Abstract:
A thermoelastic device comprising an expansive element is disclosed. The expansive element is formed from a material, which is preselected on the basis that it has one or more of the following properties: a resistivity between 0.1 μΩm and 10.0 μΩm; chemically inert in air; chemically inert in the chosen ink; and depositable by CVD, sputtering or other thin film deposition technique.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS  
       [0001]     This is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/854,269 filed on May 27, 2004, which is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/636,259 filed on Aug. 8, 2003 now issued U.S. Pat. No. 6,793,974, which is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/693,079 filed on Oct. 20, 2000, all of which are herein incorporated by reference. 
     
    
     CO-PENDING APPLICATIONS  
       [0002]     Various methods, systems and apparatus relating to the present invention are disclosed in the following co-pending applications filed by the applicant or assignee of the present invention on May 23, 2000:  
                                                       6428133   6526658   6315399   6338548   6540319   6328431       6328425   6991320   6383833   6464332   6390591   7018016       6328417   6322194   6382779   6629745   09/575197   7079712       09/575123   6825945   09/575165   6813039   6987506   7038797       6980318   6816274   7102772   09/575186   6681045   6728000       7173722   7088459   09/575181   7068382   7062651   6789194       6789191   6644642   6502614   6622999   6669385   6549935       6987573   6727996   6591884   6439706   6760119   09/575198       6290349   6428155   6785016   6870966   6822639   6737591       7055739   09/575129   6830196   6832717   6957768   09/575172       7170499   7106888   7123239   6409323   6281912   6604810       6318920   6488422   6795215   7154638   6859289   6924907       6712452   6416160   6238043   6958826   6812972   6553459       6967741   6956669   6903766   6804026   09/575120   6975429                  
 
         [0003]     The disclosures of these co-pending applications are incorporated herein by cross-reference.  
       FIELD OF THE INVENTION  
       [0004]     The present invention relates to materials potentially suitable for use as the expansive element in thermoelastic design and to methods for ranking the potential relative suitabilities of those materials.  
         [0005]     The invention as developed originally as a means of identifying and ranking a range of materials that potentially may exhibit superior properties for use in the manufacture of microscopic thermal bend actuators for use in micro-electro mechanical systems (MEMS), and will be described hereinafter with reference to this field. However, it will be appreciated that the invention is not limited to this particular use and is equally applicable to macroscopic design even though the overall design considerations are vastly different and certainly less complex.  
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0006]     It is important to clarify that thermoelastic actuation is characterized using force, deflection and temperature as opposed to switching, which is characterized using deflection and temperature rise alone. Macroscopic thermoelastic actuators are typically used as switches that activate other more energy efficient actuation systems, however, microscopic thermoelastic actuators are an attractive actuation mechanism for a number of reasons. This includes the down scaling of certain physical phenomena. For example, it is possible to fabricate very thin films that decrease the thermal mass and minimize efficiency losses. Opposing gravitational and inertial forces become negligible on the microscopic scale. Other advantages include ease of fabrication (although more complex than simple electrostatic actuators) and the possibility of low voltage operation. Disadvantages include a low operational bandwidth determined by the thermal conductivities of substrate materials—this is more of an advantage for the current application allowing for rapid firing.  
         [0007]     A relatively diverse range of output force and deflection values can be obtained by altering actuator geometry. However, the fundamental operation of actuation is directly related to the mechanical and thermal properties of the component materials. Correct material selection in association with effective design can result in either a smaller or a more efficient actuator. Such an actuator increases wafer yield and is thus more commercially viable. A more efficient actuator may be battery powered increasing operation simplicity and negating the requirement for expensive voltage transformers. An increase in thermal efficiency improves the operational firing frequency, and decreases the possibility of thermal crosstalk. This is especially relevant for arrays of thermal actuators in a micro-cilia device.  
         [0008]     However, material selection for MEMS application is not straightforward. Firstly, published thin film properties can vary greatly due to different fabrication methods and difficulties associated with experimentally quantifying material properties on the microscopic scale. Secondly, certain thin films can only be fabricated with certain layer thicknesses because inherent stress can shatter or curl the substrate wafer. Thirdly, only certain materials can be used in the fabrication process at most fabs as the introduction of a new material can contaminate machinery.  
       PROGRESS TO DATE  
       [0009]     Until recently, the only materials regularly used or considered for use in such applications were polysilicon, single crystal silicon. However, the applicant just previously made the surprising discovery that titanium nitride and titanium boride/diboride exhibited excellent properties relevant to this application.  
         [0010]     Realizing the breakthrough this surprising discovery signified, the applicant sought to try and identify possible alternatives in order to provide designers of thermoelastic systems with more choice and flexibility. However, given the lack of available data on their film properties for various materials and the fact that empirical testing with MEMS would be prohibitively expensive, there was clearly a need, or it was at least highly desirable to be able to determine a method of evaluating materials for this use based solely on the commonly available macro material properties.  
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0011]     It is therefore an ultimate object of one aspect of this invention to identify a range of alternative materials that will potentially exhibit superior properties for use in thermoelastic design and of another aspect to provide a means of ranking the potential suitability of a given range of materials for this same use.  
         [0012]     According to a first aspect of the invention there is provided a method of selecting a material for use as the expansive element in a thermoelastic design by deriving an indicator of the material&#39;s potential effectiveness for that use, said method including the step of calculating a dimensionless constant εγ for that material in accordance with the formula:  
         ɛ   ⁢           ⁢   γ     =       E   ⁢           ⁢     γ   2     ⁢   T       ρ   ⁢           ⁢   C           
 
