Abstract:
Sub-arrays such as tiles or chips having pixel elements arranged on a routing layer or carrier to form a larger array. Through-chip vias or the like to the backside of the chip are used for connecting with the pixel elements. Edge features of the tiles may provide for physical alignment, mechanical attachment and chip-to-chip communication. Edge damage tolerance with minimal loss of function may be achieved by moving unit cell circuitry and the electrically active portions of a pixel element away from the tile edge(s) while leaving the optically active portion closer to the edge(s) if minor damage will not cause a complete failure of the pixel. The pixel elements may be thermal emitter elements for IR image projectors, thermal detector elements for microbolometers, LED-based emitters, or quantum photon detectors such as those found in visible, infrared and ultraviolet FPAs (focal plane arrays), and the like. Various architectures are disclosed.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S) 
     Priority is claimed from U.S. 61/550,350 filed Oct. 21, 2011. 
    
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
     The invention relates to fabricating and assembling tiles (chips, sub-arrays) of pixel elements into larger arrays, more particularly pixel elements which may be thermal radiation emitters such as resistive pixel elements for infrared (IR) image projection, thermal radiation detectors such as for a microbolometer, and the like. 
     BACKGROUND 
     The human eye cannot detect infrared light. But infrared energy can be detected electronically. Sophisticated electronic instruments exist which can scan a scene and convert the infrared light to an electrical signal which can be displayed on a video monitor, analyzed by a computer, or recorded on film. Electrically, the output of these instruments is very similar to the output of a conventional video camera. 
     IR imaging systems are designed to satisfy different performance parameters, depending on their intended use. Military applications, such as missile guidance, require the highest level of accuracy and reliability. 
     Due to their complexity, IR imaging systems are expensive, sensitive, high-maintenance devices. To assure proper operation of these systems and to achieve their full performance requires frequent test and calibration. Engineers, who design IR imaging systems, test them during the design and development stage to evaluate performance parameters and to refine designs to optimize performance. Manufacturers of IR imaging systems need to compare actual performance to specifications, and need to calibrate the systems prior to delivery. End users must test their systems regularly to verify proper operation, and must recalibrate them periodically while they are in the working environment. 
     Some of the important performance characteristics of an IR imaging system are spatial resolution (ability to resolve fine detail), thermal resolution (ability to resolve small temperature differences), speed (ability to respond to a rapidly changing scene without blurring), and dynamic range (how large a temperature span it can view without saturating). Standard tests have been developed to quantify these characteristics. 
     IR Test Equipment 
     Setup, test, and calibration of IR imaging systems requires the use of specialized test equipment. This test equipment is designed to create an infrared scene of precisely known characteristics, to project this scene to the input of the IR imaging system being tested, and to evaluate the quality of the output of the IR imaging system. 
     Infrared Scene Projector (IRSP) 
     An Infrared Scene Projector (IRSP) may be used to test a wide variety of sensors used by the US military and major defense contractors. Generally, an IRSP comprises a large number of thermal (IR) emitters, arranged in an array of pixel elements, such as 1024×1024 pixel elements. 
     The IRSP may use a single chip IR emitter array to produce actual thermal imagery. The emitter array utilizes a large number of pixels to generate the image (similar to how a digital camera uses a large number of pixels to capture an image). Each pixel emits thermal energy that is ultimately captured by the sensor under test. There are many types of emitters such as resistive bridges, Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), lasers, deformable membranes, micro mirror arrays, etc. Of these emitter types, resistive bridge arrays and micro mirrors are the most widely used. Resistive bridges may offer the best performance in terms of temperature range, speed (frame rate and thermal transition time) and thermal resolution. 
     Resistive Bridge Pixel Elements 
     Each pixel element (or “emitter pixel”) of a resistive bridge array generally comprises a heating element (resistor) that is suspended over a temperature controlled substrate. Suspending the resistor keeps the cool substrate from restricting the emitter pixel&#39;s temperature range. 
     Although the resistor and support features for resistive bridge structures may be laid out in different formats, use different materials and have different drive circuitry, the overall structure, and architecture of the pixels are generally always the same. A key aspect of the resistive bridge pixel is that it is, as the name implies, a bridge structure. A resistor, absorber, encapsulant and leg are suspended above the substrate. This suspended bridge performs several functions, among them are thermal isolation from the cool substrate, and formation of a resonant optical cavity. Although resistive bridge structures can be made in many ways, there are several defining characteristics:
         1) Thermal resistor suspended as a bridge over an air gap (also known as an optical cavity)   2) Interface to a silicon CMOS chip that provides power to the suspended resistor   3) Use of an absorber layer to increase optical fill factor   4) Use of leg structures to tune thermal conduction to the cooled silicon substrate
 
Large Arrays
       

     Fabricating large arrays for imaging applications as well as scene projection is often limited by the yield of the large array. While there is a demand for large arrays, it is typically not economical to produce a large monolithic array, optical or mechanical. Tiling of smaller arrays can improve yield but, in the past, has left seams between the tiles that were comparable to the size of a pixel or larger and introduced unacceptable artifacts in both imaging and scene projection applications. 
     Bolometer 
     The techniques disclosed herein for tiling arrays of pixel elements may have applications beyond thermal emitters such as arrays of resistive pixel elements. For example, in creating tiled arrays of thermal detector pixel elements, such as microbolometers. 
     A bolometer is a device for measuring the power of incident electromagnetic radiation via the heating of a material with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance. A bolometer consists of an absorptive element, such as a thin layer of metal, connected to a thermal reservoir (a body of constant temperature) through a thermal link. The result is that any radiation impinging on the absorptive element raises its temperature above that of the reservoir—the greater the absorbed power, the higher the temperature. A microbolometer is a specific type of bolometer which may be used as a detector in a thermal camera. Infrared radiation strikes the detector material, heating it, and thus changing its electrical resistance. This resistance change is measured and processed into temperatures which can be used to create an image. Unlike other types of infrared detecting equipment, microbolometers do not require cooling. 
     Through Silicon Vias 
     A through-silicon via (TSV) is a vertical electrical connection (via) (Vertical Interconnect Access) passing completely through a silicon wafer or die. TSVs are a high performance technique used to create 3D packages and 3D integrated circuits, compared to alternatives such as package-on-package, because the density of the vias is substantially higher, and because the length of the connections is shorter. See, for example,  A Study of Through - Silicon - Via Impact on the  3 D Stacked IC Layout , Kim et al., ICCAD &#39;09, Nov. 2-5, 2009, incorporated by reference herein as an example of making connections through a semiconductor chip. See also  Fabrication and characterization of metal - to - metal interconnect structures for  3- D integration , Huffman et al., © 2009, TOP Publishing Ltd and SISSA, incorporated by reference herein. 
