Abstract:
Methods and apparatuses for assembling a structure onto a substrate. A method according to one aspect of the invention includes dispensing a slurry onto a substrate wherein the slurry includes a first plurality of elements, each of which is designed to mate with a receptor region on said substrate and each of which comprises a functional element, and wherein the slurry also includes a second plurality of elements which are not designed to mate with receptor regions on the substrate. Typically, these second plurality of elements help movement of the first plurality of elements. A method according to another aspect of the invention includes dispensing in a flow having a first direction a slurry onto a substrate, wherein the slurry includes a fluid and a plurality of elements, each of which is designed to mate with a receptor region on the substrate and each of which includes a functional element, and vibrating substrate in a second direction which is substantially perpendicular to the first direction. A method according to another aspect of the invention includes creating a slurry comprising of fluid and a plurality of elements, each of which is designed to mate with a receptor region on the substrate and each of which comprises a functional element, and projecting the slurry through a nozzle toward the substrate. In one particular implementation of this aspect, additional nozzles may be used to provide suction or additional fluid or additional slurry. A method according to another aspect of the invention includes dissolving a bonding agent into a solvent to create a fluid, dispensing a slurry onto a substrate, wherein the slurry includes the fluid and a plurality of elements each of which is designed to mate with a receptor region on the substrate and each of which comprises a functional element, and evaporating the solvent after each of the plurality of elements has mated with a corresponding receptor, wherein the bonding agent bonds each of the plurality of elements to the corresponding receptor region.

Description:
GOVERNMENT RIGHTS NOTICE 
     This invention was made with government support with at least one of these contracts: Grant (Contract) Nos. AFOSR 91-0327; F49620-92-J-059-1; F33615-96-C-5111 with USAF/AFMC/ASC; DAA016-00-C-9234 USAMCAC (US Army); Northrop Grumman PO #8200014995 (subcontract, NOOO14-99-C-0395 (prime)); North Dakota State University Subcontract #4080, DMEA 90-01-C-0009 (prime) and University of Alaska, Fairbanks PO#FP201509 (subcontract), DMEA 90-01-C-0009 (prime). The Government has certain rights to this invention. 
    
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention relates generally to the field of creating assemblies through fluidic self assembly and to the assemblies so created. 
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
     There are many examples of large arrays of functional components which can provide, produce or detect electromagnetic signals or chemicals or other characteristics. An example of such a large array is that of a display where many pixels or sub-pixels are formed on an array of electronic elements. For example, an active matrix liquid crystal display includes an array of many pixels or sub-pixels which are fabricated on amorphous silicon or polysilicon substrates which are large. As is well known in the art, it is difficult to produce a completely flawless active matrix liquid crystal display (LCD), when the display area is large, such as the LCD&#39;s on modern laptop computers. As the display area gets larger and larger, the yield of good displays decreases. This is due to the manner in which these display devices are fabricated. 
     Silicon VLSI can be used to produce such an array over a silicon wafer&#39;s surface, but silicon wafers are limited in size, limited in conductivity, and not transparent. Further, processing of large areas on silicon wafers can be expensive. Displays which valve the light coming through them need to be transparent. Single crystal silicon can be bonded to a glass substrate and then etched to remove most of the area to achieve transparency, but this is intrinsically wasteful in that, for the sake of maximizing light transmission, the majority of the processed material is discarded and becomes chemical waste. The under-utilization of the precious die area wastes resources, causes greater amounts of chemical waste to be generated in the process, and is generally inefficient and expensive. Another example is photodiode arrays which may be used to collect solar energy. Large arrays of silicon photodiodes with concentrating lenses have been made by sawing wafers and using a pick and place assembly, but thermal dissipation is poor for large elements, and the small elements require too much assembly time. 
     Alternative approaches to fabricating arrays such as displays include fabricating the desired circuitry in an amorphous or polycrystalline semiconductor layer which has been deposited on a substrate, such as glass or quartz. These approaches avoid the limitations of the size of the available single crystal silicon wafers, and avoid the cost of the single crystal wafers, but require expensive deposition of the semiconductor layer, and they still require processing of the entire large substrate to form the active elements in an array, still resulting in the production of much chemical waste and wasted resources. These processes also limit the choice of the substrate; for example, plastic substrates cannot be used due to the nature of the processes which deposit the semiconductor layers. Furthermore, amorphous or polycrystalline silicon semiconductor elements do not perform as well as those made from single crystal semiconductor material. For displays, as an example, it is often difficult or impossible to form some of the desired circuitry out of the amorphous or polycrystalline semiconductor materials. Thus, high frequency edge drivers may be impossible to form out of these materials. This results in the difficulty and expense of attaching an electrical lead for each and every row and column of an array, such as an active matrix liquid crystal display array. 
     As noted above, another difficulty with the existing techniques is that the large number of elements in a large array results in a low probability that all of them will work properly and thus the yield of acceptably good arrays from the manufacturing process is low. Furthermore, there is no possibility of testing any of the elements until the assembly is complete, and then any imperfection in the array must be tolerated or the entire array could be discarded or special and expensive techniques must be used to repair it. These problems result from the fact that the various elements in the array are fabricated on the array rather than separately. 
     It is possible to separately produce elements, such as pixel drivers and then place them where desired on a different and perhaps larger substrate. Prior techniques can be generally divided into two types: deterministic methods or random methods. Deterministic methods, such as pick and place, use a human or robot arm to pick each element and place it into its corresponding location in a different substrate. Pick and place methods place devices generally one at a time, and are generally not applicable to very small or numerous elements such as those needed for large arrays, such as an active matrix liquid crystal display. Random placement techniques are more effective and result in high yields if the elements to be placed have the right shape. U.S. Pat. No. 5,545,291 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,904,545 describe methods which use random placement. In this method, microstructures are assembled onto a different substrate through fluid transport. This is sometimes referred to as fluidic self assembly (FSA). Using this technique, various blocks, each containing a functional component, may be fabricated on one substrate and then separated from that substrate and assembled onto a separate substrate through the fluidic self assembly process. The process involves combining the blocks with a fluid and dispensing the fluid and blocks over the surface of a receiving substrate which has receptor regions (e.g. openings). The blocks flow in the fluid over the surface and randomly align onto receptor regions. 
     Thus the process which uses fluidic self assembly typically requires forming openings in a substrate in order to receive the elements or blocks. Methods are known in the prior art for forming such openings and are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,545,291. One issue in forming an opening is to create its sidewalls so that blocks will self-align into the opening and drop into the opening. The substrate having openings in the glass layer  10  may be used as a receiving substrate to receive a plurality of elements by using a fluidic self assembly method. FIG. 1A shows an example where a separately fabricated element  16  has properly assembled into the opening  14 . However, it has been discovered that at times, an element  16  will not properly assemble into an opening  14  due to the fact that the element  16  becomes turned upside down and then lodges in the top of the opening  14 . An example of this situation is shown in FIG.  1 B. Often times, the inverted element  16  lodges into the opening  14  so tightly that it remains in the opening and prevents non-inverted elements from falling into the opening  14 . Thus, the opening at the end of the assembly process will typically not be filled with an element or perhaps worse, may still contain an inverted element lodged at the top of the opening  14 . 
