Abstract:
Light emitters are formed and patterned on an electrode for an organic light-emitting device by electrochemically polymerizing a monomer across the full length of the electrode. A second electrode is deposited so to define a pixel region between mutually aligned portions of the two electrodes. Electroluminescence of the emitter occurs when a voltage is applied across the electrodes of the device.

Description:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     1. Field of the Invention 
     The present invention relates to a method of patterning polymeric organic light emitters onto the substrate of an organic light emitting diode (OLED) using electrochemical polymerization, and to the resulting OLED device. 
     2. Description of the Related Art 
     OLEDs are known, and have been used for various types of displays. FIG. 1 illustrates a general overview of a portion of an OLED  10 . Device  10  has a cathode electrode  12  that is spaced from a transparent anode electrode  14  deposited on a transparent substrate  18  which is typically comprised of glass or transparent plastic. Although only the anode electrode  14  is illustrated as transparent to allow light ho to pass through, the cathode electrode  12  or both the anode and cathode electrodes  14  and  12  may be transparent. An organic light emitter  20 , which is capable of electroluminescence, is sandwiched between the cathode and anode electrodes  12  and  14 . An encapsulating layer  23  may then be deposited on top of cathode electrode  12  to protect device  10  from the environment. 
     The organic emitter  20  has been comprised of electroluminescent thin films of either small discrete molecules such as aluminum tris(8-hydroxyquinoline) (Alq 3 ) or dye-doped Alq 3 , or certain polymers. Different organic emitters emit different color light. For example, the Alq 3  molecule emits green light. The cathode electrode  12  is usually a low work function metal such as an alkaline earth metal or reactive metal alloy. Examples of cathode electrodes include calcium, magnesium/silver, and aluminum/lithium. Typically, the anode electrode  14  is a high work function thin film of transparent indium tin oxide (ITO). Other materials used may be polyaniline or fluorine-doped tin oxide. Semitransparent metal films have also been used, although they tend to be less transmissive at thicknesses that are suitably conductive for electrodes. The phrase “work function” refers to the energy difference, in electron volts (eV), between a free electron and an electron at the Fermi level of the material. The “Fermi level” is the energy level at which the probability that an energy state is occupied is equal to one-half. 
     Referring back to FIG. 1, forward biasing device  10  (placing a higher voltage on the anode electrode  14  than on cathode  12 ) causes current to flow through the organic emitter  20 . This current flow enables the recombination of holes injected at the anode electrode  14  with electrons injected from the cathode electrode  12  within the organic emitter, generating light hυ in all directions, that is, electroluminescence. The light transmitted out to the sides of the device is lost and the light that hits the cathode is reflected. The output light hυ is transmitted through the transparent anode  14  and the substrate  18 . 
     FIGS. 2A and 2B illustrate in detail the electrodes of the OLED shown in FIG.  1 . FIG. 2A illustrates a well-known pre-patterned transparent substrate  18  having parallel rows of transparent anode electrodes  14  deposited thereon. FIG. 2B illustrates parallel columns of deposited cathode electrodes  12  on a substrate  18 A. Although both the anode electrodes  14  of FIG.  2 A and the cathode electrodes.  12  of FIG. 2B are illustrated as straight strip patterns, other patterns may also be used. If rows and columns are used, then the electrodes are normally oriented orthogonal to each other. The intersection of an anode electrode  14  with a cathode electrode  12  defines a single pixel. All of the pixels together form a matrix from which images can be formed by illuminating desired pixel patterns. Respective leads  14   a  and  12   a  in a conventional matrix-addressing scheme electronically address the anodes and cathodes. 
     There are two common methods for the deposition (or patterning) of organic light emitters onto a substrate with a pre-patterned electrode, such as substrate  18  with pre-patterned anode electrodes  14 . Both methods are similar in that emitter  20  is deposited as a corresponding matrix of discrete pixel elements in registration with the pixels defined by the electrodes. The choice of deposition method however, will depend upon the type of organic emitter used. 
