Abstract:
Metal foils, wires, and seamless tubes with increased mechanical strength are provided. As opposed to wrought materials that are made of a single metal or alloy, these materials are made of two or more layers forming a laminate structure. Laminate structures are known to increase mechanical strength of sheet materials such as wood and paper products and are used in the area of thin films to increase film hardness, as well as toughness. Laminate metal foils have not been used or developed because the standard metal forming technologies, such as rolling and extrusion, for example, do not lend themselves to the production of laminate structures. Vacuum deposition technologies can be developed to yield laminate metal structures with improved mechanical properties. In addition, laminate structures can be designed to provide special qualities by including layers that have special properties such as superelasticity, shape memory, radio-opacity, corrosion resistance etc. Examples of articles which may be made by the inventive laminate structures include implantable medical devices that are fabricated from the laminated deposited films and which present a blood or body fluid and tissue contact surface that has controlled heterogeneities in material constitution. An endoluminal stent-graft and web-stent that is made of a laminated film material deposited and etched into regions of structural members and web regions subtending interstitial regions between the structural members. An endoluminal graft is also provided which is made of a biocompatible metal or metal-like material. The endoluminal stent-graft is characterized by having controlled heterogeneities in the stent material along the blood flow surface of the stent and the method of fabricating the stent using vacuum deposition methods.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED INVENTIONS 
   This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/203,835, filed May 12, 2000 which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/443,929, filed Nov. 19, 1999 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,379,383, from which priority is claimed. 

   BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
   The present invention pertains generally to implantable medical devices and, more particularly, to implantable medical devices fabricated of self-supporting laminated films fashioned into geometric configurations adapted to specific medical uses. More particularly, the present invention relates to metal films, foils, wires and seamless tubes, with increased mechanical properties, which are suitable for use in fabricating implantable endoluminal grafts, stent-grafts and stent-graft-type devices. More specifically, the present invention comprises endoluminal grafts, stent-grafts and stent-graft-type devices that are fabricated entirely of self-supporting laminated films, foils, wires or seamless tubes made of biocompatible metals or of biocompatible materials which exhibit biological response and material characteristics substantially the same as biocompatible metals, such as for example composite materials. 
   As opposed to wrought materials that are made of a single metal or alloy, these inventive materials are made of at least two layers formed upon one another into a self-supporting laminate structure. Laminate structures are generally known to increase the mechanical strength of sheet materials, such as wood or paper products. Laminates are used in the field of thin film fabrication also to increase the mechanical properties of the thin film, specifically hardness and toughness. Laminate metal foils have not been used or developed because the standard metal forming technologies, such as rolling and extrusion, for example, do not readily lend themselves to producing laminate structures. Vacuum deposition technologies can be developed to yield laminate metal structures with improved mechanical properties. In addition, laminate structures can be designed to provide special qualities by including layers that have special properties such as superelasticity, shape memory, radio-opacity, corrosion resistance etc. 
   Metal foils, wires and thin-walled seamless tubes are typically produced from ingots in a series of hot or cold forming steps that include some combination of rolling, pulling, extrusion and other similar processes. Each of these processing steps is accompanied by auxiliary steps that include cleaning the surfaces of the material of foreign material residues deposited on the material by the tooling and lubricants used in the metal forming processes. Additionally, chemical interaction with tooling and lubricant materials and ambient gases also introduces contaminants. Some residue will still usually remain on the surface of the formed material, and there is a high probability that these contaminating residues become incorporated during subsequent processing steps into the bulk of the wrought metal product. With decreasing material product size, the significance of such contaminating impurities increases. Specifically, a greater number of process steps, and, therefore, a greater probability for introducing contaminants, are required to produce smaller product sizes. Moreover, with decreasing product size, the relative size of non-metal or other foreign inclusions becomes larger. This effect is particularly important for material thicknesses that are comparable to the grain or inclusion size. For example, austenitic stainless steels have typical grain sizes on the order of magnitude of 10-100 micrometer. When a wire or foil with a thickness in this range is produced, there is significant probability that some grain boundaries or defects will extend across a large portion or even across the total thickness of the product. Such products will have locally diminished mechanical and corrosion resistance properties. While corrosion resistance is remedied by surface treatments such as electropolishing, the mechanical properties are more difficult to control. 
   The mechanical properties of metals depend significantly on their microstructure. The forming and shaping processes used to fabricate metal foils, wires and thin-walled seamless tubes involves heavy deformation of a bulk material, which results in a heavily strained and deformed grain structure. Even though annealing treatments may partially alleviate the grain deformation, it is typically impossible to revert to well-rounded grain structure and a large range of grain sizes is a common result. The end result of conventional forming and shaping processes, coupled with annealing, typically results in non-uniform grain structure and less favorable mechanical properties in smaller sized wrought metal products. It is possible, therefore, to produce high quality homogeneous materials for special purposes, such as micromechanical devices and medical devices, using vacuum deposition technologies. 
   In vacuum deposition technologies, materials are formed directly in the desired geometry, e.g., planar, tubular, etc. The common principle of the vacuum deposition processes is to take a material in a minimally processed form, such as pellets or thick foils (the source material) and atomize them. Atomization may be carried out using heat, as is the case in physical vapor deposition, or using the effect of collisional processes, as in the case of sputter deposition, for example. In some forms of deposition, a process, such as laser ablation, which creates microparticles that typically consist of one or more atoms, may replace atomization; the number of atoms per particle may be in the thousands or more. The atoms or particles of the source material are then deposited on a substrate or mandrel to directly form the desired object. In other deposition methodologies, chemical reactions between ambient gas introduced into the vacuum chamber, i.e., the gas source, and the deposited atoms and/or particles are part of the deposition process. The deposited material includes compound species that are formed due to the reaction of the solid source and the gas source, such as in the case of chemical vapor deposition. In most cases, the deposited material is then either partially or completely removed from the substrate, to form the desired product. 
   The rate of film growth is a significant parameter of vacuum deposition processes. In order to deposit materials that can be compared in functionality with wrought metal products, deposition rates in excess of 1 micrometers/hour are a must and indeed rates as high as 100 micrometers per hour are desirable. These are high deposition rates and it is known that at such rates the deposits always have a columnar structure. Depending on other deposition parameters, and most importantly on the substrate temperature, the columns may be amorphous or crystalline but at such high deposition rates microcrystalline structure development can be expected at best. The difficulty is that the columns provide a mechanically weak structure in which crack propagation can occur uninhibited across the whole thickness of the deposit. 
   A special advantage of vacuum deposition technologies is that it is possible to deposit layered materials and thus films possessing exceptional qualities may be produced (c.f., H. Holleck, V. Schier: “Multilayer PVD coatings for wear protection”,  Surface and Coatings Technology , Vol. 76-77 (1995) pp. 328-336). Layered materials, such as superstructures or multilayers, are commonly deposited to take advantage of some chemical, electronic, or optical property of the material as a coating; a common example is an antireflective coating on an optical lens. 
   It has not been recognized until relatively recently that multilayer coatings may have improved mechanical properties compared with similar coatings made of a single layer. The improved mechanical properties may be due to the ability of the interface between the layers to relieve stress. This stress relief occurs if the interface provides a slide plane, is plastic, or may delaminate locally. This property of multilayer films has been recognized in regard with their hardness but this recognition has not been translated to other mechanical properties that are significant for metal products that may be used in application where they replace wrought metal parts. 
   A technological step that interrupts the film growth results in discontinuous columns and prevents crack propagation across the entire film thickness. In this sense, it is not necessary that the structure consist of a multiplicity of chemically distinct layers, as it is common in the case of thin film technology where multilayers are used. Such chemical differences may be useful and may contribute to improved properties of the materials. 
   In its simplest form, the inventive process consists of the steps of providing a substrate, depositing a first layer of material on the substrate, depositing a second layer of material on the first layer of material and optionally removing the layered material from the substrate. The last step is necessary in the case of making foils and seamless tubes but would be omitted in the case of making wires. In this latter case, the substrate itself is a thin wire that becomes part of the final product. In more complex cases, the number of layers is more than two. There is no limitation regarding the number of layers and regarding the thickness of each layer. 