     FIGS. 2A through 2D show an example in the prior art for creating a plurality of openings in a receiving substrate which is designed to receive a plurality of separately fabricated elements which are deposited into the openings through fluidic self assembly. The method shown in FIGS. 2A through 2D begins by, in one example, thermally growing a silicon dioxide layer on a silicon substrate  20 . The resulting structure is shown in FIG. 2A with the silicon dioxide layer disposed over the silicon substrate  20 . Then, a photoresist material may be applied, and exposed through a lithographic mask and then developed to produce a patterned mask formed from the developed photoresist. Then an etching solution is applied to etch through the patterned mask to create an opening  24  in the silicon dioxide layer  22 . The resulting structure is shown in FIG.  2 B. Then, the silicon dioxide layer  22  with its opening  24  is then used as a patterned mask to etch the silicon layer  22  to create the opening  26  in the silicon layer  20  as shown in FIG.  2 C. This etching of the silicon layer  20  may be performed with a KOH etchant or with an EDP etchant as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,545,291. After etching the opening  26  in the silicon layer  20 , the silicon dioxide layer  22  is removed, for example, by an etch in a hydrofluoric acid solution. This results in the structure shown in FIG. 2D where the opening  26  is now ready to receive a separately fabricated element through an assembly process, such as for example, fluidic self assembly or perhaps a pick and place procedure. The structure shown in FIG. 2D has the drawback that a monocrystal silicon layer is required in order to use the KOH etch to form the hole. 
     While the foregoing methods allow an assembly to be created through a fluidic self-assembly process, these methods do not always provide perfect yields. Moreover, achieving a high yield may require longer processing times than is desired. For example, the fluidic self-assembly process can still produce poor results if the elements do not flow smoothly over the service containing the openings. For example, if there is too much friction between the elements and the surface, the elements tend to stick to the surface and do not flow into the receptor regions. Furthermore, the elements may become dislodged from the openings in subsequent processing steps. 
     From the foregoing description it can be seen that it is desirable to provide methods for allowing improved fluidic self-assembly. 
     SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
     The present invention provides various methods for assembling a structure onto a substrate and also provides apparatuses resulting from these methods. A method according to one aspect of the present invention includes dispensing the slurry onto a substrate wherein the slurry includes a fluid and a first plurality of elements, each of which is designed to mate with a receptor region on the substrate and each of which comprises a functional element, and wherein the slurry also includes a second plurality of elements which are not designed to mate with receptor regions on the substrate. In one particular embodiment of a method according to this aspect of the invention, the second plurality of elements facilitate movement of the first plurality of elements over the substrate and do not include any functional elements. 
     A method according to another aspect of the invention includes dispensing in a flow having a first direction a slurry onto a substrate, wherein the slurry comprises a fluid and a first plurality of elements, each of which is designed to mate with a receptor region on the substrate and each of which includes a functional element. The method further includes vibrating the substrate in a second direction which is substantially perpendicular to the first direction. 
     A method according to another aspect of the present invention includes the use of nozzles. In one exemplary method according to this aspect, a slurry is created which includes a fluid and a plurality of elements each of which is designed to mate with a receptor region on the substrate and each of which comprises a functional element. The slurry is dispensed onto the substrate from a nozzle or a series of nozzle jets. A second fluid projected may be from another nozzle (or series of nozzles) may be used. In other embodiments, a nozzle providing a suction may also be used. 
     A method according to another aspect of the invention includes dissolving a bonding agent into a solvent to create a fluid (and a surfactant may also be dissolved into the solvent), and dispensing the slurry onto a substrate, wherein the slurry comprises the fluid and a plurality of elements each of which is designed to mate with a receptor region on the substrate and each of which includes a functional element, and evaporating the solvent after each of the plurality of elements has mated with a corresponding receptor region, wherein the bonding agent bonds each of the plurality of elements to the corresponding receptor region. 
     These aspects as well as other features of the present invention will be described further below. 
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
     The present invention is illustrated by way of example and not limitation in the figures of the accompanying drawings in which like references indicate similar elements. 
     FIGS. 1A and 1B show examples of how a block can mate with an opening in a receiving substrate, which opening is designed to receive a separately fabricated element which includes at least one functional component. 
     FIGS. 2A through 2D show another method in the prior art for forming openings in a receiving substrate. 
     FIGS. 3A through 3G show cross-sectional views of one method according to the present invention of forming an opening in a receiving substrate, and FIG. 3H is a perspective electron micrograph image of an opening formed according to this method. 
     FIG. 3I shows an example of a block in a hole. 
     FIGS. 4A through 4F show in cross sectional views another method according to the present invention for forming openings in a receiving substrate. 
     FIGS. 5A through 5F show in cross sectional views another method according to the present invention of forming openings in a receiving substrate. 
     FIGS. 6A through 6F illustrate in cross sectional views another example of the present invention for forming openings in a receiving substrate. 
     FIGS. 7A through 7E show in cross sectional views another method according to the present invention for forming openings in a receiving substrate. 
     FIGS. 8A through 8F show another method for forming openings in a receiving substrate according to the present invention. FIGS. 8A,  8 B,  8 D,  8 E, and  8 F are cross sectional views, and FIG. 8C is a top plan view. 
     FIG. 9A is a flowchart which illustrates a general process for forming an assembly by placing elements into the openings in the receiving substrate. 
     FIGS. 9B,  9 C and  9 D show a cross-sectional view of one example of an assembly according to the present invention in which silicon blocks which include electrical functional components are assembled into the openings in a receiving substrate which in this case is a glass substrate. 
     FIGS. 9E,  9 F,  9 G, and  9 H show cross-sectional views of another example of an assembly according to the present invention in which silicon blocks, which include functional components, are assembled into the openings in a receiving substrate. The openings shown in FIGS. 9E,  9 F,  9 G and  9 H may be formed with the method illustrated in FIGS. 3A-3G. 
     FIG. 9I is a perspective electron micrograph image of a silicon block which has been placed into an opening in a substrate, and electrical interconnects have been formed to the silicon block. 
     FIG. 10 shows a flowchart which indicates a method for creating an assembly of blocks and a receiving substrate which receives the blocks into openings on the receiving substrate. 
     FIGS. 11A and 11B show two examples of nozzles which may be used to dispense a slurry of blocks onto a receiving substrate. 
     FIGS. 12A and 12B are cross-sectional views of a substrate in which an opening is created according to another method of the present invention. 
     FIGS. 13A and 13B are cross-sectional views of a substrate in which an opening is created according to another method of the present invention. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     The present invention relates to methods and apparatuses for forming openings in a receiving substrate. The following description and drawings are illustrative of the invention and are not to be construed as limiting the invention. Numerous specific details are described to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. However, in certain instances, well known or conventional details are not described in order to not unnecessarily obscure the present invention in detail. 
     The present invention relates generally to the field of creating openings in a receiving substrate and to apparatuses having these openings. The present invention may be used to fabricate openings for various different types of arrays. Typically, each element in the array includes a functional component which may be an electrical component, a chemical component, or an electromechanical structural element or a micro electromechanical structural element or a micro-mechanical structural element. The various methods of the present invention are illustrated in certain detailed examples with regard to the manufacture of an active matrix liquid crystal display, but it will be recognized that the invention will have wider applicability. Merely by way of example, the invention may be applied to the fabrication of an electronic array which can be used to deliver precise voltages for the control of liquid crystal cells to create a liquid crystal display or may be used for other types of displays such as electro-luminescent displays or light emitting diode displays or displays using electrophoretic ink display pixels, such as microencapsulated electrophoretic ink display pixels, and also for other applications requiring sampling or producing electrical signals over a large array of electrodes, such as memories and imaging arrays and photo diode arrays. Further, the present invention may be used with electromagnetic signal detectors (e.g. antennas), or solar cells, or chemical sensors. 
