Abstract:
Novel methods and compositions are provided for the biocontrol of plant diseases by use of a biological coating that confers both a protective and a curative effect for the control of postharvest decay. The coating includes chitosan salts, an antagonistic microorganism, and a cation. A composition of chitosan salts, CaCl 2  and yeast is effective. The combined fungicidal activities of the chitosan salts and the antagonistic microorganism make the compositions of the present invention superior to previous coatings. When applied to the surface of a harvested plant commodity, the compositions both prevent and cure postharvest decay.

Description:
This application claims priority from co-pending application U.S. Provisional Serial No. 60/088,302 filed Jun. 6, 1998. 
    
    
     Novel methods and compositions are provided for the biocontrol of plant diseases by use of a biological coating that has both a protective and a curative effect for the control of postharvest decay. The coating includes chitosan salts, at least one antagonistic microorganism, and a softener. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     The U.S. market for biocontrol of tree fruit postharvest diseases could exceed $100 million by the year 2000 ( Industrial Bioprocessing,  September 1992). In  Postharvest News and Information  (1991) it was estimated that approximately 25% of harvested fruit and vegetables are lost because of postharvest diseases. Synthetic fungicides have been the primary means for controlling postharvest diseases of fruit and vegetables. However, increased concern of the public over the carcinogenicity of synthetic fungicides, has led to the withdrawal of some fungicides from the market. The development of fungicide-resistance in pathogens has limited chemical fungicides as a means of controlling them. 
     Control of plant diseases is not a problem confined to the U.S. The European Parliament has voted in favor of a total ban on postharvest treatment of fruits and vegetables with pesticides as soon as this ban becomes feasible. The withdrawal of current fungicides from use in the United States and other parts of the world is creating a large, new market for biological control agents (“biocontrol”). Baker (1987) has defined biological control as “the decrease of inoculum or the disease-producing activity of a pathogen accomplished through one or more organisms, including the host plant but excluding man.” The cost of commercializing a biological control agent is much less expensive than the cost of commercializing a synthetic pesticide because only Tier 1 toxicology tests (Hofstein et al., 1994) are required. Also, if a biological control agent is properly selected, fewer new environmental impact studies are required. 
     Present coatings (mostly waxes) for postharvest commodities are somewhat effective in delaying ripening, but in general, do not prevent decay. Moreover, these coatings are under scrutiny as possible health hazards. Synthetic fungicides which have been added to the coatings to alleviate the problems of decay have recently been withdrawn from the market, and there is also public pressure to remove the petroleum-based coatings because of health and environmental concerns. A critical need therefore exists for alternatives to presently available coatings for agricultural commodities. The coatings need to be fungicidal as well as safe for the consumer and the environment. 
     Antagonistic yeasts have been reported to be effective agents for the biological control of postharvest diseases (Wilson and El Ghaouth, 1993). However, antagonistic microorganisms currently available have not been demonstrated to provide control of fruit and vegetable postharvest decay comparable to that obtained with synthetic fungicides. Limitations include the microorganisms&#39; inability to cure previously-established infections in the crops and to prevent the resumption of quiescent infections. 
     Recently, chitosan, an animal-derived polymer, has been shown to have some potential as an antifungal preservative. Chitosan, a β-1,4-glucosamine polymer, is commercially produced from chitin of arthropod exoskeletons that have been deacetylated to provide sufficient free amino groups to render the polymer readily soluble in diluted organic acids. Chitosan and its derivatives are known to form a semi-permeable film (Averbach, 1978), to be inhibitory to a number of pathogenic fungi (Allan and Hadwiger, 1979), and to activate a number of biological processes in plant tissues, including the stimulation of chitinases, the accumulation of phytoalexins, the synthesis of proteinase inhibitors, and increased lignification (El Ghaouth et al., 1992, a, b). The polycationic nature of chitosan is believed to provide the basis for its physico-chemical and biological functionality. Chitosan is regarded safe as indicated by feeding trials with domestic animals. When applied as a coating, chitosan controlled decay and delayed ripening of strawberry, bell pepper, tomato, and cucumber by acting as a selective barrier to gas diffusion (El Ghaouth et al., 1991). The control of decay by chitosan is believed to originate, in part, from its antifungal property. Indeed, in vitro studies showed that chitosan not only inhibited the radical growth of major postharvest pathogens, but also induced severe morphological alterations in  Rhizopus stolonifer  and  Botrytis cinerea,  as well as increased cellular leakage in both fungi, presumably by interfering with fungal plasma membranes (El Ghaouth et al., 1992 b). 
