Abstract:
A process for the carbonate-catalyzed alcoholysis of fatty acid glycerides is disclosed, wherein an alcohol (e.g., a C1-C6 mono-, di- or trialcohol) is reacted with a fatty acid glyceride (e.g., a plant or animal derived triglyceride) at elevated temperatures and superatmospheric pressures to give high yields of the corresponding ester. The preferred catalysts are the alkali metal, alkaline earth metal or zinc carbonates, with calcium carbonate being especially preferred because of its ready availability and physical integrity under reaction conditions. The alcoholysis reaction may be carried out in a single reactor, or on a continuous basis using a plug flow reactor.

Description:
RELATED APPLICATION  
       [0001]    This application claims the benefit of provisional applications Serial No. 60/265,601 filed Feb. 2, 2001, Ser. No. 60/260,201 filed Jan. 9, 2001, Ser. No. 60/197,613 filed Apr. 19, 2000 and Ser. No. 60/187,102 filed Mar. 6, 2000. 
     
    
     
       BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
         [0002]    1. Field of the Invention  
           [0003]    The present invention is concerned with carbonate-catalyzed processes for the alcoholysis of glycerides to produce biodiesel or other useful products. More particularly, the invention pertains to such methods wherein an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal or zinc carbonate is used to catalyze the reaction between a glyceride and an alcohol at elevated temperatures (e.g., from about 160-300 C.) and superatmospheric pressures to give very high alcoholysis yields.  
           [0004]    2. Description of the Prior Art  
           [0005]    Ester formation constitutes one of the most important classes of reactions in value-added processing of animal fats and vegetable oils. Typical schemes for ester formation include reactions of 1) an alcohol with an acid (esterification), 2) an ester with an alcohol (alcoholysis), 3) two different esters (transesterification), and 4) an ester with an acid (acidolysis). Of these reaction schemes, esterification and alcoholysis are by far the most important to the fat and oil industry since these make use of the fatty acid components that comprise most of fats and oils.  
           [0006]    Conversion of fats and oils into monoglyceride and glycolate products has often been performed through hydrolysis followed by esterification. Although this multi-step scheme can be accomplished in one pot, the process 1) produces an aqueous waste stream containing both the hydrolysis catalyst and oil&#39;s/fat&#39;s natural glycerin, 2) requires drying of the alcohol-acid mixture to drive equilibrium toward ester formation, and 3) requires the removal of the homogeneous catalyst from the product.  
           [0007]    Alcoholysis schemes have the advantage of requiring only one reaction step. Simple Bronsted bases like NaOH and KOH are widely used for alcoholysis of agricultural triglycerides with simple alcohols like methanol. This is the most common method for converting a triglyceride to a monoester (Swern, D. Ed, Bailey&#39;s Industrial Oil and Fat Products Volume 2, Fourth Edition, John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York, 1982; Ma, F., et al., The Effects of Catalyst, Free Fatty Acids, and Water on alcoholysis of Beef Tallow,  Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng.  41:1261-1264 (1998); Kawahara, Y., et al., Process for Producing Lower Alcohol Esters of Fatty Acids, U.S. Pat. No. 4,164,506 (1979); and Stoldt, S. H., et al., Esters Derived From Vegetable Oils Used as Additives for Fuels. U.S. Pat. No. 5,730,029 (1998)). While this process works well for monoalcohols such as methanol and ethanol, we have found that little or no conversion occurs when using glycols as the transesterifying alcohol.  
           [0008]    The catalytic activity of strong Lewis acids such as titanium (IV) alkoxides Ti(OR) 4  (Siling, M. I., et al., Titanium Compounds as Catalysts for Esterification and alcoholysis,  Russ. Chem. Rev.  65(3):279-286 (1996); and Mascaretti, O. A., et al., Esterifications, alcoholysis, and Deesterifications Mediated by Organotin Oxides, Hydroxides, and Alkoxides,  Aldrichimica Acta.  30(2):55-68 (1997)) can provide effective alternatives to traditional Bronsted base catalysts. However, many of these catalysts suffer from problems of cost, toxicity, and difficulty of removal from the product. Specifically, the active early transition metal catalysts tend to be poisoned by water, while the heavy metal catalysts are more durable, but quite toxic (Johnson, R. W., et al., Fatty Acids in Industry, Mercel Dekker, Inc, New York, 1989).  
           [0009]    For many industrial applications heterogeneous catalysts (two phase catalysts) offer several advantages over homogenous catalysts (one phase catalysts), the largest being ease of separation from products. This alone provides sufficient motivation to investigate solid phase materials capable of catalyzing these reactions.  
           [0010]    Calcium oxide is one of the few heterogeneous alcoholysis catalysts that is in common use (Johnson, R. W., et al., Fatty Acids in Industry, Mercel Dekker, Inc, New York, 1989) for monoglyceride production at temperatures of 200 to 220° C. with reaction times of 1 to 4 h. While the calcium oxide is largely a solid catalyst, the reaction mixture forms a slurry that requires a solid-liquid separation process; even agglomerate of CaO will easily breakup into fine particulates which are not easily separated from the liquid. Phosphoric acid is often used to neutralize residual basicity.  
           [0011]    Alkaline earth metals are effective catalysts for certain ester formation or interchange reactions. Calcium and barium carbonates, acetates, oxides, and hydroxides are active catalysts for the production of sorbitol esters from free fatty acids (Swern, D. Ed, Bailey&#39;s Industrial Oil and Fat Products Volume 2, Fourth Edition, John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York, 1982). Other catalysts have also been studied for these alcoholysis reactions. Zinc oxide supported on alumina promotes alcoholysis reactions of alcohols higher than methanol (Stern, R., et al., Process for the Production of Esters from Vegetable Oils or Animal Oils Alcohols, U.S. Pat. No. 5,908,946 (1999)). U.S. Pat. No. 5,525,126 describes the use of the acetates of calcium and barium to the application of the alcoholysis of triglycerides with methanol at 200-250° C. Certain carbonate systems are also known to promote glycerolysis (Swern, D. Ed, Bailey&#39;s Industrial Oil and Fat Products Volume 2, Fourth Edition, John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York, 1982; Stoldt, S. H., et al., Esters Derived From Vegetable Oils Used as Additives for Fuels. U.S. Pat. No. 5,730,029 (1998)).  
           [0012]    U.S. Pat. No. 5,399,731 discloses that the alcoholysis of various triglycerides can be performed using C1-C5 monoalcohols in the presence of basic catalysts at +5-40° C. The preferred catalysts are sodium or potassium hydroxide or sodium or potassium alcoholates of C1-C5 monovalent alcohols. Although the carbonates are also incidentally mentioned, U.S. Pat. No. 5,730,029 discloses the use of alkali metal alcoholysis catalysts only at relatively low temperatures of under 100° C.  
         SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
         [0013]    The present invention overcomes the problems outlined above and provides an improved process for the alcoholysis of fatty acid glycerides wherein an alcohol is reacted with fatty acid glyceride(s) in a reaction mixture to yield corresponding esters via esterification and/or alcoholysis. The processes of the invention are carried out in the presence of a catalyst containing an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal or zinc carbonate at temperatures of from about 160-300° C., more preferably from about 200-280° C., and most preferably from about 240-270° C.  
           [0014]    The alcoholysis reactions of the invention are normally carried out at superatmospheric pressures, typically ranging from about the bubble point of the reaction mixture up to about 100 bar, more preferably from about 1.1- 1.5 times the reaction mixture bubble point, and most preferably at about 1.5 times the bubble point.  
           [0015]    Although any one of the alkali metal, alkaline earth metal or zinc carbonate catalysts (or mixtures thereof) can be used to good effect, calcium carbonate is particularly preferred. This carbonate has a solid structure which does not readily disintegrate when contacted with a liquid in packed-bed columns or reactors. In this respect, calcium carbonate is greatly superior to the calcium oxides used in the prior art. The carbonates are true catalysts in the processes of the invention, i.e., they are not consumed during the course of the alcoholysis reaction. Moreover, the preferred calcium carbonate can be reused almost indefinitely without plugging or the like. The carbonate catalyst should be in particulate form with an average particle size of greater than about 0.5 mm, more preferably from about 1-4 mm.  
           [0016]    The fatty acid glycerides are generally selected from the group consisting of vegetable and animal fats and oils and mixtures thereof, and usually contain a substantial fraction of triglycerides and at least about 20% by weight fatty acid moieties. While such naturally occurring glycerides are particularly suitable because of cost and availability, glycerides isolated or produced by means of interesterification or synthetically, such as trioleine, mono- and tripalmitine, tristearol, glycerol monooleate, glycerol monodistearate and the like can be used; also, waste oil products such as spent deep frying oil may be employed. Particularly preferred fatty acid glycerides are selected from the group consisting of oils or fats derived from soybean, palm, coconut, sunflower, rapeseed, cottonseed, linseed, caster, peanut, olive, safflower, evening primrose, borage, carboseed, animal tallows and fats, and mixtures thereof.  
           [0017]    The alcohol fraction of the reaction mixture is selected from the group consisting of the C1-C6 straight or branched chain alkyl or olefinic mono-, di- and trialcohols, and mixtures thereof. Especially useful alcohols are selected from the group consisting of methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, glycerin and mixtures thereof.  
           [0018]    The stoichiometry of the reaction mixture should be adjusted so that the ratio of ester functional groups to alcohol functional groups therein is from about 0.2-40, more preferably from about 0.45-10, and most preferably from about 1-4. An excess of alcohol serves to drive the alcoholysis to completion.  
           [0019]    The reactions of the invention are preferably carried out at selected time and temperature levels for a period of from about 10 minutes to 10 hours, and more usually from about 15 minutes to 3 hours. Where the time-temperature parameters are properly selected, virtually complete alcoholysis can usually be accomplished within thirty minutes.  
           [0020]    Where the processes of the invention are used to produce biodiesel or hydrophobic additives intended for use with a fuel, it is often preferred that a hydrophobic solvent such as a petroleum fraction having a 95% boiling point of less than about 670° F. be used as a solvent in the reaction mixture. For example, diesel fuel is an effective solvent when added a level of from about 2-90% by weight of the reaction mixture, more preferably from about 10-40% by weight thereof. It has been found that the use of a petroleum fraction as defined above such as diesel fuel is an effective solvent for the desired alcoholysis reactions that form hydrophobic fuel additives or blend stocks, inasmuch as the hydrophobic nature of the petroleum fraction assists in promoting selectivity away from hydrophilic products (e.g., diglyceride and monoglyceride), resulting in the formation of a purer glycerin byproduct. Such a fraction increases the activity of the hydrophilic products and drives the reaction equilibrium towards hydrophobic products with the desired effect of reducing the concentration of the more hydrophilic components in the product. This promotes yields to desired products and enhances physical separation characteristics of the glycerin-rich phase from the petroleum fraction-rich phase. Finally, the presence of a petroleum fraction results in more effectively repelling and expelling of water from the hydrophobic phase and thereby promotes conversion of any free fatty acids in the reaction mixture to the corresponding esters.  
           [0021]    In order to further assist water removal, conversion of glycerides, and reducing costs of removing excess alcohol reagent, the alcoholysis reactions are preferably conducted in two serially interconnected flow reactors. During steady state operation, fresh triglycerides and recycled alcohol enter the first reactor wherein reaction conditions promote substantial conversion of glycerides forming glycerin byproduct. The glycerin byproduct is removed by liquid-liquid separation upstream of the second reactor. Alcohol reagent and the fatty acid product derivatives of the first reactor output stream are fed to the second reactor where the alcohol reagent increases conversions to desired ester products. High conversions in the second reactor is aided by removal of glycerin prior to the second reactor. Preferably the two flow reactors are packed with heterogeneous catalyst such as a metal carbonate. Alternatively, a soluble catalyst may be introduced with the alcohol reagent and recirculated with the alcohol from the second reactor to the first reactor. 
       
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0022]    [0022]FIG. 1 is a schematic block diagram of a packed-bed reactor system useful for glyceride alcoholysis in accordance with the invention;  
         [0023]    [0023]FIG. 2 is a block diagram similar to FIG. 1, but illustrating a product recycle to reduce the reaction induction period;  
         [0024]    [0024]FIG. 3 is another block diagram similar to FIG. 2, depicting product recycle and flush separation of water from the reaction;  
         [0025]    [0025]FIG. 4 is a block diagram similar to FIG. 3, but adding an additional recycle and use of a petroleum fraction such as diesel as a solvent;  
         [0026]    [0026]FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a packed-bed reactor system using countercurrent reactors;  
         [0027]    [0027]FIG. 6 is a block diagram of another countercurrent reactor system;  
         [0028]    [0028]FIG. 7 is a block diagram of a reactor capable of producing multiple products;  
         [0029]    [0029]FIG. 8 is a schematic representation of a column-type packed-bed reactor useful in the invention; and  
         [0030]    [0030]FIG. 9 is a block diagram of a reactor system for producing a nitrated transesterified product useful as a cetane improver. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS  
       [0031]    As indicated previously, the processes of the invention can be carried out in simple one-pot reactors, or in more complex systems such as plug-flow reactors. For example, and referring to FIG. 1, a simple plug flow reaction system  10  includes a heating exchanger  12 , furnace  14  and packed-bed reactor  16 . A glyceride-containing oil or fat starting product is delivered via line  18  for passage in serial order through the exchanger  12 , furnace  14  (natural gas, steam or electrical resistive) and reactor  16 . An alcohol input line  20  delivers alcohol for mixing with the oil or fat starting product, thereby generating a reaction mixture which is heated within furnace  14  and delivered to reactor  16 , to form the esterified final product. The product output from reactor  16  passes through line  22  back through exchanger  12  for heat recovery. The carbonate catalyst is placed within the reactor  16 , so as to promote the desired catalytic contact between the reaction mixture and the carbonate. The configuration of FIG. 1 is the preferred embodiment when glycerides are allowed or preferred in the product.  
