Abstract:
A motor and a method of operating the motor are provided. The motor includes a plurality of cylinders. Each cylinder includes a piston configured to move within the cylinder. Each cylinder further includes a high-temperature superconductor material at a temperature. The superconductor material is in a superconducting state in the presence of an external magnetic field below a critical field strength, wherein the critical field strength is a function of the temperature of the superconductor material. Each cylinder further includes a permanent magnet mechanically coupled to the piston and configured to move within the cylinder and to have a magnetic field that interacts with the superconductor material. A sum of a non-zero time-invariant magnetic field strength and a time-varying magnetic field strength cycles between at least a first field strength below the critical field strength for the superconductor material at the temperature and at least a second field strength above the critical field strength for the superconductor material at the temperature, such that the superconductor material cycles between a superconducting state and a non-superconducting state. A time-varying force is applied to the magnet by an interaction of the magnet&#39;s magnetic field with the superconductor material.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    The present application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Appl. No. 61/361,883, filed Jul. 6, 2010, which is incorporated in its entirety by reference herein. The present application is related to the following U.S. patent applications, filed on even date herewith, and incorporated in their entireties by reference herein: U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ (Attorney Ref. No. VAERO.001A); U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ (Attorney Ref. No. VAERO.002A); U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ (Attorney Ref. No. VAERO.003A); U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ (Attorney Ref. No. VAERO.004A); and U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ (Attorney Ref. No. VMOTO.003A). 
     
    
     BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0003]    The present invention relates generally to motors utilizing superconductivity. 
         [0004]    2. Description of the Related Art 
         [0005]    The phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered in 1911 in the Netherlands by Kamerlingh Onnes and collaborators (see, H. K. Onnes, Commun. Phys. Lab. University of Leiden, Suppl., 34 b (1913)). Since that time, it has been exploited for many applications. 
         [0006]    The phenomenon of superconductivity is one of the most amazing physical phenomena discovered thus far. It falls under a larger category of physical phenomenon known collectivity as “critical phenomenon,” “phase transitions,” or “correlated systems.” Substances that exhibit these phenomena undergo a transformation that affects their physical properties on a macroscopic scale in a dramatic and observable way. This radical change in behavior usually occurs at a particular temperature called the “critical temperature.” The onset of the transitions are predictable and are accompanied by a highly correlated behavior below the critical temperature, for the electrons in the substance, as in the case of superconductors, or for the particles making up the substance as in the case of superfluids. For a general discussion of critical phenomenon, see Tinkham, M.  Introduction to Superconductivity,  2 nd  ed., McGraw-Hill, (1996). The phenomenon of superconductivity is discussed herein and a certain property of its behavior is identified for its useful potential applications in certain embodiments described herein (e.g., for oscillators, sensors, generators, and motors). 
         [0007]    As mentioned above, superconductivity is one of the many manifestations of critical phenomenon known in physics. Superconductivity is characterized by the complete absence of electrical resistance in a substance below the critical temperature. Not all materials exhibit superconductivity. Known superconductors include some metals or alloys of metals, which become superconducting at temperatures around 4 to 30 degrees Kelvin. More recently, certain ceramic materials have been discovered that exhibit superconductivity at a relatively high temperature around 93 degrees Kelvin (see, Bendorz, J. G., Müller, K. A., Z. Phys. B64, 189 (1986)). This is particularly useful as it can be conveniently attained using liquid nitrogen which is at 77 degrees Kelvin. This class of “high temperature superconductors” (HTS) has opened up a whole new avenue of possibilities of superconductivity; however, this technology remains largely undeveloped. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0008]    In certain embodiments, a motor is provided. The motor comprises a plurality of cylinders. Each cylinder comprises a piston configured to move within the cylinder. Each cylinder further comprises a high-temperature superconductor material at a temperature. The superconductor material is in a superconducting state in the presence of an external magnetic field below a critical field strength, wherein the critical field strength is a function of the temperature of the superconductor material. Each cylinder further comprises a permanent magnet mechanically coupled to the piston and configured to move within the cylinder and to have a magnetic field that interacts with the superconductor material. Each cylinder further comprises a first superconducting coil configured to apply a non-zero time-invariant magnetic field strength to the superconductor material. Each cylinder further comprises a second superconducting coil configured to apply a time-varying magnetic field strength to the superconductor material. A sum of the non-zero time-invariant magnetic field strength and the time-varying magnetic field strength cycles between at least a first field strength below the critical field strength for the superconductor material at the temperature and at least a second field strength above the critical field strength for the superconductor material at the temperature, such that the superconductor material cycles between a superconducting state and a non-superconducting state. A time-varying force is applied to the magnet by an interaction of the magnet&#39;s magnetic field with the superconductor material. 
