Abstract:
The present invention concerns DNA and peptide sequence encoding a mammalian secreted group III sPLA 2  and more particularly a human secreted group III (hGIII) sPLA 2 . The invention also concerns the use of this secreted group III sPLA 2  in methods for screening various chemical compounds.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
     This patent application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application No. 60/181,765, filed Feb. 11, 2000. This earlier provisional is hereby incorporated by reference. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention concerns DNA and peptide sequence encoding a novel mammalian secreted group III sPLA 2  and more particularly a novel human secreted group III (hGIII) sPLA 2 . The invention also concerns the use of this enzyme in methods for screening various chemical compounds. 
     BACKGROUND 
     In recent years, it has been realized that phospholipases A 2  (PLA 2 , EC 3.1.1.4) form a superfamily of intracellular and secreted enzymes, which all catalyze the hydrolysis of glycerophospholipids at the sn-2 position to release fatty acids and lysophospholipids (1-4). To date, 8 distinct mammalian secreted phospholipases A 2  (sPLA 2 S) have been cloned and classified into groups I, II, V and X (2, 4-9). Although the biological role of each of these enzymes has not yet been clearly defined, mammalian sPLA 2 s have been implicated in various physiological and pathophysiological functions including lipid digestion, cell proliferation, neurosecretion, release of proinflammatory lipid mediators, antibacterial defence, cancer and inflammatory diseases (3, 4). The level of identity between the 8 mammalian sPLA 2 s can be as low as 23% (8), but they have in common a low molecular mass (14-17 kDa), the presence of several disulfides, a similar Ca 2+ -dependent catalytic mechanism, and a well conserved overall three-dimensional structure (10-13). 
     Numerous sPLA 2 s have also been described in venoms from both vertebrate and invertebrate animals such as snakes and bees (14, 15). Similar to mammalian sPLA 2 s, snake venom enzymes have been classified into groups I and II, and they all have a common catalytic mechanism and a very similar three-dimensional structure (1, 10-13). Snake venom sPLA 2 s are often neurotoxins or myotoxins, but can also promote physiological effects such as cell migration and cell proliferation (14, 16, 17). Using venom sPLA 2 s as ligands, different types of sPLA 2  receptors have been identified (4). These receptors are likely to be involved in venom sPLA 2  toxicity, and recent studies have suggested that mammalian sPLA 2 s can be the normal endogenous ligands (4, 18, 19). Invertebrate venom sPLA 2 s are also disulfide-rich proteins, but they have a primary structure distinct from mammalian and snake venom sPLA 2 s, and have been classified into groups III and IX (2, 4). They have been found in bee, scorpion, jellyfish and marine snail venoms (20-25), and the group III bee venom sPLA 2  has been the best studied enzyme. This sPLA 2  has been cloned (20) and determination of its three-dimensional structure (11) has revealed important differences with group I and II sPLA 2 s, although the catalytic site is similar to that of vertebrate sPLA 2 s (13). Interestingly, sPLA 2 s similar to the bee venom enzyme were discovered in lizard venom (26, 27), indicating that group III sPLA 2 s also exist in vertebrates, and thus may occur in mammals as well. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     In the last three years, a systematic search for sPLA 2  homologs in nucleic databases has allowed the Applicant to clone four novel mammalian sPLA 2 s that belong to groups II and X (6-8). Using the same strategy, the Applicant identified a human genomic sequence that displays significant homology with the bee venom group II sPLA 2 . The cloning, genomic organization, chromosomal mapping, tissue distribution, and heterologous expression of the first human group III sPLA 2  are disclosed. 
     Thus, the invention concerns a novel mammalian secreted group III sPLA 2 . The invention concerns more particularly a mammalian secreted group III sPLA 2  constituted by or comprising the sequence of amino acids in the list of sequences under the number SEQ ID No. 2. More particularly, the mammalian secreted group III sPLA 2  is a human secreted group III sPLA 2 . 
