Abstract:
A system and method for accomplishing power swing blocking and unstable power swing tripping schemes during disturbances of electrical networks is disclosed. The disclosed system and method eliminates the requirement of stability studies. The no-setting scheme utilizes the swing center voltage of the electrical network to carry out its functions.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS  
       [0001]     This application relates to and claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/614,066, filed Sep. 29, 2004. The full disclosure of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/614,066, filed Sep. 29, 2004, is hereby incorporated herein by reference. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0002]     The present invention relates generally to power system protection techniques, and more particularly, power system protection techniques that are relatively easy and relatively inexpensive to implement.  
         [0003]     A power system (or electrical network) is said to be operating under steady-state conditions when there exists a balance between generated and consumed active power for the system. Power systems operating under steady-state conditions typically operate at or very near their nominal frequency. In the case of power systems within the United States of America, the nominal frequency is equal to sixty cycles per second (or sixty hertz).  
         [0004]     Under certain circumstances, a power system can be disturbed such that it no longer operates under steady-state conditions. In that regard, power systems are subjected to a wide range of small or larger disturbances during operating conditions. Small changes in loading conditions occur continually. The power system must adjust to these changing conditions and continue to operate satisfactorily and within the desired bounds of voltage and frequency. A power swing condition can be the result of a disturbance that causes the power system to be removed from its steady state operating condition. Such power swings are characterized by variations in the power flow for a power system. These variations occur when the internal voltages of system generators slip relative to each other. Power system faults, line switching, generator disconnection, and the loss or the application of large amounts of load are examples of system disturbances that can cause a power swing condition to occur in a power system. Upon the occurrence of a power swing condition, there exists an imbalance between generated and consumed active power for the system. In particular, upon the occurrence of a power swing condition, there is a sudden change of the electrical power demand for the system. On the other hand, the mechanical power input to the system generators remains relatively constant. As a result of the power swing condition, the system generator rotors may accelerate and oscillations in the rotor angles for the sytem generators may occur, which can translate into severe system disturbances.  
         [0005]     Depending on the severity of the system disturbance(s) and the actions of the power system controls during a power swing, the system may remain stable and return to a new equilibrium state, having experienced what is referred to as a stable power swing. However, severe system disturbances can produce a large separation of system generator rotor angles, large swings of power flows, large fluctuations of voltages and currents, and eventually lead to a loss of synchronism between groups of system generators or between neighboring utility systems. This occurence is referred to as an unstable power swing.  
         [0006]     Large power swings, whether stable or unstable, can cause undesirable results. In particular, large power swings can cause the impedance presented to a distance relay to fall within the operating characteristics of the relay, away from the pre-existing steady-state load condition, and cause the relay to actuate an undesired tripping of a system transmission line. The undesired operation of system relays during a power swing can aggravate further the power system disturbance and cause system instability, major power outages and/or power blackouts. This can cause an otherwise stable power swing to become an unstable power swing. It will therefore be understood that distance relays preferably should not operate during stable power swings to allow the power system to establish a new equilibrium state and return to a stable condition.  
         [0007]     During an unstable power swing, two or more areas of a power system, or two or more interconnected networks, lose synchronism. Uncontrolled tripping of circuit breakers during an unstable power swing condition could cause equipment damage and pose a safety concern for utility personnel. Therefore, it is imperative that the asynchronous system areas be separated from each other quickly and automatically in order to avoid extensive equipment damage and shutdown of major portions of the power system. During an unstable power swing condition, a controlled tripping of certain power system elements is necessary in order to prevent equipment damage, widespread power outages, and to minimize the effects of the disturbance.  
         [0008]     Ideally, the asynchronous areas should be separated in such locations as to maintain a load-generation balance in each of them. System separation does not always achieve the desired load-generation balance. In cases where the separated local area load is in excess of local area generation, some form of non-essential load shedding is necessary to avoid a complete blackout of the system area.  
         [0009]     To protect the power system, distance relays have integrated numerous protection functions including power swing detection and responsive relay blocking functions and unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping or pole slipping functions. The main purpose of power swing detection and responsive relay blocking functions is to differentiate faults from power swings and block operation of distance or other relay elements during all power swing conditions (stable and unstable power swings). In other words, during a power swing, it is ordinarily desirable to prevent tripping of the power system elements.  
         [0010]     Faults occurring during a power swing must however be detected and cleared with a high degree of selectivity and dependability. Therefore, in such situations, the utilized power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function should allow the distance relay elements to operate and clear any faults that occur in their zone of protection during a power swing condition.  
         [0011]     Power swing blocking functions are designed to detect power swings, differentiate power swings from faults, and prevent distance relay elements from operating during power swing conditions. Power swing blocking functions prevent system elements from tripping at random and at undesired source voltage phase angle difference between system areas that are in the process of losing synchronism with each other.  
