Abstract:
This invention relates to the field of water purification and desalination. In particular, embodiments of the invention relate to systems and methods of removing essentially all of a broad spectrum of impurities from water in an automated industrial process that requires minimal cleaning or maintenance during the course of several months to several years, with relatively high yields of product water per unit of input water, flexibility with respect to energy sources, compact design with a low industrial foot-print, the ability to recover valuable by-products, and ultra-low energy requirements.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     The present application is a U.S. National Stage entry under 35 U.S.C. §371 of International Application No. PCT/US2012/054221, filed on Sep. 7, 2013, designating the United States of America and published in English on Mar. 14, 2013, which in turn claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/532,766, filed on Sep. 9, 2011, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
    
    
     BACKGROUND 
     Water purification technology is rapidly becoming an essential aspect of modern life as conventional water resources become increasingly scarce, municipal distribution systems for potable water deteriorate with age, and increased water usage depletes wells and reservoirs, causing saline water contamination. Additionally, further contamination of water sources is occurring from a variety of activities, which include, for example, intensive agriculture, gasoline additives, and heavy toxic metals. These issues are leading to increasing and objectionable levels of germs, bacteria, salts, MTBE, chlorates, perchlorates, arsenic, mercury, and even the chemicals used to disinfect potable water, in the water system. 
     Furthermore, even though almost three fourths of the earth is covered by oceans, only some 3% of this water exists as fresh water resources, and these resources are becoming increasingly scarce as a result of population growth and global warming. Approximately 69% of all fresh water is contained in ice caps and glaciers; with increased global melting, this fresh water becomes unrecoverable, so less than 1% is actually available, with the majority (over 90%) being ground water in aquifers that are being progressively contaminated by human activities and saline incursions. Thus, there is an urgent need for technology that can turn saline water, including seawater and brine, into fresh water, while removing a broad range of contaminants. 
     Conventional desalination and water treatment technologies, including reverse osmosis (RO) filtration and thermal distillation systems, such as multiple-effect distillation (MED), multiple-stage flash distillation (MSF), and vapor compression distillation (VC), are rarely able to handle the diverse range of water contaminants found in saline environments. Additionally, even though they are commercially available, they often require multiple treatment stages or some combination of various technologies to achieve acceptable water quality. RO systems suffer from the requirement of high-water pressures as the saline content increases, rendering them expensive in commercial desalination, and they commonly waste more than 40% of the incoming feed water, making them progressively less attractive when water is scarce. Moreover, RO installations produce copious volumes of waste brine that are typically discarded into the sea, resulting in high saline concentrations that are deadly to fish and shellfish. Less conventional technologies, such as ultraviolet (UV) light irradiation or ozone treatment, can be effective against viruses and bacteria but seldom remove other contaminants, such as dissolved gases, salts, hydrocarbons, and insoluble solids. Additionally, while most distillation technologies may be superior at removing a subset of contaminants, they rarely can handle all types of contaminants. 
     Because commercial desalination plants are normally complex engineering projects that require one to three years of construction, they are typically capital intensive and difficult to move from one place to another. Their complexity and reliance on multiple technologies also make them prone to high maintenance costs. Because RO plants are designed to operate continuously under steady pressure and flow conditions, large pressure fluctuations or power interruptions can damage the membranes, which are expensive to replace; the incoming feed water therefore requires extensive pre-treatment to prevent fouling of the RO membrane. 
     Thermal distillation systems, such as those described by LeGolf et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,635,150 B1) include MED systems, which rely on multiple evaporation and condensation steps that operate under vacuum in order to effect evaporation at temperatures lower than the normal boiling point of water. Such technologies are commercially used for desalination in various countries, but they all operate according to different physico-chemical principles. For example, MED, MSF, and VC systems all require vacuum, which means that the product water cannot be sterilized because evaporation occurs at temperatures lower than those needed for sterilization; also, vacuum systems tend to leak and require mechanical reinforcement. In addition, heat transfer and heat recovery in MED, MSF, and VC systems involve heat exchange across membranes or thin metal surfaces, but heat exchangers are prone to fouling and scale formation and require frequent maintenance. 
     More recently, Thiers (PCT Application No.: US2009/57277, entitled Large Scale Water Purification and Desalination, filed Sep. 17, 2009, and PCT Application No.: US2010/030759, entitled Method and System for Reduction of Scaling in Purification of Aqueous Solutions, filed Apr. 12, 2010) has described a method of pre-treatment that removes scale-forming constituents from a water stream and large scale embodiments for a desalination system. However, the earlier pre-treatment system described by Thiers relies on a final thermal treatment that involves heating to 120° C. for several minutes of residence time, which, while technically effective, represents a significant energy consumption. There is a need for a pre-treatment method that minimizes energy consumption while still removing scale-forming constituents from an aqueous stream. In addition, the embodiments described by Thiers for a large-scale desalination and water treatment fail to address transient phenomena encountered during start-up and shut down operations and do not properly ensure the maintenance of a stable hydraulic head between different boiling stages. There is a need for industrial configurations that are stable during start-up and shut down procedures, in addition to being stable during normal operation. 
     There is a need for inexpensive and effective pre-treatment methods that eliminate scale-forming compounds. There is a further need for industrial desalination and water treatment systems that are continuous and largely self-cleaning, that resist corrosion and scaling, that are modular and compact, that recover a major fraction of the input water while producing a highly concentrated waste brine that crystallizes into a solid salt cake, and that are relatively inexpensive and low-maintenance. 
     SUMMARY 
     The present invention describes various industrial embodiments for an improved desalination and water purification system. The system includes a pre-treatment section that prevents scale formation and a desalination section that consists of an inlet, a preheater, a degasser, multiple evaporation chambers and demisters, product condensers, a waste outlet, a product outlet, multiple heat pipes for heat transfer and recovery, and a control system. The control system permits operation of the purification system continuously with minimal user intervention or cleaning. The system is capable of removing, from a contaminated water sample, a plurality of contaminant types including microbiological contaminants, radiological contaminants, metals, salts, volatile organics, and non-volatile organics. In embodiments of the system and depending on the salinity of the incoming water stream, the volume of water produced can range from about 20% to in excess of 95% of a volume of input water. The system comprises a vertical stack arrangement of boiling chambers, condensers, and a preheater that is compact and portable. The system is capable of water production in the range of 1,000 to 50 million gallons per day. 
     The pre-treatment section precipitates scale-forming compounds by means of pH adjustment. Addition of either caustic or lime initially precipitates magnesium hydroxide, which is subsequently removed by filtration or sedimentation, or both. Next, the concentration of bicarbonate ions is adjusted by dissolving CO 2  or adding bicarbonate or soluble carbonate salts to correspond to the stoichiometric composition of the remaining calcium, magnesium, and other divalent cations in solution, and the pH is again adjusted to values of 9.8 and higher in order to precipitate scale-forming compounds as insoluble carbonates. Following filtration or sedimentation to remove precipitates, the clear pre-treated solution then flows into the desalination section. 
     The desalination section consists of a vertical stack of boilers, condensers, and demisters with a preheating tank, a degasser, and a heat transfer vessel. The preheating vessel raises the temperature of the incoming water to near the boiling point and can be placed on the top or at the bottom of the vertical stack. Water exiting the preheating tank can have a temperature of at least about 96° C. The preheating tank may have a spiral arrangement of vanes such that incoming water circulates several turns in the tank, thus providing sufficient residence time to effect preheating. Incoming feed water enters the preheating tank tangentially, is gradually preheated by heat pipes until the required temperature is achieved, and exits the preheating tank through a downcomer tube that connects either with the degasser or directly with a lower boiling chamber if there is no need for degassing. 
     A degasser, which is placed near the top of the vertical stack, removes gases and organic contaminants that may be volatile or non-volatile by means of counter-current stripping of the incoming water against low-pressure steam. The degasser can be in a substantially vertical orientation, having an upper end and a lower end. Pre-heated water enters the degasser at its upper end, and degassed water exits the degasser proximate to the lower end. In the system, steam from the highest evaporation chamber can enter the degasser proximate to the lower end and can exit the degasser proximate to the upper end. The degasser can include a matrix adapted to facilitate mixing of water and steam, stripping the inlet water of essentially all organics, volatiles, and gases by counterflowing the inlet water against an opposite directional flow of a gas in a degasser. The gas can be, for example, steam, air, nitrogen, and the like. The matrix can include substantially spherical particles. However, the matrix can also include non-spherical particles. The matrix can include particles having a size selected to permit uniform packing within the degasser. The matrix can also include particles of distinct sizes, and the particles can be arranged in the degasser in a size gradient. Water can exit the degasser substantially free of organics and volatile gases. 
     The heat-transfer vessel provides the heat energy for the entire system and can consist of a condenser chamber operating with low-pressure waste steam. Alternatively, it can be a combustion chamber that operates with any type of fuel or a vessel that absorbs heat from a working fluid from recuperators, solar heaters, or economizers. 
     Pre-treated water is first preheated to near the boiling point and enters a degasser proximate the upper end of the vertical stack, where gases and hydrocarbons are removed. The degassed water then enters an upper boiler, where a portion of the incoming water is turned into steam; a portion of the steam produced in the upper boiler may be used to provide the required steam for degassing, while the balance enters a demister that removes entrained micro-droplets and is condensed into pure water in a condenser chamber immediately above the boiler. As some of the incoming water in the upper boiler evaporates, the balance of the water becomes progressively more concentrated in soluble salts and continuously cascades downward into a series of lower boilers until it exits the lowermost boiler as a heavy brine at near the solubility limit of the salt solution. 
     Concurrent with incoming water cascading downward, heat is provided at the heat-transfer vessel and is progressively transferred upwards by means of heat pipes. Heat pipes are highly efficient enthalpy transfer devices that operate with a small temperature difference between their hot and cold ends. A number of heat pipes transfer the heat provided at the heat-transfer vessel to the bottom boiler. The steam produced at the bottom boiler is largely recovered as the heat of condensation in the bottom condenser, where another set of heat pipes transfers that heat to an upper boiler, thus progressively re-using the heat for multiple evaporation and condensation chambers. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         FIG. 1  is a schematic flowsheet of the pre-treatment process. 
         FIG. 2  is a schematic view of a desalinator with two stages. 
         FIG. 3  is a detailed elevation view of a desalinator stage. 
         FIG. 4  is a diagram of a desalinator with five stages. 
         FIG. 5  provides elevation, stereoscopic, and plant views of the boiler, the condenser, and the separator plate. 
         FIG. 6  is a schematic diagram of a heat pipe. 
         FIG. 7  is a schematic view of a high-performance heat pipe. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Embodiments of the invention are disclosed herein, in some cases in exemplary form or by reference to one or more Figures. However, any such disclosure of a particular embodiment is exemplary only and is not indicative of the full scope of the invention. 
     Embodiments of the invention include systems, methods, and apparatuses for water purification and desalination. Preferred embodiments provide broad spectrum water purification that is fully automated and can operate over very long periods of time without requiring cleaning or user intervention. For example, systems disclosed herein can run without user control or intervention for 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, or 12 months, or longer. In preferred embodiments, the systems can run automatically for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or years, or more. 
     Embodiments of the invention thus provide a water purification and desalination system including at least an inlet for saline water, contaminated water, or seawater, a preheater, a degasser, one or more evaporation chambers, one or more demisters, and one or more product condensers with a product outlet, a waste outlet, and a control system, wherein product water exiting the outlet is substantially pure, and wherein the control system permits operation of the purification system continuously without requiring user intervention. In preferred embodiments, the volume of product water produced is at least about 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99%, or more, of the volume of input water. Thus, the system is of great benefit in conditions in which there is relatively high expense or inconvenience associated with obtaining inlet water and/or disposing of wastewater. The system is significantly more efficient in terms of its production of product water per unit of input water or wastewater than many other systems. 
     Substantially pure water can be, in different embodiments, water that meets any of the following criteria: water purified to a purity, with respect to any contaminant, that is at least 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 250, 500, 750, 1000, or more, times greater in purity than the inlet water. In other embodiments, substantially pure water is water that is purified to one of the foregoing levels, with respect to a plurality of contaminants present in the inlet water. That is, in these embodiments, water purity or quality is a function of the concentration of an array of one or more contaminants, and substantially pure water is water that has, for example, a 25-fold or greater ratio between the concentration of these contaminants in the inlet water as compared to the concentration of the same contaminants in the product water. 
     In other embodiments, water purity can be measured by conductivity, where ultrapure water has a conductivity typically less than about 1 μSiemens, and distilled water typically has a conductivity of about 5. In such embodiments, conductivity of the product water is generally between about 1 and 7, typically between about 2 and 6, preferably between about 2 and 5, 2 and 4, or 2 and 3. Conductivity is a measure of total dissolved solids (TDS) and is a good indicator of water purity with respect to salts, ions, minerals, and the like. 
     Alternatively, water purity can be measured by various standards, such as, for example, current U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards as listed in Table 1 and Table 2, as well as other accepted standards as listed in Table 2. Accordingly, preferred embodiments of the invention are capable of reducing any of one or more contaminants from a broad range of contaminants, including, for example, any contaminant(s) listed in Table 1, wherein the final product water has a level for such contaminant(s) at or below the level specified in the column labeled “MCL” (maximum concentration level), where the inlet water has a level for such contaminant(s) that is up to about 25-fold greater than the specified MCL. Likewise, in some embodiments and for some contaminants, systems of the invention can remove contaminants to MCL levels when the inlet water has a contamination that is 30-, 40-, 50-, 60-, 70-, 80-, 90-, 100-, 150-, 250-, 500-, or 1000-fold, or more, higher than the MCL or the product water. 
     While the capacity of any system to remove contaminants from inlet water is to some extent a function of the total impurity levels in the inlet water, systems of the invention are particularly well suited to remove a plurality of different contaminants, of widely different types, from a single feed stream, producing water that is comparable to distilled water and is in some cases comparable to ultrapure water. It should be noted that the “Challenge Water” column in Table 1 contains concentration levels for contaminants in water used in EPA tests. Preferred embodiments of water purification systems of the invention typically can remove much greater amounts of initial contaminants than the amounts listed in this column. However, contaminant levels corresponding to those mentioned in the “Challenge Water” column are likewise well within the scope of the capabilities of embodiments of the invention. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Water Contaminant Concentration Levels and Testing Protocols 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Challenge 
               