         [0009]    In certain embodiments, a method of operating a motor is provided. The method comprises providing a motor comprising a plurality of cylinders. Each cylinder comprises a piston configured to move within the cylinder. Each cylinder further comprises a high-temperature superconductor material at a temperature. The superconductor material is in a superconducting state in the presence of an external magnetic field below a critical field strength, wherein the critical field strength is a function of the temperature of the superconductor material. Each cylinder further comprises a permanent magnet mechanically coupled to the piston and configured to move within the cylinder and to have a magnetic field that interacts with the superconductor material. Each cylinder further comprises a first superconducting coil configured to apply a non-zero time-invariant magnetic field strength to the superconductor material. Each cylinder further comprises a second superconducting coil configured to apply a time-varying magnetic field strength to the superconductor material. A sum of the non-zero time-invariant magnetic field strength and the time-varying magnetic field strength cycles between at least a first field strength below the critical field strength for the superconductor material at the temperature and at least a second field strength above the critical field strength for the superconductor material at the temperature, such that the superconductor material cycles between a superconducting state and a non-superconducting state. A time-varying force is applied to the magnet by an interaction of the magnet&#39;s magnetic field with the superconductor material. The method further comprises applying the non-zero time-invariant magnetic field strength to the superconductor material of each of the cylinders by using the first superconducting coil of each of the cylinders. The method further comprises applying a time-varying force to the magnet of each of the cylinders by using the second superconducting coil of each of the cylinders to apply the time-varying magnetic field strength to the superconductor material of each of the cylinders, such that the superconductor material of each of the cylinders cycles between a superconducting state and a non-superconducting state. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0010]      FIG. 1A  schematically illustrates a superconductor material at a temperature greater than the critical temperature immersed in an external magnetic field then cooled below its critical temperature. 
           [0011]      FIG. 1B  schematically illustrates a superconductor material at a temperature greater than the critical temperature in zero external magnetic field then cooled below its critical temperature. 
           [0012]      FIG. 2  is a photograph of a small permanent magnet floating above a superconductor material that is below its critical temperature. 
           [0013]      FIG. 3  is a plot of normalized critical field versus temperature for YBCO high temperature superconductor material having a critical temperature at about 93 degrees Kelvin. The region below the curve is the superconducting state, and the region outside the curve is the normal or non-superconducting state. 
           [0014]      FIG. 4  is the plot of  FIG. 3  with a plot of a time-varying external magnetic field applied at a specific temperature superimposed over the applied external time-invariant or constant magnetic field. 
           [0015]      FIG. 5  schematically illustrates an example configuration of a two-cylinder motor in accordance with certain embodiments described herein. 
           [0016]      FIG. 6  is a plot of an example phase relationship between the magnetic fields in a two-cylinder motor. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0017]    In certain embodiments described herein, a new oscillator based on the phenomenon of superconductivity is realized and identified for its many potential applications (e.g., oscillators, sensors, generators, and motors). This oscillator is based on the Meissner Effect of superconductivity, and is used to create a “Superconducting Oscillator” that can be used to apply a time-varying force to a magnet, which has many potential applications among which are motors of all types, and various sensors. Certain embodiments described herein exploit one property which has many potential applications (e.g., in oscillators, sensors, generators, and motors). 