         [0012]     Unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping functions are also available in distance relays. The main purpose of these functions is to detect an unstable power swing condition by differentiating between stable and unstable power swing conditions. Power system utilities designate certain points on their network as separation points allowing for separation of asynchronous system areas during unstable power swing conditions. During an unstable power swing condition and at the appropriate source voltage phase angle difference between asynchronous system areas, the unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping function initiates controlled tripping of appropriate breakers (or other system elements) at predetermined network locations, to uncouple asynchronous system areas quickly and in a controlled manner in order to maintain power system stability and service continuity. Distance relay elements prone to operate during unstable power swings should be inhibited from operating to prevent system separation from occurring at random and in locations other than preselected ones.  
         [0013]     Power swing detection and responsive relay blocking elements conventionally monitor the rate of change of the positive sequence impedance to detect power swing conditions. The required settings for these elements can be difficult to calculate in many applications, particularly those where fast power swings can be expected. For these cases, extensive stability studies are required in order to determine the fastest rate of possible power swings.  
         [0014]     Unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping functions also typically monitor the rate of change of the positive sequence impedance. The required settings for this function are also difficult to calculate and in most applications it is required to perform an extensive number of power system stability studies with different operating conditions. This is a costly exercise and one can never be certain that all possible scenarios and operating conditions were taken under consideration.  
         [0015]     The difference in the rate of change of the impedance vector has been conventionally used to detect a stable or unstable power swing and block the operation of the appropriate distance protection elements before the impedance enters the protective relay operating characteristics because it is known that it takes a finite period of time for the torque angle of system generators to advance due to system inertias. In other words, the time rate of change of the impedance vector is slow during stable or unstable power swings, because it takes a finite period of time for the generator rotors to change position with respect to each other due to their large inertias. On the other hand, the time rate of change of the impedance vector is very fast during a system fault.  
         [0016]     Actual implementation of measuring the impedance rate of change is normally performed though the use of two impedance measurement elements together with a timing device. If the measured impedance stays between the two impedance measurement elements for a predetermined time, then a power swing is detected and a relay blocking signal is generated to prevent operation of the appropriate distance relay elements.  
         [0017]     These conventional protection functions are mostly based on measuring the positive-sequence impedance at a relay location. During normal system operating conditions, the measured impedance is the load impedance and its locus is away from the distance relay protection characteristics on the impedance plane well known by those skilled in the art. When a fault occurs, the measured impedance moves immediately from the load impedance location on the impedance plane to the location representative of that fault condition on the impedance plane. During a system fault, the rate of impedance change is primarily determined by the amount of signal filtering in the relay.  
         [0018]     During a power swing, the measured impedance moves relatively slowly on the impedance plane. For a power swing, the rate of impedance change is determined by the slip frequency of an equivalent two-source system.  
         [0019]     This difference of impedance rate of change during a fault and during a power swing is utilized in conventional power swing detection schemes to differentiate between a fault and a swing. Placing two concentric impedance characteristics, separated by impedance AZ, on the impedance plane and using a timer to time the duration of the impedance locus as it travels between the characteristics is one manner used to make the differentiation. In that regard, if the impedance measured crosses the concentric characteristics within a predetermined period of time, then the event is deemed to be a system fault event. Conversely, if the impedance does not cross the concentric characteristics within the predetermined period of time, then the event is deemed to be a power swing.  
         [0020]     Different impedance characteristics have been designed for power swing detection. These characteristics (identified as inner Z element and outer Z element) include the double blinders illustrated in  FIG. 1 , polygons illustrated in  FIG. 2 , concentric circles illustrated in  FIG. 3 , and lens characteristics illustrated in  FIG. 4 .  
         [0021]     There are a number of issues that must be addressed to apply and set the power swing detection functions. To guarantee that there is enough time to carry out blocking of the appropriate distance relay elements following detection of a power swing, the power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function inner impedance (z) element must be positioned on the impedance plane outside the position of the largest distance relay protection characteristic on the impedance plane. Also, the power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function outer impedance (z) element must be positioned on the impedance plane at a position away from the position of the load region on the impedance plane to prevent power swing detection and responsive relay blocking logic operation caused by heavy loads, which would incorrectly cause blocking of the line mho tripping elements. These relationships among the impedance (z) measurement elements are illustrated in  FIG. 2 , using concentric polygons as power swing detection elements.  
         [0022]     Those skilled in the art appreciate that these requirements are difficult to achieve in some applications depending on the relative line and source impedance magnitudes. It can be difficult to set the inner and outer power swing detection impedance (z) elements, and in certain circumstances incorrect relay blocking could occur.  
         [0023]     Another shortcoming of conventional power swing detection schemes that measure the rate of change of the impedance is the determination and setting of the separation between the inner and outer impedance (z) elements and the determination and setting of the time period to be used to differentiate a fault from a power swing. These settings are difficult to calculate and depending on the power system under consideration, it may be necessary to run extensive system stability studies in order to calculate these settings.  
