Abstract:
A method and apparatuses detect arc faults. The apparatus according to one embodiment comprises: a master node ( 111 ) for digitally detecting a current signal and a voltage signal at a first point in a wiring system ( 131 ); a slave node ( 122 ) for digitally detecting a current signal and a voltage signal at a second point in the wiring system ( 131 ); and a detection unit for detecting an arc fault in the wiring system ( 131 ) by comparing the current signals from the master node ( 111 ) and from the slave node ( 122 ), and comparing the voltage signals from the master node ( 111 ) and from the slave node ( 122 ).

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0001]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0002]    The present invention relates to electric power distribution systems, and more particularly to a method and apparatus for detecting series and parallel arc faults for electric power systems. 
         [0003]    2. Description of the Related Art 
         [0004]    Electrical systems used in complex environments such as aerospace systems, industrial environments, vehicles, and residential environments include a large number of electrical circuits, devices, and wires. Arc faults may occur in any of the electrical circuits, or along the wires. If not detected promptly, arc faults may cause short circuits, malfunctions, and fires in the equipment serviced by the electrical circuits or wires exhibiting arc faults. 
         [0005]    Arc fault detection and protection pose a significant challenge in such complex environments. Correct and prompt arc fault detection and protection are critical in aircraft environments. Airlines, aircraft manufacturers, the military, and various regulatory agencies have expressed the need for accurate and fast arc fault detection and protection systems, to improve the aircraft wiring safety. A method and system that can reliably detect and prevent series and parallel arcs in electric power systems and enhance wiring system protection, is needed. 
         [0006]    Integration of typical/conventional arc fault detection techniques in aircraft electrical systems presents significant challenges. Some of these challenges are associated with the presence of higher and variable AC line frequencies in aircraft systems, a need for DC protection, lack of ground return wires which are typically required for Ground Fault type protection, cross-talk between adjacent wires in the same wire bundle, and a need for zero-tolerance for nuisance trips. 
         [0007]    Arc faults in aircraft electric systems can be classified into four categories, based on the methods used to characterize the arcs. Tests used to characterize arcs include the guillotine arc or point contact test, the wet arc or salt water drip test, the loose terminal test, and the carbonized path test. Various arc faults that can be characterized by these tests have different signatures adding challenges to the detection of arc faults. Moreover, some arc fault signatures become inconspicuous in environments that exhibit cross-talk, common source impedance feedback, transient aircraft load characteristics, etc. 
         [0008]    Transient aircraft load characteristics pose major challenges for arc detection. Aircraft equipment and standard aircraft loads can produce anomalous waveform signatures during normal operating conditions. Loads and equipment that can produce anomalous waveform signatures include motors (during motor start-up), strobe lights, landing lights, buses (during bus transfers), transformer rectifiers, incandescent and fluorescent lighting loads, and mechanical switches (during opening and closing). Such loads, as well as other transient process conditions can exhibit signatures that mimic, or are indicative of arc conditions. Differentiating such false arc fault alarms from real arc fault occurrences is important on an aircraft. 
         [0009]    Some arc fault detection technologies projected for integration in aircraft systems, require understanding and modeling of the arc fault current/voltage signatures and of the normal steady state behavior and transient behavior of the aircraft electric system. Given the large variation in aircraft systems and loads, an algorithm that relies solely on the content of the current/voltage signals cannot be immune to nuisance trips, Hence, such arc fault detection technologies provide unreliable performance. 
         [0010]    Disclosed embodiments of this application address these and other issues by utilizing differential arc fault detection methods and apparatuses that detect arc faults using arcing content of current/voltage signals, and eliminate potential nuisance trips by canceling from the sensed current/voltage signals, the content of interferences such as load characteristics, cross-talks, etc. In one embodiment, an arc fault detection master node and slave node sample voltage signals and compare the sampled values to determine whether a series arc has occurred; and sample current signals and compare the sampled values to determine whether a parallel arc has occurred. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0011]    The present invention is directed to a method and apparatuses for detecting arc faults in electric systems. According to a first aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for detecting arc faults comprises: a master node for digitally detecting a current signal and a voltage signal at a first point in a wiring system; a slave node for digitally detecting a current signal and a voltage signal at a second point in the wiring system; and a detection unit for detecting an arc fault in the wiring system by comparing the current signals from the master node and from the slave node, and comparing the voltage signals from the master node and from the slave node. 
