Abstract:
A dam-shaped throttling block for use in a pipe, for the measurement of the flow rates of fluids. The shapes of four successive flat surfaces on the throttling block angularly-displaced relative one another in the flow direction, together with an aperture in the one of the flat surfaces extending parallel to the pipe longitudinal axis, create reduction of a cross-sectional area in one step from one that is unthrottled to one that is throttled, extending for a limited distance in the pipe, and then expansion of the cross-sectional area in two steps from the throttled one back to the unthrottled one so to provide for accurate measurements and an improved lifetime. Flow rates of highly viscous fluids and fluids that contain solid particles can be measured. Other benefits include reduced head loss, wide measurement range and reduced installation space.

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD 
     This application relates to throttling elements. More specifically, it relates to throttling blocks in pipes, which create a measurable pressure drop for determining the flow rate of fluids within the pipe. 
     BACKGROUND 
     A portion of a prior art flow meter  10  can be seen in  FIG. 1 , in which a pipe  12  is fitted with a wedge-shaped throttling element  14 . The wedge element  14  has flat faces  16 ,  18  that are angled towards each other and terminate at a straight edge  20 . The angle between the faces  16 ,  18  may be 90°, for example. Below the edge  20  there is a gap  22 . Fluid flows into the pipe  12  at end  30 , for example, passes through the gap  22  below the wedge  14 , and out through the other end  32  of the pipe. The wedge  14  creates a pressure drop in the fluid within the pipe  12 , which can be measured by calculating the difference between the upstream pressure measured at upstream port or pressure tap  34  and the downstream pressure measured at downstream port or pressure tap  36 . The flow rate can then be calculated based on the pressure drop, properties of the fluid and the size (diameter) of the pipe. 
     Wedge-shaped throttling elements are used to measure the flow rates of viscous fluids and slurries or other solid-laden fluids, and are often used in the chemical industry. Compared to a throttling orifice, which is typically round with a diameter smaller than the pipe diameter, the wedge has better resistance to abrasion and a longer operating life. 
     In order to maintain accuracy of measurement, the edge  20  of the wedge  14  should not deteriorate with use. However, especially if the flow rates of abrasive fluids are being measured, then the edge  20  can wear quickly. This causes the gap  22  to open up after a short time of operation, changing the state of flow and worsening the accuracy and repeatability of measurement. Regarding the state of the flow, when the fluid passes through the gap  22 , the cross-section of the flow rapidly decreases and the static pressure falls. Downstream of the wedge, pressure is recovered and a high speed swirling stream with bubbles may be generated. The resulting whirlpool washes against the edge  20  of the wedge  14  with an erosive effect, causing serious wear to the edge. Also, wear to the pipe wall just beyond the wedge occurs. Wear to the edge  20  eventually occurs even if the edge is hardened with stellite or tungsten carbide cladding. The accuracy of a wedge-type flow meter, if used for black water containing pulverized coal for example, may fall from about 0.5% to 5% within 2-3 months. In these cases, the wedge must be replaced regularly. In practice, it is not always convenient to replace the wedge, and in many cases the wedge is used until the meter itself is damaged or the accuracy has become extremely poor. The same problems apply to orifice throttles. 
     Venturi tubes are also used to measure flow rates, and consist of a gradually narrowing frustoconical section of pipe, followed by a short straight section and then a frustoconical section that opens up to the original diameter. While they generally have low head losses, they are only useful for very high Reynolds numbers, i.e. for fluids that have very low viscosity and that are clean, i.e. not laden with solids. 
     Referring to prior art  FIG. 2 , which shows a pipe  40  with an indented wall  42  that forms the wedge throttle, flow enters the pipe at end  44 , in the direction of arrow  46 , and then leaves at end  48 . Flow of the fluid speeds up in the gap  50 , causing turbulence  52  and erosion  54  of the wall of the pipe. As a consequence of the fluid impinging on the bottom of the pipe wall past the edge of the wedge  42 , the fluid is reflected or directed upwards to the ceiling of the pipe wall to cause further erosion  56 . Even if interior surfaces of the pipe  40  are coated with tungsten carbide at the locations of erosion, the coating wears off within several months of operation, and the pipe itself may become beyond repair in less than a year. 
     Furthermore, when wedge-type throttling elements are used for the flow of viscous fluids, the edge may become coked or fouled with dirt, which also reduces the accuracy of the measurement. Another problem with the wedge is that it has a relatively high head loss, corresponding to the unrecoverable energy loss from throttling back the fluid flow. Typically, the head loss of wedge-type meters is 30-50% of the measured differential pressure. 
     In order to ensure accurate measurements using the wedge-type meter, a straight section of pipe is needed upstream of the wedge, equal to at least 10× the diameter of the pipe. Likewise, a straight length that is at least 5× the pipe diameter is needed downstream of the wedge. These requirements may limit the applications in which the wedge meter may be installed. 
     This background information is provided to reveal information believed by the applicant to be of possible relevance to the present invention. No admission is necessarily intended, nor should be construed, that any of the preceding information constitutes prior art against the present invention. 
     SUMMARY OF INVENTION 
     The present invention is directed to a dam-shaped throttling block in a pipe, for the measurement of the flow rates of fluids in the pipe. In particular, the flow rates that can be measured include those of highly viscous fluids and fluids that contain solid particles. Benefits of the invention include one or more of improved measurement accuracy, reduced head loss, wide measurement range, prolonged service life, and reduced installation space. 