     In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, an opening has a predetermined size which is designed to receive an element also of the same predetermined size so that the element fits into the opening. By controlling the fit between the element and the opening, it is possible to have the elements self assemble into the openings. Accordingly, in a preferred embodiment of the present invention, each element has a trapezoidal cross-sectional shape which fits into a trapezoidal opening in which the top of the opening has a larger area than the bottom of the opening. Furthermore, it is desirable to form a deep opening without making the opening too wide. FIGS. 3A through 3G illustrate cross-sectional views after various processing operations according to one example of the present invention. 
     The method shown by FIGS. 3A through 3G begins with the substrate  101  which is typically glass in the case of an active matrix liquid crystal display (of the transmissive type). It will be appreciated that this substrate may be a different material for other types of arrays. The glass substrate  101  is covered by an amorphous silicon layer  102  which may be deposited by PECVD to a total thickness of approximately 500 Angstroms to three thousand Angstroms. An optional tungsten layer  103  (or other metal adhesion layers such as, for example, titanium, tungsten, or chrome) may be deposited by sputtering; this optional tungsten layer  103  is deposited on top of the amorphous silicon layer  102  as shown in FIG.  3 A. Then lithography is used to provide a patterned mask layer with openings of the shape desired for the resulting hole in the substrate  101 . In one case, the size of the openings in the substrate are approximately 0.5 microns to 5 microns larger than the blocks to be assembled into the openings. Typically, a photoresist is used to create the patterned mask. This patterned mask may be created on top of the optional tungsten layer  103  by spinning photoresist onto the entire structure, exposing the photoresist through a lithographic mask and then developing the photoresist layer to create the pattern mask. Then the tungsten layer  103  is etched and the amorphous silicon layer  102  is etched to creating an opening  104  as shown in FIG.  3 B. The optional tungsten layer is used to increase adhesion to photoresist to prevent pinholes in the underlying structure and results in an improved receiving substrate. This opening  104  exposes the top surface of the substrate  102  so that it may be etched to create the opening  105  shown in FIG.  3 C. 
     In one example of the present invention, the etch to create the opening  105  is a wet etch. The preferred etch mix depends on the type of glass used. The etch mix contains dilute hydrofluoric acid and, preferably, an additional acid such as nitric acid, sulfuric acid, perchloric acid, or more preferably a halide acid such as hydrobromic acid or hydrochloric acid or hydriodic acid. The ratio of water to the second acid to hydrofluoric acid ranges from 2:1:1 to 50:20:1, depending on the type of glass used for the substrate. The substrate is etched for roughly one quarter of the total etch time. In one particular embodiment, the ratios of an etchant which includes water, hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid is 4:1:1 (water:hydrochloric:hydrofluoric) and the total etch time is such that the total depth of the etchant produces an opening having a depth of 14.5 microns. 
     The glass can be etched with any hydrofluoric acid-based etch solution, with hydrofluoric acid concentration ranging from concentrated hydrofluoric acid to 1% concentrated hydrofluoric acid in water. In a preferred embodiment, the glass is soda lime glass, and is etched with a mixture of hydrofluoric acid:counter acid:water in which the water content ranges from 50% to 95%, the hydrofluoric acid content ranges from 25% to 1%, and the counter acid content ranges from 40% to 5%. The counter acid could be nitric acid or sulfuric acid, or more preferably, hydriodic acid, or hydrobromic acid, or most preferably, hydrochloric acid. The temperature of the etching solution is maintained at a temperature in the range of from −10° C. to 40° C. In a more preferred embodiment, the glass is borosilicate or aluminosilicate glass, such as Corning 7059 or Corning 1737, respectively, and is etched in an etch mix as above, in which the water content ranges from 60% to 95%, the hydrofluoric acid content ranges from 10% to 1%, and the counter acid, as described above, ranges from 30% to 5%. In the most preferred embodiment, the temperature of the borosilicate or aluminosilicate glass etch described above is controlled to within 0.5 degrees C., at a specified temperature between −5 and 5 degrees C. In the most preferred embodiment, the etch solution is 1 part HF to 10 parts HCl to 100 parts H 2 O. 
     After the opening  105  has been formed in the substrate  101  as shown in FIG. 3C, the tungsten layer  103  and the amorphous silicon layer  102  are removed over the entire substrate, and then the entire substrate is blanket etched for an additional one quarter of the entire etch time. This produces the structure shown in the cross-sectional view of FIG. 3D in which the opening  105  is deepened and at the same time the top edge of the opening is widened to provide the beveled edge  106  which is created by the removal of material from the top of the substrate and sides of the hole, thereby changing the shape of the sides of the hole. Typically, this blanket etch is the same etch mix used to create the initial opening  105  shown in FIG.  3 C. The beveled edge  106  at the top of the opening  105  tends to prevent an inverted element from lodging at the top of the opening  105  during the assembly of the element into the opening. As can be seen from FIG. 3G, the beveled edge  106  creates an opening which has at least two slopes along the surface of the opening, where one of these slopes is an average of the slopes along the edge  106  and the other slope is substantially vertical as shown in FIG.  3 G. 
     After the beveled edge is created at the top of the opening, another amorphous silicon layer  108  is deposited onto the entire top of the substrate. The amorphous silicon may be deposited by a PECVD or CVD or a sputtering process to a total thickness of about a thousand Angstroms. An optional tungsten layer (which is preferably about 100 to 1000 Angstroms thick) may then be deposited (e.g. by sputtering) on the layer  108 . Then a photoresist layer  109  is applied to the top of the amorphous silicon layer  108  (or on top of the optional tungsten layer if the tungsten layer is applied), and this photoresist layer  109  is patterned to create the opening  110  in the photoresist layer  109  (and in the optional tungsten layer if present) as shown in FIG.  3 E. The patterned photoresist layer  109  forms an opening  110  which is smaller than the original opening  104  in the patterned mask used to create the structure shown in FIG.  3 B. The exposed surface of the amorphous silicon layer  108 , which is exposed at the opening  110  as shown in FIG. 3E, is then etched to create an opening  111  as shown in FIG.  3 F. This opening  111  exposes a top surface of the substrate  101  which is at the bottom of the opening  105  as it now exists in this sequence of processing operations. The substrate  101  is now etched through the opening  111  with the same etch solution described above to create the opening shown in FIG.  3 G. FIG. 3G shows the opening after the amorphous silicon layer  108  and the photoresist layer  109  have been removed. Typically, the patterned photoresist layer  109  is first stripped (and if present the optional tungsten layer is stripped) and then the amorphous silicon  108  is removed creating the structure shown in FIG.  3 G. 
     FIG. 3H shows an electron micrograph image of an opening which may be formed with the method shown in FIGS. 3A-3G. FIG. 9E is a cross-sectional view of a similar opening. As can be seen from FIG.  3 H and FIG. 9E, the opening has a bevel at its top edge. The rest of the opening is deep without having an upper cross-sectional area which is too large. If this upper cross-sectional area of the opening is too large, then inverted blocks will tend to get stuck in the opening. FIG. 31 is a stick drawing of a block in an opening. The edge  115 A of the opening nearly abuts the edges  115 B and  115 D of the top of the block. The bottom edge  115 C of the block is shown through the body of the block which has been made, for purposes of illustration, to be transparent. An example of dimensions for a particular block and matching opening will now be provided. 
     By means of an example, given a block  353  with the cross-section shape shown in FIG.  9 F and dimensions: bottom width 131 microns, top width 182 microns and total thickness of 38 microns, circuit thickness 2 microns and angles of 54.7 degrees. The suitable hole would be etched with the following parameters. Opening  104  in layers  103  and  102  of FIG. 3B should be of width 145 microns. Then the glass should be etched (see previously mentioned etch conditions) a total of 14 microns. This forms opening  105  in the glass with a total width of 173 microns. Then the blanket etch (between  3 C and  3 D) should be for a depth of 7 microns. This increases the opening  105  to a width of 185 microns. The opening in the second mask material ( 108  of  3 F) should be of a width 130 microns. The glass should then be etched a total of 24 microns making the depth of the hole 38 microns. The cross-section of the block  353  and hole  351  combination is shown in FIG.  9 F. 