     The invention concerns a nucleic acid molecule comprising or constituted of an encoding nucleic sequence for a mammalian secreted group III sPLA 2  or for a fragment of a mammalian secreted group III sPLA 2 . The invention also concerns a nucleic acid molecule which encodes for the mammalian secreted group III sPLA 2  protein or for a fragment of this protein whose amino acid sequence is represented in the list of sequences in the appendix under the number SEQ ID No. 2. The invention relates more particularly to a nucleic acid molecule constituted by or comprising the sequence in the list of sequences in the appendix under the number SEQ ID No. 1. Evidently the invention also concerns nucleotide sequences derived from the above sequence, for example from the degeneracy of the genetic code, and which encode for proteins presenting characteristics and properties of secreted group III sPLA 2 . 
     Another aim of the present invention is polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies directed against one secreted group III sPLA 2  of the invention, a derivative or a fragment of these. These antibodies can be prepared by the methods described in the literature. According to prior art techniques, polyclonal antibodies are formed by the injection of proteins, extracted from the epithelium or produced by genetic transformation of a host, into animals, and then recuperation of antiserums and antibodies from the antiserums for example by affinity chromatography. The monoclonal antibodies can be produced by fusing myeloma cells with spleen cells from animals previously immunised using the receptors of the invention. These antibodies are useful in the search for new secreted mammalian group III sPLA 2  or the homologues of this enzyme in other mammals or again for studying the relationship between the secreted group III sPLA 2  of different individuals or species. 
     The invention also concerns a vector comprising at least one molecule of nucleic acid above, advantageously associated with adapted control sequences, together with a production or expression process in a cellular host of a group III sPLA 2  of the invention or a fragment thereof. The preparation of these vectors as well as the production or expression in a protein host of the invention can be carried out by molecular biology and genetic engineering techniques well known to the professional. 
     An encoding nucleic acid molecule for a mammalian secreted group III sPLA 2  or a vector according to the invention can also be used to transform animals and establish a line of transgenic animals. The vector used is chosen in function of the host into which it is to be transferred; it can be any vector such as a plasmid. Thus the invention also relates to cellular hosts expressing mammalian secreted group III sPLA 2  obtained in conformity with the preceding processes. 
     The invention also relates to nucleic and oligonucleotide probes prepared from the molecules of nucleic acid according to the invention. These probes, marked advantageously, are useful for hybridisation detection of similar group III sPLA 2  in other individuals or species. According to prior art techniques, these probes are put into contact with a biological sample. Different hybridisation techniques can be used, such as Dot-blot hybridisation or replica hybridisation (Southern technique) or other techniques (DNA chips). Such probes constitute the tools making it possible to detect similar sequences quickly in the encoding genes for group III sPLA 2  which allow study of the presence, origin and preservation of these proteins. The oligonucleotide probes are useful for PCR experiments, for example to search for genes in other species or with a diagnostic aim. 
     The sPLA 2  are expressed in a variety of tissues under both normal and pathological conditions (including inflammatory diseases, cancers, cardiac and brain ischemia, etc . . . ) and are involved in a myriad of physiological and pathological roles. These proteins are also involved in cell proliferation, cell migration, angiogenesis, cell contraction, apoptosis, neurosecretion, blood coagulation, adipogenesis, lipid metabolism (digestion, skin lipid barrier and lung surfactant formation, lipoprotein metabolism, . . . ), spermatogenesis, fecondation and embryogenesis. They also play a role in host defense and have antiviral and antibacterial properties against viruses like HIV-1 and various Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains. They are also involved in various pathological conditions such as acute lung injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome, Crohn&#39;s disease and various types of cancers where sPLA 2  can act as gene suppressor. 
     Consequently, this invention can also be useful in methods for identifying biologically active compounds with anti-inflammatory properties or more generally for identifying compounds that modulate sPLA 2  biological activities as listed above. 
     Such biologically active compounds can be identified by determining if a selected compound is capable of inhibiting the catalytic activity of sPLA 2  in cleaving a phospholipid to release fatty acids and lysophospholipids in a mixed micelle assay, a liposome assay, a system utilizing natural membranes, or in whole cells overexpressing this enzyme. A compound capable of inhibiting sPLA 2  catalytic activity may have anti-inflammatory or may behave as an antagonist of sPLA2 in the sPLA2 biological activities listed above. 