         [0024]     Compounding matters further, the rate of slip between two system generators is a function of the accelerating torque and system inertias. In general, the slip cannot be determined without performing system stability studies and analyzing the angular relationships of system generators as a function of time to estimate an average slip in degrees/sec or cycles/sec. While this approach may be appropriate for systems having a slip frequency that does not change as a function of time, in many power systems, the slip frequency increases considerably after the first slip cycle and on subsequent slip cycles. In those instances, a fixed impedance separation between the inner and outer impedance (z) elements and a fixed time period for detection of a power swing might not be suitable to provide a continuous blocking signal to the mho distance elements.  
         [0025]     Still another shortcoming of conventional power swing detection techniques is that they are very difficult to implement in complex power systems because of the difficulty in obtaining the proper source impedance values required to establish the inner and outer impedance (z) elements and the time period settings. In such power systems, the source impedances vary constantly due to network changes, for example due to additions of new system generators and other system elements. The source impedances could also change drastically during a major disturbance and during system conditions when the blocking functions are desired. Very detailed and extensive power system stability studies must be carried out, taking into consideration all contingency conditions in order to find the most suitable settings for the detection of the power swing.  
         [0026]     Yet another shortcoming of conventional power swing detection and responsive relay blocking and unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping functions is that those functions are often combined together in a single logic structure within relays. This approach of combining the functions can present conflicting setting requirements if it is desired to apply both functions at the same transmission line location.  
         [0027]     In view of the foregoing, it is desirable to provide a power system protection technique designed to protect against power swings occurring within the system.  
         [0028]     It is also desirable to provide such a protection technique that separates the power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function from the unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping function. This will eliminate user confusion in the application of these relay functions and at the same time remove the conflicting setting requirements if it is desired to apply both functions in the same relay at the same transmission line location.  
         [0029]     It is further desirable to eliminate user settings and the need for stability studies for the power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function.  
         [0030]     It is still further desirable to provide for a power swing detection and responsive relay blocking technique that is independent of network parameters.  
         [0031]     It is also desirable to provide for a power swing detection and responsive relay blocking technique that can be used effectively with long heavily loaded transmission lines of the type that present problems when using conventional techniques.  
         [0032]     It is also desirable to provide for a power swing detection and responsive relay blocking technique that can detect three-phase faults that may occur during power swings and allow the protective relays to issue a tripping command and isolate the faulted power system element.  
         [0033]     It is also desirable to provide for a power swing detection and responsive relay blocking technique that can track a power swing irrespective of the location of the apparent impedance in the complex plane.  
         [0034]     It is still further desirable to remove the need for stability studies and simplify the settings for the unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping function when it is desired to trip on-the-way-out (TOWO).  
         [0035]     It is yet further desirable to provide an option for the user to perform the unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping function on-the-way-in (TOWI).  
         [0036]     These and other benefits of the preferred form of the inventive subject matter will become apparent from the following description. It will be understood, however, that a system and method could still appropriate the inventive subject matter claimed herein without having each and every one of these benefits, including those gleaned from the following description. The appended claims, not the benefits, define the exclusive subject matter and should be construed to the fullest extent permitted by law, including the applicable range of equivalency. Any and all benefits are derived from the preferred forms of the inventive subject matter, not necessarily from it in general.  
       BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0037]     With regard to its most preferred aspects, a novel power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function has been designed. The power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function requires no user settings, is independent of network parameters and there is no need to perform any stability studies. The power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function is based on the positive-sequence swing-center voltage (SCV 1 ) for the monitored power system. For this function, a starter zone is used that is based on the location of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ) in the complex plane and the magnitude of the positive-sequence swing-center voltage (SCV 1 ), thereby not requiring user settings to set the starter zones. A swing signature detector (SSD) using information stored in three-cycles distinguishes between a fault and a power swing at the moment just before the outermost zone desired to be blocked is about to pickup. A dependable power swing detection logic (DPSB) allows the detection of incipient power swings occurring immediately after a fault has been cleared from the power swings. A slope detector logic (SD) uses the first and second time derivatives of the positive-sequence swing-center voltage (SCV 1 ) and the magnitude of the SCV 1  to detect power swings anywhere in the complex impedance (Z) plane. The second time derivative of the positive-sequence swing-center voltage (SCV 1 ) is used to increase the reliability of power swing detection and the detection of three-phase faults occurring during a power swing condition. The power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function detects three-phase faults during a power swing condition in a manner that is fast and independent of the power swing frequency.  
         [0038]     A novel unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping function has also been designed. With regard to the most preferred aspects of this function, there is no need to perform any stability studies if it is desired to trip on-the-way-out (TOWO). The unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping function is independent from the power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function, thereby permitting application of both functions at the same location without any conflicting setting requirements and user confusion.  
