mice. Four other mice received only adjuvant. 
     After four weeks, each mouse was boosted with 12.5 micrograms of SP-22 mixed with Freund&#39;s incomplete adjuvant. After another ten days, a final similar booster was given. The mice were euthanized the days after the final booster, and the serum was collected. 
     B. Monoclonal Antibody Production 
     Monoclonal BALB/c mice are immunized with SP-22 protein or substantially similarly active fragments or analogs thereof by intraperitoneal injection with 50 micrograms of immunogen. Thereafter, the spleens are collected and cell suspensions are prepared by perfusion with DMEM. The BALB/c spleen cells are fused with SP 2/0-Ag 14 mouse myeloma cells by PEG and the resultant hybridomas grown in HAT selected tissue culture media plus 20% fetal calf serum. The surviving cells are allowed to grow to confluence. The spent culture medium is checked for antibody titer, specificity, and affinity. 
     Specifically, the mice are immunized with SP-22 adjuvant emulsion described above. Each mouse first received 0.2 mL of this emulsion intraperitoneally, and then is reinjected in similar fashion with 0.1 mL six weeks later. Mouse serum is obtained ten days after the second injection and then tested for anti-FRP activity via ELISA. The mouse exhibiting the highest absolute anti-FRP activity is chosen for cell fusion. 
     Spleen cell suspension containing B-lymphocytes and macrophages is prepared by perfusion of the spleen. The cell suspension is washed and collected by centrifugation; Myeloma cells are also washed in this manner. Live cells are counted and the cells placed into a 37° C. water bath. One mL of 50% polyethylene glycol in DMEM is added slowly. The cells are incubated in the PEG for on to 1.5 minutes at 37° C., after which the PEG is diluted by the slow addition of media. The cells are pelleted and 35 to 40 mL of DMEM containing 10% fetal bovine serum is added. The cells are then dispensed into tissue culture plates and incubated overnight in a 37° C., 5% CO 2 , humidified incubator. 
     The next day, DMEM-FCS containing hypoxanthine, thymidine, and aminopterin (HAT medium) are added to each well. The concentration of HAT in the medium to be added was twice the final concentration required, i.e., 
     H final =1×10 −4 M 
     A final =4×10 −7  M, and 
     T final =1.6×10 −5  M. 
     Subsequently, the plates are incubated with HAT medium every three to four days for two weeks. Fused cells are thereafter grown in DMEM-FCS containing hypoxanthine and thymidine. As cell growth becomes ½ to ¾ confluent on the bottom of the wells, supernatant tissue culture fluid is taken and tested for SP-22 specific antibody by ELISA. Positive wells are cloned by limiting dilution over macrophage or thymocyte feeder plates, and cultured in DMEM-FCS. Cloned wells are tested and recloned three times before a statistically significant monoclonal antibody is obtained. Spent culture media from the chosen clone contains antibody which binds SP-22 in all dilutions tested. 
     C. Antibody to SP-22 Peptides 
     SP-22 is identified by its biological functions and activities set forth herein, as well as by its size of approximately 22 kD and isoelectric point of 5.25. However, changes in form and the substitution of fragments or equivalents are contemplated as circumstances may suggest or render expedient, including variations in methods for physically characterizing the protein. For instance, it may be necessary to generate polyclonal antibodies to peptide fragments of SP-22 if sufficient amounts of purified SP-22 cannot be obtained relatively easily. 
     In addition to the antibodies which are identical to the naturally-occurring SP-22 peptide antibody, the present invention embraces epitopes which are substantially homologous with such antibodies. 
     The term “antibody” is meant to include polyclonal antibodies, monoclonal antibodies, chimeric antibodies, anti-idiotypic antibodies to antibodies that can be labelled in soluble or bound form, as well as active fractions thereof provided by any known technique, such as, nut not limited to, enzymatic cleavage, peptide synthesis, and recombinant techniques. 
     Polyclonal antibodies are heterogeneous populations of antibody molecules derived from the sera of animals immunized with an antigen. A monoclonal antibody contains a substantially homogeneous population of antibodies specific to antigens, which population consists substantially similar epitope binding areas. 
     Chimeric antibodies are molecules in which different proteins are derived from different animal species, such as those having the variable region derived from a murine monoclonal antibody and a human immunoglobulin constant region. Chimeric antibodies are primarily used to reduce immunogenicity in application and to increase yields in production, for example, where murine monoclonal antibodies have high yields from hybridomas but higher immunogenicity in humans, such that human murine chimeric monoclonal antibodies are used. 
     Chimeric antibodies and methods for their production are known in the art [Cabilly et al.,  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA  81:6851-6855 (1984); Boulilanne et al.,  Nature  312: 643-646 (1984); Cabilly et al., European Patent Application 125023; Neiberger et al.,  Nature  314:2680279 (1985); Taniguchi et al., European Patent Application 171496; Morrison et al., European Patent Application 173494; Neuberger et al., PCT Patent Application WO 8601533; Kudo et al., European Patent Application 184187; Sahagah et al.,  J. Immunol.  137:1066-1074; Robinson et al., PCT Patent Application WO 8702671; Liu et al.,  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA  84:3439-3443 (1987); Sun et al.,  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA  84:214-218 (1987); Better et al.,  Science  240:1041-1043 (1988); and Harlow and Lane,  Antibodies, a Laboratory Manual.  Each of these references is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     An anti-idiotypic antibody is an antibody which recognizes unique determinants generally associated with the antigen-binding site of an antibody. An anti-idiotypic antibody can be prepared by immunizing an animal of the same species and genetic type (e.g.,a mouse strain) as the source of the monoclonal antibody with the monoclonal antibody to which an anti-idiotypic antibody is being prepared. The immunized animal will recognize and respond to the idiotypic determinants of the immunizing antibody by producing an antibody to these idiotypic determinants, i.e., the antiidiotypic activity. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,699,880, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. 
     The anti-idiotypic antibody may also be used as an immunogen to produce an immune response in yet another animal, producing a so-called anti-anti-idiotypic antibody. The anti- anti-idiotypic antibody may be epitopically identical to the original monoclonal antibody which induces the anti-idiotypic antibody. Thus, by using antibodies to the idiotypic determinants of a monoclonal antibody, it is possible to identify other clones expressing antibodies of identical specificity. 
