Abstract:
Multi-component induction measurements are made using a resistivity logging tool in an anistropic earth formation. A subset of the multi-component measurements are inverted to first determine horizontal resistivities. Using the determined horizontal resistivities and another subset of the multi-component measurements, the vertical resistivities are obtained. Results of using the in-phase signals are comparable to those obtained using multifrequency focusing of quadrature signals.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
   This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/994,830, filed on Nov. 22, 2004, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/526,457, filed on Dec. 3, 2003. 

   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   1. Field of the Invention 
   The present invention relates generally to the field of electrical field logging of oil wells. More specifically, the present invention is a method of obtaining a measure of a parameter of a formation using a real component of an electrically induced signal in a formation. 
   2. Description of the Related Art 
   It is important to the oil and gas industry to know the nature and characteristics of the various sub-surface formations penetrated by a borehole because the mere creation of a borehole (typically by drilling) usually does not provide sufficient information concerning the existence, depth location, quantity, etc., of oil and gas trapped in the formations. Various electrical techniques have been employed in the past to determine this information about the formations. One such technique commonly used is induction logging. Induction logging measures the resistivity (or its inverse, conductivity) of the formation by first inducing eddy currents to flow in the formations in response to a transmitter signal, and then measuring a phase component signal in a receiver signal generated by the presence of the eddy currents. Variations in the magnitude of the eddy currents in response to variations in formation conductivity are reflected as variations in the receiver signal. Thus, in general, the magnitude of the in-phase component (the component that is in-phase with the transmitter signal) is indicative of the conductivity of the formation. 
   The physical principles of electromagnetic induction resistivity well logging are described, for example, in H. G. Doll,  Introduction to Induction Logging and Application to Logging of Wells Drilled with Oil - Based Mud , Journal of Petroleum Technology, vol. 1, p. 148, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, Tex. (1949). Many improvements and modifications to electromagnetic induction resistivity instruments have been devised since publication of the Doll reference, supra. Examples of such modifications and improvements can be found, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,837,517; 5,157,605 issued to Chandler et al.; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,452,761 issued to Beard et al. 
   The basic theory of induction logging instruments for evaluation of formation resistivity is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 3,147,429 to Moran and is summarized here. Shown in  FIG. 1  are exemplary transmitter coil and receiver coil with a distance L between them. The transmitter has a product A t  of the cross-sectional area times the number of coils. The corresponding product for the receiver coil is A r . The propagation constant k is given by:
 
 k=√{square root over (jωσμ)}   (1)
 
where j is the square root of −1, ω is the angular frequency of the signal, σ is the formation conductivity and μ is the permeability of the medium. Eqn. (1) can be rewritten as
 
                 γ   =       1   +   j     δ             (   2   )               
where δ denotes the “skin depth” in the medium and is given by
 
   
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 δ 
                 = 
                 
                   
                     2 
                     ωσμ 
                   
                 
               
             
             
               
                 ( 
                 3 
                 ) 
               
             
           
         
       
     
   
   When a current I is passed through the transmitter, eddy currents are induced in the formation which in turn induce a magnetic field and eddy currents in the receiver. The total receiver voltage V is given by the expression: 
   
     
       
         
           
             
               
                 V 
                 = 
                 
                   
                     - 
                     jω 
                   
                   ⁢ 
                   
                       
                   
                   ⁢ 
                   I 
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                           μ 
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                           ⁢ 
                           
                             A 
                             T 
                           
                           ⁢ 
                           
                             A 
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                           2 
                           ⁢ 
                           π 
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   Separating into real and imaginary parts gives the real and imaginary parts V r  and V x  (in-phase and quadrature components) as 
                     V   r     =           σω   2     ⁢     μ   2     ⁢     A   t     ⁢     A   r         4   ⁢   π   ⁢           ⁢   L       [     1   -       2   3     ⁢     (     L   δ     )       +       2   15     ⁢       (     L   δ     )     2       -   …     ⁢           ]       ⁢     
     ⁢   and           (   5   )                 V   x     =         σ   ⁢           ⁢   ωμ   ⁢           ⁢     IA   t     ⁢     A   r         4   ⁢   π   ⁢           ⁢   L       ⁡     [       -   1     +       2   3     ⁢       (     L   δ     )     3       -       1   2     ⁢       (     L   δ     )     4       +       2   15     ⁢       (     L   δ     )     5         ]               (   6   )               
It should be pointed out that the quadrature component of voltage is equivalent to the real component of the magnetic field.
 
