Abstract:
A device including a NEMS/MEMS machine(s) and associated electrical circuitry. The circuitry includes at least one transistor, preferably JFET, that is used to: (i) actuate the NEMS/MEMS machine; and/or (ii) receive feedback from the operation of the NEMS/MEMS machine The transistor (e.g., the JFET) and the NEMS/MEMS machine are monolithically integrated for enhanced signal transduction and signal processing. Monolithic integration is preferred to hybrid integration (e.g., integration using wire bonds, flip chip contact bonds or the like) due to reduce parasitics and mismatches. In one embodiment, the JFET is integrated directly into a MEMS machine, that is in the form of a SOI MEMS cantilever, to form an extra-tight integration between sensing and electronic integration. When a cantilever connected to the JFET is electrostatically actuated; its motion directly affects the current in the JFET through monolithically integrated conduction paths (e.g., traces, vias, etc.) In one embodiment, devices according to the present invention were realized in 2?m thick SOI cross-wire beams, with a MoSi2 contact metallization for stress minimization and ohmic contact. In this embodiment, the pull-in voltage for the MEMS cantilever was 21V and the pinch-off voltage of the JFET was −19V.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
       [0001]    The present application claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application No. 61/418467, filed on 1 Dec. 2010; all of the foregoing patent-related document(s) are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their respective entirety(ies). 
     
    
     FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT 
       [0002]    The U.S. Government may have certain rights in this invention pursuant to Grant No. DMR 0520404 awarded by NSF. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
       [0003]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0004]    The present invention relates to JFETs, and especially JFETS designed to be suitable for use in helping to control NEMS/MEMS scale machines (herein called “NEMS/MEMS machines,” see also, “NEMS/MEMS scale” in the DEFINITIONS section). The present invention further relates to devices which include both the NEMS/MEMS machine and at least some of the circuitry for controlling the operation of the NEMS/MEMS machine (see definition section). These combinations of the NEMS/MEMS machine hardware set and at least a portion of its control circuitry (e.g. a JFET) will sometimes herein be referred to as “NEMS/MEMS devices.” 
         [0005]    2. Description of the Related Art 
         [0006]    As shown in  FIG. 1 , conventional SOI-NEMS/MEMS device (see definition of SOI in the DEFINITIONS section)  100 , includes: An electronics chip consisting mostly of complementary metal oxide (“CMOS”) semiconductor transistors, but active electronic transistors in general,  102 ; bonded conduction path  112 ; and NEMS/MEMS chip  113 . Electronics chip  102  includes: contact pad/s  104 ,  110 ; demodulator/filter/pre-amp/reference module  106 ; and amplifier  108 . NEMS/MEMS chip  113  includes: mechanical springs and masses  114 ; fingers often used for electrostatic actuation  116 ; anchor  118 ; proof mass  119 ; and contact pads  120 . Sub-assembly  114  (including proof mass  119 ) moves in the directions indicated by arrows D1 and D2: (i) to create an electrical signal; and/or (ii) in response to an electrical signal. This sort of conventional NEMS/MEMS device is part of many commercial products and/or proposed products, such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, electrical switches, resonators, timing devices, optical switches, optical gratings, and microfluidic devices. Many commercial NEMS/MEMS devices are made with thicker suspended parts to obtain higher mass and greater sense capacitances. This has been obtained through using SOI wafers and etching them using DRIE processing techniques. Even without SOI substrates, using processes such as SCREAM, high aspect ratio NEMS/MEMS devices are commercially available. 
         [0007]    There are two main architectures for electrically connecting the NEMS/MEMS machine and its associated transistors (e.g., field effect transistors, or “FETs,” for sensing a motion characteristic (see DEFINITIONS section)). These two main architectures, for electrically connecting transistor and machine are as follows: (i) putting the machine and the transistors respectively on two different chip substrates and electrically connecting them by conduction paths that have “conductor bonding” (see DEFINITIONS section); and (ii) putting the machine and transistor on a common chip substrate so that the machine and transistor are electrically connected to each other using only non-bonded conduction path(s). Architecture (i) will sometimes be referred to herein as the “hybrid technique” (or “hybrid architecture”). Architecture (ii) will sometimes be herein referred to as “monolithic integration.” The hybrid technique, where the integrated circuit and NEMS and/or MEMS machine components are fabricated independently and typically wire bonded or flip-chip bonded together, is shown in  FIG. 1 . 
         [0008]    Most commercial MEMS sensor solutions use the hybrid integration process for electrical interface and signal conditioning. The hybrid-technique is often justified as a way to reduce complexity of CMOS integration with NEMS/MEMS. Monolithic integration with a highly complex electronics technology such as multi-level interconnect state-of-art CMOS can be expensive for monolithic integration. This is because, the NEMS/MEMS components often take much larger amount of real-estate on chip compared to the transistors needed for the sensor signal conditioning. Hence, buying a separate few-transistor signal conditioning chip, and bonding to a separate low-complexity NEMS/MEMS chip is often cost-effective. Although the hybrid technique offers the advantage of independent optimization of the integrated circuit and NEMS fabrication process flows, it is conventionally recognized that the cost for assembly and packaging can be higher than the cost of monolithic integration. Previously, various research groups have monolithically integrated MOSFETs into NEMS/MEMS devices for signal transduction. The focus generally has been on monolithic integration with CMOS transistors, assuming that one could integrate the NEMS/MEMS process with conventional state-of-art ultra-miniature CMOS technology. Since the number of transistors needed to obtain effective signal conditioning, co-integration of transistors within the NEMS/MEMS fabrication flow could enable an optimal cost/performance of NEMS/MEMS. Recent work has focused on integrating the MOS structures within NEMS/MEMS, partly owing to the fact that the DC power consumption in MOS transistors can be low due to high I on /I off  ratio of devices and very low gate leakage currents. However, MOS devices suffer from higher input referred noise due to the noisy conduction of carriers along the oxide-silicon interface. It has been widely recognized that the flicker noise for MOS transistors is inferior to that of JFET or Junction Field Effect Transistors, also known as Junction Gate Field Effect Transistors. 