     Accordingly, monoclonal antibodies generated against SP-22, and related proteins of the present invention, may be used to induce anti-idiotypic antibodies in suitable animals, such as BALB/c mice. Spleen cells from such immunized mice are used to produce anti-idiotypic hybridomas secreting antiidiotypic monoclonal antibodies. Further, the anti-idiotypic monoclonal antibodies can be coupled to a carried such as kehyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) and used to immunize additional BALB/c mice. Sera from these mice will contain anti-anti-idiotypic antibodies that have the binding properties of the original monoclonal antibodies specific for SP-22 or epitopes thereof. 
     The term “antibody” is also meant to include both intact molecules as well as active fractions thereof, such as, for example, those which are capable of binding antigen. Fab and F(ab′)2 fragments lack the Fc fragment of intact antibody, clear more rapidly from the circulation, and may have less non-specific tissue binding than an intact antibody, cf. Wahl et al.,  J. Nucl. Med.  24:316-325, 1983. 
     The term “Antagonist” includes antibody, complementary peptides or fragments thereof, or other small molecules which inhibit the activity of the protein. 
     The term “substantially homologous”, when used in connection with amino acid sequences, refers to sequences which are substantially identical to or similar in sequence with each other, giving rise to a homology of conformation and thus to retention, to a useful degree, of one or more biological (including immunological) activities. The term is not intended to imply a common evolution of the sequences. 
     Substantially homologous peptide epitopes may be identified by a variety of techniques. It is known in the art that one may synthesize all possible single substitution mutants of a known peptide epitope, Geysen et al.,  Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.  ( USA ) 18:3998-4002, 1984. While the effects of different substitutions are not always additive, it is reasonable to expect that two favorable or neutral single substitutions at different residue positions in the epitope can safely be combined in most cases. 
     One may also synthesize a family of related single or multiple substitution mutants, present the mixture to a cell line capable of presenting the desired epitopes, and expose the cells to suitable restricted antigens. If the cells are lysed, effective epitopes may be identified either by direct recovery from the cells or by a progressive process of testing subsets of the effective peptide mixtures. Methods for the preparation of degenerate peptides are described in Rutter, U.S. Pat. No. 5,010,175; Haughter et al.,  Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.  ( USA ) 82:5131-5135 (1985); Geysen et al., op. cit.; WO86/06487; and WO86/00991. 
     In devising a multiple mutagenesis strategy, a person of ordinary skill would of course give weight to the single substitution mutant data in determining both which residues to vary and which amino acids or classes of amino acids are suitable replacements. 
     It is also possible to predict substantially homologous epitopes by taking into account studies of sequence variations in families of naturally occurring homologous proteins. Certain amino acid substitutions are more often tolerated than others, and these are often correlated with similarities in size, charge, etc., between the original amino acid and its replacement. Insertions or deletions of amino acids may also be made, as described above. 
     Clones 
     Once an antibody to, or portions sequence of, SP-22 is available, it will be necessary to screen cDNA libraries to identify the cDNA clones that produce SP-22. SP-22 may be produced by methods other than recovery from male animals. In particular, a cDNA probe is prepared against a partial sequence of SP-22 and used to identify the SP-22 genome in cells from any mammalian species. The identified genome is then inserted into a plasmid which is then employed to produce recombinant SP-22 in proliferating bacteria or other hosts according to methods known in the art. This will be useful in the methodologies, e.g., immunocontraception, addition to sperm, described herein. However, not only will these utilities require large amounts of SP-22, they will also require large quantities of the SP-22 antibody. This is accomplished in batch hybridoma cell culture using proven methods. The same processes can be used to identify antagonists to SP-22 and fragments and derivatives thereof. 
     Contraception 
     Antibodies to SP-22 can be used for contraception as well as for assaying fertility. A reversible contraceptive vaccine is provided by administering to an animal subject SP-22 as described above in an amount effective to reduce the fertility of that subject via generation of antibodies to SP-22. Partial reduction in fertility, i.e., effects which are reflected as a reduction in fertility in a population of subjects, are intended as within the scope of the present invention. 
     Any animal which expresses sperm surface SP-22 may be treated by the immunocontraceptive method of the present invention, including both birds and mammals. Exemplary mammals include mice, rabbits, dogs, cats, cows, pigs, sheep, horses, and humans. Mammalian subjects are preferred. The vaccine can be administered to either females or males by any suitable means, including by intramuscular injection. The antibody can be administered topically, as by vaginal foam or by any convenient topical method in an appropriate carrier, e.g., by nasal spray. 
     The term “protection”, as used herein, is intended to include prevention or suppression of production of fertile sperm. 
     It will be understood that in medicine, it is not always possible to distinguish between preventing and suppressing, since the ultimate inductive event or events may be unknown, latent, or the patient is not ascertained until well after the occurrence of the event or events. The term “protection”, as used herein, is meant to include prophylaxis. 
     The form of administration may be systemic or topical. For example, administration of such a composition may be by various parenteral routes such as subcutaneous, intravenous, intradermal, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intranasal, transdermal, vaginal or buccal routes. Alternatively, or concurrently, administration may be by the oral route. Parenteral administration can be by bolus injection or by gradual release over time. 
     It is understood that the suitable dose of a composition according to the present invention will depend upon the age, health and weight of the recipient. However, the most preferred dosage can be tailored to the individual subject, as is understood and determinable by one of skill in the art, without undue experimentation. This typically involves adjustment of a standard dose, e.g., reduction of the dose if the patient has a low body weight. 