         [0032]    [0032]FIG. 2 depicts another simple reactor system  24  having many of the components of system  10 , namely heat exchanger  12 , furnace  14 , reactor  16 , product input lines  18  and  20  and product output line  22 . However, in this instance, the alcohol input line  20  is joined with glyceride input line  18  upstream of exchanger  12 . Furthermore, a recycle line  26  serves to recycle a portion of the reaction product back into the reactor feed to reduce or eliminate reaction induction periods. Recycling may be achieved directly or indirectly by splitting the output product stream so that from about 5-95% of the reaction product is reintroduced into the reactor feed stream. A pump (not shown) is usually required to facilitate such product recycle, and the recycle may be introduced before or after passage through furnace  14 .  
         [0033]    [0033]FIG. 3 illustrates a still further system  28  which again has many of the components of FIGS.  1 - 2 , i.e., heat exchanger  12 , furnace  14 , reactor  16 , glyceride input  18 , alcohol input  20 , product output line  22  and recycle  26 . In this case, however, system  28  also includes a water flash unit  30  including an overhead flash output  31  interposed in glyceride input line  18  between exchanger  12  and furnace  14 , with a liquid-liquid separator device  32  (having a glycerin output line  33 ) coupled within product output line  22 . Note also that the recycle line  26  passes into the water flash unit  30 . During esterification reactions, alcohols react with fatty acids derived from the glyceride input, forming water and the desired esters.  
         [0034]    In this equilibrium-limited conversion water accumulation can limit conversion of the fatty acids to the corresponding esters. When water is present in the product stream at sufficient concentrations to limit reaction conversions (equilibrium limitation), the recycle stream is preferably flashed prior to recycle. Such flash separation is achieved by reducing the pressure below the bubble point of the product stream. Valving is the preferred method for reducing this pressure. As illustrated in FIG. 3, use of flash separation reduces the amount of water entering the reactor. Flashing of water is preferably performed prior to the addition of alcohol when the volatility of the alcohol is similar to or greater than the volatility of water, to reduce loss of alcohol in the flash overheads. Higher recycle rates result in lower water concentrations in the reactor effluent and higher fatty acid conversions. Known techniques may also be used to heat the alcohol input prior to the reaction and to recover alcohols exiting in the flash overheads from the unit  30 . An advantage of the FIG. 3 embodiment is that a single flash separation serves to remove water from the incoming glyceride feed, as well as water formed during the esterification reaction.  
         [0035]    [0035]FIG. 4 depicts a reaction system  34  having the exchanger  12 , furnace  14 , reactor  16 , reactant inputs  18  and  20 , product output line  22 , water flash unit  30  and liquid-liquid separator  32 . However, this embodiment adds a pair of recycle lines  36  and  38 , as well as a diesel input line  40 . In the ensuing discussion, reference is made to diesel as an additive in preferred processes; it is to be understood, however, that this is exemplary only, and that use can be made of a variety of petroleum products having a 95% boiling point of less than about 670° F. in such contexts. Line  36  extends from glycerin output line  33  to flash unit  30 , whereas line  38  extends from product output line  22 . In this embodiment, water is removed from the process selective to unreacted alcohol, this being accomplished by removing water from recycled glycerin. Additionally, the recycled glycerin provides a larger hydrophilic phase during the reaction that effectively removes water as it is formed, not unlike a desiccant. The liquid-liquid separator  32  separates the hydrophobic product phase from the hydrophilic phase that is rich in glycerin and water relative to the product phase. Introduction of diesel fuel through the line  40  enhances the separation and facilitates high distribution of water into the glycerin phase.  
         [0036]    The embodiment of FIG. 5 illustrates a system  42  which may have many of the components of FIGS.  1 - 4  as desired, including glycerin and alcohol input lines  18  and  20 , heat exchanger  12 , furnace  14 , diesel input line  40  and product output line  22 . In this case, however, the system  42  includes a pair of packed-bed reactors  16   a  and  16   b  which are serially interconnected via line  44  and with an alcohol recycle line  32   a  extending from reactor  16   b  back to input  18  upstream of reactor  16   a . Use of methanol and heterogeneous catalysts is preferred in this embodiment. Also, this scheme has a glycerin output  48  from the reactor  16   a  which passes through another heat exchanger  50 ; the fresh alcohol input line  20  also passes through the exchanger  50  and is coupled to line  44  intermediate the reactor  16   a ,  16   b . In operation, an alcohol-rich phase with 0-90% of the ester product effluent of the reactor  16   b  (more preferably 5%-90%) is recycled and mixed with the glyceride feedstock in line  18  upstream of the first reactor  16   a . Recycle stream flow is preferably controlled by conventional metering. In this embodiment, the feedstock is preferably soybean oil, rapeseed oil, beef tallow, lard, waste oils, mustard seed oil, palm oil, waste triglyceride oils, or a combination thereof, whereas the alcohol feed is preferably methanol or ethanol. Removal of the glycerin phase through line  48  is preferably level-controlled to allow removal of the physically separate glycerin phase without substantial removal of ester product with the glycerin; any conventional level controller known in the art can be used for this purpose including capacitance probes (not shown). Removal of the glycerin phase of reactor  16   a  prior to reactor  16   b  substantially reduces both the glycerin (bound and free) and water contents in reactor  16   b ; this increases overall conversions of free fatty acids and reduces the concentration of glycerides in the product. As before, diesel fuel may optionally be added via line  40  with the glyceride feedstock to induce better phase separation between the glycerin phase and the alcohol-rich phase in the second reactor  16   b . The glycerin phase is the hydrophilic phase of the liquid-liquid equilibrium of the reactor effluents from reactor  16   a ; the glycerin phase is denser than the ester phase. As summarized in Example 7, lowered glycerin concentrations in reactor  16   b  reduces the tendency to form a second liquid phase high in alcohol concentration.  
         [0037]    In order to facilitate formation of an alcohol rich phase from reactor  16   b  effluent, diesel may be used (from source  40   a ) as a solvent for the hydrophobic phase and lower temperatures are preferred. Temperatures of &lt;75° C. are preferred in the product effluent of heat exchanger  12  to induce the desired phase behavior, with liquid-liquid separation in separator  32  and alcohol recycle via line  321 . To induce the best liquid-liquid separation of methanol from the biodiesel, the US-2D:Biodiesel ratio entering the liquid-liquid separator should be greater than about 3:4. In addition, the ratio of methanol to US-2D should be greater than about 3:4 as well.  