               
                   
                 Units 
                 Protocol 
                 MCL 
                 Water 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1. Metals 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Aluminum 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.2 
                 0.6 
               
               
                 Antimony 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.006 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Arsenic 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.01 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Beryllium 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.004 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Boron 
                 ppb 
                   
                   
                 20 
               
               
                 Chromium 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.1 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Copper 
                 ppm 
                   
                 1.3 
                 1.3 
               
               
                 Iron 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.3 
                 8 
               
               
                 Lead 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.015 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Manganese 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.05 
                 1 
               
               
                 Mercury 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.002 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Molybdenum 
                 ppm 
                   
                   
                 0.01 
               
               
                 Nickel 
                 ppm 
                   
                   
                 0.02 
               
               
                 Silver 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.1 
                 0.2 
               
               
                 Thallium 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.002 
                 0.01 
               
               
                 Vanadium 
                 ppm 
                   
                   
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Zinc 
                 ppm 
                   
                 5 
                 5 
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 36.84 
               
               
                 2. Inorganic Salts 
               
               
                 Bromide 
                 ppm 
                   
                   
                 0.5 
               
               
                 Chloride 
                 ppm 
                   
                 250 
                 350 
               
               
                 Cyanide 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.2 
                 0.4 
               
               
                 Fluoride 
                 ppm 
                   
                 4 
                 8 
               
               
                 Nitrate, as NO 3   
                 ppm 
                   
                 10 
                 90 
               
               
                 Nitrite, as N 2   
                 ppm 
                   
                 1 
                 2 
               
               
                 Sulfate 
                 ppm 
                   
                 250 
                 350 
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 800.9 
               
               
                 3. 2 Highly Volatile 
               
               
                 VOCs + 2 Non-Volatiles 
               
               
                 Heptachlor 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2 
                 0.0004 
                 0.04 
               
               
                 Tetrachloroethylene-PCE 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.00006 
                 0.02 
               
               
                 Epichlorohydrin 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.07 
                 0.2 
               
               
                 Pentachlorophenol 
                 ppm 
                 EPA515.4 
                 0.001 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 0.36 
               
               
                 4. 2 Highly Volatile 
               
               
                 VOCs + 2 Non-Volatiles 
               
               
                 Carbon tetrachloride 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.005 
                 0.01 
               
               
                 m,p-Xylenes 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 10 
                 20 
               
               
                 Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2 
                 0.4 
                 0.8 
               
               
                 Trichloroacetic acid 
                 ppm 
                 SM6251B 
                 0.06 
                 0.12 
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 20.93 
               
               
                 5. 3 Highly Volatile 
               
               
                 VOCs + 3 Non-Volatiles 
               
               
                 1,1-Dichloroethylene 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.007 
                 0.15 
               
               
                 Ethylbenzene 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.7 
                 1.5 
               
               
                 Aldrin 
                 ppm 
                 EPA505 
                 0.005 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Dalapon 
                 ppm 
                 EPA515.4 
                 0.2 
                 0.4 
               
               
                 (2,2-dichloropropionic 
               
               
                 acid) 
               
               
                 Carbofuran (furadan) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA531.2 
                 0.04 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Fenoprop (2,4,5-TP, 
                 ppm 
                 EPA515.4 
                 0.05 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Silvex) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 2.35 
               
               
                 6. 3 Highly Volatile 
               
               
                 VOCs + 3 Non-Volatiles 
               
               
                 Trichloroethylene-TCE 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.005 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Toluene 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 1 
                 2 
               
               
                 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.07 
                 0.15 
               
               
                 2,4-D (2,4- 
                 ppm 
                 EPA515.4 
                 0.07 
                 0.15 
               
               
                 dichlorophenoxyacetic 
               
               
                 acid) 
               
               
                 Alachlor (Alanex) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2 
                 0.002 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Simazine 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2 
                 0.004 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 2.6 
               
               
                 7. 3 Highly Volatile 
               
               
                 VOCs + 3 Non-Volatiles 
               
               
                 Vinylchloride 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.002 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 (chloroethene) 
               
               
                 1,2-Dichlorobenzene (1,2- 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.6 
                 1 
               
               
                 DCB) 
               
               
                 Chlorobenzene 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.1 
                 0.2 
               
               
                 Atrazine 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2 
                 0.003 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Endothal 
                 ppm 
                 EPA548.1 
                 0.01 
                 0.2 
               
               
                 Oxamyl (Vydate) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA531.2 
                 0.2 
                 0.4 
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 2.0 
               
               
                 8. 3 Highly Volatile 
               
               
                 VOCs + 3 Non-Volatiles 
               
               
                 Styrene 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.1 
                 1 
               
               
                 Benzene 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.005 
                 0.2 
               
               
                 Methoxychlor 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2/ 
                 0.04 
                 0.1 
               
               
                   
                   
                 505 
               
               
                 Glyphosate 
                 ppm 
                 EPA547 
                 0.7 
                 1.5 
               
               
                 Pichloram 
                 ppm 
                 EPA515.4 
                 0.5 
                 1 
               
               
                 1,3-Dichlorobenzene (1,3- 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.075 
                 0.15 
               
               
                 DCB) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 3.95 
               
               
                 9. 3 Highly Volatile 
               
               
                 VOCs + 3 Non-Volatiles 
               
               
                 1,2-Dichloropropane (DCP) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.005 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Chloroform 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 80 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Bromomethane (methyl 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                   
                 0.1 
               
               
                 bromide) 
               
               
                 PCB 1242 (Aroclor 1242) 
                 ppb 
                 EPA505 
                 0.5 
                 1 
               