   As used in this application a “layer” is intended to mean a substantially uniform material limited by interfaces between it and adjacent other substantially homogeneous layers, substrate, or environment. The interface region between adjacent layers is an inhomogeneous region in which extensive thermodynamic parameters may change. Different layers are not necessarily characterized by different values of the extensive thermodynamic parameters but at the interface, there is a local change at least in some parameters. For example, the interface between two steel layers that are identical in composition and microstructure may be characterized by a high local concentration of grain boundaries due to an interruption of the film growth process. Thus, the interface between layers is not necessarily different in chemical composition if it is different in structure. 
   It is necessary to provide for good adhesion between the layers and this is usually achieved by providing for a relatively broad interface region rather than for an abrupt interface. The width of the interface region may be defined as the range within which extensive thermodynamic parameters change. This range can depend on the interface area considered and it may mean the extent of interface microroughness. In other words, adhesion may be promoted by increased interface microroughness between adjacent layers. 
   By providing for a layered structure, the inventive materials consist of a controlled maximum size of grains and columns as extended defects in the direction of the film growth (perpendicular to the layers). This limit of the grain or defect size results in materials that have increased mechanical strength and particularly increased toughness compared to their non-laminated counterparts, both deposited and wrought materials. In addition, limiting the extent to which defects and grain boundaries reach across the laminate, corrosion resistance is also improved. 
   Laminated materials will have additional advantages when chemical compositions of the layers are chosen to achieve special properties. For example, a radiopaque material such as Ta may form one layer of a structure while other layers are chosen to provide the material with necessary mechanical and other properties. 
   Without limiting the scope of application of the present invention, the following are specific examples of products or devices which may be fabricated using the laminated film and process of the present invention: 1) an implantable graft fabricated of laminated films of biocompatible metals or biocompatible materials which exhibit in vivo biological and mechanical responses substantially the same as biocompatible metals (hereinafter referred to as “metal-like materials”); 2) an implantable stent-graft device in which a structural component, or stent, and a graft component are each fabricated of laminated films of metal or metal-like materials; 3) an implantable stent-graft-type device in which a structural support, such as a stent, defines openings which are subtended by a web, with both the stent and the web being formed as a single, integral, laminated film or tubular structure and fabricated of metals or of metal-like materials, this particular embodiment is hereinafter referred to as a “web-stent;” and 4) planar films, sheets or foils made of laminated biocompatible metals or biocompatible materials, suitable for use as medical tissue patches, aerospace surfaces, such as leading edges of aircraft wings or helicopter rotors, or as active surfaces on tail rudders or wing flaps of aircraft. 
   Graft Embodiment 
   As used herein the term “Graft” is intended to indicate any type of tubular member which exhibits integral columnar and circumferential strength and which has openings which pass through the thickness of the tubular member 
   In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention, a graft member is formed as a discrete thin sheet or tube of biocompatible metals or metal-like material. A plurality of openings is provided which pass transversely through the graft member. The plurality of openings may be random or may be patterned. It is preferable that the size of each of the plurality of openings be such as to permit cellular migration through each opening, without permitting fluid flow there through. In this manner, blood cannot flow through the plurality of openings, but various cells or proteins may freely pass through the plurality of openings to promote graft healing in vivo. In accordance with another aspect of the inventive graft embodiment, it is contemplated that two graft members are employed, with an outer diameter of a first graft member being smaller than the inner diameter of a second graft member, such that the first graft member is concentrically engageable within a lumen of the second graft member. Both the first and second graft members have a pattern of a plurality of openings passing there through. The first and second graft members are positioned concentrically with respect to one another, with the plurality of patterned openings being positioned out of phase relative to one another such as to create a tortuous cellular migration pathway through the wall of the concentrically engaged first and second graft members. In order to facilitate cellular migration through and healing of the first and second graft members in vivo, it is preferable to provide additional cellular migration pathways that communicate between the plurality of openings in the first and second graft members. These additional cellular migration pathways may be imparted as 1) a plurality of projections formed on either the luminal surface of the second graft or the abluminal surface of the first graft, or both, which serve as spacers and act to maintain an annular opening between the first and second graft members that permits cellular migration and cellular communication between the plurality of openings in the first and second graft members, or 2) a plurality of microgrooves, which may be random, radial, helical, or longitudinal relative to the longitudinal axis of the first and second graft members, the plurality of microgrooves being of a sufficient size to permit cellular migration and propagation along the groove without permitting fluid flow there through, the microgrooves serve as cellular migration conduits between the plurality of openings in the first and second graft members. 
   Stent-Graft Embodiment 
   In accordance with another preferred embodiment of the present invention, a graft member may be formed as either a thin sheet of material or as a tubular member, and mechanically joined to cover a plurality of structural support members. The graft member may be used to cover either a luminal or abluminal surface, or both, of an endoluminal device. 
   A stent-graft in accordance with the present invention may be formed by conjoining a discrete graft member with a plurality of structural support members, such as a stent, by mechanically joining the graft member to regions of the plurality of structural support members. Alternatively, a stent-graft may be formed by first forming, such as by vacuum deposition methods or by etching a pre-existing material blank, a graft member as a contiguous thin sheet or tube which projects outwardly from at least one aspect of the plurality of structural members. The thin sheet is then everted over the structural members and brought into a position adjacent a terminal portion of the plurality of structural members such that it covers one or both of the putative luminal or abluminal surfaces of the plurality of structural members. The graft member is then mechanically joined at an opposing end, i.e., the putative proximal or the putative distal end of the plurality of structural members. 
   The stent-graft is formed entirely of a metal or metal-like material, which, as opposed to using conventional synthetic polymeric graft materials, the inventive graft material exhibits improved healing response. 
   Web-Stent Embodiment 
   In accordance with one of the embodiments of the present invention, there is provided a stent-graft-type device, termed a “web-stent” in which there is at least one of a plurality of structural members that provide a primary means of structural support for the webbed-stent device. The plurality of structural members may be arranged in any manner as is known in the art of stent fabrication, e.g., single element forming a circle or ellipse, a single or plural elements which form a tubular diamond-like or undulating pattern, in which adjacent structural members are spaced apart forming open regions or interstices between adjacent structural members. In the present invention, the interstices or open regions between adjacent structural members are subtended by a web of material that is the same material or a material exhibiting similar biological and mechanical response as the material that forms the plurality of structural members. The web may be formed within all or a portion of the interstitial area or open regions between the plurality of structural support members. 
   Method of Making Graft, Stent-Graft and Web-Stent 
   Finally, the present invention provides a method of fabricating the graft, stent-graft and web-stent devices of the present invention. The inventive method consists of forming the device by vacuum deposition of a film, either as a planar sheet or as a tube, of a biocompatible material, such as nickel-titanium alloys. The thickness of the deposited material is determined by the particular embodiment being fabricated. After the deposited film is created, either additive or subtractive methodologies are employed to define: the structural members, the interstitial web regions, the graft regions and/or a plurality of openings through the deposited film. Alternatively, a pre-fabricated starting film of a biocompatible material, such as Nitinol, may be employed, and the stent-pattern formed by vacuum deposition methods or by conventional metal forming techniques, or by removing regions of the pre-fabricated film to form the interstitial regions of the web-stent device. 
   Where a graft member is being fabricated, the thickness of the deposited or pre-fabricated starting film may be less than that where a web-stent is being formed, due to the absence of structural members in the graft member. However, where a stent-graft or a web-stent is being fabricated, structural members may be formed by alternative methods. The structural members may be formed by additive techniques by applying a pattern of structural members onto a film, such as by vacuum deposition techniques or conventional metal forming techniques, such as laminating or casting. Second, subtractive or selective removal techniques may be employed to remove material from patterned regions on a film, such as by etching a pattern of interstitial regions between adjacent structural members until a thinner film is created which forms the web subtending the plurality of structural members. Where a pre-existing stent is employed as the structural members, obviously, the structural members do not need to be fabricated or formed. 