 wherein E is the Young&#39;s modulus of the material; γ is the coefficient of thermal expansion; T is the maximum operating temperature, p is the density and C is the specific heat capacity. 
 
         [0013]     In accordance with a second aspect the invention, in another broad form, also provides a method of manufacturing a thermoelastic element that includes at least one expansive element, the method including: 
        selecting a material for use as the expansive element in the thermoelastic design by deriving an indicator of the material&#39;s potential effectiveness for that use, said method including the step of calculating a dimensionless constant εγ for that material in accordance with the formula:  
         ɛ   ⁢           ⁢   γ     =       E   ⁢           ⁢     γ   2     ⁢   T       ρ   ⁢           ⁢   C           
    wherein E is the Young&#39;s modulus of the material; γ is the coefficient of thermal expansion; T is the maximum operating temperature, ρ is the density and C is the specific heat capacity and selecting the material on the basis of ε, and     manufacturing the thermoelastic element with the at least one expansive element formed of the selected material.        
 
         [0017]     Preferably, the method of selection includes the step of normalizing the dimensionless constant relative to that of silicon to a value ε which is achieved by deriving the value εγ for the material of interest at the relevant temperature value and dividing this by the value of ε obtained for silicon at that same temperature.  
         [0018]     The relevant maximum operating temperature will depend upon the surrounding materials and their function but is most commonly the oxidizing temperature or the melting point temperature.  
         [0019]     Desirably, the selection method includes the step of eliminating certain materials by requiring a pre-determined resistivity range. In one preferred form this resistivity range is between 0.1 μΩm and 10.0 μΩm.  
         [0020]     In accordance with a third aspect of the invention there is provided an expansive element in a thermoelastic design that is made from any functionally suitable material or combinations of materials selected from a group including:  
         [0021]     silicides and carbides of titanium.  
         [0022]     In accordance with a fourth aspect of the invention there is provided an expansive element in a thermoelastic design that is made from any functionally suitable material or combinations of materials selected from a group including:  
         [0023]     borides, silicides, carbides and nitrides of tantalum, molybdenum, niobium, chromium, tungsten, vanadium, and zirconium.  
         [0024]     In accordance with a fifth aspect of the invention there is provided an expansive element in a thermoelastic design that is made from any functionally suitable alloy material or combinations of alloy materials selected from the group including:  
         [0025]     borides, silicides, carbides and nitrides of titanium, tantalum, molybdenum, niobium, chromium, tungsten, vanadium, and zirconium.  
         [0026]     Preferably the expansive element in a thermoelastic design in accordance with the third, fourth or fifth aspect of the invention also includes one or more of the following properties:  
         [0027]     (a) a resistivity between 0.1 μΩm and 10.0 μΩm;  
         [0028]     (b) chemically inert in air;  
         [0029]     (c) chemically inert in the chosen ink; and  
         [0030]     (d) depositable by CVD, sputtering or other thin film deposition technique. 
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0031]     Derivation of the dimensionless constant ε of the first aspect of the invention, together with sample applications and examples of derived values of this constant and other properties for a range of materials, will now be described in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings in which:  
         [0032]      FIG. 1  shows a schematic representation of a thermoelastic actuator;  
         [0033]      FIG. 2  shows a plot of longitudinal work versus heat energy for single material clamped/free titanium beam (length 20 μm, thickness 1 μm, width 5 μm);  
         [0034]      FIG. 3  shows a plot derived from  FIG. 2  of expansion efficiency versus temperature efficiency for a clamped/free titanium beam; and  
         [0035]      FIG. 4  shows a comparison of mechanical work versus the heat energy of thermoelastic actuator fabricated from Titanium and Silicon. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
       [0036]     A non-dimensionalized material actuation efficiency is presented that assesses the potential application of a material to thermoelastic design. The method is based on the material thermal and mechanical properties and assists in a structured approach of material selection for effective design.  
         [0000]     The Material Actuation Efficiency  
         [0037]     Actuators are characterized by a combination of deflection, force and operation temperature in contrast to switches that are characterized by operation temperature and deflection alone. Fundamental thermoelastic design is characterized by the differential longitudinal expansion of two bonded layers. Thus, the expansion of isolated unbonded layers directly relates to global behavior. A single material beam is used here to illustrate the material actuation efficiency. The approach is straightforward and relates to general thermoelastic design. The derivation assumes that material properties are constant across the thermal range.  
         [0038]     Equations 1 to 3 are fundamental thermomechanical equations describing the behavior of simple single material beam subjected to a quantity of heat, Q as illustrated in  FIG. 1 . Equation 1 describes the extension, δL, of a free/free beam and equation 2 describes the reaction force, F, of a clamped/clamped beam. 
 