     For example, screening of compounds for potential anti-inflammatory activity can be performed with the novel sPLA 2  enzymes of this invention, purified to homogeneity from cell sources or produced recombinantly or synthetically. A selected compound may be added to a sPLA2 enzyme of this invention in a mixed micelle assay, a liposome assay, or an assay system utilizing natural membranes and analyzed for inhibition of sPLA2 activity. Alternatively, a selected compound may be added to whole cells which overexpress the sPLA 2  and the cells examined for inhibition of release of fatty acids or lysophospholipids. In this case, normal cells and cells overexpressing sPLA 2  can be cultured in labelled arachidonic acid. Signal is measured between the secreted products of both the normal and overexpressing cells to provide a baseline of sPLA 2  expression. A selected compound is then added to cultures and the cultures are grown in label arachidonic acid. If there is a difference in the signal (e.g., the amount of arachidonic acid produced) in the cells in the presence of the compound, this compound inhibits sPLA2 activity and may be a potential anti-inflammatory compound. 
     Biologically active compounds can also be identified by screening the selected compounds for their binding properties to sPLA 2  receptors that bind group III sPLA 2 s of this invention. These receptors include the family of N-type receptors which are likely to be involved in several biological activities of sPLA 2 s including HIV-1 antiviral properties. For example, radioactively or fluorescently labeled sPLA 2 s can be used in competition binding assays and selected compounds can be screened for inhibition of sPLA 2  binding. 
     Biologically active compounds can also be identified by screening the selected compounds for modulation of a sPLA 2  biological effect such as those listed above. For example, sPLA 2 s of this invention may be added to cells in the presence or absence of a selected compound and cells may be assayed for cell proliferation, cell migration, cell contraction or apoptosis. 
     In general, another aspect of this invention is thus related to the use of a compound first identified by the methods described above. Novel pharmaceutical compositions may contain a therapeutically effective amount of a compound identified by an above method of this invention. These pharmaceutical compositions may be employed in methods for treating disease states or disorders involving group III sPLA 2 s of this invention. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       Other advantages and characteristics of the invention will become apparent by reading the following examples concerning the cloning, genomic organization, chromosomal mapping, tissue distribution, and heterologous expression of the first human group III sPLA 2  and which refer to the attached drawings in which: 
         FIG. 1  presents a schematic diagram of the gene (A) and cDNA nude tide sequence (B) of hGIII sPLA 2 . A, the exon-intron structure of the hGIII sPLA 2  gene is shown at the top and below are shown the EST sequence and the different cDNA PCR Products which have been amplified to determine the sequence of the full-length hGIII sPLA 2  (Panal B). Exons and introns are represented as open boxes and straight lines, respectively. The methionine initiation codon and stop codon of the hGIII sPLA 2  gene are located in exons 1 and 7. The sPLA 2  domain is encoded by exons 1 to 4. B, the consensus cDNA sequence is shown. The predicted signal peptide segment is boxed. The five putative N-glycoslyation sites are squared. The sPLA 2  domain is underlined. The exon-intron boundaries are indicated by arrowheads. 
         FIG. 2  presents the alignment of the amino acid sequences of group III sPLA 2 s. Sequences of mature sPLA 2  proteins are shown. sPLA 2  sequences are from (20, 22, 23, 25-27). Only partial sequences have been reported for jellyfish and Mexican beaded lizard sPLA 2 s (25, 26). 
         FIG. 3  presents a Northern blot analysis of the tissue distribution of hGIII sPLA 2 . A commercial northern blot containing 2 μg of poly A+RNA from different human adult tissues was hybridized at high stringency with [ 32 P]-labeled sPLA 2  RNA probe as described under “Experimental Procedures”. sk. musc., skeletal muscle; small intest., small intestine; PBL, peripheral blood leukocytes. kb, kilobase. The blot was exposed for 7 days. 
         FIG. 4  presents the enzymatic properties of hGIII sPLA 2 . A, Ca 2+  dependency of the hydrolysis of 1 -palmitoyl-2-(10-pyrenedecanoyl)-sn-glycerol-3- phosphomethanol vesicles by Q-sepharose purified hGIII sPLA 2 . B, pH dependency of the hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholne vesicles by Q-Sepharose purified gGIII sPLA 2 . 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     I. Experimental Procedures 
     I.1 Molecular Cloning of hGIII sPLA 2 . 
