Abstract:
The invention is a method for the formation and analysis of novel miniature deposition domains. These deposition domains are placed on a surface to form a molecular array. The molecular array is scanned with an AFM to analyze molecular recognition events and the effect of introduced agents on defined molecular interactions. This approach can be carried out in a high throughput format, allowing rapid screening of thousands of molecular species in a solid state array. The procedures described here have the added benefit of allowing the measurement of changes in molecular binding events resulting from changes in the analysis environment or introduction of additional effector molecules to the assay system. The processes described herein are extremely useful in the search for compounds such as new drugs for treatment of undesirable physiological conditions. The method and apparatus of the present invention does not require the labeling of the deposition material or the target sample and may also be used to deposit large size molecules without harming the same.

Description:
TECHNICAL FIELD  
       [0001]    This application claims benefit from prior Provisional application Ser. No. 60/135,290, filed May 21, 1999.  
         [0002]    This invention relates to an apparatus and method for the construction and utilization of molecular deposition domains. More specifically, this invention is a method for the construction and utilization of molecular deposition domains into a high density molecular array for identifying and characterizing molecular interaction events. 
     
    
     
       BACKGROUND  
         [0003]    Interactions between molecules is a central theme in living systems. These interactions are key to myriad biochemical and signal transduction pathways. Messages from outside a cell travel along signal transduction pathways into the cell&#39;s nucleus, where they trigger key cellular functions. Such pathways in turn dictate the status of the overall system. Slight changes or abnormalities in the interactions between biomolecules can effect the biochemical and signal transduction pathways, resulting in inappropriate development, cancer, a variety of disease states, and even cell senescence and death. On the other hand, it can be extremely beneficial to develop reagents and effectors that can inhibit, stimulate, or otherwise effect specific types of molecular interactions in biochemical systems; including biochemical and signal transduction pathways. Reagents and effectors that effect nucleus interactions may often become very powerful drugs which can be used to treat a variety of conditions.  
           [0004]    Current Technology  
           [0005]    Several recent studies have shown that a scanning probe microscope “SPM” may be used to study molecular interactions by making a number of measurements. The SPM measurements may include changes in height, friction, phase, frequency, amplitude, and elasticity. The SPM probe can even perform direct measurements of the forces present between molecules situated on the SPM probe and molecules immobilized on a surface. For example, see Lee, G.U., L.A. Chrisey, and R.J. Colton,  Direct Measurement of the Forces Between Complementary Strands of DNA.  Science, 1994. 266: p. 771-773; Hinterdorfer, P., W. Baumgartner, H.J. Gruber, and H. Schindler,  Detection and Localization of Individual Antibody-antigen Recognition Events by Atomic Force Microscopy,  Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 1996. 93: p. 3477-3481; Dammer, U.,  0 . Popescu, P. Wagner, D. Anselmetti, H.J. Guntherodt, and G.N. Misevic,  Binding Strength Between Cell Adhesion Poteoglycans Measured by Atomic Force Microscopy.  Science, 1995. 267: p. 1173-1175; Jones, v. et al.  Microminiaturized Immunoassays Using Atomic Force Microscopy and Compositionally Patterned Antigen Arrays, Analy. Chem.,  1998 70(7): p. 12331241; and Rief, M., F. Oesterhelt, B. Heymann, and H.E. Gaub,  Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy on Polysaccharides by Atomic Force Microscopy,  Science, 1997. 275: p. 1295-1297. The above studies illustrate that it is possible to readily and directly measure the interaction between and within virtually all types of molecules by utilizing an SPM. Furthermore, recent studies have shown that it is possible to use direct force measurement to detect changes in molecular complex formation caused by the addition of a soluble molecular species. A direct force measurement may elucidate the effect of soluble molecular species on the interaction between a molecular species on an SPM probe and a surface.  
           [0006]    Molecular Arrays  
           [0007]    The ability to measure molecular events in patterned arrays is an emerging technology. The deposition material can be deposited on a solitary spot or in a variety of sizes and patterns on the surface. The arrays can be used to discover new compounds which may interact in a characterizable way with the deposited material. Arrays provide a large number of different test sites in a relatively small area. To form an array, one must be able to define a particular site at which a deposition sample can be placed in a defined and reproducible manner.  
           [0008]    There are four approaches for building conventional molecular arrays known in the art. These prior art methods include 1) mechanical deposition, 2) in situ photochemical synthesis, 3) “ink jet” printing, and 4) electronically driven deposition. The size of the deposition spot (or “domain”) is of particular importance when utilizing an SPM to scan for molecular recognition events. Current SPM technology only allows a scan in a defined area. Placing more domains in this defined area allows for a wider variety of molecular interaction events to be simultaneously tested.  
           [0009]    Mechanical deposition is commonly carried out using a “pin tool” device. Typically the pin tool is a metal or similar cylindrical shaft that may be split at the end to facilitate capillary take up of liquid. Typically the pin is dipped in the source and moved to the deposition location and touched to the surface to transfer material to that domain. In one design the pin tool is loaded by passing through a circular ring that contains a film of the desired sample held in the ring by surface tension. The pin tool is washed and this process repeated. Currently, pin tool approaches are limited to spot sizes of 25 to 100 microns or larger. The spot size puts a constraint on the maximum density for the molecular deposition sites constructed in this manner. A need exists for a method that allows for molecular domains of smaller dimensions to be deposited.  
           [0010]    In situ photochemical procedures allow for the construction of arrays of molecular species at spatial addresses in the 1-10 micron size range and larger. In situ photochemical construction can be carried out by shining a light through a mask. Photochemical synthesis occurs only at those locations receiving the light. By changing the mask at each step, a variety of chemical reactions at specific addresses can be carried out. The photochemical approach is usually used for the synthesis of a nucleic acid or a peptide array. A significant limitation of this approach is that the size of the synthetic products is constrained by the coupling efficiency at each step. Practically, this results in appreciable synthesis of only a relatively short peptide and nucleic acid specimen. In addition, it becomes increasingly improbable that a molecule will fold into a biologically relevant higher order architecture as the synthetic species becomes larger. A need exists for an alternative method for deposition of macromolecular species that will preserve the molecular formation of interest in addition to avoiding the cost of constructing the multiple masks used in this method.  