     Because infection of commodities such as fruit can occur either prior to harvest or during harvesting, an ideal biological control agent is expected to display both a protective and curative activity comparable to that observed with synthetic fungicides. Currently available antagonistic microorganisms do not appear to be able to control previously-established infections and are most effective when applied prior to infection by the pathogen. 
     New safe and effective means of controlling postharvest diseases are needed. The present invention provides such means. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention is directed to unique compositions that are a combination of antifungal agents with antagonistic microorganisms and a softener. The invention also relates to methods of preventing and curing postharvest decay of plants caused by various pathogenic fungi, by applying the compositions of the invention to plants. 
     The combinations of the present invention form a “biological coating.” In an embodiment of a composition of the present invention, the antagonistic microorganism is a yeast in particular  Candida saitoana  and the antifungal agents include chitosan salts amended with CaCl 2 . Other suitable microorganisms include bacteria, for example  Pseudomonas syringae  and  Bacillus subtilis.  In a preferred embodiment, the biochemical additive are chitosan salts amended with CaCl 2  or chitosan propionate amended with CaCl 2 , and a yeast, in particular  Candida saitoana.  Other suitable genera of yeast include Candida spp; Cryptococcus spp; Pichia spp; Debaryomyces spp; Bulleromyces spp; Sporobolomyces spp; and Rhodotorula spp. 
     Other suitable chitosan salts include chitosan acetate; chitosan sorbate; chitosan propionate; chitosan lactate; chitosan glutamate; chitosan benzoate. 
     A softener is an additive that renders the yeast resistant to the adverse effects of chitosan and organic acids. Monovalent and divalent cations of Ca, Mg, Zn, or K are suitable. The softener is not considered to affect the pathogen. 
     The combination of the antifungal property of chitosan salts e.g. chitosan acetate and the biocontrol activity of antagonistic microorganisms such as the yeast  C. saitoana,  wherein the yeast functions against the pathogen in the presence of chitosan salts amended with CaCl 2 , provides improved consistency and efficacy in controlling postharvest decay. In addition, the combination of antagonistic yeast ( C. saitoana ) with chitosan salts amended CaCl 2  offers control of postharvest decay of fruit and vegetables superior to that obtained with antagonistic yeast alone or chitosan salts amended with CaCl 2  alone. This improvement is unexpected and synergism was demonstrated. 
     Native chitosan and organic acids (acetic; sorbic; propionic; and lactic) are known to inhibit the growth of yeasts such as Candida spp and filamentous fungi such as  Botrytis cinerea, Penicillium expansum  Link, and  Penicillium digitatum.  Thus it is expected that the combination of chitosan-organic acid with  C. saitoana  will adversely affect the biocontrol activity of the selected yeast. However, unexpectedly, the combination produced improved control of pathogenic fungi. 
     The combination of antagonistic yeast ( C. saitoana ) with chitosan salts (chitosan acetate) amended with CaCl 2  may be applied to harvested crops either before or after infection because the combination has both a protective and curative effect against major postharvest pathogens and offers a level of control of decay better than that of synthetic fungicides. 
     The complexity of the mode of action displayed by the combined agents of the present invention makes the development of pathogen resistance in the target plants more difficult and presents a highly complex disease deterrent barrier. 
     An aspect of the invention is a biological coating for agricultural commodities that includes, in amounts effective for biocontrol activity, chitosan salts, and at least one antagonistic microorganism effective for the biocontrol of postharvest diseases, and a softener that is, a monovalent or divalent cation, e.g. CaCl 2 . The effective amount of chitosan salts is from about 10 μg/ml to about 500 μg/ml, preferably about 20 μg/ml to about 250 μg/ml, more preferably about 200 μg/ml. The effective amount of one antagonistic microorganism is about 10 7  colony forming units to about 10 8  colony forming units; preferably about 10 8  colony forming units. Another aspect of the invention is a method of protecting a commodity against postharvest decay, which includes coating the surface of the commodity by spraying, dipping, or drenching with an effective amount of the biological coating. 
     Fruit and plants that are targets for the methods and compositions of the present invention include pome fruit (e.g., apple, pear); stone fruit (e.g. peach, nectarine, prune); citrus fruit (e.g., orange, lemon, grapefruit, tangerine); vegetables (e.g. tomato, bell pepper, cucumber); root crops (e.g., potato, carrots); tropical fruit (e.g., mango, banana, guava, pineapple, avocado); melon fruit. 
     DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     The present invention provides a novel combination of chitosan salts with at least one microorganism that is antagonistic to postharvest pathogens, and a softener. Native chitosan is known to adversely affect the viability of both antagonistic yeasts and postharvest pathogens. This previous knowledge hindered the use of chitosan salts as a potential additive to biocontrol agents (such as antagonistic yeasts). However, the addition of divalent or monovalent cations (a “softener”) such as CaCl 2  to the combination of chitosan-salts with  Candida saitoana  allowed the antifungal property of chitosan to be exploited and the biocontrol activity of the antagonistic yeast ( C. saitoana ) to be enhanced. Chitosan-salt formulation that acts as a carrier for an antagonistic microorganism, with a coating that delays ripening, is inhibitory to postharvest pathogens. For example, the addition of a softener such as CaCl 2  to the combination of chitosan-salts with  C. saitoana  allowed the antifungal property of chitosan and the biocontrol activity of  C. saitoana  to be exploited. 
     Chitosan salts; acetate; sorbate; propionate; lactate; and glutamate amended with CaCl 2  are inhibitory to postharvest pathogens such as  B. cinerea  and  P. expansum  but show no effect on the growth of  C. saitoana  (Table 1). This was further confirmed by the results obtained with apple fruit. Apple wounds treated with a combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan salts amended with CaCl 2  showed an intense colonization of the wound by  C. saitoana  (Table 2). The complexities of this combination provide a unique composition (product). While yeasts which have been found effective include  Candida saitoana  ( C. saitoana ),  Candida oleophila  ( C. oleophila ),  Candida sake  ( C. sake ),  Candida tenius  ( C. tenius ),  Candida utilis  ( C. utilis ),  Pichia guilliermondii  ( P. guilliermondii ), it is well within the level of skill in the art to determine if a particular antagonistic microorganism shows the necessary resistance by combining the candidate microorganism with chitosan salts amended with CaCl 2  in culture and observing whether or not the microorganism remains viable and grows. The combination of chitosan salt-CaCl 2  with an antagonistic yeast ( C. saitoana ) offers effective control of a major postharvest rot of fruit and gives superior control over use of an antagonist or chitosan salts-CaCl 2  alone. 
     The combination of chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  with  C. saitoana  was more effective in controlling decay of apple, orange, and lemon fruit (Table 3 and 4) than either the antagonist microorganism or chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  alone. After 14 days of storage, 23% of the lemons treated with the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  and inoculated with  P. digitatum  were diseased (Table 4), while 75% and 35% of the fruit treated with 0.1% chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  or  C. saitoana  and inoculated with  P. digitatum  were diseased. All of the control apples inoculated with  P. digitatum  alone were diseased. The same pattern of decay control by the combination was also observed in apple and orange fruit (Table 3 and 4). The beneficial effect of CaCl 2  is illustrated by the poor level of disease control obtained with the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate with CaCl 2  (Table 3). 
     In addition to preventing decay, the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  also displayed a curative activity against major pathogens of apple and citrus fruit (Table 5 and 6). In citrus fruit, the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  was very effective in controlling early infections caused by  P. digitatum.  The level of control observed with the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  was significantly higher than that obtained with either the antagonist or chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  alone (Table 5). Similar control of established infection by the combination of chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  was also observed with apple fruit inoculated with  P. expansum  (Table 6). The results from pilot trials showed that the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  also was effective in controlling decay of oranges. The level of disease control obtained with the combination was comparable to that obtained with the recommended fungicide Thiabendazole (Table 7). 
     The curative effect of the combination is a substantial improvement over the combination of  C. saitoana  with glycolchitosan or carboxymethylchitosan (U.S. Pat. No. 5,633,025). The combination of  C. saitoana  with glycolchitosan or carboxymethylchitosan provides only protection and has no effect on established infections that occur before treatment. Because infection of fruit can occur either prior to harvest or during harvesting, an ideal biological product is expected to display both a protective and curative activity comparable to that observed with synthetic fungicides. Currently available antagonistic microorganisms do not appear to be able to control previously-established infections and are most effective when applied prior to infection by the pathogen. The lack of curative activity has been identified as a major limitation of biological approaches. The combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan salts in presence of CaCl 2  offers both a curative and protective activity against rot. 
    
