Abstract:
A spinning impingement multiphase contacting device and method for heat or mass transfer are disclosed. A first fluid, from which the transfer is to occur, is caused to impinge and be entrained in a spinning permeable element, creating a highly dispersed phase. The highly dispersed phase contacts the second fluid to cause the desired heat or mass transfer.

Description:
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
   This application is a division of application Ser. No. 10/971,385 filed on Oct. 22, 2004, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,326,283, Feb. 5, 2008, which in turn is based on U.S. Provisional Application 60/514,213, filed Oct. 24, 2003. The disclosures of these applications are incorporated herein by reference, and the benefit of these applications is hereby claimed. 

   TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
   The present invention relates to heat and mass transfer, and, more particularly, to a spinning impingement multiphase contacting device having a rotating porous solid to bring about the transfer between a liquid and a gas, and to the methods of such transfer. 
   BACKGROUND 
   Conventional mass transfer via rotating packed beds provides a first fluid and a second fluid that are introduced to a permeable element(s) having a large interfacial area, and rotating the permeable element about an axis such that fluids flow through the pores of the permeable element to enhance the mass transfer between the two fluids. The concept of mass transfer via a rotating packed bed has been applied to synthesis of hypochlorous acid. Known rotating bed technology teaches that it is important to maximize the interstitial area of the porous element to maximize the surface area upon which liquid film is formed to enhance the mass transfer between the fluids. Conventional teaching focuses on maximizing the formation of surface film. 
   SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
   The present invention is directed to heat and mass transfer between two fluids by increasing the interfacial area available for the transfer via dispersion of the liquid phase of the fluids. 
   On embodiment of the present invention is a spinning impingement apparatus and method of transport processes in which the majority of the transfer between two fluids, such as a liquid and a gas, occurs as a result of the liquid phase being dispersed, such as sheared by impingement. The invention will be described in terms of a mass transfer example of removing oxygen, as a solute, from liquid water by contact with steam. Such deoxygenated or deaerated water has a variety of applications, including boiler feed water and in the semiconductor, drug, beverage, and food industries. While the invention is described in terms of deaereating liquid water, the invention is limited only by the appended claims and may be used for a variety of applications without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. Moreover, although the invention is described in terms of stripping a solute, oxygen, from a liquid, water, by a gas, steam, the invention may also be used with different substances and for absorption or other processes without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. 
   One embodiment of the present invention includes an apparatus with a housing defining a chamber and a rotor having an upper element and lower element disposed in the chamber. A permeable element is disposed between the upper element and the lower element. In one embodiment, the permeable element is annular, defining an interior region. The permeable element is secured between the upper element and lower element, such as by a rotor spacer or ring or by stand-offs. A device to capture liquid entrained in the gas phase (demister) is provided in the interior region of the permeable element. Preferably, the demister and the permeable element are formed from foamed metal, but could be wire screen ceramic, plastic, or other material. A motor is in communication with the rotor and the secured permeable element to rotate the rotor and permeable element. 
   There is at least one liquid inlet having a slot or a plurality of spaced holes to allow water having dissolved oxygen to exit the inlet into the interior region. There is also at least one liquid outlet for removing deoxygenated product water from the chamber. There is at least one gas inlet for introducing steam into the chamber and at least one gas outlet for removing oxygenated steam from the interior region. The chamber is maintained at a higher pressure than the gas outlet; alternatively, the gas outlet is maintained at a lower pressure than the chamber. 
   A rotating liquid seal is provided between the housing and the rotor to prevent inlet steam from bypassing the permeable element and to prevent or minimize inlet liquid bypassing the rotor. 
   In operation, the liquid water enters the interior region through the liquid inlet and is sheared and highly dispersed by the spinning porous solid element. The spinning solid element causes a strong shearing action on the liquid, dispersing it into droplets of extremely large specific interfacial area. In contrast with the prior technology, porous media of very low surface area are preferable for generating the highly dispersed liquid droplets. 
   The centrifugal force associated with the rotation of the porous solid element forces the liquid water droplets radially outwardly through the porous solid where the droplets impinge on other interstitial surfaces on their way through the porous element, leading to additional shearing and dispersion Each impingement and shearing results in new dispersed liquid, generating new interfacial contacting area and enhancing the rate transfer process. This highly dispersed water phase then leaves the rotor and contacts steam as the steam enters the chamber through the gas inlet, which is at a higher pressure than the gas outlet. This differential pressure forces the steam into and through the permeable element, contacting the dispersed liquid countercurrently, through the demister in the interior region, and out the gas outlet. 
   The steam contacts the highly dispersed liquid, primarily within the porous solid, and the oxygen transfers from the liquid water to the steam. This interaction primarily occurs with the dispersed liquid, and much less with the liquid film formed on the interstitial surface of the porous solid, although there is some mass transfer occurring at the film boundaries. Some of the mass transfer also occurs in the volume between the rotating porous solid and the chamber walls between the liquid droplets and the incoming steam. 
   One embodiment of the present invention is directed to a control system that increases and decreases the flow of gas at the gas inlet based on pressure of the gas at the gas outlet. 

   
     DRAWINGS 
     In the accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, embodiments of the invention are illustrated, which, together with a general description of the invention given above, and the detailed description given below, serve to exemplify the principles of this invention, wherein: 
       FIG. 1  illustrates an apparatus in accordance with the present invention with a partial cross-section illustrating portions of the interior of the apparatus; 
       FIG. 2  is a cross-section of an apparatus in accordance with the present invention; 
       FIG. 3  is a top view of an apparatus in accordance with the present invention; 
       FIG. 4  is a cross-section of another embodiment of the present invention; and 
       FIG. 5  is a cross-section of another embodiment of the present invention. 
   

   DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 
   As discussed above, the present invention will be described in terms of steam removing oxygen from liquid water. The invention is not limited to the use of steam or liquid water, and is limited only by the claims appended hereto. Other applications and variants are also envisioned without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention, including distillation, stripping, absorption, desorption, deaeration, extractions, mixing and crystallization, with and without chemical reactions, where mass and/or heat transfer are the rate-affecting limitations. Specifically contemplated are other degasifications of liquids. The liquids can range in viscosity from low viscosity solvent liquids, such as water, to highly viscous liquids such as emulsions, oils, biological fluids, and polymer melts. Gasses that can be removed by the present invention include, but are not limited to, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane. 
   By “mass transfer,” it is meant to transfer a substance, such as a solute, from one phase to a second phase. “Turndown ratio” is the normal maximum flow divided by the minimum controllable flow. “Interfacial area” is the area available for mass or heat transfer between phases, such as the surface area of dispersed liquid droplets or of surface films. Use of the term “or” herein is the inclusive, and not the exclusive, use, unless otherwise specified. See BRYAN A. GARNER, A DICTIONARY OF MODERN LEGAL USAGE 624 (2d Ed. 1995). 
     FIG. 1  illustrates an exemplary apparatus  10  in accordance with the present invention for removing oxygen from liquid water. The apparatus  10  includes a housing  12 , a housing cap  13 , an exhaust stack  14 , a motor housing  16  in which a motor (not shown) is disposed, and a rotor connection  18 . The exhaust stack  14  is provided with a manifold  17  (see  FIG. 2 ). The rotor connection  18  connects the motor (not shown) to a rotor  20  having an upper element  20 A and a lower element  20 B. Disposed between the housing  12  and the motor housing  16  are motor mounting feet  22  to provide support between the motor housing  16  and the housing  12 . 
   Gas inlet  24  and gas outlet  26  provide a steam flow path to and from apparatus  10 . Liquid inlet  28  (shown on  FIG. 2 ) and liquid outlet  30  provide liquid flow paths to and from the apparatus  10 . A permeable element  32  is disposed between upper element  20 A and lower element  20 B. 
   A rotating seal  44  is provided between the housing  12  and the rotor  20 , and is described in greater detail below. A portion of the seal  44  is affixed to the upper element  20 A and rotates with the rotor  20 . A portion of the seal is affixed to the housing via housing cap  13 . In one embodiment, the seal  44  ( FIG. 2 ) is provided with one or more O-rings  46  or other deformable sealing means at the attachment with the upper element  20 A. 
   As illustrated in  FIG. 2 , the housing  12  defines a chamber  34  in which the rotor  20  is disposed and into which the gas inlet  24  exits. In one embodiment, the permeable element  32  disposed in the chamber  34  is held in place between the upper element  20 A and the lower element  20 B by a ring  36 . Preferably, the permeable element  32  defines an interior region  38  spaced radially inwardly of the permeable element  32 . A demister  40 , with a demister stand-off  42  is disposed in the interior region  38 . The demister  40  extends upwardly slightly beyond an inner arm  65  ( FIG. 1 ) of the seal  44 . As described in greater detail below, the demister  40  directs water into the rotor  20  and the seal  44 . An inner lip  70  is provided in the interior region  38 . 
     FIG. 3  illustrates a top view of the apparatus  10  of the present invention with four liquid inlets  28  disposed through the manifold  17 , the gas inlet  24 , and the gas outlet  26 . While four liquid inlets  28  are illustrated in  FIG. 3 , any number of liquid inlets, including one, may be present without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. 
     FIG. 4  illustrates an embodiment of the present invention in which the permeable element  32  is held in place by stand-offs  48 . The stand-offs  48  pass through the permeable element  32  and separate upper element  20 A from lower element  20 B. The stand-offs  48  may be of any conventional material, may be solid or hollow, and of any configuration, arrangement, or attachment. In this embodiment, the ring  36  is not present. 
   To assist in retaining the permeable element  32  in the rotor  20 , a lip  68  is present near the radially outward edge of the permeable element  32  along the bottom element  20 B. The lip  68  may be continuous around the circumference of the permeable element  32  or may be discontinuously disposed around the circumference. As illustrated in  FIG. 1 , both the stand-offs  48  and the ring  36  may be present without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. 
     FIG. 5  illustrates an embodiment of the present invention in which at least one set of bearings  50  is provided to support the rotor  20  and the demister  40 . The bearings provide additional support for the rotor  20  and the demister  40  when the distance between the upper element  20 A and the lower element  20 B is sufficient to require this support. 
     FIG. 2  illustrates an embodiment of the present invention in which there is a pressure detector  52  in the gas outlet  26  for detecting the pressure in the exhaust stack  14  and the gas outlet  26 . The pressure detector  52  is in communication with a control valve  54  such that the flow of steam through gas inlet  24  may be controlled based upon the pressure in the exhaust stack  14  detected by the pressure detector  52 , as discussed in greater detail below. 
   In operation, the motor (not shown) communicates with the rotor  20  via the rotor connection  18  to rotate the rotor  20 . The rotor  20  rotates at such speed to produce a tangential velocity between about 5 and about 40 meters per second at an inner diameter of permeable element  32 , and between about 10 and about 80 meters per second at an outer diameter of permeable element  32 . The motor may be of any conventional design without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. The manner of rotating the rotor need not be a separate conventional motor, but can be any device that provides for the rotation of the rotor  20 , including a turbine, a shaft connected to another system, etc. 
   Steam enters the chamber  34  via gas inlet  24 . The steam enters outside of the permeable element  32  and enters generally tangentially to the rotor  20  and either in the same direction as the direction of rotation of the rotor  20  or directly opposite the direction of rotation of the rotor  20 , depending on the direction of rotation of the rotor  20 . The chamber  34  is at a higher pressure than the pressure in the exhaust stack  14  and the gas outlet  26 . This may be accomplished by providing inlet steam at a higher pressure than the pressure in the exhaust stack  14  and the gas outlet  26 . This pressure differential is preferably between approximately 3.5 to 6 inches of water, and, most preferably, between about 4 and 5 inches of water. 
   Because of this pressure differential, the steam is forced through the holes  56  in the ring  36 , through the permeable element  32  into the interior region  38 , through the demister  40 , into the exhaust stack  14 , and out through the gas outlet  26 . As the steam moves radially inwardly through the permeable element  32 , the angular velocity of the steam increases, to maintain the conservation of angular momentum. In another embodiment, there is no exhaust stack  14  and the steam exits directly into the gas outlet  26 . In yet another embodiment, the steam exits directly to the ambient atmosphere. 