     The following parameters create a block and opening combination which produces good self-assembly. 
     
       
         
               
               
             
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
               
               
                 Block Parameters 
                 Hole Parameters 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 thickness = 38.0-38.0 
                 depth = 38.0-38.0 
                 top1 = 184.6-184.6 
               
               
                 bottom_width = 
                 etch1 = 14.0-14.0 
                 top2 = 173.0-173.0 
               
               
                 131.0-131.0 
               
               
                 top_width = 181.9-181.9 
                 etch2 = 7.0-7.0 
                 length1 = 145.0-145.0 
               
               
                 delta_thickness = 2.0 
                 etch3 = 24.0-24.0 
                 length2 = 130.0-130.0 
               
               
                 delta_corner = 10.0 
                 marker = 19.8 
                 radius1 = 4.0 
               
               
                   
                   
                 radius2 = 12.0 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
     In one example of the method shown in FIGS. 3A through 3G, the total depth of the opening is 39 microns, and three etches are used to create the opening, where the total etch time is the total time for the three etches. The first and the third etch are through a first and second patterned mask respectively, and the second etch is without a patterned mask or at least uses a mask which allows the top edge of the openings to be exposed. Typically, the first etch is for a quarter of the total etch time, the second etch is for a quarter of the total etch time, and the third and last etch is for one half of the entire etch time. Using the method shown in FIGS. 3A through 3G, it is possible to create a deep opening which is not too wide and which includes a beveled edge. This opening has improved characteristics for receiving separately fabricated elements which may be assembled by a self assembly process, such as fluidic self assembly. 
     FIGS. 4A through 4F show cross-sectional views through an opening fabricated according to another method of the present invention. Each of these figures shows the state of the opening after certain other process operations in this method. FIG. 4A shows a patterned mask layer  132  which includes an opening  133  exposing a top surface of a substrate  131  which may be glass in one embodiment. The patterned mask layer  132  may be, for example, chrome. The exposed areas of the substrate  131  are etched using an appropriate etchant. In one example, this etch is a wet etch bath using hydrofluoric acid which creates the opening  134  in the substrate  131  as shown in FIG.  4 B. This etch in one example is two-thirds of the total etch time used in the process shown in FIGS. 4A through 4F. A second blanket mask, such as a photoresist layer, is deposited over the entire substrate. FIG. 4C shows an example when the blanket mask layer  135  has been deposited over the entire substrate and has filled the opening  134 . This second blanket mask layer is then patterned using, for example, photolithography, to pattern the photoresist layer  135  to create the opening  136  shown in FIG.  4 D. This opening exposes the bottom surface of the opening  134  in the substrate  131 . The size of the opening  136  is smaller than the size of the opening  134  as can be seen by comparing FIGS. 4B and  4 D. The substrate shown in FIG. 4D is then etched again to etch the exposed surfaces of the substrate through the openings  136  to create the opening  137  shown in FIG.  4 E. Then the patterned photoresist layer  135  is removed by a conventional stripping operation and the chrome layer  132  is removed resulting in the structure shown in FIG. 4F in which the substrate  131  now includes an opening which has a staircased or beveled edge as shown in FIG.  4 F. 
     It will be appreciated for the process shown in FIGS. 4A through 4F, the etchant used to etch the substrate will depend upon the material of the substrate, and the masking layers will be designed to be resistant to those etchants. Typically, the second mask material, such as the photoresist layer  135  is patterned with a vertical etch. In one embodiment, the same lithographic mask which created the patterned layer  132  may be used to create the pattern in the photoresist layer  135  (although this is not shown in FIGS.  4 B and  4 D). The etch which creates the opening  137  may be a wet chemical etch (such as an etchant containing hydrofluoric acid) which is approximately two-thirds of the total etch time when the first etch to create the opening  134  was for one-third of the total etch time. 
     FIGS. 5A through 5F show another example of a method according to the present invention. The cross-sectional views through the substrate  151  shown in FIGS. 5A through 5F illustrate the structure of an opening as it is created using this exemplary method. It will be appreciated that a plurality of such openings are formed in the substrate  151  which may be an array of openings designed to receive separately fabricated elements which are assembled into the opening in subsequent processing. This is also true for the opening which is created using the other examples of methods of the present invention. FIG. 5A shows that a top region of the substrate  151  is exposed by an opening  152  in the patterned mask layer  153 . In one embodiment, this patterned mask layer may be chrome or amorphous silicon formed by PECVD or CVD or sputtered amorphous silicon. The opening  152  is created using standard lithography techniques. This opening matches the shape of the desired hole. The substrate with the patterned mask  153  is then placed in a wet etch bath to create the opening  154 . In one exemplary embodiment, a hydrofluoric acid etch etches the substrate  151  in its exposed regions to create the opening  154  as shown in FIG.  5 B. In one example, this etch is for two-thirds of the total etch time, which total etch time includes the etching through the opening  157  to create the opening  158  as shown in FIGS. 5D and 5E. 
     After the opening  154  is created, a second mask material  155  is applied over the substrate  151  and into the hole  154  after the patterned mask layer  153  has been removed. This results in the structure shown in FIG.  5 C. Then the second mask material  155  is patterned to create the opening  157 , typically using a vertical illumination. This results in the structure shown in FIG. 5D in which the opening  157  exposes a bottom portion of the opening  154  as shown in FIG.  5 D. Then another etch is performed through the opening  157  to create the opening  158  shown in FIG.  5 E. In one particular embodiment, a hydrofluoric acid etch for one-third of the total etch is used to create the opening  158 . Then the patterned mask material layer  155  is removed, which results in the structure shown in FIG.  5 F. As can be seen from FIG. 5F, the opening  158  includes a beveled edge or a stairstep edge which provides for improved settling of elements into the hole and prevents lodging of inverted elements. 
     Another example of a method according to the present invention will now be described in conjunction with FIGS. 6A through 6F. A first mask material is applied on top of the substrate  201 , and this first mask material is then patterned to create the first patterned mask  202  as shown in FIG.  6 A. Then the substrate  201  is exposed to an etchant, which is typically a wet etch, which creates the opening  201 A as shown in FIG.  6 B. Then the patterned first mask layer  202  is removed and a photo-polymerizable layer  203  is applied over the entire substrate, filling the holes as shown in FIG. 6C. A second mask material is applied over the photo-polymerizable material  203 , and this second mask material is patterned to create the opaque mask  204  which is shown aligned over the central region of the opening  201 A. This can be seen from FIG.  6 D. Also as shown in FIG. 6D, the opaque mask  204  is used to mask obliquely directed light  205  and  206  as shown in FIG.  6 D. The obliquely directed light, obliquely directed from both sides of the opening as shown in FIG. 6D causes the light to pass partly under the mask  204 . Because the mask  204  is opaque, some of the region under the mask  204  will not be exposed and another portion near the edges of the mask  204  will be exposed. It will be appreciated that four sources of light obliquely angled relative to the top surface  203  will typically be necessary in order to create an opening having four sides. The light will polymerize the photo-polymerizable material in all places where the material is exposed. Thus, the material which remained unexposed under the mask  204  will be etched away resulting in the opening  208  shown in FIG.  6 E. The various materials and etchants which may be used will be apparent to those skilled in the art. For example, a photo-polymerizable polyimide may be used. The opening  208  forms a patterned layer  203  which exposes a portion of the bottom of the opening  201 A as shown in FIG.  6 E. This opening is then etched with an etchant, such as an etchant containing hydrofluoric acid when the substrate  201  is a glass. This etch process creates the opening  209  as shown in FIG.  6 F. 