         [0039]     The unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping function offers the option of trip on-the-way-out (TOWO) during the first slip cycle, TOWO after a set number of slip cycles have occurred, and trip on-the-way-in (TOWI) before completion of the first slip cycle. No timers are required for the unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping function. The unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping function monitors and tracks the positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ) trajectory as it moves in the complex impedance (z) plane. The settings for the resistive and reactive blinders (preferably four resistive and four reactive blinders) are easy to calculate and the resistive blinder settings for the trip on-the-way-out (TOWO) option can be self-calculated by the relay based on the line positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ). Provided a power swing has been detected, an unstable power swing will be detected if the tracked impedance trajectory moves from right-to-left or left-to-right across the entire selected complex plane. 
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL DRAWINGS  
       [0040]     In the foregoing background and following detailed description, reference has been and will be made to the following figures, in which like reference numerals refer to like components, and in which:  
         [0041]      FIG. 1  is a diagrammatic view of an impedance plane with a first set of impedance elements for power swing detection;  
         [0042]      FIG. 2  is a diagrammatic view of an impedance plane with a second set of impedance elements for power swing detection;  
         [0043]      FIG. 3  is diagrammatic view of an impedance plane with a third set of impedance elements for power swing detection;  
         [0044]      FIG. 4  is diagrammatic view of an impedance plane with a fourth set of impedance elements for power swing detection;  
         [0045]      FIG. 5  is a circuit diagram representing a two-source equivalent circuit of a power system;  
         [0046]      FIG. 6  is a voltage phasor diagram for the two-source equivalent circuit of a power system shown in  FIG. 5 ;  
         [0047]      FIG. 7  is a graphical representation of a positive-sequence swing center voltage;  
         [0048]      FIG. 8  is a phasor diagram directed to an approximation of the positive-sequence swing center voltage;  
         [0049]      FIG. 9  is a block diagram representing a no-setting power swing detection system designed in accordance with the principles of the present invention;  
         [0050]      FIG. 10  is a mixed block and circuit diagram of the system illustrated in  FIG. 9 , showing a circuit diagram representation of the reset circuit illustrated in  FIG. 9 ;  
         [0051]      FIG. 11  is a diagram representing the measurement of the first and second time derivatives for the positive sequence swing-center voltage signal SCV 1 ;  
         [0052]      FIG. 12  is a circuit diagram representation of the swing-center voltage slope detector logic illustrated in  FIG. 9 ;  
         [0053]      FIG. 13  is a diagram representing the calculation of values used in the circuit diagrams of  FIGS. 14 and 15 ;  
         [0054]      FIG. 14 a  circuit diagram representation of the swing signature detector logic illustrated in  FIG. 9 ;  
         [0055]      FIG. 15  is a circuit diagram representation of the dependable power swing detector illustrated in  FIG. 9 ;  
         [0056]      FIG. 16  is a circuit diagram representation of the three-phase fault detector illustrated in  FIG. 9 ;  
         [0057]      FIG. 17  is a circuit diagram representation of system unbalanced protection logic designed to detect an unbalanced system condition in the relay forward direction;  
         [0058]      FIG. 18  is a circuit diagram representation of a circuit designed to enable blocking of the ground distance elements during a single pole open condition;  
         [0059]      FIG. 19  is a graphical representation used to define a starter zone for the positive sequence impedance;  
         [0060]      FIG. 20  is a graphical representation used to define the inner zone for the positive sequence impedance;  
         [0061]      FIG. 21  is a graphical representation of the resistive and reactive blinders used for the unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping or pole slipping function;  
         [0062]      FIG. 22  is a circuit diagram representation of the logic used to define specific zones within  FIG. 21 ; and,  
         [0063]      FIG. 23  is a circuit diagram for a circuit used to carry out the unstable power swing detection and selective relay tripping function. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION  
       [0064]     For the present invention, the power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function is based upon a power system quantity, the positive-sequence swing-center voltage (SCV 1 ), which provides the benefits associated with requiring no user settings. Preferably, a suitable approximation for this quantity is used. The approximation is referred to as the Vcosφ and it is believed it was first introduced and used for power swing detection by Illar et al. in their U.S. Pat. No. 4,426,670. Vcosφ is an estimate of the swing-center voltage (SCV), and in a purely inductive two-machine system, it is identical to the swing-center voltage.  
         [0065]     The swing-center voltage is uniquely suited for effectively carrying out power swing detection because it is independent of the system source and line impedances, unlike other power system quantities such as the resistance and its rate of change or the real power and its rate of change, which depend on the line and system source impedances and other system parameters. Consequently, the swing-center voltage can provide for a no-setting power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function.  
         [0066]     The swing-center voltage is also bounded with a lower limit of zero and an upper limit of one per unit, regardless of system impedance parameters. This contrasts to other electrical system quantities, such as impedance, currents, and active or reactive powers, whose limits depend on a variety of system parameters. Furthermore, the magnitude of the swing-center voltage directly relates to δ, the angle difference of two system sources.  
         [0067]     Swing center voltage (SCV) is defined as the voltage at the location of a two-source equivalent system where the voltage value is zero when the angles between the two sources are one hundred eighty degrees apart. The swing center voltage will now be derived from a two-source equivalent system.  
         [0068]      FIG. 5  illustrates a two-source equivalent circuit  100  for a power system. As shown, circuit  100  includes a local source  102  having a local source impedance  104 , a remote source  106  having a remote source impedance  108 , and a line  110  having a line impedance  112 . The machine angle differential between local source  102  and remote source  106  is represented as δ, or in the case where the differential varies as a function of time, δ(t). When the machine angle differential between the two sources  102 ,  106  swings apart to one hundred eighty degrees, there is a location on the line  110  where the voltage will be zero. The voltage at this location, as a function of the machine angle differential (δ(t)) and as a function of time (t), is defined as the swing-center voltage (SCV(t)).  
         [0000]     Allowing the source voltage for local source  102  to be, 
 
