Abstract:
A system and method for improving performance of join operations is disclosed. The method in one embodiment includes building a graph of vertices and edges, which represent the tables and join conditions for a particular database schema. The method then traverses the graph to find a set of candidate join operations. The method further includes selecting from the set of subset of join operations that makes the best use of a given amount of memory, which means finding a collection of denormalizations which when residing in memory provide the most benefit and the least cost for the given amount of memory. The method then deploys the denormalizations so that current queries in a query processing system can use them instead of actually performing the joins.

Description:
FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates generally to database management systems and more particularly to denormalizations for processing in-memory queries. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Analytic query processing in data warehouses typically involves large data sets that are updated infrequently in batch-oriented manner. In many cases, it is desirable to execute queries on larger amounts of data (typically spanning a longer time period), but the performance of the query processing system limits the data set size. 
     Performance can be improved by processing the queries in memory and by increasing the number of servers operating on the queries. However, more servers increases power and power-related infrastructure costs for the servers, putting a bound on the number of servers and thus the size of the data sets. 
     Alternatively, performance can be improved at lower power by performing in-memory database queries in a cluster of low-power processing units. Each processing unit has low compute power, but a cluster with thousands of processing units has very high performance. While in-memory database query processing in the cluster increases performance, one kind of query operation still poses a challenge. Large table joins do not scale in performance with the size of the cluster. Therefore, it is desirable to seek further improvements in the performance of in-memory processing of large table joins. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       In the drawings: 
         FIG. 1  depicts flow chart of overall operation according to one embodiment; 
         FIG. 2  depicts a conventional join; 
         FIGS. 3 and 4  depict database schemas for the TPC-H workload; 
         FIG. 5  depicts a flow chart for discovery phase according to one embodiment; 
         FIGS. 6 and 7  depict directed graphs for the database schemas depicted in  FIGS. 3 and 4 ; 
         FIG. 8  depicts directed subgraphs for the database schema depicted in  FIG. 3 ; 
         FIG. 9  depicts a flow chart for optimization phase according to one embodiment; 
         FIG. 10  depicts a flow chart for the optimization function according to one embodiment; 
         FIG. 11  depicts a flow chart for deployment according to one embodiment; and 
         FIG. 12  depicts a system setting in which an embodiment operates. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     In the following description, for the purpose of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent, however, that the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present invention. 
     Overview 
     An embodiment performs an automatic denormalization of large relational joins. The denormalization is adapted to the query workload and the amount of memory in each processing unit of a cluster. In one embodiment, depicted in  FIG. 1 , automatic denormalization has three phases: (i) discovery  102 , (ii) optimization  104 , and (iii) deployment  106 . 
     In the discovery phase, the embodiment constructs a representation of tables and join conditions for a given schema and then analyzes the representation to find a set of possible denormalizations. 
     In the optimization phase, the task is to select the denormalizations that make the best use of a given amount of memory. The optimization phase has two parts, (i) reducing the amount of memory needed for each individual denormalization, and (ii) determining an optimal collection of the possible denormalizations. Memory is reduced by compressing columns or rows of the tables involved. An optimal collection of possible denormalizations is discovered by calculating the cost and benefit for each possible denormalization. The cost is the amount of memory needed for a denormalization and is based on query workload statistics or on the sizes of the tables. The benefit is based on the number of joins that are eliminated by the denormalization. An optimal subset includes those denormalizations that provide the most benefit at the least cost within the available memory. 
     In the deployment phase, the embodiment integrates each denormalization in the optimal set into the real-time system so that an in-coming query can find and use the denormalization. 
     Detailed Discussion 
     There are many kinds of relational joins. One kind is a natural join, which is depicted in  FIG. 2 . In this join, the two tables, Employee  202  and Dept  204 , are joined based on the column DeptName. A natural join is defined as the union of the tuples in the two tables subject to a condition, which is that the tuples are compatible. This means that the two tables have at least one attribute in common. In the example depicted in  FIG. 2 , The Employee table and the Dept table both have the DeptName in common. The natural join yields the join table  206 , which has only the entries from the Dept table whose values in DeptName column match the values in DeptName column in the Employee table. 
