Abstract:
An electronic sweat sensor ( 300 ) includes a plurality of porous substrates ( 310, 312 ), each porous substrate ( 310, 312 ) having an electrically conductive surface ( 320, 322 ). The porous substrates ( 310, 312 ) have a generally planar surface. The generally planar surface may be adapted to be positioned on skin ( 12 ) generally coplanar with the skin. The electronic sweat sensor ( 300 ) further includes a porous spacer ( 315 ) layer defining a gap between at least two of the porous substrates ( 310, 312 ). When an analyte flow ( 305 ), which may be from skin ( 12 ), is moving perpendicular to the planar surface and through at least one of the porous substrates ( 310, 312 ), at least one of the conductive surfaces ( 320, 322 ) provides an electrical response to the presence of the analyte flow ( 305 ).

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application relates to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/003,715 and No. 62/003,692, both filed May 28, 2014, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    Numerous technologies have been developed to detect chemical solutes and various compounds (e.g., analytes) in the body. Many of these techniques measure impedance or charge transfer, or use techniques which benefit from closely spaced interdigitated electrodes.  FIG. 1A  shows a conventional impedance measuring, or impedance spectroscopy, device  100   a  used to detect chemical solutes and/or various compounds in the body. Sensing device  100   a  includes a first substrate  110 , which may be made of glass or plastic for example, that carriers pairs of interdigitated electrodes  120 ,  122  separated by a spacing or pitch (“d”). The pitch (“d”) is typically made as small as possible, often only a few micrometers, to maximize the performance of the sensing device  100   a.  This creates challenges when integrating such technology with simple low-cost printed electronics or standard circuit board technology, which cannot achieve such finely patterned features. The sensing device  100   a  includes probes or biorecognition elements  190 , which selectively capture analytes or biomarkers  192  in a horizontal flow of analytes  105 . The horizontal flow of analytes  105  can be through a porous solid, gel, liquid gas, or other material suitable for transporting or permitting movement or transport of the analytes  192 . Any method of transport for analytes is possible, including by diffusion, by advective flow in a fluid or gas, by iontophoresis, by electro-osmosis, or by other suitable techniques. As analytes  192  are captured onto probes  190 , the measurement circuit  180  is able to detect charge transfer, changes in impedance, or other electrically measureable changes known by those skilled in the art that indicate the presence of analyte  192 . These changes can even be used in some cases to measure the concentration of analyte  192  in flow  105 . Two of several challenges of device  100   a  are the complexity of fabrication of the interdigitated electrodes  120 ,  122  and the low amount of diffusion or transport of analytes in flow  105  down to the probes  190 , especially so at low analyte concentrations. 
         [0003]    With reference to  FIG. 1B , a prior art sensing device  100   b  is shown where the upper and lower walls, or any walls, of a microfluidic channel carry the sensing electrodes  120 ,  122 . The channel and spacing between electrodes  120 ,  122  is defined by the spacing (“d”) between substrates  110 ,  112 . All like numeral features provided and are similar to those described for  FIG. 1 . The device  100   b  allows a simple and reliable way to achieve closely spaced electrodes, which benefits numerous sensing modalities, and the flow of analytes  105  is always close to the probes  190  such that even at low concentrations of analytes  192  the analytes can more easily diffuse or transport to the probes  190 . However, the configuration shown for device  100   b  will dramatically reduce the ease or rate of transport of flow of analytes  105 , and in some cases, will be difficult to integrate with various complete bio or chemical sensor device designs. 
         [0004]    Such devices require a sample to be introduced to a sensor surface or material. Often, the preferred requirements of sample introduction and of the sensor configuration are conflicting in one or more aspect, such that the performance of the device is reduced in one or more aspect. Furthermore, in many cases the fluid volume is very small, presenting unique challenges to the sensor configuration. In addition, the sensors themselves often require complicated configurations such as spaced electrodes to achieve greater performance. 
         [0005]    What is needed are new devices and methods which can resolve one or more of the above challenges, and in particular, do so in a manner that is economical to manufacture. In particular, what is needed are better methods to efficiently introduce a sample close to the sensor surface, such that analyte diffusion is more rapidly completed from solution to the sensor. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0006]    The present invention provides electronic sweat sensors for sensing an analyte originating from skin or from another source where benefits of the present invention also apply. In one embodiment, an electronic sweat sensor includes at least one porous electrode providing an electrical response to the presence of an analyte. Said porous electrode has a generally planar surface and is adapted to be positioned on skin generally coplanar with said skin. The sensor further includes an analyte flow path from skin perpendicular to said planar surface and through said sensor. Said porous electrode provides a change in at least one electrical property in response to said analytes. 