   In accordance with the best mode contemplated for the present invention, the graft, the plurality of structural members and the web are fabricated of the same or similar metals or metal-like materials. In order to improve healing response, it is preferable that the materials employed have substantially homogenous surface profiles at the blood or tissue contact surfaces thereof. A substantially homogeneous surface profile is achieved by controlling heterogeneities along the blood or tissue-contacting surface of the material. The heterogeneities that are controlled in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention include: grain size, grain phase, grain material composition, stent-material composition, and surface topography at the blood flow surface of the stent. Additionally, the present invention provides methods of making endoluminal devices having controlled heterogeneities in the device material along the blood flow or tissue-contacting surface of the device. Material heterogeneities are preferably controlled by using conventional methods of vacuum deposition of materials onto a substrate. 
   The surface of a solid, homogeneous material can be conceptualized as having unsaturated inter-atomic and intermolecular bonds forming a reactive plane ready to interact with the environment. In practice, a perfectly clean surface is unattainable because of immediate adsorption of airborne species, upon exposure to ambient air, of O, O 2 , CO 2 , SO 2 , NO, hydrocarbons and other more complex reactive molecules. Reaction with oxygen implies the formation of oxides on a metal surface, a self-limiting process, known as passivation. An oxidized surface is also reactive with air, by adsorbing simple, organic airborne compounds. Assuming the existence of bulk material of homogeneous subsurface and surface composition, oxygen and hydrocarbons may adsorb homogeneously. Therefore, further exposure to another environment, such as the vascular compartment, may be followed by a uniform biological response. 
   Current metallic vascular devices, such as stents, are made from bulk metals made by conventional methods which employ many steps that introduce processing aides to the metals make stent precursors, such as hypotubes. For example, olefins trapped by cold drawing and transformed into carbides or elemental carbon deposit by heat treatment, typically yield large carbon rich areas in 316L stainless steel tubing manufactured by cold drawing process. The conventional stents have marked surface and subsurface heterogeneity resulting from manufacturing processes (friction material transfer from tooling, inclusion of lubricants, chemical segregation from heat treatments). This results in formation of surface and subsurface inclusions with chemical composition and, therefore, reactivity different from the bulk material. Oxidation, organic contamination, water and electrolytic interaction, protein adsorption and cellular interaction may, therefore, be altered on the surface of such inclusion spots. Unpredictable distributions of inclusions such as those mentioned above provide unpredictable and uncontrolled heterogeneous surface available for interaction with plasma proteins and cells. Specifically, these inclusions interrupt the regular distribution pattern of surface free energy and electrostatic charges on the metal surface that determine the nature and extent of plasma protein interaction. Plasma proteins deposit nonspecifically on surfaces according to their relative affinity for polar or non-polar areas and their concentration in blood. A replacement process known as the Vroman effect, Vroman L.,  The importance of surfaces in contact phase reactions, Seminars of Thrombosis and Hemostasis  1987; 13(1): 79-85, determines a time-dependent sequential replacement of predominant proteins at an artificial surface, starting with albumin, following with IgG, fibrinogen and ending with high molecular weight kininogen. Despite this variability in surface adsorption specificity, some of the adsorbed proteins have receptors available for cell attachment and therefore constitute adhesive sites. Examples are: fibrinogen glycoprotein receptor IIbIIIa for platelets and fibronectin RGD sequence for many blood activated cells. Since the coverage of an artificial surface with endothelial cells is a favorable end-point in the healing process, favoring endothelialization in device design is desirable in implantable vascular device manufacturing. 
   Normally, endothelial cells (EC) migrate and proliferate to cover denuded areas until confluence is achieved. Migration, quantitatively more important than proliferation, proceeds under normal blood flow roughly at a rate of 25 μm/hr or 2.5 times the diameter of an EC, which is nominally 10 μm. EC migrate by a rolling motion of the cell membrane, coordinated by a complex system of intracellular filaments attached to clusters of cell membrane integrin receptors, specifically focal contact points. The integrins within the focal contact sites are expressed according to complex signaling mechanisms and eventually couple to specific amino acid sequences in substrate adhesion molecules (such as RGD, mentioned above). An EC has roughly 16-22% of its cell surface represented by integrin clusters. Davies, P. F., Robotewskyi A., Griem M. L.  Endothelial cell adhesion in real time. J. Clin. Invest.  1993; 91:2640-2652, Davies, P. F., Robotewski, A., Griem, M. L.,  Qualitiative studies of endothelial cell adhesion, J. Clin. Invest.  1994; 93:2031-2038. This is a dynamic process, which implies more than 50% remodeling in 30 minutes. The focal adhesion contacts vary in size and distribution, but 80% of them measure less than 6 μm 2 , with the majority of them being about 1 μm 2 , and tend to elongate in the direction of flow and concentrate at leading edges of the cell. Although the process of recognition and signaling to determine specific attachment receptor response to attachment sites is incompletely understood, regular availability of attachment sites, more likely than not, would favorably influence attachment and migration. Irregular or unpredictable distribution of attachment sites, that might occur as a result of various inclusions, with spacing equal or smaller to one whole cell length, is likely to determine alternating hostile and favorable attachment conditions along the path of a migrating cell. These conditions may vary from optimal attachment force and migration speed to insufficient holding strength to sustain attachment, resulting in cell slough under arterial flow conditions. Due to present manufacturing processes, current implantable vascular devices exhibit such variability in surface composition as determined by surface sensitive techniques such as atomic force microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy. 
   There have been numerous attempts to increase endothelialization of implanted stents, including covering the stent with a polymeric material (U.S. Pat. No. 5,897,911), imparting a diamond-like carbon coating onto the stent (U.S. Pat. No. 5,725,573), covalently binding hydrophobic moieties to a heparin molecule (U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,588), coating a stent with a layer of blue to black zirconium oxide or zirconium nitride (U.S. Pat. No. 5,649,951), coating a stent with a layer of turbostratic carbon (U.S. Pat. No. 5,387,247), coating the tissue-contacting surface of a stent with a thin layer of a Group VB metal (U.S. Pat. No. 5,607,463), imparting a porous coating of titanium or of a titanium alloy, such as Ti—Nb—Zr alloy, onto the surface of a stent (U.S. Pat. No. 5,690,670), coating the stent, under ultrasonic conditions, with a synthetic or biological, active or inactive agent, such as heparin, endothelium derived growth factor, vascular growth factors, silicone, polyurethane, or polytetrafluoroethylene, U.S. Pat. No. 5,891,507), coating a stent with a silane compound with vinyl functionality, then forming a graft polymer by polymerization with the vinyl groups of the silane compound (U.S. Pat. No. 5,782,908), grafting monomers, oligomers or polymers onto the surface of a stent using infrared radiation, microwave radiation or high voltage polymerization to impart the property of the monomer, oligomer or polymer to the stent (U.S. Pat. No. 5,932,299). 
   Thus, the problems of thrombogenicity and re-endothelialization associated with stents have been addressed by the art in various manners which cover the stent with either a biologically active or an inactive covering which is less thrombogenic than the stent material and/or which has an increased capacity for promoting re-endothelialization of the stent situs. These solutions, however, all require the use of existing stents as substrates for surface derivatization or modification, and each of the solutions result in a biased or laminate structure built upon the stent substrate. These prior art coated stents are susceptible to delaminating and/or cracking of the coating when mechanical stresses of transluminal catheter delivery and/or radial expansion in vivo. Moreover, because these prior art stents employ coatings applied to stents fabricated in accordance with conventional stent formation techniques, e.g., cold-forming metals, the underlying stent substrate is characterized by uncontrolled heterogeneities on the surface thereof. Thus, coatings merely are laid upon the heterogeneous stent surface, and inherently conform to the topographical heterogeneities in the stent surface and mirror these heterogeneities at the blood contact surface of the resulting coating. This is conceptually similar to adding a coat of fresh paint over an old coating of blistered paint; the fresh coating will conform to the blistering and eventually, blister and delaminate from the underlying substrate. Thus, topographical heterogeneities are typically telegraphed through a surface coating. Chemical heterogeneities, on the other hand, may not be telegraphed through a surface coating but may be exposed due to cracking or peeling of the adherent layer, depending upon the particular chemical heterogeneity. 
