Abstract:
A method is disclosed for controlling exhaust emissions from direct injected homogeneous charge compression ignition engines by combusting therein a fuel having a cetane number equal to or less than 50, and aromatic content equal to or greater than 15 wt %.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION  
       [0001]     This present Application is related to co-pending Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/571,307 filed on May 14, 2004, and takes priority therefrom. The teachings of the related Application are incorporated herein by reference to the extent they do not conflict herewith 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0002]     1. Field of the Invention  
         [0003]     The present invention relates to direct injected homogeneous charge compression ignition engines and to a way to exercise control over exhaust emissions, and especially NO x  emissions therefrom by adjusting the characteristics of the fuel.  
         [0004]     2. Related Art  
         [0005]     In “Effects of Fuel Properties on Premixed Charge Compression Ignition Combustion in a Direct Injection Diesel Engine,” Kitano et al SAE 2003-01-1815, it is taught that NO x  emissions among three test fuels, two based on fuels having a boiling range of about 35° C. to 139° C. and of 25, 40 cetane, and one diesel of boiling range 170° C. to 355° C., and of 53 cetane number, respectively, showed a tendency to decrease as the cetane number is lowered and as the injection timing is advanced.  
         [0006]     In “A Method of Defining Ignition Quality of Fuels in HCCI Engines,” Kalghatgi et al. SAE 2003-01-1816, it is taught that more sensitive fuels are likely to be better than less sensitive fuels of the same RON for HCCI engines. Fuel sensitivity is reported to increase as the aromatic/olefinic/oxygenate content of the fuel increases.  
         [0007]     Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a rapidly evolving technology that offers great potential for meeting future exhaust emissions regulations while maintaining good fuel conversion efficiency.  
         [0008]     The primary reason HCCI systems are being developed is because of their ultra-low NO x  and particulate matter emissions capability that will be needed to meet future worldwide emissions regulations, excellent fuel efficiency and the possible avoidance of costly aftertreatment systems.  
         [0009]     HCCI systems will likely target the US on-highway 2010 and off-road Tier 4b regulations due to the extremely low NO x  emissions levels, although forms of HCCI could be used to meet practically all upcoming regulations. NO x  levels of 0.2-0.3 g/HP·h translate into &lt;50 ppm NO x  at all engine operating conditions (&lt;10 ppm at most), and the only other known methods to achieve these levels involve the use of expensive NO x  aftertreatment technology such as NO x  adsorbers and SCR systems. If a true homogeneous mixture is achieved, rich regions in the cylinder are avoided and solid carbon levels are effectively zero, avoiding the need for particulate traps. Hydrocarbon and CO levels are also legislated and HCCI combustion has inherently high levels of these emissions, especially at light loads (low equivalence ratios). So even if HCCI combustion methods are successful at eliminating the need for NO x  and PM traps, oxidation catalysts will still be needed.  
         [0010]     The primary challenge of most HCCI development activities is achieving these ultra low NO x  and PM emissions over the entire power spectrum and legislated emissions cycles the engines must operate within. For certain applications such as passenger cars and light trucks, in some countries the emissions cycles only subject the vehicle to part load operation so an HCCI strategy that achieves low emissions up to ½ load and then uses more conventional methods at higher loads may be a perfectly acceptable solution. However, for on-highway trucks and off-road machines, the emissions cycles are such that the engines must produce ultra-low NO x  and PM levels from light load up to full load. Therefore, the ideal HCCI solution is one which works at all engine operating conditions and this has proven to be the most difficult obstacle to overcome by most researchers involved in HCCI development. The primary reason for this is the rapid increase in the rate of combustion as more fuel is injected to increase the power output of the engine. These high combustion rates can lead to cylinder pressures exceeding the structural limits of engine cylinder components (piston, rings, head, etc.) and often are accompanied by high NO x  emissions and increased heat loss.  
         [0011]     HCCI engines have higher HC and CO emissions than standard diesel engines so control of these emissions is also important.  
         [0012]     It would be desirable, therefore, to identify techniques for the control and reduction of NO x , particulate matter and other exhaust emissions which could be implemented independently of mechanical or operational control of the HCCI engine while extending the size of the fuel pool.  
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0013]     It has been discovered that the exhaust emissions, especially the NO x  emissions from a direct injected HCCI engine can be controlled and held at a low level by combusting in the HCCI engine a fuel of reduced cetane number, fuels having a cetane number of between about 20-50, preferably between about 20-40, and more preferably between about 20 to 30. The total aromatic content of the fuel can be greater than 15 wt %, preferably greater than 28 wt %, and more preferably between 28 to 50 wt %. Fuel boiling range can be from 25° C. to 380° C. For gasoline fuels the average of research and motor octane numbers, (R+M)/2, can be 60 to 91, preferably 60 to 81, and more preferably 60 to 70. 
     