     As mentioned above, the two main groups of organic emitters in common use are discrete molecules and polymers. For discrete molecules such as Alq 3  or dye-doped Alq 3 , the preferred technique is vapor deposition through a mask (commonly referred to as masking). Ink jet printing is commonly used for polymeric organic emitters. Both methods are well known. 
     FIG. 3A illustrates the deposition of organic emitters R, B, and G (Red, Blue, and Green) onto the electrodes  14  of substrate  18  using the masking method. Masking uses a metal plate  30  (illustrated in FIG. 3B) with patterned openings  31  which are commensurate in pattern and number with the specific pattern and number of pixels that are to be deposited; conventional OLED displays can have millions of pixels. For a full color spectrum, at least three different masks  30 R,  30 B, and  30 G (shown in FIG. 3C) may be used to deposit three different organic emitters, each with its own color emission characteristic, onto different sets of electrodes  14 . Discrete organic emitter molecules that emit the desired colors are deposited through the mask openings onto the desired pixel areas of the underlying electrodes  14 . Red emitter is deposited through openings  31 R in mask  30 R, blue emitter through openings  31 B in mask  30 B, and green emitter through openings  31 G in mask  30 G. The masks are placed as close to the substrate  18  as possible without touching it, to avoid disrupting the organic emitters previously deposited on the electrodes  14 . 
     A drawback of masking is that the deposition areas  33  (shown within dashed lines in FIG. 3A) tend to be larger than the actual mask openings  31 . Because the mask  30  does not touch the substrate  18 , molecules passing through its openings  31  are diffused sideways through the gap between the mask  30  and the substrate  18 , and are deposited on areas beyond the boundaries of the openings  31 . With this method, there is a lack of control over exactly where the individual organic emitter molecules are deposited. This imprecise deposition (or patterning) can create overlaps  34  of different organic emitter molecules having different color emission characteristics onto the same pixel. 
     To overcome this problem, efforts have been made to place the mask  30  as close to the substrate  18  as possible and to reduce the size of the mask openings  31 . However, since some gap is still required between the mask  30  and substrate  18  to avoid damage, spreading of the organic emitter molecules can still occur. While reducing the size of the mask openings  31  reduces the spreading problem, it also reduces the amount of light generated while increasing the spacing between pixels. Another proposal is to reduce the number of pixels and increase their size. While this could reduce or eliminate overlapping depositions, it would also reduce the resolution of the device. 
     FIG. 3D is a magnified illustration of a pixel  35  (shown within dashed lines), defined by the intersection of the anode  14  and cathode  12  electrodes, which is deposited with an organic emitter using the masking method. Pure color emission might not be possible if there is an overlap  34  of two or more different molecules with different color emission characteristics on the pixel region  35 . 
     FIG. 4A illustrates the deposition of polymeric organic emitters R, B, and G onto electrodes  14  of substrate  18  using the ink jet method. With ink jet printing the polymeric organic emitter with the desired color emission characteristic is first dissolved in a solvent such as xylene, and then dropped in a discrete non-continuous manner onto desired pixel locations on the electrodes  14 . The emitter in the solvent is in liquid form, and therefore the emitter drops spread  37  upon contact with the electrodes  14 . Drop thickness and the amount of spreading across the substrate  18  are difficult to control, producing colors with different emission characteristics from two adjacent pixels deposited with the identical polymer. FIG. 4B is a magnified illustration of pixels  40  and  41  (shown within the dashed lines), defined by the intersection of the anode  14  and cathode  12  electrodes, which are deposited with the identical polymeric organic emitter (R) using this method. The variation in both thickness and spreading of the deposited polymer (R) onto these two adjacent pixels  40  and  41  could generate light with two different color emission characteristics, such as intensities, resulting in poor resolution. 