         [0038]    Alternatively, diesel can be added after the reactor at similar respective ratios the improvement being better liquid-liquid separation of alcohol from ester.  
         [0039]    In order to reduce the amount of methanol exiting in the glycerin byproduct stream, the methanol recycle stream is preferably split so slightly greater than stoichiometric methanol (toward production of the desired ester product) is introduced into reactor  16   a  with the remaining methanol mixed with the methanol reagent feed. In this configuration, slightly greater than stoichiometric (relative to stream  18 ) methanol feed is preferred. The embodiment of FIG. 5 operated as described is the most preferred arrangement for producing biodiesel that is intended for immediate blending with diesel.  
         [0040]    In an alternative embodiment, separation of alcohol from reactor  16   b  effluent in FIG. 5 is facilitated by mixing part of the glycerin effluent with the reactor  16   b  reactor effluent. This recycle of glycerin is preferably performed in a packed-bed reactor configuration where the absence of catalyst after reactor  16   b  does not provide a mechanism through which glycerin can drive the desired reaction backward forming glycerides. The advantages of this embodiment over the basic embodiment of FIG. 5 is that other factors driving liquid-liquid phase separation can be increased, including allowing separations at higher temperatures, use of ethanol as the alcoholysis reagent, and reducing or eliminating the need for diesel solvent. Such a method where the use of diesel as a solvent is eliminated is the most preferred means of producing diesel-free biodiesel.  
         [0041]    [0041]FIG. 6 illustrates a similar dual reactor system  52  employing the series-related reactors  16   a  and  16   b  in a broader scheme. This includes alternative recycle methods such as liquid-fluid separation possible at near-critical conditions. This figure also illustrates an alternative for addition of fresh alcohol, i.e., the alcohol may be added to the first reactor  16   a  as shown by the phantom line, or the alcohol may be added downstream of the first reactor.  
         [0042]    An advantage of the dual-reactor systems of FIGS. 5 and 6 is that the exiting product through line  22  is exposed to a significant excess of alcohol while the main byproduct of the reactor series (the glycerin byproduct) is essentially free of the alcohol feedstock. Other reaction systems may have glycerin byproducts containing substantial amounts of feedstock alcohol that is preferably recycled—a costly operation. In the FIGS.  5 - 6  embodiment, the amount of alcohol feedstock delivered to the reactor  16   b  is near the stoichiometric amount (relative to glyceride input line  18 ) to convert all glycerides and free fatty acids to the corresponding ester. An additional advantage of the serial reactors is that water in the feed is substantially removed from the glycerin with the final reaction in the second reactor being free of the water removed from the glycerin of the first reactor. Of course, reduction of water promotes conversion of free fatty acids in the second reactor. At steady state, very little of the alcohol entering the second reactor  16   b  reacts; rather, most of it exits in the alcohol-rich phase from the second reactor and is recycled to react in the first reactor. A primary purpose of the second reactor  16   b  is to increase conversion, typically from &lt;99% conversion in the first reactor  16   a  to &gt;98% conversion in the second reactor  16   b.    
         [0043]    [0043]FIG. 7 depicts a system  54  designed to produce multiple products, using partial oxidation and alcoholysis to modify the triglyceride feedstock. It includes exchangers  12   a  and  12   b , furnace  14 , reactors  16   c  and  16   d , glyceride input line  18 , alcohol input line  20 , optional oxidant input line  56 , adiabatic separator  58  and first and second product output lines  22   a  and  22   b . Dotted lines indicate optional configurations, depending upon the desired mode of operation. As shown, the triglyceride feedstock after passing through initial exchanger  12   a  may be oxidized using an oxidant such as ozone, oxygen or hydrogen peroxide, whereupon the feedstock passes through initial reactor  16   c , secondary exchanger  12   b , furnace  14 , secondary reactor  16  and separator  58 . Oxidation of the triglyceride feedstock selectively reacts with the carbon-carbon bonds of the triglycerides. The ester products are separated in separator  58  for individual recovery as shown.  
         [0044]    When lower alcohols such as methanol or ethanol react with triglycerides, excess alcohol reagent promotes conversion of the triglycerides. When using such excess alcohol, unreacted alcohol is preferably recycled. The column  60  depicted in FIG. 8 illustrates an embodiment in which a single column provides space for reaction, liquid-liquid separation, and vapor-liquid separation. The column  60  is an upright body having an uppermost input  61  for a reaction mixture of fat/oil and alcohol, with a packed bed reactor section  62  of carbonate catalyst (preferably calcium carbonate), a liquid-liquid separation baffle  64 , an ester product output line  66  and a lower tray packing section  68 . This packing  62  presents an upper input face and an opposed lower outlet face adjacent baffle  64 . The section  68  has trays or packing  70  therein, a steam or heat input line  72  and a glycerin/water byproduct output line  74 . Further, the overall column  60  has a coalesced packing section  76  above section  68 , a liquid line  78  and a vaporized alcohol recycle line  80  equipped with pump  82 . In the use of the column  60 , a mixture of triglycerides and alcohol is mixed with recycle alcohol prior to entering the top of the column. This reaction mixture passes downwardly through the packed-bed reactor section  62  where conversion occurs. Fluids exiting the section  62  are physically separated into an upper ester product phase exiting through line  66  and a lower glycerin-rich phase. The latter proceeds through the section  68  where the pressure is reduced and/or heat is applied, thereby producing a vapor phase having a low glycerin concentration and a proportionately higher alcohol concentration. This vapor phase is recycled via line  80  as shown. Condensation and recycle of this vapor phase increases the alcohol concentration relative to the water concentration in the column reactor. The glycerin-rich liquid phase exits through line  74  whereupon water may be removed from the glycerin to allow recycle of substantially anhydrous glycerin. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, conventional control apparatus (not shown) is used with column  60  to control flow rates into, out of and between the different column sections.  
         [0045]    Reactor  16   a  of FIGS. 5 and 6 is preferably of the type shown by FIG. 8 where the lower, packed section is not present with the glycerin effluent phase being taken at the bottom of the vessel and ester product being taken above the glycerin product and directly from below the baffle enhancing physical separation of the ester product from the glycerin. This embodiment is part of the most preferred schemes previously described for biodiesel production.  
         [0046]    [0046]FIG. 9 illustrates a system  84  for the production of nitrated products useful as cetane or lubricity improvers. Broadly, the system  84  involves nitration of the alcoholysis products produced from the reaction of a glycol with a triglyceride, using dinitrogen pentoxide. Thus, the system  84  includes triglyceride and alcohol (glycol) input lines  18  and  20  together with heat exchanger  12  and furnace  14 , all common to earlier embodiments. However, the system  84  includes a number of different components, secondary heat exchanger  88 , chiller  90 , reactor  92 , N 2 O 5  generator  94 , and ozone generator  96 . An output line  98  from reactor  86  passes through the exchangers  12  and  88  (the latter having a cold water inlet  100  and outlet  102 ), and thence through chiller  90  and reactor  92 . A product output line  104  extends from the reactor  92 , and a recycle line  106  is teed from line  104  back to line  98  upstream of chiller  90 . An air input line  108  extends to ozone generator  96 , while an NO 2  input  110  is directed to generator  94 . Ozone and NO 2  enter generator  94  through inputs  110 ,  112 , and N 2 O 5  therefrom passes through line  114  for passage into reactor  92 . NO 2  from the reactor  92  is recycled through line  116  back to generator  94 . Reactor  86  is preferably packed with metal carbonate catalysts.  
