Abstract:
Embodiments of the present technology include a graft for administration at a treatment site of a patient. The graft may include a human cadaveric bone material bonded together with a polymeric binder. The human cadaveric bone material may include demineralized bone particles. The demineralized bone particles may have an average diameter less than 1.1 mm, less than 750 μm, less than 500 μm, or less than 250 μm. The human cadaveric bone material may include non-demineralized bone, cancellous bone, and/or cortical bone in embodiments. In some embodiments, bone from animals other than humans may be used, and the patient may be an animal other than a human.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application is a continuation of co-pending, commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/713,627 filed May 15, 2015, which claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/994,674 filed May 16, 2014, the entire content of which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    Embodiments of the present technology are directed in general to the field of medical grafts, and in particular to bone graft compositions, and methods of their use and manufacture. 
         [0003]    Medical grafting procedures often involve the implantation of autogenous, allograft, or synthetic grafts into a patient to treat a particular condition or disease. The use of musculoskeletal allograft tissue in reconstructive orthopedic procedures and other medical procedures has markedly increased in recent years, and millions of musculoskeletal allografts have been safely transplanted. A common allograft is bone. Typically, bone grafts are resorbed and replaced with the patient&#39;s natural bone upon healing. Bone grafts can be used in a variety of indications, including neurosurgical and orthopedic spine procedures for example. In some instances, bone grafts can be used to fuse joints or to repair broken bones. 
         [0004]    Allograft and autogenous bone are both derived from humans; the difference is that allograft is harvested from an individual (e.g., donor) other than the one (e.g., patient) receiving the graft. Allograft is often taken from donated cadavers so that their bone can be used for living people who are in need of the bone, for example, patients whose bones have degenerated from cancer. Such tissues represent a gift from the donor or the donor family to enhance the quality of life for other people. 
         [0005]    Hence, bone graft compositions and methods are presently available and provide real benefits to patients in need thereof. Yet many advances may still be made to provide improved bone graft systems and methods for treating patients. The bone graft systems and treatment and manufacture methods described herein provide further solutions and answers to these outstanding needs. 
       BRIEF SUMMARY 
       [0006]    Often, in recovering bone and other tissue from a donor, bone particles or dust is generated while cutting bone. These bone particles are normally considered waste and are discarded, providing no benefit to patients and limiting the reach of the donor&#39;s gift. Embodiments of the present technology may provide a way to use these bone particles and maximize the benefit and reach of a donor&#39;s gift. Additionally, embodiments of the present technology may provide a bone graft with desirable characteristics. These bone grafts may have sufficient strength to substitute or supplement natural bone, while possessing flexibility and other mechanical properties similar to natural bone. The bone grafts may be machined or formed into shapes that can be more easily implanted into a patient. Embodiments may also provide the advantage of forming a bone graft that is actually larger in size than the bone from which the bone particles come. Furthermore, embodiments may also provide for consistent properties across the graft, and the ability to tailor properties of the bone graft by adjusting processing parameters. 
         [0007]    In a first aspect, embodiments of the present technology include a graft for administration at a treatment site of a patient. The graft may include a human cadaveric bone material immobilized in a polymeric binder. The human cadaveric bone material may include demineralized bone particles. The demineralized bone particles may have an average diameter less than 1.1 mm, less than 750 μm, less than 500 μm, or less than 250 μm. The human cadaveric bone material may include non-demineralized bone, cancellous bone, and/or cortical bone in embodiments. In some embodiments, bone from animals other than humans may be used, and the patient may be an animal other than a human. 
         [0008]    The polymeric binder may promote cohesion between bone material with or without forming a bond between the polymer and the bone material. In embodiments, the polymeric binder may be polylactic acid, cyano acrylate (e.g., Super Glue®), diphenylmethane diisocyanate, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), silicones, polyurethanes, or epoxies. In some embodiments, the polymeric binder may be a surgical glue or a bone cement. The polymeric binder may dissolve or may not dissolve in a human body. The bone graft may exclude a cross-linking agent. Additionally, the bone graft may include a polymer that is not cross-linked with a cross-linking agent. The polymeric binder may exclude a cross-linking agent. 
         [0009]    In the graft, the demineralized bone particles may be present in an amount between about 10 weight percent and about 70 weight percent, between about 10 weight percent and about 20 weight percent, between about 20 weight percent and about 30 weight percent, between about 30 weight percent and about 40 weight percent, between about 40 weight percent and about 50 weight percent, between about 50 weight percent and about 60 weight percent, or between about 60 weight percent and about 70 weight percent. 
