Abstract:
A composition for coating a water-contacting surface for reducing kinematic friction, preventing corrosion and blistering, reducing water impact noise, and absorbing water shock includes a polymer including a polyhydroxystyrene of the novolak type. In alternate embodiments the composition also includes an antifouling agent, a gel coating material, and/or an epoxy. A method includes coating a water-contacting surface with the composition, preferably in a solution in an appropriate solvent, such as a low-molecular-weight oxygenated hydrocarbon such as an alcohol or a ketone. Application of the composition to a water-submersible or -contacting surface results in a hydrophilic surface having a considerably reduced contact angle, permitting increased speed and improving fuel efficiency.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This continuation-in-part application claims priority from copending applications Ser. No. 09/238,818, filed Jan. 28, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,045,869 and PCT application PCT/US99/24048, filed Oct. 25, 1999, designating the United States, all of which are commonly owned with the present application. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     1. Field of the Invention 
     The present invention relates to surface coatings, and, more particularly, to such coatings for use in or on an aqueous environment or in contact with an aqueous fluid or solid. 
     2. Description of Related Art 
     Coatings for application to structures in or on aqueous environments and static underwater structures are known for use to preserve surfaces, improve their appearance, and reduce drag for moving structures or devices. Such structures or devices may comprise, but are not intended to be limited to, movable boats such as sailboats, yachts, inboard and outboard motor boats, rowboats, motor launches, canoes, kayaks, inflatable watercraft, waterskis, snow skis, jetskis, snowboards, snowmobiles, toboggans, bobsleds, surfboards, sailboards, waterbikes, ocean liners, tugboats, tankers, cargo ships, submarines, aircraft carriers, pontoons for sea planes, and destroyers. Underwater static structures may include, but are not intended to be limited to, wharves, piers, pilings, bridges, and other structures that may comprise wood, metal, plastic, fiberglass, glass, or concrete. 
     Some coatings known in the art include those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,575,123; 4,100,309; 4,119,094; 4,373,009; 4,642,267; 5,488,076; 5,554,214; and 5,700,559. Antifouling compositions have also been known to be used against such organisms as barnacles, algae, slime, acorn shells (Balanidae), goose mussels (Lepodoids), tubeworms, sea moss, oysters, brozoans, and tunicates (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,919,689). 
     Coatings may be hydrophilic or hydrophobic, the latter incurring friction between the moving surface and the water and including Teflon-like, paraffin wax, and fluorocarbon/silicone materials. The former maintains an adhering layer of water, the kinematic friction occurring with the water through which the craft moves. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide a method of reducing kinematic friction between a watercraft or water-contacting surface and the water through which the watercraft moves. 
     It is an additional object to provide a coating for a watercraft for reducing kinematic friction. 
     It is a further object to provide such a coating that is hydrophilic. 
     It is another object to provide such a coating that also possesses antifouling properties. 
     It is yet an additional object to provide a new use for a novolak-type polymeric composition. 
     An additional object is to provide a composition and method for improving fuel efficiency in watercraft. 
     A further object is to provide a composition and method for coating a surface intended to contact water in either a liquid or frozen state to improve kinematic friction. 
     Another object is to provide a composition and method for coating a surface to reduce noise associated with contact with water. 
     It is an additional object to provide a composition and method for coating a surface to absorb shock associated with water and wave contact. 
     It is a further object to provide a composition and method for coating a surface to protect against corrosion and/or blistering. 
     These objects and others are attained by the present invention, a composition and method for coating water-contacting surfaces having the property of reducing kinematic friction. It is to be understood by one of skill in the art that by “water” is meant any aqueous environment, freshwater or marine, as well as in a frozen state, i.e., ice or snow. An embodiment of the composition comprises a solution including a polymer comprising a polyhydroxystyrene of the novolak type. The polymer may be present in a concentration range of trace to the solubility limit, approximately 75% in alcohol. In a preferred embodiment the composition further comprises an antifouling agent. 
     In a first subembodiment of the composition, the polyhydroxystyrene is blended in a low-molecular-weight oxygenated hydrocarbon solvent. In a second subembodiment, the polyhydroxystyrene is incorporated into a gel-type coating. In a third subembodiment, the polyhydroxystyrene is incorporated into an epoxy, such as a one- or a two-part epoxy, for forming a permanent or semipermanent coating. 
     A first embodiment of the method of the present invention comprises applying the composition as described above to an outer surface of a marine watercraft or to any water-contacting surface to achieve a coating thereof. Preferably the composition is applied in a solution in an appropriate solvent, which may comprise a low-molecular-weight oxygenated hydrocarbon such as an alcohol or ketone. The coated surface is smooth and free of tackiness and thus is not fouled by common water debris such as sand and weeds. The coating is insoluble in water and resists abrasion, giving a functional lifetime that has been estimated to be a few years of continuous use. 
     A second embodiment comprises a method for increasing the kinematic efficiency of a marine watercraft, including applying the composition to a submersible surface of a marine watercraft. 
     A third embodiment comprises a method for making the composition, including blending the polyhydroxystyrene in a low-molecular-weight oxygenated hydrocarbon solvent, a gel coat, or an epoxy. 
     A fourth embodiment comprises a method for reducing noise of water and wave impact, including applying the composition to a water-contacting surface such as a roof. 
     A fifth embodiment comprises a method for absorbing shock experienced by water-contacting surfaces, such as boat hulls, including applying the composition thereto. 