     Both vapor deposition and ink jet printing lack direct, full control over the deposition of organic emitters. They produce imprecise, unpredictable patterns that result in poor resolution. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention provides full and direct control over organic emitter deposition in an OLED device, eliminating imprecise and unpredictable patterning to achieve accurate control over both thickness and lateral dimensions. It does this by using electrochemical polymerization to direct organic emitter deposition onto desired areas of the electrode on the substrate. 
     The invention can be implemented with a substrate that is patterned with at least one electrode and submerged into an electrochemical bath or electrolyte. The electrolyte solution includes a solvent, a supporting electrolyte salt which conducts charge, and monomer molecules that function as a precursor to an electroluminescent polymer that is to be deposited onto desired selected electrodes. An electrochemically inert counterelectrode is placed in the solution bath parallel to and facing the electrode substrate. In response to a voltage differential applied across the counterelectrode and desired selected electrodes on the substrate, a polymer is deposited onto the entire full length of the selected electrodes, with little or no overlap, spreading, or thickness variations. Although the technique is used to deposit polymeric organic emitters primarily onto anode electrodes, it may also be used in principle for cathodic deposition. 
     The invention can be implemented with certain conducting polymer precursor monomers, such as aromatic and heteroaromatic compounds which oxidize at relatively low anodic potentials to form polymeric electrical conductors, which, when reduced to their neutral forms, are electroluminescent. Examples can include derivatives of pyrrole, thiophene, furan, carbazole, and some electron-rich aromatics. 
    
    
     These and other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description of preferred embodiments, taken together with the accompanying drawings, in which: 
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     FIG. 1 is a sectional view illustrating a typical organic light emission diode (OLED); 
     FIGS. 2A and 2B are plan views OLED substrates with anode and cathode electrode strips; 
     FIGS. 3A,  3 B,  3 C and  3 D are plan views illustrating the prior art use of masking technique to deposit organic emitters; 
     FIGS. 4A and 4B are plan views illustrating the prior art use of ink jet printing to deposit polymeric organic emitters; 
     FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating a method of depositing polymeric light emitters in accordance with the invention; 
     FIGS. 6A,  6 B, and  6 C are plan views illustrating final patterned polymeric organic light emitters; and 
     FIG. 7 is a sectional view of an OLED in accordance with the present invention. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates to a new and improved patterning technique for the deposition of polymeric organic light emitters onto the electrodes of an OLED device. More particularly, precise patterning of electroluminescent polymers is accomplished using electrochemical polymerization. It has been discovered that light emitting polymers that can be accurately deposited on an underlying electrode of a substrate are derived from monomers with two common features. (i) The monomers used should be anodically polymerizable, which generally requires an aromatic character (with alternating double bonds), to provide the polymerizability, and (ii) the resulting polymer derived from said monomer must have the desired semiconducting property and electroluminescence in its reduced form. In order to deposit polymeric organic emitters onto the cathode electrode, a monomer which cathodically polymerizes to form an electroluminescent polymer is required. At the present time, however, this type of monomer has not been identified. However, the technique works optimally for anode deposition because a class of monomers which will anodically polymerize to form potentially electroluminescent polymers is well known. Specific monomers that have been identified as suitable for this process include, among others, thiophene derivatives, a bis(2-thienyl) terminated fluorene (BTDF), and a bis(2-thienyl) terminated carbazole (BTDC). It is anticipated that additional monomers will be identified in the future. 
     Referring to FIG. 5, a substrate  18  pre-patterned with electrodes  14  is shown submerged in an electrochemical bath  300 . A counterelectrode  310  is also submerged in the same solution bath . 300 , parallel to and facing substrate  18 . The counterelectrode  310  is typically comprised of platinum or stainless steel or graphite. Bath  300  includes an electrolyte solution with dissolved monomer molecules that undergo an anodic electrochemical polymerization process. The electrolyte solution is used as a medium for the transfer of charge to oxidize the monomer forming a positively charged polymer deposit. A monomer is typically a small precursor molecule to the polymer that is deposited on the electrodes  14  of substrate  18  after the monomer has been oxidized. Various details for the different compositions of bath solution  300 , different exemplary monomers used, and their respective electrochemical reactions will be described later. 