         [0047]    Promoters are commonly used to enhance the reactivity of known catalysts. Since calcium carbonate is sufficiently inexpensive and robust for use as a catalyst support, the reactivity of calcium carbonate can be readily enhanced by promoters. Promoting catalysts could be supported on calcium carbonate, supported jointly with calcium carbonate on a third substance/support, physically mixed with calcium carbonate, or combined with other methods known in the art. Useful promoters include metals, oxides, and other catalytic materials, especially those already known to promote the desired reactions including but not limited to silver, gold, platinum, iron, barium, palladium, bismuth, zinc, germanium, oxides of these metals, and mixtures of these metals.  
         [0048]    In most chemical processes, the desired reaction and/or conversion requires several elementary reaction steps. For reactions were calcium carbonate promotes only part of the rate-determining processes, calcium carbonate can be used in combination with other catalysts. Other catalysts suitable for this application include metals, oxides, and other catalytic materials, especially those already known to promote the desired reactions including but not limited to silver, gold, platinum, iron, barium, palladium, bismuth, zinc, germanium, oxides of these metals, and mixtures of these metals.  
         [0049]    In the case of reactions promoted by homogeneous acids, use of calcium carbonate catalysis after the acid-catalyzed reaction allows the calcium carbonate to serve two functions. The calcium carbonate can both neutralize residual acid and promote other reactions such as alcoholysis. For example, triglycerides containing free fatty acids can be esterified first with an acid catalyst and subsequently neutralized with a packed bed of calcium carbonate with alcoholysis being promoted by the calcium carbonate catalyst. Such a process comprises contacting a fluid containing residual acid and the glyceride-alcohol reactants with calcium carbonate after the acid catalyzed reaction at a sufficient combination of temperature and time to promote reaction.  
         [0050]    Although acids can be added to promote esterification, calcium carbonate was shown to be effective in the presence of free fatty acids (see Example 4) unlike many alcoholysis catalysts that form soaps when contacted with free fatty acids.  
         [0051]    Waste oils may provide a low-cost feed stock to the processes of the invention. Especially when these waste oils are separated from wastewater, they contain solids that do not easily separate from oils. The preferred method for separating the solids from the oils is to heat the mixture to a temperature &gt;40° C. and preferably between 50° C. and 99° C. Advantageously, acid is added to this mixture to create a pH &lt;5.0. Even more preferably, diesel is added to the mixture to act as a solvent that dissolves solids and reduces viscosity. After heating and mixing, the mixture solids are removed at the elevated temperatures by methods known in the art and the two liquid phases are physically separated—the acid and residual water form an aqueous phase. The clear organic phase is preferably processed using the process of the invention. The diesel may be added as part of the triglyceride feed stock preparation rather than as a reactor feed—it ultimately enters the reactor with the triglycerides and other fatty acid derivatives.  
         [0052]    Of the metal carbonates, calcium carbonate provides a particularly good combination of low cost, catalytic activity, resistance to reaction with free fatty acids, and robust structure allowing use in a flow reactor. Metallic zinc has a comparable structure as calcium carbonate; however, it has an increased tendency to react with free fatty acids as illustrated in Example 9. To the advantage of zinc, it appears to be slightly more active toward catalyzing alcoholysis as illustrated in Example 8. Temperatures include 150-300° C. and preferably near 220°. In general, the conditions for using zinc as a catalyst are similar to the conditions for using calcium carbonate The strengths of calcium carbonate and zinc can be best realized by having a mixture of glyceride, free fatty acid, and alcohol first contact calcium carbonate to achieve conversions &gt;90% and then contact zinc with a higher reactivity to force higher conversions. Similar approaches can be taken with other catalysts, like zinc, that have higher alcoholysis catalyzing capability than calcium carbonate, but also, exhibit a higher propensity for undesirable side reactions with free fatty acids.  
         [0053]    In the discussion of the previous embodiments, recuperative heat exchangers are preferred when able to be used; however, other known methods to increase or decrease temperatures are within the ambit of this invention. The purpose of the furnaces in the previous embodiments is to increase the temperature of the reagents; other methods for increasing temperatures are also within the scope of this invention including but not limited heat exchange with utility-quality steam and use of electrical resistance heating.  
         [0054]    The following examples set forth illustrative esterification/alcoholysis reactions in accordance with the invention. It is to be understood, however, that these examples are provided by way of illustration and nothing therein should be taken as a limitation upon the overall scope of the invention.  
       EXAMPLE 1  
       [0055]    In this series of tests, the glycerides in soybean oil and beef tallow were transesterified using various glycols and carbonate catalysts.  
         [0056]    For the carbonate-based 250-mL batch-reactor studies, a 250-mL 3-neck round-bottom flask was charged with 30.0 g of oil or fat, a variable amount of glycol, and 2.0 g of catalyst. The contents were purged with oxygen-free, dry N 2  for 10 min prior to heating under a N 2  atmosphere. Stirring was maintained throughout the reaction by use of a magnetic stirrer. The temperature was allowed to increase to a maximum of 195-225° C. and held at around 210° C. for 2.5-3 h. After the contents of the flask cooled to near room temperature, the product oil was extracted into diethyl ether. The ether was washed four times with 1 N HCl (to remove the carbonate catalyst) and twice with distilled water. The ether layer was dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate and filtered. The solvent was removed by rotary evaporation. The reaction conversions were quantified by comparing integrations of  1 H NMR resonances characteristic of the starting oil/fat and the desired product ester.  
         [0057]    Anhydrous ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, and triethylene glycol were purchased from Aldrich (Milwaukee, Wis.). The glycols (reported purity of 99%) were used without further purification. Soybean oil, Food Club brand vegetable oil that is distributed by Topco Associates, Inc. (Skokie, Ill.), was purchased from a local grocery store. The reported composition for the soybean oil was 64% polyunsaturated fats, 21% monounsaturated fats, and 14% saturated fats. Beef tallow was supplied by Inland Products, Inc (Columbus, Ohio). Sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, glycerin (certified ACS grade), and methanol (HPLC grade) were purchased from Fisher Scientific (Fair Lawn, N.J.). Zinc carbonate (Baker analyzed reagent grade) was purchased from J. T. Baker Chemical Co. (Phillipsburg, N.J.). Approximately 100 mesh calcium carbonate and calcium oxide used for batch reactor studies were obtained from Lancaster (Windham, N.H.).  