 e   s ( t )=√{square root over (2)} E   S  sin(ω t+ δ( t )) 
 
 and allowing the source voltage for the remote source  106  to be, 
 
 e   R ( t )=√{square root over (2)} E   R  sin(ω t ) 
 
 and assuming the swing-center voltage location is a distance referenced by m in  FIG. 5  from the local measurement terminal S, the swing-center voltage takes the following value when the local source  102  acts alone,  
           u     C   ❘   S       ⁡     (   t   )       =           Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   R     +       (     1   -   m     )     ⁢   Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   L           Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   S     +     Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   L     +     Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   R         ⁢     2     ⁢     E   S     ⁢     sin   ⁡     (       ω   ⁢           ⁢   t     +     δ   ⁡     (   t   )         )             
 
 When the remote source  106  acts alone, the swing-center voltage equals,  
           u     C   ❘   R       ⁡     (   t   )       =           Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   S     +     m   ⁢           ⁢   Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   L           Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   S     +     Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   L     +     Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   R         ⁢     2     ⁢     E   R     ⁢     sin   ⁡     (     ω   ⁢           ⁢   t     )             
 
 Taking into consideration the definition of the swing-center voltage, the following equation can be derived,  
               Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   S     +     m   ⁢           ⁢   Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   L           Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   S     +     Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   L     +     Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   R         ⁢     E   R       =           Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   R     +       (     1   -   m     )     ⁢   Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   L           Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   S     +     Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   L     +     Z   ⁢           ⁢   1   ⁢   R         ⁢     E   S           
 
 through voltage division. The location of the swing-center, m, can be calculated from the preceding equation. Using the superposition principle, the swing-center voltage can be expressed as a linear combination of voltage drops acting by the two sources  102 ,  106  individually. The swing-center voltage (SCV(t)) therefore equals, 
 
 SCV ( t )= u   C|S   +U   C|R =√{square root over (2)} U   C0 [sin(ω t+δ ( t ))+sin(ω t )]
 