         [0009]    A NEMS/MEMS device, including a NEMS/MEMS machine and an associated transistor in the form of a JFET, is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,205,173 (“Brunson”). In Brunson, the JFET portions of the NEMS/MEMS device are in the form of “wells,” which is to say that the doping that creates the constituent regions of the Brunson JFET is accomplished by diffusing dopants into the wafer thickness (that is, in a direction substantially normal to the major surface of the semiconductor layer through which the diffusion occurs. In 173 Brunson, the doped wells forming the Brunson JFET do not extend all the way across the thickness of their semiconductor layer (that is, the wells do not extend from one major surface of the semiconductor, all the way to the opposite major surface. Because of the geometry of the well structures in Brunson, the channel conductance is squeezed (and sometimes pinched off) by depleted zone(s)that expand in the thickness direction of the semiconductor layer to control conduction. In Brunson, NEMS/MEMS were integrated with the JFET transistors monolithically, but the link between transistors and the NEMS/MEMS was purely electrical. The output of the NEMS/MEMS, being capacitive output, was linked to the transistor gates. 
         [0010]    The following published documents may also include helpful background information: (i) Oilier, E., Duraffourg, L., Colinet, E., Durand, C., Renaud, D., Royet, A., Renaux, P., Casset, F., Robert, P., “Lateral MOSFET Transistor With Movable Gate for NEMS Devices Compatible With “In-IC” Integration,” Nano/Micro Engineered and Molecular Systems, 2008, NEMS 2008, 3rd IEEE International Conference on, vol., no., pp. 764-769, 6-9 Jan. 2008, http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=arnumber=4484439&amp;isnumber=4484266; (ii) U.S. Pat. No. 6,531,331 (“Bennett”); (iii) U.S. Pat. No. 7,615,788 (“Kornegay”); (iv) U.S. Pat. No. 8,012,785 (“Liang”); (v) U.S. Pat. No. 7,989,889 (“Kerr”); (vi) US Patent Publication No. 2011/0101475 (“Parpia”); (vii) US Patent Publication No. 2010/0263997 (“Hilgers”); (viii) US Patent Publication No. 2011/0068374 (“Tan”); (ix) U.S. Pat. No. 7,759,924 (Shekhawat); (x) U.S. Pat. No. 7,868,403 (“Ivanov”); (xi) U.S. Pat. No. 6,797,534 (“Tu”); (xii) US Patent Publication No. 2010/0171569 (“Ionescu”); (xiii) US Patent Publication No. 2010/0314668 (“Ollier”); (xiv) US Patent Publication No. 2011/0026742 (“Huang”); (xv) US Patent Publication No. 2011/0057288 (“Tan”); (xvi) U.S. Pat. No. 5,880,921 (“Tham”); and (xii) Grogg, D., Tsamados, D., Badila, N. D., Ionescu, A. M., “Integration of MOSFET Transistors in MEMS Resonators for Improved Output Detection,” Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Conference, 2007, TRANSDUCERS 2007, International. vol., no., pp. 1709-1712, 10-14 June 2007, http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&amp;arnumber=4300481&amp;isnumber=430005 (xviii) US Patent No. US 2011/0024812 A1 (“Weinstein et al”); (xix) US Patent No. US 2008/0001658 A1 (“Mojarradi et al”); (xx) US Patent No. US 2007/0008013 A1 (“Fijany et al”); (xxi) Akarvardar et al. (US application 2007-0008013 A1). 
         [0011]    Description Of the Related Art Section Disclaimer: To the extent that specific publications are discussed above in this Description of the Related Art Section, these discussions should not be taken as an admission that the discussed publications (for example, published patents) are prior art for patent law purposes. For example, some or all of the discussed publications may not be sufficiently early in time, may not reflect subject matter developed early enough in time and/or may not be sufficiently enabling so as to amount to prior art for patent law purposes. To the extent that specific publications are discussed above in this Description of the Related Art Section, they are all hereby incorporated by reference into this document in their respective entirety(ies). 
       BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0012]    The present invention recognizes that in hybrid architecture device  100 , the wire bond introduces parasitic phenomena as well as mismatch phenomena. The present invention further recognizes that monolithic integration of NEMS/MEMS machines, with FETs, results in the minimization of the wire-bond parasitic phenomena, and that this minimization of parasitics can be highly advantageous. More specifically, the hybrid solution introduces parasitics and mismatches during the assembly and packaging of the FETS and NEMS components due to the wire bonds that connects the two dice and this prevents SOI-NEMS/MEMS to fully realize optimal performance. 
         [0013]    One aspect of the present invention is directed to a JFET structure (and associated methods of making and/or using) that is contained and insulated within a single semiconductor layer in a monolithically integrated chip stack. Another aspect of the present invention is a NEMS/MEMS device (and associated methods of making and/or using) that includes a NEMS/MEMS machine and a JFET structure that is contained and insulated within a single semiconductor layer in a monolithically integrated chip stack. In at least some JFETs according to the present invention. 
         [0014]    According to another aspect of the present invention, NEMS/MEMS devices are being constructed from high aspect ratio DRIE etched silicon, and the lateral beam thicknesses can be small, the JFET transistors can be integrated within beam structures used in NEMS/MEMS. Direct integration within the springs and masses used would lead to optimal use of chip-real-estate, and minimize interconnects to sensing elements. Using the thin lateral dimensions, one can diffuse dopants into high aspect ratio beams laterally; and do define channel conduction to extend across the entire thickness of a silicon layer (bounded on at least its lower side by an insulative layer (e.g., a silicon dioxide layer). This is to be sharply distinguished from Brunson, where the well structures defining the channel only extend part way across the thickness of their semiconductor layer medium. By using a JFET without wells, and instead with doped regions that span the entire thickness of the semiconductor layer. the JFET becomes easier to make and/or has improved performance especially when tightly electrically integrated on a single chip with a NEMS/MEMS machine. After the JFETS are formed by doping, the beams which are part of the NEMS/MEMS can, in some embodiments of the present invention, be released for tightly integrated transistor and NEMS/MEMS such that the transistors are directly part of the NEMS/MEMS. 