               
                 Chlordane 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2/ 
                 0.002 
                 0.2 
               
               
                   
                   
                 505 
               
               
                 MEK (methylehtylketone, 
                 ppb 
                 EPA524.2 
                   
                 0.2 
               
               
                 2-butanone) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 1.7 
               
               
                 10. Group: 4 VOCs + 
               
               
                 5 Non-Volatile PCBs 
               
               
                 2,4-DDE (dichlorodiphenyl 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2 
                   
                 0.1 
               
               
                 dichloroethylene) 
               
               
                 Bromodichloromethane 
                 ppb 
                 EPA524.2 
                 80 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.2 
                 0.4 
               
               
                 (TCA) 
               
               
                 Bromoform 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 80 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 PCB 1221 (Aroclor 1221) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA505 
                 0.5 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 PCB 1260 (Aroclor 1260) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA505 
                 0.5 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 PCB 1232 (Aroclor 1232) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA505 
                 0.5 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 PCB 1254 (Aroclor 1254) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA505 
                 0.5 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 PCB 1016 (Aroclor 1016) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA505 
                 0.5 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 0.95 
               
               
                 11. 5 VOCs + 5 
               
               
                 Non-Volatile PCBs 
               
               
                 Dichloromethane (DCM, 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.005 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 methylene chloride) 
               
               
                 1,2-Dichloroethane 
                 ppm 
                   
                 0.005 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 Lindane (gamma-BHC) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2 
                 0.0002 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 Benzo[a]pyrene 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2 
                 0.0002 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 Endrin 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2/ 
                 0.002 
                 0.05 
               
               
                   
                   
                 505 
               
               
                 1,1,2-Trichloroethane 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.005 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 (TCA) 
               
               
                 MTBE (methyl t-butyl 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                   
                 0.05 
               
               
                 ether) 
               
               
                 Ethylene dibromide (EDB) 
                 ppm 
                 EPA504.1 
                 0.00005 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 Dinoseb 
                 ppm 
                 EPA515.4 
                 0.007 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate 
                 ppm 
                 EPA525.2 
                 0.006 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 (DEHP) 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 0.6 
               
               
                 12. 6 VOCs 
               
               
                 Chloromethane (methyl 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                   
                 0.1 
               
               
                 chloride) 
               
               
                 Toxaphene 
                 ppm 
                 EPA505 
                 0.003 
                 0.1 
               
               
                 trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.1 
                 0.2 
               
               
                 Dibromochloromethane 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 80 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene 
                 ppm 
                 EPA524.2 
                 0.07 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 1,2-Dibromo-3-chloro 
                 ppm 
                 EPA504.1 
                 0.0002 
                 0.05 
               
               
                 propane 
                   
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Subtotal of entire mix 
                   
                   
                   
                 0.55 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Determination of water purity and/or efficiency of purification performance can be based upon the ability of a system to remove a broad range of contaminants. For many biological contaminants, the objective is to remove substantially all live contaminants. Table 2 lists additional common contaminants of source water and standard protocols for testing levels of these contaminants. The protocols listed in Tables 1 and 2 are publicly available at www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html#mcls for common water contaminants, as well as  Methods for the Determination of Organic Compounds in Drinking Water , EPA/600/4-88-039, December 1988, revised July 1991. Methods 547, 550, and 550.1 are in  Methods for the Determination of Organic Compounds in Drinking Water - Supplement I , EPA/600-4-90-020, July 1990. Methods 548.1, 549.1, 552.1, and 555 are in  Methods for the Determination of Organic Compounds in Drinking Water - Supplement II , EPA/600/R-92-129, August 1992. Methods 502.2, 504.1, 505, 506, 507, 508, 508.1, 515.2, 524.2 525.2, 531.1, 551.1, and 552.2 are in  Methods for the Determination of Organic Compounds in Drinking Water - Supplement III , EPA/600/R-95-131, August 1995. Method 1613 is titled “Tetra- through Octa-Chlorinated Dioxins and Furans by Isotope Dilution HRGC/HRMS,” EPA/821-B-94-005, October 1994. Each of the foregoing is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
             
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Water Contaminant Testing Protocols 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Protocol 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 1 Metals and Inorganics 
                   
               
               
                 Asbestos 
                 EPA100.2 
               
               
                 Free cyanide 
                 SM 4500CN-F 
               
               
                 Metals - Al, Sb, Be, B, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Ag, Tl, V, 
                 EPA200.7/200.8 
               
               
                 Zn 
               
               
                 Anions - NO 3 —N, NO 2 —N, Cl, SO 4 , 
                 EPA300.0A 
               
               
                 total nitrates/nitrites 
               
               
                 Bromide 
                 EPA300.0/300.1 
               
               
                 Turbidity 
                 EPA180.1 
               
               
                 2 Organics 
               
               
                 Volatile organics - VOASDWA list + nitrozbenzene 
                 EPA524.2 
               
               
                 EDB and DBCP 
                 EPA504.1 
               
               
                 Semivolatile organics - ML525 list + EPTC 
                 EPA525.2 
               
               
                 Pesticides and PCBs 
                 EPA505 
               
               
                 Herbicides - regulated/unregulated compounds 
                 EPA515.4 
               
               
                 Carbamates 
                 EPA531.2 
               
               
                 Glyphosate 
                 EPA547 
               
               
                 Diquat 
                 EPA549.2 
               
               
                 Dioxin 
                 EPA1613b 
               
               
                 1,4-Dioxane 
                 EPA8270m 
               
               
                 NDMA - 2 ppt MRL 
                 EPA1625 
               
               
                 3 Radiologicals 
               
               
                 Gross alpha and beta 
                 EPA900.0 
               
               
                 Radium 226 
                 EPA903.1 
               
               
                 Uranium 
                 EPA200.8 
               
               
                 4 Disinfection By-Products 
               
               
                 THMs/HANs/HKs 
                 EPA551.1 
               
               
                 HAAs 
                 EPA6251B 
               
               
                 Aldehydes 
                 SM 6252m 
               
               
                 Chloral hydrate 
                 EPA551.1 
               
               
                 Chloramines 
                 SM 4500 
               
               
                 Cyanogen chloride 
                 EPA524.2m 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
                                                       TABLE 3                   Exemplary Contaminants for System Verification                MCLG 1                          1 Metals &amp; Inorganics               Asbestos   &lt;7   MFL 2         Free cyanide   &lt;0.2   ppm       Metals - Al, Sb, Be, B, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Ag, Tl, V,   0.0005   ppm       Zn       Anions - NO 3 —N, NO 2 —N, Cl, SO 4 ,   &lt;1   ppm       total nitrates/nitrites       Turbidity   &lt;0.3   NTU       2 Organics       Volatile organics - VOASDWA list + nitrobenzene   0   ppm       EDB and DBCP       Semivolatile organics - ML525 list + EPTC   &lt;0.001   ppm       Pesticides and PCBs   &lt;0.2   ppb       Herbicides - regulated/unregulated compounds   &lt;0.007   ppm       Glyphosate   &lt;0.7   ppm       Diquat   &lt;0.02   ppm       Dioxin   0   ppm       3 Radiologicals       Gross alpha and beta   &lt;5   pCi/l 3         Radium 226   0   pCi/l 3         Uranium   &lt;3   ppb       4 Disinfection By-Products       Chloramines   4   ppm       Cyanogen chloride   0.1   ppm       5 Biologicals              Cryptosporidium     0 4           Giardia lamblia     0 4         Total coliforms   0 4                   1 MCLG = maximum concentration limit guidance         2 MFL = million fibers per liter         3 pCi/l = pico Curies per liter         4 Substantially no detectable biological contaminants            
Overall Description of Water Pre-Treatment System
 
     The objective of the pre-treatment system is to reduce scale-forming compounds to a level at which they will not interfere by forming scale in subsequent treatment, particularly during desalination. Water hardness is normally defined as the amount of calcium (Ca ++ ), magnesium (Mg ++ ), and other divalent ions that are present in the water and is normally expressed in parts per million (ppm) of these ions or their equivalent as calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ). Scale forms because the water dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and such carbon dioxide provides carbonate ions that combine to form both calcium and magnesium carbonates; upon heating, the solubility of calcium and magnesium carbonates markedly decreases, and they precipitate as scale. In reality, scale comprises any chemical compound that precipitates from solution. Thus, iron phosphates and calcium sulfate (gypsum) also produce scale. Table 4 lists a number of chemical compounds that exhibit low solubility in water and can thus form scale. In this context, low solubility is defined by the solubility product, that is, by the product of the ionic concentration of cations and anions of a particular chemical; solubility is usually expressed in moles per liter (mol/L). 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Solubility Products of Various Compounds 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Compound 
                 Formula 
                 K sp  (25° C.) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Aluminum hydroxide 
                 Al(OH) 3   
                   3 × 10 −34   
               
               
                 Aluminum phosphate 
                 AlPO 4   
                 9.84 × 10 −21   
               
               
                 Barium bromate 
                 Ba(BrO 3 ) 2   
                 2.43 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Barium carbonate 
                 BaCO 3   
                 2.58 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Barium chromate 
                 BaCrO 4   
                 1.17 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Barium fluoride 
                 BaF 2   
                 1.84 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Barium hydroxide octahydrate 
                 Ba(OH) 2 × 
                 2.55 × 10 −4   
               
               
                   
                 8H 2 O 
               
               
                 Barium iodate 
                 Ba(IO 3 ) 2   
                 4.01 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Barium iodate monohydrate 
                 Ba(IO 3 ) 2 ×H 2 O 
                 1.67 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Barium molybdate 
                 BaMoO 4   
                 3.54 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Barium nitrate 
                 Ba(NO 3 ) 2   
                 4.64 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Barium selenate 
                 BaSeO 4   
                 3.40 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Barium sulfate 
                 BaSO 4   
                 1.08 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Barium sulfite 
                 BaSO 3   
                  5.0 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Beryllium hydroxide 
                 Be(OH) 2   
                 6.92 × 10 −22   
               