     A sixth embodiment comprises a method for protecting a water-contacting surface from corrosion or blistering, including applying the composition to the affected surface. 
     An application of the composition of the present invention to a water-submersible surface results in a hydrophilic surface having a considerably reduced contact angle. For example, when the composition is applied to a fiberglass/polyester surface with an initial contact angle of approximately 60° with water as determined by the tilting plate method (see N. K. Adam,  The Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces , Oxford Univ. Press, 1941), the contact angle is reduced to about 15°. Thus the use of the coating is beneficial on watercraft to increase the speed thereof and/or to improve the fuel utilization. 
     The features that characterize the invention, both as to organization and method of operation, together with further objects and advantages thereof, will be better understood from the following description used in conjunction with the accompanying drawing. It is to be expressly understood that the drawing is for the purpose of illustration and description and is not intended as a definition of the limits of the invention. These and other objects attained, and advantages offered, by the present invention will become more fully apparent as the description that now follows is read in conjunction with the accompanying drawing. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     The FIGURE illustrates the laboratory apparatus used to test the effect of the coating of the present invention upon the speed of an object falling through water. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
     A description of the preferred embodiments of the present invention will now be presented with reference to the FIGURE. 
     A first embodiment of the composition comprises polyhydroxystyrene dissolved in methanol as a 5-20 wt/vol % solution and an antifouling agent also present at 5-10 wt/vol %. An antifouling agent comprises at least one compound selected from the group consisting of copper powder, copper oxide, zinc oxide (Kadox 911), titanium oxide (Degussa P-25), tin oxide, Irgarol 1051 algicide (Ciba), and the antibiotic Compound X (Starbright), although other antifouling agents known in the art or to be conceived in the future may also be used. The best mode at present is believed to comprise zinc oxide, although this is not intended as a limitation. A pigment may also be included. 
     A copolymerization of the polyhydroxystyrene with at least one other hydroxylated polymer such as polyhydroxylethylmethacrylate, polymethacrylic acid, and polyhydroxymethylene or with another hydrophilic polymer such as polyallylamine, polyaminostyrene, polyacrylamide, or polyacrylic acid allows a variation of the coating without reducing the solubility of the copolymer in the solvent, while also not increasing the solubility of the dry coated polymer in water. 
     A second embodiment of the composition comprises a polymer comprising polyhydroxystyrene incorporated into a gel coat as is known in the art for treating the surfaces of marine watercraft. 
     A third embodiment of the composition comprises a polymer comprising polyhydroxystyrene incorporated into an epoxy, including a one- or a two-part epoxy. 
     A fourth embodiment of the composition comprises a polymer comprising polyhydroxystyrene incorporated into isopropyl alcohol (IPA). The polymer may be dissolved in amounts ranging from trace to the solubility limit, here approximately 75%. Although not intended to be limiting, various ranges may be contemplated for different applications and different durabilities as follows: trace-5%, skis, scuba gear, jet skis, smaller boats; 5-10%, competition coatings; 10-30%, antifouling product, also adds in bonding of antifouling component(s); 30-40%, propeller coating; 40-75%, ships and applications requiring great durability; 75%-solubility limit, for applications requiring extreme wear or those subject to high abrasion, such as propeller coatings for ships or in high-speed applications. 
     A fifth embodiment of the composition includes a substance known as a “fugitive dye.” This substance, which imparts a color, such as violet, to the composition, may be added to the polymer solution prior to applying the composition to a surface. The user can then check the surface during the coating process to ensure complete coverage, and the dye disappears over time. 
     Test Apparatus 
     A laboratory apparatus  10  used to test the effectiveness of the first embodiment of the coating of the present invention on a plastic bob  12  to affect the speed with which the bob  12  drops 1.3 m through sea water under the influence of gravity. An exemplary bob  12  comprises a plastic hydrophobic pointed cylinder approximately 1.26 cm in diameter and from 7.62 to 25.40 cm in length. 
     The apparatus  10  includes a glass tube  14  1.52 m long and having an inner diameter of 3.5 cm filled with artificial seawater. The bob  12  was allowed to fall from an initial position  20  to a second position  22  1.3 m apart. A photoelectric detector  16  at the initial position  20  starts a digital electronic timer  18 . A second photoelectric detector  24  at the second position  22  stops the timer  18 . The time recorded, typically in the second range, depending upon the size and mass of the falling bob  12 , represents the time taken for the bob  12  to fall from the initial position  20  to the second position  22 . 
     The bob  12  also has a thread  26  attached to its top end, which enables the bob  12  to be raised after resetting the timer  18  to ready it for another test. The initial position  20  should be set carefully in order to achieve reproducible results with a low standard deviation from the mean when ten identical, or as close to identical as possible, tests are averaged. 
     Exemplary Test Results 
     Tests undertaken on the apparatus described above have shown that the falling time, which ranges from 1.5 to 6 sec depending upon the size and mass of the object, decreases by 100-300 msec when a coating of the present invention has been applied (Table 1). This represents an improvement in the speed of 2-8%. The maximum speed at which these tests were performed correspond to the equivalent of about 2.5 knots. This is far below the 9-20 knots of ocean tankers or the 20-30 knots of passenger ships and ocean cargo vessels. However, the results of Table 1B show that the degree of improvement of the coating increases as the speed of the moving object increases for a fixed surface-to-water contact area. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Some typical results showing (a) the effect polyhydroxystyrene 
               