           [0011]    Ink jet printing is an alternative method for constructing a molecular array. Ink jet printing of molecular species produces spots in the 100 micron range. This approach is only useful for printing a relatively small number of species because of the need for extensive cleaning between printing events. A key issue with ink jet printing is maintenance of the structural/functional integrity of the sample being printed. The ejection rate of the material from the printer results in shear forces that may significantly compromise sample integrity. A need exists for a method that will retain the initial structure and functional aspects of the deposition material and that will form smaller spots than are possible with the above ink jet method.  
           [0012]    Electronic deposition is yet another method known for the construction of molecular arrays. Electronic deposition may be accomplished by the independent charging of conductive pads, causing local electrochemical events which lead to the sample deposition. This approach has been used for deposition of DNA samples by drawing the DNA to specific addresses and holding them in a capture matrix above the address. The electronic nature of the address can be used to manipulate samples at that location, for example, to locally denature DNA samples. A disadvantage of this approach is that the address density and size is limited by the dimensions of the electronic array.  
           [0013]    A need exists for a molecular deposition technique that will allow for smaller deposition spots (domains). Smaller deposition domains allow for an array to be constructed with a greater density of domains. More domains further allow for a wider variety in the deposition material to be placed on the same array, allowing a user to search for more molecular interaction events simultaneously.  
           [0014]    A further need exists for the ability to place these spots at a defined spatial address. Placing the domains at defined spatial addresses allows the user to know exactly what deposition material the SPM is scanning at any given time.  
           [0015]    Furthermore, a need exists for a method to make deposition domains with large molecular weight samples that also retains the desired chemical formation. Finally, a need exists for the efficient construction of these molecule domains into an array.  
           [0016]    Molecular Detection  
           [0017]    All of the above examples are further limited because they require some type of labeling of the deposition sample for testing. Typical labeling schemes may include fluorescent or other tags coupled to a probe molecule. In a typical molecular event experiment, an array of known samples, for example DNA sequences, will be incubated with a solution containing a fluorescent indicator. In the DNA example this would be fluorescently or otherwise labeled nucleic acids, most often a single stranded DNA of an unknown sequence. Specific sequence elements are identified in the DNA sample by virtue of the hybridization of the label to addresses containing known sequence elements. This process has been used to screen entire ensembles of expressed genes in a given population of cells at a particular time or under a particular set of conditions. Other labeling procedures have also been employed, including RF (radio frequency) labels and magnetic labels. These methods are less frequently used, however, than the fluorescent label methods desired above. All of these labels hinder experiments with extra steps, reagents, and in some cases, risk.  
           [0018]    Other methods for the detection of the interactions of molecules on a molecular array include inverse cyclic voltametry, capacitance or other electronic changes, radioactivity (such as with isotopes of phosphorous), and chemical reactions. In virtually all cases, some form of labeling of the probe molecule that is added to the array is required. This is a significant limitation of current arrays. A need exists for a method that does not require this extra labeling step.  
           [0019]    Scanning Probe Microscopy  
           [0020]    A wide variety of SPM instruments are capable of detecting optical, electronic, conductive, and other properties. One form of SPM, the atomic force microscope (AFM), is an ultra-sensitive force transduction system. In the AFM, a sharp tip is situated at the end of a flexible cantilever and scanned over a sample surface. While scanning, the cantilever is deflected by the net sum of the attractive and repulsive forces between the tip and sample. If the spring constant of the cantilever is known, the net interaction force can be accurately determined from the deflection of the cantilever. The deflection of the cantilever is usually measured by the reflection of a focused laser beam from the back of the cantilever onto a split photodiode, constituting an “optical lever” or “beam deflection” mechanism. Other methods for the detection of cantilever deflection include interferometry and piezoelectric strain gauges.  
           [0021]    The first AFMs recorded only the vertical displacements of the cantilever. More recent methods involve resonating the tip and allowing only transient contact, or in some cases no contact at all, between it and the sample. Plots of tip displacement or resonance changes as it traverses a sample surface are used to generate topographic images. Such images have revealed the three dimensional structure of a wide variety of sample types including material, chemical, and biological specimens. Some examples of the latter include DNA, proteins, chromatin, chromosomes, ion channels, and even living cells.  
           [0022]    In addition to its imaging capabilities, the AFM can make extremely fine force measurements. The AFM can directly sense and measure forces in the microNetwon ( 10   −6 ) to picoNewton ( 10   −12 ) range. Thus, the AFM can make extremely fine force within single molecules. Moreover, the AFM can measure a wide variety of other forces and phenomena, such as magnetic fields, thermal gradients and viscoelasticity. This ability can be exploited to map force fields on a sample surface, and reveal with high resolution the location and magnitude of these fields, as in, for example, localizing complexes of interest located on a specific surface.  
           [0023]    Direct Force Measurement  
           [0024]    To make molecular force measurements, the AFM probe is functionalized with a molecule of interest. This bio- or chemi-active probe is then scanned across the surface of interest. The molecule tethered to the probe interacts with the corresponding molecule or atoms of interest on the surface being studied. The interactions between the molecule functionalized on the probe and the molecules or atoms on the surface create minute forces that can be measured by displacement of the probe. The measurement is typically displayed as a force vs. distance curve (“force curve”).  
           [0025]    To generate a force curve, the tip or sample is cycled through motions of vertical extension and retraction. Each cycle brings the tip into contact with the sample, then pulls the tip out of contact. The displacement of the cantilever is zero until the extension motion brings the tip into contact with the surface. Then the tip and sample are physically coupled as the extension continues. The physical coupling is the result of hard surface contact (Van der Waals interactions) between the probe and the surface. This interaction continues for the duration of the extension component of the cycle. When the cycle is reversed and the tip retracted, the physical contact is broken. If there is no attractive interaction between the tip and sample the tip separates from the sample at the same position in space at which they made contact during extension. However, if there is an adhesive interaction between the tip and sample during retraction, the cantilever will bend past its resting position and continue to bend until the restoring force of the cantilever is sufficient to rupture the adhesive force.  
           [0026]    In the case of extendable molecular interactions, the distance between the tip and surface at which a rupture is observed corresponds to the extension length of the molecular complex. This information can be used to measure molecular lengths and to measure internal rupture forces within single molecules. In a force curve an adhesive interaction is represented by an “adhesion spike.” Since the spring constant of the probe is known, the adhesive force (the unbinding force) can be precisely determined. Upon careful inspection of a typical adhesion spike, many small quantal unbinding events are frequently seen. The smallest unbinding event that can be evenly divided into the larger events can be interpreted as representing the unbinding force for a single molecular pair.  