     Another kind of join is a Cartesian join. If the two tables in a join have no attributes in common, then this join produces a table in which every tuple in the first table is combined with every tuple in the second table. 
     Discovery Phase 
     A database schema typically includes a set of tables, including their column definitions, and optionally a set of constraints or relationships among the tables. For example, a TPC-H workload has database schemas shown in  FIG. 3  and  FIG. 4 . In the discovery phase, as depicted in  FIG. 5 , the system creates a directed graph in step  502  from a given schema and then traverses the graph in step  504  to locate a set of possible denormalizations. 
     The schema in  FIG. 3  includes the following tables: Part  302 , Supplier  304 , Part Supp  306 , Customer  308 , Nation  310 , Region  312 , LineItem  314 , and Orders  316 . The schema in  FIG. 3  also indicates the referential constraints between the tables. For example, the constraint below, 
     constraint-&gt;lineitem.orderkey references orders.orderkey, 
     is based on the orderkey in the LineItem table referencing the orderkey in the Orders table. Additionally, the partkey refers to the LineItem, Part, and Part Supp tables; the custkey refers to the Order and Customer Tables; the suppkey refers to the LineItem, Supplier and Part Supp tables; the nationkey refers to the Customer, Supplier, and Nation tables; and the regionkey refers to the Nation and Region tables. 
     An alternative schema for the TPC-H workload is depicted in  FIG. 4  and includes the following tables: LineOrder  402 , Customer  404 , Supplier  406 , Part  408 , and Date  410 . The referential constraints are also indicated. The custkey refers to the Customer table; the suppkey refers to the Supplier table; the partkey refers to the Part table and the orderdate and commitdate refer to the Date table. 
       FIG. 6  depicts a directed graph created from the schema of  FIG. 3 . In  FIG. 6 , each vertex  602 ,  604 ,  606 ,  608 ,  610 ,  612 ,  614 ,  616  is a table in the schema of  FIG. 3 . The edges  618 ,  620 ,  622 ,  624 ,  626 ,  628 ,  630 ,  632 ,  634  between each pair of vertices represent a directed relationship between the pair of tables represented by the vertices and each edge is annotated with the join condition between the two tables. 
       FIG. 7  depicts a directed graph created from the schema of  FIG. 4 . Again, the vertices  702 ,  704 ,  706 ,  708 ,  710  represent the tables in the schema and the edges  712 ,  714 ,  716 ,  718  represent the join conditions between the tables and are annotated with those conditions. 
     In directed graphs of  FIGS. 6 and 7 , the information for annotating the edges is derived from the corresponding schemas. In another embodiment, the query workload indirectly provides the information needed for annotating the edges. The annotations are inferred by analyzing queries in a recent workload or a training workload. In the embodiment, the system parses a given set of queries to find the join predicates, which are predicates that refer to columns of two different tables. The table aliases in each join predicate are mapped to the appropriate tables and an edge is added in the graph between the corresponding vertices and annotated with the join condition. The direction of the edge is inferred from the sizes of the two tables, where size refers to the number of rows in each table. The direction of each edge is from the larger table to the smaller table. Examining the query workload soon reaches a steady state where no edges are added to the graph, because join conditions between tables of a schema are generally the same across various queries. 
     Graph Structure for a Star or Snowflake Pattern 
       FIG. 7  depicts the directed graph for the schema of  FIG. 4  and has a star pattern. In other embodiments, the workload is arranged in a snowflake pattern. 