δL=γL 0 T   (EQ 1) 
 
 Where: δL=extension of beam, L 0 =original length of beam, T=operation temperature (temperature rise), and γ=coefficient of thermal expansion of beam. 
 
F=AEγT   (EQ2) 
 
 F=force exerted by beam expansion, A=cross sectional area of beam, E=Young&#39;s Modulus. 
 
Q=Vρ  (EQ3) 
 
 Where: Q=heat energy input, V=volume of beam, ρ=density, and C=specific heat capacity of beam. 
 
         [0039]     Potential mechanical work is given by equation 4 and is defined as the product of the clamped beam force, F, and free beam deflection, δL. The quadratic relationship between the heat input and output mechanical work for the simple monolithic beam is shown in  FIG. 18 . 
 
W=FδL   (EQ4) 
 
 Where: W=mechanical work 
 
         [0040]     Equation 5 describes the non-dimensional thermoelastic actuation efficiency and is formulated as the quotient of the mechanical work and heat energy as described by equations 3 and 4. The efficiency is independent of geometry and is a primary indication of a material&#39;s potential application to thermoelastic design. The linear relationship between the actuation efficiency and material temperature for the simple beam is shown in  FIG. 3 . The graph indicates that high temperature operation is desirable for maximum efficiency. The plot is limited by the applicable operation temperature and therefore, different material plots are of different lengths. The assumption used in this text is that the operation temperature is the material melting point because it is indicative of the operable thermal range. Thus, the material actuation efficiency, ε, is defined as the actuation efficiency at the maximum operable temperature, T, of that material. The slope of the efficiency curve is a constant, m ε  and is defined in equation 6. The combination of ε and m ε  fully characterize a materials actuation characteristics non graphically.  
                   ɛ   =       Output   ⁢           ⁢   Mechanical   ⁢           ⁢   Work       Heat   ⁢           ⁢   Energy   ⁢           ⁢   Input                   =         E   ⁢           ⁢     γ   2     ⁢   T       ρ   ⁢           ⁢   C       ⁡     [         (     N   /     m   2       )     ⁢     (       1   /   °     ⁢           ⁢     C   ⁢     .   2         )     ⁢     (     °   ⁢           ⁢     C   .       )           (     kg   /     m   3       )     ⁢     (       Nm   /   kg     ⁢           ⁢   °   ⁢           ⁢     C   .       )         ]                     (     EQ   ⁢           ⁢   5     )                 m   ɛ     =         ⅆ   ɛ       ⅆ   T       =         E   ⁢           ⁢     γ   2         ρ   ⁢           ⁢   C       ⁡     [         N   /     m   2       ⁢           ⁢     1   /   °     ⁢           ⁢     C   ⁢     .   2             kg   /     m   3       ⁢           ⁢     Nm   /   kg     ⁢           ⁢   °   ⁢           ⁢     C   .         ]                 (     EQ   ⁢           ⁢   6     )             
 