     Referring again to FIG. 5, a voltage supply source  320  is connected to provide a forward voltage across selected anode electrodes  14  of substrate  18  and the counterelectrode  310 . In response to a voltage differential applied across these two electrodes, the monomer in bath  300  is oxidized, and deposited as a positively charged polymer only on the selected positively biased patterned anode electrodes  14 . No polymer deposition takes place on substrate  18  outside the region of electrode  14 . This polymer is electrically conductive, insoluble, and non-emitting. It is this conductive character that enables continued electrochemical growth of the polymer to a desired thickness. By contrast, an insulating polymer would passivate the electrode surface and essentially halt further growth. The deposition process may be expedited by the supply of higher current to the selected electrodes  14 . Approximately 2 μA/cm 2  to 2 mA/cm 2  of current density is typically used during the polymerization process. In order to produce the final desired polymeric organic emitter, the positively charged polymer should be converted to the fully neutral uncharged form. The neutralization of the charged polymer is a two-step process, with an electrochemical reduction followed by a chemical reduction treatment. While still in the bath solution  300 , the voltage previously applied to electrodes  14  and counterelectrode  310  is reversed with a positive voltage on the counterelectrode  310  and the negative voltage on the selected electrodes  14 . The reverse bias voltage is applied for several minutes. This significantly reduces the positive charge on the deposited polymer. To fully neutralize the polymer, it is chemically treated by removing substrate  18  from the electrochemical solution bath  300 , and immersing it in a reducing solution that preferably includes 2% hydrazine hydrate solution in acetonitrile, followed by a final rinse/soak in an inert solvent, such as acetonitrile. The electrochemical treatment of the polymers on electrodes for neutralization may be skipped, but performing both steps produces superior results. 
     Typical electrolyte solvents for electrolyte bath  300  could include those with potential windows that can accommodate the anodic oxidation potentials of the monomers. Acetonitrile, nitrobenzene, propylene carbonate, γ-butyrolactone, and dichloromethane are representative solvents that could be used. Also incorporated into bath  300  is a supporting electrolyte salt(s), which contains anions that become incorporated in the initial electrochemically generated polymer as “dopant” anions. These salts are electrochemically stable and may include alkali metal ion or tetraalkylammonium perchlorate, hexafluorophosphate, tetrafluoroborate, p-toluenesulfonate, and (CF 3 SO 2 ) 2 N  −  salts and the like. Typical concentrations of these salts in bath  300  could range from about 10 mM to 0.1 M. Concentrations of the monomers in these electrolytes range from about 1 mm to 0.2 M. 
     Photoluminescence may then be used to determine if the positively charged polymer on the electrodes has been fully neutralized. In this process, the polymer is exposed to. ultraviolet light, the absorption of which may cause emission of energy, usually in the form of radiation in the visible portion of the spectrum, if the polymer is fully converted to the neutral form and has the appropriate electronic structure. 
     As mentioned above, the monomers that may be used as precursors to electrodepositable electroluminescent (EL) polymer emitters generally possess two key features. They must be electrochemically, generally anodically (oxidatively), polymerizable allowing for selective deposition (patterning) of their polymers. In general, the monomers used most likely are electron-rich and possess highly conjugated aromatic structures (due to their alternating double bonds), which can give them the property of polymerizability and provide the desired semiconducting property to their polymers. The electronic structures of this class of monomers and their polymers are discussed in detail by J. L. Bredas, “Electronic Structure of Highly Conducting Polymers,” in “Handbook of Conducting Polymers, volume 2,” chapter 25, pp. 859-913, T. J. Skotheim, editor, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1986. A further key property of the monomers used for this application is the requirement that after monomer oxidation and neutralization of the resulting polymer, the resulting polymers should in general possess the property of electroluminescence (EL). EL requires both a semiconductor character found with this class of electrodeposited polymers and the property of photoluminescence (PL) as well. PL is conveniently used as a qualitative marker to determine if the electrodeposited polymer has been fully neutralized and has electroluminescent potential. In some cases, the monomers may be also photoluminescent, but not in all cases. The electronic properties of electrodeposited electroluminescent/photoluminescent polymers have not been fully elucidated at this time. 