         [0058]    As shown in Table 1, three hours at about 200° C. was sufficient to completely convert the triglyceride into the monoglycol product. Calcium, zinc, and magnesium carbonate all show good catalytic activity, producing a clean monoglycol product. Sodium and potassium carbonate, although active alcoholysis catalysts, were found to promote side reactions. The IR spectra of the products of these catalysts show the presence of a new carbonyl peak around 1710 cm −1  and a broad hydroxyl peak characteristic of a carboxylic acid. This negative hydrolysis side reaction is a drawback to using these catalysts. The  1 H NMR spectra also show another interesting side reaction. The olefinic protons for fatty acid esters typically appear as a broad multiplet centered around 5.3 ppm. However, in the products obtained from the alkali carbonate reactions, additional peaks in the  1 H NMR spectra appear at 6.40, 6.15, and 5.75 downfield of the broad olefin multiplet. The position of these new olefin resonances suggests that the double bonds are migrating into conjugation with the carbonyl group.  
         [0059]    The following Table 1 sets forth the results of these tests.  
                                                                                           TABLE 1                           Batch reactor studies on alcoholysis of soybean oil and beef tallow.            Reactor               Molar Ratio   Time   Temp.   Yield   Conversion       size (mL)   Fat/Oil   Alcohol a     Catalyst   (Lipid:ROH:Cat.)   (h)   (° C.)   (g)   (%)                    250   Soybean Oil   DEG   none   1.72:14.2:1.0   2.5   205   N/A   &lt;5        250   Beef Tallow   DEG   none   1.75:14.2:1.0   2.5   205   N/A   &lt;5         50   Soybean Oil   EG   NaOH   0.92:9.16:1.0   24.0   150   N/A   &lt;5         50   Soybean Oil   EG   H 2 SO 4     10:20:1 b     8.0    90   N/A   &lt;5        250   Soybean Oil   EG   DOWEX 50W-X8   1.00:61.8:2.8 c     48.0   120   N/A   &lt;5         50   Soybean Oil   EG   (C 12 H 27 Sn) 2 O   62.0:1660:1.0   24.0   100   —   &gt;95       250   Soybean Oil   GLY   CaO   0.96:10.4:1.0   2.5   210   —   &gt;95       250   Soybean Oil   GLY   CaCO 3     1.73:17.9:1.0   2.5   210   15   &gt;95       250   Soybean Oil   DEG   CaCO 3     1.73:18.9:1.0   2.0   210   20.8   &gt;95       250   Beef Tallow   DEG   CaCO 3     1.75:16.5:1.0   3.0   210   30.5   &gt;95       250   Soybean Oil   DEG   Na 2 CO 3     1.81:14.9:1.0   2.0   210   —   &gt;95       250   Soybean Oil   DEG   K 2 CO 3     2.37:19.5:1.0   2.0   210   —   &gt;95       250   Soybean Oil   DEG   ZnCO 3     3.27:27.0:1.0   2.0   210   29.6   &gt;95       250   Soybean Oil   DEG   MgCO 3     1.01:11.8:1.0   2.0   210   —   &gt;95       250   Beef Tallow   TriEG   ZnCO 3     3.33:27.0:1.0   2.5   210   34.9   &gt;95                                          
 
       EXAMPLE 2  
       [0060]    In these tests, a plug flow reactor was employed to transesterify soybean oil using various alcohols. A 20 mL reactor was packed with 14-20 mesh calcium carbonate catalyst obtained from Iowa Limestone Company of Des Moines, Iowa and continuous flow reactions were run at 4 and 18 minute residence times at 200 C. Greater than 95% conversion was achieved for alcoholysis with ethanol at 240 C. and 18 minutes residence time. Reaction pressures varied from 10 to 100 bar with liquid phases being maintained at all times. The following Table 2 summarizes reactions performed in the packed-bed reactor.  
                                                               TABLE 2                                           Soybean Oil           Temperature   Residence   Conversion           (° C.)   Time (min)   (%)                                    Equal Masses           —       soybean oil:glycerin   200    4   17       soybean oil:glycerin   240    4   &lt;5       soybean oil:glycerin   240   18   18       soybean oil:ethanol   200   18   &lt;1       soybean oil:ethanol   240    4   &lt;5       soybean oil:ethanol   240   18   &lt;5       soybean oil:ethylene glycol   200    4   &lt;1       soybean oil:ethylene glycol   240    4   &lt;1       soybean oil:ethylene glycol   200   18   12       soybean oil:ethylene glycol   240   18   60       Equal Masses       soybean oil:glycerin   200   18   &gt;95        soybean oil:glycerin   240   18   &gt;95        soybean oil:glycerin   260   18   &gt;95        soybean oil:diethylene glycol   200   18   &gt;95        soybean oil:diethylene glycol   240   18   &gt;95        soybean oil:diethylene glycol   260   18   &gt;95        Mole Ratio 1.8:1       soybean oil:diethylene glycol   200   18   35       soybean oil:diethylene glycol   240   18   &gt;95        soybean oil:diethylene glycol   260   18   &gt;95        Equal Masses in Methyl Ester       of Soybean Oil (1 g oil, 1 g       ethanol, 2 g methyl ester)       soybean oil:ethanol   200   18   &lt;1       soybean oil:ethanol   240   18   78       soybean oil:ethanol   260   18   &gt;95             Soybean Oil   300   polymerization occurred,               plugging the reactor                  
 
         [0061]    The same carbonate packing was used for a multitude of alcoholysis reactions, and no deterioration in performance was observed over the course of about 200 hrs. of reactions.  
         [0062]    In the last test set forth in Table 2, soybean oil was contacted with calcium carbonate at temperatures ranging from 300-320 C. at 100 bar. After about 5 minutes operation at this temperature, the reactor plugged, revealing a block paste reaction product. This demonstrates that at high temperatures undesirable polymerization reactions can occur.  
       EXAMPLE 3  
       [0063]    In order to enhance the conversion when reacting soybean oil with ethanol, a reactor feed containing 1 part soybean oil, 1 part ethanol, and 2 parts biodiesel (methyl ester of soybean oil) was fed to the plug flow reactor employed in Example 2. At 240 C. and a 18 minute residence time the triglyceride conversion was 78% (compared to &lt;5% without the biodiesel in the feed). At 260 C. and an 18 minute residence time the triglyceride conversion increased to &gt;95%.  