 Material Selection 
 
         [0041]     Different thin film materials including materials with extreme properties (PTFE—high g, Diamond—high E) and compounds from all the major CVD groups including borides, silicides, nitrides and carbides is shown in Table 2. The efficiency values are scaled according to silicon efficiency values because the inclusion of scaled values greatly simplifies design equations described in the following text. The scaling or comparison of a material with respect to a reference material is an integral step in the material selection process. In addition, scaling also results in a more readable index as illustrated by the following comparisons. Silicon is chosen as the reference material because of its predominance in lithographic fabrication.  
         [0042]     Preliminary candidates for thermoelastic actuation can be selected according to efficiencies and slopes, however, it is important to note that two materials that have identical δ but differing m ε  will output different amounts of work for any constant geometry (see Comparison 1 below, different amounts of heat energy are also required). Three important design parameters are defined here as heat input, work output and volume. A design matrix can be constructed by varying each parameter and can then be used to select suitable materials. The following comparisons are used to assemble the design matrix.  
                                                                                                                   TABLE 2                           Material Properties.                g   E   r   C   m e /m r,e     O.T   M.P.   MN   MN   KXX   R       Material   10 −6 /° C.   GPa   kg/m 3     J/kg° C.   ° C. −1     ° C.   ° C.   O.T.   M.P.   W/m · K   mWm                    Aluminum   23.1   68.9   2700   897   17.12       657       7.98   231   0.027       BoronCarbide   4.5   454   2520   955   4.31       2450       7.49   35   5e4       Chromium diBoride   11.1   540   5600   690   19.42   1000   2150   13.78   29.62   32   0.18       Chromium diSilicide   5.9       5600           1150   1560               0.8       Chromium Carbide   9.9   385   6680   530   12.02   1100   1895   9.38   16.16   19   0.75       Chromium Oxide   9.0   102   5210   730   2.45   1000   2603   1.74   4.52   30   13       Copper   16.5   110   8940   386   9.79       1085       7.53   398   0.017       Gold   14.2   80   19300   129   7.31       1064       5.52   315   0.023       Hafnium Carbide   6.3   410   12670   190   7.63   600   3930   3.24   21.25   13   0.4-0.6       Hafnium diBoride   7.6       11200   300       1500   3250           51   0.1       Hafnium diSilicide           8030           1100   1700       Hafnium Monocarbide   6.5   424   11940               3890           8   0.5       Hafnium Nitride   6.5       13,940           500   3300           17   32       Molybdenum   4.8   343   10200   251   3.48       2623       6.48   138       Molybdenum Boride   5   685   7480   530   4.87   1000   2140   3.46   7.40   27   0.18       Molybdenum Carbide   6.7   530   9120   315   9.34   500   2500   3.31   16.56   22   0.57       Molybdenum diSilicide   8.4   450   6240   550   10.44   1700   2050   12.58   15.17   49   0.7       Nickel   13.4   200   8900   444   10.25       1455       10.58   90.7       Niobium diBoride   8.6   650   7210   420   17.91   850   3000   10.80   38.10   0.12   17       Niobium diSilicide   8.5       5690           900   2050               0.5       Niobium Carbide   7.4   450   7820   290   12.26   650   3500   5.65   30.42   14   0.19       PTFE   220   1.3   2130   1024   32.54       200       4.62   140   10e22       Silicon   3.0   162   2330   705   1.00   1410   1410   1   1   149   2300       Silicon Carbide   4.7   304   3440   669   3.29       2700       6.30   90   0.5       Tantalum Carbide   6.7   510   14500   190   9.37   650   3900   4.32   25.93   23   0.35       Tantalum diBoride   8.5   250   12600   250   6.47   850   3090   3.90   14.17   16   0.14       Tantalum diSilicide   9.5       9080   360       800   2670               0.46       Titanium Carbide   7.4   462   4920   480   12.08   700   3160   6.00   27.08   17.2   1.55       Titanium diBoride   8.2   575   4450   632   15.51   1400   3253   15.40   35.78   26.4   0.13       Titanium diSilicide   10.7   270   4100   480   17.72   1300   1540   16.34   19.35   46   0.145       Titanium Nitride   9.4   600   5450   636   17.25   500   2950   6.12   36.10   30   1.35       Tungsten Boride   5.0   790   13100   460   3.70   1000   2365   2.62   6.20   52   0.19       Tungsten Carbide   5.2   690   15800   200   6.66   500   2780   2.36   13.13   29   0.2       Tungsten diSilicide   7.0   300   9750   330   5.15   1200   2165   4.39   7.91   48   33e10       Vanadium diBoride   7.6   260   5100   670   4.96   600   2430   2.11   8.54   42   0.13       Vanadium Carbide   6.7   420   5480   530   7.32   600   2730   3.12   14.18   10   0.59       Vanadium diSilicide   11.2       5100           1000   1700           25   0.66       Vanadium Nitride   8.1   460   6080   630   8.89   450   2170   2.84   13.68   5.2   0.85       Zirconium Carbide   6.3   410   6560   250   11.19   600   3440   4.76   27.31   22   0.42       Zirconium diBoride   5.9   340   6170           1300   3245           58   0.15       Zirconium diSilicide   8.7   270   4900           1150   1600           15   0.76       Zirconium Nitride   5.9   500   7350   400   6.68   500   2950   2.37   13.97   10   0.2-0.3                 Where            γ = Coefficient of thermal expansion.            E = Young&#39;s Modulus,            ρ = density,            C = specific heat capacity,            O.T. = Oxidizing temperature,            M.T. = Melting Temperature,            m ε  Efficiency Slope (normalized to Silicon m ε  value, normalized Silicon value m (r,ε)  = 0.8865e−06),            ε c  = Material Index (normalized to Silicon ε value, normalized Silicon ε r  = 1.25e−03),            KXX = thermal conductivity, and            R = resistivity.             
 
