Abstract:
A method of making catalysts includes loading a quantity of catalyst material and quantity of carrier in into a plasma gun in a desired ratio and vaporizing the catalyst material and carrier in a reaction chamber, thereby forming a vapor cloud. The vapor cloud is quenched in a quench chamber to form solid nanoparticles, wherein the quench chamber comprises a frusto-conical body having a wide end, a narrow end, and a quench region formed between the wide end and the narrow end, and a reactive mixture inlet configured to receive the vapor cloud and to supply the vapor cloud into the quench region in the direction of the narrow end. The quench chamber further includes at least one conditioning fluid inlet configured to supply a conditioning fluid into the quench region in the direction of the narrow end. The nanoparticles are bonded to supports.

Description:
This patent application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/001,643, filed Dec. 11, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,507,401, which claims priority benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/999,057, filed Oct. 15, 2007, and entitled “Nano Particle Catalysts.” The entire contents of those applications are incorporated by reference herein. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     In the oil refining and fine chemical industries, catalysts are required to transform one chemical or one material into another. For example, to make cyclohexane from benzene, benzene is passed through porous ceramic supports that have been impregnated with catalysts designed and configured to hydrogenate it into cyclohexane. In one particular process, platinum is nitrated and impregnated onto supports in the wet chemical process  100  shown in  FIG. 1 . A platinum group metal, such as platinum, osmium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium or iridium, is collected in step  101 . For the sake of brevity, platinum will be discussed herein but it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that different platinum group metals can be used to take advantage of their different properties. Since blocks of elemental platinum are not useable as a catalyst, the platinum is nitrated in the step  102 , forming a salt, specifically PtNO 3 . The nitration is typically performed using well known methods of wet chemistry. The PtNO 3  is dissolved into a solvent such as water in a step  103 , causing the PtNO 3  to dissociate into Pt+ and NO 3 -ions. In the step  104 , the salt is adsorbed onto the surfaces of supports  104 B through transfer devices  104 A, such as pipettes. An example of a support  104 B is shown In  FIG. 2 . Generally, a support  104 B is a highly porous ceramic material that is commercially available in a vast array of shapes, dimensions and pore sizes to accommodate particular requirements of a given application. The supports  104 B are dried to remove water then transferred to an oven for an air calcining step  105 . In the oven, the supports  104 B are exposed to heat and optionally pressure that causes the Pt+ to coalesce into elemental Pt particles on the surfaces of the supports  104 B. In the step  106 , end product catalysts are formed. The end product is a support  104 B that is impregnated with elemental platinum. These supports are generally used in catalytic conversion by placing them in reactors of various configurations. For example, benzene is passed through the supports  104 B which convert the benzene into cyclohexane in the fine chemical industry. In the oil refining industry, the supports are used in a similar fashion. The process steps are used to convert crude oil into a useable fuel or other desirable end product. The process described in  FIG. 1  has opportunities for improvement. Although the platinum sticks sufficiently well to the surface of the support  104   b , platinum atoms begin to move and coalesce into larger particles at the temperatures that catalysis generally occurs. It is understood that the effectiveness and activity of a catalyst are directly proportional to the size of the catalyst particles on the surface of the support. As the particles coalesce into larger clumps, the particle sizes increase, the surface area of the catalyst decreases and the effectiveness of the catalyst is detrimentally affected. As the effectiveness of the catalyst decreases, the supports  104 B must be removed from the reactors and new supports added. During the transition period, output is stopped and overall throughput is adversely affected. Also, platinum group metal catalysts are very expensive, and every addition of new supports comes at great cost. What is needed is a plug and play catalyst that is usable in current oil refineries and fine chemical processing plants, allowing an increase in throughput and decrease in costs. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     A method of making a metal catalyst comprises providing a quantity of nanoparticles, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise a first portion comprising catalyst material bonded to a second portion comprising a carrier, providing a quantity of supports and impregnating the supports with the nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the supports comprise pores and voids. Preferably, the catalyst material comprises any among a list of at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one metal compound, and any combination thereof. Preferably, providing a quantity of nanoparticles comprises loading a quantity of catalyst material and a quantity of carrier into a plasma gun in a desired ratio, vaporizing the quantity of catalyst material and quantity of carrier thereby forming a vapor cloud, and quenching the vapor cloud, thereby forming a quantity of nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the carrier comprises an oxide, such as silica, alumina, yttria, zirconia, titania, ceria, baria, and any combination thereof. Preferably, impregnating the supports comprises suspending the nanoparticles in a solution, thereby forming a suspension and mixing the suspension with a quantity of the supports. Alternatively, impregnating the supports comprises suspending the nanoparticles in a solution, thereby forming a suspension and mixing the suspension with a slurry having supports suspended therein. In some embodiments, the suspension further comprises a dispersant and/or surfactant. The slurry comprises any one of organic solvent, aqueous solvent, and a combination thereof. The method further comprises drying the supports. Preferably, the method further comprises exposing the supports to any one of heat, pressure and a combination thereof, thereby bonding the nanoparticles onto the porous supports. 