         [0018]    The absence of electrical resistance is only one of the properties exhibited by superconductors below the critical temperature. Another very striking effect is the Meissner Effect, named after W. Meissner (see, W. Meissner, R. Ochsenfeld, Naturwiss, 21: 787 (1933)). It was observed that when a superconducting material is cooled in the presence of a magnetic field, when the temperature dropped below the critical temperature, the magnetic field was expelled from the superconductor, as shown schematically in  FIG. 1A . This is because the superconductor acts as a perfect diamagnet, expelling the magnetic field. The mechanism by which this occurs is simple; the external magnetic field induces currents in the superconductor. These currents circulate in such a way as to generate a magnetic field that opposes the external field, thus the net field in the superconductor is zero. The same effect also occurs if the magnetic field is introduced after the superconductor is cooled below its critical temperature, as shown in  FIG. 1B . This property has the striking effect of causing the superconductor to repel the source of the external magnetic field.  FIG. 2  is a photograph showing this phenomenon using a small permanent magnet floating above a superconductor that is below its critical temperature due to the force applied to the magnet by the interaction of its magnetic field with the superconducting material opposing the force of gravity on the magnet. In  FIG. 2 , the magnet is Neodymium type, the superconductor is ceramic HTS type, YBCO cooled to liquid nitrogen temperature. 
         [0019]    Superconductivity in the presence of an external magnetic field follows certain limitations. For a fixed temperature below the critical temperature, as the external magnetic field strength is increased, superconductivity is lost. The value of the magnetic field strength required to destroy the superconducting state generally increases as the operating temperature is lowered below the critical temperature. This phenomenon follows an empirical law (depicted in  FIG. 3 ) in the form of: 
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         [0020]      FIG. 3  is a plot of normalized critical field strength versus temperature for YBCO high temperature superconductor material having a critical temperature at about 93 degrees Kelvin. The region below the curve is the superconducting state, and the region outside the curve is the normal or non-superconducting state.  FIG. 3  shows that the superconducting region is confined inside the critical field strength curve. As the temperature changes above and below the critical temperature, the superconductor switches between the normal and superconducting states. This oscillation however is very slow, as the temperature change is slow in nature. 
         [0021]    The switch between the normal and superconducting states also occurs as the magnetic field strength is switched above or below the critical field strength. In this case, however, the oscillation is instantaneous, because the mechanism responsible is a second order phase transition. In certain embodiments, a convenient temperature can be chosen and a time-varying (e.g., oscillating) component field strength can be applied at the critical field strength value, as schematically illustrated in  FIG. 4 . Such a configuration will cause the superconductor material to oscillate between the normal and superconducting states at the frequency of the applied field. This in turn will impose a time-varying (e.g., periodic) behavior on the Meissner effect. Thus, a magnet floating above the superconductor will exhibit up and down oscillations at the frequency of the applied field. Since this change of state is virtually instantaneous at a particular fixed temperature, the oscillation of the superconductor will lag the applied field by the relaxation time for the superconductor. This is the time it takes to form the ordered state, in the femtosecond range, which is a very short time. This process is shown schematically in  FIG. 4 . 
         [0022]      FIG. 4  is the plot of  FIG. 3  with a plot of a time-varying external magnetic field strength applied to the material at a specific temperature superimposed over the applied external time-invariant or constant magnetic field strength. A time-varying external magnetic field strength (e.g., square wave, with zero minimum) applied at a specific temperature, and superposed over the applied external constant field strength, will force the material into the normal state region, thus destroying superconductivity. During the next half cycle, the total field strength is less than the critical field strength, and superconductivity is restored. The driving frequency is that of the applied field. The limiting frequency is due to the relaxation time for the superconductor, on the order of 10 −15  seconds in certain embodiments. Since the relaxation time of the superconductor material is of the order of 10 −15  seconds, the applied frequency can be very high, e.g., in the terahertz range. Most practical applications will be at much lower frequencies, e.g., in the Hz, kHz, MHz, or GHz ranges. For most mechanical applications, the frequency is likely to be in kHz range. The superconductor material lags the applied field by a phase factor of the order of the relaxation time. In  FIG. 4 , the driving field of the example oscillator is applied at about 70 degrees Kelvin, which is well below the critical temperature, utilizing DC external field strength of about 0.36 (H c /H 0 ) where H 0 =H c (0). In certain embodiments, the AC field strength can be applied anywhere on the critical field strength (e.g., at a point of low field strength, but not too close to the critical temperature). 
