Abstract:
When electrode films are prepared for lithium electrochemical cells, problems are often encountered in laminating the films with an appropriate intervening electrolyte layer. This presents a significant challenge because proper alignment of the three layers and complete lamination at the interfaces are crucial to good cell performance. Often lamination is imperfect with gaps and defects at the interfaces. The disclosure herein describes a method of casting or extruding a polymer electrolyte directly onto an electrode film to create an electrode assembly with a continuous, defect-free interface. In some arrangements, there is some slight intermixing of the layers at the interface. A complete cell can be formed by laminating two such electrode assemblies to opposite sides of an additional electrolyte or to one another.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application 61/112,596, filed Nov. 7, 2008 and to International Application No. PCT/US09/63655, filed Nov. 6, 2009, both of which are incorporated by reference herein. This application is also related to copending International Application No. PCT/US09/63643, filed Nov. 6, 2009 and to copending International Application No. PCT/US09/63653, filed Nov. 6, 2009 all of which are incorporated by reference herein. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     Field of the Invention 
     This invention relates generally to methods of forming a polymer layer seamlessly onto another layer, and, more specifically, to forming a solid polymer electrolyte layer on an electrode layer with continuous contact between the two. 
     The demand for rechargeable batteries is ever increasing as the global demand for portable consumer electronic products continues to grow. In addition, interest in rechargeable batteries has been fueled by current efforts to develop green technologies such as electrical-grid load leveling devices and electrically-powered vehicles, which are creating an immense potential market for rechargeable batteries with high energy densities. Thus, there has been much interest in lithium batteries as they have the highest specific energy (up to 180 Wh/kg) and energy density (up to 1050 Wh/L) among chemical and electrochemical energy storage systems. 
     Generally, individual components for a battery cell are each formed separately and then laminated together. An anode film is formed from anode active material particles, conductive carbon particles and binder. A cathode film is formed from cathode active material particles, conductive carbon particles and binder. The anode and cathode are aligned on either side of a separator layer, and the three components are pressed together (or stacked loosely). A liquid electrolyte is added to fill spaces within the anode, cathode, and separator to provide a continuous ion conduction path throughout the battery cell. 
     The increased demand for lithium secondary batteries has resulted in research and development to improve their safety and performance. Lithium batteries that employ liquid electrolytes are associated with a high degree of volatility, flammability, and chemical reactivity. With this in mind, the idea of using a solid electrolyte with a lithium-based battery system has attracted great interest. 
     When a battery cell is made with a solid electrolyte, the three major components of the cell are also formed separately. The anode film contains anode active material particles, conductive carbon particles, solid polymer electrolyte and, optional binder. The cathode film contains cathode active material particles, conductive carbon particles, solid polymer electrolyte and, optional binder. A polymer electrolyte (separator) layer is also formed. The anode and cathode films are aligned on either side of the polymer electrolyte layer, and the three components are laminated together to form a continuous ion conduction path through the battery cell. But the lamination process presents significant challenges when there is no liquid electrolyte to fill any gaps that may be formed during lamination. It is difficult to laminate three solid films together seamlessly. In most cases, lamination results in at least some gaps or defects at the interfaces. Such gaps and defects interfere with ion flow through the cell, increasing resistance to charging and discharging, which can have significant adverse effects on cell performance. 
     It would be useful to find a simple method for combining individual cell components together seamlessly in order to ensure that battery cells that use solid electrolytes are not hampered in their performance by poor lamination. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The foregoing aspects and others will be readily appreciated by the skilled artisan from the following description of illustrative embodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
         FIG. 1  is a flow chart that outlines the customary steps used in forming a battery cell. 
         FIG. 2  is a schematic illustration of a solid polymer electrolyte layer laminated onto an electrode. 
         FIG. 3  is a flow chart that outlines novel steps in forming a battery cell, according to an embodiment of the invention. 
         FIG. 4  is a flow chart that outlines novel steps in forming a battery cell, according to another embodiment of the invention. 
         FIG. 5  is a flow chart that outlines novel steps in forming a battery cell, according to yet another embodiment of the invention. 
         FIG. 6  is a schematic drawing of a dual-layer electrode assembly, made according to some of the steps outlined in  FIG. 5 . 
         FIG. 7  is a schematic illustration of a battery cell made according to the steps outlined in  FIG. 5 . 
         FIG. 8  is a flow chart that outlines the novel steps in forming a battery cell, according to another embodiment of the invention. 
         FIG. 9  is a schematic illustration of a battery cell that has been fabricated according to the steps outlined in  FIG. 8 . 
         FIG. 10  is a schematic drawing of a diblock copolymer and a domain structure it can form, according to an embodiment of the invention. 
         FIG. 11  is a schematic drawing of a triblock copolymer and a domain structure it can form, according to an embodiment of the invention. 
         FIG. 12  is a schematic drawing of a triblock copolymer and a domain structure it can form, according to another embodiment of the invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The preferred embodiments are illustrated in the context of joining battery cell component layers. The skilled artisan will readily appreciate, however, that the materials and methods disclosed herein will have application in a number of other contexts where ionic or electric conductivity between individual layers is desirable, particularly where solid electrolytes are used. 