   The current invention entails creating materials specifically designed for manufacture of grafts, stents, stent-grafts and other endoluminal devices. According to a preferred embodiment of the invention, the manufacture of grafts, stents, stent-grafts and other endoluminal devices is controlled to attain a regular, homogeneous atomic and molecular pattern of distribution along their surface. This avoids the marked variations in surface composition, creating predictable oxidation and organic adsorption patterns and has predictable interactions with water, electrolytes, proteins and cells. Particularly, EC migration is supported by a homogeneous distribution of binding domains that serve as natural or implanted cell attachment sites, in order to promote unimpeded migration and attachment. Based on observed EC attachment mechanisms such binding domains should have a repeating pattern along the blood contact surface of no less than 1 μm radius and 2 μm border-to-border spacing between binding domains. Ideally, the inter-binding domain spacing is less than the nominal diameter of an endothelial cell in order to ensure that at any given time, a portion of an endothelial cell is in proximity to a binding domain. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a laminated film structure and a method of making laminated film structures comprised of at least two of a plurality of plied layers of biocompatible metals or biocompatible materials which exhibits mechanical properties superior to those of a monolithic film structure of substantially equal thickness as the laminated film structure. 
   In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a web-stent device, fabricated of a laminated film, in which there is at least one of a plurality of structural members that provides a primary means of structural support for the web-stent device. The plurality of structural members is spaced apart to form open regions or interstices between adjacent structural members. In the present invention, a web of material, that is the same or similar to the material which forms the plurality of structural members, subtends the interstices or open regions between adjacent structural members. The web may be formed within all or a portion of the interstitial area or open regions between the plurality of structural support members. Both the plurality of interconnected structural members and the web may be formed of initially substantially planar materials or of initially substantially cylindrical materials. 
   In accordance with another preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a stent-graft device in which a graft member is formed as a laminated film of material and mechanically joined to one or both of the proximal and distal ends of the plurality of structural support members, and covers that surface of the plurality of structural support members which is to form either the luminal or abluminal surface of the stent-graft device. The graft member may be formed either separately or as a contiguous thin-film projecting from the plurality of structural members. Where the graft member is formed as a contiguous thin-film projecting from the plurality of structural members, the thin film is either abluminally everted or luminally inverted and brought into a position adjacent to the plurality of structural members such that it covers either, or both, the luminal or abluminal surfaces or the plurality of structural members, then is attached at an opposing end, i.e., the putative proximal or the putative distal end of the plurality of structural members. 
   In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, there is provided a graft formed as a discrete laminated thin sheet or tube of biocompatible metal or metal-like materials. A plurality of openings is provided which pass transversely through the graft member. The plurality of openings may be random or may be patterned. It is preferable that the size of each of the plurality of openings be such as to permit cellular migration through each opening, without permitting fluid flow there through. In this manner, blood cannot flow through the plurality of openings, but various cells or proteins may freely pass through the plurality of openings to promote graft healing in vivo. 
   In accordance with another aspect of the inventive graft embodiment, it is contemplated that two graft members are employed, one or both of the graft members being formed of laminated films. An outer diameter of a first graft member is dimensioned smaller than the an inner diameter of a second graft member, such that the first graft member is concentrically engageable within a lumen of the second graft member. Both the first and second graft members have a plurality of patterned openings passing there through. The first and second graft members are positioned concentrically with respect to one another, with the plurality of patterned openings being positioned out of phase relative to one another such as to create a tortuous cellular migration pathway through the wall of the concentrically engaged first and second graft members. In order to facilitate cellular migration and healing of the first and second graft members, it is preferable to provide additional cellular migration pathways that communicate between the plurality of openings in the first and second graft members. These additional cellular migration pathways may be imparted as 1) a plurality of projections formed on either the luminal surface of the second graft or the abluminal surface of the first graft, or both, which serve as spacers and act to maintain an annular opening between the first and second graft members and permit cellular migration in order to communicate between the plurality of openings in the first and second graft members, or 2) a plurality of microgrooves, which may be random, radial, helical, or longitudinal relative to the longitudinal axis of the first and second graft members, the plurality of microgrooves being of a sufficient size to permit cellular migration and propagation along the groove without permitting fluid flow there through, the microgrooves serve as cellular migration conduits between the plurality of openings in the first and second graft members. 
   The present invention also provides a method of fabricating the web-stent device which entails providing a planar or tubular laminated film of a biocompatible material, such as forming the film by vacuum deposition, then removing interstitial regions until a thinner film region is created which forms a web subtending a plurality of structural members. Alternatively, a pre-existing conventionally produced sheet or tube of a biocompatible material, such as Nitinol, may be etched until a thinner film is created in the etched regions, thereby forming the interstitial web areas of the web-stent device. 
   Finally, in accordance with the present invention, there is provided an implantable endoluminal device that is fabricated from laminated film materials that present a blood or tissue contact surface that is substantially homogeneous in material constitution. More particularly, the present invention provides an endoluminal graft, stent, stent-graft and web-stent that is made of a material having controlled heterogeneities along the blood flow or tissue-contacting surface of the stent. 

   
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
       FIG. 1A  is a perspective, partial cross-sectional view of a laminated film sheet structure in accordance with the present invention. 
       FIG. 1B  is a perspective, partial cross-sectional view of a laminated film tubular structure in accordance with the present invention. 
       FIG. 2  is a perspective view of a preferred embodiment of the web-stent of the present invention. 
       FIG. 3  is a perspective view of a stent-graft in accordance with the present invention. 
       FIG. 4  is a perspective view of an alternative embodiment of the inventive stent-graft. 
       FIG. 5  is a cross-sectional view taken along line  5 — 5  of FIG.  4 . 
       FIG. 6  is a cross-sectional view illustrating a pair of support members and a section of interstitial web between adjacent supporting members. 
       FIG. 7  is a cross-sectional view illustrating a pair of support members and a section of interstitial web between adjacent supporting members in accordance with an alternative embodiment of the present invention. 
       FIG. 8A  is a top plan view of a graft or web region with a plurality of openings passing there through. 
       FIG. 8B  is a top plan view of an alternative embodiment of a graft or web region of the present invention with a plurality of openings passing there through. 
       FIG. 8C  is a top plan view of a third embodiment of a graft or web region of the present invention with a plurality of openings passing there through. 
       FIG. 9A  is a transverse cross-sectional view of a first embodiment of a graft member in accordance with the present invention. 
       FIG. 9B  is a transverse cross-sectional view of a second embodiment of a graft member in accordance with the present invention. 
       FIG. 10  is a flow chart diagrammatically illustrating the method of fabricating the laminated film graft, stent-graft and/or web-stent of the present invention. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
   According to the present invention, stent, web-stent and stent-graft devices are provided which preferably exhibit substantially homogenous surface properties. The inventive graft, stent, stent-graft and web-stent devices may be depositing at least two layers of a biocompatible material to form a plied film, either in a planar or cylindrical conformation, then either adding a pattern of support members to the film or removing at least some regions of the plied film to create thinner regions in the starting film and defining relatively thinner and thicker film regions, such as thinner web regions between adjacent structural members formed by thicker film regions and/or relatively thinner graft regions. An additive methodology may include vacuum deposition or lamination of a pattern of support members upon the planar or cylindrical film. A subtractive methodology includes etching unwanted regions of material by masking regions to form the structural members and expose unmasked regions to the etchant. Additionally, in order to improve in vivo healing, it is advantageous to impart openings passing through the web or the graft. The openings are preferably produced during the process of forming the web or the graft. The openings in the web or the graft may be formed by conventional methods such as photolithographic processes, by masking and etching techniques, by mechanical means, such as laser ablation, EDM, or micromachining, etc. Suitable deposition methodologies, as are known in the microelectronic and vacuum coating fabrication arts and incorporated herein by reference, are plasma deposition and physical vapor deposition which are utilized to impart a metal layer onto the stent pattern. 