           [0027]    The spectra produced by these binding events will contain information about the coupling contacts holding the molecules together. Thus, it is possible to interpret the signature generated by a mechanical denaturation experiment with regard to the internal structure of the molecule. An SPM can further utilize height, friction, and elasticity measurements to detect molecular recognition events. Molecular recognition events are when one molecule interacts with another molecule or atom in, for example, an ionic bond, a hydrophobic bond, electrostatic bond, a bridge through a third molecule such as water, or a combination of these methods.  
           [0028]    In an alternative approach, the AFM probe is oscillated at or near its resonance frequency to enable the measurement of recognizance parameters, including amplitude, frequency and phase. Changes in the amplitude, phase, and frequency parameters are extremely sensitive to variations in the interaction between the probe and the surface. If the local elasticity or viscosity of the surface changes as a result of a molecular recognition event, there is a shift in one or more of these parameters.  
           [0029]    Others have reported using AFMs and STMs for the deposition of materials. One report is from Chad Mirkin (Northwestern University) in which he used an AFM to write nanometer scale molecule features with short alkane chains. Hong, S., J. Zhu, and C. A. Mirkin,  Multiple Ink Nanolithography: Toward A Multiple-Pen Nano-Plotter, Science.  1999, p. 523-525. A need exists, however, for a molecular domain deposition method that is not limited to short chain length molecules. A need exists for a method for depositing longer chain length macromolecules that does not change or hinder the formation of the deposited molecule.  
           [0030]    A need exists for an improved apparatus and method for utilization in the detection of molecular interaction events. A need exists for a method for the creation of small, sub-micron scale molecular domains at defined spatial addresses. This apparatus should enable the user to test for a variety of different types of events in a spatially and materially efficient manner by facilitating the deposition, exposure, and scanning of molecular domains to detect a resultant molecular interaction event. Furthermore, an apparatus is needed that enables the placement of a large number of molecular domains in a relatively small area. 
       
    
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0031]    [0031]FIG. 1 is a block diagram of the method of forming a deposition domain.  
         [0032]    [0032]FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the method of forming an array and utilizing the same.  
         [0033]    [0033]FIG. 3 is a side view of the deposition device used with the present invention.  
         [0034]    [0034]FIG. 4 is a side view of the deposition device and the microspheres of the present invention.  
         [0035]    [0035]FIG. 5 is a side view of a microsphere attached to a deposition device.  
         [0036]    [0036]FIG. 6 is an alternative attachment of the microsphere to the deposition device.  
         [0037]    [0037]FIG. 7 a  is a side view of the deposition device before loading the deposition material on it.  
         [0038]    [0038]FIG. 7 b  is a side view of a capillary bridge between the deposition material and the microsphere during loading of the deposition material  
         [0039]    [0039]FIG. 8 a  is a side view of a microsphere with deposition material loaded on the microsphere.  
         [0040]    [0040]FIG. 8 b  is a side view of a capillary bridge between the microsphere and a surface during the deposition of a deposition domain.  
         [0041]    [0041]FIG. 9 is a side view of a deposition domain on an array just after the microsphere has been withdrawn.  
         [0042]    [0042]FIG. 10 is a perspective view of an array of the present invention.  
         [0043]    [0043]FIG. 11 is an outline view of an example scan of an array after exposure to a target medium.  
       SUMMARY  
       [0044]    A method for the construction of a molecular deposition domain on a surface, comprising, providing a surface, depositing a deposition material on a deposition device, and depositing the deposition material on the surface using said deposition device, forming a molecular deposition domain smaller than one micron in total area.  
         [0045]    Another embodiment comprises method for constructing an array of molecular deposition domains including the steps of providing a surface, providing an at least one deposition material, depositing a first deposition material on a deposition device, depositing the first deposition material on the surface in a known position, forming a first molecular deposition domain smaller than one micron in total area, cleaning the deposition device, and repeating the above steps with an at least one other deposition material, creating an array of two or more deposition domains on said surface.  
         [0046]    Yet another embodiment comprises a method for detecting a target sample, the method comprising, forming a molecular array on a surface, the molecular array including an at least one molecular deposition domain, said at least one molecular deposition domain smaller than one micron in total area, exposing the surface to a sample medium, the sample medium containing one or more target samples which cause a molecular interaction event in one or more of the at least one deposition domain, and scanning the surface using a scanning probe microscope to detect the occurrence of the molecular interaction event caused by the target sample.  
         [0047]    A still further embodiment comprises a molecular array for characterizing molecular interaction events, comprising a surface, and an at least one molecular deposition domain deposited on said surface wherein the spatial address of the domain is less than one micron in area.  
         [0048]    Another embodiment comprises a method for the processing of multiple arrays including forming an array in a substrate, the array comprising a plurality of deposition domains formed of a deposition material, exposing the array to one or more materials which contain an at least one sample molecule that causes a molecular interaction event with one or more of the deposition samples, and scanning the array utilizing a scanning probe microscope to characterize the molecular interaction events that have occurred between the target sample and the deposition material.  
         [0049]    One object of this invention is the construction of relatively small molecular domains with large molecular species.  
         [0050]    Another object of this invention is the construction of molecular arrays comprised of molecular domains, each containing as little as a solitary molecule.  
         [0051]    Another object of the present invention is an apparatus and method for the creation of a molecular array comprised of one or more molecular domains, each with an area smaller than one micron.  
         [0052]    Another object of this invention is the utilization of molecular domain arrays without having to perform a labeling step to allow for the detection of a molecular event.  
         [0053]    Another object of this invention is a molecular deposition array that has an effective screening limit at the single molecule level.  
         [0054]    Another object of the present invention is a method for using an AFM in a high throughput format to detect and evaluate interactions between molecules.  
         [0055]    Another object of this invention is the placement of molecular deposition domains at a defined spatial address. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION  
     I. DEFINITIONS  
       [0056]    The following are some definitions that may be helpful in understanding the description of the present invention. These are intended as general definitions and should in no way limit the scope of the present invention to those terms alone, but are put forth for a better understanding of the following description.  