     In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, the need described above can be met with a novel method of making battery cell components. A solid polymer electrolyte layer is cast directly onto an electrode layer, thereby forming an interface that is free of void space and defects and ensuring no interfacial impediments to ion conduction between the electrolyte and the electrode. 
     These and other objects and advantages of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
     In this disclosure, the terms “negative electrode” and “anode” are both used to mean “negative electrode.” Likewise, the terms “positive electrode” and “cathode” are both used to mean “positive electrode.” 
     It is to be understood that the term “liquefied solid,” as used herein in reference to electrolytes, is meant to denote a liquid form of a solid electrolyte wherein the liquid has been formed either through dissolution in a solvent or through melting. The “liquefied solid” is allowed to solidify by drying or cooling before an electrochemical cell is charged or discharged. Thus, when used in the cell, the electrolyte is a solid electrolyte. This term is used to distinguish such an electrolyte from commonly known liquid electrolytes, which participate in the electrochemical reactions of a cell in their liquid form. 
     Currently battery cell components are assembled into a cell using the steps outlined in  FIG. 1 . In step  100 , cathode active particles, carbon particles, optional binder, and polymer electrolyte are combined together to form a cathode film on a metallic or other conductive substrate, which serves as a current collector. In step  110 , anode active particles, carbon particles, optional binder, and polymer electrolyte are combined to form an anode film on a current collector. For some electrodes, a solid polymer electrolyte acts as a binder, so no additional binder is used. For other electrodes, a binder is used in addition to the polymer electrolyte. In step  120 , a polymer electrolyte film is formed. In general, each of the films is formed either by casting or by extrusion. In step  130 , the free-standing cathode, anode, and electrolyte films are arranged in a stack with the electrolyte film between the cathode and the anode films. In step  140  the stack is aligned to be sure that the maximum surface area of each film is available to the cell and to prevent the two electrodes from coming into physical contact and shorting the cell. In step  150 , pressure and/or heat is applied to the stack to bond the layers together. 
       FIG. 2  is a schematic illustration that shows a problem that can occur when a cell is assembled according to the steps outlined in  FIG. 1 . A portion  200  of a cell, which includes an electrode film  210  and a solid polymer electrolyte layer  220  is shown. The electrode film  210  includes a variety of randomly distributed particles (shown collectively as black regions  212 ), such as electrode active particles, conductive carbon particles, and binder particles, all surrounded by solid polymer electrolyte (grey regions)  214 . In this illustration, no porosity is shown, but some electrodes may contain pores. In most cases, surface  222  of the electrode film  210  is not perfectly flat, and surface  224  of the solid polymer electrolyte layer  220  is not perfectly flat. When the electrode film  210  and the solid polymer electrolyte layer  220  are pressed together, it is difficult to form a continuous, gap-free interface between the two layers because the layers are not soft, do not flow readily, and tend to retain their non-uniform surfaces. Most often gaps  230  are formed between the electrode film  210  and the solid polymer electrolyte layer  220 . Each gap  230  is a region through which ions cannot flow between the electrode film  210  and the solid polymer electrolyte layer  220 , thereby reducing the net ionic current that can flow through the cell, increasing cell resistance and resulting in poor performance during charge and discharge. 
     When liquid electrolytes are used, porous electrode films are laminated onto either side of a porous separator, and the entire assembly is filled with the liquid electrolyte and sealed. Thus, the liquid electrolyte fills any gaps that may result when electrodes are pressed onto the separator layer. As discussed above, no such filling in of gaps occurs when a solid electrolyte is used instead of the conventional liquid electrolyte. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, a battery cell is constructed according to the steps outlined in  FIG. 3 . In step  300 , first electrode active particles, carbon particles, optional binder and a first liquefied solid polymer electrolyte are combined to form a slurry. The slurry is then cast onto a current collector to form a first electrode film. In some arrangements, where there is sufficient electronic conductivity in the first electrode film without the addition of carbon particles, no carbon particles are included in the first electrode film. In some arrangements, where the first solid polymer electrolyte can act as both electrolyte and binder, no additional binder is included in the first electrode film. The first electrode film may contain pores. Pore volume can be reduced by pressing or calendaring the film. 
     In step  310 , a liquefied second polymer electrolyte layer is cast onto the first electrode film to form a first dual-layer electrode assembly. In one arrangement, the second solid polymer electrolyte can be combined with a solvent to form a liquefied second polymer electrolyte that is appropriate for the casting process. As is well known to a person of ordinary skill in the art, the viscosity of such a liquefied polymer electrolyte can be adjusted as desired by choice and amount of solvent. In one embodiment of the invention, a wetting agent is added to the liquefied second polymer electrolyte to ensure that the electrolyte wets the first electrode film. In one arrangement, the solvent used to make the liquefied second polymer electrolyte is also a solvent for the first polymer electrolyte. When the liquefied second polymer electrolyte is cast onto the first electrode film, there is some dissolution of the first polymer electrolyte at the surface and some intermixing of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte at the interface, which ensures uniform and continuous contact between the layers. In some arrangements, the liquefied solid polymer electrolyte can percolate through and fill pores in part or all of the first electrode film. The liquefied second polymer electrolyte is allowed to dry so that it solidifies into a second solid polymer electrolyte layer. 