         [0015]    Given that many NEMS/MEMS devices are being constructed from high aspect ratio DRIE etched silicon, and the lateral beam thicknesses can be small, according to another aspect of the present invention, the JFET transistor(s) can be integrated within the material of the cantilever beam structures (and/or otter moving parts) used in NEMS/MEMS. Direct integration within the springs and masses used would lead to optimal use of chip-real-estate, and minimize interconnects to sensing elements. Using the thin lateral dimensions, one can diffuse dopants into high aspect ratio beams laterally; do define channel conduction along the wafer, instead of vertically into the wafer as in traditional JFETs. After the transistors are integrated, the beams which are part of the NEMS/MEMS can be released for tightly integrated transistor and NEMS/MEMS such that the transistors are directly part of the NEMS/MEMS. 
         [0016]    According to an aspect of the present invention, a device includes: (a) a first insulator layer that defines: (i) the major plane of the device; and (ii) a transverse direction that is normal to the major plane at any given point on the major plane; and (b) a first semiconductor layer. The first semiconductor layer and the first insulator layer are monolithically integrated into a stack structure. The stack structure includes a first NEMS/MEMS region. The first NEMS/MEMS region of the stack structure is structured, connected, sized, shaped and/or located to operate as a first NEMS/MEMS machine that includes a first moving part. The semiconductor layer includes a first major surface and a second major surface, spaced apart in the transverse direction. The first semiconductor layer includes a first JFET structure. The first JFET structure includes: the following JFET regions: a source region, a drain region, a first gate region and a conductance channel region. The following JFET regions of the first JFET extend entirely across a transverse dimension of the first semiconductor layer. x is a first doping type (either p or n). y is a second doping type (either p or n). The conductance channel region of the first JFET structure is x doped and the first gate is y doped, to an extent so that during operation of the device: (i) the conductance channel of the first JFET structure will develop depleted and undepleted portions, and (ii) the depleted portions will, at times and as determined by operating conditions, pinch off the conductance channel of the first JFET structure. The first JFET is electrically connected to the first NEMS/MEMS machine. The insulator layer is electrically insulating so that current does not flow in the insulative layer during operation of the device. 
         [0017]    According to another aspect of the present invention, a method of making a JFET structure is presented. The JFET structure includes a first insulator layer and a first semiconductor layer. The method includes the following steps: monolithically forming the first semiconductor layer and the first insulator layer into a stack structure so that the first semiconductor layer includes the JFET structure such that the JFET structure is electrically isolated from other layers of the stack structure; x doping the first semiconductor layer, across its entire transverse direction, to form in the first semiconductor layer a source region; x doping the first semiconductor layer, across its entire transverse direction, to form in the first semiconductor layer a drain region; lightly x doping the first semiconductor layer, across its entire transverse direction, to form in the first semiconductor layer a conductance channel; and y doping the first semiconductor layer, across its entire transverse direction, to form in the first semiconductor layer a first gate region. x is a first doping type (either p or n). y is a second doping type (either p or n). The doping steps create the JFET structure within the first semiconductor layer. The JFET structure is structured, located and/or connected so that during operation of the JFET structure: (i) the conductance channel of the first JFET structure will develop depleted and undepleted portions, and (ii) the depleted portions will, at times and as determined by operating conditions, expand to pinch off the conductance channel. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0018]    The present invention will be more fully understood and appreciated by reading the following Detailed Description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: 
           [0019]      FIG. 1  is a schematic view of a prior art NEMS/MEMS device; 
           [0020]      FIG. 2  is a schematic view of a first embodiment of a NEMS/MEMS device according to the present invention; 
           [0021]      FIG. 3A  a plan view of a first embodiment of a JFET according to the present invention; 
           [0022]      FIG. 3B  a plan and cross-sectional view of the first embodiment JFET operating at its “knee voltage;” 
           [0023]      FIG. 3C  a plan and cross-sectional view of the first embodiment JFET operating above its “knee voltage;” 
           [0024]      FIG. 3D  is a graph showing certain characteristics of the performance of the first embodiment JFET; 
           [0025]      FIG. 4  is schematic view of a second embodiment of a NEMS/MEMS device according to the present invention; 
           [0026]      FIG. 5  is another schematic representation of the second embodiment NEMS/MEMS device; 
           [0027]      FIG. 6A  is another schematic view of the second embodiment NEMS/MEMS device; 
           [0028]      FIG. 6B  is an orthographic plan view of the second embodiment NEMS/MEMS device; 
           [0029]      FIGS. 7A to 70  is a cross-sectional view that shows the layered structure of a third embodiment of a NEMS/MEMS device according to the present invention as it is being monolithically integrated and otherwise manufactured; 
           [0030]      FIG. 8  is a schematic view of a fourth embodiment of a NEMS/MEMS device according to the present invention; 
           [0031]      FIG. 9  is a graph showing certain characteristics of the performance of the fourth embodiment NEMS/MEMS device; 
           [0032]      FIG. 10  is a schematic view of a fifth embodiment of a NEMS/MEMS device according to the present invention; 
           [0033]      FIG. 11  is a graph showing certain characteristics of the performance of the fifth embodiment NEMS/MEMS device; 
           [0034]      FIG. 12  is a schematic view, of a sixth embodiment of a NEMS/MEMS device according to the present invention; 
           [0035]      FIG. 13  is a graph showing certain characteristics of the performance of the sixth embodiment NEMS/MEMS device; 
           [0036]      FIG. 14  is a schematic view of a seventh embodiment of a NEMS/MEMS device according to the present invention; 
           [0037]      FIG. 15  is a graph showing certain characteristics of the performance of the seventh embodiment NEMS/MEMS device; 
           [0038]      FIG. 16  is a graph showing certain characteristics of the performance of various embodiments of NEMS/MEMS devices according to the present invention; 
           [0039]      FIG. 17A  is a perspective view of a circuit according to the present invention; 
           [0040]      FIG. 17B  is another perspective view of the  FIG. 17A  circuit; 
           [0041]      FIG. 18  is a perspective view of another circuit according to the present invention; 
           [0042]      FIG. 19  is a plan view of an eighth embodiment of a NEMS/MEMS device according to the present invention; 
           [0043]      FIG. 20  is a perspective view of the eighth embodiment device; 
           [0044]      FIG. 21  is a graph showing certain characteristics of the performance of a NEMS/MEMS device according to the present invention; 
           [0045]      FIG. 22  is a graph showing certain characteristics of the performance of a NEMS/MEMS device according to the present invention; 
           [0046]      FIG. 23  shows a transverse cross-section of a three layer SOI stack suitable for use in various embodiments of the present invention; 
           [0047]      FIG. 24  shows a first alternative NEMS/MEMS system level architecture (including certain control electronics, other than the JFET sensor/amplifiers, which will herein be sometimes referred to as CMOS control electronics); 
           [0048]      FIG. 25  shows a second alternative of CMOS and NEMS/MEMS system level architecture (including certain control electronics, other than the JFET sensor/amplifiers, which will herein be sometimes referred to as CMOS control electronics); 
           [0049]      FIG. 26  shows a third alternative of CMOS and NEMS/MEMS system level architecture (including certain control electronics, other than the JFET sensor/amplifiers, which will herein be sometimes referred to as CMOS control electronics); 
           [0050]      FIG. 27  is a perspective view of a device  825  according to the present invention, the device including source  826 , gate  827  and drain  828 . 