         [0012]    According to a second aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for detecting arc faults comprises: a master node for detecting a current signal and a voltage signal at a first point in a wiring system; a slave node for detecting a current signal and a voltage signal at a second point in the wiring system, wherein an arc fault is detected in the wiring system by comparing the current signals from the master node and from the slave node, and comparing the voltage signals from the master node and from the slave node; and a communication pathway for data and timing communication between the master node and the slave node. 
         [0013]    According to a third aspect of the present invention, a method of detecting arc faults comprises: detecting a current signal and a voltage signal at a first point in a wiring system; detecting a current signal and a voltage signal at a second point in said wiring system; detecting an arc fault in the wiring system by comparing the current signals at the first and second points, and comparing the voltage signals at the first and second points; and communicating data and timing information between the first point and the second point. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0014]    Further aspects and advantages of the present invention will become apparent upon reading the following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: 
           [0015]      FIG. 1  is a block diagram of an electrical system containing a differential arc fault detection system according to an embodiment of the present invention; 
           [0016]      FIG. 2  is an exemplary block diagram of an electrical system containing a differential arc fault detection system according to an embodiment of the present invention; 
           [0017]      FIG. 3A  is an exemplary block diagram of an electrical system containing a differential arc fault detection system sensing a parallel arc according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 2 ; 
           [0018]      FIG. 3B  is an equivalent circuit diagram of an electrical system containing a differential arc fault detection system sensing a parallel arc according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 3A ; 
           [0019]      FIG. 3C  is an equivalent circuit diagram of an electrical system containing a differential arc fault detection system, without an arc occurrence, according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 2 ; 
           [0020]      FIG. 4A  is an exemplary block diagram of an electrical system containing a differential arc fault detection system sensing a series arc according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 2 ; 
           [0021]      FIG. 4B  is an equivalent circuit diagram of an electrical system containing a differential arc fault detection system sensing a series arc according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 4A ; 
           [0022]      FIG. 4C  is an equivalent circuit diagram of an electrical system containing a differential arc fault detection system, without an arc occurrence, according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 2 ; 
           [0023]      FIG. 5  is a flow diagram illustrating operations performed by a differential arc fault detection system to detect arc faults according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIGS. 3A and 4A ; 
           [0024]      FIG. 6  illustrates an exemplary implementation for a differential arc fault detection system according to an embodiment of the present invention; and 
           [0025]      FIG. 7  illustrates another exemplary implementation for a differential arc fault detection system according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0026]    Aspects of the invention are more specifically set forth in the accompanying description with reference to the appended figures.  FIG. 1  is a block diagram of an electrical system containing a differential arc fault detection system according to an embodiment of the present invention. The electrical system  100  illustrated in  FIG. 1  includes the following components: a power system  70 ; a power distribution system  102 ; a differential arc fault detection system  80 ; and a load  106 . Operation of the electrical system  100  in  FIG.1  will become apparent from the following discussion. 
         [0027]    Electrical system  100  may be associated with an aircraft, a ship, a laboratory facility, an industrial environment, a residential environment, etc. The power system  70  provides electrical energy in electrical system  100 . The power system  70  may include a generator of a vehicle, a generator for an industrial facility, etc., and includes electrical circuits and components such as transformers, rectifiers, filters, battery banks, etc. 
         [0028]    The power distribution system  102  conditions and distributes power from power system  70  to various loads in electrical system  100 . The power distribution system  102  may include various electrical components, such as circuit breakers, switches, controllers, etc. 
         [0029]    The load  106  receives electric power from the power distribution system  102 . Load  106  includes electric circuits, and may be any system used in an electrical environment. 
         [0030]    Differential arc fault detection system  80  can detect arcs in electronic components and wires included between the power distribution system  102  and load  106 . Fuses, Solid State Power Controllers (SSPCs), arrestors, transorbs, circuit breakers, sensing equipment, circuit interrupters, wires, etc., may also be included in differential arc fault detection system  80 . 