         [0057]    A. Deposition Material: This is a selected sample placed on a surface that can be recognized and/or reacted with by a target sample. The deposition material will ideally have a change inflicted upon it by one or more target samples that can be detected by later scanning with an SPM. This is the known material placed in the domain. Examples of deposition materials include, but are not limited to, biomolecules, proteins, a variety of chemicals, DNA, RNA, antibodies, or any other substance recognized by one skilled in the art which may have usefulness within the teaching of the present invention.  
         [0058]    B. Deposition Domain: A deposition domain is a spot on a surface upon which a deposition material is placed. The domain may be of any size, shape, and pattern and may contain as little as one molecule of the deposition material. These deposition domains may alternatively be referred to as “spots” or “points.” The boundary of the domain is defined by the boundary of the material placed therein.  
         [0059]    C. Array: Alternatively referred to using the term “array,” “bioarray,” “molecular array,” or “high density molecular array.” The term array will be used to describe the one or more molecular domains deposited on the surface.  
         [0060]    D. Target Sample: A substance with a particular affinity for one or more deposition domains. These target samples may be natural or man-made substances. The target samples may be known or unknowns present in a solution, gas, or other medium. These target samples may bind to the deposition domain or simply alter the deposition in some other cognizable way. Examples of target samples may include, but are not limited to, antibodies, drugs, nucleic acids, proteins, cellular extracts, antibodies, etc. The target medium may likewise be artificially made or, in the alternative, a biologically produced product.  
         [0061]    E. AFM: As noted above, AFM&#39;s are a type of scanning probe microscope. The AFM is utilized in the present invention as an example of an SPM. The invention, however, is not limited for use with one specific type of AFM, but can also be incorporated for use with SPM&#39;s of various makes, models, and technological improvements.  
         [0062]    F. Deposition Device: The deposition device of the following description is a modified AFM probe and tip. The basic probe and tip of the AFM is well known to one reasonably skilled in the art. The modified probe and tip that is the deposition device of the present invention may alternatively be referred to herein as “tip,” “probe tip,” or “deposition device.” Other deposition devices can be substituted by one reasonably skilled in the art, including the use of a dedicated deposition device manufactured for the express purpose of sample deposition.  
       II GENERAL  
       [0063]    The apparatus and method of the present invention allows for the placement of an at least one deposition sample in an at least one molecular deposition domain forming an array. The method of creating the present invention deposition domain may result in deposition domains smaller than one micron in total area. Furthermore, this method allows the deposition of relatively large molecular species, as large as1kilodalton and larger, without shearing or changing the molecular formation. This array can be exposed to a sample medium that may contain a target sample, the presence of which may be ascertained and characterized by detecting molecular interaction events. The molecular interaction event detection may be performed utilizing an atomic force microscope.  
         [0064]    The deposition domains of the present invention may be formed as small or smaller than one micron in area. The present invention allows the direct detection of molecular interaction events in the deposition domain of the array. The molecular interaction event is detected without the need for the labeling of the deposition material or of the target sample. While labeling may still be performed for use with the present invention, the present invention does not require labeling to be utilized.  
         [0065]    The present invention utilizes a scanning probe microscope to interrogate the various deposition domains of the present invention array. As the probe is scanned over a surface the interaction between the probe and the surface is detected, recorded, and displayed. If the probe is small and kept very close to the surface, the resolution of the SPM can be very high, even on the atomic scale in some cases.  
         [0066]    In the present embodiment, an AFM may be used as the deposition tool, but this does not exclude other types of SPM&#39;s being used in alternative embodiments. An unmodified AFM probe has a sharp point with a radius of curvature that may be between 5 and 40 nm. The method herein uses a microfabricated deposition device with an apical radius on the order of 10-50 nm. Due to the small radius of curvature of the deposition device used herein, the spot size generated by the present method can range from larger spots to as small as 0.2 microns or smaller. The difficulties with the prior art method need for labeling, such as with radioactivity, fluorescence, enzymatic labeling, etc., are also avoided.  
         [0067]    As one reasonably skilled in the art will appreciate, the molecular material deposited by the present invention may be of almost any size and type. The following materials and methods are not intended to exclude other materials that may be compatible with the present invention, however, the present example is given for better understanding of the scope of the present invention.  
         [0068]    Surface Preparation  
         [0069]    As shown in FIG. 1, block  10 , and FIG. 2, block  18 , a surface may first be provided. The deposition domains that form the array will be constructed on this surface. The surface used for the deposition of the present embodiment molecular domain should facilitate scanning by an AFM as well as facilitate the deposition of the deposition material. A surface which can accept and bind tenaciously to the deposition material may also be desired. The present embodiment utilizes a solid glass substrate. This solid glass substrate may be a glass slide well known to those reasonably skilled in the art. Other embodiments may use other substrates including, but not limited to, mica, silicon, and quartz. The present embodiment may further cover this surface with a freshly sputtered gold layer.  
         [0070]    The ion beam sputtering of gold onto a surface is well known by those reasonably skilled in the art. Sputtering gold may produce an extremely smooth surface upon which a variety of chemistry and molecular binding may be performed. In other embodiments, the gold may be sputtered onto glass coverslips, smooth silicon, quartz or a similar flat surface. The smoothness required of the underlying substrate is a function of the sensitivity requirement of a particular test. For example, detection of a virus particle binding to antibodies on a surface requires only the smoothness of a typical glass coverslip. In contrast, detection of binding of a small ligand to a surface immobilized protein may require a supporting substrate with a surface roughness of one nanometer over an area of several microns.  
         [0071]    In alternative embodiments, other surfaces besides that achieved by gold sputtering may be likewise utilized, such as, but not limited to, glass, Si, modified Si, (poly) tetrafluoroethylene, functionalized silanes, polystyrene, polycarbonate, polypropylene, or combinations thereof.  
         [0072]    The gold of the present embodiment is sputtered onto the glass surface. This area of gold defines the boundary of the present embodiment array. The deposition material will be deposited in domains contained in this area.  