     In another arrangement, in step  310  the second solid polymer electrolyte can be melted to form a liquefied second polymer electrolyte that is appropriate for the casting process. As is well known to a person of ordinary skill in the art, the viscosity of such a liquefied polymer electrolyte can be adjusted as desired by choice of temperature. In one embodiment of the invention, a wetting agent is added to the liquefied second polymer electrolyte to ensure that the electrolyte wets the first electrode film. In one arrangement, the temperature used to melt the second polymer electrolyte can also melt the first solid polymer electrolyte. When the liquefied second polymer electrolyte is cast onto the first electrode film, there is some melting of the first polymer electrolyte at the surface and some intermixing of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte at the interface, which ensures uniform and continuous contact between the layers. In some arrangements, the liquefied solid polymer electrolyte can percolate through and fill pores in part or all of the first electrode film. The liquefied second polymer electrolyte is allowed to cool so that it solidifies into a second solid polymer electrolyte layer. 
     In step  320 , second electrode active particles, carbon particles, optional binder and a third solid polymer electrolyte are combined with a solvent or heated to the melting temperature of the third solid polymer electrolyte to form a slurry. Wetting agents can be used in the slurry if desired. The slurry is then cast onto the second polymer electrolyte film and allowed to dry or cool. Thus the second electrode assembly is formed on the second electrolyte layer which is adjacent the first electrode assembly. In other arrangements, a fourth electrolyte layer is formed on the second electrolyte layer and then the second electrode assembly is cast directly onto the fourth electrolyte layer. In either case, a complete cell stack is formed by repeated casting of layer upon layer. 
     In one arrangement, the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolytes are each different from one another. In another arrangement, the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolytes are all the same. In yet other arrangements, the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolytes can include only three different solid polymer electrolytes, or only two different solid polymer electrolytes, distributed in any combination among the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolyte regions. 
     In another embodiment of the invention, a battery cell is constructed according to the steps outlined in  FIG. 4 . In step  400 , first electrode active particles, carbon particles, optional binder and a liquefied first polymer electrolyte are combined to form a first electrode slurry. The first polymer electrolyte is dissolved in solvent or melted to make a liquefied solid so that the slurry has properties appropriate for extrusion. In step  410 , second electrode active particles, carbon particles, optional binder and a liquefied third polymer electrolyte are combined to form a second electrode slurry. The third polymer electrolyte is dissolved in solvent or melted so that the slurry has properties appropriate for extrusion. In step  420 , a second polymer electrolyte is liquefied to prepare for the extrusion process. The second polymer electrolyte is dissolved in solvent or melted so that the slurry has properties appropriate for extrusion. 
     In step  430 , the first electrode slurry, the second electrode slurry and the second polymer electrolyte are arranged to feed into an extruder so that they can exit the extruder in a stacked configuration with the second polymer electrolyte between the first electrode and the second electrode. The extruder may have three separate, stacked feeds, in which case the first electrode slurry and the second electrode slurry enter the extruder one each through the outermost feeds, and the second polymer electrolyte enters the extruder through the middle feed. The first electrode slurry, the second electrode slurry, and the second liquefied polymer electrolyte are coextruded to form a three-layer electrochemical cell stack. In other arrangements, the extruder has four separate, stacked feeds, and a liquefied fourth electrolyte enters the extruder through the second middle feed. The two electrode slurries and the two liquefied polymer electrolytes are coextruded to form a four-layer electrochemical cell stack. The materials in the stack layers are in liquefied form during the coextrusion so they form integrated interfaces as they solidify into the cell stack. 
     In one arrangement, the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolytes are each different from one another. In another arrangement, the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolytes are all the same. In yet other arrangements, the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolytes can include only three different solid polymer electrolytes, or only two different solid polymer electrolytes, distributed in any combination among the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolyte regions. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, a battery cell is constructed according to the steps outlined in  FIG. 5 . In step  500 , first electrode active particles, carbon particles, binder and a liquefied first polymer electrolyte are combined to form a slurry. The slurry is then either cast onto a current collector or extruded and then adhered to a current collector to form a first electrode film. In some arrangements, where there is sufficient electronic conductivity in the first electrode film without the addition of carbon particles, no carbon particles are included in the first electrode film. In some arrangements, where the first solid polymer electrolyte can act as both electrolyte and binder, no additional binder is included in the first electrode film. In step  510 , a liquefied second polymer electrolyte layer is cast onto the first electrode film to form a first dual-layer electrode assembly. The second solid polymer electrolyte can be combined with a solvent to form a liquefied second polymer electrolyte that is appropriate for the casting process. As is well known to a person of ordinary skill in the art, the viscosity of such a liquefied polymer electrolyte can be adjusted as desired by choice and amount of solvent. In one embodiment of the invention, a wetting agent is added to the liquefied second polymer electrolyte to ensure that the polymer wets the first electrode film. In one arrangement, the solvent used to make the liquefied second polymer electrolyte is also a solvent for the first polymer electrolyte. When the liquefied second polymer electrolyte is cast onto the first electrode film, there is some dissolution of the first polymer electrolyte at the surface and some intermixing of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte at the interface, which ensures uniform and continuous contact between the layers. The second polymer electrolyte is allowed to dry so that it solidifies into a second solid polymer electrolyte layer. 