   A typical electrical resistivity-measuring instrument is an electromagnetic induction military well logging instrument such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,452,761 issued to Beard et al. The induction logging instrument described in the Beard &#39;761 patent includes a number of receiver coils spaced at various axial distances from a transmitter coil. Alternating current is passed through the transmitter coil, which induces alternating electromagnetic fields in the earth formations. Voltages, or measurements, are induced in the receiver coils as a result of electromagnetic induction phenomena related to the alternating electromagnetic fields. A continuous record of the voltages forms curves, which are also referred to as induction logs. Induction instruments that are comprised of multiple sets of receiver coils are referred to as multi-array induction instruments. Every set of receiver coils together with the transmitter is called a subarray. A multi-array induction tool consists of numerous subarrays and acquires measurements with all the subarrays. 
   Voltages induced in the axially more distal receiver coils are the result of electromagnetic induction phenomena occurring in a larger volume surrounding the instrument, and the voltages induced in the axially proximal receiver coils are the result of induction phenomena occurring more proximal to the instrument. Therefore, different receiver coils see a formation layer boundary with different shoulder-bed contributions, or shoulder-bed effects. The longer-spaced receiver coils see the formation layer boundary at further distance from the borehole than the shorter-spaced receiver coils do. As a result, the logs of longer-spaced receiver coils have longer shoulder-bed effects than the logs of shorter-spaced receiver coils. The logs of all the receiver coils form a certain pattern. 
   A newly developed induction instrument comprises three mutually orthogonal transmitter-receiver arrays. Such a configuration makes it possible to determine both horizontal and vertical resistivities for an anisotropic formation in vertical, deviated, and horizontal boreholes. A description of the tool can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 6,147,496 to Strack, et al. The transmitters induce currents in three mutually perpendicular spatial directions and the receivers measure the corresponding magnetic fields (H xx , H yy , and H zz ). In this nomenclature of the field responses, the first index indicates the direction of the transmitter, the second index denotes the receiver direction. As an example, H zz  is the magnetic field induced by a z-direction transmitter coil and measured by a z-directed receiver. The z-direction is parallel to the borehole. Included in Strack is a teaching of how measurements made at two frequencies can be combined to give the resistivity of the earth formation away from the borehole while avoiding the effects of possible invasion of borehole fluids into the formation. Other methods for processing of multicomponent induction data use a frequency focusing method in which measurements are made at several frequencies. Examples of such methods are given in U.S. Pat. No. 6,574,562 of Tabarovsky et al. 
   The imaginary component of the magnetic field is commonly used in the inversion processing methods identified above. This corresponds to the real part of the voltage noted above in eqn. (5). The real component of a single frequency magnetic field measurement has similar properties to the imaginary component of a dual frequency (or multi-frequency) magnetic field measurement. So far, industry has not used the real component of magnetic field from induction logging data in data processing. The present invention is directed towards the use of the real component of the magnetic field for determination of anisotropic formation resistivity. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   The present invention is a method and apparatus for logging of an earth formation including a plurality of layers having a horizontal resistivity and a vertical resistivity, at least one of the layers having a horizontal resistivity different from the vertical resistivity. 