     Some Prior Art 
     The following patents and publications are incorporated in their entirety by reference herein. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,600,148 discloses low power infrared scene projector array and method of manufacture. The array combines a two-tier architecture created with special processing whereby each pixel member resides on an elevated platform directly over discrete pixel control electronics and electrically conducting traces couple a plurality of pixels so that they can be controlled to project thermal images at equal to or faster than video frame rates. Microlens assemblies coupled to each discrete pixel improves the thermal efficiency of the array for certain applications. In the method of fabrication, a semiconductor microbridge-type structure obtains with the use of sacrificial layers under deposited pixel members in a compact array so that the pixel electronics reside beneath their associated pixel and the array electronics inhabit the same chip as the array thereby improving fill factor and time constant of the resulting array. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 7,439,513 discloses fast microbolometer pixels with integrated micro-optical focusing elements. Each microbolometer pixel includes a focusing element located between the pixel body and a substrate, this focusing element preferably sending radiation back towards the central portion of the microbolometer. There is also provided a microbolometer array having a plurality of such microbolometer pixels. 
       Characterization of the Dynamic Infrared Scene Projector  ( DIRSP )  Engineering Grade Array  ( EGA ), Manzardo et al., SPIE Vol 3697, April 1999, incorporated by reference herein, discloses a 672×544 format suspended membrane microresistor emitter array. Underlying CMOS electronics for the array contain addressing decoder and MUX electronics, as well as integrated sample and hold FET electronics. The DIRSP array is designed for either 32 or 64 parallel analog channel input operation. 
     SUMMARY 
     It is an object of the invention(s) to provide improved techniques for tiling sub-arrays of pixel elements to implement larger arrays, such as megapixel arrays. For example, the techniques disclosed herein address avoiding or circumventing problems associated with the seams between tiles which may include (i) artifacts of the seams manifesting themselves in the projected image, and (ii) damage to edge pixels in the sub-arrays (tiles, chips) due to manufacturing processes. Additionally, the techniques disclosed herein may eliminate the complexity associated with some prior art techniques of overcoming the seam problem. 
     As used herein, a pixel element may comprise an electrically active area or portion (such as a post, trace or resistor in a microbolometer or emitter array or contact points, traces or gates in the sensor layer of a quantum photon detector), and an optically active area or portion (such as the absorber portion of a microbolometer or emitter array or the photoelectron generating area of a quantum photon detector). In some cases, depending upon context, the term “active area” may be used to refer to either one of or both of the electrically and optically active areas. Generally, in addition to the active area, there is unit cell circuitry is associated with the pixel element for operating the pixel element, and is generally disposed below the active area of the pixel element. The unit cell circuitry may comprise a read-out integrated circuit (ROIC) or read-in integrated circuit (RIIC), but other arrangements of unit cell circuitry may be used. 
     Sub-arrays such as monolithic tiles having pixel elements may be arranged on a routing layer or carrier to form a larger tiled array. Through-chip vias or the like to the backside of the chip may be used for connecting with the pixel elements, or with or the unit cell circuitry of a detector or emitter pixel. Edge features of the tiles may provide for physical alignment, mechanical attachment and chip-to-chip communication. Edge damage tolerance with minimal loss of function may be achieved by moving unit cell circuitry and the electrically active portions of a pixel element away from the tile edge(s) while leaving the optically active portion closer to the edge(s) if minor damage will not cause a complete failure of the pixel. The pixel elements may be thermal emitter elements for IR image projectors, thermal detector elements for microbolometers, LED-based emitters, or quantum photon detectors such as those found in visible, infrared and ultraviolet FPAs (focal plane arrays), and the like. Various architectures are disclosed. 
     The techniques disclosed herein may be useful for producing a microbolometer array for imaging, for producing a resistive array for scene projection, and may also be applicable to UV cameras using CCD (charge-coupled device), DI (direct injection), CTIA (Capacitive Transimpedence Amplifiers) or other unit cell architectures. Cameras can have direct or indirect gap semiconductor detector materials, have quantum well detectors or have MEMS detectors. Scene projection technologies for which the techniques disclosed herein may be applicable may include visible, IR and UV projectors. Projectors may have current mirror or other unit cell architectures and have resistive array emitters, LED emitters, a reflective MEMS structure or may have a liquid crystal based FPA. 
     According to the invention, generally, small arrays (which may be referred to as tiles, chips, or sub-arrays) of pixel elements may be fabricated with their unit cell circuitry below the active area and the majority of connections (including 50%, more than 50%, 75% up to 100% of the connections) may be located on the surface of the chip opposite the active area by vertical vias which may for example be through silicon vias (TSVs). Small sub-arrays may be precision diced to within a fraction of a pixel pitch from the edge of the active portion of the sub-array. These small sub-arrays may then be precision aligned on a routing layer that connects the sub-array data and power from the back of the small sub-arrays to connectors outside of the active area of the tiled array. The routing layer may be passive (routing only) or may contain active circuitry. 
     Some damage to the edge of a sub-array tile (chip) is inevitable (unavoidable) as a result of manufacturing process (cutting, dicing, etc.). A tile may comprise active area and control circuitry. Either or both of these may be modified to avoid problems from edge damage. Some techniques disclosed herein address making the tiles less sensitive to such edge damage, and may include performing one or more of . . .
         making all of the unit cells slightly smaller   offsetting unit cells at the edge(s) of the tile, away from the edge(s) (towards the center)   making the unit cells near the edges smaller than those in the center so they can be located away from the edge(s).       

     It should be understood that a corner pixel (or unit cell) is an edge pixel that lies at the periphery of the tile sub-array, and has two of its (four) edges susceptible to damage. Corner pixels (or unit cells) may be treated differently than edge pixels which are not corner pixels. 
     Techniques are disclosed for implementing a sub-array tile with different pixel designs for edge pixels (pixels which are disposed at an edge of the sub-array tile) having only one side susceptible to edge damage, corner pixels (pixels which are disposed at a corner of the sub-array tile) having two sides susceptible to edge damage and center pixels which are those pixels which are not disposed along a tile edge. 
     Some prior art describes tiling on two sides, such as by forming a 2×2 array of tiles (four total), each rotated 90 degrees with respect to the others. The techniques disclosed herein allow for tiling on all four sides of a (square) chip, thereby allowing arbitrarily large arrays to be manufactured from smaller tiles. 
     Other objects, features and advantages of the invention(s) may become apparent from the following description(s) thereof. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Reference will be made in detail to embodiments of the disclosure, non-limiting examples of which may be illustrated in the accompanying drawing figures (FIGs). The figures may be in the form of diagrams. Some elements in the figures may be exaggerated, others may be omitted, for illustrative clarity. Although the invention is generally described in the context of various exemplary embodiments, it should be understood that it is not intended to limit the invention to these particular embodiments, and individual features of various embodiments may be combined with one another. Any text (legends, notes, reference numerals and the like) appearing on the drawings are incorporated by reference herein. 