         [0007]    In one embodiment, an electronic sweat sensor includes a plurality of porous substrates, each porous substrate having an electrically conductive surface, said porous substrates having a generally planar surface and adapted to be positioned on skin generally coplanar with said skin. The sensor further includes a porous spacer layer defining a gap between at least two of said plurality of porous substrates and an analyte flow path from skin perpendicular to said planar surface and through at least one of said porous substrates. At least one of said conductive surfaces provides an electrical response to the presence of said analyte flow. 
         [0008]    In one embodiment, an electronic sweat sensor includes at least one porous substrate having a first surface and a second surface, said second surface being opposite said first surface, said porous substrate having a generally planar surface and being adapted to be positioned on skin generally coplanar with said skin. The sensor further includes a first porous electrode layer adjacent to said first surface and a second porous electrode layer adjacent to said second surface. The sensor further includes an analyte flow path from skin perpendicular to said planar surface and through said at least one porous substrate. At least one of said first and second porous electrode layers provides an electrical response to the presence of an analyte. 
         [0009]    In one embodiment, an electronic sweat sensor includes at least one porous substrate having an electrically conductive surface providing an electrical response to the presence of one or more analytes, said porous substrate having a generally planar surface and being adapted to be positioned on skin generally coplanar with said skin. The sensor further includes an analyte flow path through said sensor. Said at least one porous substrate is configured to confine an analyte flow such that said analyte flow is dominantly perpendicular to a planar surface of said porous substrate and through each porous substrate. 
         [0010]    In one embodiment, an electronic sweat sensor includes at least one porous substrate having an electrically conductive surface, said porous substrate having a generally planar surface and being adapted to be positioned on skin generally coplanar with said skin and at least one iontophoresis electrode configured to cause an analyte flow. When said analyte flow is moving perpendicular to a planar surface of said porous substrate and through said sensor, said porous substrate provides an electrical response to the presence of said analyte. 
         [0011]    In one embodiment, an electronic sweat sensor includes at least one porous substrate having an electrically conductive surface and being configured to provide an electrical response to the presence of an analyte, said porous substrate having a generally planar surface and being adapted to be positioned on skin generally coplanar with said skin. The sensor further includes at least a first material for collecting an analyte diffusing through said skin, said first material having a lower concentration of said analyte than a concentration of said analyte in said skin, said at least one porous substrate being positioned between said skin and said first material. When an analyte flow diffusing through the skin perpendicular to a planar surface of said porous substrate is moving through said sensor, said porous substrate provides an electrical response to the presence of said analyte flow. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0012]    The objects and advantages of the present invention will be further appreciated in light of the following detailed descriptions and drawings in which: 
           [0013]      FIG. 1A  is a schematic of a conventional sensing device. 
           [0014]      FIG. 1B  is a cross-sectional view of a conventional sensing device. 
           [0015]      FIG. 2A  is a cross-sectional view of a sensing device according to one embodiment of the present invention placed on skin. 
           [0016]      FIG. 2B  is a cross-sectional view of a sensing device according to one embodiment of the present invention incorporated into a lateral flow paper-microfluidic device. 
           [0017]      FIG. 3A  is a cross-sectional view of a sensing device according to one embodiment of the present invention. 
           [0018]      FIG. 3B  is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the sensing device of  FIG. 3A  showing a porous configuration. 
           [0019]      FIG. 3C  is a cross-sectional view of the sensing device of  FIG. 3A  showing an analyte flow. 
           [0020]      FIGS. 4A-C  are cross-sectional views of sensing devices according to various embodiments of the present invention having different configurations. 
           [0021]      FIG. 5A  is a cross-sectional view of a sensing device according to one embodiment of the present invention placed on skin. 
           [0022]      FIG. 5B  is a cross-sectional view of the sensing device of  FIG. 5A . 
           [0023]      FIG. 5C  is a cross-sectional view of a sensing device according to one embodiment of the present invention. 