     Monomers which electrochemically polymerize to form polymeric electrical conductors may be found in certain aromatic and, particularly, heteroaromatic compounds which oxidize at relatively low anodic potentials. The family of electrodeposited conducting polymers derived from heteroaromatic compounds is well known. See, for example, A. F. Diaz and J. Bargon, “Electrochemical Synthesis of Conducting Polymers,” in “Handbook of Conducting Polymers, volume 1,” chapter 3, pp. 819-115, T. J. Skotheim, editor, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1986, for a description of these systems. Typical examples of heteroaromatic monomer compounds include pyrrole, thiophene, furan, carbazole, and derivatives thereof, although the vast majority of their polymers are not light emitter candidates, failing to meet the photoluminescence/electroluminescence requirements. 
     The design of suitable monomers that will give rise to high efficiency polymer emitters having the property of electroluminescence is not straightforward. Nonetheless, we have discovered some electrodepositable polymer systems that exhibit photoluminescence. For example, we observed PL from a polymer originally synthesized by F. Larmat, et al., “Comparative Reactivity of Thiophene and 3,4-(Ethylenedioxy)thiophene as Terminal Electropolymerizable Units in Bis-Heterocycle Arylenes,” in Journal of Polymer Science: Part A, volume 35, pp. 3627-3636, 1997, namely the polymer derived from BTDF monomer, a bis(2-thienyl) terminated fluorene. Another system showing PL was the polymer from a bis(2-thienyl) terminated carbazole, BTDC monomer, of the type first prepared by G. A. Sotzing, et al., “Multiply Colored Electrochromic Carbazole-Based Polymers,” in Chemistry of Materials, vol. 9, pp. 1578-1587, 1997. While described in these publications as electrochromic materials, no PL or EL properties of the poly(BTDF) and poly(BTDC) polymers were taught or suggested by the authors. Nonetheless, this class of electropolymerizable bis-heterocycle arylene has considerable potential for new OLED emitters of the type described in this application. 
     A related nonelectrochemically derived polymeric electroluminescent emitter class, the poly(3-substituted thiophenes), has been reviewed by G. Wang, et al., “Application of Polymers to Electroluminescence,” in “Photonic Polymer Systems,” D. L. Wise, et al., editors, chapter 7, pp. 217-267, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1998, and by X-C. Li, et al. in “Semiconducting Polymers as Light Emitting Materials,” in “Photonic Polymer Systems,” D. L. Wise, et al., editors, chapter 10, pp. 335-371, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1998. While the materials in these publications were prepared chemically and deposited onto electrode surfaces from solution (e.g., by spin-coating), some have also been synthesized electrochemically in the past by M. Sato, et al., “Soluble Conducting Polythiophenes,” in the Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, pp. 873-874, 1986. None however, teach or suggest the selective patterning of electrodes by electrochemical deposition. Also, the family of aromatic (i.e., non-heteroaromatic) poly(p-phenylenes), several of which are electroluminescent and primarily prepared chemically (see K. Kaeriyama, “Synthesis and Properties of Poly(p-phenylene) and Its Derivatives,” in “Photonic Polymer Systems,” D. L. Wise, et al., editors, chapter 2, pp. 33-60, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1998) has anodically polymerized systems derived from dialkoxybenzenes which may fall into the category of electrodeposited emitters of this application. 
     Production of electrodeposited OLED emitters is exemplified in the scheme below using a heteroaromatic thiophene derivative as a representative example. Here, the soluble thiophene monomer is oxidatively polymerized in an electrochemical bath to an insoluble “doped” cationic polymer that deposits as a film on the (patterned) anode. This material is generally electrically conductive and non-emitting, i.e., showing no PL.                           