         [0031]    Although the systems in electrical system  100  are shown as discrete units, it should be recognized that this illustration is for ease of explanation and that the associated functions of certain functional modules can be performed by one or more physical elements. 
         [0032]      FIG. 2  is an exemplary block diagram of an electrical system containing a differential arc fault detection system  80 A according to an embodiment of the present invention. The differential arc fault detection system  80 A illustrated in  FIG. 2  protects the wiring  131  from an Electrical Power Distribution Center (EPDC)  102 A to the input of a load  106 . The differential arc fault detection system  80 A includes an Arc Fault Detection (AFD) master node  111  at the EPDC  102 A, and an AFD slave node  122  mounted at the input terminal of the load  106 . The AFD master node  111  can be combined into a Solid Switch Power Control (SSPC) channel  108 . 
         [0033]      FIG. 3A  is an exemplary block diagram of an electrical system  100 A containing a differential arc fault detection system sensing a parallel arc according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 2 .  FIG. 3B  is an equivalent circuit diagram of the electrical system  100 A containing a differential arc fault detection system sensing a parallel arc according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 3A .  FIG. 3C  is an equivalent circuit diagram of the electrical system  100 A containing a differential arc fault detection system, without an arc occurrence, according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 2 . 
         [0034]    When no arc is present in the system  100 A, a voltage V generates a current i Load  that reaches the load  106 . The current i Load  passes through AFD master node  111  and AFD slave node  122 , as illustrated in  FIG. 3C . 
         [0035]    When a “parallel arc” occurs on the wire, as illustrated in  FIG. 3A , an electrical path is created between electrical lines, or from a line to ground, in parallel with the load. When an electrical path is created, for example, between the wire  131  and the ground G, an arcing current i ARC  sinks to ground, as illustrated in the equivalent circuit in  FIG. 3B . 
         [0036]    Hence, the AFD master node  111  will see a current signal containing arcing content. For example, in the equivalent circuit of  FIG. 3B , the AFD master node  111  will see a current signal containing both the load current i Load  and the arcing current i ARC . 
         [0037]    The slave node  122  on the other hand, will see a different current signal. For example, in the equivalent circuit of  FIG. 3B , the slave node  122  will see a current signal containing only the load current i Load . 
         [0038]    Therefore, a difference between the two signals seen by the master node  111  and the slave node  122  represents the manifested arcing content. For example, for the equivalent circuit of  FIG. 3B , the difference between the two signals seen by the master node  111  and the slave node  122  represents the arcing current i ARC . 
         [0039]    The difference between the two signals seen by the master node  111  and the slave node  122  may be compared to a current threshold that is larger that the normal leakage current, to determine whether the difference represents arcing current. In one implementation, the current threshold may be determined previously, off-line or on-line. 
         [0040]      FIG. 4A  is an exemplary block diagram of an electrical system  100 A containing a differential arc fault detection system sensing a series arc according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 2 .  FIG. 4B  is an equivalent circuit diagram of the electrical system  100 A containing a differential arc fault detection system sensing a series arc according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 4A .  FIG. 4C  is an equivalent circuit diagram of the electrical system  100 A containing a differential arc fault detection system, without an arc occurrence, according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIG. 2 . 
         [0041]    Series arc faults occur on wires, in series with a load. Series arc fault currents typically have low energy levels, and are difficult to detect. Conventional circuit breakers, currently in widespread use in the aerospace and general residential and industrial environments, are designed to detect only over-current and overload conditions, and do not detect series arc faults. Numerous electrical incidents are caused by low energy level arc fault conditions resulting from damaged or aging wire. 
         [0042]    With the arc fault detection system illustrated in  FIGS. 4A ,  4 B, and  4 C, however, series arc faults are detected. When no arc is present in the system  100 A, a voltage V supplies the load  106 , as illustrated in  FIG. 4C . When a series arc occurs on the wire  131 , as illustrated in  FIG. 4A , an arcing content appears on the wire, in series with the load. In the equivalent circuit of the electrical system  100 A in  FIG. 4B , an arcing content, such as, for example, an arcing voltage V ARC  appears on the wire  131  between the master node  111  and the slave node  122 . 