         FIG. 1  is a perspective view showing a plurality of sub-arrays (tiles) arranged in a larger M×N “tiled” array, according to some embodiments of the invention.  FIG. 1A  is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the tiled array shown in  FIG. 1 . 
         FIG. 2A  is a plan view of a sub-array tile showing the back of the tile including pads for connection to the routing layer, according to some embodiments of the invention.  FIG. 2B  is a side (edge) view of the tile shown in  FIG. 2 .  FIG. 2C  is a plan view of the front of the sub-array tile showing the active elements such as emitter pixels or microbolometer pixels, on the front of the tile. 
       FIGS.  3 A,B,C are cross-sectional views of some sub-array architectures, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 4  is a plan view of a 5×5 sub-array of unit cells, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 5  is a plan view of a 5×5 sub-array of unit cells, according to some embodiments of the invention.  FIG. 5A  is a cross-section of the tile of  FIG. 5 . 
         FIG. 6  is a plan view of a 8×8 corner portion of a sub-array of unit cells, according to some embodiments of the invention.  FIG. 6A  is a cross-section of the tile of  FIG. 6 . 
       FIGS.  7 A,B,C are plan views of pixel elements, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 8  is a plan view of a MEMS pixel, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 9  is a plan view of a MEMS pixel, according to some embodiments of the invention. 
         FIG. 9A  is a cross-section of the MEMS pixel of  FIG. 9 . 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Various embodiments will be described to illustrate teachings of the invention(s), and should be construed as illustrative rather than limiting. Any dimensions and materials or processes set forth herein should be considered to be approximate and exemplary, unless otherwise indicated. 
     The present disclosure is directed to techniques for fabricating large arrays of pixels from tiling smaller arrays (sub-arrays or tiles), where there is a sub-pixel (less than the pitch of a pixel) to zero gap at the seams between tiles. The basic concept is to route all I/O (power and data) through the back of the array so that the tiles can be placed edge-to-edge on all sides. The small arrays can then be arranged into a larger M×N array. This technique is applicable to both imaging systems as well as to projection systems. 
     In general, infrared (IR) radiation may have a range of wavelengths of 0.8-20 μm or larger though the most common wavelengths uses for thermal imagery are 3-5 um (commonly known as the mid-wave IR band or MWIR) and 8-12 um (commonly known as the long-wave IR band or LWIR). Such large wavelengths, compared to visible light (0.4-0.7 μm), may require larger detector and emitter pixels for efficient production and detection of IR radiation. Current IR detector arrays range in pixel size from 12 to 25 μm and emitter arrays range from 25 to 50 μm. It is in part due to this relatively large wavelength that tiling of sub-arrays is beneficial to implement larger overall arrays, such as megapixel arrays, which would be quite large. For visible light emitters and detectors, pixels may be 2-3 μm, generally making tiling unnecessary to implement megapixel arrays. (A million visible light pixel elements may occupy a much smaller area than a comparable megapixel array of IR pixel elements.) 
     In the main hereinafter, arrays and sub-arrays of pixel elements which are resistive bridge type thermal emitters may be discussed, as exemplary of techniques for integrating a number of tiles of pixel elements into a larger array, including but not limited to resistive bridge type thermal emitter pixel elements and thermal detector pixel elements such as may be used in microbolometers. 
     Forming a Large Array by Tiling Smaller Sub-Arrays 
       FIGS. 1 ,  1 A illustrate the basic concept of forming a tiled array  100  having a plurality of sub-arrays  110  (or small arrays, or tiles, or chips). Each tile  110  may be a semiconductor chip, comprising a plurality (such as an array) of pixel elements  112 . The pixel elements  112  may be radiating elements or emitters (such as resistive bridge pixels for a thermal projector) or detecting elements (such as detector pixels for a microbolometer). In the main hereinafter, resistive bridge emitter pixels may be described as representative of pixel elements which are radiating elements, detecting elements, or the like. The various techniques disclosed herein are not limited to any particular kind of pixel element. 
     All of the sub-arrays (tiles)  110  in the larger array  100  may be substantially identical with one another. Alternatively, different sub-arrays (tiles)  110  may be used in different areas of the larger array  100 , for example selected sub-arrays  110  having a faster readout or higher resolution than the others. And, as described below, (for example with respect to FIGS.  7 A,B,C) different pixel elements within a given tile may be designed differently from one another, with regard to their active areas (electrical portion and optical portion) and unit cell circuitry, and also oriented differently, depending on their location in the tile, such as at an edge, a corner or interior the tile. 
     Although only a limited number (nine, in a 3×3 tiled array) of sub-arrays (tiles, chips)  110   a - 110   i  (which may individually or collectively be referred to simply as “ 110 ”) are shown, the overall larger, tiled array  100  may comprise M×N (rows×columns) of tiles  110 , such as at least 2 rows (M) and 2 columns (N), up to 8 rows (M) and 8 columns (N), or more. The invention is not limited to any specific number of tiles  110 , and the number of rows and columns do not need to equal one another, for example 4 rows (M) and 8 columns (N) is acceptable. 
     A representative individual tile  110   c  is illustrated separate from the array  100  and may have two sets of parallel, opposite sides (such as, but not limited to rectangular), and may have the following exemplary dimensions: thickness t=˜1 mm; width W=˜2.5 cm; length L=˜2.5 cm. The tiles  110  may be symmetric or asymmetric, and may typically be polygonal in shape, such as triangular, square, rectangular, parallelogram or trapezoidal, hexagonal, and the like, and typically all of the tiles will be the same shape as one another, although this concept can be extended to non-uniform tiling strategies. Two (or more) different tile shapes (or different orientations of the same shape, such as trapezoids having alternating up-down-up-down orientations) may be used to cover (populate, tile, tessellate) the overall larger array in a repeating pattern. In the main, hereinafter, populating a large array with smaller arrays which are square tiles will be discussed as representative of the techniques disclosed herein. 
     Each tile  110  may have a plurality of pixel elements  112  formed thereupon, for example in an array of “m” rows and “n” columns, such as but not limited to 512 (m)×512 (n) pixel elements, 1024 (m)×1024 (n) pixel elements, etc. A given pixel element  112  may be a thermal or infrared (IR) radiating element or emitter such as the resistive thermal radiation emitters disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,600,148. A typical size for an individual pixel element  112  may be approximately 50 μm×50 μm (2.5 cm/512=0.05 mm=50 μm). In  FIG. 1 , individual pixel elements  112  are shown only on some of the tiles, for illustrative clarity, and they are not individually numbered. And, only a few of what may be many pixel elements  112  are shown. 
     A plurality of tiles  110  may be arranged (placed, mounted on) a routing layer  150 , closely abutting one another, edge-to-edge (side-to-side), so that there is a sub-pixel size gap (such as &lt;50 μm) between adjacent tiles  110 . It is desirable to minimize the gaps between adjacent tiles, such as to ¼ of a pixel width, preferably less than 1/10 of a pixel width, for example, less than 5 μm. It may be generally desirable to match (as closely as possible) the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the routing layer  150  with the CTE of the tiles  110 , then attach the two with a compliant but conductive layer of a material such as indium. 
