Abstract:
A Tritium battery of parallel and aligned thin plate anodes and cathodes separated by thin dielectric panels and enclosed in a vented case with an external dummy load, an integral internal DC-DC converter providing converted output power to external electrical contacts, and a fuse. Logic switches power to the dummy load if there is no load on the external electrical contacts. The cathodes may be coated with an electrically conductive coating, such as graphene or a compound of carbon nanotubes and metallic micro wire. The cathodes may be superconductors. The anode includes a conductive thin plate coated with a chemically stable Tritium compound. The thin plate may be etched to increase surface area. The cases are scalable in configuration and may have ten electrodes or more on the sides as well as ends, and so encased Tritium batteries can be physically stacked side-to-side to create electrical connections for parallel power.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    The present application claims the benefit of provisional application Ser. No. 61/329,187 filed Apr. 29, 2010 by the same inventors. 
     
    
     TECHNICAL FIELD 
       [0002]    The present invention is related to an improved modular Tritium battery design that exploits advanced materials and allows cell stacking to achieve desired voltage and/or amperage necessary to sustain work. Some examples of such a storage device need include: electronic solid state devices, mobile phones, a laptop computer, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a camera, a television, a portable media player, unmanned systems, and an automobile. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0003]    A traditional battery is a device that converts the chemical energy contained in its active materials into electrical energy by means of an electrochemical reaction. While the term “battery” is often used, the basic electrochemical element being referred to is the battery cell. A battery consists of two or more cells electrically connected in series to form a unit. In common usage, the terms “battery” and “cell” are used interchangeably. A traditional battery design falls within two categories being primary or secondary. Primary batteries can be used only once because the chemical reactions that supply the electrical current are irreversible. Secondary (or storage) batteries can be used, charged, and reused. In these batteries, the chemical reactions that supply electrical current are readily reversed so that the battery is charged. 
         [0004]    A traditional battery uses a separator to electrically isolate the positive and negative electrodes. If the electrodes are allowed to come in contact, the cell will short-circuit and become useless because both electrodes would be at the same potential. It should be noted that the electrodes in a battery must be of dissimilar materials or the cell will not be able to develop an electrical potential and thus conduct electrical current. The type of separator used varies by cell type. Materials used as separators must allow electron transfer between the electrodes. The separator is made of a porous plastic or glass fiber material. The above components are housed in a container commonly called a jar or container. The electrolyte completes the internal circuit in the battery by supplying ions to the positive and negative electrodes. Dilute sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) is the electrolyte in lead-acid batteries. In a fully charged lead-acid battery, the electrolyte is approximately 25% sulfuric acid and 75% water. 
         [0005]    Beta-voltaic batteries collect and channel sub-atomic particles from radioactive decay. The term “Tritium Battery” is often used wherein the basic electrochemical element being referred to is the battery cell. A battery consists of two or more cells electrically connected in series to form a unit. In common usage, the terms “battery” and “cell” are used interchangeably. 