         [0043]    Hence, the slave node  122  will see a reduced voltage due to arcing content. The master node  111 , however, will see a different voltage signal. In the equivalent circuit of the electrical system  100 A in  FIG. 4B , the master node  111  will see a normal voltage signal, without the arcing voltage V ARC . 
         [0044]    Therefore, the difference between the two signals seen by the master node  111  and the slave node  122  represents the manifested arcing content. For example, for the equivalent circuit of  FIG. 4B , the difference between the two signals seen by the master node  111  and the slave node  122  represents the arcing voltage V ARC . 
         [0045]    The difference between the two signals seen by the master node  111  and the slave node  122  may be compared to a voltage threshold that is larger than the normal line drop, to detect whether the difference represents arcing current. In one implementation, the voltage threshold may be determined previously, off-line or on-line. 
         [0046]    Hence, as described at  FIGS. 3A ,  3 B,  3 C, and  4 A,  4 B, and  4 C, the master node and the slave node will see different electrical values for electrical parameters, thus exposing the arcing content for a parallel or series arc. 
         [0047]    When arcing or arcing-like content is induced into the wire  131  by electrical events occurring outside of the detection region, the master node and the slave node will see the same voltage signal with arcing or arcing-like content. The detection region is the region between the master node  111  and the slave node  122 . If arcing content is induced into the wire  131  by cross-talk or common source impedance feedback, then the master node and the slave node will see the same voltage signal with arcing or arcing-like content, hence the difference between the master node voltage and the slave node voltage will not show an arcing content. Also, if the load characteristics contain an arcing-like behavior, then the master node and slave node will see the same current signal including arcing-like content. Hence, the difference between the master node current and the slave node current will not show an arcing content. 
         [0048]    Hence, the arc fault detection techniques and apparatuses described in the current application detect parallel and series arcs, and at the same time eliminate potential nuisance trips, by canceling the content of interferences such as load characteristics, cross-talks, common source impedance feedback, etc., from sensed current/voltage signals. 
         [0049]      FIG. 5  is a flow diagram illustrating operations performed by a differential arc fault detection system to detect arc faults according to an embodiment of the present invention illustrated in  FIGS. 3A and 4A . The master node  111  keeps sampling the voltage and current signals (S 302 ) associated with an electrical system, such as, for example, the electrical system illustrated in  FIGS. 3A and 4A . 
         [0050]    Series and parallel arcs produce abnormal di/dt values. A threshold is associated with normal di/dt values. This threshold can be set, for example, as low as the peak of the di/dt value of the rated sinusoidal load. 
         [0051]    The arc detection function can then be triggered by a comparison between an abnormal di/dt value and the threshold associated with normal di/dt values. For this purpose, the master node  111  looks at the variation of current with time, di/dt, to capture an abnormal current occurrence (S 304 ). When the master node  111  captures an abnormal current occurrence (S 306 ), it calls for relevant data, such as electrical current data, from the slave node  122 , to determine whether an arc fault has occurred (S 308 ). A comparison is triggered between the master node electrical data and the slave node electrical data. If currents at the master node  111  and at the slave node  122  are different (S 312 ), a parallel arc has occurred on a wire (S 328 ). Step S 312  may also include a comparison between a current threshold, and the difference between currents at the master node  111  and slave node  122 , to determine whether an arc has occurred. 
         [0052]    The slave node  122  also keeps sampling the voltage and current signals (S 314 ) associated with the electrical system. 
         [0053]    Series and parallel arcs produce abnormal dv/dt values. A threshold is associated with normal dv/dt values. This threshold can be set, for example, as low as the peak of the dv/dt value of the rated sinusoidal load. 