         [0073]    Depositing The Deposition Sample On The Deposition device  
         [0074]    With reference to FIG. 1 block  12 , FIG. 2 block  20 , and FIG. 3, the deposition of the sample on the deposition device  40  will be described. The basic shape of the deposition device  40  is shown in FIG. 3. Before the deposition material is formed into a molecular domain on the above surface, the deposition material must first be placed onto the deposition device  40 . The deposition device  40  of the present embodiment may be a deposition device  40  and tip  42  commonly utilized by an AFM. The present embodiment starts with a standard silicon-nitride AFM probe under the tradename “DNP Tip” produced by Digital Instruments, Inc. These probes are generally available and well known in the art. In the present embodiment, the deposition device  40  may be first placed on the deposition instrument. A Digital Instrument, Inc., Dimension  3100  may be used in the present embodiment, controlled by a standard computer and software package known in the art.  
         [0075]    In the present embodiment, the deposition instrument may be modified with a microsphere  52  to facilitate the loading (depositing) of the deposition material  56 . While other embodiments may not utilize such a microsphere on the deposition device  40 , attaching a microsphere on the deposition device  40  allows the loading of a greater amount of deposition material upon the deposition device  40 , enabling a greater number of deposition domains  64  to be deposited before reloading with new material. Borosilicate glass spheres up to 25 microns or larger in diameter may be utilized in the present embodiment as the microspohere  52 .  
         [0076]    First, a small amount of epoxy resin is placed upon a surface, usually glass. A standard ultraviolet activated epoxy resin, such as Norland Optical Adhesive # 81 , may be utilized, though those reasonably skilled in the art may fine other types of epoxies useful as well. The deposition device  40  is moved by the instrumentation and dipped slightly in the epoxy and withdrawn, retaining a small amount of the epoxy on the tip  42 . As shown in FIG. 4, on another surface  50  are placed a number of the microspheres  52 . Using the instrumentation controls, one or more of the borosilicate glass beads is touched by the end of the deposition device  40 . Because of the epoxy, the microsphere  52  sticks to the end of the deposition device  40  as it is pulled away. The deposition device  40  is then exposed to ultraviolet light to set the epoxy and permanently affix the microsphere glass bead  52  to the tip  42  of the deposition device  42 . As shown in FIG. 5 and  6 , the microsphere  52  may bind to the tip  42  of the deposition device  40  in various places without affecting the present invention.  
         [0077]    The present embodiment places one microsphere  52  on the deposition device  40 . This microsphere  52  allows the deposition device  40  to retain more of the material to be deposited on the probe while still allowing the creation of deposition domains  64  on the sub-micron scale. As noted above, as little as one microsphere  52  may be deposited on the tip in the above process. Furthermore, the surface of the microsphere  52  allows for alternative types of surface chemistry to be performed when, in alternative embodiments, the deposition material is being bonded to the surface.  
         [0078]    The microspheres  52  used in the present embodiment are commercially available and well known in the art, ranging in size to smaller than 0.05 microns. With a smaller the microsphere  52 , a smaller deposition domain  64  may be achieved, however less sample can be deposited on the tip at any one time, slowing down the construction of the array. Modification of the deposition device  40  may also be accomplished in a number of alternative ways, including spontaneous adsorption of molecular species, chemical derivitization of the AFM tip followed by covalent coupling of the probe molecule to the tip, or the addition of microspheres to the tip which may be coupled to molecules by standard chemistry. In additional embodiments, a laser may be used to locally heat the deposition device  40  and bond microspheres (such as polystyrene spheres) by a “spot welding” technique.  
         [0079]    As shown in FIG. 1 block  12 , and FIG. 2 block  20 , after the microsphere  52  is placed on the deposition device  40 , the deposition material  56  may be loaded on the deposition device  40  by forming a capillary bridge  60 . The deposition material  56  may be placed on a surface as shown in FIG. 7 a.  This large spot of deposition material  56  can be reused a number of times, depending on the number of domains  64  that are to be created. Though not drawn to scale, FIG. 7 a  shows material that may have been micro-pipetted onto a surface for loading on the deposition device  40 .  
         [0080]    In one embodiment, the deposition device  40  may be brought into direct contact with the material  56  on the surface. In alternative embodiments, the deposition device  40  and microsphere  52  may be brought into a near proximity to the deposition material  56  on the surface and achieve the same capillary action. The exact distance between the microsphere  52  and the deposition material  56  may vary and still have the formation of a capillary bridge  60 . This depends on conditions like relative humidity, microsphere  52  size, contaminants, etc. In the present embodiment, this distance may vary between touching to several nanometers or more.  
         [0081]    The capillary bridge  60 , shown in FIG. 7 b,  may be formed by controlling the humidity by timing a blast of humid gas. Longer bursts may result in a greater amount of material to be placed on the tip. Short bursts allow for less material to be used, but must be long enough to effectively transfer deposition material  56  from the surface  62  to the deposition device  40 . The optimal parameters are determined empirically, however a typical time of exposure to the humid gas is on the order of 500 milliseconds or longer. It has also been noted that a capillary bridge  60  may be spontaneously generated when the relative humidity of the air is more than approximately 30%. In cases such as this, it may be advantageous to have a controlled dry environment or to have a stream of dry air flowing over the surface which is interrupted by the humid blast of gas which forms the capillary bridge  60 . In other embodiments, this spontaneous capillary bridge  60  can be used to deposit the deposition material  56 , though less control of the process may result.  
         [0082]    In the present invention the humidity may be controlled by several methods known to those reasonably skilled in the art. The present embodiment incorporates a small tube and argon gas source which creates the bridge by rapidly increasing the level of humidity around the probe and the deposition material. The tube of the present embodiment may be a flexible polymer material, such at “Tygon” tubing, with an inner diameter of 0.5 to 1.0 cm. This material is readily available, but other materials that will not introduce contaminants into the deposition material would likewise suffice. The small tube must first be filled with water.  
         [0083]    The water used in the present embodiment should be of a highly purified nature, such as purified water with a resistance of 18 megaohms or more. It should be free of particulates by filtration and is usually sterilized by filtration and or autoclaving. Additionally, an argon gas source may be positioned at one end of the tube and may be controlled by the action of a needle valve and solenoid.  
         [0084]    The water is then drained from the tube, leaving a humid gas in the tube. When the humidity blast is desired, the solenoid is activated to pulse a discrete amount of humidified argon through the tube and over the probe  40 , deposition material  56 , and surface  62 . As shown in FIG. 7 b,  the capillary bridge  60  may be formed between the surface  62  and the deposition device  40 . The deposition device  40  is then moved away from the surface  62 , leaving a small amount of the deposition material  56  on the deposition device  40 , as shown in FIG. 8 a.    