     Disclosed herein is a throttling block for a flow meter comprising: a first flat surface, which is inclined relative to a longitudinal axis of a pipe so as to reduce a cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe from an unthrottled cross-sectional area to a throttled cross-sectional area; a second flat surface adjoining the first flat surface and extending parallel to the longitudinal axis, so as to maintain the throttled cross-sectional area substantially constant; an aperture in the second flat surface, wherein the aperture is shorter in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis than in a direction perpendicular to the axis; and a third flat surface adjoining the second flat surface and inclined relative to the longitudinal axis so as to increase the cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe from the throttled cross-sectional area to a cross-sectional area that is less than the unthrottled cross-sectional area. 
     The throttling block may further comprise a fourth flat surface adjoining the third flat surface and inclined relative to the third flat surface so as to increase the cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe, from said cross-sectional area that is less than the unthrottled cross-sectional area, to the unthrottled cross-sectional area. 
     Also disclosed herein is an assembly for a flow meter comprising: a straight section of pipe; a connector at each end of the pipe; a first pressure tap in the pipe; and a throttling block in the pipe and downstream of the first pressure tap. The throttling block comprises: a first flat surface, which is inclined relative to a longitudinal axis of the pipe so as to reduce a cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe from an unthrottled cross-sectional area to a throttled cross-sectional area; a second flat surface adjoining the first flat surface and extending parallel to the longitudinal axis, so as to maintain the throttled cross-sectional area substantially constant; a third flat surface adjoining the second flat surface and inclined relative to the longitudinal axis so as to increase the cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe from the throttled cross-sectional area to a cross-sectional area that is less than the unthrottled cross-sectional area; and a fourth flat surface adjoining the third flat surface and inclined relative to the third flat surface so as to increase the cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe, from said cross-sectional area that is less than the unthrottled cross-sectional area, to the unthrottled cross-sectional area. Also included is an aperture in the second flat surface, wherein the aperture provides fluid communication between an interior of the pipe and a cavity within the throttling block, and the aperture is shorter in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis than in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis; and a second pressure tap in fluid communication with the cavity. 
     Embodiments of the assembly are disclosed wherein: the aperture is elliptical; a distance of a center of the aperture from the first flat surface is 65-75% of a length of the second flat surface in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis; the cavity has an elliptical cross-section proximal to the aperture, a circular cross-section distal from the aperture, and a longitudinal axis that is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pipe; the first flat surface is inclined at an angle in a range of 50° to 60° from the longitudinal axis of the pipe; the third flat surface is inclined at an angle in a range of 10° to 20° from the longitudinal axis of the pipe; the fourth flat surface is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pipe, and, measured in a direction of said flow, a length of the third flat surface is 1 to 3 times greater than a length of the second flat surface. 
     Still further disclosed herein is a piping assembly comprising a first pressure tap and a throttling block in a pipe downstream of the first pressure tap comprising: a first flat surface, which is inclined relative to a longitudinal axis of the pipe so as to reduce a cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe from an unthrottled cross-sectional area to a throttled cross-sectional area; a second flat surface adjoining the first flat surface and extending parallel to the longitudinal axis, so as to maintain the throttled cross-sectional area substantially constant; a third flat surface adjoining the second flat surface and inclined relative to the longitudinal axis so as to increase the cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe from the throttled cross-sectional area to a cross-sectional area that is less than the unthrottled cross-sectional area; and a fourth flat surface adjoining the third flat surface and inclined relative to the third flat surface so as to increase the cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe, from said cross-sectional area that is less than the unthrottled cross-sectional area, to the unthrottled cross-sectional area. Also comprised is an aperture in the second flat surface, wherein the aperture provides fluid communication between an interior of the pipe and a cavity within the throttling block, and the aperture is shorter in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis than in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis; a second pressure tap in fluid communication with the cavity; and a straight run of piping upstream of the throttling block with a length of less than 5 times an interior diameter of the pipe. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS 
       The following drawings illustrate embodiments of the invention, which should not be construed as restricting the scope of the invention in any way. 
         FIG. 1  is a perspective schematic view of a pipe with a prior art wedge-type throttling block installed in the pipe. 
         FIG. 2  is a cross-sectional view of a prior art wedge-type throttle formed in a wall of a pipe, showing locations of erosion. 
         FIG. 3  is a perspective schematic view of a pipe with a dam-shaped throttling block installed in the pipe, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIGS. 4A and 4B  respectively are an end view and a cross-sectional schematic diagram of a dam-shaped throttling block according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 5  shows in hidden detail a view of a dam-shaped throttling block with a low-pressure tap, installed in a pipe, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 6  shows a cross-sectional view of dam-shaped throttling block and pressure-tap cavity, according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 7  shows a view of the underside of the throttling block according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 8  is a perspective view of an assembly of a pipe fitted with flanges and a dam-shaped throttling block according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
         FIG. 9  is a cross-sectional view of an alternate dam-shaped throttling block according to an embodiment of the present invention. 
     