     A system for forming a metal catalyst comprises means for providing a quantity of nanoparticles, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise a first portion of catalyst material bonded to a second portion of carrier, means for collecting the nanoparticles, means for forming a suspension by mixing the nanoparticles into a liquid, and means for combining the suspension with a quantity of supports, thereby impregnating the supports with the suspension. Preferably, the supports comprise voids and pores. The catalyst material comprises any among a list of at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one metal compound, and any combination thereof. Preferably, the carrier comprises an oxide, such as silica, alumina, yttria, zirconia, titania, ceria, baria, and any combination thereof. The means for forming a suspension further comprises means for including a dispersant. The system further comprises means for drying the supports. Preferably, the means for providing a quantity of nanoparticles comprises means for loading a quantity of catalyst material and a quantity of carrier into a plasma gun in a desired ratio, means for vaporizing the catalyst material and carrier in a reaction chamber, thereby forming a vapor cloud, and means for quenching the vapor cloud thereby forming solid nanoparticles. The system further comprises means for exposing the supports to heat, pressure, and a combination thereof, thereby bonding the nanoparticles onto the supports. Preferably, the means for combining the suspension with supports comprises means for impregnating supports with the suspension. Alternatively, the means for combining the suspension with supports comprises means for mixing the suspension with a slurry having supports suspended therein. The slurry comprises any among a list of an organic solvent, an aqueous solvent, and any combination thereof. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The invention is better understood by reading the following detailed description of an exemplary embodiment in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
         FIG. 1  prior art illustrates an existing process for forming a useful support for use in heterogenous catalysis. 
         FIG. 2  prior art shows a porous support generally used as a support in heterogeneous catalysis. 
         FIG. 3  shows the preferred embodiment of a novel process for forming a support for use in heterogeneous catalysis. 
         FIG. 4A  shows an example of a nanoparticle formed as part of the process of  FIG. 3 . 
         FIG. 4B  shows a close up of an impregnated porous support. 
         FIG. 4C  shows a close up of an impregnated macro support. 
         FIG. 5  shows an example of the supports being used as heterogeneous catalysts. 
         FIG. 5A  shows the hydrogenation of benzene into cyclohexane. 
         FIG. 6  is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a particle production system in accordance with the principles of the present invention. 
         FIG. 7  is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a particle production system with a highly turbulent quench chamber in accordance with the principles of the present invention. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     Reference will now be made in detail to implementations of the present invention as illustrated in the accompanying drawings. The drawings may not be to scale. The same reference indicators will be used throughout the drawings and the following detailed description to refer to identical or like elements. In the interest of clarity, not all of the routine features of the implementations described herein are shown and described. It will, of course, be appreciated that in the development of any such actual implementation, numerous implementation-specific decisions must be made in order to achieve the developer&#39;s specific goals, such as compliance with application, safety regulations and business related constraints, and that these specific goals will vary from one implementation to another and from one developer to another. Moreover, it will be appreciated that such a development effort will be a routine undertaking of engineering for those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure. 
     The following description of the invention is provided as an enabling teaching which includes the best currently known embodiment. One skilled in the relevant arts, including but not limited to chemistry and physics, will recognize that many changes can be made to the embodiment described, while still obtaining the beneficial results of the present invention. It will also be apparent that some of the desired benefits of the present invention can be obtained by selecting some of the features of the present invention without utilizing other features. Accordingly, those who work in the art will recognize that many modifications and adaptations to the present inventions are possible and may even be desirable in certain circumstances, and are a part of the present invention. Thus, the following description is provided as illustrative of the principles of the present invention and not in limitation thereof, since the scope of the present invention is defined by the claims. The terms “nanoparticle,” “nanoparticle powder,” and “nano powder” are generally understood by those of ordinary skill to encompass a quantity of material comprising particles on the order of nanometers in diameter, as described herein. 