     Prior to use in humans, a drug is first evaluated for safety and efficacy in laboratory animals. In human clinical trials, one begins with a does expected to be safe in humans, based on the preclinical data for the drug in question, and on customary doses for analogous drugs, if any. If this dose is effective, the dosage may be decreased to determine the minimum effective dose, if desired. If this dose is ineffective, it will be cautiously increased, with the patients monitored for signs of side effects. See, e.g., Berkow et al., eds.  The Merck Manual,  15 th edition,  Merck and Co., Rahway, N.J., 1987; Goodman et al., eds.,  Goodman and Gilman&#39;s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics,  8 th edition.  Pergamon Press, Inc., Elmsford, N.Y., 1990;  Avery;s Drug Treatment: Principles and Practice of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics,  3 rd edition,  ADIS Press, Ltd., Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Md., 1987; Ebadi,  Pharmacology,  Little Brown and Co., Boston, Mass., 1985; which references and references cited therein are entirely incorporated herein by reference. 
     The appropriate dosage form depends on the composition administered, i.e., the carrier used for the antibody, as well as the mode of administration. Modes of administration include tablets, capsules, lozenges, dental pastes, suppositories, inhalants, solutions, ointments, and parenteral depots. See, e.g., Berker, supra, Goodman, supra, Avery, supra, and Ebadi, supra., which are entirely incorporated herein by reference, including all references cited therein. 
     In addition to the protein or antigen of the invention, a pharmaceutical vaccine composition may contain suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, such as excipients, carriers, and/or auxiliaries which facilitate processing of the active compounds into preparations which can be used pharmaceutically. The amount of antigen administered depends upon factors such as route of administration, species, and the use of booster administration. In general, a dose of about 0.1 to about 100 micrograms per kg of body weight may be used. The antigen to SP-22 may be prepared as both human and veterinary vaccine formulations. Vaccine formulations of the present invention comprise the antigen in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The antigen is included in the carrier in an amount which is effective to reduce the fertility of the subject being treated. Pharmaceutically acceptable carrier are preferably liquid, particularly aqueous carriers, such as sodium phosphate buffered saline. The vaccine formulations may be stored in a sterile glass container sealed with a rubber stopper through which liquids may be injected and formulations withdrawn by syringe. 
     Vaccine formulations of the present invention may optionally contain one or more adjuvants. Any suitable adjuvant can be used, such as aluminum hydroxide, aluminum phosphate, plant and animal oils, and the like, with the amount of adjuvant depending on the nature of the particular adjuvant employed. In addition, the vaccine formulations may also contain at least one stabilizer, such as carbohydrates such as sorbitol, mannitol, starch, sucrose, dextrin, and glucose, as well as proteins such as albumin or casein, and buffers such as alkali metal phosphates and the like. 
     In addition to the active ingredient, i.e., the antigen or antibody to SP-22, or SP-22 per se, pharmaceutical compositions according to the present invention may contain suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers comprising excipients and auxiliaries which facilitate processing of the active ingredients into preparations for pharmaceutical use. Preferably, the preparations contain from about 0.1 to about 99 percent, preferably from about 25 to 85 percent, of active ingredient, together with the excipients. The excipients may be any pharmaceutically acceptable excipients or carrier which can be used with the antigen or antibody. 
     Suitable excipients are, in particular, fillers such as sugars, including lactose, sucrose, mannitol, and sorbitol, cellulose preparations and derivatives and/or calcium phosphates. Also useful as excipients are binders such as starch, gelatin, gums, methyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, and/or polyvinylpyrrolidone. Lubricants such as silica, talc, stearic acid, or salts thereof, and/or polyethylene glycol can also be used. 
     For vaginal application, suppositories, lotions, creams, sprays, or foams may be used to incorporate the active ingredients. Suitable suppository bases are, for example, natural or synthetic triglycerides, paraffin hydrocarbons, polyethylene glycols or higher alkanols. Foam formulations may include oily suspensions or aqueous solutions of the active ingredient with suitable foaming agents. Other topical carriers for vaginal applications include pharmaceutically acceptable liquids in which the active ingredient is suspended or dissolved. 
     For administration by nasal spray, the active ingredient is incorporated into a pharmaceutically acceptable liquid that can be sprayed into the nose. 
     SP-22 can also be used to identify male animals who are good candidates for supplying sperm for artificial insemination. Since may livestock animals are reproduced by artificial insemination or embryo transfer, it is important to be able to identify males who are fertile as well as possessing desirable characteristics to pass on to the next generation. Techniques for reproducing animals by embryo transfer are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,854,479; 4,816,257; and 4,326,505, the entire contents of each of which are hereby incorporated by reference. By determining the amount of SP-22 in the sperm of a subject animal, the fertility of the animal can be predicted. 
     It is known that sperm proteins are affected by toxicants and pollutants. According to the present invention, the changes in SP-22 level are calibrated to predict the likelihood of the sperm having been rendered infertile because of exposure to the toxicant. 
     In Klinefelter et al., 1996, it was demonstrated that endocrine-disruptive chemicals decreased the fertilizing ability of cauda epididymal sperm in four days. Tests were conducted to determine if this infertility was related to decrease of SP-22 associated with the sperm. 
     In order to evaluate the effects of exposure to toxicants that perturb the androgen status of the animal, such as EDS sperm are subjected to analysis of SP-22. Adult (90 to 120 day old) male Sprague-Dawley rats were housed two to three per cage with laboratory-grade pine shavings as bedding. The rats were maintained under controlled temperature (22° C.) and humidity (40-50%) conditions, and were given Purinal laboratory rat chow and tap water ad libitum. Males were maintained in a 14-hour light, 10-hour dark schedule. Each male was numbered and randomly assigned to a treatment group. The test toxicant was administered either as a single intraperitoneal injection or as four daily injections. After four days the rats were killed, and the caudal epididymides of each rat placed in a 35-mm culture dish containing 2 mL of Medium 199. Detergent extracts representing 10-40×10 6  sperm, depending on treatment, were prepared and aliquots equivalent to 30 micrograms were electrophoresed in a mini, two dimensional electrophoresis system (BioRad) for quantitative analysis of SP-22. Specifically, sperm were transferred to a microcentrifuge tube and washed twice by centrifugation (3000×g, five minutes) in Dulbecco&#39;s phosphate buffered saline, pH 7.2, with freshly added 0.2 extracted phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF). After the final wash, the sperm were extracted for one hour at room temperature with 1 mL of 40 extracted n-octyl-β-glucopyranoside in 10 ml extracted Tris, pH 7.2, containing freshly added PMSF. Following a final centrifugation at 3000×g, the supernatant was removed and frozen at −70° C. 
     Upon thawing, each extract was concentrated in 1 extracted Tris buffer by two centrifugations (3000×g for 45 minutes at 4° C.) in Centricon-10 units (Amincon). Protein concentration was determined using a Pierce protein assay kit. 
     Sample volumes containing 30 μg protein were lyophilized, and protein was solubilized for 30 minutes at room temperature in 45 μL of sample buffer consisting of 5.7 g urea, 4 mL 10% NP-40, 0.5 mL ampholytes (70% 3-10, 30% 5-7) and 0.1 g dithiothreitol per 10 mL. Isoelectic focusing (750 V, 3.5 hours) was conducted in gels consisting of 6.24 g. urea, 1.5 g acrylamide (30% acrylamide, 1.2% bisacrylamide), 2.25 mL 10% NO-40, and 0.65 mL ampholytes (60% 3-10, 40% 5-7) per 10 mL. Molecular weight separation was conducted in 11% methanol and silver stained. A Kepler two dimensional gel analysis system (Large Scale Biology Corp., Rockville, Md.) was used for background correction, spot matching, and spot area quantitation. Images were acquired by transmittance at 80 μm spatial resolution and 4096 gray levels on an Ektron 1412 scanner and converted to 256 gray levels. Quantitation was done by fitting two-dimensional Gaussian distributions to the density distribution of the spot area following background subtraction. Of the 124 proteins (spots) that were identified in the 50 gel data set, 22 were common to gels representative of sperm extracts of vehicle-treated animals. Of these 22 proteins, only SP-22 was affected by all test chemicals in a dose-related fashion. In fact, SP-22 was the only one, of the 124 that were identified, that changed in either a dose or treatment-related fashion. 
     In has been determined that insemination (in utero) of 5×10 6  epididymal sperm from a control rat results in approximately 75% fertility, thereby providing relatively greater sensitivity than insemination of a number of sperm that would result in 100% fertility. 
     The various data (fertility and SP-22, as well as other endpoints such as motility parameters and testosterone concentrations) were collected and analyzed using two-way analysis of variance for both block and treatment effects. An initial analysis was performed to determine whether experimental block differences influenced the prarameters measured. Where overall block effects are significant (p&lt;0.05), the least-square means were compared for significant (p&lt;0.05) treatment differences. A correlation analysis was performed to determine whether significant (p&lt;0.01) correlations exist between each of the measured endpoints, and fertilizing ability and Pearson correlation coefficients (R) were calculated. 
     In a study reported in Klinefelter et al.,  Journal of Andrology  15(4):318-322227, 1994, the authors used in utero insemination of epididymal sperm and exposure to a chemical which disrupts androgen status of the epididymis, ethane dimethanesulfonate, EDS, to investigate the hypothesis that EDS compromises the fertilizing ability of sperm by affecting epididymal function directly. Fertilizing ability, sperm motility, serum testosterone, and tissue testosterone were evaluated. In addition, sperm proteins were extracted and analyzed by quantitative two dimensional gel electrophoresis. An 18 kD protein was well correlated with fertility. However, it was felt that changes in this protein were not sufficient either to EDS itself of the dose that was tested, 
     In a subsequent study, the insemination procedure was modified to permit assessment of fertility (implants/corpora lutea) rather than fertilizing ability (percentage of eggs fertilized). In this study, multiple chemicals that disrupt endocrine status were tested. Adult males were exposed either to 25 or 50 mg/kg EDS, epichlorohydrin, 3 or 6 mg/kg, or hydroflutamide, 12.5 or 25.0 mg/kg, or chloroethylmethanesulfonate, 12.5 or 18.75 mg/kg. Each of these compounds perturbs the endocrine balance of the male reproductive system. The animals exposed to the known antiandrogen hydroglutamate were castrated and implanted with testosterone implants just prior to the first injection. The vehicle controls for all treatments except hydroxyflutamide received daily injections of 30% DMSO in water. The vehicle controls for the hydroxyflutamide animals were castrated, implanted with testosterone implants, and give daily injections of 15% ethanol. Four days after the onset of dosing, the males were killed and the epididiymides were removed. The caput/corpus was frozen on dry ice for subsequent steroid extraction and testosterone assay. Sperm were released from the epididymal tubule into insemination medium and held in a CO 2  incubator at 34° C. for no more than 15 minutes until insemination. Adult, estrus-synchronized female rats were monitored for lordosis behavior just after lights out on the day of insemination. Females displaying mating behavior were cervically stimulated either with vasectomized teaser males at least 15 minutes prior to insemination. A volume equal to 5×10 6  sperm was inseminated into each uterine horn at day 0. On day 9, the females were killed and fertility was assessed. A Kepler two dimensional gel analysis system (Large Scale Biology Corp., Rockville, Md.) was used for background correlation, spot matching, and spot area quantitation. Images were acquired by transmittance at 80 μm spatial resolution and 4096 gray levels. Quantitation was done by fitting two-dimensional Gaussian distributions to the density distribution of the spot area following background subtraction. Of the 125 proteins (spots) that were identified in the 50 gel data set, 22 were common to gels representative of sperm extracts of vehicle-treated animals. Of these 22 proteins, only SP-22 was affected by all test chemicals in a dose-related fashion. In fact, SP-22 was the only one, of the 124 that were identified, that changed in either a dose or treatment-related fashion. 
     Measurements of sperm motion and sperm morphology were not significantly affected by any of the treatments. Based on a scatter plot of the data relating the amount of SP-22 to fertility (frequent), fertility classes greater and less than n 50% were chosen. Variables were then entered into the discriminant analyst to predict fertility by class, as shown in Table 1. Since, in this study, fertility for the control animals was targeted at 68%±a standard deviation of 18%, 50% represented a reasonable cutoff for the fertile class. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Discrimination Analysis Based on SP-22 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 CLASS 
                 PERCENTAGE CORRECTLY PREDICTED 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Fertile 
                 90 (17/19) 
               
               
                   
                 (&gt;50%) 
               
               
                   
                 Subfertile 
                 94 (29/31) 
               
               
                   
                 (&lt;50%) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     A regression analysis showed that the amount of SP-22 was significantly correlated to fertility (p&lt;0.0001; r 2 =0.83). A nonlinear fit of the data was indicated, since a threshold of 10,000 integrated optical density units of SP-22 was necessary to achieve greater than 50% fertility. 
     Thus, by entering the level of SP-22 of a sperm sample into an appropriate mathematical model, it is possible to predict the fertility of the sperm sample with a reasonably high degree (i.e., &gt;90%) of success. An antibody to SP-22 can be used to evaluate the fertility of sperm in an epididymal sperm sample or an ejaculate. Since the antibody to SP-22 recognizes a single protein on immnoblots of cells of both human and stallion sperm extracts, this antibody will most likely be applicable to evaluation of animals in which maximum fertility is important, e.g., cattle, horses, dogs, and human,s among other animals. 
     The toxicants tested above do perturb the endocrine balance of the male reproductive system. Other environmentally relevant endocrine disruptors, such as dioxin, could also compromise the expression of SP-22. The present invention thus includes a screening kit to test such chemicals. 
     The foregoing description of the specific embodiments will so fully reveal the general nature of the invention that others can, by applying current knowledge, readily modify and/or adapt for various application such specific embodiments without departing from the generic concept, and therefore such adaptations and modifications are intended to be comprehended within the meaning and range of equivalents of the disclosed embodiments. It is to be understood that the phraseology or terminology herein is for the purpose of description and not of limitation. 
     All references cited in this specification are hereby incorporated by reference. 
     References 
     Amann, R. P. and Shabanowitz, R. B. Responses of Mammalian Sperm Exposed to Synthetic FertPlus™ Peptide. J. Androl. Suppl.: 102A (1998a). 
     Amann, R. P., Hammerstedt, R. H., and Shabanowitz, R. B. Exposure of Human, Bull, or Boar Sperm to a Synthetic Peptide Increases Binding to an Egg-Membrane Substrate. J. Androl. (Submitted, 1998b). 
     Benton, W D, Davis, R W. Screening λgt recombinant clones by hybridization to single plaques in situ. Science, 196:180 (1977). 
     Burks, D. J., Carballada, R., Moore, H. D. M., and Saling, P. M. Interaction of a Tyrosine Kinase from Human Sperm with the Zona Pellucida at Fertilization. Science, 269:83-89 (1995). 
     Cohen, D. J., Munuce, M. J., and Cuasnicu, P. S. Mammalian Sperm-Egg Fusion: The Development of Rat Oolemma Fusibility during Oogenesis Involves the Appearance of Binding Sites for Sperm Protein “DE”. Biol. Reprod. 55:200-206 (1996). 
     Capkova, J. and Peknicova J. Binding of Boar Spermatozoa to Porcine Oocytes: Effect of Low Molecular Weight 17-kDa Protein. Mol. Reprod. Devel. 46:168-175 (1997). 
     Causnicu, P. S., Echeverria, F. G., Piazza, A. D., Cameo, M. S., and Blaquier, J. A. Antibodies Against Epididymal Glycoproteins Block Fertilizing Ability in Rat. J. Reprod. Fert. 72:467-471 (1984). 
     Gerena, R. L., Irikura, D., Urade, Y., Eguchi, N. Chapman, D. A., and Killian, G. J. Identification of a Fertility-Associated Protein in Bull Seminal Plasma as Lipocalin-Type Prostaglandin D Synthase. Biol. Reprod. 58:826-833 (1998). 
     Hammerstedt, R. H., Cramer, P. G., and Barbato, G. F. A Method and Use of Polypeptide in Sperm-Egg Binding to Enhance or Decrease Fertility. International Patent Publication #WO/97/25620 (1997). 
     Hunnicutt, G. R. Primakoff, P., and Myles, D. G. Sperm Surface Protein PH-20 is Bifunctional: One Activity is a Hyaluronidase and a Second, Distinct Activity is Required in Secondary Sperm-Zona Binding. Biol. Reprod. 55: 80-86 (1996). 
     Killian, G. J., Chapman, D. A., and Rogowski, L. A. Fertility-Associated Proteins in Holstein Bull Seminal Plasma. Biol. Reprod. 49:1202-1207 (1993). 
     Killian, G., Chapman, D., Cancel, A., and Henault, M. A. Alteration and Prediction of Male Fertility using Seminal Plasma and its Components. U.S. Pat. No. 5,569,581 (1996). 
     Klinefelter, G. R., Laskey, J. W., Ferrell, J., Suarez, J. D., Roberts, N. L. Discriminant Analysis Indicates a Single Sperm Protein (SP22) is Predictive of Fertility Following Toxicant Exposure. J. Andrology, 18:139-150 (1997). 
     Klinefelter, G. R., Strader, L. F., Ferrell, J., Suarez, J. D., and Roberts, N. L. Reduced Fertility is Correlated with SP22 Levels Following Exposure to the Disinfection Byproduct of Drinking Water, Bromochloroacetic Acid. J. Androl. (Manuscript in Prep.). 
     Lea, I. A., Richardson, R. T., Widgren, E. E., and O&#39;Rand, M. G. Cloning and Sequencing of cDNAs Encoding the Human Sperm Protein, Sp17. Biochimica. Biophysica Acta, 1307:263-266 (1996). 
     Linder, R. E., Klinefelter, G. R., Strader, L. F., Narotsky, M. G., Suarez, J. D., Roberts, N. L., and Perreault, S. D. Dibromoacetic Acid Affects Reproductive Competence and Sperm Quality in the Male Rat. Fund. Appld. Toxicol. 28:9-17 (1995). 
     Linder, R. E., Klinefelter, G. R., Strader, L. F., Veeramachaneni, D. N. R., Roberts, N. L., and Suarez, J. D. Histopathologic Changes in the Testes of Rats Exposed to Dibromoacetic Acid. Reprod. Toxicol. 11:47-56 (1997). 
     Linder, R. E., Klinefelter, G. R., Strader, L. F., Suarez, J. D., and Roberts, N. L. Spermatoxicity of Dichloroacetic Acid. Reprod. Toxicol. 11:681-688 (1997). 
     Wei, S. G., Wang, L. F., and Miao, S. Y. Fertility Studies with Antisperm Antibodies. Arch. Androl. 32:251-262 (1994). 
     Nagakubo, D, Taira, T., Kitaura, H. Ikeda, M., Tamai, K., Iguchi-Ariga, S. M. M., and Ariga, H. DJ-1, A Novel Oncogene Which Transforms Mouse NIH3T3 Cells in Cooperation with Ras. Biochem. Biophs. Res. Comm. 231:509-513 (1997). 
     O&#39;Rand, M. G., Irons, G. P., and Porter, J. P. Monoclonal Antibodies to Rabbit Sperm Autoantigens. I. Inhibition of In Vitro Fertilization and Localization on the Egg. Biol. Reprod. 30:721-730 (1984). 
     O&#39;Rand, M. G., Widgren, E. E., Richardson, R. T., and Lea, I. A. Sperm Antigen Corresponding to a Sperm Zona Binding Protein Autoantigenic Epitope. U.S. Pat. No. 5,480,799 (1996). 
     Primakoff, P., Woolman-Gamer, L., Tung, K. S. K., and Myles, D. G. Reversible Contraceptive Effect of PH-20 Immunization in Male Guinea Pigs. Biol. Reprod. 56:1142-1146 (1997). 
     Peknicova, J. and Capkova, J. Binding of Boar Spermatozoa to Porcine Oocytes: Effect of Low Molecular Weight 17-kDa Protein. Mol. Reprod. Devel. 46:168-175 (1997). 
     Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson, A R. DNA sequencing with chain terminating inhibitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 74:5463-5467 (1977). 
     Welch, J E, Schatte, E C, O&#39;Brien, D A, Eddy, E M. Expression of a glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene specific to mouse spermatogenic cells. Biol Reprod 46:869-878 (1992). 
     
       
         
           
             6 
           
           
             1 
             189 
             PRT 
             Human DJ-1 
           
            1
Met Ala Ser Lys Arg Ala Leu Val Ile Leu Ala Lys Gly Ala Glu Glu
  1               5                  10                  15
Met Glu Thr Val Ile Pro Val Asp Val Met Arg Arg Ala Gly Ile Lys
             20                  25                  30
Val Thr Val Ala Gly Leu Ala Gly Lys Asp Pro Val Gln Cys Ser Arg
         35                  40                  45
Asp Val Val Ile Cys Pro Asp Ala Ser Leu Glu Asp Ala Lys Lys Glu
     50                  55                  60
Gly Pro Tyr Asp Val Val Val Leu Pro Gly Gly Asn Leu Gly Ala Gln
 65                  70                  75                  80
Asn Leu Ser Glu Ser Ala Ala Val Lys Glu Ile Leu Lys Glu Gln Glu
                 85                  90                  95
Asn Arg Lys Gly Leu Ile Ala Ala Ile Cys Ala Gly Pro Thr Ala Leu
            100                 105                 110
Leu Ala His Glu Ile Gly Cys Gly Ser Lys Val Thr Thr His Pro Leu
        115                 120                 125
Ala Lys Asp Lys Met Met Asn Gly Gly His Tyr Thr Tyr Ser Glu Asn
    130                 135                 140
Arg Val Glu Lys Asp Gly Leu Ile Leu Thr Ser Arg Gly Pro Gly Thr
145                 150                 155                 160
Ser Phe Glu Phe Ala Leu Ala Ile Val Glu Ala Leu Asn Gly Lys Glu
                165                 170                 175
Val Ala Ala Gln Val Lys Ala Pro Leu Val Leu Lys Asp
            180                 185 
           
             2 
             989 
             DNA 
             Rat sperm 
             
               Coding region from nucleotides 190-756 encodes
      for residues 14-202 of SEQ ID NO5 
             
           
            2
gctgtgcaga gccgtctggc agggttgacc tcctaaaggg atattccatc tttattaatc     60
attagtagtg tggtcagaga cttagcacca ttggtctccc ccaacctggt ccagacattt    120
cagcagttta tcggaacagc aacaacagca acaaaacctt caaaatttac aagtctttaa    180
gaaatagaaa tggcatccaa aagagctctg gtcatcctag ccaaaggagc agaggagatg    240
gagacagtga ttcctgtgga catcatgcgg cgagctggga ttaaagtcac cgttgcaggc    300
ttggctggga aggaccccgt gcagtgtagc cgtgatgtag tgatttgtcc ggataccagt    360
ctggaagaag caaaaacaca gggaccatac gatgtggttg ttcttccagg aggaaatctg    420
ggtgcacaga acttatctga gtcggctttg gtgaaggaga tcctcaagga gcaggagaac    480
aggaagggcc tcatagctgc catctgtgcg ggtcctacgg ccctgctggc tcacgaagta    540
ggctttggat gcaaggttac atcgcaccca ttggctaagg acaaaatgat gaacggcagt    600
cactacagct actcagagag ccgtgtggag aaggacggcc tcatcctcac cagccgtggg    660
cctgggacca gcttcgagtt tgcgctggcc attgtggagg cactcagtgg caaggacatg    720
gctaaccaag tgaaggcccc gcttgttctc aaagactaga gagcccaagc cctggaccct    780
ggacccccag gctgagcagg cattggaagc ccactagaga gaccacagcc cagtgaacct    840
ggcattggaa gcccactagt gtgtccacag cccagtgaac ctcaggaact aacgtgtgaa    900
gtagcccgct gctcaggaat ctcgccctgg ctctgtacta ttctgagcct tgctagtaga    960
ataaacagtt ccccaagctc ctgacggct                                      989 
           
             3 
             837 
             DNA 
             Rat sperm 
             
               Coding region from nucleotides 52-618 encodes
      for residues 14-202 of SEQ ID NO5 
             
           
            3
tggcttcgcg tgggtggagg aggcgcggct gcaggtcttt aagaaataga aatggcatcc     60
aaaagagctc tggtcatcct agccaaagga gcagaggaga tggagacagt gattcctgtg    120
gacatcatgc ggcgagctgg gattaaagtc accgttgcag gcttggctgg gaaggacccc    180
gtgcagtgta gccgtgatgt agtgatttgt ccggatacca gtctggaaga agcaaaaaca    240
cagggaccat acgatgtggt tgttcttcca ggaggaaatc tgggtgcaca gaacttatct    300
gagtcggctt tggtgaagga gatcctcaag gagcaggaga acaggaaggg cctcatagct    360
gccatctgtg cgggtcctac ggccctgctg gctcacgaag taggctttgg atgcaaggtt    420
acatcgcacc cattggctaa ggacaaaatg atgaacggca gtcactacag ctactcagag    480
agccgtgtgg agaaggacgg cctcatcctc accagccgtg ggcctgggac cagcttcgag    540
tttgcgctgg ccattgtgga ggcactcagt ggcaaggaca tggctaacca agtgaaggcc    600
ccgcttgttc tcaaagacta gagagcccaa gccctggacc ctggaccccc aggctgagca    660
ggcattggaa gcccactagt gtgtccacag cccagtgaac ctggcattgg aagcccacta    720
gtgtgtccac agcccagtga acctcaggaa ctaacgtgtg aagtagcccg ctgctcagga    780
atctcgccct ggctctgtac tattctgagc cttgctagta gaataaacag ttcccca       837 
           
             4 
             833 
             DNA 
             Rat sperm 
             
               CDS 
               (9)..(614) 
             