         [0010]    In some embodiments, the bone graft may have a compressive modulus greater than 7.0 GPa, greater than 7.5 GPa, greater than 8.0 GPa, or greater than 8.5 GPa. The yield strength of the bone graft may be greater than 10,000 N, greater than 11,000 N, greater than 12,000 N, greater than 13,000 N, greater than 14,000 N, or greater than 15,000 N. Such compressive modulus and yield strengths may be measured on a 1 cm 3  sample of the bone graft. 
         [0011]    The graft may have a surface area, where the human cadaveric bone material may be at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90% of the surface area in embodiments. The bone material may be considered in the polymeric binder even though bone material is exposed at a surface. Bone material exposed at a surface may still be adjacent to the polymeric binder and may be immobilized by the formation of the polymeric binder next to the bone material. 
         [0012]    Bone grafts may include fibers, including muscle fibers and other human fibers. 
         [0013]    In another aspect, embodiments of the present technology include a method of making a bone composite. The method may include adding a liquid to a plurality of human cadaveric particles to form a wet mixture. The liquid may include a plurality of monomers. The method may also include compacting the wet mixture to form a compacted wet mixture. The method may further include polymerizing the plurality of monomers to form a solidified polymer. The method may also include immobilizing the plurality of human cadaveric bone particles in the solidified polymer to form the bone composite. 
         [0014]    The solidified polymer may or may not bond with the bone particles. In some embodiments, the liquid with a plurality of monomers may fill in voids and spaces between bone particles, and then the formation of a solid polymer around the particles may immobilize the bone particles. PMMA may be an example of a polymer that immobilizes the bone particles in this manner. PMMA may entrap bone particles without chemical bonding between the PMMA and the bone particles. In other embodiments, polymers may bond with bone particles at a molecular level. For example, cyano acrylate may bond with bone particles. 
         [0015]    The wet mixture may also include a plurality of polymer particles. The polymer particles may include a polymer formed by polymerizing monomers of the same molecular formula as the monomers in the plurality of monomers. For example, the monomer may be methyl methacrylate (MMA), and the polymer particles may include polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). The plurality of monomers and the plurality of polymer particles may constitute two parts of a formula for bone cement. In some embodiments, the method may include mixing the plurality of polymeric particles with the human cadaveric bone particles before adding the liquid. 
         [0016]    The wet mixture may not include a plurality of polymer particles. For example, the wet mixture may not include any polymethyl methacrylate particles. The weight ratio of the plurality of polymer particles to the plurality of monomers in the wet mixture may be less than 3:1. For example, the weight ratio may be less than 70:30, less than 60:40, less than 50:50, less than 40:60, less than 30:70, less than 20:80, or less than 10:90. 
         [0017]    The liquid may be at a temperature less than 60° F., less than 50° F., less than 40° F., or less than 30° F. according to embodiments. The polymer particles and/or the bone particles may be at a temperature less than 60° F., less than 50° F., less than 40° F., or less than 30° F. according to embodiments. 
         [0018]    The method may also include polymerizing the plurality of monomers within 10 minutes, 7 minutes, 5 minutes, 4 minutes, or 3 minutes of adding the liquid. 
         [0019]    The method may also include ablating the bone composite after immobilizing. Ablating the bone composite may include sanding or machining the bone composite. Ablating the bone composite may increase the surface area of the exposed bone particles. 
         [0020]    In a further aspect, embodiments of the present technology include a method of making a bone composite. The method may include densifying a plurality of human cadaveric bone particles to form a densified plurality of human cadaveric bone particles. Densifying the plurality of human cadaveric bone particles may include densifying a plurality of polymer particles. Densifying the plurality of polymer particles may include centrifuging or applying negative pressure. 
         [0021]    The method may also include adding a liquid to the compacted plurality of human cadaveric bone particles. The liquid may include monomers. The liquid may be added to the compacted plurality of human cadaveric bone particles with as fast a flowrate as possible. Polymerization may begin soon after monomers contact polymer particles. 
         [0022]    The method may also include mixing a plurality of human cadaveric bone particles with a plurality of polymer particles before densifying. The polymer particles may include a polymer formed by polymerizing monomers of the same molecular formula as the monomers in the liquid. 
         [0023]    The method may further include exposing the densified plurality of human cadaveric bone particles to a negative pressure before adding the liquid. For example, the human cadaveric bone particles may be exposed to a vacuum. The negative pressure may be applied while adding the liquid to the plurality of human cadaveric bone particles. 