       OBJECTS AND FEATURES OF THE INVENTION 
       [0006]    It is an object and feature of the present invention to provide four cell and battery designs, each embodiment more energetic than its predecessor and similar in application to their analogues, i.e. standard cell, alkaline cell, and the Lithium cell batteries. The three advantages for the Tritium power cells are: they&#39;re always producing power, they never will need to be recharged, and battery life is extended for a period of approximately twenty-four years 
         [0007]    Another object and feature of the present invention is to provide immunity to extreme temperature fluctuations. The Tritium battery will produce power consistently at temperatures ranging from near absolute zero (minus 273 degrees Celsius) to well over 100 degrees Celsius. This means that, for this Tritium battery, function will no longer be limited by temperature based environmental factors: it will produce predictable and consistent power over its design life. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0008]    The invention provides a tritium battery including a stack of a plurality of thin plate cathodes alternated with a plurality of thin plate anodes, a plurality of thin dielectric layers separating the plurality of thin plate cathodes alternated with the plurality of thin plate anodes, where each the anode of the plurality of thin plate anodes includes a coating of a chemically stable tritium compound on a thin metallic panel; and where first and second opposing ends of the stack each terminate in a cathode. The tritium battery, where the thin metallic panel includes an etched thin metallic panel. The tritium battery, further including a case enclosing the stack. The tritium battery, further including a vent in the case operable to vent  3 He without allowing air or water to enter the case. The tritium battery, further including an integral DC-DC converter inside the case for accepting an electrical output from the stack and for providing converted electrical output to either first and second external electrodes mounted at least partially eternally on the case or a dummy load mounted external to the case. The tritium battery, including a fuse in the converted electrical output path. The tritium battery, further including a logic operable to switch the converted electrical output between the first and second external electrodes and the dummy load responsive to the state of an electrical load on the first and second external electrodes. The tritium battery, where the first and second external electrodes each include first and second electrical side contacts mounted circumferentially on at least first and second side portions of the case proximate to first and second opposing case ends, respectively, or the first and second electrical contacts mounted on the first and second opposing case ends. The tritium battery, further including a plurality of the tritium batteries having a respective plurality of first and second electrical side contacts stacked with the plurality of the first side electrical contacts in electrical contact with each other and the plurality of the second electrical side contacts in electrical contact with each other. The tritium battery, further including an electrically conductive coating on each cathode. The tritium battery, further including a case enclosing the stack; a vent in the case operable to vent  3 He without allowing air or water to enter the case; an integral DC-DC converter inside the case for accepting an electrical output from the stack and for providing converted electrical output to one of first and second external electrodes mounted at least partially eternally on the case; a dummy load mounted external to the case; logic operable to switch to the converted electrical output between the first and second external electrodes and the dummy load responsive to the state of an electrical load on the first and second external electrodes. The tritium battery, where the electrically conductive coating includes either graphene or a carbon nanotube and micro silver wire compound. The tritium battery, where the first and second external electrodes each include either first and second electrical side contacts mounted circumferentially on at least first and second side portions of the case proximate to first and second opposing case ends, respectively, and the first and second electrical contacts mounted on the first and second opposing case ends. The tritium battery, further including a plurality of the tritium batteries having a respective plurality of first and second electrical side contacts stacked with the plurality of the first side electrical contacts in electrical contact with each other and the plurality of the second electrical side contacts in electrical contact with each other. The tritium battery, including an electrically conductive coating on each cathode and where the thin metallic panel is replaced with a thin panel of superconducting material. The tritium battery, further including a case enclosing the stack; a vent in the case operable to vent  3 He without allowing air or water to enter the case; an integral DC-DC converter inside the case for accepting an electrical output from the stack and for providing converted electrical output to one of first and second external electrodes mounted at least partially eternally on the case; a dummy load mounted external to the case; logic operable to switch to the converted electrical output between the first and second external electrodes and the dummy load responsive to the state of an electrical load on the first and second external electrodes. The tritium battery, further including a plurality of the tritium batteries having a respective plurality of first and second electrical side contacts stacked with the plurality of the first side electrical contacts in electrical contact with each other and the plurality of the second electrical side contacts in electrical contact with each other. The tritium battery, where the electrically conductive coating includes either graphene or a carbon nanotube and micro silver wire compound. 
         [0009]    A tritium battery including a stack including a plurality of parallel and aligned thin plate cathodes alternated with a plurality of parallel and aligned thin plate anodes; a plurality of thin dielectric layers separating the plurality of thin plate cathodes alternated with the plurality of thin plate anodes; where each anode of the plurality of thin plate anodes includes a coating of a chemically stable tritium compound on a thin metallic panel; where first and second opposing ends of the stack each terminate in a cathode; a case enclosing the stack; a vent in the case operable to vent  3 He without allowing air or water to enter the case; an integral DC-DC converter inside the case for accepting an electrical output from the stack and for providing converted electrical output to either first and second external electrodes mounted at least partially eternally on the case or a dummy load mounted external to the case; a fuse in a path of the converted electrical output; logic operable to switch the converted electrical output between the first and second external electrodes and the dummy load responsive to the state of an electrical load on the first and second external electrodes. 