       FIG. 3  illustrates the inventive steps for a process  300  of forming a “plug and play” catalyst for use in such industries as chemical reforming and oil refining. The method begins at step  310 . A quantity of a catalyst material  312  is loaded into a plasma gun  315 . Alternatively, the catalyst material  312  is able to be a catalyst precursor. Preferably, the catalyst material  312  comprises a platinum group metal (PGM). The platinum group is a collective name sometimes used for six metallic elements clustered together in the periodic table. The six PGMs are ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum. In some definitions of the PGM group, gold and silver are included. The PGMs have similar physical and chemical properties, and tend to occur together in the same mineral deposits. The PGMs also have excellent catalytic properties. Although PGMs are described, all metals are contemplated. Other metals, such as transition metals and poor metals also exhibit catalytic properties. Generally, transition metals comprise scandium, titanium, chromium, vanadium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, cadmium, tantalum, tungsten, and mercury. Poor metals comprise aluminum, germanium, gallium, tin, antimony, lead, indium, tellurium, bismuth and polonium. The catalyst material  312  is able to comprise more than one starting metal. By way of example, the material  312  is a single alloy comprising multiple metals. Alternatively, the catalyst material  312  comprises multiple homogenous metals. Particularly, metals are used in heterogeneous catalysis. Heterogeneous catalysts provide a surface for the chemical reaction to take place on or an activation point for chemical reactions. Also, in step  310 , a quantity of carrier material  314  is loaded into the plasma gun  315 . In some embodiments, the carrier material  314  is an oxide. By way of example, oxides such as Alumina (Al 2 O 3 ), Silica (SiO 2 ), Zirconia (ZrO 2 ), Titania (TiO 2 ), Ceria (CeO 2 ) Baria (BaO), and Yttria (Y 2 O 3 ) can be used. Other useful oxides will be apparent to those of ordinary skill. In some embodiments, the catalyst material  312  and carrier material  314  are loaded manually into a hopper (not shown) which automatically loads the materials into the plasma gun  315 . In alternate embodiments, an automated system is able to load the catalyst material  312  and oxide carrier  314  into the plasma gun  315 . The ratio of the PGM to the carrier can be adjusted to meet particular demands of a given application. Next, in step  320 , the plasma gun  315  vaporizes the catalyst material  312  along with the carrier  314  to form a vapor cloud  325 . The vapor cloud will comprise both the catalyst material, for example PGM, and the carrier in the ratio that was loaded into the plasma gun  315  in step  310 . 
     Still referring to  FIG. 3 , the resulting vapor cloud  325  is then put through a quenching step  330 . Preferably, the quenching step occurs in a highly turbulent quench chamber to facilitate rapid, even, consistent quenching of the vapor  325  into precipitate nanoparticles  400 . Such a rapid quench chamber is described in detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/151,935, which is hereby incorporated by reference. As the gaseous PGM and carrier cool, they solidify into nanoparticles. An example of a resulting nanoparticle  400  is shown in  FIG. 4A . As shown, the nanoparticle comprises a portion of carrier  410 , and a portion of catalyst material  420 , such as PGM. The ratio of size between the PGM catalyst  420  and carrier  410  will generally be determined by the ratio of the starting quantities of the catalyst material  312  and carrier  314  in step  310  of  FIG. 3 . The particles  400  will generally be in the range of 0.5 to 200 nm in size, and can be as small as a molecular length of the catalyst portion  420  and as large as would be achievable by ball milling. The particle size is able to be varied with varying starting materials, vaporization speeds, quench speeds and plasma temperatures. 
     Details of the quench-chamber will now be described with respect to  FIGS. 6 and 7 . Referring now to  FIG. 6 , a gas phase particle production system  100  is presented. The system  100  comprises a precursor supply device  110  and a working gas supply device  120  both fluidly coupled to a plasma production chamber  130  having an energy delivery zone  135  formed therein. The plasma production chamber  130  is fluidly coupled with an injection port  140  of a constricting quench chamber  145 , thereby allowing the energy delivery zone  135  to fluidly communicate with the quench chamber  145 . One or more ports  190  also allow fluid communication of the quench chamber  145  with a controlled atmosphere system  170  (indicated by the dotted lines). The quench chamber  145  is also fluidly coupled with an ejection port  165 . 