     Searching for sPLA 2  homologs in gene databases stored at the National Center for Biotechnology using the tBLASTn sequence alignment program (28) resulted in the identification of a human genomic sequence (PAC clone DJ412A9, GenBank accession number AC005005) of 133893 nucleotides containing several regions of homology to bee venom group III sPLA 2 . This suggested that this large genomic clone contains a gene with several exons and introns coding for a novel human group III sPLA 2 . The exon-intron boundaries of the human sPLA 2  gene were deduced according to alignment with bee venom sPLA 2  and exon-intron consensus sequences (29) to provide a putative cDNA sequence. To demonstrate the presence of the putative cDNA sequence in human tissues, a first set of RT-PCR experiments (RT-PCR 1 in  FIG. 1 ) was performed on different human cDNAs with primers flanking the Ca 2+ -binding loop and the active site domain of the novel sPLA 2  (sense and antisense primers correspond to nucleotides 445 to 468 and 655 to 679, respectively, FIG.  1 ). A DNA product was amplified from human fetal lung cDNA and found to have a nucleotide sequence corresponding to the putative cDNA. This sequence was then used to clone the entire cDNA sequence by 5′ and 3′ RACE-PCR experiments as previously described (7). Briefly, human fetal lung Poly A+ RNA (2 μg, Clontech) was reverse transcribed, and double stranded cDNA was ligated to adaptors containing sequences for the universal primers SP6 and KS. PCR reactions were performed using KS primer and a specific forward or reverse primer, for 3′ or 5′ RACE-PCR, respectively. PCR products were subcloned into pGEM-T easy vector (Promega), and colonies were screened using an internal [ 32 P]-labeled oligonucleotide probe. 3′ RACE-PCR experiments led to the cloning of a 1458 nucleotide sequence that contained in its 3′ end an in frame extension of 304 amino acids, a stop codon and a 3′ noncoding region of 546 nucleotides containing a putative polyadenylation site. Searching in EST databases resulted in the identification of an EST sequence (Genbank A1282787), and full sequencing of this EST clone revealed a 193 nucleotide sequence containing a 166 nucleotide sequence identical in its 5′ end to the genomic clone and a 27 nucleotide polyA sequence. 5′ RACE-PCR experiments were performed with an antisense primer (nucleotides 518-545 in  FIG. 1 ) and led to the cloning of a 158 nucleotide sequence, extending the 5′ end sequence of the RT-PCR 1 DNA fragment by 20 amino acid residues. In frame with this 158 nucleotide sequence, an initiator methionine followed by a 19 amino acid sequence presenting the features of a signal peptide sequence (30) was found in the upstream genomic sequence. A primer upstream of the putative initiator methionine (nucleotides −254 to −229 in  FIG. 1 ) and an antisense primer (nucleotides 2205 to 2236 in  FIG. 1 ) derived from the above EST sequence were designed and used to amplify the full-length hGIII cDNA sPLA 2  (RT-PCR 2 in FIG.  1 ). This RT-PCR experiment was performed on the same human fetal lung cDNA using the proofreading Pwo DNA Polymerase and led to the cloning of a cDNA fragment of 2564 nucleotides containing an open reading frame of 1530 nucleotides. To confirm that this long open reading frame resulted from a proper splicing of the hGIII sPLA 2  gene, exon-trapping experiments were performed. For this purpose, a genomic fragment encompassing the putative hGIII gene was amplified with the Expand long template PCR system (Roche), primers designed from the human PAC clone DJ412A9 (nucleotides 36143-36175 and 43062-43092 for sense and antisense primers, respectively), and human genomic DNA as template. An expected 6.95 kilobase pair genomic fragment was amplified and subcloned into the exon trapping pET01 vector (MoBiTech), partially sequenced, and the resulting plasmid was transfected into COS cells. Three days after transfection, total RNA was prepared, reverse transcribed with oligodT, and submitted to PCR with primers flanking the hGIII sPLA 2  open reading frame. A PCR fragment of 1530 nucleotides was amplified, cloned into pGEM-T easy vector (Promega), and found to encode for the full-length hGIII open reading frame. No amplification was observed with cDNA from COS cells transfected with the parent exon-trapping vector. 
     I.2 Analysis of the Tissue Distribution of hGIII sPLA 2 . 