           [0051]      FIG. 28  is a method of fabricating with nine intermediate stack structures that exist during the manufacturing process. 
           [0052]      FIG. 29  is a method of fabricating showing eleven intermediate stack structures that exist during the manufacturing process. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
       [0053]      FIG. 2  shows a NEMS/MEMS device  200 , which is substantially constituted by a single, monolithically integrated chip  202 . In some embodiments, the NEMS/MEMS device may include additional control electronics, such as a processing network, located on a second chip substrate. However, in device  200 , the NEMS/MEMS machine and at least one of its associated transistors are located on the single chip  202 . As shown in  FIG. 2 , chip  202  includes: first terminal T 1 ; demodulator/filters/pre-amp/reference module  206 ; amplifier  208 ; non-bonded path  212 ; anchor structures  218 ; spring/mass sub-assembly  214 ; proof mass  219 ; and finger structure  216 . 
         [0054]    The mode of operation for NEMS/MEMS devices according to the present invention will now be discussed with reference to  FIGS. 3A to 3D . As shown in  FIG. 3A , JFET  250  includes: drain region  252 ; first gate region  254 ; source region  256 ; second gate region  258  and channel region  251 . As shown in  FIGS. 3B and 3C , channel region  251  connects source  256  to drain  252 . As further shown in  FIGS. 3B and 3C , channel region  251  includes: first semiconductor layer  261 ; insulator layer  280  (made of, e.g., silicon dioxide); and second semiconductor layer  282  (made of, e.g., silicon). As further shown in  FIGS. 3B and 3C , first semiconductor layer  261  includes: first p doped sub-region  260 ; second p doped sub-region  270 ; first carrier-depleted channel portion  262  of lightly n doped region  262 ,  264 ,  266 ; second carrier-depleted channel portion  266  of lightly n doped region  262 ,  264 ,  266 ; and carrier-undepleted channel portion  264  of lightly n doped region  262 ,  264 ,  266 . The channel sub-region in layer  261  therefore includes depleted portions  262  and  266 , as well as undepleted portion  264 . This channel sub-region  262 ,  264 ,  266  is lightly n doped. As can be seen by comparing  FIG. 3B  and  FIG. 3C , the width of the carrier depleted zone increases in footprint when the electrical potential between the drain and source increases. As shown in  FIG. 3C , at some point the carrier depleted portions  262 ,  266  will swell to the extent that they “pinch off” the undepleted portion such that the undepleted portion no longer extends continuously from the drain to the source. As shown in graph  299  of  FIG. 3D , once this phenomenon of pinch off occurs, then further increases in the magnitude of the electrical potential between the source and drain will not result in an increase of current flow through the channel sub-region  262 ,  264 ,  266 . 
         [0055]    An n-channel JFET is a majority carrier transistor where: (i) electrons flow from the source toward the drain; and (ii) holes flow from the drain toward the source.  FIGS. 3B and 3C  each show the top view and the transverse cross-section of a channel region in 4-terminal n-channel JFET  250 , with  3 B and  3 C respectively showing the JFET in: (i) an unsaturated state (although getting close to saturation); and (ii) a saturated state. A comparison of  FIGS. 3B and 3C  show the gradual increase in the width of depleted portions  262  and  266  as V DS  is increased. The source, gate-land gate-2 are tied to ground. With a small V DS  applied, the channel acts like an ohmic resistor (see region I of  FIG. 3D ) and current flows from the drain to the source. As V DS  increases, the reverse bias on the pn-junction between the drain and the gate is further reverse biased. Because of this reverse bias, depleted portions  262 ,  266  form between the gates (more precisely, the p doped sub-regions in the channel region) and the undepleted portion of lightly n doped sub-region  262 ,  264 ,  266  when V DS  is present. 
         [0056]    The widening of the gate-to-channel depletion region into the channel area causes the resistance of the channel to increase as represented in  FIG. 3B  and region II of graph  299 . As V DS  further increases, the depletion regions form around both gates meet at the drain and the channel is “pinched-off.” The drain current saturates and any further increase in the drain voltage does not introduce considerable change in the drain current. To summarize the foregoing, as a larger V DS  is applied, the gate-channel depletion region gets wider and pushes into the channel as a result increasing the channel resistance. Pinch-off is reached when the area around the drain is fully depleted and further increase in V DS  has insignificant change in the drain current and the drain current saturates. Graph  299  shows current-versus-voltage characteristics for zero gate voltage. At pinch-off, the electric field that exists between the source and the drain causes electrons to drift from the source to the drain.  FIG. 3C  and Region III on graph  299  demonstrates the saturation phenomenon. 
         [0057]    Ten equations will now be set forth, followed by a discussion of the equations. 