           [0024]      FIG. 6  is a cross-sectional view of a sensing device according to one embodiment of the present invention placed on skin. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0025]    The embodiments of the present invention described below are described primarily in terms of analytes transported in a fluid and applications such as wearable biomarker sensing device. However, the present invention is not so limited in application or functionality. The present invention applies to any electronic sensing modality that would benefit in at least one performance, cost or other valued metric for chemical or biomarker (i.e. analyte) sensing. The embodiments of the present invention discussed below are illustrated primarily focusing on the sensor devices themselves. For purposes of convenience, the descriptions may not include illustration or description of additional features or system-level components, software, batteries, or other components that may be needed for proper function that are obvious to those skilled in the art. 
         [0026]    Aspects of the present invention apply to transport or flow of analytes through any material, including a porous solid, gel, liquid, gas, or other material suitable for transporting or permitting movement or transport of the analytes. Embodiments of the present invention may include any method of transport for analytes including, for example, diffusion, advective flow in a fluid or gas, iontophoresis, electro-osmosis, or other suitable techniques. The present invention contemplates any sensing modality or variation of embodiments of the present invention that benefit in performance, cost, convenience, sampling interval, longevity, limit of detection, specificity, ease of integration of additional features, ease of integration within a device, or any other aspect of bio or chemical sensing which can benefit from the embodiments of the present invention. Embodiments of the present invention will generally exhibit signal-to-noise advantages in sensors where a charge transfer between the electrode and solution occurs, including amperometric and impedance type sensing modalities and other sensing modalities which are known to benefit from use of interdigitated electrodes. Embodiments of the present invention will generally also allow sensors to stabilize more quickly, as the diffusive path length to the sensor surface is generally reduced. 
         [0027]    Embodiments of the present invention may be advantageously integrated in a variety of applications, some of which are illustrated in  FIGS. 2A-2C . With reference to  FIG. 2A , a porous sensing device  200   a  is shown which is laminated onto or placed adjacent to skin or tissue  12 . Sensing device  200   a  uses absorbent or evaporative element  240  to transport sweat fluid or sweat analytes vertically in flow  205  from skin  12  through the porous sensing device  200   a  and onto element  240 . Sensing device  200   a  is vertically porous and thin such that flow  205  occurs easily and quickly through sensing device  200   a.  Embodiments discussed below include further details on the porosity of a sensing device. In this embodiment, there is very little dead volume of fluid created, and very little fluid is needed to allow sensing device  200   a  to function properly. Further, additional fluidic controls are not needed. 
         [0028]      FIG. 2B  shows a sensing device  200   b  incorporated into a lateral flow paper-microfluidic device. The lateral flow paper-microfluidic device includes a paper strip  250 , which introduces fluid flow  205  through sensing device  200   b,  and a paper strip  260 . The paper strip  250  introduces fluid flow  205  through the sensing device  200   b,  which is porous. The fluid flow  205  then passes to the paper strip  260 , which carries fluid flow  205  away from sensing device  200   b.  In various embodiments, sensing devices  200   b  may be incorporated into lateral flow assay devices or simple flex electronic or wearable sensor devices, which must be thin and not made from rigid channel microfluidics. 