     FIGS. 7A through 7D show an alternative embodiment in which the substrate  201  is not etched but the photo-polymerizable material  222  is etched after exposure to obliquely directed light as in the case of the method shown in FIGS. 6A through 6G. In the example of the method shown in FIGS. 7A through 7D, a patterned opaque mask  223  (or alternatively a contact mask) is placed on a photo-polymerizable material  222  which has been placed over the substrate  221 . Then obliquely directed light  224  and  225  exposes the area surrounding the desired opening and a portion of the area under the mask  223  thereby causing these exposed regions to by polymerized as region  222 A leaving the unpolymerized region that was not exposed as region  222 B. Again, as in FIG. 6D, four sources of light obliquely angled relative to the surface will typically be necessary, however, two sources at either set of diagonally opposed corners of a rectangular mask is sufficient. FIG. 7C shows the result of the exposure after the mask  223  has been removed. Then the unpolymerized material  222 B is removed using a conventional etchant which leaves the opening  227  as shown in FIG.  7 D. The opening  227  in FIG. 7D may be directly used as the opening to receive separately fabricated blocks. Alternatively, the polymerized material  222 A may be used as a mask to etch an opening in the substrate  221 . Such an alternative result is shown in FIG. 7E where the polymerized material  222 A is left to create a bevel around the top edge of the opening which now extends into the substrate  221 . 
     FIGS. 8A through 8F show another example of a method according to the present invention. A mask material is patterned over a substrate  251  to create openings which are thin slots. In one example, the mask material may be chrome which forms the patterned layer  252  with openings  253 A and  253 B. FIG. 8C shows an example of such a mask where the openings form a rectangle with protrusions from the corners and openings  255  which resemble pin-hole openings next to these protrusions at the corners. It will be appreciated that FIG. 8C is a top view of the patterned mask layer  252  and that these openings in the patterned mask layer  252  expose portions of the top surface of the substrate  251  which, in one embodiment, may be glass. The cross-sectional view of FIG. 8A is indicated on FIG.  8 C. Through these openings, a wet etch is applied to the substrate  251  to etch the substrate a small amount, such as 2 microns. The resulting etch is shown in FIG. 8B in which the small openings  254 A and  254 B are created in the substrate  251 . These openings surround the chrome island  256  shown from top view in FIG.  8 C and from side cross-sectional view in FIG. 8D. A photoresist is then applied and patterned over the chrome such that only the center square  256  is exposed as shown in FIG.  8 D. The patterned photoresist layer  257  is then used as a mask to etch the chrome island  256  resulting in the opening  258  as shown in FIG.  8 E. Then the structure shown in FIG. 8E is etched again. In one embodiment, a wet hydrofluoric acid etch is used to etch into the opening  258  of the substrate  251 . This creates the opening  259  shown in FIG.  8 F. Then the patterned photoresist layer  257  and the chrome layer  252  are removed to produce the final hole. 
     The various different methods of the present invention will typically create an array of openings on a receiving substrate. These openings are then filled with a plurality of elements, each of which typically include at least one function component, such as a pixel driving circuit for driving a liquid crystal cell in an active matrix liquid crystal display or other display driving elements for other types of displays. Co-pending U.S. patent applications Ser. Nos. 09/251,220 and 09/251,268 filed Feb. 16, 1999 by John Stephen Smith and assigned to the same Assignee of the present invention describe an example of the electrical circuitry disposed on each element which is to be assembled into an opening. These co-pending applications are hereby incorporated herein by reference. Generally, these elements resemble tapered blocks having a trapezoidal cross-section where the top of the block is wider than the bottom of the block. An example of such a block is shown as block  16  in FIG. 1D 
     Various improved methods for forming these blocks are described in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/433,605 which was filed concurrently herewith by John Stephen Smith, Mark Hadley and Jay Tu which is assigned to the same Assignee as the present invention and which is entitled “Methods for Creating Elements of Predetermined Shape and Apparatuses Using These Elements” and which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. In one preferred embodiment, the electrical circuits are fabricated as described in U.S. patent applications Ser. Nos. 09/251,220 and 09/251,268 in blocks which are fabricated as described by the U.S. Patent Application entitled “Methods for Creating Elements of Predetermined Shape and Apparatuses Using These Elements.” FIGS. 9A through 9D will now be referred to in describing one example of a method of assembling the blocks into the openings in order to create a completed assembly. 
     FIG. 9A shows a generalized flowchart indicating the various processing operations which are performed to create the completed assembly in which the blocks or elements are assembled into the openings in the receiving substrate. In processing operation  301 , blocks having a predetermined shape are prepared. In one particular example, an integrated circuit is fabricated into each block and each block is extracted from a first substrate which may be a single crystal semiconductor substrate, such as a monocrystalline silicon wafer. Separately, in step  303 , the openings for the blocks are prepared in a second substrate. Processing operation  303  may employ any of the previously described methods of the present invention in order to form openings having a desired shape which is designed to match the predetermined shape of the blocks formed in processing operation  301 . In step  305 , the blocks are assembled into the openings. In one example, the blocks may be assembled by a pick and place method as described above. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, fluidic self assembly is used to assemble the blocks into the openings. Fluidic self assembly in one example of the present invention may use a slurry of the blocks which are carried in a fluid, such as acetone or water with a surfactant or other types of fluids, including gases or vapors. Agitation and fluid flow to move the blocks over the receiving surface may be used. When a block encounters an opening, it falls into it and is held there. Blocks that do not encounter an opening simply slide off the substrate. Eventually, the substrate contains only blocks that are in holes. If any empty holes remain on the substrate, a second dose of block slurry can be deposited on the substrate to fill those holes. Once the desired percentages of holes has been filled, a binding agent may be added and the slurry solvent, such as acetone, is evaporated. 
     In processing operation  307 , the assembly is planarized. In one example, the substrate with the blocks is spin-coated with partially polymerized benzocyclobutene to a uniform thickness of greater than 2 microns. This planarization layer is then cured. FIG. 9B shows an example of a block, referred to as silicon block  325  having an active device layer  327  at the top surface of the block  325 . The block sits securely in the opening  323  in the glass substrate  321 . The planarization material is shown in FIG. 9C as material  329  which fills the gaps in the opening  323  and also coats the upper surface of the glass substrate  321  and covers the block  325  and the active circuit layer  327 . 
     Vias are then etched in the planarization layer and electrical connections are made to bonding pads on the integrated circuit in the active circuit layer  327 . Processing operation  309  as shown in FIG. 9A may include other methods for interconnecting the various blocks in the various openings along the substrate. In the case of an array of display elements, metallization is applied into the vias  331  in order to make contact to bonding pads on the active device layer  327  of the block  325 . These patterned metal layers, such as metal lines  333 A and  333 B, serve to interconnect the blocks electrically. For example, these metal lines (or non-metal conductive lines) may represent a row line for a row of pixels or may represent a column line for a column of pixels as is well known in the art of fabricating active matrix liquid crystal displays. 