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES  
       [0014]     Various embodiments of the present invention are described with reference to the figures, wherein:  
         [0015]      FIGS. 1-5  show the effect of injection timing and cetane number (38.5-45.5 range) on NO x , AVL smoke number, HC, CO and thermal efficiency, respectively, at 1500 rpm, 50% load.  
         [0016]      FIGS. 6-10  show the effect of injection timing and cetane number (46.7-55.4 range) on NO x , AVL smoke number, HC, CO and thermal efficiency, respectively, at 1200 rpm, 25% load.  
         [0017]      FIGS. 11 and 12  show the effect of natural and enhanced cetane number on cylinder pressure and heat release rate, respectively, at 1200 rpm, 25% load.  
         [0018]      FIGS. 13-17  show the effect of injection timing and aromatic content on NO x , AVL smoke number, HC, CO and thermal efficiency, respectively, at 1500 rpm, 25% load.  
         [0019]      FIGS. 18-19  show the effect of fuel volatility on engine heat release and cylinder pressure, respectively, at 1200 rpm, 25% load.  
         [0020]      FIGS. 20-24  show the effect of fuel volatility on NOx, AVL smoke number, HC, CO, and thermal efficiency, respectively, at 1200 rpm and 1800 rpm. 
     
    
     DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
       [0021]     The exhaust emissions, and especially the NO x  emissions, from a direct injected homogeneous charge compression ignition engine can be controlled and held at a low level or reduced by combusting in the direct injected HCCI engine in which fuel is injected during the compression stroke, a fuel having a cetane number or derived cetane number as determined by ASTM D613 or ASTM D6890, respectively, of between about 20-50, preferably about 20-40, and more preferably about 20-30, with the fuel also having a total aromatics content of about 15 wt % or more, preferably 28 wt % or more, more preferably between about 15 to 50 wt %, and most preferably between about 28 to 50 wt %. Fuel boiling range can be from 25° C. to 380° C. For gasoline fuels the average of research and motor octane numbers, ((R+M)/2), can be 60 to 91, preferably 60 to 81, and more preferably 60 to 70.  
         [0022]     Diesel fuel is defined as a mixture of hydrocarbons which boil at atmospheric pressure over a temperature range within about 150° C. to 380° C., whereas gasoline fuels are those which boil at atmospheric pressure over a temperature range within about 25° C. to 220° C.  
         [0023]     The fuels used can also contain non-hydrocarbon components, such as oxygenates. They can also contain additives, e.g., dyes, antioxidants, cetane improvers, cold flow improvers, or lubricity improvers.  
       EXPERIMENTAL  
       [0024]     A study was conducted to explore fuel property effects on HCCI engine performance and exhaust emissions, focusing on cetane number, aromatic content and volatility for all fuels, and octane number for gasoline fuels. The properties of diesel fuels used in this study are shown in Table 1. The properties of gasoline test fuels are presented in Table 2.  
                                                                                                                                                                                       TABLE 1                       Properties of Diesel Test Fuels                                    Test   FUEL            PARAMETER   Method   D0   D1*   D2   D3   D4   D5                    Density, g/cm3       ASTM D4052   0.8502   0.8674   0.9109   0.8673   0.8503   0.8138       Cetane Number       ASTM D613   44.7   45.9   31.7   38.5   45.5   46.2       Distillation, F   IB             ASTM D86   317   349   482   349   368   359            5%       371   396   498   396   403   374           10%       399   415   500   415   411   375           20%       441   439   506   439   425   381           30%       474   462   512   462   442   387           40%       499   485   518   485   458   400           50%       520   507   527   507   481   430           60%       539   531   536   531   503   540           70%       559   555   549   555   537   604           80%       584   586   567   586   579   613           90%       618   625   597   625   615   622           95%       647   655   627   655   635   632           EP       662   671   630   671   649   641       SFC   1-ring   ASTM D5186   —   28.6   37.5   28.6   