   A logging tool is conveyed into a borehole in the earth formation. The logging tool has first and second transmitter axes inclined to each other. The first and second transmitters send electromagnetic signals at at least one frequency into the earth formation. Signals resulting from interaction of the transmitted signals with the earth formation are received by suitable receivers, the received signals having a phase substantially the same as the phase of said transmitted signals. A processor is used to process the received signals to determine the horizontal and vertical resistivity of the at least one layer. 
   One of the two transmitters may have an axis substantially parallel to an axis of the logging tool and the other transmitter may have an axis substantially orthogonal to the first axis. Alternatively, the axes of the two transmitters may be inclined at angles other than 0° and 90° to the tool axis: in the latter case, the processor performs a rotation of coordinates of the received signals. 
   The processing includes defining a layered earth model of the earth formation. The received signals are inverted using the defined model. The inversion may include first determining the horizontal resistivity using a subset of the received signals. The vertical resistivity is then determined using another subset of the received signals and the derived horizontal resistivity. The invention may be practiced with measurements at either a single frequency or with measurements at a plurality of frequencies. 
   In another aspect, a logging tool having a transmitter and a first and second receiver is conveyed into a borehole in the earth formation. The transmitter sends an electromagnetic signal at at least one frequency into the earth formation. Signals resulting from interaction of the transmitted signal with the earth formation are received at the first and second receivers. A processor is used to process the received signals to determine the horizontal and vertical resistivity of the at least one layer. 
   The processor may be located at a surface location or at a downhole location. The transmitters and receivers may be conveyed on a wireline or on a bottom hole assembly for measurement-while-drilling applications. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     The present invention is best understood with reference to the accompanying figures in which like numerals refer to like elements and in which: 
       FIG. 1  (prior art) shows the geometry of coils for a prior art induction logging tool; 
       FIG. 2  (prior art) is an illustration showing an induction logging tool deployed in a borehole for measuring the conductivity of the adjacent formation; 
       FIG. 3  shows a resistivity formation model and several logging responses to the model; 
       FIG. 4  shows true and obtained resistivity values for the model of  FIG. 3 ; 
       FIG. 5  shows obtained logging responses from a low-resistivity field formation; 
       FIG. 6  shows obtained resistivity values for the low-resistivity field formation of  FIG. 5 ; 
       FIG. 7  shows obtained logging responses from a high-resistivity field formation; 
       FIG. 8  shows obtained resistivity values for the high-resistivity field formation of  FIG. 7 ; and 
       FIG. 9  (prior art) shows an arrangement of transmitter and receiver coils for making multicomponent measurements. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
   Referring now to  FIG. 2 , an induction logging tool  20  suitable for use with the present invention is shown positioned in a borehole  22  penetrating earth formations  54 . The tool  20 , which is suspended in the borehole  22  by means of a wireline cable  24 , includes a borehole sonde  34  and an electronic circuitry section  32 . The tool  20  is lowered into the borehole  22  by a cable  24 , which passes over a sheave  31  located at the surface of the borehole  22 . The cable  24  is typically spooled onto a drum  30 . The cable  24  includes insulated electric conductors for transmitting electrical signals. The electronic circuitry section  32  of the tool  20  receives signals from the sonde section  34  to perform various analog and digital functions, as will be described later. 