         [0024]    The method may further include polymerizing the monomers to form a solidified polymer. The method may also include immobilizing the plurality of human cadaveric bone particles in the solidified polymer to form the bone composite. 
         [0025]    In yet another aspect, embodiments of the present technology may include a method of treating a bone defect in a human patient. The method may include applying a bone graft to a treatment site of the human patient. The bone graft may include human cadaveric bone particles and a polymeric binder. The bone graft may be any bone graft or bone composite described herein. 
         [0026]    The bone defect may be a fracture, a disease, an infection, a void, or a genetic abnormality. The treatment site may be in the foot. For example, the bone graft may supplement or replace a navicular bone. Bone grafts may also supplement or replace spine (vertebrae), bones in the hand, bones in the foot, ribs, or facial bones. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0027]      FIG. 1  shows a block flow diagram of a method of making a bone composite according to embodiments. 
           [0028]      FIG. 2  shows a block flow diagram of a method of making a bone composite according to embodiments. 
           [0029]      FIG. 3  shows a system  300  for making bone composites according to embodiments. 
           [0030]      FIG. 4  is a graph of load versus displacement for a bone composite according to embodiments. 
           [0031]      FIG. 5  is a microscope image of a slice of a bone composite according to embodiments. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0032]    Embodiments of the present technology may bond together bone particles with a polymeric binder to form a bone graft or composite for implantation in a patient. Embodiments include grafts and methods of making composites that would use otherwise discarded bone particles. Embodiments may involve grafts or composites with consistent properties similar to natural bone. What is more, processing parameters and composition parameters may be adjusted to affect the properties of the graft or composite. 
         [0033]    Conventional technologies do not provide the advantages of embodiments of the present technology. Simply mixing polymeric binder and bone particles may not provide a bone graft with consistent and desirable properties. For example, mixing a polymeric binder and bone particle may produce a mixture with properties similar to bread dough. This mixture may have voids and air pockets within the mixture, and the mixture may not harden to form a composite with sufficient mechanical integrity to replace or supplement natural bone. Other conventional technologies may include synthetic composites, which may not have the flexibility of natural bone and may disintegrate under stress that normal bone can withstand. Furthermore, synthetic composites, without natural bone present on its surface, may not facilitate the growth of natural bone on the composite and may not integrate in a patient&#39;s body as well as embodiments of the present technology. 
         [0034]    Turning to the figures,  FIG. 1  shows a block flow diagram of a method  100  of making a bone composite according to embodiments. Method  100  may include adding a liquid with a plurality of monomers to a plurality of human cadaveric bone particles to form a wet mixture  102 . Mixing the liquid and bone particles together may form a wet mixture that has a soft, doughy consistency. Method  100  may also include compacting the wet mixture to form a compacted wet mixture  104 . Compacting the wet mixture may include packing the wet mixture into a container, such as a centrifuge tube. Compacting the wet mixture may include spincasting or centrifuging the wet mixture, which may compact the particles and/or incorporate monomers in the voids between the particles. The centrifugation forces used can reach 100,000×g. 
         [0035]    Method  100  may further include polymerizing the plurality of monomers  106  to form a solidified polymer. Also, method  100  may include immobilizing the plurality of human cadaveric bone particles  108  in the solidified polymer to form the bone composite. Without the polymer to act as a binder, the human cadaveric bone particles may otherwise not be immobilized or stick together. The binder may or may not physically or covalently bond with the bone particles. The bone composite may be any graft described herein. Additionally, the monomer, bone particle, and polymer may be any monomer, bone particle, and polymer described herein. 
         [0036]    Turning to  FIG. 2 , this figure shows a block flow diagram of a method  200  of making a bone composite. Method  200  may include densifying a plurality of human cadaveric bone particles  202 . Also, method  200  may include adding a liquid comprising monomers to the plurality of human cadaveric bone particles  204 . The method may further include polymerizing the monomers  206  to form a solidified polymer. Additionally, method  200  may include immobilizing the plurality of human cadaveric bone particles  208  in the solidified polymer to form the bone composite. The bone composite may be any graft described herein. Additionally, the monomer, bone particle, and polymer may be any monomer, bone particle, and polymer described herein. 
         [0037]    Methods and bone grafts may exclude cross-linking polymers. Cross-linking polymers may often involve cross-linking agents. Cross-linking agents may not be desired in the final bone graft and may be difficult to remove if used to cross link polymers. 