               
                 coatings on bobs of various materials by a determination of the time 
               
               
                 for the bob to fall (in milliseconds, ms), and (b) the effect 
               
               
                 of speed on the improvement due to the coatings for a fixed surface.  
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 Anti- 
                   
                   
                 Percentage 
               
               
                   
                   
                 fouling 
                 Time (ms) 
                 Time (ms) 
                 Im- 
               
               
                 (a) 
                 Material* 
                 Agent 
                 Before Coating 
                 After Coating 
                 provement 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1. 
                 Poly- 
                 ZnO 
                 3869.4 ± 44 
                 3567.0 ± 30   
                 7.9% 
               
               
                   
                 ethylene 
               
               
                 2. 
                 Nylon 
                 None 
                   4283 ± 79 
                 4179 ± 41 
                 2.4% 
               
               
                 3. 
                 Nylon 
                 ZnO 
                 3098.2 ± 26 
                 2988 ± 27 
                 3.5% 
               
               
                 4. 
                 Polyvinyl- 
                 ZnO 
                   4561 ± 38 
                 4404 ± 34 
                 3.4% 
               
               
                   
                 chloride 
               
               
                 5. 
                 Polyvinyl- 
                 None 
                 1519.3 ± 13 
                 1489.0 ± 10   
                 2.0% 
               
               
                   
                 chloride 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Mass of Bob 
                 Time (ms) 
                 Time (ms) 
                 Percentage 
               
               
                 (b) 
                 Grams 
                 Before Coating 
                 After Coating 
                 Improvement 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 6. 
                 32.9 
                 5047.6 ± 56 
                   4959 ± 72 
                 1.8% 
               
               
                 7. 
                 34.2 
                 2011.7 ± 27 
                 1947.6 ± 20 
                 3.2% 
               
               
                 8. 
                 38.3 
                 1711.3 ± 21 
                 1664.4 ± 12 
                 6.0 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *1 &amp; 3 were in distilled water with ZnO at 10% wt/vol %. All others were in sea water.  
               
               
                 4 ZnO was at 15 wt/vol %.  
               
               
                 6, 7, 8 the bob was a hollow polymethylmethacrylate pointed cylinder to which weights were added to make the bob fall faster.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     It has been shown that an application of a 5-20% solution of polyhydroxystyrene in methanol changes a hydrophobic surface into a hydrophilic one. The contact angle of flat metal, plastic, and wood surfaces were determined by the tilting plate method before and after application of the coating. The results are given in Table 2, where the contact angles are the averages of the advancing and receding angles. These data show that the coating causes a significant decrease in the contact angle of water with the surface. Similar data were obtained when an antifouling agent such as listed previously is added. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Contact angles ofwater on various surfaces before 
               
               
                 and after coating with a solution of Polyhydroxystyrene 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Surface 
                 Contact Angle Before 
                 Contact Angle after  
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Polyethylene 
                 56 
                 16 
               
               
                 Stainless Steel 
                 42 
                 20 
               
               
                   
                 61 
                 18 
               
               
                 Aluminum 
                 70 
                 15 
               
               
                 Fiberglass/polyester 
                 53 
                 22 
               
               
                   
                 60 
                 17 
               
               
                 Silicone rubber 
                 48 
                 18 
               
               
                 Plexiglass 
                 60 
                 12 
               
               
                   