     A human northern blot (Clontech catalog #  7780-1 ) was probed with a [ 32 P]-labeled riboprobe corresponding to the nucleotide sequence 445 to 679 of hGIII sPLA 2  ( FIG. 1 ) in ULTRAHyb hybridization buffer (Ambion, catalog # 8670) for 18 h at 70° C. High-sensitivity stripable antisense riboprobe was synthesized using the Strip-EZ RNA Ambion kit (catalog # 1360). The blot was washed to a final stringency of 0.1× SSC (30 mM NaCl, 3 mM trisodium citrate, pH 7.0) in 0.1% SDS at 70° C. and exposed to Kodak Biomax MS films with a transcreen-HE intensifying screen. 
     II.3 Recombinant Expression of hGIII sPLA 2  in COS cells. 
     The full-length cDNA sequence coding for hGIII sPLA 2  was subcloned into the expression vector pRc/CMVneo (Invitrogen) and a consensus Kozak sequence was added to enhance protein expression as previously described (6). The DNA construct was sequenced after subcloning and transiently transfected into COS cells using DEAE-dextran (7). Five days after transfection, cell medium was collected and partially purified on an anion exchange column. Briefly, COS cell culture medium (9 ml) was loaded at 1 ml/min onto a 10 ml column of Q-Sepharose Fast Flow (Pharmacia) previously equilibrated in 25 mM Tris, pH 8.0 at 4° C. After washing with equilibration buffer to remove unbound protein, the solvent program was started (10 min in equilibration buffer followed by a linear gradient of NaCl from 0 to 1 M NaCl over 40 min). hGIII sPLA 2  enzymatic activity was detected using the fluorimetric assay with 1 -palmitoyl-2-(1 0-pyrenedecanoyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphomethanol as described (8). The pool of hGIII-containing fractions was concentrated approximately 10-fold by centrifugal ultrafiltration (YM-10 membrane, Amicon) at 4° C., and the concentrate was stored at −20° C. Using this assay, no phospholipase A 2  activity was detected in culture medium from COS cells transfected with the parent expression vector. 
     I.4 PLA 2  Activity Studies. 
     Studies to measure the initial rate of hydrolysis of small unilamellar vesicles of phosphatidylglycerol (1-palmitoyl-2-([9,10[ 3 H])-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoglycerol in 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoglycerol at 50 Ci/mol) and phosphatidylcholine (1-palmitoyl-2-([9,10[ 3 H])-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, 50 Ci/mol) were carried as described (8) using Q-Sepharose purified hGIII sPLA 2 . Initial rates were calculated from 3 time points in the linear portion of the product versus time curve. pH-rate profiles for the hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine were obtained as described (8). The Ca 2+  dependency of phospholipid hydrolysis was carried out with the fluorimetric assay (described above) with 10 μM EGTA (no Ca 2+ ) or with CaCl 2  in excess of EGTA to give 10-650 μM Ca 2+ . 
     II. Results. 
     II.1 Molecular Cloning of hGIII sPLA 2 . 
     Screening of mammalian nucleic sequence databases with various venom sPLA 2 s led us to identify a large human genomic fragment of 133893 nucleotides presenting several regions of homology with bee venom group III sPLA 2 . This suggested that the genomic clone contains a complete gene with several exons and introns coding for a putative human group III (hGIII) sPLA 2 . A first set of sense and antisense primers was designed from the genomic sequences homologous to bee venom sPLA 2  and used for RT-PCR experiments (RT-PCR 1 in  FIG. 1A ) on human cDNAs from brain, pancreas, spleen, skeletal muscle, and fetal lung. A DNA fragment was amplified from fetal lung cDNA and its sequence was found to correspond to the expected spliced exons from the genomic sequence. 5′ and 3′ RACE-PCR experiments followed by a second round of RT-PCR (RT-PCR 2 in  FIG. 1A ) on human fetal lung cDNA led to the cloning of a cDNA fragment of 2564 nucleotides containing a large open reading frame of 1530 nucleotides (see FIG.  1  and Experimental Procedures for details). Screening of EST databases resulted in the identification of a single human EST sequence (Genbank A1282787) of 193 nucleotides containing a polyA tail, suggesting that this EST sequence corresponds to the 3′ end of the hGIII sPLA 2  mRNA (FIG.  1 A). Comparison of the 2564 nucleotide cDNA sequence with the PAC genomic sequence indicated that the hGIII sPLA 2  gene is composed of at least 7 exons and 6 introns spanning about 7 kilobase pairs (FIG.  1 A). Exon-trapping experiments were performed and found to confirm the exon-intron structure and the sequence of the complete hGIII sPLA 2  open reading frame of 1530 nucleotides (see Experimental Procedures). The PAC clone DJ412A9 (Genbank AC005005) containing the hGIII sPLA 2  gene was generated by the sequencing program of human chromosome 22 (31), indicating that the hGIII sPLA 2  gene maps to this chromosome between the Genethon markers D22S1150 and D22S273. The location of the hGIII gene is thus distinct from those of genes for human group IB, IIA, IID, V and X sPLA 2 s (8, 9). 