         [0038]    Method  200  may differ from method  100  in the order the liquid is added and the particles are densified or compacted. In method  200 , the liquid may be added after initially densifying the plurality of human cadaveric bone particles, while in method  100 , the liquid may be added before compacting the particles. Method  200  may also include further densification after liquid is added. Method  200  may be controllable and repeatable and may not form an intermediate mixture with too low a density. 
         [0039]    Bone grafts and methods of forming bone composites and may involve different ratios of bone and binder. Different ratios may affect the strength and appearance of the final product. Bone may be stronger than binder. A higher ratio of bone may result in a stronger composite, at least initially. The ratio may eventually become too large, with not enough binder to bond the bone material together. 
         [0040]    Likewise, different ratios of polymer to monomer may be used in methods of making bone composites. The ratio of the polymer powder, such as PMMA, to liquid monomer, such as MMA, may range from 0:100 to 75:25. The ratio may affect the strength and synthetic content of the final product. Without any polymer particles initially with the bone particles, the liquid monomer may be able to more effectively eliminate space in the bone particles. However, the lack of polymers in the bone particles may reduce the amount of polymerization of the monomer. Thus, decreasing the ratio of polymer to monomer may then decrease the spaces or voids between bone particles but may also decrease the amount of polymerization. This trade off would affect the strength of the final composite. Ratios may also impact setting time, hardening time, and temperature during the process. The polymerization may be exothermic, and hence the degree of polymerization may affect the heat generated in the process. 
         [0041]    The setting and hardening times may be affected by the temperature of the materials and the ambient environment. The liquid monomer, the bone particles, and/or the polymer particles may be cooled in order to increase the setting and hardening times. 
         [0042]    Turning to  FIG. 3 , system  300  may be used to make bone composites by method  200 . System  300  may include a reservoir  302 . Reservoir  302  may be a cylinder or part of a syringe. Reservoir  302  may hold a plurality of particles  304 . Particles  304  may include bone particles and optionally polymer particles. A translatable partition  306  may move along the reservoir and against particles  304 , resulting in decreased voids or smaller voids between particles  304 . Translatable partition  306  may be a plunger of a syringe. Translatable partition  306  may compact or densify particles  304 . Translatable partition  306  may define an aperture  308 , with one end of aperture  308  open to particles  304 . The other end of aperture  308  may be open to a fluid source  310 . In this manner, a fluid from fluid source  310  may be delivered to particles  304 . Fluid source  310  may include monomers and/or a solvent. Aperture  308  may also be defined by plastic, metal, or other tubing. The end of reservoir  302  opposite aperture  308  may include a channel  312 . Channel  312  may be defined by plastic, metal, or other tubing. Channel  312  may be attached to a pump  314 . Pump  314  may create a vacuum or negative pressure in reservoir  302 , specifically in the area that contains particles  304 . This negative pressure may densify particles  304  and/or draw fluid from fluid source  310 , through aperture  308 , and into voids in particles  304 . The size of channel  312  or a filter in reservoir  302  may prevent particles  304  from exiting reservoir  302  or channel  312  and into pump  314 . 
         [0043]    System  300  and method  200  may be combined with a method similar to method  100 . For example, system  300  may be included in a centrifuge. Centrifuging may densify particles  304 . Densifying by centrifuging may occur before or during the addition of fluid to particles  304 . 
         [0044]      FIG. 4  shows a graph of load versus displacement for a bone composite formed by mixing 40% ground bone matrix (GBM) with a polymethyl methacrylate binder. GBM is bone that has not been demineralized. The bone composite was formed with a spincasting method, which included centrifuging bone particles, polymer particles, and liquid monomer. A 1 cm 3  cube is subjected to compression testing to obtain the yield force (N) versus displacement (mm). 
         [0045]    Turning to  FIG. 5 , a picture  500  is shown of the surface of a 0.5 mm thick slice from a composite of 50 weight percent demineralized bone particles and 50 weight percent PMMA binder. Example demineralized bone particles are distinguishable as amorphous structures  502 ,  504 , and  506 .  FIG. 5  shows over 55% of the surface area as demineralized bone particles. The more surface area that is demineralized bone, the more likely the bone composite may have superior results in the body of a human patient. Exposed bone material in a bone composite may allow for bone growth or may allow for increased compatibility in the body. 
       Bone Composites Via Spincasting (Spincast Human Bone Composites) 
       [0046]    In some embodiments, the purpose of the development is to make a cadaveric human bone based structural graft that incorporates using a synthetic binder using centrifugation to create a strong long lasting bone based graft. 
         [0047]    The development takes human cadaveric bone particles of specific sizes and combines with a synthetic binder. The ratio of each of the components is optimized to give the required strength of natural human bone, while minimizing the concentration of binder. The mixed components are then subjected to centrifugation forces to compact the particles with incorporation of the binder in the voids between the particles. The centrifugation forces used can reach 100,000×g. 