                 63 
                 14 
               
               
                 Polystyrene 
                 58 
                 15 
               
               
                 Wood (oak) 
                 33 
                 18 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The coating was also applied to a test boat having an onboard computer to monitor the power, speed, and rpm. The characteristics of this exemplary test boat are given in Table 3, and the results of three tests under different conditions of speed and rpm for the uncoated and coated boat are given, respectively, in Tables 4A and 4B, with a summary given in Table 5. For fixed power, the coating effected an increase in speed of 8%, and the fuel savings was approximately 10% when the boat was fully in the water, i.e., prior to planing. The coated boat tended to plane at lower throttle speed and felt more slippery in the water than the uncoated boat. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Boat Characteristics 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Gas Test Number 
                 Test 1  
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Boat Model 
                 26 Nova Spyder 
               
               
                 Boat Number 
                 WELP 340 E788 
               
               
                 Engine Manufacturer 
                 Mercruiser Twin 
               
               
                 Engine Model 
                 350 Magnum 
               
               
                 Stern Drive Model 
                 Alpha One 
               
               
                 GearRatio (X:1) 
                 1.50:1 
               
               
                 Propshaft Hp 
                 500 
               
               
                 Stbd Idle Timing 
                 8 Degrees BTDC 
               
               
                 Port Idle Timing 
                 8 Degrees BTDC 
               
               
                 Stbd Adv Timing 
                 32 Degrees BTDC 
               
               
                 Port Adv Timing 
                 32 Degrees BTDC 
               
               
                 Rpm Range 
                 4400-4800 RPM 
               
               
                 X″ Dimension 
                 5 ¼ (1 ¼″ Above) 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Fuel Load 
                 60.0 
                 Gallons 
                 4900 
                 Lbs Aft 
               
               
                 Fuel Capacity 
                 120 
                 Gallons 
                 2800 
                 Lbs Fwd 
               
               
                 Boat Weight at Test 
                 9011 
                 Pounds 
                 7700 
                 Lbs Ttl 
               
               
                 Center of Gravity 
                 104.7 
                 Inches 
                 24.00 
                 Ft. Dist. 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Trim Tabs 
                 Bennett 9″ × 12″ (Performance) 
               
               
                 Exhaust System 
                 Thru-transom  *100 Pounds Gear 
               
               
                 Driver 
                 Willie Petrate  200 Pounds 
               
               
                 Passengers 
                 Don, Ken, Lee  640 Pounds 
               
               
                 Location 
                 Sarasota Bay 
               
               
                 Water Conditions 
                 Lite Chop 
               
               
                 Wind Conditions 
                 Northwest @ 10 MPH 
               
               
                 Radar 
                 Stalker 
               
               
                 Fuel Flow Meter 
                 Floscan 7000 
               
               
                 G″ Meter 
                 Vericom 2000 r 
               
               
                 Propeller Model 
                 Quicksilver 
               
               
                 Prop Material 
                 Stainless Steel 
               
               
                 Wellcraft PN 
                 1405== 
               
               
                 Manufacturer’s PN 
                 48-163184 
               
               
                 Number of Blades 
                 Three Rh 
               
               
                 Diameter 
                 13 ¾″ 
               
               
                 Pitch 
                 21″ 
               
               
                 True Pitch 
                 22.0 Inches 
               
               
                 Hull Constant 
                 280,6633 
               
               
                 Minimum Rpm to Maintain Plane 
                 2400 RPM 
               
               
                 Boat Position Angle at Rest 
                 4 Degrees 
               
               
                 Boat List Angle at Rest 
                 0 Degrees 
               
               
                 Bow Measurement (Inches) 
                 N/A Inches 
               
               
                 Transom Measurement (Inches) 
                 N/A Inches 
               
               
                 NMMA Boat Maneuverability Test 
                 OK 
               
               
                 Backdown Test 
                 Use Caution 
               
               
                 Sight Anti-ventilation Plate 
                 Well Defined 
               
               
                 Total Fuel this Test 
                 12.0 Gallons 
               
               
                 Total Engine Time this Test 
                 One Hour 
               
               
                 Recommended Cruising Rpm 
                 3500 RPM 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Acceleration Test 
                 Test 
                 Seconds 
                 Feet 
               
               
                 Time to Plane 
                 1 
                 4.10 
                 60 
               
               
                 0-20 Mph 
                 2 
                 4.17 
                 61 
               
               
                 Drive Trim 100% dn 
                 3 
                 5.00 
                 74 
               
               
                   
                 Avg 
                 4.42 
                 65 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Recommended Propeller 
                 Yes 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4A 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 BOAT TEST REPORT 
               
               
                 MARINE ENGINE FUEL INJECTION 
               
               
                 TEST NUMBER: Test 1  
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Normal Hull 
               
             
          
           
               