 In this equation, U C0  represents the quantity given in prior equation. Using the trigonometric equality.  
                 sin   ⁢           ⁢   A     +     sin   ⁢           ⁢   B       =       ⁢       2   ⁢   sin   ⁢           ⁢     A   2     ⁢   cos   ⁢           ⁢     A   2       +     2   ⁢           ⁢   sin   ⁢           ⁢     B   2     ⁢   cos   ⁢           ⁢     B   2                     =       ⁢       2   ⁢     (         sin   2     ⁢     B   2       +       cos   2     ⁢     B   2         )     ⁢   sin   ⁢           ⁢     A   2     ⁢   cos   ⁢           ⁢     A   2       +                     ⁢     2   ⁢     (         sin   2     ⁢     A   2       +       cos   2     ⁢     A   2         )     ⁢   sin   ⁢           ⁢     B   2     ⁢   cos   ⁢           ⁢     B   2                   =       ⁢       2   ⁡     [       sin   ⁢           ⁢     A   2     ⁢   cos   ⁢           ⁢     B   2       +     sin   ⁢           ⁢     B   2     ⁢   cos   ⁢           ⁢     A   2         ]       ·                     ⁢     [       cos   ⁢           ⁢     A   2     ⁢   cos   ⁢           ⁢     B   2       +     sin   ⁢           ⁢     A   2     ⁢   sin   ⁢           ⁢     B   2         ]                 =       ⁢     2   ⁢           ⁢       sin   ⁡     (       A   +   B     2     )       ·     cos   ⁡     (       A   -   B     2     )                     
 
 the swing center voltage can be re-written as follows:  
         SCV   ⁡     (   t   )       =     2   ⁢     2     ⁢     U     C   ⁢           ⁢   0       ⁢       sin   ⁡     (       ω   ⁢           ⁢   t     +       δ   ⁡     (   t   )       2       )       ·     cos   ⁡     (       δ   ⁡     (   t   )       2     )               
 
 with the assumption that both sources  102 ,  106  have an equal magnitude, E, it can be verified the U C0 =E/2. Under this equal magnitude assumption, the swing-center voltage can be represented as follows:  
         SCV   ⁡     (   t   )       =       2     ⁢   E   ⁢           ⁢       sin   ⁡     (       ω   ⁢           ⁢   t     +       δ   ⁡     (   t   )       2       )       ·     cos   ⁡     (       δ   ⁡     (   t   )       2     )               
 
         [0069]      FIG. 6  illustrates the voltage phasor diagram of the general two-source system illustrated in  FIG. 5 . As shown, the swing center voltage (SCV) is represented as the phasor extending from origin o to the point o′. When a two-source system illustrated by  FIG. 5  loses stability and a power swing condition occurs after some disturbance, the angle difference of two sources, δ(t), will increase as a function of time. In the equation set forth above, SCV(t) is the instantaneous swing center voltage. SCV(t) is a typical magnitude-modulated sinusoidal waveform. The first sine term is the base sinusoidal wave, or the carrier, with an average frequency of  
       ω   +         δ   ⁡     (   t   )       2     .           
 The second term is the cosine magnitude modulation. 
 
         [0070]      FIG. 7  illustrates a representation of a positive-sequence swing center voltage having a given average frequency and a constant slip frequency. When the frequency of a sinusoidal input is different from that assumed in its phasor calculation as is in the case of a power swing condition, oscillations in the phasor magnitude result. However, the magnitude calculation in  FIG. 7  is smooth because the positive-sequence quantity effectively averages out the magnitude oscillations of individual phases, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art.  
         [0071]     As shown in  FIG. 7 , the magnitude of the swing center voltage changes between zero and one per unit of system nominal voltage. The voltage magnitude is forced to zero every given time period based upon the given slip frequency. The carrier in adjacent modulation cycles is similar, but its instantaneous values have opposite signs because the modulation frequency is half of the slip frequency.  
         [0072]     Preferably, the present invention utilizes the following approximation of the swing center voltage using locally available quantities: 
        SCV≈|V S |·cos φ, where |V S | is the magnitude of the local measured voltage, and φ is the angle difference between the phasor representation of the local source voltage V S  and the phasor representation of the local current I, as shown in the phasor diagram of  FIG. 8 . As further illustrated by  FIG. 8 , the approximation of the swing center voltage is a projection of the local source voltage phasor representation onto the axis of the current phasor representation. For a homogeneous system with the system impedance angle θ close to 90°, the above approximation of the swing center voltage is sufficiently accurate. Moreover, for the purpose of power swing detection, it is the rate of change of the swing center voltage that provides the primary means of detection. Therefore, some differences in magnitude between the true system swing center voltage and its approximation made using locally measured values has little impact in detecting power swings.        
 