     In another arrangement, in step  510  the second solid polymer electrolyte can be melted to form a liquefied second polymer electrolyte melt that is appropriate for the casting process. As is well known to a person of ordinary skill in the art, the viscosity of such a liquefied polymer electrolyte can be adjusted as desired by choice of temperature. In one embodiment of the invention, a wetting agent is added to the liquefied second polymer electrolyte to ensure that the polymer wets the first electrode film. In one arrangement, the temperature used to melt the second polymer electrolyte can also melt the first solid polymer electrolyte. When the liquefied second polymer electrolyte is cast onto the first electrode film, there is some melting of the first polymer electrolyte at the surface and some intermixing of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte at the interface, which ensures uniform and continuous contact between the layers. The second polymer electrolyte is allowed to cool so that it solidifies into a second solid polymer electrolyte layer. 
     In step  520 , second electrode active particles, carbon particles, binder and a liquefied third polymer electrolyte are combined to form a slurry. The slurry is then either cast onto a current collector extruded to form a second electrode film. In some arrangements, where there is sufficient electronic conductivity in the second electrode film without the addition of carbon particles, no carbon particles are included in the second electrode film. In some arrangements, where the third solid polymer electrolyte can act as both electrolyte and binder, no additional binder is included in the second electrode film. In step  530 , a liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte layer is cast onto the second electrode film to form a second dual-layer electrode assembly. The fourth solid polymer electrolyte can be combined with a solvent to form a liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte that is appropriate for the casting process. As is well known to a person of ordinary skill in the art, the viscosity of such a liquefied polymer electrolyte can be adjusted as desired by choice and amount of solvent. In one embodiment of the invention, a wetting agent is added to the liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte to ensure that the polymer wets the second electrode film. In one arrangement, the solvent used to make the liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte is also a solvent for the third solid polymer electrolyte. When the liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte is cast onto the second electrode film, there can some dissolution of the third solid polymer electrolyte at the surface and some intermixing of the third polymer electrolyte and the fourth polymer electrolyte at the interface. The liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte is allowed to dry so that it solidifies into a fourth solid polymer electrolyte layer. 
     In another arrangement, in step  530  the fourth solid polymer electrolyte can be melted to form a liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte melt that is appropriate for the casting process. As is well known to a person of ordinary skill in the art, the viscosity of such a liquefied polymer electrolyte can be adjusted as desired by choice of temperature. In one embodiment of the invention, a wetting agent is added to the liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte to ensure that the polymer wets the second electrode film. In one arrangement, the temperature used to melt the fourth polymer electrolyte can also melt the second solid polymer electrolyte. When the liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte is cast onto the second electrode film, there is some melting of the third polymer electrolyte at the surface and some intermixing of the third polymer electrolyte and the fourth polymer electrolyte at the interface, which ensures uniform and continuous contact between the layers. The liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte is allowed to cool so that it solidifies into a fourth solid polymer electrolyte layer. 
     In step  540 , a cell stack is formed by positioning the first electrode assembly adjacent the second electrode assembly with the second solid polymer electrolyte layer and the fourth solid polymer electrolyte facing one another. In step  550 , pressure and in some arrangements, heat, are applied to the cell stack to bond the electrolyte layers together and form the cell. In one arrangement, if the liquefied second polymer electrolyte layer and the liquefied fourth polymer electrolyte layer have not yet solidified fully, there may be some mixing of one in the other at the interface, ensuring good contact between the second solid polymer electrolyte layer and the fourth solid polymer electrolyte layer. 
     In another embodiment of the invention, the polymer electrolyte layers are not cast onto the electrode film as has been described in steps  510  and  530  in  FIG. 5 . Alternatively, coextrusion is used. Details of the coextrusion method have been described above with reference to  FIG. 4 . 
     In one arrangement, the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolytes are each different from one another. In another arrangement, the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolytes are all the same. In yet other arrangements, the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolytes can include only three different solid polymer electrolytes, or only two different solid polymer electrolytes, distributed in any combination among the first, second, third, and fourth solid polymer electrolyte regions. 
       FIG. 6  is a schematic drawing of a dual-layer electrode assembly  600  made according to the novel methods described in  FIG. 3 ,  4 , or  5  above. The assembly  600  has an electrode film  610  and a solid polymer electrolyte layer  620 . The electrode film  610  includes a variety of randomly distributed particles (shown collectively as black regions  612 ), such as electrode active particles and optionally, conductive carbon particles and/or binder particles, all surrounded by a solid polymer electrolyte (grey regions)  614 . For the purpose of this illustration, no porosity is shown, but the electrode film  610  may contain pores in some arrangements. The electrode film  610  has an irregular surface  622 . In some arrangements, the surface  622  is flat. As described above in reference to  FIGS. 3 ,  4 ,  5 , a solid polymer electrolyte is either dissolved in a solvent or melted to form a liquefied solid and then cast onto the electrode film  610 . The liquefied polymer electrolyte fills in the irregularities in the surface  622 . The liquefied polymer electrolyte dries or cools to solidify into the solid polymer electrolyte layer  620 , which has a continuous interface  640  with the electrode film  610 . The interface  640  has no gaps. In addition, there can be some mixing of the electrolyte  614  (from the electrode film  610 ) in the liquefied electrolyte  620  during the casting process, further ensuring good conformity and excellent contact between the electrode film  610  and the solid polymer electrolyte  620 . Good and continuous contact between the layers in a battery cell is one characteristic that is essential to achieving the best possible performance from the cell. 