                 1000 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 48.4% 
                 1 
                 7.7 
                 mph 
                 83 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 199 
                 2 
                 6.6 
                 mph 
                 4.25 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 100% DN 
                 3 
                 7.2 
                 mph 
                 3.6 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 7.2 
                 mph 
                 227 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1500 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 55.4% 
                 1 
                 9.9 
                 mph 
                 85 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.45 
                 2 
                 87 
                 mph 
                 6.5 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 100% DN 
                 3 
                 93 
                 mph 
                 6.4 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 93 
                 mph 
                 156 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 2000 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 66.4% 
                 1 
                 10.5 
                 mph 
                 86 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 0.77 
                 2 
                 8.0 
                 mph 
                 7.75 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 100% DN 
                 3 
                 9.5 
                 mph 
                 12.2 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 9.3 
                 mph 
                 87 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 2500 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 21.4% 
                 1 
                 27.0 
                 mph 
                 87 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mph 
                 1.72 
                 2 
                 27.6 
                 mph 
                 3.75 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 100% DN 
                 3 
                 27.3 
                 mph 
                 15.9 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 27.3 
                 mph 
                 196 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 3000 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 20.8% 
                 1 
                 32.6 
                 mph 
                 88 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.73 
                 2 
                 33.4 
                 mph 
                 3.75 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 20% UP 
                 3 
                 33.0 
                 mph 
                 19.1 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 33.0 
                 mph 
                 197 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 3500 
                 Cruise RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 15.5% 
                 1 
                 40.7 
                 mph 
                 90 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.74 
                 2 
                 41.4 
                 mph 
                 3.50 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 35% UP 
                 3 
                 41.1 
                 mph 
                 23.6 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 41.1 
                 mph 
                 193 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 3500 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 15.5% 
                 1 
                 40.7 
                 mph 
                 90 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.74 
                 2 
                 41.4 
                 mph 
                 3.50 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 35% UP 
                 3 
                 41.1 
                 mph 
                 23.6 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 41.1 
                 mph 
                 193 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4000 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 14.7% 
                 1 
                 47.8 
                 mph 
                 91 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.51 
                 2 
                 47.0 
                 mph 
                 3.25 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 60% UP 
                 3 
                 47.4 
                 mph 
                 31.4 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 47.4 
                 mph 
                 172 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4500 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 14.5% 
                 1 
                 54.0 
                 mph 
                 95 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.35 
                 2 
                 53.4 
                 mph 
                 3.00 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 70% UP 
                 3 
                 53.0 
                 mph 
                 39.5 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 53.5 
                 mph 
                 154 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4760 
                 MAX RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 14.3% 
                 1 
                 56.0 
                 mph 
                 97 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.22 
                 2 
                 57.2 
                 mph 
                 3.00 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 80% UP 
                 3 
                 56.8 
                 mph 
                 46.6 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 56.7 
                 mph 
                 139 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4750 RPM STBD ENGINE  
               
               
                 4820 RPM PORT ENGINE  
               
               
                 0 RPM SINGLE ENGINE  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4B 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 BOAT TEST REPORT 
               
               
                 MARINE ENGINE FUEL INJECTION 
               
               
                 TEST NUMBER: Test 2  
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Rull Coated with PHS 
               
             
          
           
               
                 1000 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 48.2% 
                 1 
                 7.6 
                 mph 
                 83 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 2.06 
                 2 
                 6.8 
                 mph 
                 4.25 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 100% DN 
                 3 
                 7.2 
                 mph 
                 3.5 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 7.2 
                 mph 
                 235 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1500 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 5.25% 
                 1 
                 97 
                 mph 
                 85 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.52 
                 2 
                 10.1 
                 mph 
                 7.00 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 100% DN 
                 3 
                 9.9 
                 mph 
                 8.5 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 9.9 
                 mph 
                 174 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 2000 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 61.2% 
                 1 
                 10.0 
                 mph 
                 86 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 .90 
                 2 
                 11.5 
                 mph 
                 8.25 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 100% DN 
                 3 
                 10.8 
                 mph 
                 12.0 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 10.8 
                 mph 
                 102 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 2500 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 15.1% 
                 1 
                 29.2 
                 mph 
                 87 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.84 
                 2 
                 29.7 
                 mph 
                 4.25 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 100% DN 
                 3 
                 29.5 
                 mph 
                 16.0 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 29.5 
                 mph 
                 210 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 3000 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 14.1% 
                 1 
                 36.0 
                 mph 
                 88 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.85 
                 2 
                 36.4 
                 mph 
                 4.00 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 20% UP 
                 3 
                 35.0 
                 mph 
                 19.3 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 35.8 
                 mph 
                 211 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 3500 
                 Cruise RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 13.6% 
                 1 
                 42.1 
                 mph 
                 90 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.79 
                 2 
                 42.6 
                 mph 
                 3.50 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 35% UP 
                 3 
                 41.3 
                 mph 
                 23.5 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 42.0 
                 mph 
                 204 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 3500 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 13.6% 
                 1 
                 42.1 
                 mph 
                 90 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.79 
                 2 
                 42.6 
                 mph 
                 3.50 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 35% UP 
                 3 
                 41.3 
                 mph 
                 23.5 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 42.0 
                 mph 
                 204 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4000 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 12.5% 
                 1 
                 49.0 
                   