    
     EXAMPLES 
     The following examples illustrate embodiments of the invention: 
     Example 1 
     Preparation of Chitosan, Pathogens, and Yeast 
     Chitosan was dissolved 1:1 (w/v) in various organic acids (acetic acid; sorbic acid; propionic acid; lactic acid; and glutamic acid). Ripe apples (cv. Red Delicious) were hand harvested at the Appalachian Fruit Research Station, Kearneysville, W.Va. Orange and lemon fruit were purchased and stored at 4° C. Fruit were sorted to remove any fruit with apparent injuries or infections. Cultures of  Botrytis cinerea, Penicillium expansum  Link, and  Penicillium digitatum  were maintained on potato dextrose agar (PDA). Spore suspensions were obtained by flooding 2-week-old cultures of  B. cinerea, P. digitatum,  and  P. expansum  with sterile distilled water containing 0.1% (v/v) Tween 80. Spore counts were determined with an hemacytometer, and spore concentration was adjusted to about 10 4  conidia per ml for Penicillium and about 10 5  conidia per ml to Botrytis with sterile distilled water.  C. saitoana  was grown at 27° C. for 48 h. Shake-flask cultures of nutrient-yeast broth were started with approximately 10 4  CFU of yeast, and incubated on an orbital shaker set at 200 rpm for 48 h. Yeast cells were collected by centrifugation at 3000 g for 20 min, resuspended in sterile distilled water, and centrifuged. The resulting pellets were dispersed in sterile distilled water and the concentration of the yeast suspension was adjusted to 10 8  CFU/ml. 
     Example 2 
     Effect of Chitosan Salts on the Growth of Yeast and Pathogens 
     Antifungal properties of chitosan salts (acetate; sorbate; propionate; lactate; and glutamate) against the pathogens  Botrytis cinerea  and  Penicillium expansum  were determined in a 24-well microtiter dish. 0.1% chitosan salts (acetate; sorbate; propionate; lactate; and glutamate) solutions containing 0.2% maltose extract broth and 0 or 0.5% CaCl 2  were autoclaved and 100 μl of the solution was dispensed into each well. Each well was inoculated with approximately five hundred spores of  B. cinerea  and  P. expansum.  Four replicates of eight wells were used for each fungus per treatment. Microtiter dishes were incubated in the dark at 24° C. Percent spore germination was determined after 24 hours by techniques known to those of skill in the art. 
     The effect of the various chitosan salts (acetate; propionate; lactate; and glutamate) in presence or absence of 0.5% CaCl 2  on the survival of  C. saitoana  in yeast maltose broth was evaluated. Fifth milliliter Erlenmeyer flasks containing 0.1% chitosan salts (acetate; sorbate; propionate; lactate; and glutamate) and 0.2% yeast maltose broth were amended with 0 or 0.5% CaCl 2  and autoclaved. Each flask was started with approximately 10 5  CFU of yeast and the flasks were incubated on an orbital shaker set at 200 rpm. Samples were collected every day over a period of 5 days and dilution-plated in duplicate on yeast-maltose agar medium. The plates were incubated at 24° C. and colonies were counted after 48 h. 
     The effect of the various chitosan salts (acetate; sorbate; and propionate) in the presence of 0.5% CaCl 2  on the survival of  C. saitoana  in apple wounds also was determined. Fruit were wounded, treated with cell suspensions of  C. saitoana  in 0.1% chitosan salts (acetate; sorbate; and propionate) containing 0.5% CaCl 2 , and stored at 24° C. There were four replicates of five fruit per treatment with complete randomization and samples were collected after 7 days from two replicate fruit per treatment. Wound tissue was scraped with a sterile inoculating needle. The dislodged material was suspended in 10 ml of sterile water, macerated with a glass rod, vortexed, dilution-plated in triplicate on yeast-maltose agar medium, and the plates were incubated 24° C. Colonies were counted after 48 h. Chitosan salts amended with CaCl 2  were inhibitory to postharvest pathogens. A complete inhibition of spore germination of  B. cinerea  and  P. expansum  was observed with 0.1% chitosan salts (acetate; propionate; lactate; and glutamate) amended with 0.5% CaCl 2 . Tables 1 and 2 show that the growth of antagonistic yeast,  C. saitoana  was not affected by chitosan salts amended with CaCl 2 . 