               
                 Bismuth arsenate 
                 BiAsO 4   
                 4.43 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Bismuth iodide 
                 BiI 
                 7.71 × 10 −19   
               
               
                 Cadmium arsenate 
                 Cd 3 (AsO 4 ) 2   
                  2.2 × 10 −33   
               
               
                 Cadmium carbonate 
                 CdCO 3   
                  1.0 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Cadmium fluoride 
                 CdF 2   
                 6.44 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Cadmium hydroxide 
                 Cd(OH) 2   
                  7.2 × 10 −15   
               
               
                 Cadmium iodate 
                 Cd(IO 3 ) 2   
                  2.5 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Cadmium oxalate trihydrate 
                 CdC 2 O 4 × 
                 1.42 × 10 −8   
               
               
                   
                 3H 2 O 
               
               
                 Cadmium phosphate 
                 Cd 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 2.53 × 10 −33   
               
               
                 Cadmium sulfide 
                 CdS 
                   1 × 10 −27   
               
               
                 Cesium perchlorate 
                 CsCIO 4   
                 3.95 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Cesium periodate 
                 CsIO 4   
                 5.16 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Calcium carbonate (calcite) 
                 CaCO 3   
                 3.36 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Calcium carbonate (aragonite) 
                 CaCO 3   
                  6.0 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Calcium fluoride 
                 CaF 2   
                 3.45 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Calcium hydroxide 
                 Ca(OH) 2   
                 5.02 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Calcium iodate 
                 Ca(IO 3 ) 2   
                 6.47 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Calcium iodate hexahydrate 
                 Ca(IO 3 ) 2 × 
                 7.10 × 10 −2   
               
               
                   
                 6H 2 O 
               
               
                 Calcium molybdate 
                 CaMoO 
                 1.46 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Calcium oxalate monohydrate 
                 CaC 2 O 4 ×H 2 O 
                 2.32 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Calcium phosphate 
                 Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 2.07 × 10 −33   
               
               
                 Calcium sulfate 
                 CaSO 4   
                 4.93 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Calcium sulfate dihydrate 
                 CaSO 4 ×2H 2 O 
                 3.14 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Calcium sulfate hemihydrate 
                 CaSO 4 × 
                  3.1 × 10 −7   
               
               
                   
                 0.5H 2 O 
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) arsenate 
                 Co 3 (AsO 4 ) 2   
                 6.80 × 10 −29   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) carbonate 
                 CoCO 3   
                  1.0 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) hydroxide (blue) 
                 Co(OH) 2   
                 5.92 × 10 −15   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) iodate dihydrate 
                 Co(IO 3 ) 2 × 
                 1.21 × 10 −2   
               
               
                   
                 2H 2 O 
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) phosphate 
                 Co 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 2.05 × 10 −35   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) sulfide (alpha) 
                 CoS 
                   5 × 10 −22   
               
               
                 Cobalt(II) sulfide (beta) 
                 CoS 
                   3 × 10 −26   
               
               
                 Copper(I) bromide 
                 CuBr 
                 6.27 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Copper(I) chloride 
                 CuCl 
                 1.72 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Copper(I) cyanide 
                 CuCN 
                 3.47 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Copper(I) hydroxide 
                 Cu 2 O 
                   2 × 10 −15   
               
               
                 Copper(I) iodide 
                 CuI 
                 1.27 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Copper(I) thiocyanate 
                 CuSCN 
                 1.77 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Copper(II) arsenate 
                 Cu 3 (AsO 4 ) 2   
                 7.95  × 10 −36   
               
               
                 Copper(II) hydroxide 
                 Cu(OH) 2   
                  4.8 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Copper(II) iodate monohydrate 
                 Cu(IO 3 ) 2 ×H 2 O 
                 6.94 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Copper(II) oxalate 
                 CuC 2 O 4   
                 4.43 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Copper(II) phosphate 
                 Cu 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 1.40 × 10 −37   
               
               
                 Copper(II) sulfide 
                 CuS 
                   8 × 10 −37   
               
               
                 Europium(III) hydroxide 
                 Eu(OH) 3   
                 9.38 × 10 −27   
               
               
                 Gallium(III) hydroxide 
                 Ga(OH) 3   
                 7.28 × 10 −36   
               
               
                 Iron(II) carbonate 
                 FeCO 3   
                 3.13 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Iron(II) fluoride 
                 FeF 2   
                 2.36 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Iron(II) hydroxide 
                 Fe(OH) 2   
                 4.87 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Iron(II) sulfide 
                 FeS 
                   8 × 10 −19   
               
               
                 Iron(III) hydroxide 
                 Fe(OH) 3   
                 2.79 × 10 −39   
               
               
                 Iron(III) phosphate dihydrate 
                 FePO 4 ×2H 2 O 
                 9.91 × 10 −16   
               
               
                 Lanthanum iodate 
                 La(IO 3 ) 3   
                 7.50 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Lead(II) bromide 
                 PbBr 2   
                 6.60 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Lead(II) carbonate 
                 PbCO 3   
                 7.40 × 10 −14   
               
               
                 Lead(II) chloride 
                 PbCl 2   
                 1.70 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Lead(II) chromate 
                 PbCrO 4   
                   3 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Lead(II) fluoride 
                 PbF 2   
                  3.3 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Lead(II) hydroxide 
                 Pb(OH) 2   
                 1.43 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Lead(II) iodate 
                 Pb(IO 3 ) 2   
                 3.69 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Lead(II) iodide 
                 PbI 2   
                  9.8 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Lead(II) oxalate 
                 PbC 2 O 4   
                  8.5 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Lead(II) selenate 
                 PbSeO 4   
                 1.37 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Lead(II) sulfate 
                 PbSO 4   
                 2.53 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Lead(II) sulfide 
                 PbS 
                   3 × 10 −28   
               
               
                 Lithium carbonate 
                 Li 2 CO 3   
                 8.15 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Lithium fluoride 
                 LiF 
                 1.84 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Lithium phosphate 
                 Li 3 PO 4   
                 2.37 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Magnesium ammonium phosphate 
                 MgNH 4 PO 4   
                   3 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Magnesium carbonate 
                 MgCO 3   
                 6.82 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium carbonate trihydrate 
                 MgCO 3 ×3H 2 O 
                 2.38 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium carbonate pentahydrate 
                 MgCO 3 ×5H 2 O 
                 3.79 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Magnesium fluoride 
                 MgF 2   
                 5.16 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Magnesium hydroxide 
                 Mg(OH) 2   
                 5.61 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Magnesium oxalate dihydrate 
                 MgC 2 O 4 × 
                 4.83 × 10 −6   
               
               
                   
                 2H 2 O 
               
               
                 Magnesium phosphate 
                 Mg 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 1.04 × 10 −24   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) carbonate 
                 MnCO 3   
                 2.24 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) iodate 
                 Mn(IO 3 ) 2   
                 4.37 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) hydroxide 
                 Mn(OH) 2   
                   2 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) oxalate dihydrate 
                 MnC 2 O 4 × 
                 1.70 × 10 −7   
               
               
                   
                 2H 2 O 
               
               
                 Manganese(II) sulfide (pink) 
                 MnS 
                   3 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Manganese(II) sulfide (green) 
                 MnS 
                   3 × 10 −14   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) bromide 
                 Hg 2 Br 2   
                 6.40 × 10 −23   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) carbonate 
                 Hg 2 CO 3   
                  3.6 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) chloride 
                 Hg 2 Cl 2   
                 1.43 × 10 −18   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) fluoride 
                 Hg 2 F 2   
                 3.10 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) iodide 
                 Hg 2 I 2   
                  5.2 × 10 −29   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) oxalate 
                 Hg 2 C 2 O 4   
                 1.75 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) sulfate 
                 Hg 2 SO 4   
                  6.5 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Mercury(I) thiocyanate 
                 Hg 2 (SCN) 2   
                  3.2 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Mercury(II) bromide 
                 HgBr 2   
                  6.2 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Mercury(II) hydroxide 
                 HgO 
                  3.6 × 10 −26   
               
               
                 Mercury(II) iodide 
                 HgI 2   
                  2.9 × 10 −29   
               
               
                 Mercury(II) sulfide (black) 
                 HgS 
                   2 × 10 −53   
               
               
                 Mercury(II) sulfide (red) 
                 HgS 
                   2 × 10 −54   
               
               
                 Neodymium carbonate 
                 Nd 2 (CO 3 ) 3   
                 1.08 × 10 −33   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) carbonate 
                 NiCO 3   
                 1.42 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) hydroxide 
                 Ni(OH) 2   
                 5.48 × 10 −16   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) iodate 
                 Ni(IO 3 ) 2   
                 4.71 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) phosphate 
                 Ni 3 (PO 4 ) 2   
                 4.74 × 10 −32   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) sulfide (alpha) 
                 NiS 
                   4 × 10 −20   
               
               
                 Nickel(II) sulfide (beta) 
                 NiS 
                  1.3 × 10 −25   
               
               
                 Palladium(II) thiocyanate 
                 Pd(SCN) 2   
                 4.39 × 10 −23   
               
               
                 Potassium hexachloroplatinate 
                 K 2 PtCl 6   
                 7.48 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Potassium perchlorate 
                 KClO 4   
                 1.05 × 10 −2   
               
               
                 Potassium periodate 
                 KIO 4   
                 3.71 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Praseodymium hydroxide 
                 Pr(OH) 3   
                 3.39 × 10 −24   
               
               
                 Radium iodate 
                 Ra(IO 3 ) 2   
                 1.16 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Radium sulfate 
                 RaSO 4   
                 3.66 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Rubidium perchlorate 
                 RuClO 4   
                 3.00 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Scandium fluoride 
                 ScF 3   
                 5.81 × 10 −24   
               
               
                 Scandium hydroxide 
                 Sc(OH) 3   
                 2.22 × 10 −31   
               
               
                 Silver(I) acetate 
                 AgCH 3 COO 
                 1.94 × 10 −3   
               
               
                 Silver(I) arsenate 
                 Ag 3 AsO 4   
                 1.03 × 10 −22   
               