    
    
     DESCRIPTION 
     A. Glossary 
     Head loss—In general, this is loss of pressure in fluid that is being pumped through a pipe, due to resistance caused by the pipe walls, the viscosity of the fluid and the geometry of the pipes. Herein, it refers specifically to the unrecoverable loss in pressure due to a throttling block, which cannot be recovered downstream of the block. 
     Reynolds number—a ratio of inertial forces divided by viscous forces for a fluid flowing in a particular geometry. For example, for fluid in a pipe, the Reynolds number is given by Re=QD H /vA, where Q is the volumetric flow rate, D H  is the hydraulic diameter, v is the kinematic viscosity and A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe. Laminar flow occurs at low Re, when viscous forces are dominant, and turbulent flow occurs at high Re, when inertial forces are dominant. 
     B. Exemplary Embodiment 
     Referring to  FIG. 3 , a pipe  60  is shown installed with an exemplary embodiment of a throttling block  61 . Direction of fluid flow is given by arrow  62 , the fluid flowing in through end  64  and exiting through end  66 . Pressure tap  68  is for measuring the higher pressure of the fluid upstream of the throttling block  61 , and pressure tap  70  is for measuring the lower pressure of the fluid as a result of its passing below the throttling block. 
     The throttling block  61  has three main sections: the throttling section  72 ; the throat or rectifying section  74 ; and the pressure recovery section  76 . 
     The throttling section  72  is formed by a leading flat surface  82 , angled downwards in the direction of the fluid flow  62 , in conjunction with the lower inner wall surface  79  of the pipe  60 . The leading surface  82  extends to the inner pipe walls at its sides  83  and its top  84 , but not below, where there is a gap  85 . The leading surface  82  extends downwards to meet a flat, horizontal lower surface  86  at edge  87 , below which is the gap  85  for restricted fluid flow. As the leading surface  82  and lower surface  86  are both flat, the edge  87  is straight, and it is perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. The flat surface  82  is inclined relative to a longitudinal axis of the pipe so as to reduce the cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe from an unthrottled cross-sectional area to a throttled cross-sectional area. 
     The side edges  88  of the lower surface adjoin the sides of the inner pipe wall. The lower surface  86 , in conjunction with the lower inner wall surface  79  of the pipe  60 , form the rectifying or throat section  74 . The lower surface  86  is horizontal and extends parallel to the longitudinal axis of the pipe so as to maintain the throttled cross-sectional area substantially constant. An aperture  90  in the lower surface  86  provides fluid communication between the interior of the pipe and the low pressure tap  70 . The effect of the aperture on the throttled cross-sectional area is assumed to be negligible, hence the throttled cross-section remains substantially constant over the length of the throat  74 . 
     The lower surface  86  terminates rearward at edge  92 , which is the leading edge of trailing flat surface  94 , which, in conjunction with the lower pipe wall surface  79 , forms the pressure recovery section  76 . The trailing surface  94  is a truncated wedge, being truncated by rear surface  96 , which is perpendicular to the main direction of flow  62 . The sides  98  of the trailing surface  94  adjoin the sides of the inner pipe wall. The trailing surface  94  is inclined relative to the axis of the pipe  60  so as to increase the cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe from the throttled cross-sectional area to a cross-sectional area that is still partially throttled, i.e. less than the unthrottled cross-sectional area. 
     The rear surface  96  is inclined relative to the trailing surface  94  so as to increase the cross-sectional area available for flow in the pipe, from the partially throttled cross-sectional area, to the fully unthrottled cross-sectional area. 
       FIGS. 4A and 4B  respectively show an end view and a cross-section of a pipe  100  with a throttling block  110 , with various dimensions marked. The pipe  100  has upstream pressure measuring tap  102  and throat section measuring tap  104 . In conjunction with the lower inner wall surface  111  of the pipe, the leading surface  112  forms the throttle section, the lower surface  114  forms the throat section and the trailing edge  116  forms the pressure recovery section. The pressure recovery section  116  is truncated at rear surface  118 . 