     A star or snowflake arrangement has two kinds of tables, fact tables and dimension tables. The fact tables hold values pertaining to a specific event and have only outgoing edges. Dimension tables hold values that are described by the fact data and have only incoming edges. The LineOrder table in  FIG. 7  is the center of the “star” and is a fact table. The Customer, Supplier, Part, and Date tables are arranged around the center of the star and are dimension tables. 
     In  FIG. 6 , the LineItem table can be considered a fact table and the Region and Part Supp tables could be considered dimension tables. 
     Traversing the Graph 
     After creating the graph for a given schema, the system traverses the graph to find potential denormalizations. It starts with vertices that have zero inbound edges, i.e., fact tables (such as the LineItem table in  FIG. 6  or the LineOrder table in  FIG. 7 ), and follows the outgoing edges to the dimension tables. Each fact table and one or more of its dimension tables (such as the Orders table  FIG. 6  or the Customer table in  FIG. 7 ) is a possible denormalization. To limit the number of possible denormalizations, the traversal can be constrained to a first level, that is, to first consider all of the dimension tables of a fact table before looking for additional denormalizations based on first level dimension tables considered as fact tables. Viewed in this manner, the graph traversal function is recursive. Controlling the depth of the recursion limits the number of possible denormalizations. 
     Subgraphs 
     Each possible denormalization is represented by a subgraph of the original directed graph such as those  802 ,  804  as depicted in  FIG. 8  for the schema of  FIG. 3 . 
     Forming SQL Query 
     Discovery also includes forming an SQL query for each possible denormalization. The SQL query is generated by adding tables corresponding to the vertices in the subgraph to the FROM clause of the query; adding all of the columns of each of these tables to the SELECT clause; and adding the join condition on each edge to the WHERE clause, combining them using an ‘AND.’ 
     Optimization 
     As mentioned above, the optimization phase, depicted in  FIG. 9 , attempts to find the subset of denormalizations that make the best use of a given amount of memory. 
     Compression 
     As mentioned above, columns and rows of tables in a denormalized relation are compressed to reduce the amount of memory required by the relation. The compression process has two steps, sorting and encoding. In step  902  of  FIG. 9 , rows of a table are sorted, in step  904 , based on the primary keys of the dimension tables, starting with the table that is the farthest from the fact table. Sorting ensures that rows from the dimension tables(s) that are duplicated in the denormalized relation are contiguous. Sorting can be performed by adding an ‘ORDER BY’ clause to an SQL query. 
     In step  906 , encoding is performed on columns in a relation when the relation is in column-major order. Encoding can be performed to a row-major or hybrid representation, where the rows of the dimension table are stored in row-major form. In the row-major case, the run-length needs to be specified only once for each row of the dimension table. 
     In one-embodiment, run-length encoding is used. This kind of encoding uses one or at most a few bytes to specify the number of repetitions of a value, followed by the value itself; this significantly reduces the amount of memory for the sorted tables in the denormalized relation and is simple enough that query operations can still be performed efficiently on the encoded representation of the tables. 
     Column data can encoded with other types of codes. For example, dictionary-based encoding is based on assigning a numeric code to each unique value in a column; the column can then be encoded by substituting the numeric code wherever the value appears. Run-length encoding can also be used in conjunction with dictionary coding. 
     Optimal Set 
     As mentioned above, determining the optimal subset of denormalized relations involves performing a cost calculation, in step  908 , and a benefit calculation in step  910 , where the cost is the amount of memory that a relation uses and the benefit is the “cost” of joins eliminated by using the denormalization. 
     In one embodiment, the cost M i εM of each denormalization is computed by collecting size estimates from queries that have been run in the system. This technique is the most accurate if the query workload is available. It looks at the queries, and keeps track of the actual size of each join. 
     In another embodiment, the cost is computed by finding the total of table sizes in the relation and the overhead for specifying the encoding of the tables. For each fact table, the system computes the total starting with the size of largest fact table and adds the sizes of its dimension tables in descending order of size and the overhead of encoding each table. If the fact table total has not exceeded the available memory, a total starting at any dimension table that has outgoing edges and it encoding overhead is also computed. If available memory is exceeded for either the total starting at a fact table or a total starting at a dimension table, then the process is stopped. The total amount of memory for the cost is in units of memory chunks, which are convenient subunits of the total amount of available memory. 