         [0048]    To make human cadaveric bone particles into strong lasting implantable grafts using centrifugation. 
         [0049]    The mode of operation is a structural graft that can withstand forces exerted by the human body. The content of the graft makes the graft mostly natural human bone which in theory can lead to better incorporation of the foreign graft into the host. 
         [0050]    Bone particles do not stick together without the aid of a medium. To make a composite of bone that can withstand high levels of pressure and stress, the medium has to be substantially strong. 
         [0051]    One such medium is cyano acrylate (Super Glue®) which is currently used as surgical glue in humans that the body dissolves over a time. In this method the medium is used at its lowest possible concentration to yield the strength similar to human bone. 
         [0052]    Other similar embodiments may include applying vacuum or chemically modifying the tissue to make it bind together. The method of using centrifugation (spincasting) to make the structure makes the application different. 
         [0053]    Human cadaveric bone is harvested and then section cleaned of soft tissue and bodily fluids. It is next ground into particles that are less than 1.1 mm. The particles are then cleaned and demineralized via a proprietary method. The ground bone is then vacuum dried. From here the bone is used as is (Demineralized Bone Matrix-DBM) or is further ground to less the 250 microns to make a powder (Demineralized Bone Powder-DBP). The binder component is currently cyano acrylate (Super Glue®) and could be replaced with a number of other biocompatible synthetic glues. 
         [0054]    The components, DBP, DBM, and binder are weighted out and combined then mixed and placed in a centrifuge tube. The tubes are then centrifuged at high rpm to compress the particles and to extrude any excess fluid to the top. The centrifugation is run long enough to allow for the glue to set and then allowed to cure completely. Next the contents are extracted. The solidified plug is then machined via CNC into its final configuration. 
         [0055]    There are other glues that can be used as a binder. 
         [0056]    Currently initial prototypes of compressed structures have been made with bone and cyano based glue and currently testing compression strength of different combinations. Prototypes have also been machined to evaluate how the formulation behaves during shaping. 
       Polylactic Acid (PLA) Coated Bone Particles 
       [0057]    In further embodiments, the purpose of development is to make a bone based powder that is coated with PLA to give the particles a binder for adhesion. 
         [0058]    The development takes bone particles of any size and coats the outer surface either partially or completely. With the addition of PLA to the surface of the particle, it now has a glue/binder that can be heated to cause the PLA to melt and form a solid. 
         [0059]    To make bone particles moldable into strong long lasting configurations. 
         [0060]    The PLA coated particles can be molded into a shape and then the mold heated to melt the PLA and get a solid, slowly dissolved (months) structure that can support substantial forces and stress. 
         [0061]    Bone particles do not stick together without the aid of a medium. To make a composite of bone that can withstand high levels of pressure and stress the medium has to be substantially strong. One such medium is PLA (polylactic acid) and it is used as a human implant material that the body dissolves over a long period of time. In this method the PLA is dissolved and then combined with bone particles and subsequently treated to cause the PLA to solidify out of solution onto the surface of the bone particles/powder. 
         [0062]    The product is made by obtaining clean and sterile bone particles/powder and then dissolving amorphous PLA in glacial acetic acid and combining the bone and the PLA solution to a dough consistency and no excess fluid. The dough mixture is then mixed with sodium bicarbonate to homogeneity. The mixture is then exposed to water for injection (WFI) to cause a twofold reaction, one, the acetic acid combines with the sodium bicarbonate and forms CO 2  gas, water, and Na ions, therefore neutralizing the acetic acid. Second, the introduction of water causes the PLA to precipitate on the surface of the bone particles. The mixture is allowed to convert the acetic acid to gas and water and then the mixture is washed followed by lyophilization. 
       Structural Bone Graft Composites 
       [0063]    In yet further embodiments, the purposed of the development is to make a cadaveric human bone based structural graft that incorporates using human cadaveric fibers, human cadaveric proteins, and a synthetic binder using isostatic pressure to create a strong long lasting bone based graft. 
         [0064]    The development takes human cadaveric bone particles of specific sizes and combines with human cadaveric collagen fibers and a synthetic binder. The ratios of each of the components are optimized to give the required strength of natural human bone, while minimizing the concentration of binder. The mixed components are then subjected to an initial compaction to reduce the volume and then subjected to isostatic pressures (up to 66,000 psi), followed by a curing at elevated temperature for a specified time and then cooled. After cooling the graft can be shaped mechanically into its final configuration. 