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         [0000]    where C nems1  is the capacitance between the gate-3 and cantilever, C nems2  is the capacitance between the cantilever and gate-4 and C dep  is the depletion capacitance at the cantilever-JFET junction. C nems1  and C nems2  are derived as 
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         [0059]    Where C 0  the nominal capacitance, q is the electron charge, ε si  is the permittivity of silicon, N d =4.16e14 ions/cm 3  is the doping concentration in the channel assuming a one-sided junction and V bi =0.81 V is the built-in potential. V G2  can be determined numerically by substituting Eq. 8, 9 and 10 into Eq. 7. 
         [0060]    Discussion of the equations begins with Equation (1), in which shows a useful approximation of the saturation current for JFETS like JFET  250 . In Equation (1), I DSS  is the maximum current when V Gs= 0V and V P  is the pinch-off voltage. Relying on the working principles of the n channel JFET, the motion of a NEMS cantilever was sensed using an integrated JFET. The schematic of the JFET-NEMS device is shown in  FIG. 4  and its equivalent small signal model is illustrated in  FIG. 5 . More specifically,  FIG. 4  shows NEMS/MEMS device  300 , including: JFET  250 ; and NEMS/MEMS machine  312  (including moveable cantilever member  312   a , first stationary member  312   b  and second stationary member  312   c ). JFET  250  includes a channel region which includes the following sub-regions: drain interface sub-region  302 ; first and second p doped sub-regions  306 ,  308 ; source interface sub-region  304 ; and lightly n doped sub-region  303 ,  305 ,  310  (including undepleted portion  310 , and, when applicable, depleted zones  303 ,  305  that can change in their size and shape depending upon operating conditions). 
         [0061]    As shown in  FIG. 4 , applying voltage V G3  to the second stationary member, will cause the floating potential of Gate 2 (that is, the cantilever member) to adjust and take on value VG2. The floating potential of Gate 2 is used on an ongoing basis to modulate the channel conductance of the JFET. In this way, a motion characteristic (specifically position) of the moveable part (that is, the cantilever member) of the NEMS/MEMS machine is used to effectively detect the position of the cantilever by fluctuations in its floating potential. In device  300 , this detection of the cantilever position is provided to the second p doped sub-region  308  of the channel region of JFET  250  in an extremely direct way because the cantilever member extends directly from, and is monolithically integrated with, the second p doped sub-region. In this way, changes in the cantilever member position in space will cause corresponding changes to channel conductance of JFET  250 , and cantilever position helps control the operation of JFET  250  through this control of channel conductance. 
         [0062]    As further shown in  FIG. 4 , the conducting channel (including both its depleted and undepleted portions) is lightly n-type doped. The gates interface sub-regions  306  and  308  are p+ doped and the source and drain interface sub-regions  302  and  304  are n+ doped. In this embodiment cantilever member  312   a  is 250 nm wide and is surrounded by stationary members  312   b  and  312   c  (sometimes respectively denominated herein as gate 3 and gate 4). As shown in  FIG. 5 , the bulk is the substrate of the SOI wafer. Additional mechanical components such as beam stoppers can be used to limit motion. These stopper enables the NEMS/MEMS machine to be configured into an electrical switch. 
         [0063]    When the gate-1-to-channel junction is reversed biased, its junction depletion width (that is, the size of depleted portion  303 ) increases. With further incremental changes in this reverse bias voltage, the channel could be “pinched-off” when the depleted zones extend across at least one transverse cross section of the conductance channel (that is, the lightly n doped sub-region). Gates 3 and 4 are used to actuate the cantilever, which, in turn, causes gate 2 (that is, the floating electrical potential of the cantilever) to help modulate channel conductance.  FIG. 6A  and B respectively are: (i) the equivalent capacitive model; and a plan view of the JFET-NEMS device. 
         [0064]    When a voltage is applied to gate 3, the cantilever moves closer to gate 3 due to electrostatic force of attraction. The electrostatic force between gate 3 and the cantilever is given by Equation (2), above. The force between the cantilever and gate 4 is given by Equation (3), above. In equation (3) ε 0  is the permittivity of vacuum, A=8e-8 cm 2  is the actuator area, d=350 nm is the initial gap, and x is the beam displacement. Using Taylor series approximation, Equation (4), as shown above, is obtained. In Equation (4), F3 is a parasitic force which is a negative spring and is known as spring softening. At equilibrium, the electrostatic force is equal to the spring force as in Equation (5), above. In Equation (5), m is the mass, g is the acceleration, k(=0.22 N/m) is the spring constant of the cantilever. From Equation (5), the displacement of the cantilever can be derived as Equation (6), above. 
         [0065]    The equivalent capacitive model for the JFET-NEMS device is a simple capacitive divider as illustrated in  FIG. 6A . From the capacitive model, the floating potential V G2  of the cantilever is given by Equation (7), above. In Equation (7), C nems1  and C nems2  are derived as Equations (8) and (9), above. Equation (6) can be substituted into Equations (8) and (9). At the cantilever-JFET junction, the depletion capacitance is given by Equation (10), where C 0  is the nominal capacitance, q is the electron charge, ε si  is the permittivity of silicon, N d =4.16e14 ions/cm 3  is the doping concentration in the channel assuming a one-sided junction and V bi =0.81 V is the built-in potential. V G2  can be determined numerically by substituting Equations (8), (9) and (10) into Equation (7). 