     The reactive mixture flows from the energy delivery zone  135  into the constricting quench chamber  145  through the injection port  140 . As the hot mixture moves from the energy delivery zone  135 , it expands rapidly within the quench chamber  145  and cools. While the mixture flows into the quench chamber  145 , the ports  190  supply conditioning fluid along the inner surfaces of the quench chamber  145 . The conditioning fluid combines, at least to some extent, with the mixture, and flows from the quench chamber  145  through the ejection port  165 . 
     During a period immediately after entering the quench chamber  145 , particle formation occurs. Furthermore, the supply of conditioning fluid along the inner surfaces of the quench chamber  145  works to condition the reactive mixture, to maintain entrainment of the particles therein, and to prevent the depositing of material on the inner surfaces of the quench chamber  145 . 
     Still referring to  FIG. 6 , the structure of the quench chamber  145  can be formed of relatively thin walled components capable of dissipating substantial heat. For example, the thin-walled components can conduct heat from inside the chamber and radiate the heat to the ambient. The quench chamber  145  comprises a substantially cylindrical surface  150 , a cone-like (frusto-conical) surface  155 , and an annular surface  160  connecting the injection port  140  with the cylindrical surface  150 . The cylindrical surface  150 , having a large diameter relative to the size of the injection port  140 , provides accommodation for the expansion of the reactive mixture that occurs after the mixture flows into the quench chamber  145 . The cone-like surface  155  extends from the cylindrical surface  150 , away from the injection port  140  and towards the ejection port  165 . The cone-like surface  155  is sufficiently smoothly varying so as to not unduly compress fluid flowing from through the quench chamber  145  to the ejection port  165 . 
     Substantial heat is emitted, mostly in the form of radiation, from the mixture following its entry into the quench chamber  145 . The quench chamber  145  is preferably designed to dissipate this heat efficiently. For example, the surfaces of the quench chamber  145  are preferably exposed to a cooling apparatus (not shown). 
     Still referring to  FIG. 6 , the controlled atmosphere system  170  preferably comprises a chamber  185  into which conditioning fluid is introduced from a reservoir  175  through a conduit  180 . The conditioning fluid preferably comprises argon. However, other inert, relatively heavy gases are equally preferred. Furthermore, the preferable mechanism of providing the conditioning fluid into the quench chamber  145  is the formation of a pressure differential between the quench chamber  145  and the outlet  165 . Such pressure differential will draw the conditioning fluid into the quench chamber  145  through the ports  190 . Other less preferred methods of providing the conditioning fluid include, but are not limited to, forming positive pressure within the chamber  185 . 
     The frusto-conical shape of the quench chamber  145  can provide a modest amount of turbulence within the quench region, thereby promoting the mixing of the conditioning fluid with the reactive mixture, and increasing the quenching rate beyond prior art systems. However, in some situations, an even greater increase in quenching rate may be desired. Such an increase in quenching rate can be achieved by creating a highly turbulent flow within a region of a quench chamber where the conditioning fluid is mixed with the reactive mixture. 
       FIG. 7  illustrates a gas phase particle production system  200  with a highly turbulent quench chamber  245 . The system  200  comprises a precursor supply device  210  a working gas supply device  220  fluidly coupled to a plasma production and reaction chamber  230 , similar to plasma production chamber  130  discussed above with reference to  FIG. 6 . An energy delivery system  225  is also coupled with the plasma production and reactor chamber  230 . The plasma production and reactor chamber  230  includes an injection port  240  that communicates fluidly with the constricting quench chamber  245 . One or more ports  290  can also allow fluid communication between the quench chamber  245  and a controlled atmosphere system  270 , similar to controlled atmosphere system  170  in  FIG. 6 . The quench chamber  245  is also fluidly coupled to an outlet  265 . 