     The as-deposited doped polymer film, where x is typically in the range 0.2 to 0.5, is then reduced electrochemically and/or chemically to the undoped, potentially emitting, neutral form of the polymer.                           
     Related bis-heterocycle arylene monomers electropolymerize in an analogous fashion through their two heterocycle units. The structures of two of these materials, poly(BTDF) and poly(BTDC) described above (heterocycle=thienyl, arylene=fluorene, carbazole) are represented below.                           
     In these systems, the oxidative coupling of monomers to form polymers takes place through the two heterocycle thienyl (thiophene) substituents. The arylene unit, which is sandwiched between two heterocycle groups can be a conjugated functionality compatible with the oxidative polymerization reaction, such as a fluorene (an aromatic) or a carbazole (a heteroaromatic) in the examples above. By appropriate selection of the central arylene unit in these bis(heterocycle) arylene monomers, highly emissive polymers with desired color emissions may be designed. The arylene units can comprise aromatic, heteroaromatic, polynuclear aromatic, conjugated olefins, or mixtures thereof. The desired selections are based on the electroluminesence potential of the arylene units themselves. The heterocycle substituents that enable coupling of the monomer units may be thienyl, furanyl, pyrrolyl, or other electron-rich aromatic units. Alternatively, certain heterocycle monomers or oligomers by themselves can electrochemically generate potential electroluminescent polymers, as suggested for the poly(3-alkylthiophenes) by Wang and Li above. 
     Mixture of monomers with comparable oxidation potentials may also be used in the electrodeposition process to vary the color emission of a polymer. For example, the oxidation of a monomer ‘RE’ could produce a pure polymer “RE 1 ” with a color emission characteristic of red. The oxidation of a second monomer ‘BL’ could produce a pure polymer ‘BL 1 ’ with a color emission characteristic of blue. However, the oxidation of a mixture of the two monomers ‘RE’ and ‘BL’ could result in a polymer ‘C 1 ’ with a color emission characteristic whose wavelength is different from those of the two pure polymers ‘RE 1 ’ and ‘BL 1 .’ Depending on the ratio of monomer units within the resulting polymer, the color emission can be shifted in wavelength. The “mixture” may comprise at least one monomer, but is not limited to any number or ratios thereof. 
     Three representative examples of monomer classes that can be electropolymerized to polymeric electroluminescent emitters are shown below. (“R n ”, where n=1,2, refers to alkyl or aryl substituents on the molecules.)                           
     These examples are not meant to be all-inclusive, but merely representative of the desired class of electrodepositable emitter called out in this application. Likewise, should any cathodically electrodepositable polymer systems of the type described above be developed, these too could be candidates for electrochemical patterning of emitters. 
     FIG. 6A illustrates three finally deposited polymeric organic emitters R, B, and G on three selected electrodes  14  of substrate  18 . FIG. 6B illustrates four sets of selected electrodes, with three different color emitters R, B, and G per set. To provide a full color spectrum light emissive device, three different sets of emitters with color emission characteristics of red (R), blue (B), and green (G) are needed. The above process is repeated for each emitter set having its own color emission characteristic. A separate bath with the appropriate precursor monomer (or a mixture thereof) for the electrodeposited color emitter is used, and the voltage source  320  is connected only to the leads  14   a  for the electrodes upon which that particular monomer is to be polymerized. 
     FIG. 6C is a magnified illustration of a pixel  50  (shown within the dashed lines), defined by the intersection of the anode  14  with cathode  12  electrodes, which is deposited with a polymeric organic emitter using electrochemical polymerization. Selective patterning of polymers R, B, and G using electrochemical polymerization results in no overlap, random thickness or spreading of these emitters, allowing pixel  50  to generate light with the desired color emission characteristic. 