         [0010]    A tritium battery including a stack of a plurality of parallel and aligned thin plate cathodes alternated with a plurality of parallel and aligned thin plate anodes; a plurality of thin dielectric layers separating the plurality of thin plate cathodes alternated with the plurality of thin plate anodes where each anode of the plurality of thin plate anodes includes a coating of a chemically stable tritium compound on a thin superconductive panel; where first and second opposing ends of the stack each terminate in a cathode; a case enclosing the stack; a vent in the case operable to vent  3 He without allowing air or water to enter the case; an integral DC-DC converter inside the case for accepting an electrical output from the stack and for providing converted electrical output to one of first and second external electrodes mounted at least partially externally on the case; and a dummy load mounted external to the case; a fuse in a path of the converted electrical output; a logic operable to switch the converted electrical output between the first and second external electrodes and the dummy load responsive to the state of an electrical load on the first and second external electrodes; an electrically conductive coating on each the cathode; and where the first and second external electrodes each include first and second electrical side contacts mounted circumferentially on at least first and second side portions of the case proximate to first and second opposing case ends, respectively. 
         [0011]    Additional aspects of the invention will be set forth, in part, in the detailed description, figures which follow, and in part will be derived from the detailed description, or can be learned by practice of the invention. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as disclosed. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0012]    The above and other objects and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the following drawings in which: 
           [0013]      FIG. 1  is a diagrammatic view illustrating an exemplary improved Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention; 
           [0014]      FIG. 2  is a diagrammatic view illustrating a second exemplary improved Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention; 
           [0015]      FIG. 3  is a diagrammatic view illustrating a third exemplary improved Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell, in accordance with another preferred embodiment of the present invention; 
           [0016]      FIG. 5A  is a top plan view illustrating a second exemplary packaged cell, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention; 
           [0017]      FIG. 5B  is a bottom plan view illustrating the exemplary packaged cell of  FIG. 5A , in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention; 
           [0018]      FIG. 6  is a side elevation view illustrating an exemplary parallel stack of exemplary packaged cells of  FIGS. 5A and 5B ; and 
           [0019]      FIG. 7  is a side elevation view illustrating an exemplary series stack of exemplary packaged cells of  FIGS. 5A and 5B . 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0020]      FIG. 1  is a diagrammatic view illustrating an exemplary improved Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  100 , in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. Negative electrode  102  supplies electrons to the external circuit (or load) during discharge. In a fully charged Tritium Beta voltaic battery cell  100 , the negative electrode  102  is composed of a conductive metal plate. As the negative electrode  102  supplies electrons, it becomes more and more positive from the load (not shown) during discharge. A fully charged Tritium battery positive electrode  104  (one of two labeled) is composed of a conductive metal piece  106  coated with a stable Tritium-based compound  108 . For example, the Tritium-based compound  108  may be Tritium hydride. Between the negative electrode (cathode)  102  and the positive electrode (anode)  104 , there is a thin dielectric layer  110  of dielectric material of sufficiently low density to permit beta particle (emitted electron) permeability between the electrodes  102 ,  104 . 
         [0021]    The dielectric layer  110  prevents the transfer of ambient (low kinetic energy) electrons between the cathode  104  and the anode  102 , while allowing beta particles (high kinetic energy electrons) to pass from the cathode  104  to the anode  102 . Tritium is chemically bound (for example, in a hydride compound) for stable chemical retention and abated migration of Tritium, prevention of potential leakage, and maintaining consistent battery power generation. The gaps shown between the dielectric layers  110  and the electrodes  102 ,  104 , are only for purposes of illustration: in practice, the dielectric layers and electrodes are in contact. This mode of illustration is used throughout the drawings. The cathodes  104  are never on the outside of the capacitor-like structure  112 . 