     Generally, the chamber  230  operates as a reactor, similar to chamber  130  in  FIG. 6 , producing an output comprising particles within a gas stream. Production includes the basic steps of combination, reaction, and conditioning as described later herein. The system combines precursor material supplied from the precursor supply device  210  and working gas supplied from the working gas supply device  220  within the energy delivery zone of the chamber  230 . The system energizes the working gas in the chamber  230  using energy from the energy supply system  225 , thereby forming a plasma. The plasma is applied to the precursor material within the chamber  230  to form an energized, reactive mixture. This mixture comprises one or more materials in at least one of a plurality of phases, which may include vapor, gas, and plasma. The reactive mixture flows from the plasma production and reactor chamber  230  into the quench chamber  245  through an injection port  240 . 
     The quench chamber  245  preferably comprises a substantially cylindrical surface  250 , a frusto-conical surface  255 , and an annular surface  260  connecting the injection port  240  with the cylindrical surface  250 . The frusto-conical surface  255  narrows to meet the outlet  265 . The plasma production and reactor chamber  230  includes an extended portion at the end of which the injection port  240  is disposed. This extended portion shortens the distance between the injection port  240  and the outlet  265 , reducing the volume of region in which the reactive mixture and the conditioning fluid will mix, referred to as the quench region. In a preferred embodiment, the injection port  240  is arranged coaxially with the outlet  265 . The center of the injection port is positioned a first distance d 1  from the outlet  265 . The perimeter of the injection port is positioned a second distance d 2  from a portion of the frusto-conical surface  255 . The injection port  240  and the frusto-conical surface  255  form the aforementioned quench region therebetween. The space between the perimeter of the injection port  240  and the frusto-conical surface  255  forms a gap therebetween that acts as a channel for supplying conditioning fluid into the quench region. The frusto-conical surface  255  acts as a funneling surface, channeling fluid through the gap and into the quench region. 
     While the reactive mixture flows into the quench chamber  245 , the ports  290  supply conditioning fluid into the quench chamber  245 . The conditioning fluid then moves along the frusto-conical surface  255 , through the gap between the injection port  240  and the frusto-conical surface  255 , and into the quench region. In some embodiments, the controlled atmosphere system  270  is configured to control the volume flow rate or mass flow rate of the conditioning fluid supplied to the quench region. 
     As the reactive mixture moves out of the injection port  240 , it expands and mixes with the conditioning fluid. Preferably, the angle at which the conditioning fluid is supplied produces a high degree of turbulence and promotes mixing with the reactive mixture. This turbulence can depend on many parameters. In a preferred embodiment, one or more of these parameters is adjustable to control the level of turbulence. These factors include the flow rates of the conditioning fluid, the temperature of the frusto-conical surface  255 , the angle of the frusto-conical surface  255  (which affects the angle at which the conditioning fluid is supplied into the quench region), and the size of the quench region. For example, the relative positioning of the frusto-conical surface  255  and the injection port  240  is adjustable, which can be used to adjust the volume of quench region. These adjustments can be made in a variety of different ways, using a variety of different mechanisms, including, but not limited to, automated means and manual means. 
     During a brief period immediately after entering the quench chamber  245 , particle formation occurs. The degree to which the particles agglomerate depends on the rate of cooling. The cooling rate depends on the turbulence of the flow within the quench region. Preferably, the system is adjusted to form a highly turbulent flow, and to form very dispersed particles. For example, in preferred embodiments, the turbidity of the flow within the quench region is such that the flow has a Reynolds Number of at least 1000. 
     Still referring to  FIG. 7 , the structure of the quench chamber  245  is preferably formed of relatively thin walled components capable of dissipating substantial quantities of heat. For example, the thin-walled components can conduct heat from inside the chamber and radiate the heat to the ambient. 
     Substantial heat is emitted, mostly in the form of radiation, from the reactive mixture following its entry into the quench chamber  245 . The quench chamber  245  is designed to dissipate this heat efficiently. The surfaces of the quench chamber  245  are preferably exposed to a cooling system (not shown). In a preferred embodiment, the cooling system is configured to control a temperature of the frusto-conical surface  255 . 
     Following injection into the quench region, cooling, and particle formation, the mixture flows from the quench chamber  245  through the outlet port  265 . Suction generated by a generator  295  moves the mixture and conditioning fluid from the quench region into the conduit  292 . From the outlet port  265 , the mixture flows along the conduit  292 , toward the suction generator  295 . Preferably, the particles are removed from the mixture by a collection or sampling system (not shown) prior to encountering the suction generator  295 . 