29.3   27.4       Aromatics,   2+ -ring       —   14.8   9.2   14.8   15.4   3.1       wt %   Total       28.0   43.4   46.7   43.4   44.7   30.5                        FUEL                PARAMETER   D6   D7   D8   D9   D10**   D11***                            Density, g/cm3       0.8165   0.8433   0.8326   0.8594   0.8594   0.8594           Cetane Number       46.7   46.7   55.4   40.4   47.6   50.5           Distillation, F   IB             323   348   317   358.3   358.3   358.3                5%   364   392   371   390.2   390.2   390.2               10%   368   405   399   403.5   403.5   403.5               20%   382   422   441   427.6   427.6   427.6               30%   394   440   474   455.2   455.2   455.2               40%   407   461   499   481.1   481.1   481.1               50%   420   487   520   501.8   501.8   501.8               60%   433   513   539   525.6   525.6   525.6               70%   448   538   559   548.4   548.4   548.4               80%   467   564   584   574.2   574.2   574.2               90%   495   596   618   610.7   610.7   610.7               95%   524   623   647   641.3   641.3   641.3               EP   554   634   662   662.7   662.7   662.7           SFC   1-ring   20.2   20.7   20.3   23.4   23.4   23.4           Aromatics,   2+ -ring   8.2   8.0   7.7   14.6   14.6   14.6           wt %   Total   28.4   28.7   28.0   38.0   38.0   38.0                         *Fuel D3 treated with 0.3 vol % of ethylhexyl nitrate cetane improver                **Fuel D9 treated with 0.15 vol % of ethylhexyl nitrate cetane improver                ***Fuel D9 treated with 0.4 vol % of ethylhexyl nitrate cetane improver             
 
         [0025]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Properties of Gasoline Test Fuels 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Test 
                 FUEL 
               
             
          
           
               
                 PARAMETER 
                 Method 
                 G1 
                 G2 
                 G3 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 Density, g/cm3 
                 ASTM D4052 
                 0.7286 
                 0.7266 
                 0.7239 
               
               
                 RON 
                 ASTM D2699 
                 95.2 
                 83.6 
                 65.0 
               
               
                 MON 
                 ASTM D2700 
                 87.1 
                 78.9 
                 61.4 
               
               
                 (R + M)/2 
                 — 
                 91.2 
                 81.2 
                 63.2 
               
               
                 Derived Cetane Number 
                 ASTM D6890 
                 20.4 
                 26.7 
                 31.2 
               
             
          
           
               
                 Distillation, F 
                 IB           
                 ASTM D86 
                 93.4 
                 97.7 
                 99.0 
               
               
                   
                  5% 
                   
                 127.6 
                 129.0 
                 127.6 
               
               
                   
                 10% 
                   
                 140.5 
                 141.6 
                 138.4 
               
               
                   
                 20% 
                   
                 158.5 
                 158.5 
                 152.1 
               
               
                   
                 30% 
                   
                 176.5 
                 174.7 
                 166.5 
               
               
                   
                 40% 
                   
                 195.4 
                 190.4 
                 181.9 
               
               
                   
                 50% 
                   
                 212.2 
                 205.5 
                 199.6 
               
               
                   
                 60% 
                   
                 224.6 
                 218.8 
                 222.1 
               
               
                   
                 70% 
                   
                 236.5 
                 234.5 
                 248.4 
               
               
                   