     The Fluidic Self Assembly (FSA) process can be performed in a variety of conditions, with a variety of fluids. Proper selection of the block and substrate surface chemistry as well as the fluid to be used results in faster, higher yielding assemblies with dramatically fewer excess blocks left on the surface prior to rinsing, inspection, and repair. The surface chemistry interaction with the fluid effectively reduces the amount of friction between the blocks and the substrate. The choice of block surface chemistry, substrate surface chemistry, and fluid are all usually interrelated. For example, hydrophobic surface chemistries work much better with organic fluids than with aqueous solutions. The treatment of the surfaces usually, but not necessarily, alters both sets of surfaces so that they are of the same type. For example, both the elements and substrate may be treated to have a hydrophilic surface and the elements, so treated, may be dispersed in a polar solvent (e.g. H 2 O) and then dispensed over the so treated substrate in an FSA process. In an alternative example, both the elements and the substrate may be treated to have a hydrophobic surface and the elements and substrate, so treated, may be combined in a solvent (e.g. hexane) which is non-polar in an FSA process. 
     In the case of the block surface chemistry, any surface treatment that cleans the surface of the block results in improved FSA&#39;s. A surface treatment fluid may be in a liquid form, a gas form or a plasma form. The improvement is more significant if the surface treatment leaves a desired, uniform surface chemistry on all of the blocks for a given assembly. Hydrophilic surface chemistries can be achieved by rinsing the blocks in any oxidizing solution, such as aqueous KMnO 4 , H 2 SO 4  with H 2 O 2 , NH 4 OH with H 2 O 2 , or ozonated deionized water or by exposing the blocks to an oxygen plasma. The surface chemistry is more uniform if the blocks can be agitated while being immersed in one of the preceding chemistries. The agitation could be caused by a variety of systems, such as from a recirculating fluid flow, from a megasonic or ultrasonic bath, or by stirring. Hydrophilic surfaces with good uniformity can be achieved by oxidizing the surfaces and reacting a functional, self-assembled monolayer onto the surface, and then oxidizing the functional group in the self-assembled monolayer. For example, octenyltrimethoxysilane could be reacted onto block surfaces cleaned by oxidation with H 2 SO 4  and H 2 O 2 . The alkene group can then be oxidized into a hydrophilic functional group by treatment with a mild, aqueous KMnO 4  solution. 
     Hydrophobic surfaces on blocks can be created by cleaning and oxidizing the blocks as described above, and then reacting a self-assembled monolayer onto the surface, such that the hydrocarbon chains of the self-assembled monolayer are topmost at the surface. Typically the contact angle of water on these hydrophobic surfaces is at least 90 degrees. Teflon, which can be deposited or formed on the surfaces of the blocks, will also act to create hydrophobic surfaces on the blocks. Other types of coatings of a hydrophobic nature may be used or a fluorine plasma may be used to create hydrophobic surfaces on the blocks. 
     The substrate surface treatment is analogous to the block surface treatment. It is possible to perform fluidic self-assemblies in which the block receives one surface treatment, and the substrate receives a different surface treatment. For example, the substrate may be exposed to a surface treatment fluid which creates a metal coating (film) on the surface of the substrate (a hydrophilic surface normally) or a surface treatment fluid which is an oxygen plasma (to create a hydrophilic surface) or a surface treatment fluid which oxidizes a coating (or otherwise creates an oxidized coating) on the substrate while the blocks are exposed to a surface treatment fluid which is dissolved ozone in water. Alternatively, the same surface treatment fluid (e.g. an oxygen plasma) may be used on both the blocks and the substrate. It is also possible to pattern the surface treatment on the substrate, such that the surfaces in the bottom of the receptor sites are hydrophilic, and the rest of the substrate is hydrophobic, for example. 
     As mentioned above, the choice of fluid for any given FSA depends on the surface chemistry of the blocks and the substrate. Assemblies processed with hydrophobic surface chemistries (e.g. the blocks and substrate have each been exposed to surface treatment fluid(s) which have created hydrophobic surfaces on the blocks and the substrates) proceed more rapidly if an organic solvent, such as toluene or hexane, is used as the slurry fluid in the FSA process. Conversely, if the blocks and substrate are hydrophilic (because the blocks and substrate have been exposed to surface treatment fluid(s) which have created hydrophilic surfaces on the blocks and the substrate), water or hydrophilic solvents such as acetone (or other polar or water soluble solvents) are more appropriate as the slurry fluid in the FSA process. 
     A preferred method of surface treatment for the block devices is to oxidize the surface with a dilute aqueous solution containing 0.008% potassium permanganate, 0.025% sodium periodate, and 0.415% potassium carbonate. The block devices are stirred in the oxidizing solution at 75° C. for 2 hours. The preferred method for stirring the block devices in the solution is to separate the block devices from the stirrer by a stainless steel sieve material. After 2 hours of exposure to the oxidizing solution, the block devices are collected on the sieve, and rinsed in a 0.3M aqueous sodium bisulfite solution. Then the devices are rinsed in a 0.1M solution of acetic acid. Finally, they are rinsed in DI (deionized) water. 
     The most preferred method is to oxidize the block devices while they recirculate in a solution of 5 to 125 ppm dissolved ozone in DI water. The most preferred ozone concentration is in the range of 50-125 ppm dissolved ozone. The block devices are recirculated for 1 hour, rinsed in DI water, and then transferred to the slurry fluid prior to fluidic self assembly. 
     The most preferred method for treating a glass or silicon substrate is to place the substrate in a mix of 95 parts concentrated sulfuric acid and 5 parts hydrogen peroxide for 10 minutes. The substrate is then rinsed in DI water prior to fluidic self assembly. 
     A preferred treatment for treating plastic substrates (e.g. a flexible plastic substrate) is to expose them to gaseous ozone for 5 minutes. The most preferred method for treating a plastic substrate is to expose the substrate to an oxygen plasma for 1 minute prior to fluidic self assembly. 
     Besides surface interaction, the optimal fluids for FSA have low viscosity and can be used safely. It is possible to add reagents to the fluid to improve the FSA process. For example, surfactants or certain water soluble polymers can be added to water to reduce the block-substrate interaction, thereby reducing the number of excess blocks left on the substrate at the end of an assembly. If a polymer is used, it is desirable that the polymer serve as a lubricant while dissolved. Preferred polymers would consist of water soluble polymers such as Union Carbide Polyox (polyethylene glycol) or DuPont Elvanol (polyvinyl alcohol). If a surfactant is used, it is preferable to use a non-ionic surfactant so that the circuitry is not damaged by counterions in the surfactant. The surfactants normally have a molecular form which includes a hydrophobic portion and a hydrophilic portion; often, the non-ionic surfactant will include a hydrophilic portion which is an ethylene oxide oligomer. In a preferred method, a non-ionic surfactant such as Union Carbide MinFoam 1X or Triton 190 or DuPont Zonyl FS-300 is used in water to perform fluidic self assembly of blocks which have been surface treated with aqueous KMnO 4  (or ozonated water) on a glass substrate that was oxidized with H 2 SO 4  and H 2 O 2 . In this case, the water and surfactant and the blocks form the slurry for the FSA process, and the slurry is dispensed onto the pretreated substrate. Typically, the substrate is immersed in the FSA fluid (e.g. water in the immediately preceding example) which is the same as the fluid used to create the slurry having the blocks, and the slurry is added to the substrate while it is immersed in the FSA fluid. The substrate may be immersed in exactly the same fluid and a surfactant as the fluid and surfactant which make up the slurry. 