     Similar to other mammalian sPLA 2 s, the open reading frame of hGIII sPLA 2  begins with a signal peptide of 19 amino acids (30), indicating that the novel enzyme could be secreted. In contrast to other mammalian sPLA 2 s (117 to 148 amino acids), the hGIII open reading frame codes for a much larger protein of 490 amino acids (calculated molecular mass 55.3 kDa, calculated pI 9.1) containing five putative N-glycosylation sites (FIG.  1 B). This protein is made up of a central sPLA 2  domain (141 residues) flanked by N- and C-terminal regions (130 and 219 residues, respectively). Based on the alignment with venom group III sPLA 2 s (FIG.  2 ), the sPLA 2  domain comprises 141 amino acids (calculated molecular mass 16 kDa, calculated pI 5.4) and displays the typical features of group III sPLA 2 s including the 10 cysteines specific for group III sPLA 2 s and the key residues of the Ca 2+ -loop and catalytic site. The sPLA 2  domain contains 2 putative N-glycosylation sites which are not conserved with that of bee venom sPLA 2  located at position 15 in FIG.  2 . However, one of them is located only 4 residues downstream of the glycosylation site in bee venom sPLA 2 . Interestingly, the hGIII domain is more similar to venom group III sPLA 2 s identified from vertebrates. Indeed, higher levels of identity are found with the isoforms PA-2 and PA-5 (43 and 46%, respectively) purified from the lizard Gila monster (27), while lower levels are observed with venom group III sPLA 2 s from honey bee, bumble bee and the scorpion  Pandinus imperator  (FIG.  2 ). 
     No protein database entries with significant homology to the N- and C-terminal regions flanking the sPLA 2  domain of the hGIII sPLA 2  gene could be found. They are both basic (calculated pI 9.1 and 11.3 for N- and C-terminal regions, respectively) and contain 4 and 8 cysteines, suggesting that they may fold separately from the sPLA 2  domain. The function of these two domains are completely unknown at present. One possibility is that these domains could be involved in the maturation of hGIII sPLA 2  during or after its secretion from cells. Although the maturation processing of hGIII sPLA 2  clearly remains to be elucidated, the presence of a basic doublet KR at the end of the N-terminal domain ( FIG. 1B ) suggests that this domain could serve as a long propeptide that can be cleaved by subtilisin-like protein convertase in the Golgi apparatus (32). Interestingly, the mature protein sequence of bee venom sPLA 2  is preceded by an arginine residue (20) and a short propeptide sequence ending with an arginine doublet has been found in human group X sPLA 2  (6). The C-terminal region also contains several basic residues including basic doublets, which may be involved in protein maturation as well. In addition, the C-terminal domain contains numerous prolines and a pentapeptide RRLAR similar to that found in Imperatoxin I from  Pandinus imperator  venom (22). In this regard, it is not yet clear whether some venom group III sPLA 2 s also have such large N- and C-terminal regions, since only mature protein sequences and partial cDNA sequences have been determined so far (20, 23, 25-27), except for the  Pandinus imperator  venom sPLA 2 s (22, 24). A second possibility may be that the N- and C-terminal domains are involved in sPLA 2  dimerization, cell targeting or interaction with cellular proteins possibly including sPLA 2  receptors (4). The last possibility may be that these domains play a role in regulating hGIII sPLA 2  activity. Unlike group I and II sPLA 2 S which contain a hydrogen bond network linking the N-terminus to catalytic residues, the X-ray structure of bee venom sPLA 2  shows that the N-terminus does not form part of the active site structure (11). Indeed, recombinant bee venom sPLA 2  expressed as an N-terminal fusion protein exhibits the same catalytic activity as the cleaved fusion or the native enzyme (33). This suggests that the presence of the N-terminal extension (and presumably the C-terminal region which is also not part of the catalytic site (11)) would not interfere with the catalytic activity of hGIII sPLA 2 . Full-length or partially cleaved hGIII sPLA 2  may thus be catalytically active and N-and C-terminal domains may participate to the hGIII enzymatic properties. Further studies are clearly needed to elucidate the maturation process of the hGIII sPLA 2  protein and the role of these additional N- and C-terminal regions. 