         [0074]     For purposes of this invention, it will be appreciated that either the true swing center voltage or the approximation set forth above can be used, although it will be understood that use of the approximation is more practical. The two are used herein interchangeably and reference to swing center voltage in the claims shall be construed to cover both the true swing center voltage and the approximation thereof.  
         [0075]     From the preceding equations, the relation between the SCV and the phase angle difference  8  of two source voltage phasors can be simplified to:  
         SCV   ⁢           ⁢   1     =     E   ⁢           ⁢     1   ·     cos   ⁡     (     δ   2     )               
 
 In this equation, E 1  represents the positive-sequence source magnitude equal to E S1  that is assumed to be also equal to E R1 . SCV 1  in the equation represents the positive-sequence swing-center voltage, used for power swing detection due to its desired smooth magnitude during the occurrence of a power swing condition. The absolute value of the swing center voltage is at its maximum when the angle between the two sources  102 ,  106  ( FIG. 5 ) is zero and is at its minimum or zero when the angle is one hundred eighty degrees. A power swing can be detected then by evaluating the rate of change of the swing-center voltage. The time derivative of the positive-sequence swing center voltage (SCV 1 ) then becomes:  
           ⅆ     (     SCV   ⁢           ⁢   1     )         ⅆ   t       =       -       E   ⁢           ⁢   1     2       ⁢     sin   ⁡     (     δ   2     )       ⁢       ⅆ   δ       ⅆ   t             
 
 This equation provides the relation between the rate of change of the swing center voltage and the slip frequency of the two source system (dδ/dt). As will be appreciated, the derivative of the swing center voltage is independent from the network impedances and is at its maximum value when the angle between the sources is one hundred eighty degrees. On the other hand, when the angle between the two sources is zero, the rate of change of the swing center voltage is at its minimum, specifically equal to zero. 
 