         [0085]    As shown in FIG. 8 a,  the deposition material  56  is now on the deposition device  40 . Whether the deposition material  56  adsorbs onto the microsphere&#39;s  52  surface, the pores, or some other area, may vary depending on the type of microsphere  52  and the deposition material  54 . As shown in FIG. 1 block  14 , the deposition material  56  may now be dried on the deposition device  40 . The drying may be immediate and spontaneous due to the relatively little amount of wet material on the surface of the deposition device  40 . This is, of course, dependent on the relative humidity of the surrounding air. Drying the deposition material  56  on the microsphere  56  may facilitate the deposition of the material  56  on the surface  62  as laid out in the next step. For labile samples, drying could result in inactivation, and should be avoided, but this is not the case for robust samples such as antibodies, peptides and nucleic acids.  
         [0086]    In an alternative embodiment, the deposition tip may be loaded with the deposition material  56  by direct immersion. The tip of the probe may be immersed in a solution containing up to 50% glycerol, 0.1-5 mg/ml of the deposition sample, and a buffer-electrolyte such as Tris-IICl at IICl at pH 7.5. A small amount of the above solution may be made by standard bench chemistry techniques known to those skilled in the art. Typically 1-10 microliters are made. Because of the nature of solutions, when the probe is dipped into the solution and withdrawn a small amount of the solution will cling to the surface of the tip in a manner known to those reasonably skilled in the art. In still further embodiments, other solutions, such as 10mM NaCl and 1mM MgCl 2 , phosphate buffered saline, or a sodium chloride solution, may be substituted by those reasonably skilled in the art. Alternative methods for loading the deposition material  56  on the deposition device  40  include spraying, chemically mediated adsorption and delivery, electronically mediated adsorption and delivery, and either passive or active capillary filling.  
         [0087]    In still further embodiments, other probes may also be used, for example, AFM probes lacking a tip altogether (tipless levers), may also be used. The type of probe used may impact the spatial dimensions of the deposition domain  64  and may be influenced by the choice of the deposition sample.  
         [0088]    Depositing the Sample On the Surface  
         [0089]    The next step in creating the deposition domain  64  and array  66  is depositing hte sample on the surface. See FIG. 1 block  16  and FIG. 2 block  22 . Varying the humidity level surrounding the deposition device  40  and deposition material  56  may be taken advantage of to deposit the deposition material  56  onto the surface in a deposition domain  64  less than one micron in area. The capillary bridge  60  is illustrated by FIG. 8 b.  This step may be performed in much the same way as depositing the deposition material  56  on the deposition device  40 . The degree of binding to the surface and the deposition device  40  is a function of the hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity of the two surfaces. Therefore, it may often be desirable to use deposition tools and surfaces that are free of oils and other hydrophobic contaminants to facilitate wetting of both surfaces.  
         [0090]    Utilizing the AFM and the control computer and software, the deposition device  40 , with the deposition material  56 , may be brought into contact, or close proximity, with the deposition surface. The humid gas may then be released by activation of the solenoid. In the present embodiment the humidity is ramped up, and the capillary bridge  60  formed, for a time of approximately 400 milliseconds or less, depending on the amount of material the user wishes to deposit. The spots are on the sub-micron scale because the contact surfaces are on the order of microns or smaller and the degree of sample diffusion (which determines the final size of the deposition domain) is carefully controlled by regulating the amount and timing of the humid gas burst. When depositing the deposition sample  56  on the surface, in order to better control the length of time the capillary bridge  60  exists, a tube of dry air may be blown over the area by a solenoid in rapid succession after the humid air. This results in a very short burst of humid air, a capillary bridge  60 , and then the termination of the capillary bridge  60 , all in a very short time period. As illustrated in FIG. 9, when the deposition device  40  is withdrawn, and the bridge  60  severed, a very small amount of the deposition material  56  has been deposited on the surface  62  in a deposition domain  64 . The transfer of large macromolecules may be achieved utilizing the burst of humid gas. As will be appreciated by one reasonably skilled in the art, the capillary bridge  60  may be broken by withdrawing the deposition device  40  or by the blast of dry air.  
         [0091]    Because of the fine control of the deposition device  40  that may be possible with the AFM instrumentation, the exact surface spot in which the deposition takes place may be noted. Noting the surface point for each deposition domain  64  may ameliorate the detection of the molecular interaction event caused by the target sample. The pattern writing program can be one that is provided by an AFM manufacturer (e.g., the Nanolithography program provided by Digital Instruments, Inc.) or it can be created in-house. In the latter case, one example is to use a programming environment such as Lab View (National Instruments) with associated hardware to generate signal pulses which control the positioning of the deposition probe.  
         [0092]    The steps laid out above produce the deposition domain  64  of the present embodiment. Repeating these steps with one or more deposition materials  56 , FIG. 2 block  26 , produces the array  66  of the present invention. This array is shown in FIG. 10. The number and size of the deposition domains  64  may be varied depending on the desire of the user.  
         [0093]    One advantage to the present embodiment is the small size of the deposition domain  64  produced by the method. Furthermore, because of the manner in which the array  66  is produced, the user may be able to record and track the position of each of the particular deposition domains  64 . Finally, the above method allows the deposition of as little as a single macromolecule, which previous methods were unable to perform.  
         [0094]    Once the array  66  has been formed, the user may desire to immediately utilize the array  66  on site, or may desire shipment of the array  66  for exposure to a sample medium at another location. The array  66  produced by the above steps may be ideal for shipment to a location, exposure, and return shipment for the scanning by an AFM.  
         [0095]    Subsequent Depositions  
         [0096]    In an alternative embodiment, the probe may be reloaded with a second deposition material  56  after one or more molecular domains are created with the first deposition material  56 . FIG. 2 block  26 . Using the probe with a variety of deposition materials  56  enables the creation of a number of deposition domains  64  on one surface. The different deposition materials  56  in the molecular domains that are deposited on the surface form the array  66  of the present invention. Because of the size of the molecular domain containing the deposition material  56 , the molecular domains can be placed on the surface in a an ultra high density array  66 , as shown in FIG. 10. In the present embodiment of this invention, the pitch (the distance from the center of one domain to the center of the next domain) of the molecular domains may be as small or smaller than one micron. The array  66  produced with these small molecular domains may be easily scanned by the AFM array  66  after the array  66  is exposed to the sample medium containing the target sample in the next step. Furthermore, the small sized array  66  requires exposure to a smaller amount of the sample medium of the next step, conserving both the deposition material  56  and the medium material.  