         [0066]    Device fabrication will now be discussed with reference to  FIGS. 7A to 7O . As shown in  FIGS. 7A to 7O , the process produces a series of stack-in-progress structures respectively given the reference numerals of  500   a  (that is, starting stock stack) to  500   o  (finished stack). The devices were realized in 2 μm-device layer n-type SOI wafer. One key feature of at least some “embodiments” of the fabrication process was that both the JFETs and the NEMS components appear on the same mask so the devices were processed simultaneously which eliminated the conventional post-processing  of the NEMS components which is generally required in the context of NEMS/MEMS devices made using a CMOS chip. Stacks-in-progress  500   a  to  500   o  collectively include the following layers: first silicon layer  502 ; first silicon dioxide (or insulator) layer  504 ; second silicon layer  506 ; second silicon dioxide (or insulator) layer  508 ; first chromium layer  510 ; first resist layer  512 ; n doped portion  514 ; p doped portion  518 ; metal line layer  520 ; third silicon dioxide layer  522 ; second resist layer  524 . The fabrication steps presented graphically in  FIGS. 7A to 7O  are as follows: ( 7 A) SOI substrate provided; ( 7 B) SiO 2  and Cr deposition; ( 7 C) Polymethyl methacrylate (“PMMA”) resist spinning; (D) Ebeam exposure of n+ region; (E) reactive-ion etching (“RIE”) of Cr and SiO 2  etching; (F) wet etching of resist and Cr; (G) solid source diffusion of phosphorous dopant and annealing; (H) wet etching of SiO 2  diffusion mask; (I) repeat steps shown in  FIGS. 7B to 7F ; (J) solid source diffusion and annealing of boron; (K) wet etching of SiO2; (L) sputter on metal layer (preferably MoSi 2  or MoSi 2 -containing), deposit SiO 2  and spin resist; (M) exposure of negative resist and RIE of SiO 2  and MoSi2; (N) Deep RIE (or “DRIE”) of silicon device layer and ; (O) BOE release of devices and critical point drying to prevent stiction. 
         [0067]    The contact electrodes were silicidated with metal, preferably MoSi 2 . MoSi 2 , by its inherent material properties, has low resistance and exhibits low stress even as it moves with the moving part(s) of the NEMS/MEMS machine. This was done to ensure that there was ohmic contact between the Si and the probing pads. In the embodiment of  FIG. 7 , MoSi 2  (or other suitable metal) is sputtered and Rapid Thermal Annealed (RTA) at 750° C. in Ar gas for 3 minutes to form the ohmic contacts (including non-bonded conduction path(s) between each NEMS/MEMS machine and its associated JFET(s). The fabrication process involved 4 levels of electron beam lithography and 5 levels of photolithography. The mask count could be drastically reduced to 4 if deep ultraviolet (“DUV”) lithography is used for the exposures of the NEMS components and the probing pads. We are currently using ASML DUV tool to make these devices. 
         [0068]    The current-versus-potential (“IV”) characteristics of some JFETs, according to the present invention, will now be discussed. All IV measurements were carried out in vacuum (p˜4 mbars). The measurements described here are for the device shown in  FIG. 6B .  FIG. 8  is a schematic  400  helpful in understanding graph  401  of  FIG. 9 . Graph  401  is the plot of I D  versus V DS  and it shows saturation as the channel is pinched-off. Graph  401  shows measured I DS  versus V DS  output curves for a JFET-NEMS device. The measured low current is due to the high drain and source resistances.  FIG. 10  is a schematic  600  helpful in understanding graph  601  of  FIG. 11 . Graph  601  shows a curve corresponding to various V G1  values, and further shows the expected pinch-off voltage Vp=−19V. I DSS  was measured to be ˜700 nA when V GS =0V and V Ds =10V. As shown in  FIG. 11 , this is a transfer curve for the JFET-NEMS device biased at V DS =10V. 
         [0069]      FIG. 12  shows a schematic helpful in understanding graph  701  of  FIG. 13 . Since the gate-channel is reverse biased, the gate leakage current should be minimal and it was measure to be ˜70 pA at V GS =−19V as illustrated in graph  701 . Graph  701  shows that the gate leakage current when the JFET is turned off was ˜70 pA. 
         [0070]    A Common Source Amplifier Configuration of JFET-NEMS device will now be discussed. The JFET is then configured into a common source amplifier by connecting a 3 MΩ resistor at the drain. Such a large load resistor is justified due to the very large input resistance of the transistor channel. The transconductance (gm) of the transistor was 13.3 μS. This value is low due to a large parasitic resistance formed at the source and drain terminals. This large resistance leads to a very large RC time constant for charging and discharging the load capacitances, leading to a low frequency operation of 351 Hz. An AC signal is input at gate 3 and the drain output connected to an oscilloscope. The AC signal couples into the cantilever and this signal is transduced through the JFET portion. Changing the gate 1 voltage of the JFET changes the gain of the amplifier as shown in graph  751  of  FIG. 15 .  FIG. 14  shows schematic  750 , which is helpful for understanding graph  751 . The capacitance from gate 3 to cantilever is 0.55 fF, and the capacitance from cantilever to gate of JFET is 0.53 fF. As shown in graph  751 , the JFET-NEMS device is configured as a common source amplifier with R D =3 MΩ. An AC signal is applied at gate 3 and the output voltage increases with increasing reverse bias on gate 1. The output AC signal is 180° phase shifted. Sensing the motion of the cantilever member through the JFET to sense the motion of the cantilever, the 3MΩ resistor is removed and the drain voltage is swept from 0-3V. The source, gate 1 and gate 4 voltages are placed at 0V. As the voltage on gate 3 is increased, the cantilever moves closer to the gate 3 electrode due to electrostatic force. The cantilever member has an electrical potential that floats in magnitude and/or direction as the body of the cantilever member moves through the electrical field created by the potential of the stationary members (see  FIG. 4 ) that constitute gates 3 and 4. The phenomenon of capacitive coupling is what causes the cantilever member (that is, gate 2) to vary in voltage as it changes its position relative to stationary gates 3 and 4. This floating potential (V G2 ) modulates the channel conductance. As the cantilever moves closer to gate 3, C nems1  increases and it results in the increase of V G2 . Because V G3  is negative, V G2  is also negative according to Equation (7) and it reverse biases the cantilever-JFET junction.  FIG. 16  shows graph  799 , which is the plot of the response of the JFET to the motion of a clamp-free cantilever and a clamp-clamp cantilever. Since the clamp-free cantilever has a higher displacement with the same gate 3 voltage, its V G2  is higher than the case of clamp-clamp beam and it is better able to modulate the drain channel conductance. As shown in  FIG. 16 , the JFET-NEMS device is able to sense the motion with the clamp-free and a clamp-clamp cantilever as gate 3 voltage is applied. The change in current is much larger for the clamped-free case. 