 Comparison 1 
 
         [0043]     The mechanical work and heat input between a material and silicon for a constant beam volume is compared. Thus, Comparison 1 calculates the maximum possible relative work and associated relative heat input required due to a direct material substitution. Details of the comparison for different materials are included in Table 3 which shows that CVD ceramics are far superior actuator materials than silicon (Table 3 is formulated using melting point and Table 4 is formulated using oxidation temperature). Titanium nitride can output 159.3 times more the amount of mechanical work than silicon with only 4.41 times the amount of heat input. The factor in equation 8 and the scaled material efficiency ratio (as included in Table 2) repeatedly occur in the following comparisons illustrating the versatility of the method.  
                 W   c       W   r       =           ɛ   c     ⁢     Q   c           ɛ   r     ⁢     Q   r         =         ɛ   c       ɛ   r       ⁢     (         ρ   c     ⁢     C   c     ⁢     T   c           ρ   r     ⁢     C   r     ⁢     T   r         )                 (     EQ   ⁢           ⁢   7     )             
 
         [0044]     The r subscript denotes the reference material which is silicon in this case. The c subscript denotes the compared material.  
                 Q   c       Q   r       =     (         ρ   c     ⁢     C   c     ⁢     T   c           ρ   r     ⁢     C   r     ⁢     T   r         )             (     EQ   ⁢           ⁢   8     )             
 
 Comparison 2 
 
         [0045]     Different materials increase in temperature by different amounts when subjected to the same quantity of heat energy for a constant volume. The material volume is scaled relative to the silicon volume according to the constraints that the same amount of silicon heat energy is input to both actuators and the compared material attains its operational temperature. Thus, the actuation efficiency value remains unchanged because it is not a function of volume and the operable temperature is reached (as equation 5 shows). Comparison 2 represents the design case where heat and volume are critical factors.  
         [0046]     The scaled volume and output mechanical work are calculated using equations 9 and 10. The volume change is typically implemented by modifying one geometric dimension, i.e. length, width or thickness. Titanium nitride is capable of 36.1 times the amount of work that silicon is capable with the same heat energy input but with only 0.23 times the volume. Equation 9 is the inverse of equation 8 and equation 10 is simply the scaled efficiency number as included in Table 2.  
                 Q   r     ⁢     V   r     ⁢     ρ   r     ⁢     C   r     ⁢     T   r       =       Q   c     =           V   c     ⁢     ρ   c     ⁢     C   c     ⁢     T   c       ⇒       V     (     c   ,   Qr     )         V   r         =         ρ   r     ⁢     C   r     ⁢     T   r           ρ   c     ⁢     C   c     ⁢     T   c                     (     EQ   ⁢           ⁢   9     )             
 