       FIG. 7  is a schematic illustration of a battery cell  700  that includes two dual-layer electrode assemblies  705   a ,  705   b , made according to any of the novel methods described above in  FIG. 3 ,  4 , or  5 . The first dual-layer assembly  705   a  has a solid polymer electrolyte layer  720   a  that has been cast onto or coextruded with a first electrode film  710   a . The second dual-layer assembly  705   b  has a solid polymer electrolyte layer  720   b  that has been cast onto or coextruded with a second electrode film  710   b . The solid polymer electrolyte layer  720   a  and the solid polymer electrolyte layer  720   b  have been pressed, and perhaps heated, together to form the battery cell  700 . In one arrangement, the polymer electrolyte layers  720   a ,  720   b  have not yet solidified fully when they are pressed together. The interface  725  between the two solid polymer electrolyte layers  720   a ,  720   b  has no gaps. In addition, there can be some mixing (either by dissolution or by diffusion through the melt) of the electrolytes  720   a ,  720   b  in one another as they are pressed together and, in some arrangements, heated, further ensuring good conformity and excellent contact between the dual-layer electrode assemblies  705   a ,  705   b , and eliminating the possibility of degraded battery performance because of poor contact between component layers. In  FIG. 7 , optional current collectors  750   a ,  750   b  that provide electronic conduction paths to and from electrodes  710   a ,  710   b , respectively, are also shown. 
     In another embodiment of the invention, a battery cell is constructed according to the steps outlined in  FIG. 8 . In step  800 , first electrode active particles, carbon particles, binder and a liquefied first polymer electrolyte are combined to form a slurry. The slurry is then either cast or extruded to form a first electrode film. In some arrangements, where there is sufficient electronic conductivity in the first electrode film without the addition of carbon particles, no carbon particles are included in the first electrode film. In some arrangements, where the first polymer electrolyte can act as both electrolyte and binder, no additional binder is included in the first electrode film. In step  810 , a second solid polymer electrolyte layer is cast onto the first electrode film to form a first dual-layer electrode assembly. The second solid polymer electrolyte can be combined with a solvent to form a liquefied second polymer electrolyte that is appropriate for the casting process. As is well known to a person of ordinary skill in the art, the viscosity of such a polymer electrolyte solution can be adjusted as desired by choice and amount of solvent. In one embodiment of the invention, a wetting agent is added to the second polymer electrolyte solution to ensure that the solution wets the first electrode film. In one arrangement, the solvent used to make the second polymer electrolyte solution is also a solvent for the first polymer electrolyte. When the second polymer electrolyte is cast onto the first electrode film, there is some dissolution of the first polymer electrolyte at the surface and some intermixing of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte at the interface, which ensures uniform and continuous contact between the layers. The second polymer electrolyte is allowed to dry so that it solidifies into a second solid polymer electrolyte layer. 
     In another arrangement, in step  810  the second solid polymer electrolyte can be melted to form a dissolved or melted liquefied second polymer electrolyte that is appropriate for the casting process. As is well known to a person of ordinary skill in the art, the viscosity of such a liquefied polymer electrolyte can be adjusted as desired by choice of temperature. In one embodiment of the invention, a wetting agent is added to the liquefied second polymer electrolyte to ensure that the electrolyte wets the first electrode film. In one arrangement, the temperature used to melt the second polymer electrolyte can also melt the first solid polymer electrolyte. When the second polymer electrolyte is cast onto the first electrode film, there is some melting of the first polymer electrolyte at the surface and some intermixing of the first polymer electrolyte and the second polymer electrolyte at the interface, which ensures uniform and continuous contact between the layers. The second polymer electrolyte is allowed to cool so that it solidifies into a second solid polymer electrolyte layer. 
     In step  820 , second electrode active particles, liquefied third polymer electrolyte, and, optionally, carbon particles and binder are combined and to form a slurry. The slurry is then either cast or extruded to form a second electrode film. The second electrode film is placed adjacent the second solid polymer electrolyte layer and aligned to form a battery cell stack in step  830 . In step  840 , pressure, and, in some arrangements, heat, is applied to the stack to bond the second electrode film to the dual-layer electrode assembly to form a cell. In one arrangement, if the second polymer electrolyte layer has not yet solidified fully, there can be some intermixing of the third polymer electrolyte with the second polymer electrolyte at the interface. 