         [0029]    With reference to  FIG. 3A , a sensing device  300  includes substrates  310 ,  312  and spacer materials  315 . Substrates  310 ,  312  may be, for example, porous membranes, porous films, meshes, or any other suitable porous material, such as commercial track-etch membranes. In the illustrated embodiment, substrates  310 ,  312  are coated with optional electrodes  320  and  322  and probes  390 .  FIG. 3B  provides a top view of pores in substrate  310  and electrode  320 . In embodiments where substrates  310  and  312  are electrically conductive themselves, a sensing device may exclude the optional electrodes  320 ,  322 . In one embodiment, substrates  310 ,  312  are porous metal films or porous carbon fiber films and thereby provide electrically conductive surfaces. The porosity of the device  300  allows an analyte flow  305 , which is shown in  FIG. 3C  in greater detail. Although not shown, substrate  310  has a first inner surface and a first outer surface. Further, substrate  312  includes a second inner surface and a second outer surface. Substrates  310 ,  312  overlie each other and are spaced a distance (“d”) apart, which may be roughly the distance between the first and second inner surfaces. Substrates  310 ,  312  may be spaced apart using spacer materials  315 . The spacer materials  315  are porous and may be, for example, thin adhesives, spacer balls as are used in LCD displays, a photoresist, or an adhesive coated textile or mesh, among other materials. The spacers  115  are typically easy to fabricate, even down to only several micrometers across, using techniques known by those skilled in the art, and can regulate the spacing between the electrodes such that the impedance is adequately regular, predictable, and homogeneous. Sensing device  300  includes a variety of unique aspects and advantages. For instance, sensing device  300  is easily manufactured with a small electrode spacing (“d”) and may have a thin and flexible construction. Sensing device  300  may be manufactured using low-cost fabrication methods such as roll-to-roll fabrication. Further, sensing device  300  can offer little resistance to fluid flow  305 , and analytes  392  are brought into close proximity to probes  390  such that high performance sensing can be achieved for analytes at low concentrations and/or with low diffusivity. Another exemplary advantage is that the alignment of substrates  310 ,  312  is not required. Those skilled in the art may recognize further advantages. In another aspect of the present invention, the sensing device  300  could be used to provide detection by measurement of impedance, potential, current, frequency response, or other known methods of bio or chemical sensing technologies. 
         [0030]    A variety of analyte probes or electrical sensing methods are useful in embodiments of the present invention. By way of example, a probe or electrical sensing method may be an aptamer, redox couples, an antibody layer, an enzyme layer, or an ionophore membrane. Further, a surface that is selective in some way for sensing without a specific probe layer (e.g., stripping voltammetry) may be used. Generally, any surface that provides an electrical response to the presence of an analyte is adequate for use in embodiments of the present invention. Even surfaces that utilize an insulator on an electrically conductive surface, such as electrical capacitance or field-effect type sensors, are included since they also have an electrically conductive surface, and hence have an electrical response (be it direct or indirect) to the presence of said analyte. 
         [0031]      FIGS. 4A-4C  illustrate various embodiments of the present invention having a sensing device including one or more substrates, electrodes, and probes in a variety of configurations. With reference to  FIG. 4A , at least a portion of a sensing device  400   a  is shown, consisting of a porous substrate  410 , electrodes  420 ,  422 , and a coating or layer of probes for sensing  490 . Similar to device  300   a,  device  400   a  includes advantageous the aspects of electrodes  420 ,  422  being in close proximity, the ease of the analyte flow  405 , and the close proximity of the analytes (not shown) with probes  490 . In one embodiment, electrodes  420 ,  422  may also coat the sides of the pores (not shown) in the substrate  410 . Device  400   a  could be fabricated using several techniques, including angular vacuum metal deposition of a track-etch membrane with high-aspect ratio pores. 
         [0032]    With reference to  FIG. 4B , a portion of a sensing device  400   b  is shown. Sensing device  400   b  includes elements of device  400   a  and further includes an additional electrode  424  and substrate  412 . The location of the probe layer  490  may be determined based on a variety of considerations. For example, the location of the probe layer  490  in device  400   b  may have been determined because, in this embodiment, the probe layer  490  is easier to manufacture on the external surfaces of the substrate  410  of the device  400   b.  Those skilled in the art will recognize that a plurality of electrodes or arrangements are possible. Some sensing modalities require at least three electrodes: a reference electrode, a working electrode, and a counter electrode. In this regard, electrodes of device  400   b  could be any of these exemplary types of electrodes. Various embodiments of the present invention may include electrodes with or without probe layer  490 . 
         [0033]    With reference to  FIG. 4C , a device  400 C includes an electrode  420  on a porous substrate  410 , and electrodes  422 ,  424  spaced apart from the porous substrate  410 . Alternatively, in one embodiment, electrode  420  may also be porous. Porous electrodes may be, for example, a thin metal film that is porous or a fine metal wire mesh or a porous layer of carbon nanotubes. Utilizing porous electrodes may allow for a simpler manufacturing process. 