     FIG. 7 illustrates a completed OLED device  100  with deposition of cathode electrodes  12  on the separately deposited organic emitters  200 , followed by encapsulation of the entire device  100 . The substrate  18  is illustrated as transparent and is commonly comprised of glass or transparent plastic. There are varieties of well-known methods used to deposit the anode  14  and the cathode  12  electrodes. The methods employed may include, among others, vapor deposition, sputtering, or solvent casting (e.g. spin-coating), following by patterning. Anode  14  electrodes are usually etched into a desired pattern employing the well-known patterning technique of photolithography. The individually deposited polymeric organic emitters  200  are deposited separately onto a selected set of anode electrodes  14  of substrate  18  using electrochemical polymerization. (A set may contain one or more electrodes.) The cathode electrodes  12  are then deposited, for example, by evaporation onto emitters  200 . The encapsulation layer  23 , usually comprised of an epoxy cast, is sealed on top of the device  100 , covering the entire device. This protects the device  100  from the outside environment. An insulation layer  22  can be placed between the cathodes  12  and the encapsulation layer  23 , covering the entire device  100 ; this prevents contact between the cathodes  12  and the encapsulation layers  23 . 
     EXAMPLE 1 
     The electrolyte solution comprised 1 mM bis(2-thienyl)-9,9-didecylfluorene (BTDF) monomer and 0.1M tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEAFB) supporting electrolyte in γ-butyrolactone (GBL) solvent. The working electrode was a patterned 3 cm 2  area of 10 Ω/square indium tin oxide (ITO) on glass; the platinum sheet counter electrode had an area of 10 cm 2  and was disposed parallel to the working electrode in the electrolyte solution. The reference electrode was the Ag/Ag + (CH 3 CN) couple (0.01M AgNO 3 . 0.1M TEAFB in acetonitrile) and was incorporated in a narrow tube with a porous Vycor frit that was immersed in the electrolyte solution. A standard three-electrode configuration was used, and potentials were measured/applied vs. the reference electrode by means of a Princeton Applied Research Model 273 potentiostat/galvanostat. A clear dark green polymer film deposited on the ITO when the working electrode was subjected to a constant anodic potential of +0.713 V vs. reference for a total charge of 87 mC (millicoulombs); the current remained at ca. 6 μA throughout the deposition. The film was then held at a cathodic bias of −1.0 V for 10 minutes before immersing in a 2% solution of hydrazine hydrate in acetonitrile, completely reducing the film to its neutral form. The resulting yellow film exhibited yellow-orange PL. Comparable results were observed with poly(BTDF) films deposited at a constant current of 2 μA/cm 2 . A crude OLED device with the structure ITO/poly(BTDF)/Al was fabricated from the working electrode by evaporation of aluminum onto the polymer film. When current was passed through the device, a brief emission of light was observed. 
     EXAMPLE 2 
     An electrolyte solution was made comprising 1 mM bis(2-thienyl)-N-dodecylcarbazole (BTDC) and 0.1M TEAFB in GBL. In the same manner as example 1, poly(BTDC) was deposited onto an ITO working electrode at a constant potential of 0.50 V vs. Ag/Ag + (CH 3 CN) as a clear brownish film; charge passed during deposition corresponded to ca. 25 mC/cm 2 . Upon electrochemical/chemical reduction, the resulting yellow film exhibited yellow PL. Comparable results were observed with poly(BTDC) films deposited at a constant current of 2 μA/cm 2 . 
     EXAMPLE 3 
     Using a monomer mixture of 1 mM BTDF and 0.5 mM bithiophene in the electrolyte solution, a mixed polymer film was obtained by the procedure of example 1. The resulting orange (reduced) film exhibited an orange PL. 
     While several illustrative embodiments of the invention have been shown and described, numerous variations and alternate embodiments will occur to those skilled in the art. For example, an intervening transparent organic conductor layer which acts as a hole transport layer can be provided between the emitter and the underlying electrode if desired, rather than forming the emitter directly onto the ITO electrode. Another example would be to orient the electrode array in a non-parallel configuration to the counterelectrode, and provide a gradient among the voltage applied to the different electrodes. Such variations and alternate embodiments are contemplated, and can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.