   In one embodiment, the steam passes into the gas outlet  26 , through a gas outlet valve  66 , and into a condenser  67 , where the steam is condensed. The condensed steam then passes through a condensate outlet  69 . The gas outlet valve  66  may be set to provide a constant condensate flow rate, as discussed in more detail below. 
   The liquid water enters the inner chamber  38  through liquid inlet holes  58  in the liquid inlet  28 . The holes  58  may be of any size, geometry, or configuration and may be arranged as desired without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. For example, the holes  58  are substantially circular, with a diameter of about ⅛ inch and are linearly spaced about ⅛ inch apart. In another embodiment, the holes are configured as slots. The holes  58  need not, but may, be nozzles, and the liquid influent need not, but may, be sprayed into the permeable element  32 . 
   The liquid water is entrained into the rotating permeable element  32  and forced radially outwardly toward the holes  56  in the ring  36 . In one embodiment, the velocity of the liquid water is at least about 0.5 meters per second, and, for example, the liquid water travels radially outwardly at about 4 to 6 meters per second. Some of the liquid water will be directed back radially inwardly toward the demister  40  after it strikes the rotating permeable element  32 . The steam traveling radially inwardly and into the exhaust stack  14  will entrain some of the liquid water and carry it to the demister  40 . The rotating demister  40  coalesces the liquid water and directs this liquid water radially outwardly into the rotating permeable element  32 , and into the rotating seal  44 , as discussed in more detail below. The inner lip  70  is provided to direct any liquid water at the bottom of the interior region  38  into the permeable element  32  and not along the lower element  20 B. 
   The spinning permeable element  32  causes a strong shearing action on the liquid water, dispersing it into droplets of extremely large specific interfacial area, such as a mist. As the water continues to travel radially outwardly, it encounters more of the rotating permeable element  32  and the water droplets coalesce and are again sheared and dispersed. This process continues as the water droplets travel radially outwardly through rotating permeable element  32 . 
   When the mist or dispersed liquid droplets exit the rotating permeable element  32  through the holes  56  into the chamber  34 , they strike each other in the chamber  34  or strike an interior wall  60  of the chamber  34  and coalesce. As the water droplets coalesce, they accumulate at the bottom of the chamber  34  and are drained from the chamber  34  through the liquid outlet  30 . If a high viscosity liquid is provided, then the combination of shearing by the permeable element  32  and the centrifugal force imparted to the liquid droplets by the rotation of the permeable element  32  may result in filaments of liquid extending through the permeable element  32  and into the chamber  34 . 
   Liquid water does not build up in the bottom of interior region  38 , because the rotating permeable element  32  entrains the liquid as soon as it leaves the holes  58  of the liquid inlet  28 . As any water that collects at the bottom of the interior region  38  is directed radially outwardly, the lip  70  lifts the liquid for more effective entrainment by the rotating permeable element  32 . 
   The shearing and dispersion of the water by the rotor  20  is influenced by the speed of rotation of the rotor  20  and the inner diameter of the permeable element  32 . The velocity of the rotor  20  at the interior region  38  affects the size of the fine droplets caused by the impingement of the liquid water on the rotating permeable element  32 . Because it is the velocity, and not the acceleration, of the rotor  20  that causes the shearing and dispersion of the liquid, and the velocity, and not the acceleration, of the droplets that causes the continued shearing through the permeable element, the apparatus  10  of the present invention is more readily adapted for higher volume applications by scaling up the apparatus  10  than is an apparatus dependent on the acceleration of films. 
   Upon startup, the apparatus  10  is not at equilibrium. The steam is provided at about 212° F. and the inlet liquid water is provided at a temperature of from about 60° F. to about 212° F. The liquid water may be provided at any temperature without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. When the steam encounters the liquid, the steam will condense, because the liquid is at a lower temperature than the condensation temperature of the steam, and the temperature of the liquid will increase. No steam will leave the apparatus  10  and the liquid leaving the chamber  34  will not be deaerated. 
   The temperature of the liquid will reach the temperature of the steam, i.e., about 212° F. So if steam is available at the gas outlet  26 , then equilibrium temperature has been reached and mass transfer is occurring. Deaerated water will shortly thereafter be available through liquid outlet  30 . If the steam flow is too low, then the steam will all condense and there will be little overall mass transfer. Generally, the apparatus  10  operates at about 212° F. or 100° C. Conventional deaerators operate at elevated temperatures, such as 130° C., because the solubility of oxygen in liquid water decreases at increased temperature of the liquid (Henry&#39;s Law), thus enhancing the thermodynamic driving force for mass transfer. In the present invention, the mass transfer rates have been so immensely intensified by the large interfacial area of the droplets that it is possible to operate this deaerator at temperatures a degree or less above the normal boiling point, thereby allowing the use of low grade steam to bring about the separation. With the present invention, the costs associated with maintaining the higher temperature are unnecessary, because the mass transfer is efficiently conducted at a lower temperature. 
   It is preferable, but not required, that the permeable element  32  be a porous solid, such as a foamed metal of less than about 40 pores per inch (ppi), for example less than about 20 ppi, and as further example about 5-10 ppi. It is believed that foamed metal having as little as 3 ppi or less will be suitable for use with the present invention. The open area in the permeable element  32  must be balanced against the need for structural integrity of the permeable element  32  when rotating at speeds in accordance with the present invention. In one embodiment, the permeable element  32  is ring-shaped, or annular. Other shapes are within the spirit and scope of the invention. 
   Preferably, the permeable element  32  is foamed aluminum, but any foamed metal, e.g., zirconium or titanium, or conventional material for a permeable element  32  may be used. Materials such as metals, ceramics, metal/ceramic composites, glass, plastics, and combinations thereof may also be used and are within the scope of the invention. Moreover, permeable element  32  is not limited to a unitary foamed metal, but may be a mixture or alloy of any suitable material, chosen for reasons of cost, availability, or preference. Also, the permeable element  32  may be a plurality of individual elements, such as those used in conventional packed beds and including, but not limited to, springs, metal gauze or wire, rings, wire mesh, wool, tape, etc., and may be of glass, polymer or other plastic, metal, or any other suitable material selected based on cost, availability, preference, etc. The packing material/permeable element  32  should be sufficient to shear and disperse the liquid influent provided through the liquid inlet  28  into tiny droplets. 