         [0047]     The first entry of the bracketed subscript in these equations refers to the material that the beam is constructed from. The second entry refers to the constraining variable for the described parameter. For example—W (c,Vc) =Mechanical work output from beam constructed of compared material with a volume of V c .  
                 W     (     c   ,   Vc     )         W     (     r   ,   Vr     )         =           ɛ   c     ⁢     Q   r           ɛ   r     ⁢     Q   r         =       ɛ   c       ɛ   r                 (     EQ   ⁢           ⁢   10     )             
 
 Comparison 3 
 
         [0048]     The output mechanical work resulting from silicon heat energy for constant volume beams is compared. The operation temperature and efficiency value for the compared material changes. However, the new efficiency is easily calculated using a multiplicative ratio of the new and old operation temperatures because of the linear relationship between temperature and efficiency (as shown in  FIG. 3 ). The new operation temperature and work are given by equations 11 and 12. This comparison represents the design case where heat is a critical parameter.  
         [0049]     PTFE will melt when subjected to the input silicon heat value. Titanium disilicide outperforms titanium nitride mainly because of the higher computed operating temperature (Table 3).  
                     Q   r     =         V   r     ⁢     ρ   r     ⁢     C   r     ⁢     T   r       =       Q   c     =         V   c     ⁢     ρ   c     ⁢     C   c     ⁢     T     (     c   ,   Qr     )         ⇒     T     (     c   ,   Qr     )                         =       T   r     ⁡     (         ρ   r     ⁢     C   r           ρ   c     ⁢     C   c         )                     (     EQ   ⁢           ⁢   11     )             
 
 Comparison 4  
                 W     (     c   ,   Qr     )         W     (     r   ,   Qr     )         =           ɛ     (     c   ,   Qr     )       ⁢     Q   r           ɛ   r     ⁢     Q   r         =           T     (     c   ,   Qr     )       ⁢     ɛ   2           T   c     ⁢     ɛ   r         =       (         ρ   r     ⁢     C   r     ⁢     T   r           ρ   c     ⁢     C   c     ⁢     T   c         )     ⁢       ɛ   c       ɛ   r                     (     EQ   ⁢           ⁢   12     )             
 
 The material volume is scaled with respect to the silicon volume according to the constraint that the compared material operation temperature and silicon work are maintained. Thus, if the silicon work value is less then the original work then the volume is scaled down. Otherwise the volume is increased as is the case for PTFE or amorphous Silicon Dioxide. The material actuation efficiency reoccurs in the calculations as an inverse as shown in equation 14 
 
         [0050]     Titanium nitride can output the same amount of work as silicon but with a volume that is less than two orders of magnitude smaller with an input heat energy that is less than an order smaller.  
                 W   r     =     V   ⁢     ?         ⁢     
     ⁢       ?     ⁢     Text missing or illegible when filed               (     EQ   ⁢           ⁢   13     )                 
     ⁢       ?     ⁢     Text missing or illegible when filed               (     EQ   ⁢           ⁢   14     )             
 