     Still referring to  FIG. 7 , the controlled atmosphere system  270  comprises a chamber  285 , fluidly coupled to the quench region through port(s)  290 , into which conditioning fluid is introduced from a reservoir. For example, as shown in  FIG. 6  the conditioning fluid can be introduced through conduit  180  from reservoir  175 . As described above, the conditioning fluid preferably comprises argon. However, other inert, relatively heavy gases are equally preferred. Also, as discussed above, the preferable mechanism of providing the conditioning fluid into the quench chamber  245  is the formation of a pressure differential between the quench chamber  245  and the outlet  265 . Such pressure differential will draw the conditioning fluid into the quench chamber  245  through the ports  290 . Other methods of providing the conditioning fluid include, but are not limited to, forming positive pressure within the chamber  285 . 
     U.S. Pat. No. 5,989,648 to Phillips discloses a method for forming nanoparticle metal catalysts on carriers. However, referring back to  FIG. 3 , it is important to note that nanoparticles  400  such as the one shown in  FIG. 4  are not generally compatible with existing processes for chemical conversion. For compatibility with existing processes, the nanoparticles  400  are bonded to a support. To that end, more steps are taken to bring the nanoparticles  400  to a useable form. In some embodiments, the process  300  continues with step  340 , where the nanoparticles  400  are combined with a liquid to form a dispersion  345 . Preferably, a liquid that will not react with the PGM or the carrier material is used. Some appropriate liquids are aqueous solutions or organic solutions employing solvents such as alcohols, ethers, hydrocarbons, esters, amines, or the like. Since the nanoparticles  400  are small, other precautions are generally taken to ensure that they suspend evenly within the dispersion. To that end, an adjunct  348  is able to be added to the dispersion. The adjunct  348 , also referred to commonly in the art as a surfactant or dispersant, adheres to the nanoparticles  400  and causes them to repel each other, thereby causing the nanoparticles  400  to suspend evenly in the dispersion  345 . The dispersion  345  is also referred to as a suspension. 
     To bring the nanoparticles  400  closer to a usable catalyst, the nanoparticles  400  are impregnated onto supports  355 . The supports  355  are also known to those skilled in the relevant art as porous oxides. Alternatively, the supports  355  are also referred to as extrudates because they are generally made using an extrusion process. The supports  355  are similar to the supports  104   b  in  FIGS. 1 and 2 . Such supports have found utility due to their highly accessible and large surface area, as high as 250 m 2 /g. In alternative embodiments, a macroscopic support particle is able to be used. In such an embodiment, the size of the macroscopic support particle is selected to provide maximum surface area to which nanoparticles  400  are bonded or fixed. The step  350 A shows the preferred embodiment of achieving the impregnation. The dispersion  345  is combined with a quantity of substantially dry porous supports  355 A to form a mixture  359 A. Alternatively, as shown in the step  350 B, the dispersion  345  is combined with a slurry  358  having macroscopic support particles  355 B suspended therein, thereby forming the mixture  359 B. The slurry  358  is able to be a suspension of water, alcohol, or any suitable organic or inorganic liquid which will not react with the macroscopic supports  355 B or nanoparticles  400 . In the step  350 A, capillary forces will draw in the dispersion  345 , and in turn the nanoparticles  400 , into the various voids and pores within the structure of the porous supports  355 A, thereby forming impregnated porous supports  365 A. To aid in the impregnation, the mixture can be agitated or subjected to heat or pressure. In the step  350 B, nanoparticles  400  come to rest on the surfaces of macroscopic supports thereby forming impregnated macro supports  365 B. In some embodiments, the steps  350 A or  350 B are repeated at least once for enhanced impregnation. 