   Use of foamed metal, such as aluminum, has been found to have sufficient structural integrity at the rotational speeds of the present invention, and to have ability to disperse the influent liquid sufficiently to effect efficient mass transfer. Use of this material allows rotational speeds of greater than 1750 or 1800 rpm and up to about 3500 rpm, which results in a tangential velocity of about 18.6 m/sec at the inner diameter for a permeable element  32  with an inner diameter of about 0.1 m. Conventionally, speeds of only up to 1750 rpm have been used. Use of the rotational speeds and tangential velocities of the present invention allow for reduction of the diameter of the permeable element  32 . 
   It is believed that tangential velocity at the inner diameter of the permeable element influences the efficiency of the mass/heat transfer effects. Tangential velocity values of 18 m/sec to 19 m/sec are typical. Other tangential velocity values are also within the spirit and scope of the invention, including values up to and including 20 m/sec, 25 m/sec, and 30 m/sec. Higher velocity values may also be used without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. 
   The selection of packing material as permeable element  32  may be influenced by availability of a retainer to retain the packing material during rotation of the rotor  20 . The selection of packing is also dependent on providing for dimensional stability of the packing material as the packing and rotor are rotated at the speeds of the present invention. If the packing has insufficient dimensional stability under the rotation speeds of the present invention, then the ability of the packing material to shear and disperse the influent liquid may be insufficient to bring about desired mass transfer. Retention may be achieved by a ring  36 , by a meshlike or netlike construction, perforated plate, one or more bands of material, etc. The particular manner of retention of the packing material may be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art without undue experimentation, although advantageous retainers are discussed herein. 
   The demister  40  is, for example, foamed metal of about 20 ppi. The demister  40  coalesces liquid water and does not disperse the liquid to the extent that the permeable element  32  disperses the liquid, so does not need to have the open area that is desirable for the permeable element  32 . 
   In one embodiment, the invention will remove oxygen from water, such as for boiler water inlet water. In this embodiment, liquid water is fed into the inner chamber  38  via liquid inlet  28 . Steam is fed into the chamber  34  via gas inlet  24 . The rotor&#39;s tangential velocity at the inner diameter is about 18.6 m/sec. The chamber  34  is kept at a pressure from about 3.5 inches H 2 O to about 400 inches of H 2 O (about 1 atm) above the pressure in the exhaust stack  14 . Preferably, the pressure in the chamber  34  is between about 4 and 5 inches H 2 O above the pressure in the exhaust stack  14 . The pressure in the exhaust stack  14  is, for example, about 0.5 psig, but any stack pressure may be selected without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. See discussion below relating to pressure and flow control. 
   The permeable element  34  is, for example, foamed aluminum, with an axial thickness of about 0.038 meters, an outer diameter of about 0.23 meters, and an inner diameter of about 0.1 meter. Once steady state is achieved, the liquid drained from the chamber  34  through the liquid outlet  30  is essentially free of oxygen. By “essentially free,” it is meant that the liquid water has no more than about 500 parts per trillion (ppt) oxygen. 
   Conventionally, it is desired to maximize the interfacial area of the permeable element  32 , by providing greater surface area and greater porosity (more pores per inch), in order to maximize the area on which film will form. The prior art indicates that the maximum amount of film is desirable because the mass transfer occurs at the film boundaries. 
   In contrast, the present invention is directed to maximizing the amount of liquid water that is sheared and dispersed and provided as extremely small droplets or mist to interact with the gas, in this case, steam. Also, smaller droplets of water are favored. In general, enhancement of the dispersion of the water is favored and promoted over maximizing the film formation. 
   Thus, in contrast to conventional devices that maximize film-forming area, it is desirable to maximize the number of droplets (dispersion) by increasing the tangential velocity at the inner diameter of the permeable element  32 , increasing the pore dimensions of the permeable element  32 , and decreasing the interstitial area of permeable element  32 . This will increase the number of tiny droplets that are dispersed and not coalesced into a film on a surface of the permeable element  32 , increasing the overall interfacial area. It is believed that the mass or heat transfer between the fluids occurs primarily by contact of the steam (second fluid) with the dispersed liquid water (first fluid), and not by contact of the steam with the liquid film formed on the surfaces of the permeable element. 
   With conventional packed bed mass transfer units, the increased surface area to provide increased film for mass transfer may also lead to increased flooding, because of the higher pressure drops associated with increased surface area. The apparatus  10  of the present invention reduces the flooding potential associated with increased pressure drops because of the relatively small surface area of the permeable element  32 . 
   Without wanting to be bound by any particular theory, about 60% of the mass transfer from the liquid water is believed to occur in the void spaces of permeable element  32 , about 30% of the mass transfer of oxygen from the liquid water to the steam occurs in the chamber  34 , and about 10% of the mass transfer of oxygen from the liquid water to the steam occurs at the film interfaces within the permeable element  32 . As discussed above, the liquid water is directed radially outwardly through the permeable element  32  and is continually coalesced and re-dispersed as it strikes the surfaces of the permeable element  32 , thus causing the oxygen molecules that are not near the surface of the water droplet in any single droplet to be near the surface of the droplet in a second droplet after the first droplet coalesces and is sheared into a new droplet. The more finely divided water droplets that are created, the smaller is the individual radius of the droplets, and the greater is the interfacial area and surface area of the droplets that may interact with the steam, with which the exterior of the liquid droplets is in constant contact. The continual coalescing and shearing of the liquid droplets increases the amount of surface area exposed to the steam. Thus, there is more impingement of liquid water on the steam to achieve the mass transfer of oxygen from the liquid water to the steam. This provides greater mass transfer opportunities than conventional mass transfer methods and apparatuses relying on the formation of film for effecting mass transfer. There is more interfacial area available in the dispersed liquid than from liquid film formed on the surfaces of the permeable element. 