     As best viewed in  FIG. 1A , a given tile  110  may comprise a plurality of each of . . .
           122  active areas (represented by rectangles) on the top side (front surface) of the tile,
           for thermal emitters, the active areas may comprise resistive bridges   
             124  unit cell circuitry (represented by dashes “-”)
           the “unit cell” is the electrical circuit portion (analog and or digital circuitry) of a pixel element (PE) comprising active area  122  and unit cell circuitry  124 . Some circuitry  124  may be common to several pixel elements.   
             126  control circuitry (represented by dashes “-”) for controlling operation of the various pixel elements
           the control circuitry  126  may comprise power planes, clock lines, etc.   
             128  through-chip routing from the control circuitry to back (bottom) side connections  130 
           this may include TSVs or other through chip routing techniques   
             130  bottom side (back side (back surface) connections (such as ball bumps)
           there may be fewer than one, one, or more than one bottom surface connections per pixel element  112  ( 122 + 124 )   
               

     The routing layer  150  may comprise
         top side (front surface) connections  152  corresponding in both number and layout to the bottom side (back surface) connections  130     conductive paths or traces (routes, interconnects)  154  extending in and through the routing layer  150 , extending to an external connector (not shown) or the like       

     The I/O (input/output) from each tile  110  may pass through the routing layer  150  which carries signals between the chips (tiles) as well as carrying power and data between the chips and the rest of the system (not shown), for example a thermal projector system (not shown). 
     The routing layer  150  can be a separate (from the rest of the circuitry) entity such as a large silicon wafer. Alternatively, the routing layer may be integrated into another structure, such as a multi-layer ceramic chip carrier (MLCC). The routing layer can be entirely passive (only interconnects), or it may include active circuitry (not shown). 
     Alignment Features and Edge Contacts 
     Alignment features as well as inter-chip connections can be integrated into the tiles (chips), such as on the side edge(s) and bottom surface of the chips, so as not to interfere with or compromise the top surface of the chip which may be dedicated to active area (pixel elements), while maintaining the desired minimal (sub-pixel sized) gap objective. 
     FIGS.  2 A,B,C illustrate an exemplary single tile (chip, sub-array)  210  comprising an 8×8 sub-array of pixel elements  212 . A given tile  210  may comprise a square shaped chip having four side edges  202   a - d  (which may collectively or individually be referred to as “ 202 ”), and may contain many more, such as 512×512 (or more) pixel elements  212 , only 8×8 pixel elements  212  being illustrated in these figures, for illustrative clarity. 
       FIG. 2A  is a plan view of the back side of the sub-array (tile, chip)  210 , generally showing the back surface of the tile  210  including pads  214  (compare  130 ) for connection to the routing layer ( 150 ). There may be fewer pads (bottom connections)  214  than pixel elements  212 .  FIG. 2C  is a plan view of the front surface of the sub-array tile showing the active elements such as emitter pixels or microbolometer pixels.  FIG. 2B  is a side view of a side edge of the tile  210 . 
     One or more interlocking (mating, self-aligning) alignment features may be incorporated on the tiles (chips)  210  for sub-pixel alignment accuracy. For example, the alignment features may comprise bump features  204   a - d  (which may collectively or individually be referred to as “ 204 ”) protruding from the respective side edges  202   a - d  of the chip  210 , and corresponding recess features  206   a - d  (which may collectively or individually be referred to as “ 206 ”) extending into the corresponding side edges  202   a - d  of the chip  210 . Any suitable alignment features may be used to ensure good mechanical alignment and registration and/or mechanical attachment of the chips  210 , which may need to be assembled with one another prior to being disposed on the routing layer ( 150 ). The alignment features of a given tile are designed to mate with the alignment features of an adjacent tile in the large array. For example, both of the mating features  204  and  206  could be bump features protruding from side edges of the tiles, alternating (interleaved or interdigitated) with each other to ensure good physical alignment between tiles. 
     Although the figures show only one bump  204  and one recess  206  per side, many more bumps and recesses may be incorporated on each side of the chip  210 . The thickness of a given bump or recess (see  FIG. 2B ) may be a small fraction of the overall tile thickness. 
     The bumps  204  and recesses  206  may be precision formed, and when the tiles  200  are assembled with one another, a given bump  204  may fit snugly within a corresponding given recess  206  to ensure precise alignment of the tiles  200  with one another. For example, the bump  204   a  extending from the top edge  202   a  of a given tile will mate with the recess  206   c  extending into the bottom edge of a neighboring tile (in the overall larger array) which is arranged above the given tile, the bump  204   b  extending from the right edge  202   b  of the given tile will mate with the recess  206   b  extending into the left edge of a neighboring tile which is disposed to the right of the given tile, etc. 
     Solder or other connection method such as epoxy may be used make a robust mechanical joint between the tiles which are generally attached with one another prior to being placed on the routing layer or carrier. Optionally, an assembly jig may be used to temporarily keep the tiles aligned with one another for assembly to the routing layer or carrier. It is also possible that the tiles can be assembled one-by-one to the routing layer or carrier. 
     Although not shown, some implementations may incorporate alignment and/or attachment structures which encroach on the active portion of the array and cause the loss of some of the pixels along a tile edge. Depending on the application, this may be an acceptable loss. 
     Alignment features such as those used for “quilt packaging” may be incorporated into the tiles  210 . See, for example,  Quilt Packaging™—Ultrahigh Performance Chip - to - Chip Interconnects , Indiana Integrated Circuits LLC, incorporated by reference herein. 
     In addition to or in conjunction with the physical alignment features  204  and  206  described above, which are essentially and substantially “mechanical” in nature, edge features  208   a - d  (which may collectively or individually be referred to as “ 208 ”) may be provided on respective edges  202   a - d  of the tile  210  for effecting electrical connections between neighboring/adjacent tiles. These electrical connection features  208  may comprise solder and, in combination with internal routing within the chips, may provide for propagating signals from chip-to-chip directly (bypassing the routing layer  150 ) such as for controlling rastering, enabling rows of chips or rows or pixel elements in sequence, and the like. The physical alignment features may include providing electrical connections between the tiles. 
     In  FIG. 2B , the alignment features  204 / 206  and connection features  208  are illustrated as being disposed between the back and front surfaces of the tile  210 . Either or both of the alignment features  204 / 206  and connection features  208  may be located elsewhere, such as at or towards the back surface (left, as viewed) or bottom edge (alternatively, at or towards the front surface/top edge) of the tile  210  while maintaining the ability to position the tiles with a gap of less than 1 pixel pitch (down to substantially) zero gap between adjacent tiles in the large array ( 100 ). 