               
                 Silver(I) bromate 
                 AgBrO 3   
                 5.38 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Silver(I) bromide 
                 AgBr 
                 5.35 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Silver(I) carbonate 
                 Ag 2 CO 3   
                 8.46 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Silver(I) chloride 
                 AgCl 
                 1.77 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Silver(I) chromate 
                 Ag 2 CrO 4   
                 1.12 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Silver(I) cyanide 
                 AgCN 
                 5.97 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Silver(I) iodate 
                 AgIO 3   
                 3.17 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Silver(I) iodide 
                 AgI 
                 8.52 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Silver(I) oxalate 
                 Ag 2 C 2 O 4   
                 5.40 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Silver(I) phosphate 
                 Ag 3 PO 4   
                 8.89 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Silver(I) sulfate 
                 Ag 2 SO 4   
                 1.20 × 10 −5   
               
               
                 Silver(I) sulfite 
                 Ag 2 SO 3   
                 1.50 × 10 −14   
               
               
                 Silver(I) sulfide 
                 Ag 2 S 
                   8 × 10 −51   
               
               
                 Silver(I) thiocyanate 
                 AgSCN 
                 1.03 × 10 −12   
               
               
                 Strontium arsenate 
                 Sr 3 (AsO 4 ) 2   
                 4.29 × 10 −19   
               
               
                 Strontium carbonate 
                 SrCO 3   
                 5.60 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Strontium fluoride 
                 SrF 2   
                 4.33 × 10 −9   
               
               
                 Strontium iodate 
                 Sr(IO 3 ) 2   
                 1.14 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Strontium iodate monohydrate 
                 Sr(IO 3 ) 2 ×H 2 O 
                 3.77 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Strontium iodate hexahydrate 
                 Sr(IO 3 ) 2 × 
                 4.55 × 10 −7   
               
               
                   
                 6H 2 O 
               
               
                 Strontium oxalate 
                 SrC 2 O 4   
                   5 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Strontium sulfate 
                 SrSO 4   
                 3.44 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) bromate 
                 TlBrO 3   
                 1.10 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) bromide 
                 TlBr 
                 3.71 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) chloride 
                 TlCl 
                 1.86 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) chromate 
                 Tl 2 CrO 4   
                 8.67 × 10 −13   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) hydroxide 
                 Tl(OH) 3   
                 1.68 × 10 −44   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) iodate 
                 TlIO 3   
                 3.12 × 10 −6   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) iodide 
                 TlI 
                 5.54 × 10 −8   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) thiocyanate 
                 TlSCN 
                 1.57 × 10 −4   
               
               
                 Thallium(I) sulfide 
                 Tl 2 S 
                   6 × 10 −22   
               
               
                 Tin(II) hydroxide 
                 Sn(OH) 2   
                 5.45 × 10 −27   
               
               
                 Yttrium carbonate 
                 Y 2 (CO 3 ) 3   
                 1.03 × 10 −31   
               
               
                 Yttrium fluoride 
                 YF 3   
                 8.62 × 10 −21   
               
               
                 Yttrium hydroxide 
                 Y(OH) 3   
                 1.00 × 10 −22   
               
               
                 Yttrium iodate 
                 Y(IO 3 ) 3   
                 1.12 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Zinc arsenate 
                 Zn 3 (AsO 4 ) 2   
                  2.8 × 10 −28   
               
               
                 Zinc carbonate 
                 ZnCO 3   
                 1.46 × 10 −10   
               
               
                 Zinc carbonate monohydrate 
                 ZnCO 3 ×H 2 O 
                 5.42 × 10 −11   
               
               
                 Zinc fluoride 
                 ZnF 
                 3.04 × 10 −2   
               
               
                 Zinc hydroxide 
                 Zn(OH) 2   
                   3 × 10 −17   
               
               
                 Zinc iodate dihydrate 
                 Zn(IO 3 ) 2 × 
                  4.1 × 10 −6   
               
               
                   
                 2H 2 O 
               
               
                 Zinc oxalate dihydrate 
                 ZnC 2 O 4 × 
                 1.38 × 10 −9   
               
               
                   
                 2H 2 O 
               
               
                 Zinc selenide 
                 ZnSe 
                  3.6 × 10 −26   
               
               
                 Zinc selenite monohydrate 
                 ZnSe×H 2 O 
                 1.59 × 10 −7   
               