         [0065]    To make human cadaveric bone particles into strong long lasting configurations using isostatic pressing. 
         [0066]    The mode of operation is as a structural graft that can withstand forces exerted by the human body. The content of the graft makes the graft mostly natural human tissue which in theory can lead to better incorporation of the foreign graft into the host. 
         [0067]    Bone particles do not stick together without the aid of a medium. To make a composite of bone that can withstand high levels of pressure and stress the medium has to be substantially strong. One such medium is PLA (polylactic acid) which is currently used as a human implant material that the body dissolves over a long period of time. In this method the medium is used at its lowest possible concentration to yield the strength similar to human bone. 
         [0068]    Human cadaveric bone is harvested and then section cleaned of soft tissue and bodily fluids. It is next, ground into particles that are less than 1.1 mm. The particles are the cleaned and demineralized via a proprietary method. The ground bone is then vacuum dried. From here the bone is used as is (Demineralized Bone Matrix-DBM) or is further ground to less than 250 microns to make a powder (Demineralized Bone Powder-DBP). Fibers for this project were obtained from a variety of sources by ultimately used muscle fibers because muscle is abundant during a recovery of other tissues. The muscle is cut into ˜3-8 cm 3  cubes and homogenized with saline solution. The homogenized muscles is then freeze dried. Once dry the muscle is pulverized and sieved over a 1 mm sieve. The retained fibers are collected. The fibers &gt;1 mm are then treated with 3-6% hydrogen peroxide and washed with saline. The remaining fibers are then vacuum dried. Once dried they are untangled and used as is. The binder component is currently polylactic acid and could be replaced with a number of other biocompatible synthetic plastics or glues. 
         [0069]    The four components, DBP, DBM, fibers, and binder are weighed out and combined then mixed and placed in a cylindrical mold. A plunger is inserted and then pressed using a hydraulic press to 15,000 to 18,000 psi for approximately 5 minutes, next the pressed plug is removed from the mold and placed in a foam mold and sealed. The sealed mold is then inserted into the isostatic press and subjected to up to 66,000 psi for a specific time. Once the time has elapsed the mold is pulled out the isostatic press and extracted from the mold. The pressed plug is then placed in a compression device and pressed and heated for a specific amount of time at a specific elevated temperature (&gt;50° C.). After the heating the compression device is removed from the oven and cooled to room temperature and the plug is extracted. The plug is then shaped into a final configuration using a CNC system with specific tooling. 
         [0070]    Currently initial prototypes of compressed structures have been made with the four components and currently testing compression strength of different combination. Prototypes have also been machined to evaluate how the formation behaves during shaping. 
         [0071]    Embodiments of the present technology can be better understood by the following examples. 
       Example 1 
       [0072]    To determine mechanical properties of bone composites, a 1 cm 3  cube is machined from a casted bone composite. The cube is compressed and the yield force is measured. With returning reference to  FIG. 4 , the results for two different samples of a composite of 40 weight percent ground bone matrix are shown. The results for one sample are indicated by the solid line, and the results for another sample are indicated by the dashed line. The composite was made from spincasting a mixture of PMMA particles, bone particles, and MMA liquid monomer initially at 10° C. 
         [0073]    The maximum yield strength can be determined from a local maximum point where the yield force stops increasing with displacement resulting from compression. With both these samples, the yield strength reaches a local maximum at around 2 mm of displacement. The compression modulus is determined by the slope of the curve in the linear portion of the graph before the local maximum. This example showed a repeatable and quantifiable method for measuring the mechanical properties of a bone composite. 
       Example 2 
       [0074]    The mechanical properties of several bone composites and other materials were tested in a manner similar to what was used in Example 1. Samples of demineralized bone material with a PMMA binder formed by spincasting were tested, including bone composites with 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, and 66% demineralized bone material (DBM) by weight. Additionally, polyether ether ketone (PEEK), a thermoplastic polymer sometimes used as a bone graft or implant, is tested. Navicular bone, a bone in the foot that may be a candidate for a bone graft or implant, was also tested for comparison. The resulting compressive modulus (GPa) and yield strength (N) of these tests is shown in Table 1. In addition, the published result of cortical bone by D. T. Reilly and A. H. Burstein, “The Elastic and Ultimate Properties of Compact Bone Tissue,”  J. Biomech.,  8:393-405, 1975, was listed for comparison. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Compressive Modulus and Yield Strength of Bone Materials 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Material 
                 Compressive Modulus (GPa) 
                 Yield Strength (N) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 20% DBM 
                 7.5 
                 14,020 
               