     In this embodiment, the maximum height h of the gap is 0.2 to 0.6 times the internal diameter D of the pipe. The throat length U is between 0.5 h and D according to the pipe diameter D and the gap height h, which has been found to be the optimum range for rectification of the flow state from laminar to turbulent flow. In the case where the gap h is 0.5D and the throat length is D, the surface  114  is a square. In other more general cases, the surface  114  is a rectangle. The flat, leading surface  112  dips at an angle of inclination from the horizontal of between about 50° and 60°, which has been found to be best for accuracy of measurement and for a wide range of different applications. The angle of the flat, trailing surface  116  to the horizontal is in a range from about 10° to about 20°. Angles within this range have been found to provide the best head loss recovery and to minimize abrasion to the pipe  100 . The distance V, of the center of the aperture  120  of the pressure tap  104 , from the leading edge  113  of the lower surface  114  is about 65-75% of the length U of the lower surface in the flow direction. This results in a stable throat pressure and desired accuracy of pressure measurement, by allowing more time in the throat section for the fluid flow to become steadier, or more laminar, or with fewer and smaller turbulent fluctuations. The longitudinal axis of the cavity  122  through the throttling block  110  from the aperture  120  to the throat section measuring tap  104  is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pipe  100 . 
     The length W of the pressure recovery section is about 1-3 times the length U of the throat section. Compared to wedge-type throttling blocks, the horizontal, flat, lower surface  114  of the throat section produces a much more laminar flow, and the incidence of turbulence downstream is as a consequence much lower. The truncation, at rear surface  118 , of the trailing surface  116  of the pressure recovery section contributes negligibly to the production of eddies as the fluid is passing over the throttling block  110 . Also, the truncation does not have any significant effect on the accuracy of the pressure measurement. Furthermore, based on tests with fluids containing pulverized coal, very little abrasion of the interior of the pipe  100  occurs downstream of the throttling block  110 . Another advantage of truncating the trailing surface  116  is that the throttling block  110  can be shorter than if the trailing surface were not truncated. 
     Referring to the embodiment in  FIG. 5 , pipe  130  is shown with throttling block  132 . The cavity  134  of the pressure measuring tap  135  through the block  132  to the aperture  140  has an upper, hollow section  136  that is circular in cross-section, and a lower, hollow portion  138  that is elliptical in cross-section. The view in  FIG. 6  shows the upper cylindrical portion  136  and the lower elliptical portion  138  of the cavity  134  in the throttling block  132  more clearly. Referring back to  FIG. 5 , the aperture  140  of the tap  134  in the lower surface  141 , through which the interior of the tap is in fluid communication with the interior of the pipe  130 , is also elliptical. 
     As shown in  FIG. 7 , the aperture  140  in the throttling block  132  is aligned with its long axis  142  perpendicular to the longitudinal axis  144  of the pipe and direction of flow through the pipe. The short axis  146  of the aperture  140  is oriented parallel to the longitudinal axis  144  of the pipe and the direction of fluid flow through the pipe. The elliptical shape of the aperture  140  reduces the ingress of solids and possible blocking compared to a circular aperture of the same area, while providing adequate area for transferring pressure to a pressure sensor. Also, the dimension of the elliptical aperture  140  in the flow direction is smaller than that of an equivalent circular aperture, resulting in a smaller disturbance to the flow of fluid through the throat section. Furthermore, the positioning of the aperture  140  downstream of the center of the lower surface allows more time for the fluid flow to stabilize, leading to increased pressure measurement accuracy. If the aperture were oriented a right angles to the position shown, then the accuracy of measurement would drop. 