     Once the blocks and the substrate are prepared in the desired manner (e.g. the desired surface treatments have been completed), and the appropriate carrier fluid is selected, the blocks can be deposited onto the substrate in a number of ways. They can flow down an inclined tube containing the fluid so that they fall through the FSA fluid and onto the substrate. One or a plurality of these tubes can be used to deposit the blocks onto the substrate. Also, the tube or tubes can be moved across the substrate such that the entire substrate can be covered with block slurry prior to or during assembly. In another embodiment, the blocks could be carried through a tube or a number of tubes by a fluid flow that is either laminar or turbulent. The flow(s) could effectively spray the block slurry over the substrate to cover a selected portion of or the entire substrate. The aforementioned tubes could be circular, fan-shaped, or have a multitude of ports. 
     The fluidic self assembly process can be accomplished in a variety of methods. The blocks can be moved across the substrate surface in a number of ways, including forced fluid flow, suction, gravity, magnetic fields if the blocks have magnetic characteristics, or any combination of these driving forces. Forced fluid flow can drive the blocks across a tilted or horizontal substrate either by providing a uniform flow over the surface, or by using a very localized flow that can be directed in any desired manner. A magnetic field applied to magnetized blocks could draw the blocks into the receptor sites. Suction could be applied to holes located in the bottom of the receptor sites that go through the substrate to a vacuum source on the other side of the substrate. Gravity is used by tilting the substrate from horizontal to an angle not greater than 55 degrees. The blocks then slide down the substrate under the force of gravity. In a preferred embodiment, the tilted substrate is vibrated to drive the blocks down the substrate. The vibration frequency ranges from 50 Hz to 10,000 Hz, and can have a square, sine, sawtooth, or any other waveform. The direction of the vibration is in one embodiment transverse to the direction of the block slurry flow down the tilted substrate. In some instances it may be desirable to have components of the vibration in the direction of the block flow down the substrate, and in the direction normal to the substrate. 
     Once the blocks are moving across the substrate, the fluidic self assembly can proceed by either allowing all of the excess blocks (blocks that do not fill a receptor site) to move completely off of the substrate, or by forcing excess blocks to move off of the substrate. The excess blocks can be driven off of the substrate with fluid flow over the substrate, by altering the conditions of the vibration applied to the substrate during the assembly, by increasing the angle of inclination of the substrate, by suctioning off blocks, or by any combination of these methods. 
     The fluidic self-assembly process can be accelerated in a number of ways in addition to proper selection of the process parameters listed above. One method for speeding up the FSA process is to deposit blocks regularly or uniformly over the entire surface. This deposition process could result in a uniformly dense layer of blocks across the surface. This could be accomplished by spraying the block slurry across the substrate with one or more deposition nozzles. If desirable, the nozzle(s) could be designed to sweep across the surface to achieve more uniform coverage. Alternatively, the blocks could be deposited in selected areas of the substrate. These blocks could be placed by one or more fixed or movable deposition nozzles that deliver the blocks with the assistance of some combination of fluid flow, gravity, and vibrational impulse. Placing the blocks uniformly or regularly over the substrate surface accelerates the overall FSA process because less time is required for the blocks to move over the entire substrate. For example, if 10 rows of blocks are deposited regularly over the substrate surface, the blocks will only have to move one-tenth the distance across the substrate as compared to the case in which just one row of blocks is placed at the top of the substrate. Once a sufficient number of blocks has covered the areas of the substrate containing the receptor sites, such that the desired number of the receptor sites are filled, the excess blocks can be forced off of the substrate. FIGS. 11A and 11B show two examples of nozzle heads which include at least one nozzle. Nozzle head  450  includes three nozzles  451 ,  452  and  543 . Each nozzle  451 ,  452  and  453  may be coupled to receive the same fluid (e.g. a slurry with blocks) or different fluids (e.g. one nozzle ejects a slurry with blocks, one nozzle ejects “helper” blocks (described below) in a fluid, and another nozzle may create a vacuum to be used to remove excess blocks after depositing blocks and allowing them to settle/self-assemble into openings). Nozzle head  456  includes many nozzles  457  disposed along a row; these many nozzles are designed to eject a fluid (e.g. a slurry with blocks and/or helper blocks) or to draw a vacuum. Several nozzle heads  456  may be disposed above a substrate to uniformly and concurrently deposit blocks onto the substrate. 
     The excess blocks can be removed from the substrate by the methods listed above. The excess block clearing process can be accelerated with the addition of components designed to push blocks off of the substrate. Any combination of a number of different components could accomplish this task. One component that can increase clearing is a wiper blade that moves across the substrate. Blocks that are in receptor sties will be unaffected, but blocks on the surface will be swept away by the wiper blade. Alternatively, a brush could be used in place of or in addition to the wiper blade. The components that clear excess blocks from the surface could be one or more large items, relative to the size of the blocks, that move down the substrate with the blocks, pushing blocks down and off the substrate as they move. These items may be referred to as helper blocks. Because these items are normally significantly larger than the blocks, gravity will drive them down the substrate faster than the blocks, and they will be able to push a large number of the blocks off of the substrate as they move down. These relatively large items could be glass, plastic, or metal balls, cylinders, or rectangular solids. More preferably, these items could have the same approximate shape as the blocks (but larger in size), or they could be shaped pieces of material that are designed to contact the substrate only where there are no receptor sites. Most preferably, these helper blocks could be rectangular pieces made of magnetic stainless steel. After removing the excess blocks from the surface, these items could be recovered and readily separated from the excess blocks by sieving or some other particle separation method or separated with a magnetic field in the case where the helper blocks are magnetic (e.g. the helper blocks are comprised of magnetic material). 
     After the excess blocks have been removed, the substrate can be inspected for faults such as empty holes or blocks that have not seated properly in their receptor sites. Empty sites can be filled by placing a small number of blocks in a slurry form and depositing this slurry on or above the empty site, and forcing or allowing the blocks to fill the empty site(s) by means analogous to those used to perform the assembly. Empty sites can also be repaired by a pick-and-place process, in which an individual block is placed in an individual receptor site. A receptor site with an improperly seated block can be repaired by removing the block with either suction, fluid flow, or mechanical means, and then filling the now empty receptor site as described above. Alternatively, blocks that are tilted or rotated in their receptor site could be repaired after the assembly is complete with a hot press process. 
     Once all desired repairs have been made, the blocks may be bonded into their receptor sites with an organic or polymeric agent that serves as an adhesive in this application. The bonding agent could be dissolved into the original FSA fluid prior to the start of the assembly, or it could be added any time later during the assembly, assuming that the bonding agent is compatible with the fluid used for the assembly. If the bonding agent is incompatible with the fluid used for the assembly, a fluid displacement process can be used at any time after the start of the assembly to replace the first fluid with a second fluid which is compatible with the bonding agent. In one example, acetone is used as the FSA fluid, and a water soluble polymer is used as the bonding agent. After completion of the inspection and repair process, water is added to the system and acetone is removed at approximately the same rate, until there is a sufficient percentage of water in the resulting water/acetone mix such that the bonding agent is soluble in the mix. In a different example, the FSA is performed in toluene containing benzocyclobutene oligomers which serves as a bonding agent. In another example, the FSA is performed in basic water that contains surfactant and a water soluble polymer that serves as the bonding agent. Alternatively, the FSA can be performed in water containing surfactant, and then a water soluble bonding agent dissolved in water can be added to the water/surfactant mixture. Typically the completed assembly is left immersed in the bonding solution for 5-30 minutes to allow the bonding agent to diffuse around the blocks in the receptor sites. At this time, if the substrate were tilted it is preferable to reduce or eliminate the angle of inclination, and, in some cases, to apply a low amplitude vibration to the substrate while the angle of inclination of the substrate is being decreased. 