         [0023]    In certain embodiments, the operating temperature is selected to be at or below 93 degrees Kelvin. The operating temperature of certain embodiments is chosen to be sufficiently below the critical temperature since near the critical temperature some instability could take place as the superconductor material transitions between states. As the temperature is chosen increasingly below the critical temperature, the required field strength to change states will increase. Therefore, it becomes a design trade-off issue which will be determined depending on the particular application (e.g., oscillators, sensors, generators, and motors) for a specific requirement. A helpful criterion for determining an appropriate operating temperature below the critical temperature is to know the error margin in the specific temperature control mechanism being used. For example, if a heater with a feedback loop is used that has a response of 0.5 degree Kelvin above or below a chosen operating temperature (set point), then this set point should be at least 0.5 degree Kelvin below the critical temperature. It is a good design practice to select an operating temperature that is two, three, or more times the error margin below the critical temperature (e.g., at least 2 to 5 degrees Kelvin). 
         [0024]    The source of the time-invariant or DC field strength in certain embodiments is a superconducting coil (e.g., a primary coil). The source of the time-varying or AC field strength in certain embodiments is a coil with just enough current to move the superconductor material into the normal region and back to the superconducting region (e.g., a secondary coil). Thus, the power used to drive the motor is in the smaller applied time-varying field. In certain embodiments, the coil generating the time-varying field strength is a superconducting coil. 
         [0025]    As mentioned above, the superconducting state is destroyed if the superconductor material is immersed in a sufficiently strong magnetic field. This transition to the normal state is quite rapid, unlike the transition which occurs at the critical temperature. The reverse is also true, when the strong applied magnetic field strength is reduced below the critical field strength value, the superconducting state returns just as rapidly. Making use of this phenomenon, the motor design of certain embodiments described herein is that of a reciprocating type, similar to a steam or gasoline engine. 
         [0026]      FIG. 5  schematically illustrates an example motor in accordance with certain embodiments described herein. The motor of certain embodiments comprises a liquid nitrogen inlet  1 , a vent  2 , and a dewar insulating wall  3 . The liquid nitrogen fills the dewar to a level  10 . Other coolants or means for cooling the various components of the motor are compatible with certain embodiments described herein. 
         [0027]    In certain embodiments, the motor comprises multi-cylinders, e.g., two cylinders are shown in  FIG. 5 , but certain other embodiments can comprise three, four, five, six, or more cylinders. Each cylinder comprises a superconductor base  8  (e.g., disk), and a piston  5  with a permanent magnet  9  (e.g., disk) attached to it. A primary coil  6  is wound around the cylinder, and in certain embodiments comprises a superconducting wire. Around the primary coil  6  is a secondary coil  7  smaller than the primary coil  6 . In certain embodiments, the secondary coil  7  comprises a non-superconducting material, such as copper, while in certain other embodiments, the secondary coil  7  comprises a superconductor material. Each of the two cylinders shown in  FIG. 5  is identical to the other with its own set of primary coils  6  and secondary coils  7 . The primary coils  6  are maintained at a prescribed current and magnetic field. The secondary coils  7  are pulse driven. The motor has a main shaft  4  and a flywheel  11  in certain embodiments and power is delivered through the overhead camshaft  4  to the mechanical storage flywheel  11 . 
         [0028]    The entire system in certain embodiments is cooled to liquid nitrogen temperature, and the primary coil  6  is charged with enough current to bring it sufficiently below the critical field strength for the superconductor material  8  to remain in the superconducting state. The secondary coil  7  of one cylinder is energized, the sum of the primary and secondary fields will now exceed the critical field strength, and the superconductor material  8  will become normal. No repulsive force is generated in this cylinder, while a repulsive force is generated in the other cylinder causing the piston  5  to move upward. In the next half cycle, the secondary coil  7  of the first cylinder is turned off, and the secondary coil  7  of the other cylinder is energized causing a reversal of the initial state, the repulsion is now in the first cylinder and not in the second. As this cycle repeats, the main shaft  4  continues to turn. For one of the cylinders, the direction of the piston magnetic field, the direction of the primary DC coil magnetic field, and the direction of the secondary coil pulsed magnetic field are shown in  FIG. 5  by arrows  12 ,  13 , and  14 , respectively. 