 Comparison 5 
 
         [0051]     The input heat energy required to output silicon mechanical work for constant volume beams is compared. The operation temperature and thus efficiency value for the compared material changes. The new efficiency can be calculated in an identical fashion to that described in comparison 3. The operational temperature and heat input values are calculated using equations 15 and 16.  
         [0052]     The table shows that titanium disilicide slightly outperforms titanium nitride whereas both PTFE and silicon dioxide will melt. The CVD ceramics are again shown to have the best performance.  
                                                                                                                                                                                   TABLE 3                               (EQ15)                 W   r     =         V   r     ⁢     E   r     ⁢     γ   r   2     ⁢     T   r   2       =       W   c     =           V   c     ⁢     E   c     ⁢     γ   c   2     ⁢     T   c   2       ⇒     T     (     c   ,   Wr     )         =       (       γ   r       γ   c       )     ⁢         E   r       E   c                                         (EQ16)                   Q     (     c   ,   Wr     )         Q     (     r   ,   Wr     )         =           ε   r     ⁢     W   r           ε     (     c   ,   Qr     )       ⁢     W   r         =           ε   r     ⁢     T   c           ε   c     ⁢     T     (     c   ,   Qr     )           =           ε   r     ⁢     T   c     ⁢     γ   c           ε   c     ⁢     T   r     ⁢     γ   r         ⁢         E   c       E   r                                        Design comparisons for materials included in Table 2. Comparisons are done using melting point temperature                Comparison 1   Comparison 2   Comparison 3   Comparison 4   Comparison 5                Constant                V   Q   V, Q   W   V, W                        V (c,Qr) /   W (c,Vc) /       W (c,Qr) /   V (c,Wr) /   Q (c,Vc) /       Q (c,Wr) /           Q c /Q r     W c /W r     V (r,Qr)     W (r,Vr)     T (c,Qr)     W (r,Qr)     V (r,Vr)     Q (r,Vr)     T (c,Wr)     Q (r,Wr)                          Aluminum   0.69   5.48   1.46   7.98   &gt;Tmelt       0.183   0.125   280.79   0.29       Boron Carbide   2.55   19.06   0.39   7.49   962.41   2.94   0.053   0.133   561.51   0.58       Chromium diBoride   3.59   106.23   0.28   29.62   599.41   8.26   0.009   0.0330   208.73   0.35       Chromium Carbide   2.90   46.80   0.35   16.16   654.20   5.58   0.021   0.062   277.16   0.42       Chromium Oxide   4.27   19.34   0.23   4.52   608.98   1.06   0.052   0.221   592.32   0.97       Copper   1.62   12.18   0.62   7.53   671.18   4.66   0.082   0.132   311.11   0.46       Gold   1.14   6.31   0.87   5.52   930.29   4.82   0.159   0.181   423.90   0.46       Hafnium Carbide   4.08   86.81   0.24   21.25   962.13   5.20   0.012   0.047   422.05   0.44       Molybdenum   2.90   18.78   0.34   6.48   904.67   2.23   0.053   0.154   605.63   0.67       Molybdenum Boride   3.66   27.09   0.27   7.40   584.23   2.02   0.037   0.135   411.42   0.70       Molybdenum Carbide   3.10   51.36   0.32   16.56   806.23   5.34   0.019   0.061   349.05   0.43       Molybdenum diSilicide   3.04   46.09   0.33   15.17   674.86   4.99   0.022   0.066   302.14   0.45       Nickel   2.48   26.26   0.40   10.58   586.13   4.26   0.038   0.095   284.10   0.48       Niobium diBoride   3.92   149.44   0.25   38.10   764.86   9.71   0.007   0.026   245.55   0.32       Niobium Carbide   3.43   104.26   0.29   30.42   1021.31   8.88   0.010   0.032   342.97   0.34       PTFE   0.19   0.87   5.31   4.62   &gt;Tmelt       1.152   0.216   &gt;Tmelt       Silicon   1.00   1.00   1.00   1   1410.00   1.00   1.000   1   1410.00   1.00       Silicon Carbide   2.68   16.91   0.37   6.30   1006.42   2.35   0.059   0.158   657.00   0.65       Tantalum Carbide   4.64   120.27   0.22   25.93   840.70   5.59   0.008   0.038   355.83   0.42       Tantalum diBoride   4.20   59.57   0.24   14.17   735.28   3.37   0.017   0.071   400.60   0.54       Titanium   1.70   7.27   0.59   4.28   984.12   2.52   0.138   0.234   619.87   0.63       Titanium diBoride   4.20   59.57   0.24   14.17   735.28   3.37   0.017   0.071   400.60   0.54       Titanium   1.70   7.27   0.59   4.28   984.12   2.52   0.138   0.234   619.87   0.63       Titanium diBoride   3.95   141.32   0.25   35.78   823.54   9.06   0.007   0.028   273.81   0.33       Titanium diSilicide   1.31   25.32   0.76   19.35   1176.90   14.79   0.040   0.0517   306.22   0.26       Titanium Nitride   4.41   159.36   0.23   36.10   668.21   8.18   0.006   0.0277   233.83   0.35       Tungsten Boride   6.15   38.16   0.16   6.20   384.36   1.01   0.026   0.161   383.10   1.00       Tungsten Carbide   3.79   49.80   0.26   13.13   732.95   3.46   0.020   0.076   394.10   0.54       Tungsten diSilicide   3.01   23.80   0.33   7.91   719.86   2.63   0.042   0.126   444.06   0.62       Vanadium diBoride   3.58   30.63   0.28   8.54   677.83   2.38   0.033   0.117   439.34   0.65       Vanadium Carbide   3.42   48.53   0.29   14.18   797.46   4.14   0.021   0.071   392.10   0.49       Vanadium Nitride   3.59   49.09   0.28   13.68   604.67   3.81   0.020   0.0731   309.91   0.51       Zirconium Carbide   2.44   66.51   0.41   27.31   1412.28   11.21   0.015   0.0366   422.05   0.30       Zirconium Nitride   3.74   52.32   0.27   13.97   787.80   3.73   0.019   0.0716   408.09   0.52                  
 