                 80% 
                   
                 253.9 
                 260.2 
                 277.3 
               
               
                   
                 90% 
                   
                 298.6 
                 308.7 
                 315.3 
               
               
                   
                 95% 
                   
                 342.9 
                 337.8 
                 339.1 
               
               
                   
                 EP 
                   
                 385.9 
                 380.5 
                 372.6 
               
               
                 PIONA, wt % 
                 Saturates 
                 ASTM D6839 
                 65.4 
                 65.4 
                 82.6 
               
               
                   
                 Olefins 
                   
                 8.0 
                 8.3 
                 2.1 
               
               
                   
                 Aromatics 
                   
                 26.7 
                 26.3 
                 15.3 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0026]     The engine used in this study was a single cylinder Caterpillar 3401 engine with specifications given in Table 3. A hydraulically intensified fuel injector was used to provide a uniform spray distribution.  
                             TABLE 3                       Engine Specification                                    Displacement   2.44 dm 3             Bore/Stroke   137.2/165.1 mm           Valves per cylinder     4           Swirl Ratio   ˜0.4                      
 
         [0027]     Intake and exhaust surge tanks were used to provide boost and backpressure levels that are representative of actual multi-cylinder turbocharger operation. No oxidation catalyst was used so the HC and CO levels reported are all engine-out values. Exhaust gas emissions of CO, HC, NO x  and CO 2  were measured with a Horiba EXSA analyzer. An AVL smoke meter was used for smoke measurement.  
         [0028]     The fuels were tested at engine speeds of 1200, 1500 and 1800 rpm and engine loads of 25%, 50% and 70+%.  
         [0029]     The study was focused on engine operating conditions characterized by NO x  emissions &lt;0.2 g/HP·h and AVL smoke numbers &lt;0.1. The former corresponds to US EPA 2010 NO x  emission standard for heavy-duty engines, while the latter is roughly equivalent to the 2010 particulate emission requirement of 0.01 g/HP·h.  
         [0030]     The effect of cetane number on the performance and emissions of the HCCI engine was evaluated by comparing low cetane (38.5) diesel fuel D3 with mid-range cetane (45.5) fuel D4, as well as mid-range cetane number (46.7) diesel fuel D7 with high cetane (55.4) diesel fuel D8. The fuels in each pair had very similar distillation properties and aromatic content.  
         [0031]     The effect of cetane number increase achieved through changes in the hydrocarbon composition of the fuel (natural cetane number) was also compared to cetane number enhancement achieved through the use of ethylhexyl nitrate ignition improver. This comparison involved testing of natural cetane fuels D3 and D4 alongside the cetane enhanced fuel D1 (prepared by treating fuel D3 with the ignition improver). The cetane number of fuel D1 (45.9) was matched to that of fuel D4 (45.5), along with aromatic content and distillation properties. In addition, diesel fuel D2 whose cetane number was 31.7, and three gasolines, G1, G2 and G3, whose derived cetane numbers equaled 20.4, 26.7 and 31.2, respectively, were tested to determine the effect of further reduction in cetane number on the operating range of the engine. Fuels G1, G2 and G3 also allowed the effect of octane number to be evaluated.  
         [0032]     The effect of aromatic content was investigated using fuels D4 and D7 which contained 44.7 and 28.7 wt % of aromatics, respectively.  
         [0033]     Volatility effects were investigated by comparing middle distillate fuels D6 and D7. Fuel D6 was more volatile than fuel D7, as its distillation range was lower, e.g. the 90% distillation temperatures of these fuels equaled 257° C. and 313° C., respectively. Fuel D7 had the volatility of No. 2 diesel fuel, while Fuel D6 had the volatility of No. 1 diesel fuel or kerosene. Volatility effects were also determined by comparing results for diesel and gasoline fuels.  
         [0034]      FIGS. 1 through 5  show NO x , AVL smoke, HC, CO and thermal efficiency of the test engine operated on fuels D3 and D4 whose cetane numbers were 38.5 and 45.5, respectively. The same parameters are plotted in  FIGS. 6 through 10  for fuels D7 and D8 whose cetane numbers were 46.7 and 55.4, respectively. In each case, cetane effects are shown for a single speed/load condition but they did not vary significantly over the conditions tested. NO x  emissions increased as fuel injection timing was retarded, while smoke, HC and CO emissions were reduced or remained unchanged.  
         [0035]     At early (advanced) injection timings, the NO x  emissions are very low since ample time for fuel to vaporize and mix with air leads to relatively homogeneous distribution of fuel within the combustion chamber at low combustion temperatures. For the late (retarded) combustion timings, fuel distribution within combustion chamber becomes less homogeneous leading to higher local combustion temperatures and increased NO x  emissions, but reduced HC, CO and smoke. An intermediate injection timing region is used where low NO x  and smoke can be realized with moderate levels of HC and CO.  
         [0036]     Thermal efficiency tended to improve with retarded injection timing, in line with lower HC and CO emissions. Overall, the effects of differences in cetane number on engine performance and emissions were small and tended to disappear as injection timing was retarded at all engine operating conditions used in this study. Where its effect was detectable, cetane number increase seemed to improve CO, HC and smoke emissions at advanced fuel injection settings compared against low cetane number fuel. These small effects of cetane number which were observed may be attributed to increased fuel reactivity and advanced start of combustion timing associated with increased cetane number of the fuel.  
         [0037]     While the higher cetane number fuel appeared to improve CO, HC and smoke emissions at advanced fuel injection settings as compared against lower cetane number fuel, the lower cetane number fuel appeared to hold NO x  reduction to the same low level or to improve it beyond that demonstrated with the high cetane number fuel over the injection setting range investigated (see  FIGS. 1-10  and Table 4).  
         [0038]     The effects of natural and enhanced cetane number are compared in Table 4 which contains results of engine tests performed at 1200 rpm, 25% load. These results demonstrate roughly equivalent effect of the 45.5 cetane unadditized fuel D4 and the 45.9 cetane ignition enhanced fuel D1 on NOx, AVL smoke number, HC, CO and thermal efficiency of the HCCI engine relative to the 38.5 cetane base fuel D3. As shown in  FIGS. 11 and 12 , fuels D1 and D4 also advanced the start of combustion timing by about 6 degrees crank angle relative to fuel D3. This effect of cetane number on SOC timing is not desirable in HCCI engines. In fact, it is counterproductive from the point of achieving higher load operation on HCCI engines. Increasing cetane number makes it more difficult to achieve optimum combustion phasing at high loads and maximize thermal efficiency of the engine within the constraints of the cylinder pressure and rate of pressure rise limits.  
                                                                     TABLE 4                           Effects of Natural and Enhanced Cetane Number                Fuel            Parameter   Unit   D1   D3   D4                    NOx   ppm   40   12   35       AVL Smoke   Smoke Number   0.08   0.02   0.08       HC   ppm   556   792   536       CO   ppm   1955   3065   2110       Thermal Efficiency   %   32.6   34.3   32.2                  
 