   The flow of the steam in the permeable element  32  is net radially inwardly. The flow of the liquid water in the permeable element  32  is net radially outwardly. While the liquid water and the steam are in the permeable element  32 , their respective flow directions are essentially counter-current. This provides for counter-current mass transfer between the liquid water and the steam. 
   In the chamber  34 , the liquid water droplets that have been ejected from the rotating permeable element  32  are still traveling radially outwardly from the permeable element  32 . So the liquid droplets have a velocity vector in the radially outward direction. But because of the rotation of the permeable element  32 , the liquid water droplets also have a velocity vector in the direction of rotation of the permeable element  32  at the point of release of the droplet from the permeable element  32 . 
   The steam is provided to the chamber  34  in a direction essentially perpendicular to and substantially coplanar with the radius of the permeable element  32 . The velocity vector of the entering steam is either in the direction of rotation of the permeable element  32  or exactly opposite the direction of rotation of the permeable element  32 , depending on whether the permeable element  32  is rotating clockwise or counter-clockwise. For some applications, it may be advantageous to rotate the permeable element  32  in one direction or the other. 
   After the steam enters the chamber  34 , the pressure differential between the chamber  34  and the exhaust stack  14 , described above, causes the steam to move radially inward, across the flow of the liquid droplets. So the velocity of the steam in the chamber  34  has vectors that are both cross-current and counter-current to the velocity vectors of the liquid droplets in the chamber  34 . 
   Thus, the mass transfer between the liquid droplets and the steam occurs in the counter-current and cross-current, directions in the apparatus  10 . 
   The embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 4  has the ring  36  removed and the permeable element  32  held in place by one or more stand-offs  48 . This arrangement may improve the mass transfer, because there is no coalescing of the dispersed droplets at the ring  36  as the dispersed droplets maneuver through the holes  56  in the ring  36 . Thus, there is more dispersed liquid present in the chamber  34  to interact with the steam provided through the gas inlet  24 . 
   Retention of the permeable element  32  by stand-offs  48  also permits a greater liquid flow rate than with the ring  36 . The ring  36  provides more resistance to the liquid flow than do the stand-offs  48 . Greater resistance to the liquid flow creates a larger pressure drop. A larger pressure drop leads to more rapid flooding and flooding at lower flow rates. While flooding has not been observed to be a problem with the apparatus  10  of the present invention, having less resistance to the liquid flow still provides a greater liquid flow rate possible through the apparatus  10 . 
   Use of the stand-offs  48  also provide better shearing and dispersion of the liquid in the chamber  34  than if the ring  36  is in place. As the liquid droplets encounter the ring  36 , there is some amount of coalescence of the fine liquid droplets into larger droplets. If there is no ring  36  that the liquid droplets strike, there is no coalescence of the droplets at the ring  36  before the liquid droplets travel into the chamber  34 . The improved shearing and dispersion of the liquid droplets in the chamber  34  improves the mass transfer between these droplets and the steam, as discussed above. 
   Providing a chamber  34  larger than conventional chambers in rotating packed bed systems has been noted to provide improved overall mass transfer of oxygen from liquid water to steam. In one embodiment, the volume of the chamber  34  outside of permeable element  32  is at least the same as the volume of the permeable element  32 . For example, the volume of the chamber  34  outside of the permeable element  32  is between about 1.5 and about 4.0 times the volume of the permeable element  32 . The diameter of the chamber  34  may be between about 1.5 and 2.0 times the diameter of the permeable element  32 . For example, the diameter of the chamber  34  is about 1.8 times the diameter of the permeable element  32 . 
   There is sufficient space between the lower element  20 B and the bottom of the chamber  34  to prevent entraining of any accumulated liquid by the lower element  20 B as the rotor  20  rotates. This space between the lower element  20 B and the bottom of chamber  34  will have relatively little dispersed liquid, so the mass transfer occurring in this region is small compared to the rest of the apparatus  10 . So the lower element  20 B is, for example, located as close to the bottom of the chamber  34  as possible without entraining any accumulated liquid. This distance may be selected without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention and may be selected based on the capacity of the liquid outlet  30 , the liquid flow rate, or any other parameters. 
   Conventional rotating packed bed units minimize the area outside of the rotating bed, because the focus of conventional units is on maximizing the surface area available in the rotating bed for formation of film in which the mass transfer occurs. The present invention has the unexpected advantage of increased mass transfer in the chamber  34  by increasing the interaction between steam and dispersed liquid droplets. 
   The rotating seal  44  prevents the oxygenated steam that leaves the demister  40  from reentering the dispersed liquid/steam mixture present in the chamber  34 . The rotating seal  44  also prevents incoming steam in the chamber  34  from bypassing the permeable element  32  and the demister  40  and traveling directly into the exhaust stack  14 , thus bypassing the inlet liquid water. The seal  44  is a no-contact seal, such that the rotating parts of the seal  44  do not contact the non-rotating parts of the seal  44 . 
   As illustrated in  FIG. 1 , the seal  44  includes a rotating arm  62  attached to the rotor  20 , a stationary inner arm  65  attached to the housing cap  13 , and a liquid seal portion  64 . Initially, upon start-up of the apparatus  10 , the liquid seal portion  64  has no liquid. As liquid is thrown to the demister  40  from the permeable element  32 , the demister  40  forces some of the liquid radially outwardly from the demister  40  into the liquid seal portion  64 . If the apparatus  10  is cool upon start-up, then some of the steam exiting the demister  40  will condense and fill the liquid seal portion  64  almost instantly. 
   The pressure control valve  54  operates to control and regulate the steam provided to the apparatus  10  to maintain constant steam pressure in the exhaust stack  14  and the gas outlet  26 . A gas outlet valve  66  is provided in the gas outlet  26  to set the desired constant output of steam exiting the exhaust stack  14 . For example, this value is about 30 pounds per hour steam. 
   Once equilibrium has been reached (see above), if the pressure in the exhaust stack  14  increases above a first predetermined value, then the pressure detector  52  will send a signal to the control valve  54  to throttle the valve to reduce the amount of steam provided through the gas inlet  24 . If the pressure in the exhaust stack  14  decreases below a second predetermined value, then the pressure detector  52  will send a signal to the control valve  54  causing the control valve  54  to open and increase the flow of inlet steam through the gas inlet  24  into the chamber  34 . This ensures that the pressure in the chamber  34  is always greater than the pressure in the exhaust stack  14 . The first and second predetermined values may be the same or different values. These values may be determined based on the desired flow of steam through the gas outlet  26  or on any other basis. 