     In an embodiment where run-length encoding is used, the overhead for the table is the average run length. The average run length is the ratio of the size of the fact table to that of the dimension table, rounded off to the nearest power of 2. 
     The benefit B i εB of each denormalized relation is determined by finding the total cost of a join that would otherwise have been performed, i.e., the cost of the join without the denormalization. The total cost is the cost of the join across all queries in a query workload and is in units of memory chunks. 
     Having computed the cost and benefit for each potential denormalization, the optimum subset of denormalizations is discovered in step  912 . Let M be the set of costs, B be the set of benefits, L be the size of memory in chunks, and N be the number of possible denormalizations. Then the optimal set of denormalizations is S(L,N) and total benefit is T(L,N), where (S(L,N),T(L,N))=ƒ(M,B). The function ƒ determines the benefit and cost for each possible denormalization (1 . . N) and for each possible memory size (1 . . L), so that end of the computation yields the optimal set S and total benefit T. 
     In one embodiment, the function ƒ(M,B) is the one depicted in  FIG. 10 . In that function, the sets S(L,N), T(L,N) are implemented, respectively, as two dimensional arrays S(i,j), T(i,j) where i=[0 . . L] and j=[0 . . N]. In step  1002 , the T and S arrays are initialized by setting ∀j.T(0,j)=0 and ∀i.T(i,0)=0 and by clearing bits ∀j.S(0,j) and ∀i.S(i,0). Two loops, one with j =1 . . . N and i=1 . . L are initialized in steps  1004 ,  1006 . The outer loop, j, steps through the number of possible denormalizations and the inner loop i, steps though the sizes of memory up to the maximum size L. Thus, the outer loop selects a denormalization and the inner loop examines the cost and benefit of the selected denormalization for each memory size. In step  1008 , the function performs a test on M[j] and on T(i,j−1). If M[j]&gt;i then the number of memory chunks for the jth denormalization is greater than the current size of the memory. If T(i, j−1)&gt;T(i−M[j], j−1)+B[j] then the benefit of the previous denormalization is greater than the current one. In either case, the function then copies the previous benefit to the current benefit in step  1010  and the previous set of denormalizations providing the previous benefit to the current set in step  1012 . Otherwise, in steps  1014  and  1015 , the function updates the current benefit amount and the current set of denormalizations giving that benefit. When the function completes, the array entry T(L,N) has the maximum benefit for the given memory size L and the array entry S has the set of denormalizations providing that benefit. 
     Deployment 
     If a join can be performed by a denormalized relation, the join can be performed as a scan on the denormalized relation. The cardinality of a denormalized relation is the same as that of the fact table, assuming that strict referential constraints are enforced. Thus, there is no need to store the fact table separately in memory. Additionally, any join involving the fact table and any of the dimension tables in the denormalized relation can be eliminated, as long as the join predicates match those in the denormalized relation. 
     To verify a referential constraint between two tables, one smaller and the other larger, when the edges in the graph are inferred from the queries, a subset condition between the two tables is checked. First, the system ensures that the column of the smaller table is unique. Next, the system checks that the list of distinct values in larger table is a subset of the list of distinct values in smaller table, where number of distinct values in the column is equal to the total number of rows where the column&#39;s value is non-null. 
     The query processing system matches the denormalized relations in the optimal set with incoming queries, as depicted in  FIG. 11 . In one embodiment, the system matches the in-memory denormalized relations exposed as ‘virtual materialized views’. In another embodiment, the system matches in-memory denormalized relations during runtime. 