         [0039]     As shown in Tables 5 and 6, diesel fuel D2 and gasoline G3 allowed the HCCI engine to operate over the broadest speed and load ranges. Fuel D2 enabled engine operation at 72% at 1200 rpm, and 78% at 1800 rpm. Fuel G3 enabled operation at 75% load at 1200 rpm, and 83% load at 1800 rpm. The cetane number of fuel D2 and the derived cetane number of fuel G3 were 31.7 and 31.2, respectively. On the other hand, gasolines G1 and G2 proved to be excessively resistant to autoignition and severely restricted the operating range of the engine. Fuel G2 (derived cetane number of 26.7) allowed the engine to achieve 75% load at 1200 rpm, but limited its operation at 1800 rpm to a single load of 71%. At 1200 rpm, engine operation on fuel G1 (derived cetane number of 20.4) was limited to the narrow load range of 50 to 75%. At 1800 rpm, HCCI combustion was not achieved on this fuel.  
         [0040]     The testing results also show that engine operating range increases as fuel octane number is reduced. Fuel G3 with (R+M)/2 octane number of 63.2 provided a larger operating range than G2, with R+M/2 of 81.2, which in turn provided a larger operating range than G1 with R+M/2 of 91.2. Octane number is a measure of ignition resistance for gasoline fuels. Unlike a standard gasoline engine, HCCI engines do not have a spark plug to initiate ignite the fuel. If the ignition resistance of the fuel is too high then the fuel is too difficult to ignite and engine operation is restricted.  
                                               TABLE 5                           Load Range of the HCCI Engine Operated on Fuel D2                1200 rpm   1800 rpm                            Maximum Load Achieved, %   72%   78%           Minimum Load Achieved, %   10%   15%                      
 