   In accordance with an aspect of the present invention there is provided a vacuum deposited device that is fabricated of a material having substantially homogeneous surface properties across the blood contact surface of the device. Current manufacturing methods for fabricating endoluminal stents fail to achieve the desired material properties of the present invention. As discussed above, stents are fabricated from bulk metals that are processed in a manner that incorporates processing aides to the base metal. Presently, stents are made from hypotubes formed from bulk metals, by machining a series of slots or patterns into the hyptotube to accommodate radial expansion, or by weaving wires into a mesh pattern. 
   The present invention consists of a stent made of a bulk material having controlled heterogeneities on the luminal surface thereof. Heterogeneities are controlled by fabricating the bulk material of the stent to have defined grain sizes that yield areas or sites along the surface of the stent having optimal protein binding capability. The characteristically desirable properties of the inventive stent are: (a) optimum mechanical properties consistent with or exceeding regulatory approval criteria, (b) controlling discontinuities, such as cracking or pinholes, (c) a fatigue life of 400 MM cycles as measured by simulated accelerated testing, (d) corrosion resistance, (e) biocompatibility without having biologically significant impurities in the material, (f) a substantially non-frictional abluminal surface to facilitate atraumatic vascular crossing and tracking and compatible with transcatheter techniques for stent introduction, (g) radiopaque at selected sites and MRI compatible, (h) have a luminal surface which is optimized for surface energy and microtopography, (i) minimal manufacturing and material cost consistent with achieving the desired material properties, and (j) high process yields. 
   Controlling the surface profile of an endoluminal device is significant because blood protein interactions with surfaces of endoluminal devices appear to be the initial step in a chain of events leading to tissue incorporation of the endovascular device. The present invention is based, in part, upon the relationship between surface energy of the material used to make the endoluminal device and protein adsorption at the surface of the endoluminal device. The present inventors have found that a relationship exists between surface free energy and protein adsorption on metals commonly used in fabrication of endoluminal devices. In addition, specific electrostatic forces resident on the surface of metal endoluminal stents have been found to influence blood interactions with the stent surface and the vascular wall. 
   In accordance with a preferred embodiment the present invention, the inventive grafts, stent-grafts and web-stents have surface profiles which are achieved by fabricating the graft, stent-graft and web-stent by the same metal deposition methodologies as are used and standard in the microelectronic and nano-fabrication vacuum coating arts, and which are hereby incorporated by reference. In accordance with a preferred embodiment the present invention, the preferred deposition methodologies include ion-beam assisted evaporative deposition and sputtering techniques. In ion beam-assisted evaporative deposition it is preferable to employ dual and simultaneous thermal electron beam evaporation with simultaneous ion bombardment of the material being deposited using an inert gas, such as argon, xenon, nitrogen or neon. Bombardment with inert gas ions during deposition serves to reduce void content by increasing the atomic packing density in the deposited material. The reduced void content in the deposited material allows the mechanical properties of that deposited material to be similar to the bulk material properties. Deposition rates up to 20 nm/sec are achievable using ion beam-assisted evaporative deposition techniques. 
   When sputtering techniques are employed, a 200-micron thick stainless steel film may be deposited within about four hours of deposition time. With the sputtering technique, it is preferable to employ a cylindrical sputtering target, a single circumferential source that concentrically surrounds the substrate that is held in a coaxial position within the source. 
   Alternate deposition processes which may be employed to form the stent in accordance with the present invention are cathodic arc, laser ablation, and direct ion beam deposition. As known in the metal fabrication arts, the crystalline structure of the deposited film affects the mechanical properties of the deposited film. These mechanical properties of the deposited film may be modified by post-process treatment, such as by, for example, annealing. 
   Materials to make the inventive graft, stent-graft and web-stent are chosen for their biocompatibility, mechanical properties, i.e., tensile strength, yield strength, and their ease of deposition include, without limitation, the following: elemental titanium, vanadium, aluminum, nickel, tantalum, zirconium, chromium, silver, gold, silicon, magnesium, niobium, scandium, platinum, cobalt, palladium, manganese, molybdenum and alloys thereof, such as zirconium-titanium-tantalum alloys, nitinol, and stainless steel. 
   During deposition, the chamber pressure, the deposition pressure and the partial pressure of the process gases are controlled to optimize deposition of the desired species onto the substrate. As is known in the microelectronic fabrication, nano-fabrication and vacuum coating arts, both the reactive and non-reactive gases are controlled and the inert or non-reactive gaseous species introduced into the deposition chamber are typically argon and nitrogen. The substrate may be either stationary or moveable; either rotated about its longitudinal axis, moved in an X-Y plane, planatarily or rotationally moved within the deposition chamber to facilitate deposition or patterning of the deposited material onto the substrate. The deposited material maybe deposited either as a uniform solid film onto the substrate, or patterned by (a) imparting either a positive or negative pattern onto the substrate, such as by etching or photolithography techniques applied to the substrate surface to create a positive or negative image of the desired pattern or (b) using a mask or set of masks which are either stationary or moveable relative to the substrate to define the pattern applied to the substrate. Patterning may be employed to achieve complex finished geometries of the resultant structural supports, web-regions or graft, both in the context of spatial orientation of patterns of regions of relative thickness and thinness, such as by varying the thickness of the film over its length to impart different mechanical characteristics under different delivery, deployment or in vivo environmental conditions. 
   The device may be removed from the substrate after device formation by any of a variety of methods. For example, the substrate may be removed by chemical means, such as etching or dissolution, by ablation, by machining or by ultrasonic energy. Alternatively, a sacrificial layer of a material, such as carbon, aluminum or organic based materials, such as photoresists, may be deposited intermediate the substrate and the stent and the sacrificial layer removed by melting, chemical means, ablation, machining or other suitable means to free the stent from the substrate. 
   The resulting device may then be subjected to post-deposition processing to modify the crystalline structure, such as by annealing, or to modify the surface topography, such as by etching to expose a heterogeneous surface of the device. 
   The present invention, therefore, consists of both a material and a process of making the inventive material. The inventive material is one for which mechanical strength and toughness is important, among other characteristics. In accordance with the best mode presently contemplated for the invention, the inventive material consists of several layers of 316L stainless steel, each of about 10 micrometers thick with no chemical differences between them. The layers are defined by interfaces between them that have an interface microroughness in excess of 2 nm rms. The cumulative thickness of the stainless steel film formed from this material is about 100 micrometers. 
   The inventive material is preferably made by positioning a cylindrical copper mandrel along the axis of a cylindrical DC magnetron sputtering device. After the routine preparatory steps of obtaining a vacuum, admitting Argon sputtering gas, and cleaning the surface of the 316L stainless steel target, film deposition is carried out at a rate of 50 micrometers per hour for 12 minutes to obtain the first 10 micrometer thick layer. During the deposition, a negative bias voltage of 120 V is applied to the mandrel. The film grows and has a columnar structure in which columns reach though the whole thickness. After the first layer is deposited, the deposition process is interrupted for a brief period of time (˜1 min). This time is sufficient for the formation of an adsorptive layer on the freshly deposited film. When the deposition is resumed, this adsorptive layer gives rise to columnar growth that that is different from the columnar growth of the previous layer only in that the columns are not continuous. The deposition process steps are then repeated until the desired cumulative material thickness is attained. At that point, the material, still on the mandrel, is removed from the vacuum deposition chamber and the copper mandrel is chemically removed. Additional post-deposition steps of surface finishing, cutting, etc. may be employed. 
   Turning now to the Figures, there is illustrated alternative preferred embodiments of the present invention. In  FIGS. 1A and 1B  there is illustrated a multi-layered plied film in accordance with the present invention. The inventive film  10  consists of a plurality of individual layers  11  laminated upon one another to form the film  10 . The individual layers may be made of the same biocompatible material, such as a biocompatible metal, or may be made of discrete biocompatible materials. 