     Next, in the steps  360 A and  360 B, the impregnated porous supports  365 A or macro supports  365 B are allowed to dry. A close up view the impregnated porous support  365 A is shown in  FIG. 4B . As the liquid in the dispersion  345  evaporates, the nanoparticles  400  settle onto the surface of the support  365 A and into the pores  367  within the support  365 A.  FIG. 4C  shows an example of an impregnated macro support  365 B. As the liquids in the dispersion  345  and slurry  358  dry, nanoparticles  400  settle onto the surface of the macro support  365 B. When the impregnated porous supports  365 A or macro supports  365 B dry, electrostatic interactions and other forces between the nanoparticles  400  and the porous supports  365 A or macro supports  365 B effectuate some adhesion. Advantageously, such forces cause the nanoparticles  400  to stick onto the surfaces and pores  367  of the supports  365 A or  365 B, and effectuate transfer of the supports  365  through the remainder of the process  300 . Referring back to  FIG. 3 , a calcining step  370 A or  370 B is performed to form oxide-oxide bonds between the carrier portion  410  of the nanoparticles  400  and the impregnated supports  365 A or  365 B by exposing them to heat  372 , pressure  375 , or a combination thereof. The calcining temperature is generally from 350 to 1000 degrees centigrade, and the pressure is on the order of ambient atmosphere to several atmospheres. For optimum oxide-oxide bonds, the carrier material  314  is chosen to correspond to the material of which the support  365 A or  3658  is comprised. By way of example, if the carrier material  314  is alumina, then the support  365 A or  364 B preferably comprises alumina, although dissimilar oxides are also contemplated. Due to the physical and chemical bond between the supports  365 A and  365 B and the nanoparticles  400 , islands of nanoparticles that are bonded, fixed or otherwise pinned to the surfaces of the supports  365 A or  365 B will not migrate and coalesce during catalytic conversion. The surface area for catalysis remains high, and therefore the catalytic activity remains high. In effect, operations such as fine chemical plants and oil refineries will not be required to stop operations and swap out ineffective catalyst supports with fresh catalyst supports with the same frequency as existing processes, thereby increasing throughput at the plants and refineries and reducing their overall cost of operation. 
     Nanopowder with composition 3.4% (w/w) platinum and balance aluminum oxide was produced according to the process of  FIG. 3 . A vial was charged with 0.5 g of Coatex DV-250 (Coatex), 0.1 g of tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Aldrich), and 8.9 g of deionized water and shaken to form a solution. To this solution was added 0.5 g of the aforementioned nanopowder. This mixture was sonicated for 30 min using a Sonicator 3000 (Misonix) equipped with a ½″ horn operating at 30 W with a 1.0 s on/0.5 s off pulse. The dispersion was cooled with a water ice bath during sonication. The dispersion was then added dropwise to 1.0 g of alumina extrudates (Alfa Aesar) to incipient wetness—0.45 g of dispersion was required. The impregnated extrudates were then dried at 125° C. for 1 hr. The impregnation and drying steps were then repeated two more times, which required 0.40 g and 0.29 g, respectively, of dispersion to reach incipient wetness. The extrudates were then calcined in air at 550° C. for 2 hr. The platinum content of the extrudates is 0.15% (w/w) by ICP-MS analysis. The morphology of the material consists of mainly &lt;5 nm platinum particles that are bonded to &lt;50 nm alumina particles that are bonded to &gt;1 micron alumina particles as witnessed by TEM analysis. Chemisorption analysis (CO) yielded a 24.1% dispersion, thus proving that the platinum surface is available for chemisorption. The average particle size calculated from chemisorption data is 4.7 nm. Preferably, custom automated systems provide means for actuating the steps of the process  300 . Such custom automated systems are widely commercially available and used extensively in the medical, pharmaceutical and chemical industries, among others. 
       FIG. 5  shows an example of the impregnated porous supports  365 A being used in the fine chemical industry to hydrogenate benzene into cyclohexane. Macro supports  365 B are able to be used as well. Although this example details use in the fine chemical industry, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the arts of chemistry, chemical engineering, or the like that any process using heterogeneous catalysis is able to benefit from this disclosure. An amount of impregnated porous supports  365 A is loaded into a reactor  510 . Preferably, the reactor  510  has a mesh opening  515  on one end wherein the meshing has a smaller opening pitch than the size of the supports  365  such that the supports  365  do not fall through the opening  515 . Benzene is passed into the vat  510  via the conduit  520 . As the benzene passes through the vat  510 , the benzene fills into the voids and pores of the supports  365 A. 
       FIG. 5A  shows an example of a benzene molecule  525  being hydrogenated into cyclohexane  525 A in a cross section of a pore  367 . When the benzene molecule  525  comes into contact with the catalyst portion  420  of the nanoparticle  400  that is bonded to the surface of the support  365 A, the catalyst portion  420  of the nanoparticle  400  will effectuate hydrogenation of the benzene molecule  525  and hydrogen molecules  525 B into cyclohexane  525 A.