     The following patents and publications, incorporated by reference herein, are illustrative of techniques which may be useful for implementing some of the edge features ( 204 ,  206 ,  208 ) described hereinabove . . .
     US 2012/0133381; U.S. Pat. No. 7,923,845; U.S. Pat. No. 4,542,397     A novel method for nanoprecision alignment in wafer bonding applications , Jiang et al., Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, 17 (2007) S61-S67, TOP Publishing Ltd   

     The edge features ( 204 ,  206 ,  208 ) and back surface connections  214  described above are generally implemented in a manner to maximize usable area on the front side of the tile for active area (pixel elements). It is within the scope of the invention that a small number of pixel elements along the edge(s) of the tile may be sacrificed to make room for implementing some of the edge features ( 204 ,  206 ,  208 ). For example, it may be acceptable to sacrifice 1 pixel element out of every 20 or more (such as 1 per hundred) to implement the edge features. 
     Sub-Array Architectures 
     FIGS.  3 A,B,C illustrate some sub-array (tile) architectures  300 A,B,C, according to some embodiments of the invention. In each of these, a plurality of sub-arrays (tiles) may be arranged on a routing layer  350 A-C (compare  150 ), generally in the manner shown in  FIGS. 1 ,  1 A. In each of these representations, only three sub-arrays are shown, as representative, for illustrative clarity. Back surface connections ( 130 ,  214 ), edge features ( 204 ,  206 ,  208 ) and the like are omitted, for illustrative clarity. 
       FIG. 3A  illustrates a plurality of sub-arrays (tiles)  310 A disposed on a routing layer  350 A. Each sub-array  310 A has the requisite emitter (or detector) elements and associated circuitry for a plurality of pixel elements, in the manner of the single-chip tiles  110  described hereinabove. This is comparable to what was shown in  FIG. 1A . 
       FIG. 3B  illustrates a plurality of sub-arrays (tiles)  310 B disposed on a routing layer  350 B. The tiles  310 B are “vertically integrated” in that each tile  310 B may comprise a first component such as a integrated circuit (“IC-1”)  312 B that is primarily analog in nature (such as comprising the active arrays for a plurality of pixel elements, or analog portion of a detector array) disposed atop and connected with a second component such as an integrated circuit (“IC-2”)  314 B that is primarily digital in nature (such as comprising the unit cell circuitry for a plurality of pixel elements, or digital portion of a detector array). The ICs  314 B may be connected with one another via the routing layer  350 B. 
       FIG. 3C  illustrates a plurality of sub-arrays (tiles)  310 C disposed on a routing layer  350 C. Each sub-array  310 C may comprise an integrated circuit (IC) component  312 C (“IC-1”) having limited functionality, such as comprising the requisite emitter (or detector) elements (such as active array and unit cell) disposed on and connected with the routing layer  350 C. Further components (for example a digital-to-analog converter or analog-to-digital converter)  314 C (“IC-2”) having associated circuitry for a plurality of pixel elements may also be disposed on and connected with the routing layer  350 C. A single IC  314 C may be associated with all of the ICs  312 C. Alternatively, each of a number of ICs  314 C may be associated with a subset of all the ICs  312 C. An example may be a RIIC with all the unit cell circuitry on the tiles  310 C, but digital-to-analog converters and/or demultiplexing circuitry located off the tiles  310 C (on IC-2). Features may be incorporated onto the back surfaces of the IC chips ( 312 C) to allow for precise alignment and inter-chip connections without losing active pixels or requiring a larger gap between tiles (sub-arrays). 
     Techniques for Reducing Effects of Edge Damage 
     A large array may comprise many tiles arranged abutting each other in an array, each tile having a plurality of pixel elements, as described above. The tiles may be individual IC chips that are singulated (diced, or otherwise cut or separated) from a larger wafer. Some chips will inevitably be defective. Others may sustain damage to pixel elements at their edge(s) resulting from the singulation process. 
     It is generally desirable that a large array assembled from several tiles (sub-arrays) should not exhibit discontinuities, particularly patterns of discontinuities when looking at the overall pattern of pixel elements. In other words, a large tiled array should ideally behave like a large monolithic array. The most obvious source(s) of undesirable discontinuities in the overall pattern of pixel elements would be the gap between tiles and misalignments of the tiles. Some techniques have been discussed herein for minimizing these assembly-oriented problems. 
     Generally, in order to minimize the effects of gaps between tiles (chips), the chips should be diced as close to the edge of the pixel elements (active pixels) as possible. However, cutting the chip so near the active circuitry can lead to nonfunctional pixels along the tile edges. Small dicing errors can easily lead to dead pixels. This problem may be referred to as “edge pixel damage”. 
     Some techniques will now be described for minimizing the potential for small dicing errors resulting in damage to pixel elements, particularly pixel elements at edges of the tiles (chips) which have been processed (cut, diced) from a larger substrate (wafer). This may result in more usable chips (tiles) per wafer and/or reducing the edge pixel mortality rate to a more conventional and uniformly distributed rate such as may be associated with material defects in any of the pixel elements. 
     Moving Unit Cell Circuitry Away from the Tile Edges 
     One technique for minimizing edge pixel damage is to design the read-out integrated circuit (ROIC) or read-in integrated circuit (RIIC) pixel unit cells (individually and collectively referred to as “unit cell circuitry”) to be measurably smaller than the pixel pitch. Generally, there is one unit cell circuit per pixel element. While most of the sub-array (tile) would have the unit cell circuitry centered in the pixel, the unit cell circuitry in the edge and corner pixels (a corner pixel is an edge pixel at two intersecting edges) may be biased (positioned) towards the center of the sub-array. In this way, the active circuitry is kept away from the edge(s) of the tile, and is thus less susceptible to failure if the tile edges gets damaged during processing. In the following figures, some examples may be shown of locating the unit cell circuitry for pixel elements disposed at an edge of the tile susceptible to damage away from the edge of the tile. 
       FIG. 4  illustrates a design for a tile  400  illustrating a technique ( 400 ) for reducing damage to unit cell circuitry of edge pixels, in the context of an exemplary sub-array tile  410  comprising a 5×5 sub-array of pixel elements  412 . The tile  400  may comprise a square shaped chip having four side edges  410   a - d  (which may collectively or individually be referred to as “ 410 ”), and may contain many more, such as 512×512 (or more) pixel elements, only 5×5 pixel elements being illustrated in this figure, for illustrative clarity. 
     The top left pixel element  412  may be referred to as “a”, and the bottom right pixel element  412  may be referred to as “y”, the other pixel elements  412  in the array being referred to as “b”-“x”, in sequential order across the top row, from left to right, then across the next lower row from left to right, and so forth, only some of the reference numerals actually appearing in the figure, for illustrative clarity. 