         [0097]    The number of times the probe may be reloaded in this alternative embodiment may be only limited by the surface size and the number of samples the user desires to deposit. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, this ultra high density array  66  presents a unique advantage.  
         [0098]    Cleaning the Probe  
         [0099]    Before the probe is reloaded with subsequent deposition samples, the probe must be cleaned. FIG. 2 block  24 . The probe of the present embodiment AFM may be cleaned in several ways. In the present embodiment, the very tip of the probe is immersed in a small aliquot of a cleaning solution. The present embodiment cleaning step utilizes pure water as the solution. A few microliters of water is pipetted onto a surface and, using the instrumentation&#39;s piezo device (which is utilized to help the AFM scan surfaces), the tip is oscillated at up to 1000 Hz or more. Resonating the probe at 1000 hertz will effectively sonicate the tip, helping to effectuate reusing the tip to deposit other deposition materials  56 .  
         [0100]    Exposing the Array To a Sample Medium  
         [0101]    Once a high density array  66  is formed by the present invention, the array  66  may be exposed to a sample medium. FIG. 2 block  28 . The sample medium may contain a target sample that the user has placed therein. In other types of experiments, the user may be looking for the presence of an unknown target sample, utilizing the array  66  of the present invention to test for its presence. The usefulness of such arrays  66  are well known to those reasonably skilled in the art.  
         [0102]    The array  66  may be dipped in a solution or exposed to a gas. The solution may include, but is not limited to, waste water, biological materials, organic or inorganic user prepared solutions, etc. The exposure time of the array  66  to the medium depends on what types of molecular interaction events the user may be studying. The target sample tested for should ideally cause a readable molecular change in one or more of the deposition materials  56  of the molecular domains placed on the array  66 . These molecular changes may include binding, changes in stereochemical orientation in morphology, dimensional changes in all directions, changes in elasticity, compressibility, or frictional coefficient, etc. The above changes are what the AFM scans and reads in the next step of the present embodiment.  
         [0103]    Molecular Event Detection  
         [0104]    After the molecular deposition array  66  is exposed to the test medium, it may be scanned by the AFM. See FIG. 2 block  30 . Use of an AFM in this manner to characterize a material deposited on a surface is well known to those reasonably skilled in the art. The present embodiment may utilize one scan for every deposition domain  64  of the array  66  to look for changes in the recorded features of the domains. Furthermore, the AFM may look at specific portions of the array  66  using site locators. As will be appreciated by one skilled in the art, various methods may be used to undertake the scanning of the array  66  of the present invention.  
         [0105]    After the scan is taken, the scan must be analyzed. FIG. 2, block  32 . The present embodiment utilizes the detection of changes in height at defined spatial addresses, as described by Jones et al., supra. As shown in FIG. 11, height changes only occur at those addresses containing deposition material  56  to which the target sample is capable of binding. Since the identity of the molecules at each of the sample addresses is known, this process immediately identifies those deposition materials  56  capable of binding to the target sample. In FIG. 11, point  66  shows the normal height of the deposition domain  64  as scanned by the AFM. Point  68  shows how the AFM will recognize some feature that the molecular interaction event has affected in the deposition domain  64 .  
         [0106]    In addition, the AFM can measure whether new materials have bonded to the deposition material  56  by testing for changes in shape (morphology) as well as changes in local mechanical properties (friction, elasticity, compressibility, etc.) by virtue of changes in the interaction between the probe and the surface. The typical parameters detected by an AFM include height, torsion, frequency (the oscillation frequency of the AFM probe in AC modes of operation), phase (the phase shift between the driving signal and the cantilever oscillation in AC modes) and amplitude (the amplitude of the oscillating cantilever in AC modes of operation).  
         [0107]    The AFM scan may also be used to tell when the probe is interacting with different forces of adhesion (friction) at different domains on the surface. This interaction force is a consequence of the interaction between the molecules on the probe and on the surface. When there is a specific interaction, the force value is typically higher than for non-specific interactions, although this may not be universally true (since some non-specific interactions can be very strong). Therefore, it may be useful to include both known positive and negative control domains in the scan area to help distinguish between specific and non-specific force interactions. The target sample may affect the deposition material  56  that can be read by this scanning technique. A still further embodiment may directly measure the interaction forces between a molecular probe coupled to the AFM tip and the surface. The direct measurement of molecular unbonding forces has been well described in the art in addition to measuring changes in the elasticity.  
         [0108]    In the screening methods described above, once it has been established that a molecular binding event has occurred, changes in the degree of binding upon introduction of additional sample molecules may also be analyzed. The potential for a third molecular species to enhance or inhibit a defined molecular interaction is of utility in locating new drugs and other important effectors of defined molecular interactions.  
         [0109]    In the above examples an AFM is used for illustration purposes. The type of deposition instrumentation incorporated into the present invention is not limited to AFM&#39;s, or other types of SPM&#39;s. In one alternative embodiment, a dedicated deposition instrument may be used which may provide for extremely accurate control of the deposition probe. In this alternative embodiment, a DC stepper motor and a piezoelectric motion control device may be incorporated for sample and probe control. In still further embodiments, a force feedback system may be included to minimize the force exerted between the deposition tool and the surface.  
         [0110]    One advantage to the present invention is the elimination of the labeling step required in other array  66  techniques. Radioactive and fluorescent labeling may be cost prohibitive and complex. The present invention eliminates the need for the labeling of molecular deposition domains  64  in an array  66 .  
         [0111]    Another advantage to the present invention is the creation of molecular domains in an array  66  wherein each domain has a deposition area of less than one micron. Since the size of each domain is extremely small, a large number of domains may be placed in a small area, requiring less materials, a smaller medium sample for exposure, and the ability to perform a quicker scan.  
         [0112]    Another advantage to the present invention array  66  is the ability to quickly scan for multiple molecular events in a reasonably short period of time.  