   If the gas outlet valve is set such that, for example, 30 pounds per hour of steam is exhausted, and the pressure in the chamber  34  is kept higher than the pressure of the gas outlet  26 , then if the feed steam flow rate in gas inlet  24  increases, the pressure in the exhaust stack  14  will increase, and the control valve  54  will throttle to reduce the flow of gas inlet. If, for example, the temperature of the liquid feed in through liquid inlet  28  decreases, then more of the steam in the apparatus  10  will condense, causing the pressure in the exhaust stack  14  to decrease, causing the pressure detector  52  to send a signal to the control valve  54  to open and increase the inlet steam through gas inlet  24  into the chamber  34 , thus increasing the pressure in the exhaust stack  14 . Therefore, the exhaust steam flow can be held constant, independent of the conditions of the liquid feed, within the design range of the apparatus. 
   The turndown ratio for this deaerator is much higher than the conventional  10  to  20  found in commercial deaeration units. The turndown ratio of the control valve of the present invention may be as high as 1000, with the potential to be much higher. The minimum controllable flow in the present invention is very small and the normal maximum flow is relatively very large. 
   In one embodiment, the height or thickness of the permeable element  32  is about 1½ inches, the outer diameter of the rotor  20  is approximately 10 inches, the outer diameter of the permeable element  32  is approximately 9 inches, allowing for the ring  36  to be secured between the upper elements  20 A and the lower elements  20 B. The inner diameter of the permeable element  32  is approximately 4 inches, resulting in approximately 2½ inches of permeable element  32  between the inner diameter and the outer diameter. 
   In an embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 5 , the height of the permeable element  32  is about 2 feet. With the height of the permeable element  32  and the rotor  20  at about 2 feet, bearings  50  may be necessary at the top and/or the bottom of the rotor  20  to provide support for the increased height of the permeable element  32  at the speeds of rotation. By increasing the height of the permeable element  32 , the capacity of the apparatus  10  may be increased. Bearings  50  may be placed regardless of the height of the permeable element  32 . 
   The invention has been described in terms of a vertical arrangement, with the axis of rotation of the rotor  20  disposed substantially vertically. It is believed that the apparatus  10  also provides effective mass transfer if the apparatus  10  and/or the rotor  20  are arranged other than vertically, such as substantially horizontally. 
   While the invention has been described above in terms of deoxygenating liquid water, such as for boiler feed water, the present invention is also applicable to other mass transfer operations, including degasification of liquids. The liquids can range in viscosity from low viscosity solvent liquids, such as water, to highly viscous liquids such as emulsions, oils, biological fluids, and polymer melts. As mentioned above, use of a high viscosity liquid may result in filaments disposed in the permeable element  32  and the chamber  36 . Gasses that can be removed by the present invention include oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane. 
   Other mass transfer operations, including dehydration of an oil/water emulsion, may be accomplished. For example, if a liquid oil/water emulsion is present, such emulsion may be the liquid entering the apparatus  10  through liquid inlet  28 . A stripping gas, such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, dry air, or any other gas with a greater affinity for water than the affinity of the oil for water may be used as the inlet gas provided into the chamber  34  through gas inlet  24 . Further, a vacuum may be used as an alternative to stripping gas. A fixed container of oil/water emulsion may be provided as the source of liquid to liquid inlet  28 , and the product liquid exiting liquid outlet  30  directed to another container. In this manner, the apparatus  10  may be used in a batch process to remove water from a fixed volume of water/oil emulsion. 
   Because the water has a higher volatility than the oil, raising the temperature of the emulsion such that the water evaporates and the oil remains in liquid enables the stripping gas to entrain the water or become humidified to strip the water from the oil/water emulsion. Alternatively, a vacuum may be applied at the gas outlet  26  instead of using a stripping gas provided through gas inlet  24  such that the evaporated water is then removed through the demister  40  and the gas outlet  26 , while the liquefied oil exits the apparatus  10  through the liquid outlet  30 . This dehydration may be conducted as a batch or a continuous process. Such a batch process using vacuum may reduce the amount of water in the emulsion to less than 100 parts per million. If the liquid from liquid outlet  30  is recycled to liquid inlet  28 , then the removal of water from the emulsion may proceed to even lower concentrations, as desired. 
   As discussed above, the apparatus  10  of the present invention may be used for mass transfer operations in either batch or continuous operations. Other suitable operations include humidification or dehumidification of air or other gas, distillation, a gas scrubber, such as for oil fumes or fumes from the grill of a restaurant, reactive distillation, reactive packed bed, etc. The apparatus  10  of the present invention may also be arranged in more than one unit in series or parallel to effect mass transfer on a scale unavailable to a single unit. 
   The method and apparatus of the present invention may also be used to effect heat transfer between two fluids. As set forth above, when a first fluid at a first temperature is provided through the liquid inlet  28  and a second fluid at a second temperature is provided through the gas inlet  24 , heat transfer between the two fluids will occur, bringing the two fluids to an equilibrium temperature. The shearing and re-shearing of the first fluid as it travels through the permeable element  32  increases the interfacial area of the first fluid to interact with the second fluid to transfer the heat from one fluid to the other. Specific flow rates, pressures, inlet temperatures, etc., may be determined without undue experimentation to bring about the desired amount of heat transfer between the first fluid and the second fluid. 
   EXAMPLES 
   Each of examples 1 through 7 illustrated in Table 1 were conducted with a rotor packing material of solid aluminum foam metal, about 400 pores/m with an interfacial area of about 740/m, about 0.23 m O.D and about 0.1 m I.D, and about 0.038 m axial thickness. In all examples the tangential velocity at the inner diameter was about 18.6 M/sec. The steam pressure in the chamber  34  was about 0.013 atm (about 5 inches of H 2 O) above the pressure in the exhaust stack  14 . The condensate flow refers to the flow of condensate from condenser  67  through condensate outlet  69 . The oxygen content of the product flow at liquid outlet  30  was measured by a Rosemount trace dissolved oxygen sensor. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 1 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Liquid Water Deoxygenation 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Liquid inlet Flow 
               Liquid inlet 
               ppb O 2   
               Condensate 
             