   The sonde  34  preferably includes a plurality of coils  40 - 52 . Coil  46  is a transmitter coil for transmitting an oscillating signal into the adjacent surrounding geological formation  54 . Preferably, a square wave signal is supplied to the coil  46 . However, it is contemplated that any of a number of oscillating voltage signals having multiple frequency components can be used. Further, it is desirable that, on occasion, a single-frequency signal, such as a sinusoidal signal, is used. The oscillating voltage signal applied to the coil  46  generates a current in coil  46  which in turn generates an electromagnetic field in the surrounding formation  54 . The electromagnetic field, in turn, induces eddy currents, which flow coaxially with respect to the borehole  22 . The magnitudes of the eddy currents are related to the conductivity of the surrounding formation  54 . The remaining coils  40 ,  42 ,  44 ,  47 ,  48 ,  50  and  52  are receiver coils in which signals are induced by the electric fields caused by the eddy currents produced in the formation. As the tool  20  is raised in the borehole  22 , the conductivity of the surrounding formation  54  can be determined from the received signals in order that a bed or layer  55  having a conductivity that is indicative of the possibility of containing hydrocarbons may be located. 
   The electronic circuitry section  32  includes a converter circuit  60 , a stacker circuit  62 , a random access memory (RAM)  63 , and a telemetry circuit  61 . The converter circuit  60  comprises a plurality of pre-amplifiers, filters, and analog-to-digital (A/D) converters for receiving signals from the receiver coils  40 - 52  and transforming them into digitized signals for further processing by the stacker circuit  62 . The analog voltage signals provided by the receiver coils  40 - 52  are digitally sampled according to a predetermined sampling rate in the period defined by the fundamental frequency of the transmitter signal, which in a typical embodiment is approximately 10 kHz. 
   The sampling is repeated over a large number of transmitter voltage signal cycles, preferably at least 1,024 cycles to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the received signals. To reduce the amount of data that must be stored or transmitted, corresponding digital samples taken in each of the transmitter cycles are summed. The summed digital signal samples corresponding to each of the plurality of receiver coils form corresponding stacked signal samples, which are stored in the RAM  63 . The stacked signals corresponding to the plurality of receiver coils  40 - 52  can then be retrieved from the RAM  63  and can be transmitted by the telemetry circuit  61  through the cable  24  to a processor  64  which forms part of the surface equipment  26 , where analyses of the stacked signals can be performed. Alternatively, processing of at least part of the data could be performed downhole using a processor at a suitable location (not shown) and results of the processing telemetered uphole. 
   In an alternative embodiment, a processor having sufficient digital signal processing capabilities could form part of the electronic circuitry section  32 . Thus, it is contemplated that the required discrete Fourier transform could be performed downhole, which would further reduce the amount of data to be transmitted to the surface. 
   The measured zz signal in a borehole drilled perpendicular to a formation is responsive only to the horizontal resistivity of the earth formation. This is due to the fact that the currents induced by a z-component transmitter are in a plane parallel to bedding and are not affected by the vertical resistivity of an anisotropic formation. An x- or a y-component transmitter in a borehole drilled perpendicular to a formation, on the other hand, induces currents that flow in both vertical and horizontal directions (and also at intermediate angles). Hence the xx and yy signals are responsive to both vertical and horizontal resistivities. Commonly used inversion procedures rely on the zz signal for determination of horizontal resistivity, and this determined horizontal resistivity is used for obtaining the vertical resistivity from the xx and/or yy signals. Consequently, inverted values of vertical resistivities are less accurate than inverted values of horizontal resistivities. 
   Before discussing the remaining figures, we note the convention used for the tracks in  FIGS. 3-8 :
         The term ‘single’ represents the imaginary component of the magnetic field obtained for a single frequency measurement;   the term ‘dual’ represents the imaginary component of the magnetic field obtained for a dual frequency measurement; and   the term ‘real’ represents the real component of the magnetic field obtained for a single frequency measurement.       