         [0022]    In a particular embodiment, the surfaces of electrodes  102 ,  106  may be etched, as is known in the art of making conductors for ultra capacitors, to increase the surface area of the electrode  102 ,  106 , and thereby increase their charge-holding capacity. In another particular embodiment, the cathode plates  106  may be sintered metal, enabling venting of  3 He gas through the cathode. 
         [0023]    The capacitor-like structure  112  is constructed such that every other conducting layer  102 ,  104  is coated with a thin layer of tritium compound  108 . In the present embodiment, the Tritium compound  108  would be a specially formulated Tritium compound  108 . The tritium compound  108  emits beta particles (electrons) at a predictable rate proportional to the density of the tritium compound  108  and its age in half-lives. If the insulation layers  110  of the capacitor  112  are thin enough, then energized electrons (beta particles) will penetrate the dielectric insulation layers  110  and pass through to the cathode conductor plate  102  on the other side, enabling current flow. The anode conductor plates  106  are coated with tritium compound  108  and will, therefore, lose electrons and become positively charged and the cathode conductor plates  102  receiving the electrons will become negatively charged. As the electrode conductor  102 ,  106  plates become charged, the emitted electrons will have to do work in order to make it through to the other side of the insulation layer  110 : this is the source of power in the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  100 . Since the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell must develop substantial voltage in the range of several thousand volts, a practical device will contain an integral DC-DC converter that efficiently converts the high voltage at low current to a low voltage at higher current, i.e. 12 VDC at 1 mA gives a power output of 12 mW. 
         [0024]    A balance of competing considerations is required. The dielectric strength of insulation layers  110  increases as approximate thickness, so Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  100  voltage increases linearly with thickness. Since power is proportional to voltage squared, power increases as thickness of the dielectric layers  110  is squared. However, beta penetration efficiency decreases rapidly with thickness, so current decreases with thickness. Accordingly, there is a competing requirement to make the dielectric layer  110  as thick as possible to allow operation at the highest possible voltage, since energy is proportional to voltage squared, but also as thin as possible to allow as many beta particles to penetrate the dielectric layer  110  as possible, since that constitutes the current. The power is the product of the operating voltage times the current. Thus, for a given dielectric layer  110  material, the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell&#39;s  100  power output has a maxima dependent on its transparency to beta particles. The insulating layers  110  are therefore made of high dielectric strength material so that they can be made as thin as possible and the dielectric material is also chosen to be as transparent as possible to beta particles in the energy range emitted by tritium. When these two requirements are properly balanced, then the battery will produce the maximum power possible. 
         [0025]    The Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  100  will convert its mass of tritium into  3 He. The latter is completely harmless but provision must be made to vent  3 He or build-up of  3 He in the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  100  will cause damage.  3 He can be dissolved in various materials and will slowly diffuse through such materials, so including such materials in the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  100  construction will scavenge exhaust  3 He gas and thereby allow such gas to diffuse through the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  100  into the atmosphere. For example, palladium dissolves a relatively large amount of helium as does iron to a lesser degree. An alternative method of venting the helium is to embed microscopic tubes that act as pipes to allow the  3 He to exit but keep foreign matter out of the cell. The same effect can be obtained by using porous media such as sintered materials or zeolytes. Finally, nanotubes can be used that are crafted to allow the transport of molecules the size of helium to escape but to block any larger molecules such as air or water from entering the cell. 
         [0026]      FIG. 2  is a diagrammatic view illustrating an exemplary improved Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  200  having improved capacity, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. The embodiment of  FIG. 2  deviates from the embodiment of  FIG. 1  by first, integrating a metal foil layer  212  that conducts the received electrons to the cathode  202  and, secondly, by integrating conductive carbon nanotubes/micro silver wire compound coating  214  on metal foil layer  212 . In an alternate embodiment, graphene may be used in place of the conductive carbon nanotubes/micro silver wire compound coating  214 . 