     II.2 Tissue Distribution of hGIII sPLA 2 . 
     The tissue distribution of hGIII sPLA 2  was analyzed by hybridization at high stringency to a human northern blot (FIG.  3 ). The hGIII sPLA 2  is expressed as a single transcript of 4.4 kilobase which is abundant in kidney, heart, liver and skeletal muscle, and is also present at low levels in placenta and peripheral blood leukocytes. Little, if any, expression was detected in brain, colon, thymus, spleen, small intestine and lung. The pattern of expression of hGIII sPLA 2  is distinct from that of other human sPLA 2 s, suggesting that this novel enzyme has specific function(s). Notably, hGIII sPLA 2  is expressed in kidney while no expression was previously detected in this tissue for human group IB, IIA, IID, V and X sPLA 2 s (6, 9). On the other hand, hGIII sPLA 2  is co-expressed in heart with human group IIA and V sPLA 2 s, and in liver and skeletal muscle with human group IIA sPLA 2  (6). 
     I.3 Recombinant Expression of hGIII sPLA 2  and Enzymatic Properties. 
     When the hGIII sPLA 2  cDNA was transiently transfected in COS cells, sPLA 2  activity accumulated in the culture medium, indicating that the hGIII sPLA 2  cDNA codes for a secreted active enzyme. The level of PLA 2  activity measured after washing the cells with high salt buffer containing 1 M NaCl and in cell lysate was low, suggesting that hGIII sPLA 2  is not tightly bound to the cell surface and is efficiently secreted. The hGIII sPLA 2  was partially purified by chromatography on a Q-Sepharose fast flow column and the eluted sPLA 2  fraction was used to analyze the enzymatic properties. 
     Like all mammalian sPLA 2 s that have been kinetically characterized (7, 8, 34, 35), hGIII sPLA 2  is considerably more active (11-fold based on initial velocities) on anionic phosphatidylglycerol vesicles versus zwitterionic phosphatidylcholine vesicles (not shown). Further studies with pure hGIII sPLA 2  in larger quantities are required to determine if this rate difference is due to an increased fraction of enzyme bound to the anionic versus zwitterionic interface, a lower value of the interfacial KM for phosphatidylglycerol versus phosphatidylcholine, or both. As shown in  FIG. 4A , the rate of phosphatidylmethanol vesicle hydrolysis by hGIII is completely Ca 2+ -dependent with a Kd of 6±0.8 μM. The Kd for Ca 2+  of 6 μM for the action of hGIII sPLA 2  on phosphatidylmethanol vesicles is considerably lower than the sub-millimolar to millimolar values reported for other sPLA 2 S. However, the Kd value measured in this study is an apparent value. For sPLA 2 s, phospholipid binding to the active site is Ca 2+  dependent, and thus the observed apparent Kd for Ca 2+  depends on the affinity of enzyme&#39;s active site for phospholipid substrate (36). Kd for Ca 2+  is also modulated by the affinity of the enzyme for the vesicle interface since interfacial binding is a prerequisite for the binding of long-chain phospholipids to the enzyme&#39;s active site. In this context, it may be noted that human group IIA sPLA 2  binds Ca 2+  with millimolar affinity in the absence of substrate (37, 38), but the Kd for Ca 2+  in the presence of phosphatidylglycerol (which supports tight interfacial and active site binding) is in the low micromolar range (39). Once large amounts of recombinant hGIII sPLA 2  are available, it will be possible to use spectroscopic methods to measure the affinity of the enzyme for Ca 2+  in the absence of substrate. As shown in  FIG. 4B , hGIII sPLA 2  is optimally active on phosphatidylcholine vesicles at pH 8. The pH-rate profile of hGIII is similar to most sPLA 2 s (12). The increase in rate up to pH 8 probably reflects deprotonation of the active site histidine so that it can function as a general base for the attack of a water molecule on the substrate ester carbonyl group (13). 