               
                   
                 30% DBM 
                 7.8 
                 15,090 
               
               
                   
                 40% DBM 
                 8.2 
                 14,655 
               
               
                   
                 50% DBM 
                 8.0 
                 13,430 
               
               
                   
                 66% DBM 
                 7.2 
                 10,787 
               
               
                   
                 PEEK 
                 3.5 
                 9,500 
               
               
                   
                 Navicular 
                 4.1 
                 11,586 
               
               
                   
                 Cortical bone 
                 17.9 
                 20,500 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0075]    As shown in Table 1, the demineralized bone material composites range in compressive modulus and yield strength. The bone composites have a higher compressive modulus and yield strength than PEEK. PEEK, while sometimes used as a bone graft or implant, may lack the flexibility of bone and may crush at certain pressures. The relatively lower properties in Table 1 provide quantified data behind the observations of PEEK. Navicular bone has a compressive modulus and yield strength greater than PEEK, indicating a higher flexibility than PEEK, but lower than the DBM bone composites tested. Cortical bone has a higher compressive modulus and yield strength than any bone composite or bone material tested. 
         [0076]    This example shows that the compressive modulus and yield strength of a bone composite could be adjusted at least by varying the concentration of the DBM. This example also shows that the DBM bone composites can have similar mechanical properties to human bones and have superior mechanical properties compared to other materials used for bone implants. 
       Example 3 
       [0077]    The amount of surface area of a bone composite that is bone was analyzed. DBM particles were dyed with Coomassie Blue stain. After the DBM particles were dried, they were mixed with PMMA powder, and a 50 weight % DBM bone composite was made using a spincasting method. A 0.5 mm thick slice of the bone composite was shaved off and analyzed with a light microscope at 10× magnification. The resulting picture is shown in previously described  FIG. 5 . 
         [0078]    The DBM particles are distinguishable as amorphous structures with blue outlines. Examples of DBM particles in  FIG. 5  include particles  502 ,  504 , and  506 . Particles sizes of DBM in  FIG. 5  range from 100 μm to 800 μm.  FIG. 5  was analyzed for the amount of surface area taken by DBM. The DBM surface area was calculated to be 55.4%, and the binder surface area was calculated to be 44.6%. 
         [0079]    This example shows that greater than 50% of the surface area of a composite may be bone material. This percentage may allow enough bone at the surface of the composite to integrate with native bone in the body of a patient. 
         [0080]    In the preceding description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous details have been set forth in order to provide an understanding of various embodiments of the present technology. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art, however, that certain embodiments may be practiced without some of these details, or with additional details. 
         [0081]    Having described several embodiments, it will be recognized by those of skill in the art that various modifications, alternative constructions, and equivalents may be used without departing from the spirit of the invention. Additionally, a number of well-known processes and elements have not been described in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present invention. Additionally, details of any specific embodiment may not always be present in variations of that embodiment or may be added to other embodiments. 
         [0082]    Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limits of that range is also specifically disclosed. Each smaller range between any stated value or intervening value in a stated range and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range is encompassed. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included or excluded in the range, and each range where either, neither, or both limits are included in the smaller ranges is also encompassed within the invention, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included. 
         [0083]    As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a method” includes a plurality of such methods and reference to “the monomer” includes reference to one or more monomers and equivalents thereof known to those skilled in the art, and so forth. The invention has now been described in detail for the purposes of clarity and understanding. However, it will be appreciated that certain changes and modifications may be practice within the scope of the appended claims.