         [0029]      FIG. 6  shows an example phase relationship between the magnetic fields during the operating cycle of the two-cylinder motor of  FIG. 5 , in accordance with certain embodiments described herein. The horizontal line at 0.5 depicts the primary DC field which is constant for both cylinders. When the pulsed field is on for cylinder  1 , it is off for cylinder  2 ; thus the total magnetic field for cylinder  1  is greater than for cylinder  2 . At this stage in the cycle, the superconductor material  8  in cylinder  1  will be normal or non-superconducting, producing no repulsion, while the superconductor material  8  in cylinder  2  is in the superconducting state and produces a repulsion causing the piston  5  to move away from the superconductor material  8 . In the next half cycle the pulsed field is reversed: off for cylinder  1  and on for cylinder  2 , thus cylinder  1  produces a repulsion, while cylinder  2  does not, and the drive shaft  4  is maintained in rotation. The continuity and some of the energy of the rotation is aided by and stored in the flywheel  11  in certain embodiments. The position of the piston  5  tracks with the pulsed magnetic field, therefore,  FIG. 6  also represents the piston positions for the two cylinders. 
         [0030]    Since during any one cycle for a two cylinder motor, all cylinders will be pulsed-off once, then the pulse-rotation frequency is twice the operating frequency. Similarly, for an 8-cylinder motor, each cylinder will be pulsed-off ⅛ of one period each cycle. Thus, the pulse-rotation frequency will be 8 times the operating frequency. As described above, since the superconductor relaxation time is very small, the limiting factor on the frequency will be mechanical constraints, which in most applications fall in the kHz range. Using most vehicle applications as an example, 3000 to 15000 revolutions per minute (rpm) can be achieved. 
         [0031]    The choice of the primary coil and secondary coil currents is a trade-off between the desired performance requirements, and the quality of the superconductor material. The current in each of the primary coils is selected to be sufficient to bring the applied field from that primary coil to within range of the critical field at the chosen operating temperature. The remaining field used to exceed the critical field is to be applied by the secondary coils. The range of the current flowing through each coil is a particular design parameter. For example, if the critical field at some operating temperature is about 8 Tesla, the field from the primary coil can be set at 7 Tesla. This can be done by charging the primary coil accordingly to deliver 7 Tesla. The remaining 1 Tesla can be applied using the secondary coil. In certain embodiments, the secondary coil is pulsed slightly above the critical field to ensure that the total field exceeds the critical field even accounting for slight temperature fluctuations. When the secondary coils are pulsed on and off in sequence, the Meissner effect takes place sequentially, and the motor turns. The pulsed field is smaller than the primary field in certain embodiments to avoid pulsing a high current, since even superconductors exhibit some AC losses. The question of how to divide the current between the primary and secondary coils also depends on properties of the superconductor. Since the Meissner effect operates in presence of the field of the primary coil, the superconductor critical current will be affected by the presence of this field. In general, critical currents diminish slightly with applied field for all superconductors to varying degrees. For well prepared YBCO, the reduction in critical current is small, and can be compensated for by choosing a smaller field of the primary coil as needed. This in turn will use a larger field from the secondary coil, thus pulsing of slightly higher current. 
         [0032]    Certain embodiments described herein can be used in various applications. It can be scaled to virtually any size in various embodiments to suit the need for mechanical rotary motion for any purpose, from energy generation to vehicle, locomotion, or any industrial application. 
         [0033]    Various embodiments have been described above. Although this invention has been described with reference to these specific embodiments, the descriptions are intended to be illustrative of the invention and are not intended to be limiting. Various modifications and applications may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.