     Example 3 
     Control of Decay by the Combination of Chitosan-salts and CaCl 2  with Yeast 
     Yeast cells from 48 h old cultures of  C. saitoana  were pelleted by centrifugation, resuspended in sterile distilled water, and centrifuged. Pellets were suspended in 0.1% chitosan salt (chitosan-acetate) containing 0.5% CaCl 2  and the concentration of the yeast suspension was adjusted to 10 8  CFU/ml. Apple, orange, and lemon fruit were individually wounded. To determine the protective activity of the combination, fruit wounds were first treated with one of the following treatments: 
     yeast cell suspension; 
     yeast cell suspension containing 0.1% chitosan-acetate and 0 or 0.5% CaCl 2 ; 
     0.1% chitosan-acetate containing 0 or 0.5% CaCl 2 ; 
     control—sterile water 
     Fifty microliters of a treatment was placed in a wound and thereafter the wounds were challenge-inoculated with 20 μl of a spore suspension of a pathogen. The fruit were incubated at 24° C. in plastic trays at high relative humidity (about 95% or above). Apple wounds were challenge-inoculated with  P. expansum,  while orange and lemon wounds were challenge-inoculated with  P. digitatum.  For each treatment, 20 to 100 fruit were arranged in a randomized complete block design (Steele and Torrie, 1968). Lesion diameter and percent infection were determined for each treatment after 7 days of storage and the tests were repeated twice. 
     Additional tests with apple, lemon, and orange fruit were also done to determine the curative activity of the combination. Apple wounds were inoculated with  P. expansum,  while orange and lemon wounds were challenge-inoculated with  P. digitatum.  After 24 hours of incubation at 24° C., inoculated wounds were treated with the different treatments as disclosed above. The fruit were incubated at 24° C. in plastic trays at high humidity. For each treatment, 20 to 100 fruit were arranged in a randomized complete block design. Lesion diameter and percent infection were determined for each treatment after 7 days of storage and the tests were repeated twice. 
     Results of the protective effect on decay of apple, orange, and lemon are shown in Tables 3 and 4. The combination of chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  with  C. saitoana  was more effective in controlling decay of apple, orange, and lemon fruit (Tables 3 and 4) than either the antagonist or chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  alone. After 14 days of storage, 23% of the lemon treated with the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  and inoculated with  P. digitatum  were diseased (Table 4). While 75% and 35% of the fruit treated with 0.1% chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  or  C. saitoana  and inoculated with  P. digitatum  were diseased. All of the control apples inoculated with  P. digitatum  alone were diseased. The same pattern of decay control by the combination was also observed in apple and orange fruit (Tables 3 and 4). The beneficial effect of CaCl 2  is illustrated by the poor level of disease control obtained with the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate without CaCl 2  (Table 3). 