         [0027]    The Tritium Battery device  200  of the present embodiment is made possible, in part, by the use of nano-technology. A capacitor-like structure  216  is constructed such that every other conducting layer  206 ,  212  is coated with a thin layer of tritium compound  208 , for example, a Tritium Hydride compound  208 . The Tritium compound  208  emits beta particles (electrons) at a predictable rate proportional to the density of the Tritium compound  208  and its age in half-lives. If the dielectric layers  210  of the capacitor-like structure  216  are thin enough, then the electrons will penetrate the dielectric insulation layers  210  and pass through to the cathode conductor  212  on the other side. A dielectric material of sufficient thinness with high beta particle permeability is preferred. The anode conductor plates  206  coated with a tritium compound  208  will therefore lose electrons and become positively charged and the graphene or Carbon nanotube/micro Silver wire-coated  214  cathode conductors  212  receiving the electrons will become negatively charged. As the anode and cathode conductor plates  206 ,  212  become charged, the emitted electrons will have to do work in order to make it through to the other side of the dielectric layers; this is the source of power in the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  200 . Since the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  200  must develop substantial voltage in the range of several thousand volts, a practical device will contain an integral DC-DC converter that efficiently converts the high voltage at low current to a low voltage at higher current, i.e. 12 VDC at 1 mA gives a power output of 12 mW. In this embodiment of the improved Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell using Carbon nanotube/micro Silver wire coated  214  conductors  212 , battery efficiency is substantially increased. 
         [0028]      FIG. 3  is a diagrammatic view illustrating a third exemplary improved Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  300 , in accordance with another preferred embodiment of the present invention. The present embodiment deviates from the embodiment of  FIG. 1  by first, integrating superconducting layers  306  and  312  and, secondly, integrating conductive carbon nanotubes/micro silver wire compound coating  314 . In an alternate embodiment, graphene may be used in place of the conductive carbon nanotubes/micro silver wire compound coating  314 . A capacitor-like structure  316  is constructed such that every other superconducting anode layer  306 , is coated with a thin layer of tritium compound  308 , for example, a Tritium Hydride compound  308 . The Tritium compound  308  emits beta particles (electrons) at a predictable rate proportional to the density of the Tritium compound  308  and the age of the Tritium compound  308  in half-lives. If the dielectric layers  310  of the capacitor-like structure  316  are thin enough, then the emitted electrons will penetrate the dielectric layers  310  and pass through to the cathode superconductor  312  on the other side of the dielectric layer  310 . The superconducting anodes  312  are coated with a tritium compound  308  and will, therefore, lose electrons and become positively charged and the graphene or Carbon nanotube/micro Silver wire coated  314  cathode superconductors  312  receiving the electrons will become negatively charged. As the superconductor plates  306 ,  312  become charged, the emitted electrons will have to do work in order to make it through to the other side of the dielectric layer  310 ; this is the source of power in the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  300 . 
         [0029]    Since the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  300  must develop substantial voltage in the range of several thousand volts, a practical device will contain an integral DC-DC converter that efficiently converts the high voltage at low current to a low voltage at higher current, i.e. 12 VDC at 1 mA gives a power output of 12 mW. In this instantiation of the Tritium battery using a room temperature superconducting substrate and Carbon nanotube/micro Silver wire coated conductors, battery efficiency dramatically increases. 
         [0030]    The Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cells  100 ,  200 , or  300  may be connected in series, parallel, or combinations of both packaging alternatives. Similar cells or batteries connected in series have the positive terminal of one cell or battery connected to the negative terminal of another cell or battery. This has the effect of increasing the overall voltage but the overall current capacity remains the same. Similar cells or batteries connected in parallel have their like terminals connected together. The overall voltage remains the same but the current capacity is increased. 