     To expose the denormalized relation as a materialized view, a new metadata object called a ‘virtual materialized view’ is added to the database system in step  1104 . A metadata cache is populated, in step  1106 , with information about the virtual materialized view objects, one for each denormalized relation, and the query optimizer is enhanced, in step  1108 , to consider the denormalized relation as just a regular materialized view, except that the I/O cost is set to zero. Additionally, the table/view scan row source is enhanced, in step  1110 , to handle this new type of view. Instead of the row source getting a list of blocks to read, the row source gets a list of memory chunks containing the denormalized relation. In step  1112 , a matching materialized view is used for a current query. While creating virtual materialized views has the advantage of using an existing mechanism in the database system, it has a drawback in that the denormalized relation cannot be removed from memory because compiled queries may depend on it. 
     Instead of using a materialized view, the query processing system can make denormalizations available during runtime, as depicted in  FIG. 11 . The query processing system evaluates the query plan for an incoming query with regard to any join nodes, in step  1112 . The system further traverses any sub-trees under the query plan and identifies any further joins that are immediately adjacent to the join node, i.e., not below a blocking row source, such as sorting or a grouping row source. If there is a candidate join node (row source), then if any fact table is involved, it is checked against the available, in-memory denormalized relations. The dimension tables and join conditions are also checked. If a match is found, the join is implemented as a scan (i.e., filter and projection) on the denormalized in-memory relation in step  1114 . This way of accessing denormalized relations does not create any dependency between the compiled queries and the denormalized relations. 
     Hardware Overview 
     According to one embodiment, the techniques described herein are implemented by one or more special-purpose computing devices. The special-purpose computing devices may be hard-wired to perform the techniques, or may include digital electronic devices such as one or more application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) or field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) that are persistently programmed to perform the techniques, or may include one or more general purpose hardware processors programmed to perform the techniques pursuant to program instructions in firmware, memory, other storage, or a combination. Such special-purpose computing devices may also combine custom hard-wired logic, ASICs, or FPGAs with custom programming to accomplish the techniques. The special-purpose computing devices may be desktop computer systems, portable computer systems, handheld devices, networking devices or any other device that incorporates hard-wired and/or program logic to implement the techniques. 
     For example,  FIG. 12  is a block diagram that illustrates a computer system  1200  upon which an embodiment of the invention may be implemented. Computer system  1200  includes a bus  1202  or other communication mechanism for communicating information, and a hardware processor  1204  coupled with bus  1202  for processing information. Hardware processor  1204  may be, for example, a general purpose microprocessor. 
     Computer system  1200  also includes a main memory  1206 , such as a random access memory (RAM) or other dynamic storage device, coupled to bus  1202  for storing information and instructions to be executed by processor  1204 . Main memory  1206  also may be used for storing temporary variables or other intermediate information during execution of instructions to be executed by processor  1204 . Such instructions, when stored in non-transitory storage media accessible to processor  1204 , render computer system  1200  into a special-purpose machine that is customized to perform the operations specified in the instructions. 
     Computer system  1200  further includes a read only memory (ROM)  1208  or other static storage device coupled to bus  1202  for storing static information and instructions for processor  1204 . A storage device  1210 , such as a magnetic disk or optical disk, is provided and coupled to bus  1202  for storing information and instructions. 
     Computer system  1200  may be coupled via bus  1202  to a display  1212 , such as a cathode ray tube (CRT), for displaying information to a computer user. An input device  1214 , including alphanumeric and other keys, is coupled to bus  1202  for communicating information and command selections to processor  1204 . Another type of user input device is cursor control  1216 , such as a mouse, a trackball, or cursor direction keys for communicating direction information and command selections to processor  1204  and for controlling cursor movement on display  1212 . This input device typically has two degrees of freedom in two axes, a first axis (e.g., x) and a second axis (e.g., y), that allows the device to specify positions in a plane. 