             
                 
               Rate 
               temperature 
               of product  
               Flow 
             
             
               Example 
               (m 3 /h) 
               (° C.) 
               flow 
               Rate (m 3 /h) 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
               1 
               .23 
               80 
               &lt;0.5 
               6 × 10 −3   
             
             
               2 
               .45 
               80 
               &lt;0.5 
               3.2 × 10 −3    
             
             
               3 
               2 
               60 
               &lt;0.5 
               15 × 10 −3   
             
             
               4 
               4 
               95 
               &lt;0.5 
               4 × 10 −3   
             
             
               5 
               4 
               70 
               &lt;0.5 
               4 × 10 −3   
             
             
               6 
               4 
               80 
               &lt;0.5 
               4 × 10 −3   
             
             
               7 
               4 
               80 
               &lt;0.5 
               18 × 10 −3   
             
             
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   In each of the examples, the oxygen measured in the product liquid/condensate was less than about 0.5 ppb or 500 ppt. By comparison, conventional deaerators have not achieved below 5 ppb dissolved oxygen. Thus, the removal of oxygen to less than 500 ppt is a surprising and advantageous result. 
   Examples 8-16 
   Table 2 illustrates examples 8 through 16 in which 50 liters of an oil/water mixture was fed to an apparatus in accordance with the present invention. In this example, no stripping gas was used. The apparatus was evacuated by a vacuum pump, and maintained at 13 mm Hg pressure absolute. The mixture flow rate is given in column Q liters/hour. The initial water content of the feed (water doped oil-water mixture) is given in the column N#1. Columns N#2-N#4 show the water content after successive runs in a batch process. The tangential speed (TS) at the inner diameter is given in the column TS. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 2 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Removal of Water From Oil by Vacuum 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
                 