         [0031]      FIG. 4  is a diagrammatic view illustrating an exemplary packaged cell  400  of the third exemplary improved Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  300  of  FIG. 3 , in accordance with another preferred embodiment of the present invention. Package wall  426 , which may be a cylindrical wall, is an insulator. In other embodiments, the package wall may have various shapes adapted to various applications. Anode  424  is shown as a flat plate for stacking packaged cells  400 . In various other embodiments, the anode  424  may be of various shapes adapted to various applications. Cathode  422  is shown as a flat plate for stacking packaged cells  400 . In various other embodiments, the cathode  422  may be of various shapes adapted to various applications. Packaged cell  400  contains DC/DC converter  420  for converting from high voltage with a low current to lower voltage at a higher current. In an alternate embodiment, the DC/DC converter is a separate module sized for a particular stack of packaged cells  400 . Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  300  has anode  306  and cathode  304  coupled to the inputs of the DC/DC converter  420 . The anode output lead  428  from DC/DC converter  420  couples to packaged cell  400  anode  422 , while the cathode output lead  430   428  from DC/DC converter  420  couples to packaged cell  400  anode  424 . 
         [0032]    Those of skill in the art, informed by this disclosure, will appreciate that embodiments using superconductors  306 ,  312  must be operated within the temperature range at which the particular superconducting material superconducts. For example, if a room-temperature superconducting material were to be employed, the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  300  would have to be maintained at room temperature, making it preferable to place the dummy load outside of the packaged cell  400 . 
         [0033]    Package wall  426  may have one or more vents (not shown) for venting  3 He. Means for venting  3 He while preventing the entry of moisture, such as permeable membranes, are preferred. 
         [0034]    The Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  100 ,  200 , and  300 , as well as embodiments not illustrated, may be packaged to have the size, shape, and electrical output of a conventional battery, such as commercially available cell phone cells, or any other size and shape of battery desired. For further example, the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cells  100 ,  200 , or  300  may be packaged on integrated circuit chips for use in powering circuits on circuit boards. In addition, the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cells  100 ,  200 , or  300  may be packaged with other circuit components for power management, such as an ultra capacitor. In a particular application, a dummy load may included with packaged cell  400 , as the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  300  is constantly generating electrical charge and there must always be a path for the current being produced. In an exemplary embodiment, the dummy load is on the package wall  426 , and is automatically switched in when the primary load is not drawing current. Heat dissipation means may be incorporated with the dummy load. 
         [0035]    In an exemplary application, a flashlight using a Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cells  100 ,  200 , or  300  may omit an ON/OFF switch and remain constantly on, there being no point in conserving beta-voltaic battery power. In such a flashlight, the load includes an array of flashlight bulbs connected in parallel, so that the load may be maintained as individual bulbs burn out and are replaced. This approach may be used for various lighting and surveillance applications. Those of skill in the art, enlightened by the present disclosure, with appreciate other uses for constantly loaded Tritium batteries in applications previously characterized by intermittent loading. 
         [0036]    In an exemplary hybrid battery embodiment, the packaged cell  400  may be used to trickle charge a lithium-ion battery either as an integral part of the lithium-ion battery or as a separate component. In an exemplary power supply, the packaged cell  400  may be coupled to an ultra capacitor or lithium-ion battery for storage via charge-control circuitry, a DC/DC converter for current management, and a dummy load that can be switched in if the primary load fails. The dummy load can be a resistor, or a resistor with a fan for dissipating the heat. 
         [0037]    The packaged cell  400  is designed for modularity. 