     The lack of curative activity has been identified as a major limitation of biological approaches. Microbial biocontrol agents are expected to display curative activity comparable to that observed with synthetic fungicides. The results in Tables 5 and 6 show chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  also displayed a curative activity against major pathogens of apple and citrus fruit. In citrus fruit, the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  was very effective in controlling early infections caused by  P. digitatum  (Table 5). Similar control of established infection by the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  was also observed with apple fruit inoculated with  P. expansum  (Table 6). The observed curative activity of the combination shows the synergy between the antagonist and chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2 . 
     The effect of the combination of chitosan-salt-CaCl 2  with yeast on natural infection of citrus fruit was also assessed under semi-commercial conditions that simulate commercial processes for fruit and vegetables but on a smaller scale. Orange fruit from field bins was washed on line following standard commercial practices (Standard Pre Chlorine wash; size and color blemish sorting; and randomized). Thereafter, the fruit were washed and treated with the different treatments using an on line spray system. Each treatment consist of at least 8 to 13 boxes of fruit; each box representing a replicate of approximately 60 to 100 fruit. The fruit were held at 50-55° F. and the percentage of decay was determined after 3 weeks. The results from pilot trials showed that the combination of  C. saitoana  with chitosan-acetate-CaCl 2  was effective in controlling decay of orange. The level of disease control obtained with the combination was comparable to that obtained with the recommended fungicide Thiabendazole (Table 7). 
     The addition of CaCl 2  renders other antagonistic yeasts besides  C. saitoana  such as  Debaryomyces hansenii; Cryptococcus laurentii; Candida sake; Candida oleophila; Candida orientalis; Zygosaccharomyces bisporus; Dekkera bruxellensis; Dekkera naardensis; Pichia angusta  resistant to native chitosan and organic acids used as solvents for chitosan. (Table 8) 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Survival of  Candida saitoana  in different chitosan-salts 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Yeast cell Counts (CFU/ml) 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Treatment a   
                 0 days 
                 5 days 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-glutamate 
                 1.8 × 10 5   
                 1.8 × 10 2   
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-glutamate + 0.5% CaCl 2   
                 2.0 × 10 5   
                 2.5 × 10 4   
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-propionate 
                 1.8 × 10 5   
                 0 
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-propionate + 0.5% CaCl 2   
                 2.2 × 10 5   
                 2.6 × 10 4   
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-lactate 
                 2.1 × 10 5   
                 9 
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-lactate + 0.5% CaCl 2   
                 2.2 × 10 5   
                 2.8 × 10 4   
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate 
                 2.0 × 10 5   
                 0 
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate + 0.5% CaCl 2   
                 2.2 × 10 5   
                 2.8 × 10 4   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Chitosan-salt solutions containing 0 or 0.5% CaCl 2  were inoculated with 10 5  yeast cells per ml and the solutions were stored at room temperature. Yeast survival was determined at different times over a period of 7 days.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Survival of  Candida saitoana  in the presence 
               