     After the filled substrate has remained immersed in the bonding solution for the desired length of time, the substrate is either lifted out of the solution, or more preferably, the solution is drained away or evaporated from the substrate. Then the substrate is allowed to dry, either by free or forced convection. During the drying process, it is beneficial to tilt the substrate slightly, so that excess fluid does not pool and dry in the array of blocks. 
     Once the substrate is dry, the fluidic self assembly process is complete. At this time, if necessary, repair of blocks that are tilted in their receptor sites can be accomplished with the use of heat and mechanical pressure in a number of different ways. The substrate can be heated to a temperature that softens the bonding agent, and then pressure can be applied either locally with a point source, more globally with a roller apparatus, or globally with weight or other form of applied pressure. In this step it is important that the surface pressed against the filled substrate will not stick to the blocks in the receptor sites or to the substrate. In one example, Solutia Scripset  550  was used as the bonding agent, the substrate was heated to 120° C., and then pressed between perfluoroalkoxy polymer films with approximately 500 psi for 1 minute. The substrate is then cooled while under pressure. The pressure is released and the perfluoroalkoxy films were removed. In another example with the same bonding agent, a Teflon roller, made out of Teflon tubing placed over a steel rod, was rolled across the substrate after it was heated to 120° C. Both of these processes reduced the number of tilted blocks that remained after the completion of the FSA. 
     After the completion of the FSA, and the press repair if desired, the residual bonding agent that remains on the surface of the substrate can be removed with an oxygen plasma descum without damaging the bonding of the blocks in their receptor sites. At this point, the substrate is ready for planarization and the rest of the down stream processes required to electrically interconnect the blocks and construct an electrical apparatus. 
     FIG. 10 shows a flowchart of an exemplary method of the invention which includes the pretreatment of the blocks and the substrate and the bonding of blocks into openings as described above. This FIG. 10 also optionally uses helper blocks to facilitate movement of the blocks across the substrate during the FSA process. Operations  401  and  403  include the pretreatment of the surfaces of the blocks and the substrates. Alternatively the fluid used in operation  405  may be used to pretreat the blocks&#39; surfaces. In operations  407  and  409  the FSA process occurs, and excess blocks (and helper blocks if used) are removed in operation  411 . Then the blocks are bonded into the openings (after use of a roller as described above) in operation  413 . A repair process may be used as described above and then the substrate is processed in further down stream processes (e.g. planarization and electrical interconnection) in order to create a functional device, such as an active matrix flat panel display. 
     FIGS. 9E,  9 F,  9 G,  9 H and  91  show the result of an FSA process which fills an opening created using a method according to the process illustrated in FIGS. 3A-3G. FIG. 9E begins with the opening  351  in a glass substrate  350 . A block (shown in this case as a silicon Nanoblock  353 , where Nanoblock is a trademark of Alien Technology, Inc.) is assembled through an FSA process (e.g. the method of FIG. 10) into the opening  351  as shown in FIG.  9 F. The top portion of block  353  includes the functional component (in this case MOS circuitry, such as CMOS pixel drivers and electrode(s)) for the block. Then, as shown in FIG. 9G, a planarizing layer  356  is applied. The planarizing layer may be applied after a bonding solution is used to bond the block to the opening. A patterned metal (or other conductive material) layer  357  is then created to electrically interconnect the block&#39;s functional component to other blocks or to other functional components. FIG. 9I shows an electron micrograph of a block  353  in a substrate  350  after electrical interconnects  357   a  and  357   b  have been applied. Normally, many such blocks may be formed in a matrix to create, for example, the backplane of an active matrix flat panel display, such as an active matrix liquid crystal display. 
     An exemplary method according to another aspect of the invention will now be described in conjunction with FIGS. 12A and 12B. FIG. 12A shows an assembly  501  of a substrate  503  with a reflective layer  507  and an ablatable layer  505 . The substrate  503  may be a glass layer or a plastic layer which is flexible. The reflective layer  507  may be an aluminum foil layer which is also flexible, and the ablatable layer  505  may be an organic polymer or other substances which may be removed (e.g. by evaporation through exposure to selectively located heat). The ablatable layer  505  is exposed at desired locations to a laser beam  509  which removes the ablatable material at the exposed portions, thereby creating the opening shown in FIG.  12 B. The opening is created to the point at which the reflective surface  510  of the foil is reached. Thus, the ablation process stops automatically at the reflective surface  510 . This will produce uniformly deep openings when the ablatable layer has a uniform height across the surface of the foil. The opening may then be used as described above in an FSA process. 
     An exemplary method according to another aspect of the invention will now be described in conjunction with FIGS. 13A and 13B. A completely different approach to making block receptor sites on a glass substrate is to form the holes in an organic layer coating a glass substrate. This offers many advantages over etching holes directly into the glass. The receptor site fabrication process may be faster and easier on an organic layer than on glass. It will also yield receptor sites that are better in the sense that they more accurately match the size and shape of the nanoblocks. FIG. 13A shows an assembly  550  having an organic layer  553 , which may be thin relative to the glass layer  551 . The opening is then formed to produce the structure shown in FIG.  13 B. 
     There are several methods that may be used to make block receptor sites. The choice of method depends in part on the material to be used as the organic layer on the glass. If the organic material is an amorphous or semicrystalline polymer, the receptor sites may be embossed into the polymer material with a mold that matches the block size and pitch for the device being produced (e.g. an active matrix LCD). In this case, it may be preferable to adjust the mold to take into account the differences in thermal coefficient of expansion between the polymer and the mold material. 
     Embossing is just one method of forming the receptor sites in a polymeric coating on the glass. The coating may alternatively be injection molded onto the glass substrate during the coating process. Alternatively, the receptor sites could be formed in the polymer by solvent casting a polymer solution onto a receptor site mold. The solvent cast sheet could then be laminated or transferred to the glass substrate. 
     It is also possible to form the receptor sites in a thin film of either thermoset plastic or crosslinkable organic material on the glass substrate. The receptor sites are formed by placing the liquid organic starting material on the mold. It is preferable to treat the mold with a release coating, such as an oil, a fluorinated coating, or a low-surface energy self-assembled monolayer coating, or one of these materials combined with a metal layer that separates readily from these coatings, such as silver. The glass substrate is then pressed on top of the liquid organic material, such that the liquid flows around all of the features of the mold, and any bubbles in the liquid are removed. The glass/organic/mold stack is then exposed to sufficient heat or UV light, if necessary, for a sufficient time to cure the liquid organic material into a crosslinked solid material. The mold is then separated from the organic film on the glass. 
     It is also possible to pattern the material without a mechanical mold by using light energy. There are two techniques to accomplish this. First, standard photolithography techniques could be used on a photopatternable material to expose and develop away the volume of material in the receptor site. In this case, the photopatternable material serves as the substrate material. Alternatively, a mask layer could be used on top of the organic material, such that the organic material could be etched with a plasma etch system. This method would apply to a larger class of organic substrate materials because the organic material does not need to be photopatternable. It is also possible to form the receptor sites in the organic layer by using a laser drilling or laser ablation technique as described above in conjunction with FIGS. 12A and 12B. This method is advantageous because it will work on a large class of organic materials, and does not require a photolithography step. This method can also be used on a plastic substrate on a metal foil. The process can either be tuned to etch down to a particular depth in the plastic or a plastic-on-foil laminate structure can be used to create an etch stop. Preferably, the plastic film thickness can be the same as the desired depth of the receptor site, such that in the laser ablation process the metal foil serves as an etch stop as described above. 
     While the foregoing description has provided examples of the present invention, it will be apparent that various modifications may be made within the spirit and scope of the invention which is limited only by the following claims. For example, the order of the processing operations may be modified and the same or similar result achieved in the resulting structure.