         [0038]    Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cells  100 ,  200 , and  300 , like most traditional cells or batteries are designed to support a functional, mechanical and electrical product interface. As with traditional batteries, for a Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  100 ,  200 , and  300  or battery to deliver electrical current to an external circuit, a potential difference must exist between the positive and negative electrodes. The potential difference (usually measured in volts) and is commonly referred to as the voltage of the cell or battery. Like traditional batteries, the capacity of a Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell/battery is defined as the amount of charge available expressed in ampere-hours (Ah). An ampere is defined as the unit of measurement used for electrical current and is defined as a coulomb of charge passing through an electrical conductor in one second. The capacity of a cell or battery is related to the quantity of active materials in it, and the amount of electrolyte and the surface area of the electrode plates. The capacity of a battery/cell is measured by discharging at a constant current until it reaches its terminal voltage. This measurement is performed at a constant temperature, under standard conditions of 25° C. (77° F.). The capacity is calculated by multiplying the discharge current value by the time required to reach terminal voltage. 
         [0039]    In a fourth embodiment, Tritium can also be used in gas form to construct a packed cell  400  by enclosing the Tritium gas within a packaged cell made of very thin insulating material that is plated on the outside with a metal. If a conductor is inserted inside the gas-filled cell that is insulated from the metal cladding on the outside, then current will flow between the conductor (+ polarity) to the metal cladding (− polarity) and form a battery cell. Low power applications may make use of this simple construction technique at the cost of lower power density, i.e. larger size. 
         [0040]      FIG. 5A  is a top plan view illustrating a second exemplary square-packaged cell  500 , in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. Square-packaged cell  500  has a square exterior perimeter  502 , rectangular sides  602  (See  FIGS. 6 and 7 ), and cathode  524 , which covers the top and extends along at least two opposing sides of square-packaged cell  500 . The square exterior perimeter  502  does not require that the Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cells  100 ,  200 ,  300  or other, non-illustrated embodiments, have the same cross-sectional shape. For example, a Tritium Beta-voltaic battery cell  300  within square-packaged cell  500  may have a round cross-section, with the vacant corners used for circuitry such as ultra capacitors, Lithium Ion batteries, fuses, current limiters, dummy loads, and DC/DC converters. 
         [0041]      FIG. 5B  is a bottom plan view illustrating the exemplary square-packaged cell  500  of  FIG. 5A , in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. Anode  522  covers the bottom and extends along at least two opposing sides  602  of square-packaged cell  500 . While cathode  524  and anode  522  are illustrated as flat, any shaping to improve electrical contact and provide conformal anodes  522  and cathodes  524  for stacking of packaged cells  500  is within the scope of the present invention. 
         [0042]      FIG. 6  is a side elevation view illustrating an exemplary parallel stack  600  of exemplary packaged cells  500  of  FIGS. 5A and 5B . The parallel stack  600  of three square-packaged cells  500  increases current at constant voltage. If the anodes  522  and cathodes  524  extend along all four sides  602  of each square-packaged cell  500 , three-dimensional stacking is possible. In stack  600 ,  700 , or two-dimensional or three-dimensional combinations thereof, fusing of individual square-packaged cells  500  is preferred, as a shorted square-packaged cells  500  anywhere in the stack  600  or  700  would short the entire stack  600 ,  700 . 
         [0043]      FIG. 7  is a side elevation view illustrating an exemplary series stack  700  of exemplary packaged cells  500  of  FIGS. 5A and 5B . A series stack  700  increases voltage at constant current. Stacks  600  and  700  are not limited to three square-packaged cells  500 , and may be combined to form two-dimensional arrays or even three-dimensional arrays of square-packaged cells  500 . 
         [0044]    While at least one exemplary embodiment has been presented in the foregoing detailed description, it should be appreciated that a vast number of variations exist. It should also be appreciated that the exemplary embodiment or exemplary embodiments are only examples, and are not intended to limit the scope, applicability, or configuration of the invention in any way. Rather, the foregoing detailed description will provide those skilled in the art with a convenient road map for implementing the exemplary embodiment or exemplary embodiments. It should be understood that various changes can be made in the function and arrangement of elements without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims and the legal equivalents thereof.