               
                 of different chitosan salts 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Yeast cell Counts 
               
               
                   
                 (CFU/ml) 
               
               
                 Treatment a   
                 7 days 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   C. saitoana  alone 
                 3.7 × 106 
               
               
                   C. saitoana  + 0.1% Chitosan-propionate + CaCl 2   
                 3.1 × 10 6   
               
               
                   C. saitoana  + 0.1% Chitosan-sorbate + CaCl 2   
                 3.3 × 10 6   
               
               
                   C. saitoana  + 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate + CaCl 2   
                 3.4 × 10 6   
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Apple wounds were treated with combination of yeast cells with different chitosan-salts and CaCl 2  and the fruit were stored at room temperature. Yeast survival was determined after 7 days of storage.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Protective effect of the combination of  Candida saitoana  with 
               
               
                 chitosan-acetate formulations on decay of apple fruit 
               
               
                 caused by  Penicillium expansum.   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Infected fruit (%) b   
               
               
                 Treatment a   
                 
                   P. expansum 
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Control 
                 78a 
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate 
                 82a 
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate + C. sailoana   
                 82a 
               
               
                 
                   C. saitoana 
                 
                 47b 
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate + 0.5% CaCl 2 +    C. saitoana   
                 30c 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Apple wounds were treated with different treatments and then challenge-inoculated with 20 μl of  Penicillum expansum  at 10 4  conidia per milliliter. Fruit were evaluated for symptoms of decay after 7 days of storage at 24° C.  
               
               
                   b Columns with the same letter are not significantly different according to Duncan&#39;s multiple range test, P = 0.05.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Protective effect of the combination of  Candida saitoana  with 
               
               
                 chitosan-acetate CaCl 2  formulation on decay of orange and lemon 
               
               
                 fruit caused by  Penicillium expansum.   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Infected fruit (%) b   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Treatment a   
                 Lemon 
                 Orange 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate + 0.5% CaCl 2   
                 100a 
                 100a 
               
               
                   
                 
                   C. saitoana 
                 
                 75b 
                 66b 
               
               
                   
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate + 0.5% CaCl 2    
                 35c 
                 33c 
               
               
                   
                 
                   C. saitoana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   a Orange and lemon wounds were treated with the difrerent treatments and then challenge-inoculated with 20 μl of  P. digitatum  at 10 4  conidia per milliliter. Fruit were evaluated for symptoms of decay after 7 days of storage at 24° C.  
               
               
                   
                   b Columns with the same letter are not significantly different according to Duncan&#39;s multiple range test, P = 0.05.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Curative effect of the combination of  Candida saitoana  with 
               
               
                 chitosan-acetate CaCl 2  formulation on decay of orange and 
               
               
                 lemon fruit caused by  Penicillium expansum.   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Infected fruit (%) b   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Treatment a   
                 Lemon 
                 Orange 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Control 
                 100a 
                 100a 
               
               
                   
                 
                   C. saitoana 
                 
                 100a 
                 100a 
               
               
                   
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate + 0.5% CaCl 2   
                 75b 
                 66b 
               
               
                   
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate + 0.5% CaCl 2 +   
                 23c 
                 20c 
               
               
                   
                 
                   C. saitoana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                   a Orange and lemon wounds were challenge inoculated with 20 μl of  P. digitatum  at 10 4  conidia per milliliter and 24 hours later, inoculated wounds were treated with tbe different treatments. Fruit were evaluated for symptoms of decay after 7 days of storage at 24° C.  
               
               
                   
                   b Columns with the same letter are not significantly different according to Duncan&#39;s multiple range test, P = 0.05  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Curative effect of the combination of  Candida saitoana  with 
               
               
                 chitosan-acetate CaCl 2  formulation on decay of apple fruit 
               
               
                 caused by  Penicillium expansum.   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Infected fruit (%) b   
               
               
                 Treatment a   
                 
                   P. expansum 
                 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Control 
                 72a 
               
               
                 
                   C. saitoana 
                 
                 72a 
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate + 0.5% CaCl 2 +    C. saitoana   
                 39b 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Apple wounds were challenge inoculated with 20 μl of  P. expansum  at 10 4  conidia per milliliter and 24 hours later, inoculated wounds were treated with different treatments. Fruit were evaluated for symptoms of decay after 7 days of storage at 24° C.  
               