               
                 Zinc sulfide (alpha) 
                 ZnS 
                   2 × 10 −25   
               
               
                 Zinc sulfide (beta) 
                 ZnS 
                   3 × 10 −23   
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Conventional descaling technologies include chemical and electromagnetic methods. Chemical methods utilize either pH adjustment, chemical sequestration with polyphosphates, zeolites and the like, or ionic exchange; combinations of these methods are typically used. Normally, chemical methods aim at preventing scale from precipitating by lowering the pH and using chemical sequestration, but they are typically not 100% effective. Electromagnetic methods rely on the electromagnetic excitation of calcium or magnesium carbonate so as to favor crystallographic forms that are non-adherent. For example, electromagnetic excitation favors the precipitation of aragonite rather than calcite; the former is a softer, less adherent form of calcium carbonate. However, electromagnetic methods are only effective over relatively short distances and residence times. There is a need for permanently removing scale-forming constituents from contaminated aqueous solutions, seawater, or produced waters that will be subject to be further processing. 
     Other factors can complicate scale reduction methods, particularly in high-salinity solutions such as seawater or produce water. These include the buffering effects of high ionic strength solutions and ion complexing phenomena that can shield certain cations from reacting. 
     An embodiment of the present invention provides a method for removing scale-forming compounds from tap water, contaminated aqueous solutions, seawater, and saline brines such as produced water, involving the initial removal of magnesium ions by precipitating magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) 2 ) at high pH, then removing the precipitate by either sedimentation or filtering. Ordinarily, Mg(OH) 2  precipitates at high pH (around 11.0), although in many cases the bulk of magnesium precipitates at lower pH. 
     Following Mg(OH) 2  precipitation, carbonate ions are added in the form of CO 2  sparging, by adding soluble carbonate or bicarbonate salts in nearly stoichiometric amounts so as to subsequently precipitate calcium, barium, and other divalent cations as carbonates by adjusting the pH to about 10.2 or greater. This process has the net effect of permanently sequestering CO 2  from the atmosphere, and the precipitates are then removed by either sedimentation or filtering. 
     A detailed description of this pre-treatment embodiment follows the flowsheet of  FIG. 1 . In  FIG. 1 , filtered and de-oiled contaminated water ( 1 ) enters the pretreatment system through a line-booster pump P 101  ( 20 ), which delivers the incoming water into a mixer-settler vessel V- 101  ( 40 ). The pH of vessel V- 101  is maintained at about 11 by means of continuous alkali additions, in the form of sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, or similar chemical. Control of the pH in vessel V- 101  is achieved through a metering pump P 102  ( 22 ), which transfers caustic solution from tank T 101  through a variable valve Va 101  ( 45 ). The precipitated Mg(OH) 2  slurry in vessel V 101  sediments and exits near the bottom and is continuously filtered in filter F 101  ( 50 ), thus yielding a filter cake ( 66 ) of magnesium hydroxide. 
     Following precipitation of Mg(OH) 2  in vessel V 101  ( 40 ), the clear solution exits near the top and flows into a static mixer M 101  ( 60 ), where it is mixed with additional clear filtrate from filter F 101  ( 50 ) and pump P 103  ( 24 ) and a source of carbonate ions, which can be pressurized CO 2  gas from V 102  ( 32 ) or a solution of soluble carbonates or bicarbonates. 
     The aqueous solution then flows into a second static mixer M 102 , where additional caustic or alkali chemicals are added from the variable valve Va 101  ( 45 ) so as to adjust the pH to about 10.2, at which point most of the divalent cations in solution precipitate as insoluble carbonates. The precipitate slurry then enters mixer-settler V 103  ( 42 ), where the insoluble carbonates sediment and flow into filter F 102  ( 52 ), where a second filter cake ( 68 ) is removed. The filtrate from filter F 102  enters pump P 105  ( 26 ), which feeds a variable valve Va 102  ( 47 ) that allows a portion of the descaled water product ( 70 ) to recirculate back into the carbonation loop. 
     In a further aspect, especially when the contaminated water contains excess carbonate or bicarbonate ions, calcium or magnesium can be added in order to provide the stoichiometric requirements for carbonate precipitation. Alternatively, calcium and magnesium can be substituted for other divalent cations, such as barium, cadmium, cobalt, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, strontium, or zinc, that have low solubility products in carbonate form. 
     In a further aspect, calcium or magnesium additions are substituted for trivalent cations, such as aluminum or neodymium, that have low solubility products in their carbonate or hydroxide forms. 
     In a further aspect, CO 2  sparging is replaced by the addition of soluble bicarbonate ions, such as sodium, potassium, or ammonium bicarbonate. 
     In a further aspect, carbonate and scale precipitates are removed by means other than sedimentation or filtering, such as centrifuging. 
     In a further aspect, the permanent sequestration of CO 2  from the atmosphere is achieved in conventional desalination systems, such as MSF evaporation systems, MED plants, and VC desalination systems. 
     In a further aspect, scale-forming salts are permanently removed from conventional desalination systems. 
     In a further aspect, tap water, municipal water, or well water containing objectionable hard water constituents, such as calcium or magnesium, are descaled in residential water purification systems. 
     In a further aspect, valuable scale-forming salts, such as magnesium, barium, and other salts, are recovered. 
     In a further aspect, scale-forming compounds are precipitated in the form of non-adhering, easily filterable or sedimentable solids and ultimately removed. 
     In a further aspect, CO 2  emissions from power plants and similar flue gases are permanently sequestered. 
     In a further aspect, scale-forming compounds are sequentially precipitated and removed, so they can be utilized and reused in downstream industrial processes. 
     A further embodiment of the present invention provides a method for removing a scale-forming compound from an aqueous solution, involving: adding at least one ion to the solution in a stoichiometric amount sufficient to cause the precipitation of a first scale-forming compound at an alkaline pH; adjusting the pH of the solution to an alkaline pH, thereby precipitating the first scale-forming compound; removing the first scale-forming compound from the solution; heating the solution to a temperature sufficient to cause the precipitation of a second scale-forming compound from the solution; and removing the second scale-forming compound from the solution. 
     In a further aspect, the ion is selected from the group including carbonate ions and divalent cations. In a further aspect, the carbonate ion is HCO 3   − . In a further aspect, the divalent cation is selected from the group including Ca 2+  and Mg 2+ . 
     In a further aspect, the stoichiometric amount is sufficient to substitute the divalent cation for a divalent cation selected from the group including barium, cadmium, cobalt, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, strontium, and zinc in the first scale-forming compound. 
     In a further aspect, the stoichiometric amount is sufficient to substitute the divalent cation for a trivalent cation selected from the group including aluminum and neodymium in the first scale-forming compound. 
     In a further aspect, adding at least one ion comprises sparging the solution with CO 2  gas. 
     In a further aspect, the CO 2  is atmospheric CO 2 . 
     In a further aspect, adding at least one ion comprises adding a soluble bicarbonate ion selected from the group including sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, and ammonium bicarbonate to the solution. 
     In a further aspect, adding at least one ion comprises adding a compound selected from the group including CaO, Ca(OH) 2 , Mg(OH) 2 , and MgO to the solution. 
     In a further aspect, the alkaline pH is a pH of approximately 9.2 or greater. 
     In a further aspect, the first scale-forming compound is selected from the group including CaCO 3  and MgCO 3 . 
     In a further aspect, adjusting the pH of the solution comprises adding a compound selected from the group including CaO and NaOH to the solution. 
     In a further aspect, removing the first scale-forming compound comprises at least one of filtration, sedimentation, and centrifuging. 
     A further embodiment of the present invention provides a method of obtaining scale-forming compounds, involving: providing an aqueous solution; adding alkali chemicals in amounts sufficient to cause the precipitation of a first scale-forming compound at an alkaline pH; adjusting the pH of the solution to an alkaline pH, thereby precipitating the first scale-forming compound; removing the first scale-forming compound from the solution; adding carbonate ions while maintaining an alkaline pH sufficient to cause the precipitation of a second scale-forming compound from the solution; removing the second scale-forming compound from the solution; recovering the first scale-forming compound; and recovering the second scale-forming compound. 
     In a further aspect, the first and second scale-forming compounds are selected from the group of compounds listed in Table 4. 
     A further embodiment of the present invention provides a method of sequestering atmospheric CO 2 , involving: providing an aqueous solution containing at least one ion capable of forming a CO 2 -sequestering compound in the presence of carbonate ion; adding carbonate ions to the solution in a stoichiometric amount sufficient to cause the precipitation of the CO 2 -sequestering compound at an alkaline pH; adjusting the pH of the solution to an alkaline pH, thereby precipitating the CO 2 -sequestering compound; and removing the CO 2 -sequestering compound from the solution; wherein adding carbonate ions comprises adding either atmospheric or concentrated CO 2  (e.g., from a combustion flue gas) to the solution, and wherein the CO 2  is sequestered in the CO 2 -sequestering compound. 
     Overall Description of Water Desalination System 
     In preferred embodiments, such as those shown in  FIG. 2 , the water purification and desalination system consists of a vertically stacked arrangement of boilers ( 92  and  96 ) and condensers ( 90 ,  94 , and  98 ), whereby a source of heat is provided at the bottom of the stack, a preheater ( 74 ) is provided at the top of the stack, a degasser ( 80 ) is provided at the top of the system to remove volatile organic compounds from the incoming water, a plurality of demisters (not shown) are provided to remove contaminated mist particles from each boiling chamber, a plurality of heat pipes ( 78 ) is provided to recover heat from each condenser and transfer such heat to an upper boiling chamber, and a waste stream outlet ( 100 ) is provided to remove and drain water contaminants. Various alternative configurations to the vertical stacked arrangement are possible to those skilled in the art, such as, for example, a lateral arrangement of boilers, condensers, and preheaters, and the like. 
     In  FIG. 2 , pre-treated water ( 70 ) enters the desalinator proximate the upper end of the stack through a pipeline ( 72 ), which delivers the flow into a preheater tank ( 74 ). A number of heat pipes ( 78 ) in the preheater tank ( 74 ) deliver the heat to preheat the incoming water by transferring the heat of condensation from the condenser ( 90 ) that is placed immediately below. The preheated water exits the preheater tank ( 74 ) through a pipe ( 76 ), which delivers the preheated water into the upper end of a degasser ( 80 ), where it flows by gravity downward while a counter current of steam flows upward from the boiler ( 92 ) through the bottom of the degasser ( 80 ). As steam strips organic contaminants and gases from the preheated water, the degassed water exits the degasser ( 80 ) and enters the boiler ( 92 ). 
     Preheated and degassed water that enters the boiler ( 92 ) is further heated by heat pipes ( 78 ) that transfer the heat of condensation from a condenser ( 94 ). The steam produced in the boiler ( 92 ) is cleaned in a demister that is described below and is condensed in a condenser ( 90 ), and the clean water product exits the system via a pipe ( 102 ), which collects clean water product from each condenser. As water is evaporated from the boiler ( 92 ), the concentration of dissolved salts increases. The level of boiling water in the boiler ( 92 ) is maintained at a constant level by a downcomer tube ( 101 ), which allows water to exit the boiler by gravity. 
     An important element in the vertical arrangement of boilers and condensers is the ability to maintain a slight pressure differential between boilers, so that a lower boiler will have a slightly higher pressure than an upper boiler; therefore, the temperature of the lower boiler will be slightly higher than that of an upper boiler. This pressure differential can be maintained by a pump, but, in a preferred embodiment, it is simply maintained by the hydraulic head of the downcomer tubes ( 100 ) and ( 101 ), which maintain such pressure differential by means of a lower pressure-actuated valve ( 103 ). 
     A more detailed description of the vertical arrangement of boilers and condensers is provided in  FIG. 3 . In  FIG. 3 , the boiler ( 92 ) receives hot incoming water from the downcomer tube ( 101 ), which either drains an upper boiler or receives water from the degasser. In the boiler ( 92 ), the heat pipes ( 78 ) transfer the necessary heat to bring the temperature to the boiling point and provide the heat of evaporation to transform part of the boiling water into steam. The steam that is produced enters a demister ( 110 ), where mist particles are collected by a series of mechanical barriers that allow only clean steam to enter a steam tube ( 115 ), which delivers such steam to an upper condenser chamber ( 90 ), where it condenses into clean water product that drains through the product water drain ( 102 ). 
     As water boils in the boiler ( 92 ), it becomes denser and more concentrated in soluble salts and exits through the downcomer tube ( 100 ) into a lower boiler ( 96 ). A valve ( 103 ) at the bottom of the downcomer tube ( 100 ) provides the necessary hydraulic pressure to maintain the lower boiler ( 96 ) at a slightly higher pressure and, thus, at a slightly higher temperature than the upper boiler ( 92 ). 
     The tubes ( 120 ) and ( 130 ) and the intermediate valve ( 125 ) serve dual functions. During start-up procedures, the valve ( 125 ), which can be controlled by a pressure regulator or a solenoid, is open, allowing steam to travel directly from the lower boiler ( 96 ) to the upper boiler ( 92 ), thus accelerating start-up procedures. Once the system is operating at the correct temperature, the valve ( 125 ) is closed. During shut-down procedures, the heat source is shut off, and the valve ( 125 ) is re-opened so as to facilitate draining of all the boilers. 
       FIG. 4  is a diagram of a desalinator with five vertical stages. In  FIG. 4 , pre-treated and descaled water ( 70 ) enters through a tube ( 72 ) into an upper preheater vessel ( 74 ), where heat from heat pipes ( 78 ) provide the necessary energy for preheating the incoming water close to its boiling point but no less than 96° C. The preheated water exits the preheater ( 74 ) and enters the degasser ( 80 ), where counter-current steam strips the gases and organic contaminants. The degassed water then flows into an upper boiler ( 92 ), where the heat pipes provide the necessary heat for turning a portion of the incoming water into steam. Some of the steam produced in the upper boiler ( 92 ) may be used to provide the steam for degassing, while the rest flows into the demister ( 110 ) and subsequently into an upper condenser ( 90 ), where it condenses into pure product water. As water evaporates in the upper boiler ( 92 ), it becomes more concentrated in soluble salts and flows by gravity into a lower boiler via the downcomer tube ( 100 ). The boiler water becomes progressively more concentrated in soluble salts as it travels downward from boiler to boiler until it reaches the lowest boiler, where it exits the system as a concentrated hot brine that can begin crystallizing as soon as it cools down. In the case of desalination, the hot waste brine may have a TDS concentration on the order of 250,000 ppm; this concentration is still lower than the solubility limit of NaCl but is close enough to begin crystallization upon cooling. 
     In contrast with water flow, heat travels upward in the system, from the heat input vessel at the bottom ( 150 ) ultimately to the preheating vessel at the top ( 74 ), by means of multiple stages of heat pipes ( 78 ). At each stage, the heat of condensation or, in the case of the heat input vessel at the bottom ( 150 ), the latent heat of flue gases or the heat of condensation of waste steam, is absorbed by a series of heat pipes that transfer the heat to an upper boiler and, at the top of the vertical stack, to the upper preheating tank ( 74 ). 
     An important advantage of the system described herein is the mechanism of heat transfer via heat pipes. As shown in a subsequent section, heat pipes provide a means of transferring heat that is nearly thermodynamically reversible, that is, a system that transfers enthalpy with almost no losses in efficiency. Thus, with the exception of the preheating energy, nearly all of the heat provided by the heat input vessel at the bottom ( 150 ) is re-used at each of the boiling and condensing stages by minimizing heat losses at the wall separating the condensing side of the heat pipe from the boiling side. Since that distance is defined by the perforated plate ( 93 ), which can be very thin or made as an insulator, the amount of heat lost during heat transfer can be close to zero. Therefore, the energy used during multiple stages of boiling and condensing can be readily approximated by dividing the heat of evaporation of water by the number of stages of the system. 
     However, as the number of stages in the system increases, the amount of steam produced at each stage decreases; with a large number of stages, the amount of heat that condenses at the upper condenser is insufficient to provide the necessary heat for preheating the incoming water and also insufficient for providing the necessary steam required for degassing. Table 5 illustrates these energy requirements for the case of seawater, which is normally devoid of organic contaminants, as a function of the number of stages in the system, but ignoring degassing requirements. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Energy Requirements, Kwh/m 3   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Stages 
                 Total heat 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 5 
                 133.4693 
               