       III ALTERNATIVE DEPOSITION EXAMPLES  
       [0113]    The following are a few of the variations in the deposition method and array  66  apparatus that may be used within the scope of the present invention. These examples are given to show the scope and versatility of the present invention and are not intended to limit the invention to only those examples given herein. In each of these examples, the deposition material  56  may be deposited on the deposition device  40  and then to the surface utilizing the method described above, however the surface may be coated with other materials that will react in some way with the deposition material  56 , to bind the latter to the surface in the deposition domain  64 .  
         [0114]    A. Surface Modification  
         [0115]    One alternative embodiment for the covalent tethering of biomaterials to a surface for use in the present invention may be to use a chemically reactive surface. Such surfaces include, but are not limited to, surfaces with terminal succinimide groups, aldehyde groups, carboxyl groups, vinyl groups, and photoactivatable aryl azide groups. Other surfaces are known to those reasonably skilled in the art. Biomaterials may include primary amines and a catalyst such as the carbodiimide EDAC (1-ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl]carbodiimide). Furthermore, the spontaneous coupling of succinimide, or in the alternative, aldehyde surface groups, to primary amines at a physiological pH may be incorporated for attaching molecules to the surface. In still another embodiment, photoactivatable surfaces, such as those containing aryl azides, may be utilized. These photoactivatable surfaces form highly reactive nitrenes that react promiscuously with a variety of chemical groups upon ultraviolet activation. Placing the deposition sample on the surface and then activating the material can create deposition domains  64  in spots or patterns, limited only by the light source activated.  
         [0116]    Another embodiment for the tenacious and controlled binding of biomaterials to surfaces is to exploit the strong interactions between various biochemical moieties. For example, histidine binds tightly to nickel. Therefore, both nucleic acid and protein biomaterials may be modified using recombinant methods to produce runs of histidine, usually 6 to 10 amino acids long. This His-rich domain then allows these molecules to bind tightly to nickel coated surfaces. Alternatively, sulfhydryl groups can be introduced into protein and nucleic acid biomaterials, or preexist there, and can be used to bind the biomaterials to gold surfaces by virtue of extremely strong gold-sulfur interaction. It is well documented that gold binds to sulfur with a binding force comparable to that of a covalent bond. Therefore, gold-sulfur interactions have been widely exploited to tether molecules to surfaces. Jones, V. W., J. R. Kenseth, M. D. Porter, C. L. Mosher, and E. Henderson, Microminiaturized Immunoassays Using Atomic Force Microscopy and Compositionally Patterned Antigen Arrays  66 , Anal Chem. 1998, p. 1233-41.  
         [0117]    B. Aptes  
         [0118]    In this alternative embodiment, the surface may be treated with APTES (aminopropyl triethoxy silane). The APTES placed on the surface may present positively charged amino groups that can bind tightly to a negative charge. Materials such as DNA and RNA containing negatively charged groups may therefore bond to the surface after the APTES treatment. The details of the adsorption mechanism involved in this spontaneous attachment are not well defined. Therefore, in alternative embodiments, it may be advantageous to deposit biomaterials onto surfaces that can be covalently or otherwise tenaciously coupled to the target sample. DNA and RNA bind through interaction between their negative net charge and the net positive charge of the APTES surface.  
         [0119]    C. Photochemical Sample Deposition  
         [0120]    In this alternative embodiment, glass surfaces may be modified sequentially by two compounds, aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) and N-5-azido-2-nitrobenzoyloxysuccinimide (ANB-NOS). The glass may first be treated with APTES to generate a surface with protruding amino groups (NH 2 ). These groups may be then reacted with the succinimide moiety of ANB-NOS in the dark. These steps produce a surface with protruding nitrobenzene groups. The photosensitive surface may be then reacted with the first deposition material  56  in the dark, then a focused light source, like a laser, may be used to illuminate a portion of the surface. These acts result in localized covalent binding of the first deposition material  56  to the surface. The deposition material  56  not bonded to the surface may then be washed away and second deposition material  56  added by repeating the process. Reiteration of this process results in the creation of a biomolecular array  66  with address dimensions in the  1  micron size range. A limitation of this deposition method is that the sample size is dependent on the size of the illuminating light field.  
         [0121]    A variation of the above embodiment may be to utilize the deposition device  40  and humidity ramping deposition technique described to place various molecular species at defined locations in the dark. After construction of the desired array  66 , the entire surface is exposed to light, thereby cross linking the molecular species at discrete spatial domains. This process may overcome the spatial limitation imposed by use of a far field laser or other type of light beam.  
         [0122]    D. Photocoupling  
         [0123]    In this embodiment a near field scanning optical microscope (NSOM) may be used to supply the light energy necessary to accomplish photocoupling of the sample molecule to a surface at a defined spatial address. The NSOM may overcome the diffraction limit which constrains the address size created by far field photocoupling as described in Example 2. The photoactive surface is prepared as described in Example II. The first molecule to be coupled is added to the surface and subjected to a nearfield evanescent wave emanating from the aperture of the NSOM. The evanescent wave energy may then activate the photosensitive surface and result in coupling of the sample molecules to a spatial address in the 10 to 100 nm size range. The first sample molecule is washed away and the process repeated with a second sample molecule. Reiteration of this process may result in the production of an array  66  of sample molecules coupled at spatial addresses with submicron dimensions.  
         [0124]    An alternative approach may be to utilize both the sample manipulation and near field light delivery capabilities of the NSOM. In this approach, the NSOM probe may be first loaded with a molecular species as described in Example I. Then the same probe is used to provide the light energy to couple the molecule to the surface. The probe may then be washed and reused to create a spatial array  66  of molecular species covalently coupled to defined domains.  
         [0125]    One advantage of coupling the deposition material  56  to the surface may be that the molecule may remain attached at a defined spatial domain even under stringent wash and manipulation conditions. Moreover, by coupling the molecule, the orientation of the molecules on the surface may be controlled by the careful selection of a tethering method.  
         [0126]    Yet another advantage to coupling the molecule is that by controlling the coupling chemistry, the minimization of the chances of surface induced molecular denaturation may be achieved. Coupling the molecules to the surface may be especially advantageous when depositing biomolecules.  
         [0127]    The information and examples described herein are for illustrative purposes and are not meant to exclude any derivations or alternative methods that are within the conceptual context of the invention. It is contemplated that various deviations can be made to this embodiment without deviating from the scope of the present invention. Accordingly, it is intended that the scope of the present invention be dictated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description of this embodiment.  
         [0128]    All publications cited in this application are incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes.