Abstract:
An electrolyte structure that is useful in battery cells having liquid electrodes and solid electrolyte and in alkali-metal thermoelectric converters is made by applying a dense film of a solid alkali-metal ion conductor on a thick porous metal support.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    Priority is claimed from U.S. Provisional Patent Applications 61/650978, filed 23 May 2012, and 61/771507, filed 1 Mar. 2013, which are hereby incorporated by reference. 
     
    
     FEDERAL SUPPORT 
       [0002]    This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AR0000263 awarded by United States Department of energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND 
       [0003]    Sodium ion conducting solid-state electrolytes have been widely used in applications such as sodium-batteries and thermoelectric converters. For example, in a sodium/sulfur battery cell, a solid-state electrolyte, such as beta″-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE) or sodium super ion conductor (NASICON), is disposed between a molten sodium anode and a molten cathode, such as sulfur or metal halide (nickel/NaCl). During discharge, sodium atoms in the anode donate electrons and migrate across the electrolyte to the cathode. To properly function, the electrolyte must be a good conductor of sodium ions, be a poor conductor of electrons, physically separate the anode and cathode materials, and have sufficient structural integrity to withstand the harsh environmental conditions during operation. These solid electrolyte devices are usually operated at high temperatures (around 300 degrees Centigrade) and materials of the electrodes are corrosive and very reactive at these temperatures. 
         [0004]    The electrolyte is fabricated into tubes, discs, or other shapes from a sodium-conducting ceramic, such as BASE or NASICON. In current sodium ion conducting solid-state electrolyte designs, the structural integrity of each cell electrolyte depends solely on the solid electrolyte material itself. The wall thickness of the electrolyte must be sufficiently thick, and the ceramic be sufficiently strong for the electrolyte to be self-supporting and to maintain its physical integrity. Typically, wall thickness are at least 1 mm, usually between about 1 and 2 mm, and fabrication requires prolonged sintering and conversion steps at high temperatures. This results in high costs of materials and processing. 
         [0005]    A problem with higher wall thicknesses is a lowering of performance due to a higher area specific resistance (ASR). In general, ASR can be reduced by reducing the thickness. A significant reduction of the electrolyte thickness should reduce the ASR, and result in significant performance improvement. Although there is great incentive to reduce electrolyte thickness, this inherently reduces physical integrity. The advantages of a thin wall thickness can be seen by referring to the graph in  FIG. 1 , which shows ASR of the sodium ion conductor electrolyte material as function of temperature and thickness. This shows that a reduction of thickness results in significant reduction of ASR. 
         [0006]    A problem, though, in reducing wall thickness is that the materials of the electrolyte are ceramics, and even high-performance ceramics generally have the inherent problem of relatively low mechanical strength when compared to metals. Accordingly, an electrolyte-supported cell structure exhibits low fracture strength, which aggravates safety issues from cracking and failure of the ceramic electrolyte. 
         [0007]    Accordingly, in a ceramic electrolyte design, the selected thickness is a tradeoff between performance (low ASR) and safety (physical integrity). Currently, a thin electrolyte with a wall thickness less than 500 micrometers is very difficult to manufacture, and, even if it can be made, long-term structural and mechanical stability cannot be ensured. For this reason, electrolytes in practical applications must have higher thickness and cannot approach the low ASR values illustrated in  FIG. 1 . 
       SUMMARY  
       [0008]    Disclosed is a supported electrolyte structure, which is referred herein as a Porous-Metal Supported Ceramic-Electrolyte (PMSCE). The PMSCE provides an electrolyte structure for energy storage batteries, thermoelectric converters, and applications that require a sodium-ion conducting electrolyte. The PMSCE comprises a thin film sodium ion conducting electrolyte supported on a porous metal substrate. Physical integrity is provided by the porous support, accordingly the sodium ion conducting layer can be much thinner than would be required if the electrolyte ceramic itself was self-supporting. 
         [0009]    Referring to  FIG. 2 , which illustrates the thin film solid-state electrolyte architecture of the PMSCE  11 . A supported dense film of electrolyte  13  of a sodium ion conducting ceramic electrolyte is supported as a thin layer upon a porous metal support  15  having open pores  21  infiltrating a metal support structure  23 . 
         [0010]    The electrolyte material of the film  13  is any suitable sodium ion conducting ceramic that can be formed as a thin film upon the support. It is understood that where reference is made to “sodium ion conducting” ceramics, that any alkali-metal can be substituted in place of sodium. Accordingly, suitable ceramics include conductors of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr ions. Sodium-ion (Nat) conducting ceramics in particular are suitable because of their stability and wide availability. 
         [0011]    Examples of suitable materials for the electrolyte include alkali-metal-beta- and beta″-alumina and gallate polycrystalline ceramics. These materials are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,632,763, which is hereby incorporated by reference. Included in suitable materials are β″-Al 2 O 3  (Na 2 O.(5˜7)Al 2 O 3 ) with a rhombohedral crystal structure (R3m) composed of alternating closely-packed slabs of Al 2 O 3  and layers with mobile sodium ions. 
         [0012]    Other suitable materials include NASICON-type materials. These include materials with the general formula NaM 2 (PO 4 ) 3 , where M is a tetravalent cation. NASICON materials are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,526,844, which is hereby incorporated by reference. A suitable NASICON material is Na 3 Zr 2 Si 2 PO 12 . 
         [0013]    A function of the support is to provide physical support for the thin electrolyte at the temperatures to which the PMSCE is subjected. Accordingly, desired properties include strength and lack of brittleness, which are properties inherently provided by porous metals. Other porous materials that provide the same or similar properties as metals are also contemplated. 
         [0014]    Any suitable porous metal for the support is contemplated. Suitable materials are commercially available. These materials are generally formed by sintering metal powders using various processes, and may be, for example, aluminum, stainless steel, or mild steel. Materials where thermal expansion coefficients match with that of the sodium ion conducting solid electrolytes are suitable, such as mild steel and stainless steel 400 series. Other metals and alloys are also contemplated, such as porous metals from one or a mixture of metal powders, such as, stainless steel, bronze, nickel, and nickel based alloys, titanium, copper aluminum or precious metals. 
         [0015]    The porous support is manufactured by any suitable method, including conventional process such as sintering by axial compression, gravity sintering, rolling and sintering, and isostatic compaction and sintering. Porosity of the support should be sufficient to allow passage of electrode fluid, and to allow exposure of electrolyte surface at the interface of the porous support and electrolyte film. 
         [0016]    The porous metal support is made into a suitable shape. Since the electrolyte is thin, the shape and dimensions of the PMSCE are generally essentially the same as the support. In general the PMSCE is contemplated to be a replacement of solid ceramic electrolytes in current designs. Accordingly, the PMSCE can be manufactured into the same shapes that known solid ceramic electrolytes are made, such as tubes, discs, complex-shape cross-sectional cylinders and tubes, and planar shapes of simple or complex geometry. 
         [0017]    The electrolyte membrane or film can be formed upon the porous support by various deposition approaches, including but not limited to atmospheric plasma spray (APS), vacuum or low-pressure plasma spray, electric or wire arc spray, high velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) spray, atomic layer deposition (ALD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and physical vapor deposition (PVD). Upon deposition, a thin but dense film of sodium ion conducting layer is developed with its thickness as thin as several micrometers. Thickness may be less than about 500 micrometers or as thin as or less than 400, 300, 200, or 100 micrometers, as low as 10 micrometers. 
         [0018]    The deposition process is suitably operated at low temperatures. Unlike fabrication of a self-supporting ceramic electrolyte body, forming the film doesn&#39;t require prolonged sintering steps at high temperatures (such as 1650° C). 
         [0019]    The electrolyte film should be continuous over the region of the PMSCE that separates the liquid electrodes, and the density of the film should be high enough to avoid any porosity that allows passage and mixture of anode and cathode fluids. Any density and thickness of the film that ensures a continuous film with this lack of porosity is suitable. 
         [0020]    Referring to again  FIG. 1 , an exemplary thickness of the electrolyte film of 500 micrometers has an ASR proportionally less than the 1 mm (1000 micrometers) thick conventional electrolytes. Reduction of the film to as low as 100 or 10 micrometers, would be expected to proportionally reduce the ASR further. 
         [0021]    Since the support is a metal, is electrically conductive, and is porous, it is expected that the support has a small or negligible contribution to the ASR. Accordingly, the porous support can be made structurally thick and strong without materially reducing the ASR. Accordingly, unlike with solid ceramic supported electrolytes, with the PMSCE performance can be optimized and need not be compromised to ensure physical integrity. 
         [0022]    Referring again to  FIG. 2 , the thin film electrolyte  13  has two active electrolyte surfaces, a first or inner surface  17  proximate to the porous support and a second or outer surface  19  distal from the porous support. Electrode fluid passes through pores  21  of the porous support, and contacts exposed surfaces  17  in the pores where the inner electrolyte surface is exposed within the pores of the support. The outer surface  19  contacts the other electrode. Sodium ions travel through the electrolyte film  13 , between electrodes at surfaces  17  and  21 , while passage of the electrode fluids through the film  13  is blocked. 
         [0023]    The PMSCE can be applied to any suitable electrochemical device that requires a solid sodium-conducting electrolyte contacted with a fluid (liquid or gas). Specific examples include batteries where the PMSCE contacts liquid anode and liquid cathode, and an alkali-metal thermal to electric converter, where the PMSCE contacts alkali-metal liquid and vapor. 
         [0024]    Sodium batteries are described in the following United States patent documents, all of which are incorporated by reference; 2013/0004828, 2012/0040230, 2010/0068610, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,902,842, 6,329,099, 6,245,455, 5,763,117, 5,538,808, 5,196,277, 5,053,294, 4,999,262, 4,945,013, 4,921,766, 3,918,992. Sodium batteries comprise a liquid metal anode and a liquid cathode that are separated by an electrolyte structure. In the references, the electrolyte structure in these references is a solid ceramic material, which can be replaced by an appropriately dimensioned PMSCE. 
         [0025]    In a sodium-sulfur battery cell, the anode comprises sodium, and the cathode comprises sulfur. During discharge, sodium gives off an electron and the sodium ion migrates from the anode reservoir through the beta alumina separator into the cathode reservoir. 
         [0026]    In a sodium-nickel/NaCl battery cell, the anode comprises sodium, and the cathode comprises nickel/NaCl. During charging, chloride ions are released from sodium chloride and combined with nickel to form nickel chloride. These sodium ions then migrate from the cathode reservoir through the electrolyte into the anode reservoir. During discharge, the reverse chemical reaction occurs and sodium ions migrate from the anode reservoir through the beta alumina separator into the cathode reservoir. 
         [0027]    In conventional sodium battery cell designs there is construction to limit the flow and direct reaction of anode and cathode fluids in the event of an electrolyte failure. These typically involve flow restrictors and safety tubes. In the current design, the porous support of the PMSCE can also function as a flow restrictor. This control may also eliminate the need for a safety tube. 
         [0028]    For a battery cell, exemplary liquid anodes include any of the liquid alkali-metals. Known liquid sodium anodes are suitable. 
         [0029]    For a battery cell, any suitable liquid cathode material is contemplated. Exemplary liquid cathodes include any of the known liquid cathode materials, including, for example, liquid sulfur, nickel/NaCl, and sulfur/aluminum chloride/sodium chloride. 
         [0030]    The battery cell can be operated at a temperature from 110˜350° C. In convectional designs, the operating temperature is usually around 300° C. A high temperature is chosen to lower the ASR to a practical value. In contrast, by using a PMSCE with a low ASR thin-film electrolyte, the ASR is low enough at more modest temperatures to allow for practical low-temperature operation. 
         [0031]    The operating temperature is also dictated by the melting point of the electrodes. Sulfur/polysulfides melt at about 290° C., so a sulfur-cathode cell must be operated above this temperature. However, for cathodes that melt at lower temperatures, the cell can be operated at a much lower temperature that is still above the melting point of the electrodes. Because of the inherently low ASR of the PMSCE electrolyte, the low operating temperature does not seriously compromise performance. An example of a low temperature melting cathode material is sulfur/aluminum chloride/sodium chloride (S/AlCl3/NaCl), which has been operated at a temperature of 175° C. (J. J. Auborn and S. M. Granstaff. “Sodium-Sulfur-Aluminum Chloride Cells”, Journal of Energy, Vol. 6, No. 2 (1982), pp. 86-90) Another example, is disclosed in ECS Transactions, 16 (49) 189-201 (2009) 10.1149/1.3159323, where a Na/β″-alumina/S(IV) cell in chloroaluminate melt is operated to a temperature as low as 120° C. Further advances are expected to allow operation to just above the melting point of the sodium anode (98° C.). Accordingly it is contemplated to operate a cell using a low-melting cathode to as low as the low 100 range, such as at 110° C. 
         [0032]    In a battery cell, the inner and outer surface can contact either the fluid anode, or the fluid cathode. Which surface contacts the anode or cathode involves several factors. For example, since it is less expensive to coat an outer surface of a tube, the electrolyte film would be more conveniently coated upon the outer surface of a tubular support, and the outer surface would contact whatever electrode fluid the device design dictates. In addition, the inner surfaces along with the porous support may contact the fluid electrode with the best compatibility with the porous metal of the support. Other considerations might include wetability and ability of the liquid electrode material to pass through or infiltrate the porous support. 
         [0033]    Referring to  FIG. 10 , which is a schematic of an exemplary application of a PMSCE in a liquid sodium battery cell, a liquid sodium anode  101  is contained within a tubular PMSCE structure  103 . The PMSCE comprises a porous metal support  113 , and a dense film sodium-ion conducting electrolyte  115 . Surrounding the PMSCE structure is a suitable molten cathode  105 . The molten cathode is contained within a case  107  that encloses the entire cell. Suitable current collectors and electrical connections  109 , and seals  110  are also provided. In an alternate construction, the porous support of the PMSCE may also be a current collector, as shown by the phantom connection  111 . 
         [0034]    An alkali metal thermal to electric converter (AMTEC) is described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,404,036; 3,458,356; 3,535,163; and 4,049,877; which are incorporated by reference. It is a thermally regenerative electrochemical device for the direct conversion of heat to electrical energy. In the AMTEC sodium is driven around a closed thermodynamic cycle between a high temperature heat reservoir and a cooler reservoir at the heat rejection temperature. Sodium ion conduction occurs between a high pressure and a low pressure region on either side of a solid sodium ion conducting electrolyte, which can be the PMSCE construction of a thin film electrolyte supported upon a porous metal support. Electrochemical oxidation of neutral sodium at the anode leads to sodium ions which traverse the solid electrolyte and electrons which travel from the anode through an external circuit where they perform electrical work, to the low pressure cathode, where they recombine with the ions to produce low pressure sodium gas. The sodium gas generated at the cathode then travels to a condenser at the heat rejection temperature where liquid sodium reforms. 
         [0035]    Referring to  FIG. 11 , illustrated is a schematic of an exemplary AMTEC, a PMSCE structure 201 is disposed between a cathode  203  and an anode  205 . The anode-PMSCE-cathode structure separates a high pressure sodium vapor chamber  207  from a low pressure sodium vapor chamber  209 , with the anode  205  in the high pressure chamber and the cathode  203  in the low pressure chamber. Sodium vapor from the low pressure chamber is condensed by a condenser  211  to a liquid and releases heat to a heat sink. The liquid sodium is conveyed by a pump  213  to a higher pressure toward the high pressure chamber  207  where it passes through an evaporator  209  and evaporates into sodium vapor and absorbs heat. Sodium ions migrate through the PMSCE from the anode  205  to the cathode  203 . The PMSCE comprises a porous metal support  215 , and a thin film sodium-ion conducting ceramic electrolyte  217 . The porous support may also function as an electrode as shown, or the electrode may be provided by a separate structure, as shown in phantom. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
         [0036]      FIG. 1  is a graph showing Area Specific Resistance of a Sodium Ion Conductor Electrolyte as a Function of Temperature and Thickness 
           [0037]      FIG. 2  is a schematic diagram showing Thin Sodium Ion Conductor Electrolyte Supported on a Porous Metal Support 
           [0038]      FIG. 3A  and  FIG. 3B  show Photographs of Thin Film Sodium Ion Conducting Layers Deposited on Porous Metal Supports (PMSCE): 1.0˜1.5-inch Diameter Disks (A) and 10-inch Long Tube (B) 
           [0039]      FIG. 4  is a photograph showing Cross-Section of Thin Film Sodium Ion Conducting Layer Deposited on a Porous Metal Support 
           [0040]      FIG. 5  is a graph showing X-ray Diffraction Spectroscopy on Sodium-Beta-Alumina Layer Deposited on a Porous Metal Support 
           [0041]      FIG. 6  is a schematic diagram showing The four-point probe method for measurement of ionic conductivity of the sodium-conducting solid electrolyte 
           [0042]    FIGS.  7 A and  7 B—The Thermal Cycling Temperature Profile (A) and a Photograph (B) of the Thin Film Sodium-Beta″-Alumina Layer Deposited on a Porous Metal Support (Left) Compared to the Same Sample after Ten Thermal Cycles between 50° C. and 350° C. in Nitrogen (Right) 
           [0043]      FIG. 8  is a graph showing Mechanical Strength of the Thin Film Sodium-Beta″-Alumina Layer Deposited on a Porous Metal Support (PMSCE) measured by a Ring-on-Ring Test based on the ASTM C1499 
           [0044]    FIG.  9 —A Photograph of the Thin Film Sodium-Beta″-Alumina Layer Deposited on a Porous Metal Support, Showing No Crack after Applying More Than 500 MPa during the Ring-on-Ring Test based on the ASTM C1499. 
           [0045]      FIG. 10  is a schematic diagram of a sodium battery cell. 
           [0046]      FIG. 11  is a schematic diagram of an alkali metal thermal to electric converter. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     EXAMPLE 1 
       [0047]    Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  powders were synthesized using the solid-state reaction method. It consisted of mixing of raw materials, ball-milling, drying, and calcination. The raw materials were boehmite (alumina hydroxide, CATAPAL® 200, from Sasol North America) as a source of alumina, sodium carbonate monohydrate (Na 2 CO 3 .H 2 O from Alfa Aesar) as a source of sodium, and magnesium oxide (MgO from Alfa Aesar) as a β″-phase-stabilizing dopant. The raw materials were mixed to make a composition of 8.5% Na 2 O, 4.5% MgO, and balance Al 2 O 3  (wt. %). The powder mixture was ball-milled, dried, and calcined at 1250° C. 
         [0048]    The calcined Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  powder was spray-dried to add flowability. The calcined powder was dispersed in deionized water to form aqueous slurry. A small amount of PMMA(polymethyl methacrylate)-based dispersant (Dolapix CE64, Zschimmer &amp; Schwarz) was added to maintain good suspension during the spray drying process. The powder slurry was ball-milled for mixing and grinding. The ball-milled powder slurry was processed in an industrial spray dryer with a rotary atomizer. The inlet and outlet temperatures were 270° C. and 100° C., respectively. The spray-dried Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  powders were screened using 325 and 635 meshes to collect powders in the size range of 20 to 45 μm. The collected powder (20˜45 μm size) was moved into plastic bottles and stored in a freezer. 
         [0049]    The synthesized Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  powder was deposited on porous stainless steel disks by atmospheric plasma spray (APS) coating.  FIG. 3  shows the substrate disks (1.2-inch 316L SS disk with 2.0 micrometer pore grade and 1.5-inch 430 SS disk with 0.1 micrometer pore grade) and the thin film of Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  layer deposited on these substrates by atmospheric plasma spray.  FIG. 4  shows a cross-section of the deposited Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  layer which is dense and has a thickness of approximately 160 micrometers. 
         [0050]      FIG. 5  shows an X-ray diffraction pattern of the deposited Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  layer in comparison to the reference β″-Al 2 O 3  XRD data (JCPDS No. 00-035-0438 for Na 1.67 Mg 0.67 Al 10.33 O 17 ). The strong peak at ˜7.8° (2θ) is unique for the β″-Al 2 O 3  and β-Al 2 O 3  structures. The presence of this peak is an indication that the β″-Al 2 O 3  and/or β-Al 2 O 3  structures exist. The distinction between the β″-Al 2 O 3  and β-Al 2 O 3  structures can be done with the peaks at 30° to 50°. The strong peak at ˜46° is an indication of the presence of the β″-Al 2 O 3  structure. The absence of peaks at ˜33° and ˜44 is an indication that the β-Al 2 O 3  phase does not exist. Both the α- and γ-alumina phases do not exist in the synthesized powder. It is apparent from this XRD pattern that the deposited film is highly pure Na-β″-Al 2 O 3 . 
       EXAMPLE 2 
       [0051]    Ionic conductivity was measured using a four-point probe device schematically described in  FIG. 6 . This four-point probe method measures conductivity of solid ionic conductors in a way similar to measurement of sheet resistivity by the so-called van der Pauw technique (see  Rev. Sci. Instrum.  76 (2005) 033907). The resistance is obtained by measuring the voltage (V) between two inner probes  51  while flowing an AC electrical current (I) between two outer probes  53  (mounted on a layer of salt  55  for contact aid). This measurement works well when the thickness (d) of the sample  57  is relatively small. The resistivity (ρ), which is the reciprocal of conductivity (σ), is calculated from the measured voltage and current together with a geometrical correction factor (f). In the case of a thin film disc sample, the following formula is used. 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
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         [0052]    The geometrical correction factor (f) for a finite-diameter disk sample can be approximately 0.85. For an infinite-diameter disc, the correction factor becomes unity. 
         [0053]    The conductivity measurement system was built using a Sweep Function Generator (Waketek Model 180) connected to a 15 kΩ resistor in series to generate the AC current. The frequency was maintained constant at 1 kHz, and the current was measured using a BK Test Bench (Model 388A). The voltage was measured using a Keithley 2000 multimeter at a current of approximately 40 μA. A K-type thermocouple was placed near the probes and the temperature was measured using an Omega thermometer (Model HH501 DK). The spacing between the electrode probes was 5 mm. 
         [0054]    In solid-state ion conductor samples, the measurement of ionic conductivity is often difficult due to relatively high contact resistances between the leads and the sample surface. For this reason, the probes need contact aids to allow for a measurable current flow. Wetting the outer probes by a thin film of salt provides good contact between the probes and the sample surface. The thin film contact aid near the probe needs to be in the liquid state to maintain the wetting effect. For sodium ion conductors, a eutectic salt of NaNO 3 +NaNO 2  works well as it has a melting point of approximately 240° C. The conductivity can be measured in the temperature range of 270-450° C. The thin film contact aid was applied only to the surface contact points of outer probes, as shown in  FIG. 6 . Therefore any conduction through the contact aid is localized near the probes and would not affect the accuracy of measured conductivity values. 
         [0055]    The four-point probe method was applied to measure sodium ionic conductivity of two different Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  coated disk samples. The coating thickness of two samples is approximately 150 μm and 200 μm, respectively. Area-specific resistance (ASR) was obtained from the conductivity and the coating thickness. The results are shown in Table 1. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Sodium ionic conductivity of the plasma- 
               
               
                 spray coated Na-β″-alumina 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Area-Specific 
               
               
                   
                 Temperature 
                 Resistance 
                 Conductivity 
                 Resistance 
               
               
                   
                 (° C.) 
                 (Ω) 
                 (S/cm) 
                 (Ω · cm 2 ) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Coating sample 
                 287 
                 305.25 
                 0.0482 
                 0.3113 
               
               
                 1 (150 μm 
                 308 
                 160.82 
                 0.0915 
                 0.1640 
               
               
                 thickness) 
                 328 
                 121.70 
                 0.1209 
                 0.1241 
               
               
                   
                 346 
                 96.98 
                 0.1517 
                 0.0989 
               
               
                   
                 348 
                 86.13 
                 0.1708 
                 0.0878 
               
               
                 Coating sample 
                 291 
                 97.94 
                 0.1126 
                 0.1776 
               
               
                 2 (200 μm 
                 313 
                 78.62 
                 0.1403 
                 0.1425 
               
               
                 thickness) 
                 333 
                 69.43 
                 0.1589 
                 0.1259 
               
               
                   
                 353 
                 34.96 
                 0.3156 
                 0.0634 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0056]    The ASR at ˜300° C. is approximately 0.16˜0.17 ·cm 2  in both samples. For comparison, the highest conductivity of the state-of-the-art Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  prepared by the conventional sintering methods is 0.36 S/cm at 300° C. (see  J. Power Sources  195 (2010) 2431-2442). Assuming Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  tubes or disks prepared the conventional sintering methods have a thickness of 1.5 mm, their ASR would be 0.42 Ω·cm 2  at 300° C. The ASR of the PMSCE of this example is approximately 40% of the current state-of-the-art Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  technology. With an optimized thermal spray coating process, the coating structure (especially the direction of conduction planes in Na-β″-Al 2 O 3 ) may be improved and the reduction in ASR can be more significant. 
         [0057]    The low ASR provides opportunities for higher performance at the same temperature range as those of the current state-of-the-art Na-ion conductor solid electrolyte batteries or thermoelectric converters. It also provides an opportunity of operating the sodium batteries at lower temperatures, down to 110˜120° C. in principle (because sodium melts at 98° C.), if a compatible cathode material is used. 
       EXAMPLE 3 
       [0058]    The coated disks prepared as described in Example 1 were subject to repeated thermal cycles.  FIG. 7  shows the temperature profile during a total of ten thermal cycles between 50° C. (or room temperature) and 350° C. The photograph reveals no crack and no delamination of the coated Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  thin film layer after the ten thermal cycles. This assures that thin film sodium conducting solid electrolyte is stable. 
         [0059]    To maximize the thermomechanical stability, the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) can be matched as close as possible between the substrate metal and the coated sodium conducting solid electrolyte thin film. Table 2 is a comparison chart of several metals for their CTEs and the Na-β″-Al 2 O 3 &#39;s CTE. The metal with relatively high CTEs (e.g. 316L SS) can still be used as the substrate, because the CTE of porous metals is usually lower than the CTE of dense body. All these commodity metals can therefore be considered as the coating substrates. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Comparison of the coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Material 
                 CTE (ppm/K) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Beta″-alumina 
                 7.5 
               
               
                   
                 316L SS 
                 16.5 
               
               
                   
                 430 SS 
                 10.4 
               
               
                   
                 Hastelloy ® 
                 14.0 
               
               
                   
                 Mild steel 
                 12.8 
               
               
                   
                 Titanium 
                 6.5 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       EXAMPLE 4 
       [0060]    The coated disks prepared as described in Example 1 and those which underwent ten thermal cycles as described in Example 3 were tested for their mechanical strength. The conventional Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  has the maximum fracture strength of approximately 200 MPa (see  J. Power Sources  195 (2010) 2431-2442). 
         [0061]    The mechanical strength of ceramic disk specimens can be determined by flexure strength measurement methods. A preferred method is the ring-on-ring equibiaxial flexure test such as the ASTM C-1499. In this method, a metal ball or a metal ring with diameter D L  is used to apply a load F on top of the test specimen which is supported on another metal ring of diameter D S . The formula for the equibiaxial strength, σ f , of a circular plate in units of MPa is (Ref. ASTM C-1499-09) 
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                            
                           
                             
                               D 
                               s 
                             
                             
                               D 
                               L 
                             
                           
                         
                       
                       ] 
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   2 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    where: 
         [0062]    F=the breaking load in units of N 
         [0063]    ν=Poisson&#39;s ratio 
         [0064]    h=the test specimen thickness in units of mm 
         [0065]    D=the test specimen diameter in units of mm 
         [0066]    D S =the support ring diameter in units of mm 
         [0067]    D L =the load ring diameter in units of mm. 
         [0068]    The strength of a circular plate (disk) made from layers with significantly different elastic constants can be determined from loading between concentric rings if the appropriate stress solution, elastic constants, and assumptions are used. For a bilayer disk with a substrate thickness of h 1  and a coated thickness of h 2 , the strength of the coated layer (σ 2 ) can be expressed as (Ref. ASTM C-1499-09,  Compos. Sci. Tech.  67 (2007) 278-285); 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   
                     σ 
                     2 
                   
                   = 
                   
                     
                       
                         
                           - 
                           
                             
                               E 
                               2 
                             
                              
                             
                               ( 
                               
                                 h 
                                 - 
                                 h 
                               
                               ) 
                             
                           
                         
                          
                         F 
                       
                       
                         4 
                          
                         
                           π 
                            
                           
                             ( 
                             
                               1 
                               - 
                               
                                 v 
                                 2 
                               
                             
                             ) 
                           
                         
                          
                         Δ 
                       
                     
                      
                     
                       [ 
                       
                         
                           ln 
                            
                           
                               
                           
                            
                           
                             
                               D 
                               S 
                             
                             
                               D 
                               L 
                             
                           
                         
                         + 
                         
                           
                             
                               ( 
                               
                                 1 
                                 - 
                                 v 
                               
                               ) 
                             
                              
                             
                               ( 
                               
                                 
                                   D 
                                   
                                     S 
                                     2 
                                   
                                 
                                 - 
                                 
                                   D 
                                   
                                     L 
                                     2 
                                   
                                 
                               
                               ) 
                             
                           
                           
                             2 
                              
                             
                               ( 
                               
                                 1 
                                 + 
                                 v 
                               
                               ) 
                             
                              
                             
                               D 
                               2 
                             
                           
                         
                       
                       ] 
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   3 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    with 
         [0000]    
       
         
           
             
               
                 
                   h 
                   = 
                   
                     
                       
                         
                           
                             
                               E 
                               1 
                             
                              
                             
                               h 
                               1 
                             
                           
                           
                             1 
                             - 
                             
                               v 
                               
                                 1 
                                 2 
                               
                             
                           
                         
                          
                         
                           ( 
                           
                             
                               h 
                               1 
                             
                             2 
                           
                           ) 
                         
                       
                       + 
                       
                         
                           
                             
                               E 
                               2 
                             
                              
                             
                               h 
                               2 
                             
                           
                           
                             1 
                             - 
                             
                               v 
                               
                                 2 
                                 2 
                               
                             
                           
                         
                          
                         
                           ( 
                           
                             
                               h 
                               1 
                             
                             + 
                             
                               
                                 h 
                                 2 
                               
                               2 
                             
                           
                           ) 
                         
                       
                     
                     
                       
                         
                           
                             E 
                             1 
                           
                            
                           
                             h 
                             1 
                           
                         
                         
                           1 
                           - 
                           
                             v 
                             
                               1 
                               2 
                             
                           
                         
                       
                       + 
                       
                         
                           
                             E 
                             2 
                           
                            
                           
                             h 
                             2 
                           
                         
                         
                           1 
                           - 
                           
                             v 
                             
                               2 
                               2 
                             
                           
                         
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   4 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
             
               
                 
                   Δ 
                   = 
                   
                     
                       
                         
                           
                             E 
                             1 
                           
                            
                           
                             h 
                             1 
                           
                         
                         
                           1 
                           - 
                           
                             v 
                             
                               1 
                               2 
                             
                           
                         
                       
                        
                       
                         ( 
                         
                           
                             
                               h 
                               
                                 1 
                                 2 
                               
                             
                             3 
                           
                           - 
                           
                             
                               
                                 h 
                                 1 
                               
                                
                               h 
                             
                             2 
                           
                         
                         ) 
                       
                     
                     + 
                     
                       
                         
                           
                             E 
                             2 
                           
                            
                           
                             h 
                             2 
                           
                         
                         
                           1 
                           - 
                           
                             v 
                             
                               2 
                               2 
                             
                           
                         
                       
                        
                       
                         ( 
                         
                           
                             h 
                             
                               1 
                               2 
                             
                           
                           + 
                           
                             
                               h 
                               1 
                             
                              
                             
                               h 
                               2 
                             
                           
                           + 
                           
                             
                               h 
                               
                                 2 
                                 2 
                               
                             
                             3 
                           
                           - 
                           
                             
                               ( 
                               
                                 
                                   h 
                                   1 
                                 
                                 + 
                                 
                                   
                                     h 
                                     2 
                                   
                                   2 
                                 
                               
                               ) 
                             
                              
                             h 
                           
                         
                         ) 
                       
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   5 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
             
               
                 
                   v 
                   = 
                   
                     
                       1 
                       h 
                     
                      
                     
                       ( 
                       
                         
                           
                             v 
                             1 
                           
                            
                           
                             h 
                             1 
                           
                         
                         + 
                         
                           
                             v 
                             2 
                           
                            
                           
                             h 
                             2 
                           
                         
                       
                       ) 
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   6 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
             
               
                 
                   h 
                   = 
                   
                     
                       h 
                       1 
                     
                     + 
                     
                       h 
                       2 
                     
                   
                 
               
               
                 
                   ( 
                   7 
                   ) 
                 
               
             
           
         
       
     
         [0000]    where: 
         [0069]    E 1 =Young&#39;s modulus of the substrate in units of MPa 
         [0070]    E 2 =Young&#39;s modulus of the coated layer in units of Mpa 
         [0071]    ν=Poisson&#39;s ratio of the substrate 
         [0072]    ν 2 =Poisson&#39;s ratio of the coated layer 
         [0073]    Eqns (3) through (7) were used to calculate the strength of Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  coated layers on porous metal disk substrates. The parameters used in the calculation are in Table 3. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Parameters used for calculation of the strength 
               
               
                 of Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  coated layers 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Parameter 
                 Value 
                 Source 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 D L  - load ring diameter 
                 7.6 
                 mm 
                 Measured 
               
               
                 D s  - support ring diameter 
                 19.0 
                 mm 
                 Measured 
               
               
                 D - test specimen diameter 
                 30.0 
                 mm 
                 Measured 
               
               
                 h 1  - thickness of the substrate 
                 1.67 
                 mm 
                 Measured 
               
               
                 h 2  - thickness of the coated later 
                 0.15 
                 mm 
                 Measured 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 (approximate) 
               
               
                 E 1  - Young&#39;s modulus of the substrate 
                 35,000 
                 MPa 
                 Vendor 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 specification 
               
               
                 E 2  - Young&#39;s modulus of the coated 
                 210,000 
                 MPa 
                 Literature  †   
               
               
                 layer 
               
             
          
           
               
                 v 1  - Poisson&#39;s ratio of the substrate 
                 0.3  
                 Literature  ‡   
               
               
                 v 2  - Poisson&#39;s ratio of the coated layer 
                 0.25 
                 Literature  †   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   †  J. L. Sudworth and A. R. Tilley,  The Sodium Sulfur Battery , Chapman and Hall, New York, 1985. 
               
               
                   ‡  W. D. Callister, Jr.,  Materials Science and Engineering - An Introduction , 5 th  edition, John Wiley &amp; Sons, 2000. 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0074]    The resulting strength-deformation curves are shown in  FIG. 8 . Three Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  coated specimens (not thermally cycled) were tested. Three other Na-β″-Al 2 O 3  coated specimens were thermally cycled ten times as described in Example 3 and were tested with the same method. Up to over 500 MPa, none of the six specimens fractured. The tests stopped at this strength, because the specimens deformed noticeably, although not fractured, that may affect the reliability of test data at a higher load. Due to the nature of the metal substrate, the specimens show the typical elastic-plastic deformation behavior rather than fracturing. This test reveals that such a thin film ceramic layer (sodium conducting solid electrolyte) can sustain the intense stress without being fractured because it is supported by the stronger metal substrate. Even deformation did not result in any crack of the coated layer as shown in the photograph of one of the tested specimens ( FIG. 9 ). The same stress (500 MPa) will easily fracture the conventional self-supported sodium conducting solid electrolytes. It demonstrates the significantly enhanced mechanical strength of the sodium conducting solid electrolyte cell design. 
         [0075]    While this invention has been described with reference to certain specific embodiments and examples, it will be recognized by those skilled in the art that many variations are possible without departing from the scope and spirit of this invention, and that the invention, as described by the claims, is intended to cover all changes and modifications of the invention which do not depart from the spirit of the invention.