         [0034]    With reference to  FIG. 5A , a further embodiment of the present invention is shown as sensing device  500   a  is pressed onto skin  12 . In another embodiment, sensing device  500   a  could be adhered to skin  12  with an adhesive (not shown). Sensing device  500   a  includes a wicking material  532  to collect sweat. The device  500   a  is able to confine fluid from sweat ducts  14  to horizontally confined locations in device  500   a,  for example as indicated by lines  507 . This same configuration therefore confines analyte flow  505 . The device  500   a  may further include elements for stimulating sweat by, for example, iontophoresis. In one embodiment where the device includes a sweat stimulant, such as pilocarpine, the flow  505  could also confine the iontophoresis of the sweat stimulant into just the sweat ducts  14  or dominantly in areas near the sweat ducts  14 . Device  500   a  could achieve confinement of the flow  505  in several ways. In one embodiment, the space between two substrates by which device  500   a  is fabricated is sealed together with spacers that form a lattice of horizontally closed cells (e.g., a honeycomb lattice). In this embodiment, the spacers would form the sidewalls for each closed cell. In an advantageous aspect of the present invention, confining the horizontal flow reduces the overall sweat volume. Reducing the total volume of sweat needed to flow through or to the sensors may improve the sampling interval and/or may allow sensing at very low sweat rates. Some sensor types, such as impedance, amperometric, or others, require fluid to make an electrical contact between two electrodes. In embodiments where the sensor requires fluid to make electrical contact between two electrodes and where the sensor has a configuration similar to device  500   a,  the sensed signal would be limited to where fresh sweat is flowing. In the other areas of the device where no sweat is present, the background signal would be very low due to much higher electrical impedance. 
         [0035]    With reference to  FIG. 5B , device  500   b  is shown as an exemplary configuration of device  500   a  of  FIG. 5A . Device  500   b  includes porous layers  550 ,  552  and porous material  560 . Layers  550 ,  552  include a substrate component and an electrode component, which could be an electrically conductive surface on the substrate component. Porous material  560  may act as a spacer layer. Sweat will flow vertically through device  500   b,  but the flow of the sweat horizontally through device  500   b  is restricted. The horizontal confinement of fluid is achieved by Laplace pressure and the fluid path (not shown) must be pressure permeated by pressure of sweat. This can be achieved by implementing materials for porous layers  550 ,  552  such that they are non-wicking to a fluid. In various embodiments, porous layers  550 ,  552  may be hydrophobic or only slightly hydrophilic. In one embodiment where porous layers  550 ,  552  are made of a polymer, and porous material  560  is made of a polymer with the same or similar wetting contact angle as the polymer of layers  550 ,  552 , then a smaller pore diameter  562  compared to the pore diameter  564  would confine fluid flowing under pressure against device  500   b,  which would permeate device  500   b  substantially vertically. 
         [0036]    With reference to  FIG. 5C , one embodiment of the present invention includes porous layers  550 ,  552 ,  554 ,  556  and spacer layers  560  in a stacked configuration. In such an embodiment, numerous different types of sensors could be integrated in a single device and benefit from one or more advantages of the present invention. 
         [0037]    With reference to  FIG. 6 , an embodiment of the present invention is shown which utilizes a device  600  including layers of hydrogels  615 , an electrode  628 , and porous sensor  602 , which may be similar to one or more constructions according to embodiments of the present invention discussed above. Electrode  628  may provide an electric field to extract charged solutes or biomarkers by iontophoresis or indirectly by electro-osmotic flow of charged solutes, which drag non-charged solutes along with them. In this regard, device  600  is capable of sensing biomarkers or solutes extracted by electro-osmosis or reverse iontophoresis. Device  600  has a flow of analytes  607  through layers of hydrogels  615  and porous sensor  602 . Porous sensor  602  may be constructed according to one or more aspects of the present invention. In one embodiment, for example, porous sensor  602  may be similar to device  300 . This is an improvement over previous applications of electro-osmosis and iontophoresis that generally present analyte flow challenges in quickly drawing solutes to the sensor surface and also to the driving electrode for iontophoresis. An additional challenge is also that solutes will build up or concentrate at the electrode driving the iontophoresis, which would contaminate the sensing of new solutes and/or could damage the sensor over time. In the device  600 , such concentration of the solutes is not at the porous sensor  602  but instead at the electrode  628 , which is further away and is utilized to drive the flow of at least one solute. Embodiments of the present invention are not limited to the illustrated arrangement. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that other configurations and modes of analyte transport are possible. 