       FIG. 8  shows a throttling block pipe assembly  150  that includes a pipe  152  fitted with end flanges  154 ,  156  and throttling block  158 . Such an assembly can be readily fitted to pipe work, and removed and replaced when required. As an example, the overall length of the assembly may be about 1.3 m; the inner diameter of the pipe  152  about 23 cm; and the length of the throttling block  158  may be about 40 cm. Pressure tap flanges  160  and pipe end flanges  154 ,  156  may be standard or custom sizes depending on the embodiment. 
     While the best presently contemplated mode of implementing the invention has been described above,  FIG. 9  shows an alternate embodiment in which the throttling block  170  has a trailing surface  172 , which is about five times the length of the lower surface  174 . Also, the wedge formed by the trailing surface  172  is truncated with a rear wall  176  that is inclined relative to the pipe&#39;s axis rather than a wall that is perpendicular to the axis. In this example, the height h of the gap that forms the throat section is about half the diameter D of the bore of the pipe. 
     The presently disclosed, dam-shaped throttling block makes up for the disadvantages of wedge-type and Venturi meters, while retaining the advantages of each. The invention can be used for measuring the flow rates of gas, steam and liquids, including slurries and oil and other high viscosity liquids, erosive fluids and highly-abrasive gases and liquids which contain solid particles. Example Reynolds numbers of flowing fluids that can be measured with the dam-type flow meter are, for clean fluids (i.e. without solid particles), 6000 or higher, and for viscous fluids, 500 or more. When a fluid passes over the throttling block, the velocity of flow increases, the kinetic energy of the fluid increases, and the pressure of the fluid decreases. This decrease in pressure is proportional to the square of the speed of flow, therefore the flow rate can be calculated by measuring the pressure drop. Depending on the type of fluid and the embodiment, the range of flows that can be measured with a single installation of the invention can vary by a factor of 1 to 10 or even 1 to 100. 
     The generally lower, or more steady, turbulence, which results from using the dam-shaped throttling block, extends the life of the flow meters using the blocks due to the reduced abrasion of the throttling block and the inner walls of the pipe. In tests performed by the inventor, it has been found that the dam-type throttling block can last about five times longer than the wedge-type throttling block. This is in part due to the absence of sharp edges, as in the wedge-type throttling block, such as edge  20  ( FIG. 1 ). The overall envelope of the dam-shaped throttling block is convex, which is less disruptive to flow in the pipe. The dam-shaped throttling block causes a relatively low head loss in the range of 10-25% of the measured pressure differential. 
     Depending on the embodiment, a measurement accuracy of 0.5% can be obtained at the point of manufacture. Further calibration of the flow meters that use the dam-shaped throttling blocks can improve the accuracy to 0.25% or even better. 
     It is usual, when installing a flow meter, to ensure that there are straight lengths of pipe both before and after the flow meter. For example, for best accuracy, a wedge-type meter generally requires about a 10D (diameter) straight length upstream of the meter and a 5D straight pipe run downstream of the throttling block, although in some cases 5D upstream and 3D downstream may be tolerable. In contrast, the dam-type meter requires a straight pipe run of only 2D-5D upstream of the throttling block, without any requirement for a straight pipe run downstream of the block. The actual length of the straight pipe run depends on the flow disturbing feature immediately upstream of the straight run. For example, the disturbing feature may be an elbow, a reducer, an increaser or a gate valve. As a result, the installation space required for a dam-type flow meter is relatively low. Table 1 shows the straight pipe runs required upstream of the dam-shaped throttling block. Lengths of the runs are given in units of pipe diameter. Preferred lengths are given first, with minimum lengths given in brackets. The equivalent diameter ratio is the square root of the cross-sectional area of the gap  85  ( FIG. 3 ) divided by the square root of the internal cross-sectional area of the pipe  64 . 
     