           
            4
ttgaacct atg ttg cac tgt gga gtt ctc cac tta cac agc cta ttt atg      50
         Met Leu His Cys Gly Val Leu His Leu His Ser Leu Phe Met
           1               5                  10
gca tcc aaa aga gct ctg gtc atc cta gcc aaa gga gca gag gag atg       98
Ala Ser Lys Arg Ala Leu Val Ile Leu Ala Lys Gly Ala Glu Glu Met
 15                  20                  25                  30
gag aca gtg att cct gtg gac atc atg cgg cga gct ggg att aaa gtc      146
Glu Thr Val Ile Pro Val Asp Ile Met Arg Arg Ala Gly Ile Lys Val
                 35                  40                  45
acc gtt gca ggc ttg gct ggg aag gac ccc gtg cag tgt agc cgt gat      194
Thr Val Ala Gly Leu Ala Gly Lys Asp Pro Val Gln Cys Ser Arg Asp
             50                  55                  60
gta gtg att tgt ccg gat acc agt ctg gaa gaa gca aaa aca cag gga      242
Val Val Ile Cys Pro Asp Thr Ser Leu Glu Glu Ala Lys Thr Gln Gly
         65                  70                  75
cca tac gat gtg gtt gtt ctt cca gga gga aat ctg ggt gca cag aac      290
Pro Tyr Asp Val Val Val Leu Pro Gly Gly Asn Leu Gly Ala Gln Asn
     80                  85                  90
tta tct gag tcg gct ttg gtg aag gag atc ctc aag gag cag gag aac      338
Leu Ser Glu Ser Ala Leu Val Lys Glu Ile Leu Lys Glu Gln Glu Asn
 95                 100                 105                 110
agg aag ggc ctc ata gct gcc atc tgt gcg ggt cct acg gcc ctg ctg      386
Arg Lys Gly Leu Ile Ala Ala Ile Cys Ala Gly Pro Thr Ala Leu Leu
                115                 120                 125
gct cac gaa gta ggc ttt gga tgc aag gtt aca tcg cac cca ttg gct      434
Ala His Glu Val Gly Phe Gly Cys Lys Val Thr Ser His Pro Leu Ala
            130                 135                 140
aag gac aaa atg atg aac ggc agt cac tac agc tac tca gag agc cgt      482
Lys Asp Lys Met Met Asn Gly Ser His Tyr Ser Tyr Ser Glu Ser Arg
        145                 150                 155
gtg gag aag gac ggc ctc atc ctc acc agc cgt ggg cct ggg acc agc      530
Val Glu Lys Asp Gly Leu Ile Leu Thr Ser Arg Gly Pro Gly Thr Ser
    160                 165                 170
ttc gag ttt gcg ctg gcc att gtg gag gca ctc agt ggc aag gac atg      578
Phe Glu Phe Ala Leu Ala Ile Val Glu Ala Leu Ser Gly Lys Asp Met
175                 180                 185                 190
gct aac caa gtg aag gcc ccg ctt gtt ctc aaa gac tagagagccc           624
Ala Asn Gln Val Lys Ala Pro Leu Val Leu Lys Asp
                195                 200
aagccctgga ccctggaccc ccaggctgag caggcattgg aagcccacta gtgtgtccac    684
agcccagtga acctggcatt ggaagcccac tagtgtgtcc acagcccagt gaacctcagg    744
aactaacgtg tgaagtagcc cgctgctcag gaatctcgcc ctggctctgt actattctga    804
gccttgctag tagaataaac agttcccca                                      833 
           
             5 
             202 
             PRT 
             Rat sperm 
           
            5
Met Leu His Cys Gly Val Leu His Leu His Ser Leu Phe Met Ala Ser
  1               5                  10                  15
Lys Arg Ala Leu Val Ile Leu Ala Lys Gly Ala Glu Glu Met Glu Thr
             20                  25                  30
Val Ile Pro Val Asp Ile Met Arg Arg Ala Gly Ile Lys Val Thr Val
         35                  40                  45
Ala Gly Leu Ala Gly Lys Asp Pro Val Gln Cys Ser Arg Asp Val Val
     50                  55                  60
Ile Cys Pro Asp Thr Ser Leu Glu Glu Ala Lys Thr Gln Gly Pro Tyr
 65                  70                  75                  80
Asp Val Val Val Leu Pro Gly Gly Asn Leu Gly Ala Gln Asn Leu Ser
                 85                  90                  95
Glu Ser Ala Leu Val Lys Glu Ile Leu Lys Glu Gln Glu Asn Arg Lys
            100                 105                 110
Gly Leu Ile Ala Ala Ile Cys Ala Gly Pro Thr Ala Leu Leu Ala His
        115                 120                 125
Glu Val Gly Phe Gly Cys Lys Val Thr Ser His Pro Leu Ala Lys Asp
    130                 135                 140
Lys Met Met Asn Gly Ser His Tyr Ser Tyr Ser Glu Ser Arg Val Glu
145                 150                 155                 160
Lys Asp Gly Leu Ile Leu Thr Ser Arg Gly Pro Gly Thr Ser Phe Glu
                165                 170                 175
Phe Ala Leu Ala Ile Val Glu Ala Leu Ser Gly Lys Asp Met Ala Asn
            180                 185                 190
Gln Val Lys Ala Pro Leu Val Leu Lys Asp
        195                 200 
           
             6 
             7 
             PRT 
             Rat sperm 
           
            6
Thr Ser Gly Pro Leu Ala Lys
  1               5