       EXAMPLE 4  
       [0064]    The impact of free fatty acids, that may be present in unprocessed fats/oils, on calcium carbonate catalyst was evaluated by adding fatty acid to sobyean oil. Thus, soybean oil was spiked with about 5 wt % fatty acids (prepared by hydrolysis of the same soybean oil). This mixture was reacted with diethylene glycol (1.8 mol diethylene glycol: 1 mol oil) under the same conditions as those used in the batch-reaction. Spectra (IR and  1 H NMR) of the products of these reactions showed complete conversion of the starting oil to the desired glycol product. No evidence of residual free fatty acids or the corresponding calcium salt were seen in any of the spectra obtained. The product mixture was also titrated against KOH, and significant reductions in the amount of free fatty acids were observed. Therefore, the presence of free fatty acids in an oil/fat (such as that found in crude oils) does not poison the catalytic activity of calcium carbonate. In fact, titration results indicate that the free fatty acids were esterified over the calcium carbonate catalysts with a final free fatty acid concentration of less than 10% of the initial concentration. The high conversions of the free fatty acids was in part attributed to water being driven off in situ at the temperature and atmospheric pressure of this reaction.  
         [0065]    Additional reactions were conducted with free fatty acid (FFA) added to soybean oil (SBO) with alcoholysis (and esterification) by diethylene glycol (DEG). These data is summarized below for batch reactions conducted at 210° C. and one atmosphere of pressure.  
                                                                               TABLE 3                                       (grams)                    (grams)       CaCO 3                      DEG   SBO   FFA   Catalyst   SBO rxn   FFA rxn*                       30    0   30   3   yes   yes           30    0   30   0   no   yes           30   21    9   3   yes   yes           30   30    0   3   yes   —           30   30    0   3   yes   —           30   21    9   3   yes   yes           30   21    9   0   no   yes           30   30    0   0   no —                                  
 
         [0066]    This data illustrates that even at 100% FFA, esterification proceeds at 210° C. The reaction proceeds in the absence of calcium carbonate. When SBO is present, even high concentrations of FFA do not substantially inhibit the ability of calcium carbonate to catalyze the alcoholysis reaction. The catalyst is necessary for alcoholysis as indicated by the reactions with SBO present but no calcium carbonate present. For these reactions, the conversions of FFA were all &lt;90%.  
         [0067]    Packed-Bed Flow Reactor Studies were also conduced on high FFA soybean oil. At a mass ration of 2:1:1, EtOH:SBO:Oleic Acid reacted at 260° C. and a residence time of 167 minutes an ˜60% FFA conversion and &gt;95% SBO Conversion was obtained.  
       EXAMPLE 5  
       [0068]    In this test, a plug flow reactor having a volume of 200 ml (450 ml without packing) was packed with calcium carbonate, and a reaction mixture containing biodiesel, ethyl alcohol, soybean oil and free oleic acid was passed through the reactor. The conditions were as follows:  
         [0069]    Reactant Mixture (mass basis)  
         [0070]    ⅓ biodiesel  
         [0071]    ⅓ EtOH  
         [0072]    ⅙ soybean oil  
         [0073]    ⅙ oleic acid  
         [0074]    Reactor and System Conditions  
         [0075]    Reactor Operating Temperature 260° C.  
         [0076]    System Operating Pressure (average) 90 bar  
         [0077]    System Flowrate (average) ca. 1.2 mL/min  
         [0078]    Amount of crude sample collected ca. 350 mL  
         [0079]    Washing and drying of crude product  
         [0080]    Sample washed twice with water. No significant problem with emulsion and/or separation of emulsions  
         [0081]    Sample was dried overnight to obtain final product  
         [0082]    Free fatty acid results  
         [0083]    Reactant free fatty acid composition 25%  
         [0084]    Product free fatty acid composition 10%  
         [0085]    Free fatty acid reduction (single pass through reactor) 60%  
         [0086]    Conversion of triglyceride &gt;95%  
       EXAMPLE 6  
       [0087]    In this test, the reactor and reaction conditions of Example 5 was used to evaluate the impact of using diesel solvent. The following sets forth the initial and final conditions.  
         [0088]    Reactant Mixture (mass basis)  
         [0089]    ⅓ #2 diesel  
         [0090]    {fraction ( 2 / 9 )} biodiesel  
         [0091]    {fraction ( 2 / 9 )} soybean oil  
         [0092]    {fraction ( 2 / 9 )} EtOH-Ethanol phase separated out of the reactants immediately when mixed (top layer)  
         [0093]    Amount of crude sample collected ca. 300 mL  
         [0094]    Appearance of crude sample  
         [0095]    A two phase layer exists with ca. &lt;50 mL of a lighter colored phase at the bottom, which may be a glycerin phase. A sample of the both of the crude phases is retained for further analysis. Further, the reddish color from the initial diesel oil is no longer present.  
         [0096]    Washing and drying of crude product  
         [0097]    Sample was initially washed with water. After setting for a number of hours (i.e. overnight) the water phase remained cloudy in appearance (and still is to this point). (I have not noticed this behavior in any of the other samples I have analyzed to date—that is, the wash is normally clear). Wash retained for further analysis if necessary. Second washing resulted in a significant amount of emulsion that did not separate. This mixture was then washed with ether which significantly reduced the amount of emulsion. Acetone was then added to the separated mixture to dissolve the remaining emulsion prior to drying. Sample was dried overnight to obtain final product.  
         [0098]    Sample appearance and consistency  
         [0099]    Sample is clear and light yellowish brown and the viscosity appears to be much lower than the previous samples over the last few weeks (i.e. ⅓ soy, biodiesel, &amp; EtOH mixture as well as that with the free fatty acids).  
         [0100]    NMR results  
         [0101]    Sample contains 74% ethyl esters and 26% methyl esters. There is a “trace” of glycerides (soybean oil, mono, di or tri) in the final product by NMR analysis.  
       EXAMPLE 7  
       [0102]    In this test, fundamental phase behavior is determined by mixing known quantities of glycerides, methyl esters, and alcohols. The biodiesel of this example is the methyl ester of soybean oil. These studies were conducted at atmospheric pressure and the indicated number of phases refers to the number of liquid phases.  
         [0103]    Equal volumes of each component of the following binary systems provided the indicated phase behavior.  
                                                     TABLE 4                                   Components   T (° C.)   Phases                                        Methanol   Biodiesel   25   1           Methanol   Canola Oil   25   2           Methanol   US-2D   25   2           Ethanol   Biodiesel   25   1           Ethanol   Canola Oil   25   2           Ethanol   US-2D   25   1                      
 
         [0104]    A repeat of the above phase behavior studies at 70° C. provided similar phase behavior. These results indicate that methanol is sufficiently more hydrophilic than ethanol and that methanol exhibits different phase behavior.  
         [0105]    Equal volumes of each component of the following ternary systems provided the indicated phase behavior. US-2D is number 2 diesel fuel.  