   Referring now to  FIG. 3 , the model is shown in the first track and depicts an anisotropic formation having horizontal and vertical resistivities.  201  and  203  show the horizontal and vertical resistivities used in a model. A vertical well was used for the model, so that the XX and YY responses are identical  204  and  205  in track  2  show the XX responses for frequencies of 20.8 kHz and 41.7 kHz respectively. Track  3  shows two dual frequency responses to the resistivity model of track  1 .  207  is the dual frequency response for frequencies of 20.8 kHz and 41.7 kHz respectively, while  208  shows the dual frequency response for frequencies of 41.7 kHz and 83.3 kHz respectively. Finally, track  4  shows the real responses  209  and  210  for frequencies of 20.8 kHz and 41.7 kHz respectively. The scale at the top of tracks  3  and  4  are for a range of values of ±0.004 Wb/m 2 . It can be seen that the real component ( 209  and  210 ) generally has larger signal values than the dual frequency measurements ( 207  and  208 ). 
     FIG. 4  shows inversion results for the noise-free synthetic data in a vertical well of  FIG. 3 . One method for inversion of multicomponent data suitable for use in the present invention is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,591,194 to Yu et al. having the same assignee as the present invention and the contents of which are fully incorporated by reference. Yu&#39;s method is also applicable to deviated boreholes. 
   As described in Yu, measurements made by a multicomponent logging tool in a borehole are inverted to obtain horizontal and vertical resistivities of a formation traversed by the borehole. The model includes layers of equal thickness, each layer having a horizontal resistivity and a vertical resistivity. For a vertical borehole, the inversion is done by first iteratively obtaining the horizontal resistivities of the layer using the H zz  component of the data wherein successive steps of the iteration, the horizontal resistivity for each layer is multiplied by a ratio of a model H zz  output to the measured H zz . The vertical resistivity model is set equal to the derived horizontal resistivities and the iterative process is repeated using the ratio of the model H xx  output to the measured H xx . A similar process is used for boreholes with a known inclination. For such an inclined borehole, the two horizontal components H xx  and H yy  are summed to give a horizontal measurement H xxyy  that is independent of tool rotation. The first step uses a ratio of the model H zz  output to the measured H zz  data to obtain an apparent resistivity, and, in the second step, the ratio of the model H xxyy  output and the measured H xxyy  data are used along with a known relationship between the apparent resistivity and the horizontal and vertical resistivities in an iterative manner. No Jacobians or gradients are necessary in the method, so that computational times are small relative to prior art gradient methods. It should be noted that similar results can be obtained by using other inclinations of the transmitter and receiver axes to the borehole axes as long as they can be rotated into principal components (x-, y- and z-directions) by a rotation of coordinates. While Yu discusses the inversion of dual frequency data, there is no teaching therein of inversion of the real component of data. It should also be noted that methods other than those disclosed by Yu could also be used for inversion of multicomponent data. An example of such a method is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,643,589 to Zhang et al. 
   Track  1   301  shows three curves that are very similar. One is the true anisotropy of the model, a second curve shows the result of inverting the dual frequency model output of  FIG. 3 , while the third curve shows the results of inverting the real component model output of  FIG. 3 . Track  2   303  of  FIG. 4  shows a comparison of the true horizontal resistivity and the results of inverting the single frequency model output. The fact that there is little difference between the curves in track  2  demonstrates the accuracy of the inversion technique. Finally, track  3  shows a comparison of the true vertical resistivity with the results of inverting the dual frequency model output and inverting the real component of the model output. The differences of the three curves of track  3  are somewhat larger than in track  2 , but are still within acceptable limits. The somewhat larger differences are an indication the vertical resistivity inversion is not quite as accurate as inversion for horizontal resistivity. Reasons for the somewhat lower accuracy have been noted above. 
   Turning now to  FIG. 5 , a field data for a formation having high conductivity is shown.  401 ,  402  and  403  are dual frequency xx measurements for frequencies of (20.8 kHz, 41.7 kHz), (41.7 kHz, 83. kHz) and (83.3 kHz and 166 kHz) respectively.  405 ,  406 , and  407  are the real component xx measurements at 20.8 kHz, 41.7 kHz and 83.3 kHz respectively. The scale for the dual frequency measurements is ±0.002 Wb/m 2 , while the scale for the real component measurements is ±0.004 Wb/m 2 .  FIG. 5  shows that the real component has higher signal levels than the dual frequency measurements in conductive formations. This is to be expected since the dual frequency measurement is a scaled difference between two single frequency measurements. Results of inverting the data of  FIG. 5  are shown in  FIG. 6 . 