         [0054]    The arc detection function can then be triggered by a comparison between an abnormal dv/dt value and the threshold associated with normal dv/dt values. For this purpose, the slave node  122  looks at the variation of voltage with time, dv/dt, to capture an abnormal voltage occurrence (S 316 ). When the slave node  122  captures an abnormal voltage occurrence (S 318 ), it informs the master node  111  of the abnormal voltage occurrence (S 322 ). The master node  111  then calls for relevant data, such as voltage data, from the slave node  122 , to determine whether an arc fault has occurred (S 324 ). A comparison is triggered between the master node electrical data and the slave node electrical data. If voltages at the master node  111  and at the slave node  122  are different (S 326 ), a series arc has occurred on a wire (S 328 ). Step S 326  may also include a comparison between a voltage threshold, and the difference between voltages at the master node  111  and slave node  122 , to determine whether an arc has occurred. 
         [0055]    Voltage and current sampling at the master node  111  and at the slave node  122  may continue in order to determine arc fault occurrences in real time. 
         [0056]    Detection operations for the differential arc fault detection system  80  may also use the RMS (root mean square) of digitalized information, to detect the arc fault influence in the voltage and current characteristics. In one exemplary implementation, the RMS of the current/voltage difference between two nodes (master node and slave node) is calculated. The calculated RMS is then compared with a threshold, to detect whether an arc has occurred. 
         [0057]    In a preferred embodiment of the current invention, the master node and the slave node are synchronized to each other with a “time tick”, which periodically exchanges timing information from one node to the other node. The time tick also serves as a heart beat signal, to monitor the operational status and integrity of the differential arc fault detection system. Data sampling at the two nodes is synchronized to this time tick, so that data from one side (one of the nodes) is relevant time-wise, to the data from the other side (the other node). 
         [0058]      FIG. 6  illustrates an exemplary implementation for a differential arc fault detection system according to an embodiment of the present invention.  FIG. 6  illustrates a wireless communication based implementation for a differential arc fault detection system. In this implementation, the master node  111  and the slave node  122  can exchange time tick signals and communicate sampled data, such as sampled current and voltage values, through industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band short distance wireless communication within certain distance ranges. 
         [0059]      FIG. 7  illustrates another exemplary implementation for a differential arc fault detection system according to an embodiment of the present invention.  FIG. 7  illustrates a Controller Area Network (CAN) bus based implementation for a differential arc fault detection system. In this implementation, the master node  111  and the slave node  122  can exchange time tick signals and communicate sampled data, such as sampled current and voltage values, through CAN buses  234 A and  234 B and airborne data exchange system  250 . Time tick signals and sampled data may be sent from the master node and the slave node to the airborne data exchange system  250  through CAN busses. Time tick signals and sampled data are then sent from the airborne data exchange system  250  to the slave node and the master node. 
         [0060]    Other communication pathways for data and timing communication between the master node and the slave node can also be implemented, besides wireless communication and CAN bus based implementation. 
         [0061]    The embodiments described in the present invention provide new methods and apparatuses for detection of series and parallel arcs on wires, by comparing, or by calculating differences between instantaneous voltage and current characteristics from two ends of the wire. The methods described in the present invention provide arc fault detection algorithms that can be implemented efficiently in hardware or software, have a fast response time, and have small memory usage. The methods and apparatuses described in the present invention detect arc faults in a single wire or in multiple wires; perform real time voltage and current measurements and detect arc faults in real time; provide protection from arc faults in AC and DC electrical distribution systems; provide local wire protection and monitoring; protect wiring from the electrical power distribution center to the inputs of loads; provide arc fault detection and protection for complex electrical systems, such as aircraft power systems, at various frequencies; detect arc faults without relying on knowledge of load signatures; detect series and parallel arc faults in a timely manner for both AC and DC electric power systems; allow proper arc fault detection, protection, and operation for utility (50/60 Hz), or aerospace Fixed Frequency (400 Hz) or Wide Variable Frequency (360-800 Hz) electric power systems for aerospace environments; differentiate arc faults from cross-talk, common source impedance feedback, normal load signatures both in steady state and during normal and abnormal electric power system transients; provide excellent noise immunity against all types of switching devices and potential cross-talk among adjacent power lines; do not cause false or nuisance trips due to externally conducted or radiated interference signals; and are applicable to a wide variety of environments.