   With reference to  FIG. 2 , there is illustrated a web-stent  20  in accordance with the present invention. The web-stent  20  is formed of a vacuum deposited laminated planar or cylindrical film  10 . The web-stent  20  is formed by masking regions of the material blank which are to form a plurality of structural members  22 , and then etching the unmasked regions which then form interstitial webs  24  which subtend interstitial regions between adjacent structural members  22 . The interstitial webs  24  are etched to a material thickness that is less than the thickness of the plurality of structural members  22 . It is preferable to impart a plurality of openings in the interstitial webs  24  in order to permit endothelialization of the luminal surface  26  of the interstitial webs  24 . The openings may be imparted as a random pattern or as a regular pattern in the interstitial web  24 , as will be discussed hereinafter. 
   With reference to  FIG. 3  there is depicted a stent-graft  30  in accordance with the present invention. Stent-graft  30  is formed either from a tubular or planar laminated film  10 , which is etched to form the plurality of structural members  32  and interstitial regions  34  between the structural members  32 . In addition, either or both a proximal  36  or a distal  38  graft region of the stent are provided and project outwardly from terminal structural members  32 . The proximal graft region  36  and the distal graft region  38  are preferably etched to a reduced thickness of less than the thickness of the structural members, and are made with openings passing there through which promote cellular migration, as will be discussed hereinafter. 
   Under certain applications it may be useful to employ the stent-graft  30  with either or both of the proximal  36  or distal  38  graft regions projecting outwardly from the structural supports  32 . Additionally, one or more of the plied individual layers  11  that comprise the laminate film  10  may project outwardly from the structural supports  32 . An alternative embodiment of the invention is illustrated in  FIGS. 4 and 5 . The alternative embodiment of the stent-graft  30  involves covering the luminal and abluminal surfaces of a plurality of structural supports  32  with a luminal graft  36  and an abluminal graft  38 . The luminal graft  36  may initially be formed as the proximal graft region  36  in FIG.  3  and be luminally inverted  39  and passed into the lumen defined by the structural members  32 . The abluminal graft  38  may initially be formed as the distal graft region  38  in FIG.  3  and be abluminally everted  37  over the structural members  32 . Alternatively, the luminal graft  36  and the abluminal graft  38  may be formed as either pre-fabricated discrete graft members made of biocompatible metal or metal-like materials that are either tubular or planar then formed into a tube and concentrically engaged about the plurality of structural members  32 . Portions of each of the abluminal graft  38  and the luminal graft  36  are mechanically joined to the plurality of structural members  32  or to one and other, thereby effectively encapsulating the plurality of structural members  32  between the luminal graft  36  and the abluminal graft  38 . It is preferable that opposing free ends of each of the abluminal graft  38  and luminal graft  36  are mechanically joined to and co-terminus with a terminal portion of the plurality of structural members  32 . Mechanical joining may be accomplished by methods such as welding, suturing, adhesive bonding, soldering, thermobonding, riveting, crimping, or dovetailing. In accordance with an alternate embodiment of the invention, the interstitial regions  34  may be subtended by a web  34 , as discussed hereinabove, with reference to  FIGS. 1 and 2 . 
   Those of ordinary skill in the art, will understand and appreciate that alternative methods of removing material from areas that form relatively thinner regions of the stent, web-stent or stent-graft may be employed. For example, in addition to chemical etching, relatively thinner regions may be formed by removing bulk material by ion milling, laser ablation, EDM, laser machine, electron beam lithography, reactive ion etching, sputtering or equivalent methods which are capable of reducing the thickness of the material in either the graft region or the interstitial web region between the structural members. Alternatively, the structural members may be added to the defined interstitial web or graft regions to form the device, or the interstitial web or graft regions may be added to pre-existing structural members. Additive methods that may be employed include conventional metal forming techniques, including laminating, plating, or casting. 
   Similarly, a wide variety of initial bulk material configurations may be employed, including a substantially planar sheet substrate, an arcuate substrate or a tubular substrate, which is then processed by either subtractive or additive techniques discussed above. 
   By forming the structural members, the interstitial web and/or the graft of an integral, monolithic material, both the circumferential or hoop strength of the resultant device, as well as the longitudinal or columnar strength of the device are enhanced over conventional stent-graft devices. Additional advantages of the present invention, depending upon fabrication methods, may include: controlled homogeneity and/or heterogeneity of the material used to form the device by deposition methodologies, enhanced ability to control dimensional and mechanical characteristics of the device, the ability to fabricate complex device conformations, ability to pattern and control the porosity of the web and/or graft regions, and a monolithic one-piece construction of a device which yields a minimized device profile and cross-sectional area. The devices of the present invention have relatively thicker and thinner regions, in which the thinner regions permit radial collapse of the device for endoluminal delivery. The inventive device exhibits superior column strength that permits smaller introducer size and more readily facilitates deployment of the device. 
   As illustrated in  FIGS. 6 and 7 , the web and/or graft regions,  44 ,  54  between adjacent structural members  42 ,  52  may be co-planar with either the luminal or abluminal surface of the structural members  42 , or may be positioned intermediate the luminal  51  and abluminal  56  surfaces of the structural members  52 . 
   In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the web regions of the inventive web-stent, the graft regions of the inventive stent-graft and the inventive graft have a plurality of openings which pass through the thickness of the material used to fabricated the inventive devices. Each of the plurality of openings is dimensioned to permit cellular migration through the opening without permitting blood leakage or seepage through the plurality of openings. The plurality of openings may be random or may be patterned. However, in order to control the effective porosity of the device, it is desirable to impart a pattern of openings in the material used to fabricate the inventive device. 
     FIGS. 8A-8C  depict several examples of patterned openings in a section of material used to make the inventive web-stent, graft regions of the stent-graft, and the inventive graft.  FIG. 8A  depicts a material  60  with a plurality of circular openings  64  passing through the material substrate  62 . The plurality of circular openings is patterned in a regular array of rows and columns with regular inter-opening spacing  65  between adjacent openings. In the particular embodiment illustrated the diameter of each of the plurality of openings is about 19 μm, with an inter-opening spacing in each row and column of about 34 μm on center. The thickness of the material  62  is approximately 10 μm.  FIG. 8B  illustrates another example of a pattern of a plurality of openings useful in the present invention. The material  62 , which again is approximately 10 μm in thickness, has a plurality of openings  66  and  67  passing there through. The pattern of the plurality of openings  66  and  67  is an alternating slot pattern in which the plurality of openings  66  are arrayed adjacent one and other forming a y-axis oriented array  68  relative to the material  62 , while a plurality of openings  67  are arrayed adjacent one and other forming an x-axis oriented array  69  relative to the material  62 . The y-axis-oriented array  68  and the x-axis-oriented array  69  are then positioned adjacent one and other in the material  62 . In this particular example, the inter-array spacing between the y-axis-oriented array  68  and the x-axis-oriented array  69  is about 17 μm, while each of the plurality of openings has a length of about 153 μm and a width of about 17 μm. Finally,  FIG. 8C  illustrates a material  60  in which the material substrate  62  has a regular array of a plurality of diamond-shaped openings  63  passing through the material substrate  62 . As with the alternative embodiments exemplified in  FIGS. 8A and 8B , the dimension of the plurality of diamond-shaped openings  63  is of sufficient size to permit cellular migration through the openings  63 , while preventing blood flow or seepage through the plurality of openings  63 . 