   Track  1   501  of  FIG. 6  shows two interpreted anisotropy curves that are very similar to each other. One curve is from inversion of dual frequency data from  FIG. 5  while the other curve is from inversion of real component data from  FIG. 5 . Track  2   503  of  FIG. 6  shows horizontal resistivity obtained by inversion of single component data while track  3   505  shows a comparison of inverted vertical resistivity from dual and real component data. The agreement between the inverted resistivities is good, demonstrating that in conductive formations, inversion of the real component of induction measurements gives results as good as those obtained by inversion of the imaginary component of dual frequency measurements. 
     FIG. 7  shows a field example from a resistive formation that has a horizontal resistivity greater than 5 Ω-m. Track  1  shows dual frequency measurements  601  at 20.3 kHz and 41.7 kHz. Track  2  shows dual frequency measurements  602  at 41.7 kHz and 83.3 kHz, while track  3  shows dual frequency measurements  603  at 83.3 kHz and 166 kHz. Tracks  4 ,  5  and  6  (curves  604 ,  605  and  606 ) show real component measurements at 20.8 kHz, 41.7 kHz and 83.3 kHz respectively. The dual frequency measurements show more high frequency jitter than the real components. Compare, for example,  602  and  605 . While full-scale values for the corresponding dual and real components are the same, i.e., tracks  1  and  4 , tracks  2  and  5 , and tracks  3  and  6 , it is noted that the real component has somewhat higher signal level. This higher amplitude is most clearly seen at the depth indicated by  611 . 
   Turning now to  FIG. 8 , results of inverting the data of  FIG. 7  are shown. Track  1   701  shows a comparison of the inverted anisotropy from dual frequency and real component measurements. Track  2   703  shows a comparison of the inverted horizontal resistivities. Little difference is noted in track  2  between the two curves. Finally, track  3   705  shows large differences between the real and dual frequency inversions. 
   One possible explanation for the large excursions is the presence of an offset in the measurements. The real component measurements are inherently more susceptible to errors caused by direct coupling between the transmitter and the receiver. This is commonly addressed by the use of bucking coils in the hardware. The effects of direct coupling between the transmitter and receiver are much smaller for the imaginary component of the measured signal. Consequently, offset is more likely to be present with the real component measurement. The effect of direct coupling needs to be removed. 
   Thus, using the method and apparatus described above, it is possible to determine parameters of interest of an earth formation such as horizontal and vertical resistivities of one or more layers of the earth formation. 
   A suitable arrangement of transmitter and receiver coils for making multicomponent measurements is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 6,618,676 to Kriegshauser et al and shown in  FIG. 9 . Shown therein is the configuration of transmitter and receiver coils of the 3DExplorer™ induction logging instrument of Baker Hughes. Three orthogonal transmitters  801 ,  803  and  805  that are referred to as the T x , T z , and T y  transmitters are shown (the z-axis is the longitudinal axis of the tool). Corresponding to the transmitters  801 ,  803  and  805  are associated receivers  807 ,  809  and  811 , referred to as the R x , R z , and R y  receivers, for measuring the corresponding magnetic fields. In a preferred mode of operation of the tool, the H xx , H yy , H zz , H xy , and H xz  components are measured, though other components may also be used. 
   In  FIG. 9 , the transmitter and receiver coils are shown in a fixed orientation relative to the body of the logging tool. In an alternate embodiment of the invention, the transmitters and/or receivers may be gimbal mounted using methods known in the art. 
   The method of the present invention has been discussed above with reference to a logging device conveyed on a wireline. However, the method of the invention is equally applicable to logging devices conveyed on a bottomhole assembly for measurement-while-drilling (MWD) applications. 
   It should further be noted that the method of the present invention has been given using examples of a single frequency, measurement of the real component of the magnetic field. The method of the present invention could also be used with dual or multiple frequency, real component measurements. 
   The method of the present disclosure has been discussed above with reference to two transmitters for transmitting magnetic fields into the earth formation and at least one receiver for receiving magnetic fields resulting from the transmitted magnetic fields. Through the principle of reciprocity, the same results may be obtained by transmitting a magnetic field using a single transmitter and receiving magnetic fields resulting from the transmitted magnetic field using two receivers. 
   While the foregoing disclosure is directed to the preferred embodiments of the invention, various modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art. It is intended that all such variations within the scope and spirit of the appended claims be embraced by the foregoing disclosure.