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Equivalent 
                 Single 90° 
                 One or more 
                 Divergent pipe 
                 Fully  
               
               
                 diameter  
                 short 
                 90° elbows 
                 from 0.75 D to 
                 opened 
               
               
                 ratio 
                 radius  
                 in the 
                 D, within 
                 ball or gate 
               
               
                 β = d/D 
                 elbow 
                 same plane 
                 a length D 
                 valve 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 0.30 
                 0.5 
                 1.5 (0.5) 
                 1.5 (0.5) 
                 1.5 (0.5) 
               
               
                 0.35 
                 0.5 
                 1.5 (0.5) 
                 1.5 (0.5) 
                 2.5 (0.5) 
               
               
                 0.40 
                 0.5 
                 1.5 (0.5) 
                 1.5 (0.5) 
                 2.5 (1.5) 
               
               
                 0.45 
                 1.0 (0.5) 
                 1.5 (0.5) 
                 2.5 (1.0) 
                 3.5 (1.5) 
               
               
                 0.50 
                 1.5 (0.5) 
                 2.5 (1.5) 
                 2.5 (1.5) 
                 3.5 (1.5) 
               
               
                 0.55 
                 2.5 (0.5) 
                 2.5 (1.5) 
                 3.5 (1.5) 
                 4.5 (2.5) 
               
               
                 0.60 
                 3.0 (1.0) 
                 3.5 (2.5) 
                 3.5 (1.5) 
                 4.5 (2.5) 
               
               
                 0.65 
                 4.0 (1.5) 
                 4.5 (2.5) 
                 4.5 (2.5) 
                 4.5 (2.5) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     An example application of the invention is the use of the dam-shaped throttling block in a coal gasification process, where it is important to accurately measure the flow rates of the black water (intermediate reaction products containing pulverized coal) and gray water (washing water containing pulverized coal). Use of the present invention instead of wedge-type flow meters has been shown to reduce blockages and to reduce wear, as well as to provide extended, stable and accurate performance. 
     C. Variations 
     The embodiments described are the result, at least in part, of considerable experimental effort and include the best presently contemplated mode of carrying out the subject matter disclosed and claimed herein. However, further variations and embodiments are possible. 
     It is possible to harden the leading surface of the throttling block, as well as the lower surface and trailing surface, which can reduce wear further. For example, tungsten carbide may be used for the hardening, or and HVOF (high velocity oxygen fuel) coating. Coating may also be applied to the regions of the interior of the pipe in the vicinity of the throttling block. 
     Instead of flanges for connecting to the other pipework, threaded connectors, butt welds or socket welds may be used. 
     The leading edge  87  of the lower surface  86  may be radiused. 
     To date, dimensions of the dam-shaped throttling block have been tested for pipe diameters of 2″ to 24″, with pressure ratings from Class 150 to Class 2500 LB, and operating temperatures from −180° C. to 650° C. 
     Materials that can be used for the throttling block include carbon steel, stainless steel, monel, Hastelloy™, zirconium and dual-phase steel. 
     The dam-shaped throttling block may be formed by cutting into and inserting plates into the side wall of the pipe, for example as shown for the wedge-type throttling block of  FIG. 2 . 
     In general, unless otherwise indicated, singular elements may be in the plural and vice versa with no loss of generality. 
     Throughout the description, specific details have been set forth in order to provide a more thorough understanding of the invention. However, the invention may be practiced without these particulars. In other instances, well known elements have not been shown or described in detail to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the invention. Accordingly, the specification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative, rather than a restrictive, sense. 
     It will be clear to one having skill in the art that variations to the specific details disclosed herein can be made, resulting in other embodiments that are within the scope of the invention disclosed. All parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are examples only and actual values of such depend on the specific embodiment. Accordingly, the scope of the invention is to be construed in accordance with the substance defined by the following claims.