                 
               TS 
                 
                 
                 
                 
             
             
               Example 
               T(C.) 
               Q(l/hr) 
               (m/s) 
               N#1(ppm) 
               N#2(ppm) 
               N#3(ppm) 
               N#4(ppm) 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
               8 
               70 
               200 
               9.4 
               450 
               113 
               63 
               51.5 
             
             
               9 
               60 
               200 
               9.4 
               382 
               169 
               78 
               69.2 
             
             
               10 
               50 
               200 
               9.4 
               409 
               175 
               98.8 
               75.6 
             
             
               11 
               60 
               200 
               9.4 
               382 
               169 
               98 
               69.2 
             
             
               12 
               60 
               200 
               7.8 
               420 
               217 
               92.3 
               85 
             
             
               13 
               60 
               200 
               6.3 
               325 
               175 
               95.5 
               86.4 
             
             
               14 
               60 
               100 
               9.4 
               404 
               101.2 
               60.8 
               53 
             
             
               15 
               60 
               200 
               9.4 
               382 
               169 
               78 
               69.2 
             
             
               16 
               60 
               300 
               1200 
               366 
               157 
               80.5 
               70.8 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   As can be seen from Table 2, the concentration of the water in the oil/water mixture decreased with each successive run, such that less than 100 ppm water remained in the mixture. 
   Another example of the transfer of mass from one fluid to another by the present invention is remediation of liquids having contaminants, such as the removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from water. VOCs include, but are not limited to, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene. This removal is useful, for example, in remediation of groundwater, effluent streams, and other remediation processes. 
   The first fluid provided in liquid form is water having VOCs therein. The liquid with VOCs is provided into the apparatus  10  via liquid inlet  28 . Air or some other gas is provided via gas inlet  24 . Additionally, a vacuum may be applied instead of or in addition to a gaseous stripping medium. 
   Tests were conducted in which liquid water at ambient temperature with known concentration of VOCs was provided at a flow rate of about 8 gallons per minute. A permeable element  32  of about 5 ppi foam metal, inner diameter of about 4.02 inches and outer diameter of about 8.98 inches was rotated at about 3450 rpm. Air at ambient temperature was used as the second fluid. Greater than 90% of some VOCs were removed from the liquid water. It is believed that preheating the liquid water having VOCs above ambient temperature would improve removal of the VOCs. 
   The following table illustrates removal of VOCs at various gas flow rates from two samples of water having VOCs. The gas flow rates are estimated. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 3 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Removal of VOCs From Water 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
               Air Flow 
                 
                 
               Ethyl- 
                 
             
             
               Liquid Flow 
               Rate 
               Benzene 
               Toluene 
               Benzene 
               Xylene 
             
             
               Rate (Gal/Min) 
               (cuft/min) 
               (ppm) 
               (ppm) 
               (ppm) 
               (ppm) 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
         
             
               SAMPLE A 
               0 
               0.344 
               0.67 
               0.068 
               0.334 
             
             
               8 
               8 
               0.097 
               0.227 
               0.013 
               0.079 
             
             
               8 
               12 
               0.03 
               0.087 
               0.006 
               0.03 
             
             
               SAMPLE B 
               0 
               1.923 
               5.162 
               0.32 
               2.367 
             
             
               8 
               9.7 
               0.368 
               1.129 
               0.034 
               0.361 
             
             
               8 
               11.8 
               0.279 
               0.93 
               0.027 
               0.284 
             
             
               8 
               12.2 
               0.261 
               0.869 
               0.022 
               0.251 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   Circulating the product liquid that has been treated through the apparatus one or more times results in further removal of VOCs. For example, a test was conducted in which the treated water was recycled through the apparatus two additional times. The liquid flow rate was 8 gal/min. and the air flow rate was 12 ft 3 /min. The temperature was ambient temperature. The following table illustrates the removal of selected VOCs after the passes through the apparatus. The values listed are those measured after each successive pass through the apparatus. 
   
     
       
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
             
             
             
             
             
           
         
             
               TABLE 4 
             
           
           
             
                 
             
             
               Recycled Remediation Liquid 
             
           
        
         
             
                 
                 
               Toluene 
               Ethylbenzene 
               Xylene 
             
             
                 
               Benzene (ppm) 
               (ppm) 
               (ppm) 
               (ppm) 
             
             
                 
                 
             
           
        
         
             
               Initial Sample 
               0.149 
               0.806 
               0.098 
               0.544 
             
             
               Pass #1 
               0.021 
               0.175 
               0.014 
               0.111 
             
             
               Pass #2 
               0.005 
               0.023 
               &lt;0.005 
               0.03 
             
             
               Pass #3 
               &lt;0.005 
               0.006 
               &lt;0.005 
               0.006 
             
             
                 
             
           
        
       
     
   
   While the present invention has been illustrated by the above description of embodiments, and while the embodiments have been described in some detail, it is not the intent of the applicants to restrict or in any way limit the scope of the invention to such detail. Additional advantages and modifications will readily appear to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the invention in its broader aspects is not limited to the specific details, representative apparatus and methods, and illustrative examples shown and described. Accordingly, departures may be made from such details without departing from the spirit or scope of the applicants&#39; general or inventive concept.