                 91 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.54 
                 2 
                 48.7 
                 mph 
                 3.50 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 60% UP 
                 3 
                 48.1 
                 mph 
                 31.5 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 48.6 
                 mph 
                 176 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4500 
                 RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 12.4% 
                 1 
                 55.0 
                 mph 
                 95 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.37 
                 2 
                 54.5 
                 mph 
                 3.50 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 70% UP 
                 3 
                 54.8 
                 mph 
                 40.1 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 54.8 
                 mph 
                 156 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 4785 
                 MAX RPM 
                   
                   
                   
                 ZERO 
                 LIST 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 slip % 
                 124% 
                 1 
                 58.0 
                 mph 
                 97 
                 DB 
               
               
                 mpg 
                 1.25 
                 2 
                 58.2 
                 mph 
                 3.25 
                 BPA 
               
               
                 trim 
                 80% UP 
                 3 
                 58.5 
                 mph 
                 46.5 
                 GPH 
               
               
                 plates 
                 None 
                 avg 
                 58.2 
                 mph 
                 143 
                 RANGE 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 *PHS = Polyhydroxysterene  
               
               
                 4750 RPM STBD ENGINE  
               
               
                 4820 RPM PORT ENGINE  
               
               
                 0 RPM SINGLE ENGINE  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 SO-BRIGHT INTERNATIONAL TEST RESULTS 
               
               
                 Test One - Prior to Chemical Application 
               
               
                 Test Two - After Chemical Application 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 TEST NR 
                 Test 1 
                 Test 2 
                 Changes 
                 Test 1 
                 Test 2 
                 Changes 
                 Test 1 
                 Test 2 
                 Changes 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 20 Nova Spyder 
                 RPM 
                 MPH 
                 MPH 
                 IN MPH 
                 MPG 
                 MPG 
                 IN MPG 
                 RANGE 
                 RANGE 
                 IN 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 RANGE 
               
               
                 Mercruiser 
                 1000 
                 7.2 
                 7.2 
                 0.0 
                 2.0 
                 2.1 
                 0.07 
                 227 
                 235 
                 7.6 
               
               
                 350 Magnum 
                 1500 
                 9.3 
                 9.9 
                 0.6 
                 1.5 
                 1.5 
                 0.07 
                 166 
                 174 
                 8.0 
               
               
                 Alpha One 
                 2000 
                 9.3 
                 10.8 
                 1.4 
                 0.8 
                 0.9 
                 0.13 
                 87 
                 102 
                 15.1 
               
               
                 Sarasota Bay 
                 2500 
                 27.3 
                 29.5 
                 2.2 
                 1.7 
                 1.8 
                 0.12 
                 196 
                 210 
                 14.2 
               
               
                 Quicksilver 
                 3000 
                 33.0 
                 35.8 
                 2.8 
                 1.7 
                 1.9 
                 0.13 
                 197 
                 211 
                 14.5 
               
               
                 Stainless Steel 
                 3500 
                 41.1 
                 42.0 
                 0.9 
                 1.7 
                 1.8 
                 0.05 
                 198 
                 204 
                 5.4 
               
               
                 Three Blades RH(2) 
                 4000 
                 47.4 
                 48.6 
                 1.2 
                 1.5 
                 1.5 
                 0.03 
                 172 
                 176 
                 3.8 
               
               
                 21″ 
                 4500 
                 53.5 
                 54.8 
                 1.3 
                 1.4 
                 1.4 
                 0.03 
                 154 
                 158 
                 3.8 
               
               
                 4760 
                 4785 
                 56.7 
                 58.2 
                 1.6 
                 1.2 
                 1.3 
                 0.04 
                 121 
                 124 
                 3.6 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ACCELERATION (0-20 MPH): Test 1 Test 2  
               
               
                 SECONDS TO PLANE:    4.4  3.9  
               
               
                 FEET TO PLANE:      65.0  57.0  
               
               
                 Notes:  
               
               
                 The purpose of this test was to demonstrate the improvements we found (if any) in the performance of the boat described above. To do this we tested the boat prior to and immediately after a chemical application to the boats hull bottom. Test 1 shows results prior to and Test 2 shows results after.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The results clearly show that a boat coated with the composition of the present invention moves faster than an uncoated boat under substantially identical power consumption; similarly, for the same speed the coating reduces the rate of fuel consumption or increase the distance the boat will travel on a full tank of fuel. The difference varies with speed or power of the boat, and Table 5 shows that in the tests the maximum improvement of 17% at 2000 rpm corresponded to 10.8 miles/hour. At higher speeds the boat started to plane, resulting in less boat surface area in contact with water, and therefore a reduced beneficial effect of the coating is observed. For the case of ocean liners, cargo boats, or sailboats, which do not plane, it is expected that the beneficial effects of the coating of the present invention would continue to increase with an increase in power and speed since the surface-to-water contact area would not change under these changing conditions. 
     Further tests have been undertaken with different boats to study speed (two tests), fuel efficiency, and range, and with an aircraft to study water distance to takeoff. The test results are shown, respectively, in Tables 6-10. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Improvement in Speed with Coated Hull a   
               