     Sub-array unit cell circuitry  422  is shown for each of the pixel elements  412 . In this example, there are twenty five (25) unit cell circuits  422  arranged in a 5×5 (m×n) array, each of the twenty five (25) unit cell circuits  422  being associated with a corresponding one of the twenty five (25) pixel elements  412 . 
     The top left unit cell circuit  422  may be referred to as “a”, and the bottom right unit cell circuit  422  may be referred to as “y”, the other unit circuits  422  in the array being referred to as “b”-“x”, in sequential order across the top row, from left to right, then across the next lower row from left to right, and so forth, only some of the reference numerals actually appearing in the figure, for illustrative clarity. 
     Generally, in this technique  400  the unit cells  422  may each be located under the active area for a given pixel element  412 , may be somewhat smaller than the active area of the respective pixel element  412 , and may be the same size as one another (the pixel elements may also be the same size as one another). In this technique, the unit cells  422  associated with edge pixel elements  412  are biased (positioned, located) away from the edge, to avoid edge pixel damage. 
     The pixel elements  412  are shown with solid lines, the unit cell circuits  422  are shown with dashed lines, and may be analog and/or digital circuitry located approximately underneath the overlying emitter (or detector) elements, such as was shown in  FIG. 1A . 
     All of the pixel elements  412  may be square and have substantially the same size as one another, such as 50 μm×50 μm. Each of the unit cell circuits  422  may also be square and have substantially the same size as one another, such as 40 μm×40 μm. Generally, the unit cell circuitry  422  may be at least 1% smaller, including at least 2% smaller, at least 5% smaller, at least 10% smaller, at least 20% smaller, at least 30% smaller, at least 40% smaller, and at least 50% smaller than the pixel element  412  with which it is associated. 
     The array of unit cell circuitry  422  may be similar in shape with but smaller than the array of corresponding pixel elements  412 . Unit cell circuits  422  lying along edges  410   a,b,c,d  of the tile  410  are displaced away from the corresponding edges, for example . . .
         the unit cell circuit  422   a  may be displaced to the right away from the left edge  410   d  of the tile  410 , and downward away from the top edge  410   a  of the tile  410     the unit cell circuits  422   b,c,d  may be displaced downward away from the top edge  410   a  of the tile  410     the unit cell circuit  422   e  may be displaced to the left away from the right edge  410   b  of the tile  410 , and downward away from the top edge  410   a  of the tile  410     the unit cell circuits  422   f,k,p  may be displaced to the right away from the left edge  410   d  of the tile  410     the unit cell circuit  422   u  may be displaced to the right away from the left edge  410   d  of the tile  410 , and upward away from the bottom edge  410   c  of the tile  410     the unit cell circuits  422   j,o,t  may be displaced to the left away from the right edge  410   b  of the tile  410     the unit cell circuit  422   y  may be displaced the left away from the right edge  410   b  of the tile  410 , and upward away from the bottom edge  410   c  of the tile  410   e      the unit cells  422   v,w,x  may be displaced upward away from the bottom edge  410   c  of the tile  410   e          

     The technique  400  may be summarized by stating that the unit cell circuits  422  are each smaller in area than the respective pixel elements  412  with which they are associated, but each unit cell circuit is generally directly under the active area of for the pixel element  412 . In edge pixels, edge unit cell circuits  422  ( a,b,c,d,e,f,k,p,u,j,o,t,y,v,w,x ) are biased away from the edges of the tile to reduce the risk of damage during edge processing. 
     The ROIC or RIIC array unit cell circuits may be designed to have a slightly smaller size and/or pitch than the active elements of the array (detectors or emitters), thus making the overall unit cell circuitry slightly smaller than the active area. If necessary, an additional layer may then be then added to route from one pitch to the other, joining the unit cell circuitry to the detector pixels or emitter pixels. This technique of routing from one pitch to the other will be shown in the next example ( FIG. 5A ). 
       FIG. 5  illustrates another example of a tile  500  illustrating a technique ( 500 ) for reducing damage to unit cell circuitry of edge pixels, in the context of an exemplary sub-array tile  510  comprising a 5×5 sub-array of pixel elements  512 . The tile  500  may comprise a square shaped chip having four side edges  510   a - d  (which may collectively or individually be referred to as “410”), and may contain many more, such as 512×512 (or more) pixel elements, only 5×5 pixel elements being illustrated in this figure, for illustrative clarity. 
     The technique  500  of  FIG. 5  is similar to the technique of  FIG. 4  in that the unit cell circuitry  522  is designed to be smaller than the pixel element  512 . As in the previous example ( FIG. 4 ), a 5×5 array of pixel elements (individually and collectively referred to as “512”) is illustrated, and the individual pixel elements are labeled “a” (top left pixel element  512 ) through “y” (bottom right pixel element  512 ). And, a 5×5 array of unit cell circuits (individually and collectively referred to as “522”) is illustrated, and the individual unit cell circuits are labeled “a” (top left unit cell circuit  522 ) through “y” (bottom right unit cell circuit  522 ). 
     In a manner similar to the technique of  FIG. 4 , in this technique  500  the unit cell circuits  522  are designed to be uniformly smaller than the pixel elements, and unit cell circuits at the edges of the tile are displaced away from the edges  510   a - d  of the tile  510  to avoid problems associated with edge pixel damage. 
     In contrast with the technique of  FIG. 4 , in this technique  500  the unit cell circuits  522  are not only designed to be smaller, and moved away from the edges of the tile, but they are also “packed” more closely with one another. In other words, rather than having leftover space between adjacent unit cells circuits  422  (which is evident in  FIG. 4 ), the unit cell circuits  522  are moved even further towards the center of the tile  510 , resulting in their being relocated even further away from the edges  510   a - d  of the tile  510 . As is evident in  FIG. 5 , this may result in several of the unit cells circuits  512  being located under two or more adjacent pixel elements  512 . For example . . .
         the unit cell circuit  522   a  which is moved away from the top edge  502   a  and left edge  502   d  of the tile  510  underlies the active area for the pixel elements  512   a ,  512   b ,  512   f  and  512   g.      the unit cell circuit  522   b  which is moved away from the top edge  502   a  of the tile  510  underlies the active area for the pixel elements  512   b ,  512   c ,  512   g  and  512   h.      and so forth, as shown in  FIG. 5 .       

     The center of the array of unit cell circuitry  522  may be coincident with the center of the array of corresponding pixel elements  512 , even though the array of unit cell circuitry is smaller. Most of the unit cell circuits  522  are offset from their respective pixel elements  512 , but it may be noted that the middle (central) unit cell circuit  522  (“m”) may be located directly under the active area of the pixel element (“m”), the array of unit cell circuits  522  being centered with the array of pixel elements  512 . 
     The technique  500  may be summarized by stating that the unit cell circuits  522  are each smaller in area than the respective pixel elements  512  with which they are associated, but edge unit cell circuits  522  ( a,b,c,d,e,f,k,p,u,j,o,t,y,v,w,x ) are biased away from the edges of the tile and towards the center of the tile, resulting in some unit cell circuits  522  being under active areas for two or more adjacent pixel elements  512 . 