         [0041]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 6 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Load Ranges of the HCCI Engine Operated on Fuels G1, G2 and G3 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 Fuel G1 
                 Fuel G2 
                 Fuel G3 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                 1200 rpm 
                 1800 rpm 
                 1200 rpm 
                 1800 rpm 
                 1200 rpm 
                 1800 rpm 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Maximum Load 
                 75 
                 HCCI 
                 75 
                 71 
                 75 
                 83 
               
               
                 Achieved, % 
                   
                 operation 
                   
                 HCCI 
               
               
                 Minimum Load 
                 50 
                 was not 
                 50 
                 operation 
                 25 
                 25 
               
               
                 Achieved, % 
                 However, 
                 achieved at 
                 HCCI 
                 was not 
                 HCCI 
                 HCCI 
               
               
                   
                 engine 
                 any engine 
                 operation at 
                 possible at 
                 operation at 
                 operation at 
               
               
                   
                 operation 
                 load 
                 &lt;50% load 
                 any other 
                 &lt;25% load 
                 &lt;25% load 
               
               
                   
                 was unstable 
                   
                 was not 
                 load 
                 was not 
                 was not 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 attempted 
                   
                 attempted 
                 attempted 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0042]     The effect of aromatic content of the fuel on exhaust emissions and thermal efficiency is shown in FIGS.  13  through 17 for the 1500 rpm, 25% load operating point. The comparison is based on fuels D4 and D7 whose total aromatic content equaled 44.7 and 28.7 wt %, respectively. In general, the observed effects were small and followed no clear trends for the engine operating conditions used in this study. These results suggest that this HCCI combustion system could be relatively insensitive to the aromatics content of diesel fuel.  
         [0043]     HCCI combustion systems seem to be relatively insensitive to the aromatics content of diesel fuel, whereas conventional diesel combustion systems are sensitive to this parameter.  
         [0044]     This insensitivity to aromatics along with the ability to run well and with low NO x  emissions using lower cetane number diesel fuel could significantly increase the size of the pool of useable diesel fuel.  
         [0045]     As shown in Tables 5 and 6, the engine was able to operate up to 78% load with diesel fuel D2 and up to 83% load with gasoline fuel G3. This demonstrates that a wide range of fuel volatility can be used in the engine.  FIGS. 18 and 19  compare cylinder pressure and heat release rate for fuels D6 and D7. These fuels differed in volatility but their aromatic content and cetane number were well matched. Increased volatility had no significant effect on start of ignition timing and did not impact cylinder pressure, and rate of heat release.  
         [0046]     The effect of fuel volatility on exhaust emissions and thermal efficiency is shown in FIGS.  20  through 24 for engine loads of 25 and 50%, by comparing D6 and D7. Increased volatility had a small effect on emissions and efficiency. NOx, smoke and HC emissions decreased with the more volatile fuel D6, while thermal efficiency was not affected. These effects could be caused by the more uniform distribution of the more volatile fuel D6 within the combustion chamber of the engine at the time of ignition. However, CO emissions results were mixed.  
         [0047]     These results indicate that a broad range of fuel volatility types can be utilized in this engine. More volatile fuels like kerosene or gasoline can provide emission benefits due to better fuel vaporization and mixing. There are also benefits to using less volatile fuels like diesel since these fuels have higher energy density and will therefore provide better mileage, which is very important to the trucking industry which is a known large consumer of diesel fuels.