             
          
           
               
                 RPM 
                 PRE AVG 
                 POST AVG 
                 DIFF. 
                 % GAIN  
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 650 
                 5.50 
                 6.35 
                 0.85 
                 15.45 
               
               
                 1000 
                 7.30 
                 8.50 
                 1.20 
                 16.44 
               
               
                 1500 
                 9.10 
                 11.60 
                 2.50 
                 27.47 
               
               
                 2000 
                 14.90 
                 15.95 
                 1.05 
                 7.05 
               
               
                 2500 
                 20.90 
                 22.60 
                 1.70 
                 8.13 
               
               
                 3000 
                 26.50 
                 27.80 
                 1.30 
                 4.91 
               
               
                 3500 
                 31.10 
                 32.30 
                 1.20 
                 3.86 
               
               
                 4000 
                 34.00 
                 36.50 
                 2.50 
                 7.35 
               
               
                 4500 
                 37.10 
                 38.90 
                 1.80 
                 4.85 
               
               
                 4775 
                 39.30 
                 40.50 
                 1.20 
                 3.05 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a The boat tested was a Proline Model 3310, 33 ft in length, weight 14,700 lb., with two inboard Merc 385-hp engines. Wind speed was at 20-30 mph N in rough seas. Speed measured with a radar gun.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Improvement in Speed with Coated Hull a   
               
             
          
           
               
                 RPM 
                 PRE AVG 
                 POST AVG 
                 DIFF. 
                 % GAIN  
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1000 
                 4.5 
                 5.4 
                 0.9 
                 20 
               
               
                 1500 
                 6.3 
                 6.9 
                 0.6 
                 9 
               
               
                 2000 
                 8.1 
                 8 
                 [0.1] 
                 [1] 
               
               
                 2500 
                 9.2 
                 9.7 
                 0.5 
                 5 
               
               
                 3000 
                 12.7 
                 15.3 
                 2.6 
                 20 
               
               
                 3500 
                 20.7 
                 21.8 
                 1.1 
                 5 
               
               
                 4000 
                 29.7 
                 28.7 
                 [1.0] 
                 [3] 
               
               
                 4500 
                 33.8 
                 34.7 
                 0.9 
                 3 
               
               
                 5000 
                 36.4 
                 37.2 
                 0.8 
                 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 aThe boat tested was a Parker Model 2520, 25 ft in length, weight 5724 lb., with one outboard Yamaha 225-hp engine. The measuring device was a Garmin 48 GPS.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 8 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Improvement in Fuel Efficiency with Coated Hull a   
               
             
          
           
               
                 RPM 
                 PRE AVG 
                 POST AVG 
                 DIFF. 
                 % GAIN  
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1000 
                 1.9 
                 2.3 
                 0.4 
                 21.1 
               
               
                 1500 
                 1.9 
                 2.2 
                 0.3 
                 15.8 
               
               
                 2000 
                 1.7 
                 1.8 
                 0.1 
                 5.9 
               
               
                 2500 
                 1.4 
                 1.5 
                 0.1 
                 7.1 
               
               
                 3000 
                 1.6 
                 2.0 
                 0.4 
                 25.0 
               
               
                 3500 
                 2.1 
                 2.3 
                 0.2 
                 9.5 
               
               
                 4000 
                 2.4 
                 2.5 
                 0.1 
                 4.2 
               
               
                 4500 
                 2.3 
                 2.3 
                 0 
                 0 
               
               
                 5000 
                 1.6 
                 1.9 
                 0.3 
                 18.8 
               
               
                 Max 
                 1.7 
                 1.8 
                 0.1 
                 5.9 
               
               
                 Min plane rpm 
                 2200 
                 2000 
                 −200 
                 −9.1 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a The boat tested was a Parker Model 2520, 25 ft in length, weight 5724 lb., with one outboard Yamaha 225-hp engine. The measuring device was a Garmin 48 GPS.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 9 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Improvement in Range with Coated Hull a   
               
             
          
           
               
                 RPM 
                 PRE AVG 
                 POST AVG 
                 DIFF. 
                 % GAIN  
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1000 
                 232.0 
                 281.0 
                 49.0 
                 21.1 
               
               
                 1500 
                 229.0 
                 258.0 
                 29.0 
                 12.7 
               