     In this technique  500 , the pitch of the unit cell circuitry  522  which is all biased towards the center of the tile is less than (rather than substantially equal to) the pitch of the pixel elements  512 , and as mentioned above, an additional layer may then be then added to route from one pitch (of the pixel elements  512 ) to the other (of the unit cell circuitry  522 ), joining the unit cell circuitry to the detector pixels or emitter pixels. This technique of routing from one pitch to the other (sometimes referred to as “space transformation”) will be shown in and described with respect to the following figure ( FIG. 5A ). More generally, it is evident in FIGS.  5 , 5 A that the unit cell circuitry  522  has been shifted, and is not aligned with the pixel elements ( 512 ). Contrast  FIG. 4  where the unit cell circuitry  422  is aligned with the pixel elements  412 . 
       FIG. 5A  shows an example of routing between the layers, along with pad locations shifted away from the edges. In this figure,
         the small squares, two per pixel element  512 , represent pads for supporting (if necessary) and contacting the active elements (emitters or detectors), such as resistive bridges which have two terminals (ends). Many of the pads have been omitted, for illustrative clarity.   the small circles, two per unit cell circuit  522 , represent connections, such as vias or contact points, in the unit cell circuitry. Each two (pair of) vias are shown as being in diagonally opposed corners in a respective unit cell circuit  522 .   the lines joining the small squares to small circles represent interconnect (routing) traces, which may be implemented in a separate layer. Only some lines (connecting pads from pixel element  512   a,e,y  to vias for unit cell circuits  522   a,e,y ) are shown, for illustrative clarity.
           as shown, there may be two pads (small squares) per pixel element  512 , two vias per unit cell circuit  522 , and one trace connecting each pad with a respective via   
               

     Generally, the two vias for the unit cell circuitry  522  may all be located at opposite two corners of the respective unit cell circuit  522 . In other words, all the unit cell circuits may be the same as one another. However, it may be advantageous to design the active element and pads differently for various subsets of pixel elements  512 , such as for edge pixels, corner pixels (a subset of edge pixels) and interior pixels (those pixels which are not edge pixels).  FIGS. 7A ,  7 B,  7 C show examples of edge, corner, and interior (or center) pixels, respectively. 
       FIGS. 6 ,  6 A illustrates another example of a design for a tile  600  illustrating a technique for minimizing edge pixel damage. In this technique ( 600 ), the unit cell circuitry (collectively “ 622 ”) is made smaller and is maintained the same as the pitch as the active areas of the pixel elements (collectively “ 612 ). This much is similar to the technique  400  of  FIG. 4 . 
     Expanding upon the notion of moving the unit cell circuits  622  inward, away from the edges  610   a  and  610   b  (only two edges illustrated) of the tile  610 , such as was described with respect to the technique  500  of  FIG. 5 , in this example the unit cell circuits  522  for edge pixel elements  512  may be moved even further away from the edges of the tile until they are disposed under an entirely different active area, with which they are not associated. The curved arrows extending from the pixel elements  512   g,f,e,d,c,b,a,h, I, j,k,l,m  indicate this relocation. In  FIG. 6A  it can be observed that the unit cell circuit  622  for pixel element  612   j  has been moved away from the edge pixel element with which it is associated to under another pixel which is away from the edge  610   b  of the tile  600 . 
     In order to implement this technique, additional routing layers may be required. The edge unit cell circuitry may be moved inward from the edge pixels, in layers of the tile (IC chip) either above or below the layers comprising the main body of pixels. For example, this may be on the back of the chip, avoiding the areas occupied by the through chip connections. This may simplify the layout over most of the sub-array and allows the maximum area for the unit cell, although at the cost of some slightly more complicated routing along the edges and in the corners. 
     Another technique to reduce the possibility of edge pixel damage is to move any contact points such as connections between unit cell circuitry and the active detectors or emitters (such as emitter bridge structures or microbolometers) away from the edges that will undergo further processing. Examples of pad movement to the opposite edges or corners are shown in  FIG. 5A , but would also apply in cases such as described with respect to  FIGS. 4 and 6 . 
     Modifying the Pixel Elements 
     In the case of detector or emitter pixels with structures smaller than the pitch size (for example microbolometer pixels or resistive array emitters), another technique can be applied to the edge and corner pixels to minimize risk of pixel failure. In this technique the edge and corner pixels have modified internal circuitry that keep the active portions of the pixel circuitry away from the edges (and corners) of the tile that will undergo further processing. In the event that an etch, dice or mill process encroaches onto the pixel body, the pixel may suffer some damage in its structure, including in the optically active area, but as long as the electrically active area (such as traces) are not affected the pixels may yet retain most of their functionality. In the case of a MEMS (micro-electromechanical systems) device such as a microbolometer or resistive array pixel, support structures (such as posts supporting bridges) may also be moved away from the affected tile edges. In the following figures, some examples may be shown of locating the electrically active area of pixel elements disposed at an edge of the tile susceptible to damage away from the edge of the tile while maintaining the optically active area as large as possible. 
     The concept that the active areas of some pixel elements may be different than others, to avoid edge damage, was mentioned above with respect to the technique  500  of  FIG. 5 . More particularly, it was suggested that the emitter or detector structures and pad (post) layout for edge pixels may differ from that of corner pixels (a special case of edge pixel), which may differ from that of interior (central) pixels which are not at an edge. 
     As mentioned above, some prior art describes tiling on two sides, such as by forming a 2×2 array of tiles (four total), each rotated 90 degrees with respect to the others. The techniques disclosed herein allow for tiling on all four sides of a (square) chip, thereby allowing arbitrarily large arrays to be manufactured from smaller tiles. 
     In the techniques described herein, three distinct types of pixel design are described. Indeed, a given pixel design may be rotated 180 degrees, depending on whether it lays along a right-side edge of the tile or a left-side edge of the tile (or top edge versus bottom edge), or 90 degrees depending on which of the four corners of the tile it is located at, but the concept here is to have three distinct designs for active areas of pixel elements, and generally one should not be exchanged for the other. In other words, it would not be beneficial to substitute an edge pixel design for a center pixel design, or for a corner pixel design, no matter how it is rotated. 
       FIGS. 7A ,  7 B,  7 C illustrate that a sub-array tile may be implemented with MEMS pixel element designs that are tolerant to edge damage. Generally, rather than having one pixel element design for all of the pixel elements in the sub-array, there are different pixel designs for edge pixels (pixels which are disposed at an edge of the sub-array tile) having only one side susceptible to edge damage, corner pixels (pixels which are disposed at a corner of the sub-array tile) having two sides susceptible to edge damage and center pixels (which may be considered to be the “standard” or unmodified pixel design) which are those pixels which are not disposed along a tile edge. Generally, only posts and active traces within the pixels, such as resistors in microbolometer arrays or resistive arrays may be shown, for illustrative clarity. 