         [0053]                                                                                                                                                                                    TABLE 4                           Design comparisons for material included in Table 2. Comparisons are done using oxidation temperature                    Comparison 2   Comparison 3   Comparison 4   Comparison 5           Comparison 1   Q   V, Q   W   V, W                V   V (c,Qr) /   W (c,Vc) /       W (c,Qr) /   V (c,Wr) /   Q (c,Vc) /       Q (c,Wr) /            Constant   Q c /Q r     W c /W r     V (r,Qr)     W (r,Vr)     T (c,Qr)     W (r,Qr)     V (r,Vr)     Q (r,Vr)     T (c,Wr)     Q (r,Wr)                      Vanadium diBoride   0.885   1.864   1.13   2.10   &gt;T oxid.       0.326   0.475   439.337   0.648       Vanadium Carbide   0.752   2.341   1.33   3.11   &gt;T oxid.       0.26   0.32   392.1   0.49       Vanadium Nitride   0.74   2.1   1.34   2.83   &gt;T oxid.       0.289   0.353   309.9   0.513       Zirconium Carbide   0.425   2.02   2.35   4.75   &gt;T oxid.       0.301   0.21   422.05   0.299       Zirconium Nitride   0.64   1.5   1.57   2.36   &gt;T oxid.       0.405   0.423   408.1   0.518                    
 A Thermoelastic Actuator 
 
         [0054]     A hot arm/cold arm actuator is presented in  FIG. 1  to illustrate the results contained in Table 3. Only the steady state solution for a quantity of heat input to the heater is analyzed. The device comprises two identical material layers separated by air and connected to each other at the ends by a thermally non-conductive block. The force/deflection characteristics of the output mechanical power can be tuned by altering the separation between the two layers. A greater separation increases the transverse force but decreases deflection.  
         [0055]     Two actuators constructed from titanium and silicon are compared using graphed energy results in  FIG. 4 . Five design comparisons for Titanium are plotted according to the results contained in Table 3. The relationship between volumes, mechanical work and heat energy are identical to those included in Table 3. Titanium volumes are scaled using length for Comparisons 2 and 4.  
         [0000]     Discussion  
         [0056]     The combination of five separate material properties is important in assessing a material&#39;s potential for thermoelastic design and materials with one predominant property have been shown to not necessarily be the best candidate. This is evident in both Table 3 for PTFE (high g) and diamond (high E). Both gold and copper have high g values but are hindered as good candidates by low E and high r values. Silicon is very inefficient compared to certain other materials, however, amorphous silicon dioxide is possibly the most inefficient material of all.  
         [0057]     Output mechanical work, input heat energy and actuator volume are three essential characterizing parameters for thermoelastic design. The design method described incorporates these parameters using only material properties and provides a structured approach for material selection. The method is versatile because the approach assesses the potential of a material using easily calculated comparison ratios. It is important to note that the approach is a measure of a materials potential and must be used as a tool in conjunction with other appropriate design criteria. For example, criteria such as force/deflection characteristics of the output work, material resistivity, environmental ruggedness and material availability may be important. The operable temperature range is assumed to be from 0 degrees to the melting point on the Centigrade scale because it is indicative of the material thermal range. However, the maximum operable temperature could be different due to oxidation of the material or other thermal design constraints. Titanium nitride has close to the highest actuation efficiency value when melting point is used as a criteria. However, Titanium diSilicide is potentially a better candidate for use when oxidation temperature is used. Titanium nitride is a practical candidate because it is well established as a CMOS barrier material. The oxidation temperature of TiN can be raised from 500° C. to 900° C. by alloying with aluminum. The alloyed material has a symbol (Ti,Al)N.  
         [0058]     The actuation efficiency of a simple thermoelastic titanium beam is low compared to other actuation mechanisms (less than 1 percent). It is theoretically possible to get a thermoelastic actuation efficiency of about 4.5 percent for a simple titanium nitride beam, however, this value typically decreases when the material is implemented in a MEMS device due to associated operational losses (for example—thermal conduction into the substrate).  
         [0059]     The invention has been described herein by way of example only. Skilled workers in this field will readily recognize many variations and modifications which do depart from the spirit and scope of the broad inventive concept.