     FIGS. 9A and 9B  illustrate alternate preferred embodiments of the graft  70  and graft  80  in accordance with the present invention. Graft  70  consists generally of concentrically positioned luminal graft member  74  and abluminal graft member  72  and an interfacial region  74  where the luminal surface of the abluminal graft member  72  and the abluminal surface of the luminal graft member  74  are in immediate juxtaposition with one and other. Both the luminal  74  and the abluminal  72  graft members are fabricated in accordance with the methodologies described above, and are provided with a plurality of patterned openings  73  in the abluminal graft member  72  and a plurality of patterned openings  75  in the luminal graft member  74 . The plurality of patterned openings  74  and  75  are positioned out of phase relative to one another. By positioning the plurality of patterned openings  74  and  75  in an out-of-phase relationship, there is no continuous opening that passes through the interfacial region  76  which would permit blood flow or seepage from the lumen of the graft. However, in order to permit cellular migration from the abluminal surface of the graft to the lumen of the graft, the interfacial region  76  should have microroughness [not shown] which is oriented either randomly or selectively, such as helically or circumferential, about the interfacial region  76 . The microroughness preferably has a peak-to-valley depth of between about 5μ to about 65μ, most preferably between about 10μ to 15μ, may be either on the luminal surface of the abluminal graft  72  or on the abluminal surface of the luminal graft  74 , or both. The microroughness spans the surface area region between adjacent pairs of openings  74 ,  75 , and the microroughness depth permits cellular migration across the surfaces between adjacent openings  74  and  75 . The microroughness is not large enough to permit fluid passage through the inter-opening regions at the interface between the luminal graft  74  and the abluminal graft  72 . This property of permitting cellular growth is similar to the difference between the porosity of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene grafts which do not require pre-clotting, and the much larger porosity of polyester or DACRON grafts which require pre-clotting to prevent fluid seepage there from. 
     FIG. 9B  illustrates an alternative embodiment of the inventive graft  80  in which an abluminal graft member  82  is concentrically positioned about a luminal graft member  84 . Each of the abluminal graft member  82  and the luminal graft member  84  having a plurality of patterned openings  83 ,  85 , respectively, passing there through. As with the embodiment depicted in  FIG. 9A , the plurality of patterned openings  83  and  85  are positioned in an out-of-phase relationship to one and other in order to prevent forming a continuous opening between the luminal and abluminal surfaces of the graft  80 . However, unlike the embodiment in  FIG. 9A , there is no corresponding interfacial region  74 . Rather, an annular open region  87  is positioned intermediate the luminal graft member  84  and the abluminal graft member  82 . The annular open region  87  is created by providing a plurality of microprojections  86  that project either radially inward from the luminal surface of the abluminal graft member  82  or radially outward from the abluminal surface of the luminal graft member  84 . The plurality of microprojections  86  act as spacers which abut the opposing surface of either the luminal graft member  84  or the abluminal graft member  82  which bound the annular open region  87 . The height of the microprojections  86  and, therefore, the size of the annular open region  87 , are dimensioned such that cells may migrate through the annular open region  87 , while blood flow or seepage will not occur between the lumen and the abluminal surface of the graft  80 . 
   According to a specific aspect of the graft embodiment of the present invention, the size of the plurality of openings in the luminal graft member  74 ,  84  may be different than the size of the plurality of openings in the abluminal graft member  72 ,  82 . For example, the plurality of openings in the abluminal graft member  74 ,  84  preferably have a larger size than the plurality of openings in the luminal graft member  72 ,  84 , while still retaining the out-of-phase relationship between the plurality of openings in the luminal  72 ,  82  and the abluminal  74 ,  84  graft members. Where circular openings are provided, it is preferable that the luminal  72 ,  82  and the abluminal  74 ,  84  graft members have openings having diameters of between about 5 μm and 100 μm. 
   Additionally, a third member may be interposed between the luminal  72 ,  82  and the abluminal  82 ,  84  graft members. The third member will preferably have a very fine plurality of openings, such as on the order of between 2-10μ, and permits use of a higher porosity in the luminal and abluminal grafts, without the need to maintain an out-of-phase relationship between the openings in the luminal  72 ,  82  and the abluminal  74 ,  84  graft members. 
   Finally, the method  90  for fabricating the inventive grafts, stent-grafts and web-stents of the invention is illustrated in the process flow diagram in FIG.  10 . As previously discussed above, a starting blank of material by vacuum depositing a starting blank of a biocompatible metal or metal-like laminated film  94 . Then a determination is made whether to employ an additive or a subtractive method  96  for forming the graft, stent-graft or web-stent. If an additive method is selected  97 , the structural supports are built upon the starting blank  100 , either by vacuum deposition techniques or by conventional metal forming techniques. If a subtractive method is selected  95 , the regions to remain are masked  98 , then the unmasked regions are removed, such as by chemical etching or sputtering, to form the interstitial web regions, graft regions and/or openings in either the interstitial web regions and/or graft regions  99 . 
   The following examples are provided in order to illustrate the alternative embodiments of the invention, and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. 
   EXAMPLE 1 
   Stent Formation By Sputtering 
   A ceramic cylindrical substrate is introduced into a deposition chamber with capabilities of glow discharge substrate cleaning and sputter deposition of carbon and stainless steel. The deposition chamber is evacuated to a pressure less than or equal to 2×10 −7  Torr. Pre-cleaning of the substrate is conducted under vacuum by glow discharge. The substrate temperature is controlled to achieve a temperature between about 300 and 1100 degrees Centigrade. A bias voltage between −1000 and +1000 volts is applied to the substrate sufficient to cause energetic species arriving at the surface of the substrate to have hyperthermal energy between 0.1 eV and about 700 eV, preferably between 5-50 eV. The deposition sources are circumferential and are oriented to deposit from the target circumferentially about the substrate. 
   During deposition, the deposition pressure is maintained between 0.1 and 10 mTorr. A sacrificial carbon layer of substantially uniform thickness (±5%) between 10 and 500 Angstroms is deposited circumferentially on the substrate. After depositing the carbon layer, a cylindrical film of stainless steel is deposited onto the sacrificial carbon layer on the cylindrical substrate at a deposition rate between about 10 to 100 microns/hour. After formation of the stainless steel film, the substrate is removed from the deposition chamber and heated to volatilize the intermediate sacrificial carbon layer between the substrate and the film. After removing the carbon intermediate layer, the stainless steel film is removed from the substrate and exhibits material properties similar to the bulk stainless steel target and surface properties characterized by controlled heterogeneities in grain size, material composition and surface topography. A series of patterns are then machined into the resultant stainless steel film to form a stent by electrical discharge machining (EDM) or laser cutting the film. 
   EXAMPLE 2 
   Stent Formation by Sputtering 
   The same operating conditions are followed as in Example 1, except that the substrate is tubular and selected to have a coefficient of thermal expansion different than that of the resultant stent. No intermediate layer of sacrificial carbon is deposited onto the substrate, and the outer surface of the substrate is etched with a pattern of recesses defining a desired stent pattern. The substrate is mounted onto a rotational jig within the deposition chamber and rotated at a uniform rate during deposition. Tantalum is used as the target material and deposited into the recesses of the substrate from a single stationary source. After deposition, the temperature of the substrate and the deposited stent are controlled to impart diametric differential in the substrate and stent and permit removal of the stent from the substrate. 
   EXAMPLE 3 
   Stent Formation by Ion Beam-assisted Evaporative Deposition 
   A cylindrical substrate is introduced into a deposition chamber that has capabilities of: substrate rotation and precise positioning, glow discharge substrate cleaning, ion beam-assisted evaporative deposition, and cylindrical magnetron sputtering. The deposition sources are (a) dual electron beam evaporative sources placed adjacent to one another at the base of the deposition chamber at a fixed distance from the substrate, these are used with simultaneous argon ion impingement onto the substrate from a controlled ion beam source, and (b) a cylindrical magnetron sputtering source with a carbon target capable of circumferentially coating a carbon sacrificial layer of substantially uniform thickness of between 10 and 200 Angstroms onto the substrate. 
   The substrate temperature is controlled to achieve a substrate temperature between about 300 and 1100 degrees Centigrade. The deposition chamber is evacuated to a pressure less than or equal to 2×10 −7  Torr. A pre-cleaning of the substrate is conducted under vacuum by glow discharge. The substrate is rotated to ensure uniform cleaning and subsequent uniform deposition thickness. After cleaning the substrate is moved into the magnetron and coated with the carbon layer. The substrate is then moved into position to receive the stent-forming metal coating with simultaneous ion bombardment. One electron beam evaporation source contains titanium while the other source contains nickel. The evaporation rates of each of the titanium and nickel evaporation sources are separately controlled to form a nitinol alloy on the substrate as the stent-forming metal. 