     II.4 Summary 
     Over the past few years, the molecular biology approach has revealed the presence of a diversity of sPLA 2 s in mammals (5-9). The mammalian sPLA 2  family comprises eight members of 14-17 kDa including a group 1, 5 group II, a group V and a group X sPLA 2 s. It also includes otoconin-95, a major protein of the extracellular otoconial complex of inner ear, which consists of a large secreted protein of 469 residues containing two sPLA 2 -like domains (40, 41). All these sPLA 2 s have a conserved primary structures, have in common various disulfide, and several have a similar genomic organization. These sPLA 2 s are thus structurally-related enzymes that fall within the same set of proteins, namely the I/II/V/X sPLA 2  collection. It should be noted however that they all have distinct tissue distribution and function. The mammalian sPLA 2  family now also comprises the human group III sPLA 2  which does not belong to the I/II/V/X sPLA 2  collection. hGIII sPLA 2  has a distinct sPLA 2  primary sequence from the above sPLA 2 s, contains extra N- and C-terminal regions, and has a different genomic organization. Together, this indicates that mammals can express sPLA 2 s of the group I/II/V/X collection and of the distinct group III collection. Interestingly, the same can be observed in reptiles, since sPLA 2 s found in snake venoms are group I or II enzymes while those found in lizard venoms belong to group III (15). In addition, as previously pointed out (15), it is likely that a single snake species can express several sPLA 2 s from different groups which are present in various tissues other than the venom gland. Finally, while most sPLA 2 s reported so far in the venom of invertebrates appear to be group III enzymes (20, 22-25), scanning of nucleic databases indicates that invertebrates also express sPLA 2 s from the group I/II/V/X collection in other tissues. In short, this makes likely that both vertebrates and invertebrates express a variety of sPLA 2 s of the group I/II/V/X collection and of group III, and that these sPLA 2 S are present in various tissues to deserve specific functions. Lastly, based on the current sPLA 2 s found in mammals, it is tempting to speculate that vertebrates have “chosen” to generate a sPLA 2  diversity from the group I/II/V/X collection and not from the group III collection. It remains however to determine if more than one group III sPLA 2  is expressed in mammals, and if reptiles and invertebrates have made the same “choice” to make their own sPLA 2  diversity. 
     In conclusion, a novel human sPLA 2  that clearly belongs to group III was cloned. This sPLA 2  seems to have a number of distinct structural features compared to the known venom group III sPLA 2 s, suggesting that hGIII sPLA 2  may not be the structural “equivalent” of these venom sPLA 2 s (4). Its tissue distribution appears non redundant with other human sPLA 2 s, suggesting particular function(s). Our initial survey indicate a strong expression of hGIII sPLA 2  in heart, kidney, liver and skeletal muscle, but a more extensive analysis in a wide variety of tissues, cell types and extracellular fluids under both normal and pathological conditions could emphasize unsuspected sPLA 2  functions. So far, sPLA 2 s have been found in many tissues and cells, and their functions are only slowly being discovered. Some of them have been implicated as potent mediators of inflammation and their levels are elevated in numerous inflammatory diseases and after challenge by proinflammatory cytokines and endotoxins (3, 4, 9, 42). Levels of sPLA 2 s are also increased in cancer and sPLA 2 s have been proposed to play a role in cell proliferation and cancer (3, 4, 9). sPLA 2 s are also increased after ischemia (3, 43) and they may play a role in neurotransmission (44). Finally, sPLA 2 s have been involved in host defense mechanisms against different bacterial strains (45-48) and more recently, sPLA 2 s including bee venom group III have been revealed to be potent human immunodeficiency virus type 1 inhibitors (49). 
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