         [0071]    The drain current modulation could be partly due to piezoresistive effect at the cantilever-channel junction that occurs as the beam bends. For illustrative purposes, some non-limiting device parameters of the JFET-NEMS device are as follows: Length of cantilever 20 μm; Width of cantilever 250 nm; Thickness 2 μm; Vpull-in 21V; Resonance Frequency 753 KHz; Gate 3,4 air gap 350 nm; JFET channel area 16 μm 2 ; Vp (V DS =10V)−19V; I DSS (V DS =10V) 0.69 μA; β (IDSS/Vp 2 ) 1.9 mA/V 2 . 
         [0072]    One feature of some embodiments of the present invention is monolithic integration of JFET with moving gates that can be NEMS or MEMS. The fabrication of the devices utilizes embedded JFET junctions at cross-points of SOI beams. Another feature of some embodiments of the present invention is that the JFET amplifier gain as well as its use in sensing a motion characteristic (e.g., position) of a moving part of a NEMS/MEMS machine. In various embodiments, the moving part(s) of the NEMS/MEMS machine may (without limitation) take various forms, such as a cantilever, an inertial sensor, a resonator, switch(es). In at least some embodiments of the present invention, tightly coupled NEMS/MEMS and electronics reduce parasitics and improve performance. Because SOI beams are common to many MEMS devices, JFETs can be used to sense and amplify motion for increased signal and reduce effect of parasitic capacitances encountered in two-chip MEMS and NEMS. 
         [0073]    Using JFET technology to fabricate BJTs, MESFETs and MOSFETs will now be discussed, starting with the BJT. Using the JFET fabrication technology, a Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) can be realized by varying the doping concentration at the collector, base and emitter. There are two types of BJTs; the npn and the pnp. Three implantations or solid diffusion has to be carried out. The first diffusion at the emitter, the second at the base and the third at the collector terminals. The emitter and the collector are dosed with the same dopant (n or p) but the doping concentration at the emitter is higher than at the collector. DRIE is used to define the junctions. To improve isolation and reduce parasitics, the oxide below the device could be etched away and the device will be free standing.  FIGS. 17A and 17B  show schematic  800  of the proposed BJT. As shown in  FIG. 17 , Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) with emitter, base and collector terminals. The emitter is highly doped than the collector. Both NPN and PNP transistors can be fabricated using this technology. (B) The cross section of a released device. The conducting channel for all these devices can be released by etching away the buried oxide. Releasing the conducting layer provides isolation and reduces parasitics between the channel and the substrate. 
         [0074]    The operation of the Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MESFET) is similar to the JFET where the channel is pinched-off by applying a reverse bias voltage to the gate. The device is unipolar and majority carrier conducts the current through the channel. The major difference between the MESFET and the JFET is that the gate of the MESFET is Schottky contact whereas it is ohmic for the JFET. Schottky gate contacts are used in order to decrease the reverse gate leakage current during the operation of the device. To implement a Schottky contact in the current JFET technology, a metal with high work function such as Platinum should be deposited on an n-type gate and a metal with low work function such as Molybdenum should be deposited on the p-type gate. These metals are compatible with the current JFET technology.  FIG. 18  illustrates the schematic of a MESFET. The gate depletes the channel starting from the top (the interface between the gate and Si channel) to the bottom (the area lying on top of the SiO 2 ). These devices could be freely released as well.  FIG. 18  shows: Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MESFET)  850 . The gate is a Schottky contact but the source and drain are ohmic contacts. 
         [0075]    The Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is a minority carrier device where a gate voltage is applied to deplete and invert the channel which lies below the gate dielectric. To integrate MOSFETs into the JFET technology, the major additional fabrication step is the deposition of a few nanometers (&lt;10 nm) of dielectric material such as SiO 2  between the channel and gate metal.  FIG. 27  shows the schematic of the proposed MOSFET device  825 . The drain, source and gate are ohmic contacts and a dielectric layer is sandwiched between the gate and the channel.  FIG. 27 : Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET). An insulating layer (SiO 2 ) lies between the gate electrode and the conducting channel. 
         [0076]      FIGS. 19 and 20  show a NEMS/MEMS machine  875 , suitable for us in NEMS/MEMS devices according to the present invention), device  875  including: source  876 ; third gate  877 ; cantilever switch member  882  (including protrusion  882   a ); first gate  881 ; drain  879 ; and second gate  878 . The graphs shown in  FIGS. 21 and 22  show performance characteristics of device  875 . 
         [0077]      FIG. 23  shows a stack structure for making JFETs according to the present invention, stack  950  including: first semiconductor layer  952 ; insulator layer  953 ; second semiconductor layer  954 ; and metal layer  955 . One feature of some embodiments of the present invention is that the doping of the various portions of the JFET run through the entire thickness of a stack structure, all the way down to an insulative layer laminated at the bottom of the semiconductor layer that houses the JFET. In this example, the semiconductor layer being second semiconductor layer  954 . More specifically, it prevents the conducting channel from extending in the transverse direction beyond the major surfaces of the semiconductor layer. In fact, this type of JFET with a stacked layer structure, with its source, drain, gate(s) and conducting channel being present in a relatively thin layer of selectively doped semiconductor, sandwiched between insulative layers (and/or metal contact lines) may be novel as a JFET architecture, in and of itself. 
         [0078]      FIGS. 24 ,  25  and  26  respectively show three possible system level architectures  900 ,  910 ,  920  for NEMS/MEMS devices according to the present invention. In architecture  900 , processing network  901 ; front end  902  (including JFETs); and NEMS/MEMS machine  903  are all present on a single chip  904 . In architecture  910 , processing network  912  and front end  913  (including JFETs) are on a first chip  915 , and NEMS/MEMS machine  914  is on a second chip  911 . In architecture  920 : first chip  925  includes processing network  922  and second chip  921  includes front end  923  and machine  924 . Various embodiments of the present invention may conform to any of these different architectures  900 ,  910 ,  920 . Currently, for at least some applications, architecture  920  is preferred, but this preference is subject to change. 