   EXAMPLE 4 
   Planar Deposition of Stent 
   The same operating conditions of Example 3 are followed, except that a planar substrate is used. The deposition source is a single electron beam evaporation source containing platinum and is used with simultaneous argon ion impingement onto the substrate from a controlled ion beam source. 
   The substrate temperature is controlled to achieve a substrate temperature between about 300 and 1100 degrees Centigrade. The deposition chamber is evacuated to a pressure less than or equal to 2×10 −7  Torr. A pre-cleaning of the substrate is conducted under vacuum by glow discharge. After cleaning the substrate is moved into position within the deposition chamber and coated with platinum from the electron beam evaporation source with simultaneous argon ion bombardment, with the electron beam evaporation source passing platinum through a pattern mask corresponding to a stent pattern which is interposed between the source and the substrate to pass a pattern of platinum onto the substrate. 
   After deposition, the patterned stent is removed from the substrate and rolled about a forming substrate to a cylindrical shape and opposing ends of the planar stent material are brought into juxtaposition with one another and may be attached by laser welding or left uncoupled. 
   EXAMPLE 5 
   Thin-Film Deposition with Stent-Graft Etch 
   The same conditions are employed as in Example 4, except that a uniform layer of stent-forming material is deposited having a thickness of 150 microns without patterning of the stent onto the deposited layer. Rather, a negative mask is applied to the deposited stent-forming material, and a chemical etchant is introduced to etch a pattern of structural elements into the stent-forming metal. The etchant is permitted to react with the metal until a thinner film web having a thickness of between 2-75 microns, is present between adjacent structural elements. After the thinner film web is formed, the etching is stopped, and the resultant stent-graft is removed and formed into a tubular shape. 
   EXAMPLE 6 
   Dry Etching Method 
   The same conditions as in Example 5 are followed, except that reactive ion etching is employed to form the thinner film web. 
   EXAMPLE 7 
   Stent-Graft Formation 
   The same conditions are followed as in Example 5, except that the structural elements are defined in an intermediate region of a tubular substrate, and interstitial regions between adjacent structural elements are etched by chemical etching until interstitial openings are formed between adjacent structural elements while masking the structural elements and proximal and distal regions of the tubular substrate. Proximal and distal graft regions are formed adjacent the intermediate region of the tubular substrate and contiguous with the plurality of structural elements, by masking the structural elements and interstitial openings and chemical etching the proximal and distal regions of the tubular substrate to yield a thinner film of material in the proximal and distal regions of the tubular substrate. The proximal and distal graft regions are then everted, with the proximal graft region being inverted luminally through the lumen of the structural members and the distal graft region being everted abluminally over the structural members. The proximal graft region is mechanically joined to the distal terminal end of the plurality of structural members, while the distal graft region is mechanically joined to the proximal terminal end of the plurality of structural members, thereby encapsulating the plurality of structural members between the everted proximal and distal graft regions. 
   EXAMPLE 8 
   Stent-Graft Formation—Discrete Graft and Discrete Stent 
   A pre-fabricated self-expanding superelastic shape memory alloy stent is provided. Two cylindrical hypotubes of a superelastic shape memory material similar to that of the stent are chemically etched to a substantially uniform thickness of 10 μm, with a first hypotube having an inner diameter which is of sufficient size to accommodate the outer diameter of the stent, and a second hypotube having an outer diameter dimensioned to accommodate the inner diameter of the stent. The etched hypotubes are then placed into a vacuum chamber and a cylindrical pattern mask having a regular array of circular openings, each circular opening having a diameter of about 25 μm, is positioned concentrically about each of the cylindrical hypotubes. The etched hypotubes are reactive ion etched to transfer the masked pattern to the etched hypotube and impart a pattern of circular openings that pass through the wall thickness of the etched hypotubes corresponding to the mask pattern. The stent, and first and second etched and reactive ion etched hypotubes are concentrically engaged upon one and other, with the second hypotube being concentrically positioned within the lumen of the stent and the first hypotube being concentrically positioned about the abluminal surface of the stent. Proximal and distal ends of the stent, the first hypotube and the second hypotube are mechanically joined by welding and then trimmed by laser cutting to ensure that the proximal and distal ends are co-terminus. 
   EXAMPLE 9 
   Graft Formation 
   A cylindrical mandrel is provided which is coated with a sacrificial layer. A plurality of patterned recesses is defined in the sacrificial layer. The mandrel is introduced into a deposition chamber and a nickel-titanium alloy is vacuum deposited onto the mandrel, while rotating the mandrel, until a uniform adherent layer of the deposited nickel-titanium alloy covers the cylindrical mandrel. After deposition, the sacrificial layer is removed, and the uniform adherent layer disengaged from the cylindrical mandrel, yielding the inventive graft, with openings corresponding to the plurality of patterned recesses in the graft material. 
   EXAMPLE 10 
   Planar Laminated Film 
   A vacuum chamber capable of being pumped to 5×10 −7  Torr is provided with and installed within industry standard thin-film deposition equipment described as follows. An electron beam gun capable of evaporating metals is placed at the base of the chamber. The gun crucible is filled with a charge of high purity aluminum. A film thickness and deposition rate control and monitoring device is installed above and to the side of the gun, capable of monitoring and controlling incident power to the gun crucible in order to control deposition rate. A fixture to hold a planar substrate is installed fifty cm above and centered over the gun. A moveable shutter is placed between the gun and the substrate fixture, such that at a given and appropriate time the shutter can be removed from the deposition path to allow deposition onto a substrate. Infrared heaters are installed in the chamber in a position that allows controlled heating of the substrate to 200 degrees C. An ion beam gun is installed in the chamber in such a position that a formed and controlled Ar ion beam can be directed onto a substrate held in the substrate fixture. 
   The following steps are taken to form a laminate/multilayer film on a substrate. A section of 316L stainless steel sheet metal, 36″ square and 0.016″ thick is attached to the substrate holding fixture to serve as the deposition substrate. The chamber is pumped to a base pressure of 5×10 −7  Torr. The infrared heaters are engaged to heat and maintain the substrate at 200 degrees C. With the shutter in the deposition path, the electron beam gun power is ramped up which heats and outgases the aluminum charge. The aluminum charge is heated to obtain a vapor pressure compatible with a deposition rate equivalent to 75 angstroms per second. Simultaneous with this, the ion beam gun is started and a stable 200 volt Ar ion beam with the current density of 0.5 mA/cm 2  is formed, at a chamber pressure of 3×10 −5  Torr. 
   When these conditions are reached and stabilized, the shutter is opened. An aluminum film of 5000 angstroms thickness is deposited onto the substrate. At this point the shutter is closed and the electron beam gun power is reduced to zero. The ion beam gun remains running. The chamber is backfilled with oxygen to a pressure of 8×10−4 Torr. The shutter reopens allowing Ar ion impingement of the substrate in the oxygen environment for three minutes. At this point the shutter is closed and the oxygen flow is ceased. The chamber is allowed to pump back down to 3×10−5 Torr. The electron beam gun is restarted, which again outgases the aluminum charge and brings it to the appropriate deposition vapor pressure. The shutter reopens and a second aluminum layer of 5000 angstrom thickness is deposited onto the substrate. Again the shutter is closed and the electron beam gun power reduced to zero. This layer is then Ar ion impinged in an oxygen backfilled environment as before. This cycle is repeated to form multiple successive layers as are required for form a multilayer film of 50 micron total thickness. 
   While the invention has been described with reference to its preferred embodiments, those of ordinary skill in the relevant arts will understand and appreciate that the present invention is not limited to the recited preferred embodiments, but that various modifications in material selection, deposition methodology, manner of controlling the material heterogeneities of the deposited stent material, and deposition process parameters may be employed without departing from the invention, which is to be limited only by the claims appended hereto.