     Computer system  1200  may implement the techniques described herein using customized hard-wired logic, one or more ASICs or FPGAs, firmware and/or program logic which in combination with the computer system causes or programs computer system  1200  to be a special-purpose machine. According to one embodiment, the techniques herein are performed by computer system  1200  in response to processor  1204  executing one or more sequences of one or more instructions contained in main memory  1206 . Such instructions may be read into main memory  1206  from another storage medium, such as storage device  1210 . Execution of the sequences of instructions contained in main memory  1206  causes processor  1204  to perform the process steps described herein. In alternative embodiments, hard-wired circuitry may be used in place of or in combination with software instructions. 
     The term “storage media” as used herein refers to any non-transitory media that store data and/or instructions that cause a machine to operation in a specific fashion. Such storage media may comprise non-volatile media and/or volatile media. Non-volatile media includes, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as storage device  1210 . Volatile media includes dynamic memory, such as main memory  1206 . Common forms of storage media include, for example, a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, solid state drive, magnetic tape, or any other magnetic data storage medium, a CD-ROM, any other optical data storage medium, any physical medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a PROM, and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, NVRAM, any other memory chip or cartridge. 
     Storage media is distinct from but may be used in conjunction with transmission media. Transmission media participates in transferring information between storage media. For example, transmission media includes coaxial cables, copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise bus  1202 . Transmission media can also take the form of acoustic or light waves, such as those generated during radio-wave and infra-red data communications. 
     Various forms of media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to processor  1204  for execution. For example, the instructions may initially be carried on a magnetic disk or solid state drive of a remote computer. The remote computer can load the instructions into its dynamic memory and send the instructions over a telephone line using a modem. A modem local to computer system  1200  can receive the data on the telephone line and use an infra-red transmitter to convert the data to an infra-red signal. An infra-red detector can receive the data carried in the infra-red signal and appropriate circuitry can place the data on bus  1202 . Bus  1202  carries the data to main memory  1206 , from which processor  1204  retrieves and executes the instructions. The instructions received by main memory  1206  may optionally be stored on storage device  1210  either before or after execution by processor  1204 . 
     Computer system  1200  also includes a communication interface  1218  coupled to bus  1202 . Communication interface  1218  provides a two-way data communication coupling to a network link  1220  that is connected to a local network  1222 . For example, communication interface  1218  may be an integrated services digital network (ISDN) card, cable modem, satellite modem, or a modem to provide a data communication connection to a corresponding type of telephone line. As another example, communication interface  1218  may be a local area network (LAN) card to provide a data communication connection to a compatible LAN. Wireless links may also be implemented. In any such implementation, communication interface  1218  sends and receives electrical, electromagnetic or optical signals that carry digital data streams representing various types of information. 
     Network link  1220  typically provides data communication through one or more networks to other data devices. For example, network link  1220  may provide a connection through local network  1222  to a host computer  1224  or to data equipment operated by an Internet Service Provider (ISP)  1226 . ISP  1226  in turn provides data communication services through the world wide packet data communication network now commonly referred to as the “Internet”  1228 . Local network  1222  and Internet  1228  both use electrical, electromagnetic or optical signals that carry digital data streams. The signals through the various networks and the signals on network link  1220  and through communication interface  1218 , which carry the digital data to and from computer system  1200 , are example forms of transmission media. 
     Computer system  1200  can send messages and receive data, including program code, through the network(s), network link  1220  and communication interface  1218 . In the Internet example, a server  1230  might transmit a requested code for an application program through Internet  1228 , ISP  1226 , local network  1222  and communication interface  1218 . 
     The received code may be executed by processor  1204  as it is received, and/or stored in storage device  1210 , or other non-volatile storage for later execution. 
     In the foregoing specification, embodiments of the invention have been described with reference to numerous specific details that may vary from implementation to implementation. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense. The sole and exclusive indicator of the scope of the invention, and what is intended by the applicants to be the scope of the invention, is the literal and equivalent scope of the set of claims that issue from this application, in the specific form in which such claims issue, including any subsequent correction.