       FIG. 9  is a schematic illustration of a battery cell  900  that has been fabricated according to the steps outlined in  FIG. 8 . A dual-layer electrode assembly  905  includes a first electrode film  910  and an electrolyte layer  920 . The first electrode film  910  has been formed by combining first electrode active particles, a first polymer electrolyte, and, optionally, binder and/or carbon particles to form a slurry. The slurry is then either cast or extruded to form the electrode film  910 . A second solid polymer electrolyte is dissolved in a solvent or melted to form a liquid and then cast onto the electrode film  910 . The liquefied second polymer electrolyte solidifies, either through drying or cooling, to form the second solid polymer electrolyte layer  920 , which has a continuous interface  940  with the first electrode film  910 . The first electrode assembly  910  and the electrolyte layer  920  are well-bonded together at interface  940 , as has been described above. A second electrode film  915  has been formed by combining second electrode active particles, a third polymer electrolyte, and, optionally, binder and/or carbon particles to form a slurry. The slurry is then either cast or extruded to form the second electrode film  915 . The second electrode  915  and the dual-layer electrode assembly  905  have been pressed, and perhaps heated together, forming an interface  945  between the second electrolyte layer  920  and the second electrode  915 . In one arrangement, the polymer electrolyte layer  920  has not solidified fully when the second electrode  915  is pressed against it. Solvent from the electrolyte layer  920  may be able to dissolve a surface portion of the electrolyte in electrode layer  915 , or heat from the electrolyte layer  920  may be able to melt a surface portion of the electrolyte in electrode layer  915 , causing some intermixing of the electrolytes and aiding in the formation of a seamless interface with few or no defects, such as gaps. 
     In another embodiment of the invention, the first electrode film  910 , the second polymer electrolyte layer  920 , and the second electrode film  915  can be coextruded, as has been described above. 
     As discussed above, in one embodiment, there is only one solid polymer electrolyte used throughout a battery cell—in both electrodes and in a single layer or multiple layers between the electrodes. In other embodiments, a different solid polymer electrolyte is used in each region of the cell. In yet other arrangements three different solid polymer electrolytes, or two different solid polymer electrolytes, are used throughout the cell in various arrangements among the electrolyte regions of the cell. 
     Various wetting agents can be used to ensure that, during the casting or extrusion process, a liquefied solid polymer electrolyte (solution or melt) is able to wet an adjacent layer in the cell stack. Examples of such wetting agents include, but are not limited to n-methylpyrolidinone, dimethylformamide, acetonitrile, toluene, benzene, acetone. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, after the electrode assembly or the entire battery cell is made, the electrode thin film has a porosity less than about 10%. In another embodiment, after the electrode assembly or the entire battery cell is made, the electrode thin film has a porosity less than about 1%. In some arrangements, the electrode thin film can be calendared to reduce or remove open pores within the film before an electrolyte is cast into it. 
     Examples of negative electrode active materials that can be used in the embodiments of the invention include, but are not limited to metals, alloys, or metal oxides, which can form well-defined intermetallic/intercalation phases with lithium, are used. Examples of appropriate materials include, but are not limited to, metals such as, aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), magnesium (Mg); Si alloys with elements such as tin (Sn), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), indium (In), silver (Ag), titanium (Ti), germanium (Ge), bismuth (Bi), antimony (Sb), chromium (Cr), and their alloys and oxides; carbon and silicon carbides; alloys such as Cu—Sn, Sb—Sn; and lithium or lithium-rich alloys such as Li—Al, Li—Si, Li—Sn, Li—Hg, Li—Zn, Li—Pb, and Li—C. 
     Examples of positive electrode active materials that can be used in the embodiments of the invention include, but are not limited to materials having the general formula Li x A 1-y M y O 2 , wherein A includes at least one transition element selected from a group including Mn, Co, and Ni; M includes at least one element selected from a group including B, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Al, In, Nb, Mo, W, Y, and Rh; x ranges between 0.05≦x≦1.1; and y ranges between 0≦y≦0.5. 
     Electrolytes 
     There are a variety of solid polymer electrolytes that are appropriate for use in the inventive methods described herein. In one embodiment of the invention, the solid polymer electrolyte contains one or more of the following optionally cross-linked polymers: polyethylene oxide, polysulfone, polyacrylonitrile, siloxane, polyether, polyamine, linear copolymers containing ethers or amines, ethylene carbonate, Nafion®, and polysiloxane grafted with small molecules or oligomers that include polyethers and/or alkylcarbonates. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, the solid polymer electrolyte, when combined with an appropriate salt, is chemically and thermally stable and has an ionic conductivity of at least 10 −5  Scm −1  at a desired operating temperature. Examples of appropriate salts include, but are not limited to metal salts selected from the group consisting of chlorides, bromides, sulfates, nitrates, sulfides, hydrides, nitrides, phosphides, sulfonamides, triflates, thiocynates, perchlorates, borates, or selenides of lithium, sodium, potassium, silver, barium, lead, calcium, ruthenium, tantalum, rhodium, iridium, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten or vanadium. Examples of specific lithium salts include LiSCN, LiN(CN) 2 , LiClO 4 , LiBF 4 , LiAsF 6 , LiPF 6 , LiCF 3 SO 3 , Li(CF 3 SO 2 ) 2 N, Li(CF 3 SO 2 ) 3 C, LiN(SO 2 C 2 F 5 ) 2 , LiN(SO 2 CF 3 ) 2 , LiN(SO 2 CF 2 CF 3 ) 2 , lithium alkyl fluorophosphates, lithium oxalatoborate, as well as other lithium bis(chelato)borates having five to seven membered rings, lithium bis(trifluoromethane sulfone imide) (LiTFSI), LiPF 3 (C 2 F 5 ) 3 , LiPF 3 (CF 3 ) 3 , LiB(C 2 O 4 ) 2 , and mixtures thereof. In other embodiments of the invention, for other electrochemistries, electrolytes are made by combining the polymers with various kinds of salts. Examples include, but are not limited to AgSO 3 CF 3 , NaSCN, NaSO 3 CF 3 , KTFSI, NaTFSI, Ba(TFSI) 2 , Pb(TFSI) 2 , and Ca(TFSI) 2 . 