         [0079]    Some potential applications of the inventive JFETs and/or NEMS/MEMS devices according to the present invention are (without limitation): inertia sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, use in tip based manufacturing (especially in providing moveable probes); and probe moving (for tip based manufacturing probes and/or other types of precision-position probes). Also additional applications will be in inertial sensors such accelerometers, gyroscopes, and switches. 
         [0080]      FIG. 28 , at reference numerals  1 - 9  corresponding to intermediate stack structures of the process, shows a fabrication process according to the present invention: 
         [0081]    Etch the cross bar in the device layer of SOI using conventional micromaching process. 
         [0082]    Deposit conformal SiO2 using Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) or Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) 
         [0083]    Spin photoresist (ideally conformal by using a low spin speed) 
         [0084]    Expose region of the source and drain 
         [0085]    Wet etch conformal oxide that covers source and drain region 
         [0086]    Remove photoresist 
         [0087]    Diffuse n dopant (ideally phosphorus) into the source and drain regions. The dopant will diffuse ONLY into the channel. Also anneal to drive dopants further in. 
         [0088]    Remove conformal SiO2 
         [0089]    Repeat steps 2 to 6 then diffuse p dopant into the gates region. Anneal and wet etch conformal SiO2. 
         [0090]    Further photolithographic steps can be carried out to create MoSi2 metalization for the device. 
         [0091]      FIG. 29 , at reference numerals  1 - 1  corresponding to intermediate stack structures of the process, shows a fabrication process according to the present invention: see the text on  FIG. 29  for a recitation of the steps of the  FIG. 29  fabrication process. 
       DEFINITIONS 
       [0092]    Any and all published documents mentioned herein shall be considered to be incorporated by reference, in their respective entireties. The following definitions are provided for claim construction purposes: 
         [0093]    Present invention: means “at least some embodiments of the present invention,” and the use of the term “present invention” in connection with some feature described herein shall not mean that all claimed embodiments (see DEFINITIONS section) include the referenced feature(s). 
         [0094]    Embodiment: a machine, manufacture, system, method, process and/or composition that may (not must) be within the scope of a present or future patent claim of this patent document; often, an “embodiment” will be within the scope of at least some of the originally filed claims and will also end up being within the scope of at least some of the claims as issued (after the claims have been developed through the process of patent prosecution), but this is not necessarily always the case; for example, an “embodiment” might be covered by neither the originally filed claims, nor the claims as issued, despite the description of the “embodiment” as an “embodiment.” 
         [0095]    First, second, third, etc. (“ordinals”): Unless otherwise noted, ordinals only serve to distinguish or identify (e.g., various members of a group); the mere use of ordinals shall not be taken to necessarily imply order (for example, time order, space order). 
         [0096]    Electrically Connected: means either directly electrically connected, or indirectly electrically connected, such that intervening elements are present; in an indirect electrical connection, the intervening elements may include inductors and/or transformers; for example, a conduction path that includes a mechanically pliant capacitive coupling shall herein be considered to form an “electrical connection” as that term is defined by this definition (and such a path might even be a “non-bonded path” (see DEFINITIONS section), notwithstanding the presence of the capacitive coupling). 
         [0097]    Mechanically connected: Includes both direct mechanical connections, and indirect mechanical connections made through intermediate components; includes rigid mechanical connections as well as mechanical connection that allows for relative motion between the mechanically connected components; includes, but is not limited, to welded connections, solder connections, connections by fasteners (for example, nails, bolts, screws, nuts, hook-and-loop fasteners, knots, rivets, quick-release connections, latches and/or magnetic connections), force fit connections, friction fit connections, connections secured by engagement caused by gravitational forces, pivoting or rotatable connections, and/or slidable mechanical connections. 
         [0098]    Module/Sub-Module: any set of hardware, firmware and/or software that operatively works to do some kind of function, without regard to whether the module is: (i) in a single local proximity; (ii) distributed over a wide area; (ii) in a single proximity within a larger piece of software code; (iii) located within a single piece of software code; (iv) located in a single storage device, memory or medium; (v) mechanically connected; (vi) electrically connected; and/or (vii) connected in data communication. 
         [0099]    NEMS/MEMS scale: on the scale of nanoelectromechanical systems or microelectromechanical systems. 
         [0100]    NEMS/MEMS machine: a NEMS/MEMS scale hardware set having at least one moving part. 
         [0101]    conductor bonding: includes, but is not limited to, flip chip conductor path type bonding; wire bonding; lead bonding; any conductor bonding that may be associated with vias, etc. 
         [0102]    non-bonded path: any conduction path that is at least substantially clear of conductor bonding. 
         [0103]    motion characteristic: includes, but is not necessarily limited to characteristics such as position, velocity, acceleration, or rotation. 
         [0104]    JFET: junction gate field-effect transistor 
         [0105]    SOI: Silicon-on-insulator. 
         [0106]    Differential mode sensing: can be of two types. Sensors are usually sensitive to many things including the variable wanted to sense; in the first kind of differential sensing, the two sensors are used such that both are exposed to the general environment, but only one responds to the preferred sensor signal; by subtracting the two signals measurement of the variable needed is obtained; the second differential mode is in which the two sensors respond to the variable in question with 180 degrees of polarity difference; in this case two signals are added to extract the desired value. 
         [0107]    Unless otherwise explicitly provided in the claim language, steps in method or process claims need only be performed that they happen to be set forth in the claim only to the extent that impossibility or extreme feasibility problems dictate that the recited step order be used. This broad interpretation with respect to step order is to be used regardless of alternative time ordering (that is, time ordering of the claimed steps that is different than the order of recitation in the claim) is particularly mentioned or discussed in this document. Any step order discussed in the above specification, and/or based upon order of step recitation in a claim, shall be considered as required by a method claim only if: (i) the step order is explicitly set forth in the words of the method claim itself; and/or (ii) it would be substantially impossible to perform the method in a different order. Unless otherwise specified in the method claims themselves, steps may be performed simultaneously or in any sort of temporally overlapping manner. Also, when any sort of time ordering is explicitly set forth in a method claim, the time ordering claim language shall not be taken as an implicit limitation on whether claimed steps are immediately consecutive in time, or as an implicit limitation against intervening steps.