     The overall active area of a pixel element such as a thermal emitter may comprise an electrically active portion or area (or simply “electrical portion”) such as an electrical trace or resistor, and an optically active portion or area (or simply “optical portion”) such as a thermal mass heated by current flowing through the electrical trace. In  FIGS. 7A and 7B , pixel elements which will reside at an edge or corner of a tile are shown having their electrical traces (electrically active areas) spaced away from the edge(s) of the tile susceptible to edge damage. The optical portions may be maintained as large as possible, and may extend as near to the edge(s) of the pixel as practical, including up to the edges of the tile, to reduce the apparent gap between adjacent tiles. Damage to the optical portion only will generally not render the pixel element non-functional, it will only slightly reduce its net active area, and the edge-damaged pixel element may still function reasonably well. 
       FIG. 7A  shows a design for an edge pixel  712 A, such as the pixel elements  512   b,c,d,j,o,t,v,w,x,f,k,p  shown in  FIG. 5 . An active area  740 A comprises an electrically active portion  742 A such as an electrical trace or resistor which is asymmetric, and “shrunk” in one direction (or “moved” away from one edge), leaving an edge-damage-tolerant (EDT) area along one side (right as shown) of the pixel  712 A. The electrically active portion  742 A does not extend into the EDT area. The optical portion  744 A of the active area  740 A may extend into this EDT area. For example, the EDT area disposed along one side of the pixel element may occupy a fraction of the pixel width (or pitch), such as at least 1%, at least 2%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 25% or the overall “active area”. The two electrical contact points and mechanical support points (“posts”) are both located on the same side of the pixel, opposite the edge of the pixel element susceptible to edge damage. 
     When implemented in the sub-array, the EDT area of the pixel  712 A may be aligned at the edge of the sub-array tile. Hence, there may be four different orientations (EDT area facing up, EDT area facing right, EDT area facing down, EDT area facing left) for edge pixels  712 A implemented in an array—although all edge pixels  712 A may have the same design irrespective of which tile edge they are disposed along. This allows for pixel edge damage along that edge of the sub-array tile while avoiding pixel failure. In the example shown in  FIG. 7A , the design is oriented as it would be for pixels  512   j,o,t  along the right edge of the sub-array tile. Representative “edge damage” is illustrated extending from the edge of the pixel into the EDT area, without adversely affecting the electrically active component (e.g. trace, resistor, contact), impacting only slightly upon the optical portion of the pixel element. 
       FIG. 7B  shows a design  712 B for a corner pixel, such as the pixel elements  512   a,e,y,u  shown in  FIG. 5 . Here, the electrically active area  742 B of the active area  740 B is asymmetric, moved away from two intersecting edges, in two directions (diagonally away from the sensitive corner), thus allowing for pixel edge damage along either of those two intersecting edges without causing pixel failure. Here it may be observed that the electrical contact points and mechanical support points (“posts”) are located in a single corner of the pixel, which is opposite from the two sides (away from the other three other corners) that would be diced and subject to damage. The optical portion  740 B may extend to those two edges. 
     Having two EDT areas in the design may necessitate that the electrically active area (for example the area occupied by the resistor in a microbolometer or emitter array) for the corner pixel  712 B may be somewhat smaller than the active area for the edge pixel  712 A. In a similar manner, the EDT areas of the pixel  712 B may extend a small fraction of the pixel width from the edge of the pixel towards the interior of the pixel. (Of course, corner pixels  712 B could be used for edge pixels which are not disposed at the corner of the sub-array tile, as well as for pixel element which are not edge pixels.) In  FIG. 7B , the EDT area on the left side (as viewed) of the pixel element is shown slightly larger than the EDT area on the top side of the pixel element, to illustrate that they may be the same or different. The orientation of the illustrated pixel element  712 B with its EDT areas on its top and left sides, is suitable for being implemented as the top-left pixel  512   a  of the tile  510  ( FIG. 5 ). For the other three corner pixels  512   e,y,u , the design may be orientated appropriately. 
       FIG. 7C  shows a design  712 C for a an interior (or center) pixel, such as the pixel elements  512   g,h,l,m,n,q,r,s  shown in  FIG. 5 . The active area  740 C comprises an electrically active portion  742 C and an optically active portion  744 C. Since a pixel having this design will not be located at an edge (or corner), and therefore not susceptible to edge damage, this may be regarded as the “standard” pixel design. Generally, no EDT area is required in the design for a center pixel, and the electrical contact points and mechanical support points (“posts”) are located in two opposite corners of the pixel. 
     Another technique to achieve similar results (edge damage tolerance) using the same design for all of the pixels in the array (rather than different designs for different classes of pixels—edge, corner, center) would be to move the electrically active circuitry towards the center of the pixel. 
     As described above, edge damage tolerance may be improved by moving unit cell circuitry and/or the electrical trace of the active area away from edges of pixels that are located at the edges of tiles.  FIGS. 8 and 9  describe moving the support structures (posts) to the center of the pixel (away from all edges) such that all edges of the pixel element may be tolerant of damage. 
       FIG. 8  shows a pixel element  812 . The dashed line  840 ′ show the “pre-moved” (standard) location of the active circuitry, which is normally substantially the same size as the pixel element  812 . The dashed line  840  shows the “moved” (away from all four edges of the tile) location of the electrical trace  842  of the active circuitry. More particularly, the pads and legs (“posts”) are in the center of the pixel  812  and the electrical trace (resistor)  842  is kept away from the edge. The optical portion  844  may extend substantially to all four edges of the pixel  812 . This way, all pixels would be the same instead of needing a different design for sides/edges ( FIG. 7A ), corners ( FIG. 7B ) and interior/center ( FIG. 7C ). 
     For MEMS devices the support structures could also be moved to the center.  FIG. 8  shows a symmetric MEMS pixel design that is tolerant of edge damage on all four sides. Active circuitry (resistor) is kept away from all (four) sides of the pixel element, thereby allowing a single pixel design to be used for the entire array (edges, corners, interior). 
     A similar technique that does not sacrifice the optical fill factor of a pixel would be to locate the center support structure below the optically active area of the pixel. An example of such a pixel is shown in  FIG. 9 . 
       FIGS. 9 ,  9 A illustrate a symmetric MEMS pixel design that is tolerant of edge damage on all four sides with its two support structures  946   a ,  946   b  located underneath the active area  940  of the pixel element  912 . The active area  940  may comprise an electrically active portion  942  and optically active portion  944 . 
     While the invention(s) has/have been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention(s), but rather as examples of some of the embodiments. Those skilled in the art may envision other possible variations, modifications, and implementations that are also within the scope of the invention(s), based on the disclosure(s) set forth herein.