         [0038]    In one aspect of the present invention, a sensing device senses diffusing analytes. Analytes and other solutes or molecules can passively diffuse through skin to the skin surface. As one example, alcohol appears at the skin surface approximately 30 minutes after oral ingestion. Solutes can diffuse through skin, into and/or through sweat from wounds, cuts, or other pathways through skin. Diffusion is faster with a higher concentration gradient (i.e., greater change in concentration of the analyte over shorter distance it has to travel by diffusion). With further reference to  FIG. 6 , device  600  senses diffusing analytes. In this embodiment, the electrode  628  is removed and the gel  615  furthest away from the skin  12  would initially have low or zero concentration of the analyte or analytes to be sensed by porous sensor  602 . For solutes in fluids such as water, oils, glycols, or other fluids or liquids, the porous sensor  602  could be filled with a fluid or gel to create a diffusion pathway through porous sensor  602 . The gel  615  could be a hydrogel or a gel containing a liquid that increases skin permeability such as, for example, glycol. Advantages of using a porous sensor  602  according to an embodiment of the present invention in a device that senses diffusing analytes may include the following. Firstly, in an embodiment including a lateral flow or other flow technique across sensors (e.g., as shown in  FIGS. 1B or 2B ), the diffusion pathway could be long (e.g., length of several mm or more), which reduces the concentration gradient of the analyte to be sensed. Secondly, the gel  615  furthest away from skin  12  could have a large volume (e.g., several mm thick) such that over time the gel  615  will maintain a low concentration of the analyte or analytes to be sensed by porous sensor  602 . In this manner, gel  615  acts as a material into which an analyte can diffuse with a lesser concentration of the analyte than the analyte concentration found in skin. In an embodiment where the analyte is volatile (e.g., alcohol), the gel  615  furthest away from the skin  12  could be removed such that ambient air would represent the low concentration material to enable a direction of diffusion from skin to air. Thirdly, the device may further include advantageous aspects of the present invention described above, such as bringing analytes closer to the sensing surface, which is important for sensing of very low concentration analytes. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize how to modify or configure the devices according to embodiments of the present invention so as to effectively operate in other applications. 
         [0039]    The following examples are provided to help illustrate the present invention, and are not comprehensive or limiting in any manner. 
       Example 1 
       [0040]    In one embodiment, a method of making a sensing device, such as a sensing device similar to device  300   a,  includes coating a first and a second polyimide track etch membrane with an electrode. The membrane may be, for example, one such as those manufactured by AR-Brown or IT4IP. The membranes have an initial thickness of 7.6, 13, or 25 nm, pore sizes of 100 nm, and a pore density of at least on average of one pore for every linear 5 nm. The coating may be a 10 nm coating of gold electrode. Adhesive spacer balls are then spray coated onto the gold coated side of the first prepared membranes. The first membrane is then dried of the solution used for the spray coating. The adhesive spacer balls may be from Sekisui Micropearl and have a diameter of about 5 nm, for example. The first and second prepared membranes are then adhered together with the gold-coated surfaces facing each other. To accomplish this, the first and second membranes may be hot-laminated at 140° C., which activates the adhesive. One of several types of chemical or bio sensors can then be created through solution or chemical treatment of the gold surfaces. The treatments may typically be performed using a vacuum-degassing step to ensure solution treatment penetrates into the sandwiched structure of the two substrates. Lastly, a dilute solution of a water soluble polymer, such as Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), is used to coat all surfaces of the film, again using vacuum for degassing, to create a sensing device which is hydrophilic (i.e., sweat wets through the device with no pressure required). The PVP coating process has been shown to be commercially viable for track-etch membranes down to even 10 nm pore sizes. If needed, one or more external surfaces of the resulting device can be cleaned of PVP if adhesion to another material or surface needs to be improved. 
       Example 2 
       [0041]    In one embodiment, a sensing device includes two sheets of porous carbon paper, like those utilized in fuel cells, laminated on both sides of an ultrathin (e.g., 10 μm thick) sheet of porous paper or polymeric material. Other options include spacing materials used as spacers in electrolytic capacitors. The sensor is utilized for sensing chemistries and modalities known to work effectively with carbon electrodes. 
       Example 3 
       [0042]    In one embodiment, a device of the present invention is created using aligned photolithographic methods. Using such a method would provide more homogenous electrical impedance and flow through the device. 
         [0043]    This has been a description of the present invention along with a preferred method of practicing the present invention; however, the invention itself should only be defined by the appended claims.