     As described in detail above, a block copolymer electrolyte can be used in the embodiments of the invention. 
       FIG. 10A  is a simplified illustration of an exemplary diblock polymer molecule  1000  that has a first polymer block  1010  and a second polymer block  1020  covalently bonded together. In one arrangement both the first polymer block  1010  and the second polymer block  1020  are linear polymer blocks. In another arrangement, either one or both polymer blocks  1010 ,  1020  has a comb structure. In one arrangement, neither polymer block is cross-linked. In another arrangement, one polymer block is cross-linked. In yet another arrangement, both polymer blocks are cross-linked. 
     Multiple diblock polymer molecules  1000  can arrange themselves to form a first domain  1015  of a first phase made of the first polymer blocks  1010  and a second domain  1025  of a second phase made of the second polymer blocks  1020 , as shown in  FIG. 10B . Diblock polymer molecules  1000  can arrange themselves to form multiple repeat domains, thereby forming a continuous nanostructured block copolymer material  1040 , as shown in  FIG. 10C . The sizes or widths of the domains can be adjusted by adjusting the molecular weights of each of the polymer blocks. 
     In one arrangement the first polymer domain  1015  is ionically conductive, and the second polymer domain  1025  provides mechanical strength to the nanostructured block copolymer. 
       FIG. 11A  is a simplified illustration of an exemplary triblock polymer molecule  1100  that has a first polymer block  1110   a , a second polymer block  1120 , and a third polymer block  1110   b  that is the same as the first polymer block  1110   a , all covalently bonded together. In one arrangement the first polymer block  1110   a , the second polymer block  1120 , and the third copolymer block  1110   b  are linear polymer blocks. In another arrangement, either some or all polymer blocks  1110   a ,  1120 ,  1110   b  have a comb structure. In one arrangement, no polymer block is cross-linked. In another arrangement, one polymer block is cross-linked. In yet another arrangement, two polymer blocks are cross-linked. In yet another arrangement, all polymer blocks are cross-linked. 
     Multiple triblock polymer molecules  1100  can arrange themselves to form a first domain  1115  of a first phase made of the first polymer blocks  1110   a , a second domain  1125  of a second phase made of the second polymer blocks  1120 , and a third domain  1115   b  of a first phase made of the third polymer blocks  1110   b  as shown in  FIG. 11B . Triblock polymer molecules  1100  can arrange themselves to form multiple repeat domains  1125 ,  1115  (containing both  1115   a  and  1115   b ), thereby forming a continuous nanostructured block copolymer  1130 , as shown in  FIG. 11C . The sizes of the domains can be adjusted by adjusting the molecular weights of each of the polymer blocks. 
     In one arrangement the first and third polymer domains  1115   a ,  1115   b  are ionically conductive, and the second polymer domain  1125  provides mechanical strength to the nanostructured block copolymer. In another arrangement, the second polymer domain  1125  is ionically conductive, and the first and third polymer domains  1115  provide a structural framework. 
       FIG. 12A  is a simplified illustration of another exemplary triblock polymer molecule  1200  that has a first polymer block  1210 , a second polymer block  1220 , and a third polymer block  1230 , different from either of the other two polymer blocks, all covalently bonded together. In one arrangement the first polymer block  1210 , the second polymer block  1220 , and the third copolymer block  1230  are linear polymer blocks. In another arrangement, either some or all polymer blocks  1210 ,  1220 ,  1230  have a comb structure. In one arrangement, no polymer block is cross-linked. In another arrangement, one polymer block is cross-linked. In yet another arrangement, two polymer blocks are cross-linked. In yet another arrangement, all polymer blocks are cross-linked. 
     Multiple triblock polymer molecules  1200  can arrange themselves to form a first domain  1215  of a first phase made of the first polymer blocks  1210   a , a second domain  1225  of a second phase made of the second polymer blocks  1220 , and a third domain  1235  of a third phase made of the third polymer blocks  1230  as shown in  FIG. 12B . Triblock polymer molecules  1200  can arrange themselves to form multiple repeat domains, thereby forming a continuous nanostructured block copolymer  1240 , as shown in  FIG. 12C . The sizes of the domains can be adjusted by adjusting the molecular weights of each of the polymer blocks. 
     In one arrangement the first polymer domains  1215  are ionically conductive, and the second polymer domains  1225  provide mechanical strength to the nanostructured block copolymer. The third polymer domains  1235  provides an additional functionality that may improve mechanical strength, ionic conductivity, chemical or electrochemical stability, may make the material easier to process, or may provide some other desirable property to the block copolymer. In other arrangements, the individual domains can exchange roles. 