               
                   
                 6 
                 111.2245 
               
               
                   
                 7 
                 95.33525 
               
               
                   
                 8 
                 86.67204 
               
               
                   
                 10 
                 69.98837 
               
               
                   
                 20 
                 36.62103 
               
               
                   
                 30 
                 25.49859 
               
               
                   
                 40 
                 19.93736 
               
               
                   
                 50 
                 16.60063 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The above estimates presume that the heat available in the hot waste brine at the bottom of the system and the heat contained in the various product water streams is recovered either by means of heat exchangers or heat pipes. In a simple arrangement, most of this heat can be recovered by preheating the incoming water in exchange with each of the product streams as they cascade downward in a vertical system, ending with heat recovery from the waste brine, and then re-pumping this preheated water to the top of the system, where a minimal amount of supplemental heat is required to bring the temperature up to the boiling point. 
     In alternative embodiments, the product water at each stage can be re-introduced into an upper condenser stage and allowed to flash, thus releasing part of the contained heat. In other embodiments, the incoming pre-treated water can be divided into separate streams and introduced into each separate stage for distillation. 
       FIG. 5  illustrates plant, stereoscopic, and elevation views of a typical stage and provides dimensions for a boiler, condenser, and separator plate suitable for a system able to process on the order of 100,000 gpd (378.5 m 3 /day) in 6 stages. 
     It is advantageous to be able to maximize the number of boiling and condensing stages in the present invention. This is possible through the use of heat pipes, provided the temperature difference between the condensing and boiling ends of such a heat pipe (the ΔT) is sufficient to maintain the maximum heat flux through the heat pipe. Commercially available heat pipes typically have ΔTs of the order of 8° C. (15° F.), although some have ΔTs as low as 3° C. The ΔT defines the maximum number of stages that are practical with a given amount of heat available at a given temperature. Thus, there is a need for heat pipes that can function with as small a ΔT as possible. It is therefore useful to examine the thermal phenomena in a heat pipe. 
       FIG. 6  illustrates a typical commercial heat pipe, which ordinarily consists of a partially evacuated and sealed tube ( 77 ) containing a small amount of a working fluid ( 81 ); this fluid is typically water but may also be an alcohol or other volatile liquid. When heat is applied to the lower end in the form of enthalpy, the heat crosses the metal barrier of the tube ( 77 ), then is used to provide the heat of vaporization to the working fluid ( 81 ). As the working fluid evaporates, the resulting gas (which is steam in the case of water) fills the tube ( 77 ) and reaches the upper end, where the ΔT causes condensation and release of the same heat as the heat of condensation. To facilitate continuous operation, the inside of the tube ( 77 ) normally includes a wick ( 79 ), which can be any porous and hydrophilic layer that transfers the condensed phase of the working fluid back to the hot end of the tube. 
     Experimentally, the largest barriers to heat transfer in a heat pipe include: 1) the layer immediately adjacent to the outside of the heat pipe, 2) the conduction barrier presented by the material of the heat pipe, and 3) the limitation of the wick material to return working fluid to the hot end of the heat pipe.  FIG. 7  illustrates a high-performance heat pipe that minimizes these barriers. 
     In  FIG. 7 , vibrational energy ( 87 ) is provided to the heat pipe ( 78 ), either in the form of mechanical vibration, electro-mechanical vibration, or high-frequency ultrasound. This vibration is transmitted to the length of the heat pipe and disrupts the layer adjacent to the heat pipe. Disruption of this layer facilitates micro-turbulence in the layer, thus resulting in heat transfer. In addition, a hydrophobic coating is provided on the outside of the heat pipe, especially in the area where external condensation occurs. The hydrophobic coating may consist of a monolayer of stearic acid or similar hydrocarbon, or it may be a thin layer of a hydrophobic chlorofluorocarbon. A hydrophobic surface on the outside of the heat pipe minimizes the area required for condensation and evaporation, thus reducing the barrier for heat transfer. 
     The heat conduction barrier is also minimized by using a very thin metal foil ( 77 ) instead of the solid metal tube of most heat pipes. Mechanical support for the metal foil must be sufficient to sustain moderate vacuum and is provided by a metal screen ( 85 ), which provides additional functionality by increasing the internal surface area required for providing the necessary heat of condensation/evaporation. 
     An improved distribution of working fluid is achieved by orienting the wick toward the axis of the heat pipe, thus reducing the thermal interference of condensate with heat transfer across the wall of the heat pipe. The wick material can be any hydrophilic porous medium that can transfer working fluid by capillary action, such as metallic oxides, some ceramics, surface-treated cellulosic materials, and the like. 
     In some embodiments, the system for descaling water and saline solutions, embodiments of which are disclosed herein, can be combined with other systems and devices to provide further beneficial features. For example, the system can be used in conjunction with any of the devices or methods disclosed in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/676,870, entitled SOLAR ALIGNMENT DEVICE, filed May 2, 2005; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/697,104, entitled VISUAL WATER FLOW INDICATOR, filed Jul. 6, 2005; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/697,106, entitled APPARATUS FOR RESTORING THE MINERAL CONTENT OF DRINKING WATER, filed Jul. 6, 2005; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/697,107, entitled IMPROVED CYCLONE DEMISTER, filed Jul. 6, 2005; PCT Application No: US2004/039993, filed Dec. 1, 2004; PCT Application No: US2004/039991, filed Dec. 1, 2004; PCT Application No: US2006/040103, filed Oct. 13, 2006; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/281,608, filed Sep. 3, 2008; PCT Application No. US2008/03744, filed Mar. 21, 2008; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/526,580, filed Dec. 2, 2003; each of the foregoing applications is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. 
     One skilled in the art will appreciate that these methods and devices are and may be adapted to carry out the objects and obtain the ends and advantages mentioned, as well as various other advantages and benefits. The methods, procedures, and devices described herein are presently representative of preferred embodiments and are exemplary and are not intended as limitations on the scope of the invention. Changes therein and other uses will occur to those skilled in the art which are encompassed within the spirit of the invention and are defined by the scope of the disclosure. 
     The invention illustratively described herein suitably can be practiced in the absence of any element or elements, limitation or limitations which is not specifically disclosed herein. The terms and expressions which have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention that the use of such terms and expressions indicates the exclusion of equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof. It is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention disclosed. Thus, it should be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this invention as defined by the disclosure. 
     Those skilled in the art will recognize that the aspects and embodiments of the invention set forth herein can be practiced separately from each other or in conjunction with each other. Therefore, combinations of separate embodiments are within the scope of the invention as disclosed herein. 
     All patents and publications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. 
     Example #1—Water Descaling System for Seawater 
     The approximate chemical composition of seawater is presented in Table 6, below, and is typical of open ocean, but there are significant variations in seawater composition depending on geography and/or climate. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Detailed Composition of Seawater at 3.5% Salinity 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Element 
                 At. Weight 
                 ppm 
                 Element 
                 At. Weight 
                 ppm 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Hydrogen H 2 O 
                 1.00797 
                 110,000 
                 Molybdenum Mo 
                   95.94 
                 0.01 
               
               
                 Oxygen O 2   
                 15.9994 
                 883,000 
                 Ruthenium Ru 
                  101.07 
                 0.0000007 
               
               
                 Sodium NaCl 
                 22.9898 
                 10,800 
                 Rhodium Rh 
                  102.905 
                 . 
               
               
                 Chlorine NaCl 
                 35.453 
                 19,400 
                 Palladium Pd 
                  106.4 
                 . 
               
               
                 Magnesium Mg 
                 24.312 
                 1,290 
                 Silver Ag 
                  107.870 
                 0.00028 
               
               
                 Sulfur S 
                 32.064 
                 904 
                 Cadmium Cd 
                  112.4 
                 0.00011 
               
               
                 Potassium K 
                 39.102 
                 392 
                 Indium In 
                  114.82 
                 . 
               
               
                 Calcium Ca 
                 10.08 
                 411 
                 Tin Sn 
                  118.69 
                 0.00081 
               
               
                 Bromine Br 
                 79.909 
                 67.3 
                 Antimony Sb 
                  121.75 
                 0.00033 
               
               
                 Helium He 
                 4.0026 
                 0.0000072 
                 Tellurium Te 
                  127.6 
                 . 
               