               
                 2000 
                 201.0 
                 213.0 
                 12.0 
                 6.0 
               
               
                 2500 
                 166.0 
                 178.0 
                 12.0 
                 7.2 
               
               
                 3000 
                 197.0 
                 236.0 
                 39.0 
                 19.8 
               
               
                 3500 
                 257.0 
                 271.0 
                 14.0 
                 5.4 
               
               
                 4000 
                 284.0 
                 301.0 
                 17.0 
                 6.0 
               
               
                 4500 
                 273.0 
                 275.0 
                 2.0 
                 0.7 
               
               
                 5000 
                 192.0 
                 222.0 
                 30.0 
                 15.6 
               
               
                 Max 
                 199.0 
                 210.0 
                 11.0 
                 5.5 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a The boat tested was a Parker Model 2520, 25 ft in length, weight 5724 lb., with one outboard Yamaha 225-hp engine, with 75 gal fuel onboard. Speed measured with a Garmin 48 GPS.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 10 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Improvement in Takeoff Distance (ft) with Coated Aircraft a   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 % REDN. IN TAKEOFF 
               
               
                 RPM 
                 PRE AVG 
                 POST AVG 
                 DIFF. 
                 DISTANCE  
               
               
                   
               
               
                 1000 
                 1272.6 
                 969.6 
                 −303.0 
                 23.8 
               
               
                 1500 
                 1271.9 
                 948.4 
                 −323.5 
                 25.4 
               
               
                 2000 
                 1275.8 
                 959.0 
                 −316.8 
                 24.8 
               
               
                 AVG 
                 1273.4 
                 959.0 
                 −314.4 
                 24.7 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Coated fuselage and floats of an amphibious aircraft, Lake Buccaneer Model LA-4, at sea level, temperature range 74-85° F., humidity range 88-90%.  
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Therefore, it can be seen that the composition and methods of the present invention represent a significant increase in speed, fuel efficiency, and range of boats, and an improvement (reduction) in takeoff distance required in an amphibious aircraft, thus conferring concomitant ecological, economic, and safety benefits. 
     Methods of Using the Compositions 
     Any of the compositions of the present invention may be used on virtually any water- or snow-contacting surface to reduce kinematic friction between the surface and the water or snow. Such surfaces may include, but are not intended to be limited to, marine watercraft hulls; ski, snowmobile, or snowboard bottom surfaces; engine outdrives; trim tabs; K-planes and other underwater hardware; propellers; shafts; personal submersible propulsion devices; amphibious aircraft; underwater dive equipment (wet suits, tanks, fins); pipes; roofs; fishing lures; fishing lines; scuba gear and masks; and the inner walls of pipes and tubing intended for carrying an aqueous solution, wherein the hydrophilic coating enhances the flow therethrough. 
     In the case of pipes, for example, an application of the coating of the present invention to the walls of a pipe will permit a greater volume of an aqueous solution to flow therethrough, hence permitting fluid transfer more economically and efficiently. 
     For fishing gear application, a lure becomes more hydrophilic, experiencing less drag, giving off less turbulence, and making it easier to retrieve. A coated fishing line is also hydrophilic, having less drag and creating less turbulence, and making it easier to retrieve. 
     Scuba gear also benefits from the application of the composition of the present invention. Again, the gear becomes hydrophilic, has less drag, creates less turbulence, and is easier to maneuver. A scuba mask lens also becomes hydrophilic, presenting the inner surface from fogging, and providing a long-lasting, durable, antifogging coating. 
     An application of the coating to the cooling systems of outboard and inboard engines is also advantageous, since the efficiency of the system is increased by allowing a greater amount of water to flow therethrough. In addition, corrosion will be minimized, since a barrier is formed between the water and the corrosible parts of the engine. 
     The compositions may also be applied to such surfaces to reduce corrosion and prevent paint blistering. 
     The compositions may further be applied to such surfaces to provide shock-absorbing properties. 
     The compositions may additionally be applied to such surfaces to provide noise reduction, such as on a metal roof against rain noise. 
     It may be appreciated by one skilled in the art that additional embodiments may be contemplated, including compositions comprising polymers having characteristics imparting the desired properties and other antifouling agents. 
     In the foregoing description, certain terms have been used for brevity, clarity, and understanding, but no unnecessary limitations are to be implied therefrom beyond the requirements of the prior art, because such words are used for description purposes herein and are intended to be broadly construed. Moreover, the embodiments of the apparatus illustrated and described herein are by way of example, and the scope of the invention is not limited to the exact details of construction. 
     Having now described the invention, the construction, the operation and use of preferred embodiment thereof, and the advantageous new and useful results obtained thereby, the new and useful constructions, and reasonable mechanical equivalents thereof obvious to those skilled in the art, are set forth in the appended claims.