                                                         TABLE 5                                   Components   T (° C.)   Phases                                        Methanol   Biodiesel   US-2D   25   2           Methanol   Canola Oil   US-2D   25   2           Methanol   Biodiesel   US-2D   75   1           Ethanol   Biodiesel   US-2D   25   1           Ethanol   Canola Oil   US-2D   25   2           Ethanol   Biodiesel   US-2D   75   1                      
 
         [0106]    An observation in addition to the phase behavior data of the above table is that the mixture containing 2 mL each of methanol, biodiesel, and US-2D has an upper methanol phase that is about 2 mL and contains most of the methanol. When an additional 2 mL of biodiesel is added to the mixture, the upper methanol phase is reduced to about 0.7 mL indicating that the biodiesel is taking in a substantial portion of the methanol into the hydrophobic phase. When an additional 2 mL of US-2D is added, the upper methanol phase volume increases again to about 1 mL; less than the 2 mL for the equal volume mixture. These data indicates that to induce a methanol rich phase in the presence of biodiesel, the ratio of US-2D:Biodiesel should be greater than about 3:4. In addition, the ratio of methanol to US-2D should be greater than about 3:4 as well.  
         [0107]    Unreacted ethanol was largely immiscible with the product of Example 6 containing diesel and biodiesel, this was due to the presence of glycerin. Glycerin induces a hydrophilic phase when contacting biodiesel; this hydrophilic phase extracts most of the ethanol from the biodiesel.  
         [0108]    The following mixtures contain equal volumes of the four components.  
                                                 TABLE 6                       Components   T (° C.)   Phases                                Methanol   Biodiesel   US-2D   Glycerin   25   2       Methanol   Canola Oil   US-2D   Glycerin   25   2       Methanol   Biodiesel   US-2D   Glycerin   75   2       Ethanol   Biodiesel   US-2D   Glycerin   25   2       Ethanol   Canola Oil   US-2D   Glycerin   25   2       Ethanol   Biodiesel   US-2D   Glycerin   75   2                  
 
         [0109]    For the embodiment of FIGS. 8 and 9 incorporating addition of alcohol between reactors and recycle of the ethanol phase after the second reaction, the output stream from the second reactor would be low in glycerin. This phase behavior data indicates that both lower temperatures (&lt;75 C.) and addition of diesel may be advisable to induce the second liquid phase. This approach has advantages over the alternative approach of flashing ethanol from the second reactor effluent since flashing is considerably more energy and equipment intensive.  
         [0110]    It is well known that electrolytes, including bases, acids, and soluble salts, promote formation of hydrophilic phases. Electrolytes will induce a hydrophilic phase similar to glycerin that will draw out much of the alcohol from the biodiesel phase. For mixtures containing both glycerin and electrolytes, less diesel is required to induce the hydrophilic phase than is required when glycerin alone is used.  
       EXAMPLE 8  
       [0111]    In this test, the impact of lower reaction temperatures is evaluated with potassium and zinc carbonates.  
         [0112]    Reactions were conducted at 60° C. and ˜4 hours in 10 mL batch vials for the following systems:  
                                                                           TABLE 7                                       Reaction Mixture (approximate grams)                    Soybean Oil   Methanol   Salt   Reaction                            CaCO 3     6   3   1   no           ZnCO 3     6   3   1   no           KOH   6   3   1   yes           K 2 CO 3     6   3   1   yes           Na 2 CO 3     6   3   1   no           none   6   3   1   no                      
 
         [0113]    Reaction was determined qualitatively by observing phase behavior. Each mixture initially had an upper methanol layer of about 3 mL that had a low viscosity. Reaction was identified after the 4 hour residence time by the upper methanol phase going away and a lower, more-viscous glycerin phase appearing. Except for KOH, all salts were beyond their solubility limit-most of each of the salts were present as solids.  
         [0114]    In addition to these reactions, a equal mass mixture of ethylene glycol and soybean oil was reacted in the presence of both ZnCO 3  and K 2 CO 3  at  1  50° C. for 2 hours. HNMR confirmed reaction for this system.  
         [0115]    The catalytic ability of these salts appears to be of two types: (1) homogeneous catalysis driven by soluble ions and (2) heterogeneous catalysis requiring higher temperatures. The homogeneous catalysis appears to be related to the solubility constant of the salts. The below table lists solubilities for the salts in grams per 100 grams of water (from the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, 62nd edition, R. C. Weast and M. J. Astle).  
                                                       TABLE 8                                       Solubility (g/100 g Water)                25° C.   60° C.                            CaCO 3     0,0014   0.0018           ZnCO 3     0,001            KOH   107   178           K 2 CO 3     112   156           Na 2 CO 3     7,1      46           MgCO 3     0,04    0,01                      
 
         [0116]    CaCO 3  and ZnCO 3  were evaluated at 150° C. to determine if these two heterogeneous catalysts were effective at this temperature. At the end of 2 hours reaction time, the methanol phase appeared largely unchanged as an upper layer having lower viscosity than the lower layer.  
                                                                                                                         TABLE 9                                       Reaction Mixture               (approximate grams, 150° C.)                Soybean Oil   Methanol   Salt   Reaction Conversion               CaCO 3     6   3   2    &lt;5%       ZnCO 3     6   3   2   &lt;23%                        Reaction Mixture (approximate               grams, 180° C.)                Soybean Oil   Methanol   Salt   Reaction Conversion               Zn (20 mesh)   6   6       low       ZnO   6   6   1   low                        Reaction Mixture (approximate               grams, 150° C.)                Soybean Oil   EG   Salt   Reaction Conversion               CaCO 3  +   6   3   4    22%       ZnCO 3                    
 
       EXAMPLE 9  
       [0117]    In this test, the tendency of metal carbonates and other potential catalysts to form soap with pure oleic acid was evaluated. Systems were mixed, held at 120° C. for about 2 hours, then cooled to ambient temperatures and evaluated.  
                                                                               TABLE 10                                       Reaction Mixture               (approximate grams,           120° C.)                Oleic Acid   Salt   Hot Observation   Ambient Observation   Soap Formation                        CaCO 3     2   0.5   Solids, Cloudy   Solids, Cloudy   low to none       ZnCO 3     2   0.5   Clear   All Solids   very high       MgCO 3     2   0.5   Solids, Cloudy   Solids, Cloudy   low       K 2 CO 3     2   0.5   Solids, Clear   All Solids   very high       CaO   2   0.5   Solids, Cloudy   Solids, Cloudy   low to none       Zn   2   0.5   Viscous, green   Solid Zn and Solid   acid changed                   tint liquid, solids   Acid Phase   uncertain of                           product       ZnO   2   0.5   Viscous Liquid,   Solid Acid Phase   acid changed                   Most ZnO   with Some ZnO   probably soap                   dissolved, Solids   Solids       none   2       Clear   Clear   none                  
 
         [0118]    The samples that were cloudy at ambient observations had clear liquid phases after centrifuging. The soap formation was determined by changes in phase behavior as a result of mixing and heating as well as susceptibility of mixture to lather/foam when mixed with an equal volume of water and mixed.  
         [0119]    This data indicate that not all metal carbonates resist saponification, but calcium carbonate and calcium oxide are quite resistant.