     Choosing appropriate polymers for the block copolymers described above is important in order to achieve desired electrolyte properties. In one embodiment, the conductive polymer (1) exhibits ionic conductivity of at least 10 −5  Scm −1  at electrochemical cell operating temperatures when combined with an appropriate salt(s), such as lithium salt(s); (2) is chemically stable against such salt(s); and (3) is thermally stable at electrochemical cell operating temperatures. In one embodiment, the structural material has a modulus in excess of 1×10 5  Pa at electrochemical cell operating temperatures. In one embodiment, the third polymer (1) is rubbery; and (2) has a glass transition temperature lower than operating and processing temperatures. It is useful if all materials are mutually immiscible. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, the conductive phase can be made of a linear polymer. Conductive linear polymers that can be used in the conductive phase include, but are not limited to, polyethers, polyamines, polyimides, polyamides, alkyl carbonates, polynitriles, and combinations thereof. The conductive linear polymers can also be used in combinationwith polysiloxanes, polyphosphazines, polyolefins, and/or polydienes to form the conductive phase. 
     In another exemplary embodiment, the conductive phase is made of comb polymers that have a backbone and pendant groups. Backbones that can be used in these polymers include, but are not limited to, polysiloxanes, polyphosphazines, polyethers, polydienes, polyolefins, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, and combinations thereof. Pendants that can be used include, but are not limited to, oligoethers, substituted oligoethers, nitrile groups, sulfones, thiols, polyethers, polyamines, polyimides, polyamides, alkyl carbonates, polynitriles, other polar groups, and combinations thereof. 
     Further details about polymers that can be used in the conductive phase can be found in International Patent Application No. PCT/US09/45356, filed May 27, 2009, International Patent Application No. PCT/US09/54709, filed Aug. 22, 2009, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/145518, filed Jan. 16, 2009, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/145507, filed Jan. 16, 2009, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/158257, filed Mar. 6, 2009, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/158241, filed Mar. 6, 2009, all of which are included by reference herein. 
     There are no particular restrictions on the electrolyte that can be used in the block copolymer electrolytes. Any electrolyte salt that includes the ion identified as the most desirable charge carrier for the application can be used. It is especially useful to use electrolyte salts that have a large dissociation constant within the polymer electrolyte. Non-lithium salts such as salts of aluminum, sodium, and magnesium are examples of other salts that can be used. 
     Suitable examples include alkali metal salts, such as Li salts. Examples of useful Li salts include, but are not limited to , LiPF 6 , LiN(CF 3 SO 2 ) 2 , Li(CF 3 SO 2 ) 3 C, LiN(SO 2 CF 2 CF 3 ) 2 , LiB(C 2 O 4 ) 2 , B 12 F x H 12-x , B 12 F 12 , and mixtures thereof. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, single ion conductors can be used with electrolyte salts or instead of electrolyte salts. Examples of single ion conductors include, but are not limited to sulfonamide salts, boron based salts, and sulfates groups. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, the structural phase can be made of polymers such as polystyrene, hydrogenated polystyrene ,polymethacrylate, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyvinylpyridine, polyvinylcyclohexane, polyimide, polyamide, polypropylene, polyolefins, poly(t-butyl vinyl ether), poly(cyclohexyl methacrylate), poly(cyclohexyl vinyl ether), poly(t-butyl vinyl ether), polyethylene, fluorocarbons, such as polyvinylidene fluoride, or copolymers that contain styrene, methacrylate, or vinylpyridine. 
     Additional species can be added to nanostructured block copolymer electrolytes to enhance the ionic conductivity, to enhance the mechanical properties, or to enhance any other properties that may be desirable. 
     The ionic conductivity of nanostructured block copolymer electrolyte materials can be improved by including one or more additives in the ionically conductive phase. An additive can improve ionic conductivity by lowering the degree of crystallinity, lowering the melting temperature, lowering the glass transition temperature, increasing chain mobility, or any combination of these. A high dielectric additive can aid dissociation of the salt, increasing the number of Li+ ions available for ion transport, and reducing the bulky Li+[salt] complexes. Additives that weaken the interaction between Li+ and PEO chains/anions, thereby making it easier for Li+ ions to diffuse, may be included in the conductive phase. The additives that enhance ionic conductivity can be broadly classified in the following categories: low molecular weight conductive polymers, ceramic particles, room temp ionic liquids (RTILs), high dielectric organic plasticizers, and Lewis acids. 
     Other additives can be used in the polymer electrolytes described herein. For example, additives that help with overcharge protection, provide stable SEI (solid electrolyte interface) layers, and/or improve electrochemical stability can be used. Such additives are well known to people with ordinary skill in the art. Additives that make the polymers easier to process, such as plasticizers, can also be used. 
     In one embodiment of the invention, neither small molecules nor plasticizers are added to the block copolymer electrolyte and the block copolymer electrolyte is a dry polymer. 
     Further details about block copolymer electrolytes are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/225,934, filed Oct. 1, 2008, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/271,1828, filed Nov. 14, 2008, and International Patent Application No. PCT/US09/31356, filed Jan. 16, 2009, all of which are included by reference herein. 
     This invention has been described herein in considerable detail to provide those skilled in the art with information relevant to apply the novel principles and to construct and use such specialized components as are required. However, it is to be understood that the invention can be carried out by different equipment, materials and devices, and that various modifications, both as to the equipment and operating procedures, can be accomplished without departing from the scope of the invention itself.