               
                 Lithium Li 
                 6.939 
                 0.170 
                 Iodine I 
                  166.904 
                 0.064 
               
               
                 Beryllium Be 
                 9.0133 
                 0.0000006 
                 Xenon Xe 
                  131.30 
                 0.000047 
               
               
                 Boron B 
                 10.811 
                 4.450 
                 Cesium Cs 
                  132.905 
                 0.0003 
               
               
                 Carbon C 
                 12.011 
                 28.0 
                 Barium Ba 
                  137.34 
                 0.021 
               
               
                 Nitrogen ion 
                 14.007 
                 15.5 
                 Lanthanum La 
                  138.91 
                 0.0000029 
               
               
                 Fluorine F 
                 18.998 
                 13 
                 Cerium Ce 
                  140.12 
                 0.0000012 
               
               
                 Neon Ne 
                 20.183 
                 0.00012 
                 Prasodymium Pr 
                  140.907 
                 0.00000064 
               
               
                 Aluminum Al 
                 26.982 
                 0.001 
                 Neodymium Nd 
                  144.24 
                 0.0000028 
               
               
                 Silicon Si 
                 28.086 
                 2.9 
                 Samarium Sm 
                  150.35 
                 0.00000045 
               
               
                 Phosphorus P 
                 30.974 
                 0.088 
                 Europium Eu 
                  151.96 
                 0.0000013 
               
               
                 Argon Ar 
                 39.948 
                 0.450 
                 Gadolinium Gd 
                  157.25 
                 0.0000007 
               
               
                 Scandium Sc 
                 44.956 
                 &lt;0.000004 
                 Terbium Tb 
                  158.924 
                 0.00000014 
               
               
                 Titanium Ti 
                 47.90 
                 0.001 
                 Dysprosium Dy 
                  162.50 
                 0.00000091 
               
               
                 Vanadium V 
                 50.942 
                 0.0019 
                 Holmium Ho 
                  164.930 
                 0.00000022 
               
               
                 Chromium Cr 
                 51.996 
                 0.0002 
                 Erbium Er 
                  167.26 
                 0.00000087 
               
               
                 Manganese Mn 
                 54.938 
                 0.0004 
                 Thulium Tm 
                  168.934 
                 0.00000017 
               
               
                 Iron Fe 
                 55.847 
                 0.0034 
                 Ytterbium Yb 
                  173.04 
                 0.00000082 
               
               
                 Cobalt Co 
                 58.933 
                 0.00039 
                 Lutetium Lu 
                  174.97 
                 0.00000015 
               
               
                 Nickel Ni 
                 58.71 
                 0.0066 
                 Hafnium Hf 
                  178.49 
                 &lt;0.000008 
               
               
                 Copper Cu 
                 63.54 
                 0.0009 
                 Tantalum Ta 
                  180.948 
                 &lt;0.0000025 
               
               
                 Zinc Zn 
                 65.37 
                 0.005 
                 Tungsten W 
                  183.85 
                 &lt;0.000001 
               
               
                 Gallium Ga 
                 69.72 
                 0.00003 
                 Rhenium Re 
                  186.2 
                 0.0000084 
               
               
                 Germanium Ge 
                 72.59 
                 0.00006 
                 Osmium Os 
                  190.2 
                 . 
               
               
                 Arsenic As 
                 74.922 
                 0.0026 
                 Iridium Ir 
                  192.2 
                 . 
               
               
                 Selenium Se 
                 78.96 
                 0.0009 
                 Platinum Pt 
                  195.09 
                 . 
               
               
                 Krypton Kr 
                 83.80 
                 0.00021 
                 Gold Au 
                  196.967 
                 0.000011 
               
               
                 Rubidium Rb 
                 85.47 
                 0.120 
                 Mercury Hg 
                  200.59 
                 0.00015 
               
               
                 Strontium Sr 
                 87.62 
                 8.1 
                 Thallium Tl 
                  204.37 
                 . 
               
               
                 Yttrium Y 
                 88.905 
                 0.000013 
                 Lead Pb 
                  207.19 
                 0.00003 
               
               
                 Zirconium Zr 
                 91.22 
                 0.000026 
                 Bismuth Bi 
                  208.980 
                 0.00002 
               
               
                 Niobium Nb 
                 92.906 
                 0.000015 
                 Thorium Th 
                  232.04 
                 0.0000004 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Uranium U 
                  238.03 
                 0.0033 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Plutonium Pu 
                 (244) 
                 . 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Note: 
               
               
                 ppm = parts per million = mg/liter = 0.001 g/kg 
               
             
          
         
       
     
     Fifty gallons of ocean seawater were collected and treated in a pilot facility able to continuously handle from 20 to 200 gallons/day. Initially, 50 mL/liter of a 10% sodium hydroxide (caustic) solution was used to raise the pH of the seawater to approximately 11.2 and the resulting precipitate allowed to sediment in a thickener prior to filtering using a 1μ pore filter. The filtrate was then conditioned with 0.9 g/liter of sodium bicarbonate, and the pH was adjusted to 10.2 so as to obtain another precipitate of carbonate salts, which was again allowed to sediment and was subsequently filtered using a micron filter. Chemical analysis of the final filtrate showed a reduction of about 67% of the scale-forming ions, such as calcium and magnesium, with the balance of calcium and magnesium forming soluble chlorides that do not precipitate upon boiling. 
     In a similar experiment, one liter of ocean seawater was treated with 30 mL of a 10% sodium hydroxide (caustic) solution was used to raise the pH of the seawater to slightly less than 11.0 and the resulting precipitate allowed to sediment in a thickener prior to filtering using a 1μ pore filter. The filtrate was then conditioned with 0.9 g/liter of sodium bicarbonate, and the pH was adjusted to 9.8 by adding another 0.7 g of caustic solution so as to obtain a precipitate of carbonate salts which was allowed to sediment and was subsequently filtered using a 1μ filter. No scale formation compounds were detected in the resulting filtrate. 
     A special test procedure was developed for ascertaining the degree of descaling in treated solutions. In this test, a sample of treated solution is collected in a glass beaker, and the sample is subjected to boiling in a pressure cooker for up to 5 hours at temperatures of 120° C. under pressure. Following this test procedure, the sample is removed and inspected visually as well as under a microscope to detect any solid precipitate. Since the residence time in the desalinating section that follows is only a couple of hours, the absence of any scale in this particular test proves that no scale will form during desalination. In none of the examples described herein was any scale detected after pre-treatment. 
     Example #2—Removal of Scale in Treatment of Waste Influent Compositions 
     An aqueous waste influent composition obtained as a waste stream from a fertilizer processing facility was treated in the manner described above in order to remove scale-forming compounds, as a pre-treatment to eventual desalination of the product in a separate water purification apparatus in which the formation of scale would be highly undesirable. The throughput of the treatment apparatus was 6 gallons per day (GPD), which was used a pilot apparatus for testing an industrial situation requiring 2000 m 3 /day (528,401.6 GPD). The composition of the waste influent with respect to relevant elements and ions is given in Table 7 below. 
     
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 7 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Waste Influent Composition 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Soluble Salts 
                 ppm (mg/L) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Barium 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Calcium 
                 500 
               
               
                   
                 Magnesium 
                 300 
               
               
                   
                 Iron (III) 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 Bicarbonate 
               
               
                   
                 Sulfate 
                 800 
               
               
                   
                 Phosphate 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Silica 
                 50 
               
               
                   
                 Strontium 
               
               
                   
                 Sodium 
                 700 
               
               
                   
                 Potassium 
                 30 
               
               
                   
                 Arsenic 
                 0 
               
               
                   
                 Fluoride 
                 2 
               
               
                   
                 Chloride 
                 1000 
               
               
                   
                 Nitrate 
                 10 
               
               
                   
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     The waste influent had a TDS content of 35,000 ppm (mg/L). As can be seen from Table 7, the waste influent had particularly high concentrations of calcium and magnesium, which tend to give rise to scale. 
     The waste influent was processed in the manner described above. Because the influent contained little or no hydrocarbons, deoiling and degassing were not conducted. CO 2  carbonation and addition of NaOH (to provide hydroxide ions to react with the Mg in solution) were followed by pH adjustment to a pH of 9.3 using additional NaOH. The process resulted in a filtered scale-forming composition (“filter cake”) and an effluent (product). The effluent product was tested for scale formation according to the procedure described above, and no scale or precipitate was detected. 
     Example #3—Removal of Scale in Treatment of Produced Water 
     The treatment process of the present disclosure was applied to seawater that had been adjusted to a high level of TDS and a high degree of water hardness, in order to test the capacity of the process to deal with such input solutions as produced water from oil extraction operations or waste water from gas fracking operations. The water was pretreated using the process of the present disclosure before being purified in a water desalination apparatus such as that described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,678,235. As discussed in greater detail below, the seawater subjected to the pretreatment process of the present disclosure showed no formation of scale when used as feed water in the water purification apparatus. 
     The following amounts of various compounds were added to fresh ocean water to produce the input aqueous solution of the present example: 7 grams/liter of Ca(OH) 2  were added to produce a target Ca 2+  concentration of 7.1 kppm, and 29 grams/liter of NaCl were also added. The TDS of the resulting water sample was 66 kppm. 
     A first precipitation was conducted at room temperature by adding approximately grams/liter of NaOH as necessary to increase the pH of the solution to greater than 10.5. A milky precipitate containing mainly magnesium hydroxide was precipitated in this first room temperature procedure. The water was filtered to remove the solid precipitates. 
     A second precipitation was then conducted by adding sodium bicarbonate and sufficient caustic to adjust the pH to 9.8, and a second precipitate containing mainly calcium and other carbonates was obtained. The TDS of the descaled and filtered water was approximately 65 kppm. 
     The descaled water was used as an influent for a water purification apparatus in accordance with U.S. Pat. No. 7,678,235. The product water was collected from the apparatus, and the TDS of the product water was measured. While the inlet water had a TDS of 65 kppm, the product water of the water purification apparatus was less than 10 ppm. No appreciable development of scale was observed in the boiler of the apparatus. 
     Example #4—Desalination of Ocean Water 
     Fifty gallons of ocean water were first pre-treated according to the procedures described earlier and fed into a pilot desalinator designed for a 50-200 GPD throughput. The product water had a TDS of less than 10 ppm, and no signs of scale formation were detected in any of the boilers. 
     Example #5—Desalination of Produced Water 
     Fifty gallons of a synthetic produced water containing in excess of 146,000 ppm of TDS and significant alkalinity were first pre-treated according to the procedures described earlier and fed into a pilot desalinator designed for a 50-200 GPD throughput. The product water had a TDS of less than 40 ppm, and no signs of scale formation were detected in any of the boilers. 
     Example #6—Desalination of Brackish Water 
     Fifty gallons of brackish water containing in excess of 3,870 ppm of TDS were first pre-treated according to the procedures described earlier and fed into a pilot desalinator designed for a 50-200 GPD throughput. The product water had a TDS of less than 10 ppm, and no signs of scale formation were detected in any of the boilers.