               
                   b Columns with the same letter are not significantly different according to Duncan&#39;s multiple range test, P = 0.05.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Effect of the combination of  Candida saitoana  with chitosan- 
               
               
                 acetate CaCl 2  formulation on natural infection of orange fruit. 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Treatment a   
                 Infected fruit (%) b   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Control 
                 5.2a 
               
               
                 0.1% Chitosan-Acetate + 0.5% CaCl 2 +    C. saitoana   
                 1.8a 
               
               
                 Thiabendazole (1000 ppm) 
                 1.4b 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Valencia Oranges were treated within 48 hr after harvest under semi-commercial conditions using a processing line. Oranges from field bins were washed on line following standard commercial practices and then treated with water, yeast suspension containing 0.1% chitosan-acetate +0.5% CaCl 2 , or Thiabendazole using an on line spray system. Each treatment consists of at least 8-13 boxes of fruit; each box representing a replicate of 60-100 fruit.  
               
               
                 # The percentage of decay was determined after 3 weeks.  
               
               
                   b Columns with the same letter are not significantly different according to Duncan&#39;s multiple range test, P = 0.05.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Survival of different antagonistic yeasts in 0.1% chitosan-acetate 
               
               
                 containing calcium chloride. 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Yeast Cell Counts 
               
               
                   
                 (CFU/ml) 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Treatments 
                 YMB 
                 Chitosan-acetate + 5% CaCl 2   
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 
                   C. orientalis 
                 
                 1.1 × 10 6   
                 1.3 × 10 4   
               
               
                   
                 
                   Z. bisporus 
                 
                 1.1 × 10 5   
                 5.7 × 10 4   
               
               
                   
                 
                   D. bruxellensis 
                 
                 1.1 × 10 5   
                 1.7 × 10 4   
               
               
                   
                 
                   D. naardensis 
                 
                 1.6 × 10 5   
                 6.3 × 10 4   
               
               
                   
                 
                   P. angusta 
                 
                 4.0 × 10 5   
                 7.0 × 10 4   
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 Chitosan-acetate solutions containing CaCl 2  were inoculated with 10 5  yeast cells per ml and the solutions were stored at room temperature. Yeast survival was determined after 3 days. The following yeasts were tested:  Candida orientalis ;  Zygosaccharomyces bisporas ;  Dekkera bruxellensis ;  Dekkera naardensis ;  Pichia angusta .  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     DOCUMENTS CITED 
     Averbach, B. L. (1978)  Proc.  1 st Int. Conf. Chitin and Chitosan,  R. A., and Pariser, E. R., eds., MIT, Cambridge, pp. 199. 
     Allan, C. R. and Hadwiger, L. A. (1979)  Exp. Mycol.,  3:285-287; 
     Baker, K. F. (1987)  Ann. Rev. Phytopath.  25:67-85. 
     El Ghaouth, A., Arul, J., Ponnampalam, R. &amp; Boulet, M. (1991)  Journal of Food Science  56:1618-1620 &amp; 1631. 
     El Ghaouth, A. et al. (1992a)  Hortscience  27:1016-1018. 
     El Ghaouth, A. et al. (1992b)  Mycol. Res.  96:(9) 769-779. 
     Hofstein, R. S., Droby, S., Chalutz, E., Friedlander, T. (1994) In: Wilson, C. L., Wisniewski, M. E. (eds.)  Biological Control of Postharvest Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables.  CRC Press, pp. 89-100. 
       Industrial Bioprocessing  (1992). 
     Mauch et al. (1988)  Plant Physiol,  88:936-942. 
       Postharvest News  &amp;  Information ( 1991). 
     Roberts, N. K. and Selitrennikoff (1988)  Journal of General Microbiology,  134:169-176. 
     Steele, R. D. and Torrie, J. N. (1960)  Principles and Procedures of Statistics,  McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y. 
     Wilson, C. L. and El Ghaouth, A. (1993) Symposium Proceeding. Beltsville Symposium XVIII. 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,633,025.