         [0076]     Two differences exist between the true system swing-center voltage and its approximation arrived at by measuring local values. First, when there is no load flowing on a transmission line, the current from a line terminal is essentially the line charging current that leads the local source voltage by approximately ninety degrees. In this case, the approximation of the swing center voltage is close to zero and does not represent the true system swing-center voltage. Second, the approximated swing center voltage has a sign change in its value when the phase difference angle δ of two equivalent sources goes through zero degrees. The true system swing-center voltage does not have this discontinuity. These differences, however, do not impact the ability of the approximated swing center voltage to be used for power swing detection, because such detection is primarily based on the rate of change of the swing center voltage.  
         [0077]      FIG. 9  illustrates a block diagram representing a no-setting power swing detection technique that, in turn, can be used to cause relay blocking. While this invention is described and illustrated in terms of being implemented using logic “gates” and other electronic components, it will be understood that a preferred implementation of the present invention is carried out by software or firmware. The logic “gates” illustrated in this application are therefore functions and operations that may be performed by various implementations known in the art, such as solid state electronic circuits, software code and/or firmware, for example. Accordingly, the description herein shall constitute and shall be understood to be a description of these various means of implementing the noted logic for carrying out the subject invention.  
         [0078]     Referring back to  FIG. 9 , as shown, a dependable power swing detector  114 , a swing-center voltage slope detector  116 , and a swing signature detector  118  are used to detect the occurrence of a power swing condition. Also included are reset logic  120  and three-phase fault detector  122 . Upon detection of a power swing condition, the power swing detection signal (PSB) is generated and may be used to enable a relay blocking function.  
         [0079]     In operation, the swing-center voltage slope detector  116  monitors the absolute value of the positive-sequence swing-center voltage time rate-of-change (|d(SCV 1 )/dt|), the magnitude of the positive-sequence swing-center voltage (|SCV 1 |), and the output of a discontinuity detector. Upon the detection of a power swing condition by measurement of a sufficiently large value of |d(SCV 1 )/dt|, the swing-center voltage slope detector  116  generates a slope detector output SLD, which in turn causes the generation of the power swing detection signal (PSB) through OR logic or gate  124 .  
         [0080]     Slope detector  116  will produce an output signal SLD only when the absolute value of the time rate-of-change of the positive-sequence swing center voltage is within a predetermined range defined by maximum and minimum thresholds, the magnitude of the positive-sequence swing center voltage is correspondingly within a predetermined range defined by maximum and a minimum threshold values, and the positive-sequence impedance measured by the distance relay is within a predetermined starter zone. The output SLD of slope detector  116  is blocked any time the absolute value of the time rate-of-change of the positive-sequence swing center voltage exceeds its predetermined maximum threshold or the absolute value of the discontinuity detector exceeds a predetermined maximum threshold.  
         [0081]     The minimum and maximum thresholds for the rate-of-change of the positive-sequence swing center voltage determine the measurement interval of the slip frequency for a classical two-source equivalent system model, such as that illustrated in  FIG. 5 . Preferably, these maximum and minimum thresholds are set with a security factor that guarantees that a slip frequency between 0.1 to 7 Hz will be covered.  
         [0082]     Slope detector  116  is used to detect the majority of the occurrences of power swing conditions. However, in certain circumstances, slope detector  116  may not operate. For this reason, slope detector  116  is supplemented with the dependable power swing detector  114  and the swing signature detector  118 .  
         [0083]     The swing signature detector  118  is used to distinguish between a power swing and a real fault at the moment the outermost distance element to be blocked by the power swing detection picks up. Ordinarily, the slope detector  116  will detect a power swing first and will cause the power swing detection signal (PSB) to be generated. The PSB signal in turn will block the mho fault detectors and the swing signature detector  118  logic will not be processed.  
         [0084]     In operation, the swing signature detector  118  preferably continuously stores the absolute value of the first-order derivative of the positive-sequence swing center voltage in a three-cycle buffer memory for a predetermined period of time constituting a few cycles. The maximum value of this buffer memory is then established. If the detected fault is a real fault, this slope maximum value will be very high because a discontinuity has occurred in the positive-sequence swing center voltage waveform. Preferably, eight of the older, stored samples are then compared to this maximum value. If the fault is real, the eight samples used for comparison will be below a variable threshold that is proportional to the slope maximum value. If, on the other hand, the fault is due to a power swing, no discontinuity will appear in the buffer and all of the compared old samples will be above the same variable threshold, causing the swing signature detector  118  to assert a signal at its output SSD and, in turn generate the power swing detection signal PSB through OR logic or gate  126 .  
         [0085]     The dependable power swing detector  114  will cause the power swing detection signal PSB to be generated in situations where neither the slope detector  116  nor the swing signature detector  118  can detect a power swing fast enough. An example of such circumstances is when a power swing condition occurs immediately following the clearance of a lasting external fault. Under circumstances such as this, the dependable power swing detector  114  will assert a temporary signal at its output DPSB, causing the power swing detection signal PSB to be generated through OR logic or gate  124 . The dependable power swing detector  114  will assert a signal at its output DPSB for a predetermined period of time that will permit the slope detector  116  to detect the occurrence of a power swing condition. Thus, the dependable power swing detector  114  compensates for the pickup delay of the slope detector  116 .  
         [0086]     Reset logic  120  is used to reset the power swing detection signal PSB and thereby disenable the responsive relay blocking function upon recession of the power swing condition. Recession of the power swing condition is primarily detected because the rate-of-change of the positive-sequence swing center voltage signal falls to a very small value. In response, the reset logic  120  asserts a signal at its output RST, which is sent to the reset terminal of a set/reset flip-flop  128 , as shown in  FIG. 9 . The set terminal of flip flop  128  is fed by the output of OR logic or gate  126 , which is enabled when either of the slope or swing signature detectors  116 ,  118  are activated. The output terminal of flip flop  128  is coupled to one of the inputs for OR logic or gate  124 .  
         [0087]     The three-phase detector  122  generates a signal at its output DTF upon detection of a three-phase fault on a transmission line during a power swing. Consequently, the power swing detection signal PSB is blocked from being generated at AND logic or gate  130 . In turn, the relay blocking function is disenabled. The use of the three-phase detector  122  is possible because if a three-phase fault occurs on a transmission line during a power-swing, a discontinuity will be present on the corresponding positive-sequence swing center voltage waveform. This discontinuity can be detected by monitoring and detecting when the positive-sequence swing center voltage and its time rate-of-change are relatively very low, and when its second derivative is relatively high. This permits the three-phase fault detector  122  to be very fast and independent from the swing speed.  
         [0088]     A starter zone is preferably used with the power swing detection and responsive relay blocking function, allowing the power swing detection signal PSB to be generated only when the positive sequence impedance Z 1  has a trajectory on the impedance plane with a chance to cross any of the relay operating characteristics during a power swing. Advantageously, with the present invention, the area covered by this preferred starter zone is not critical and can be defined to be a rectangle, the dimensions of which are automatically set so that the zone will encompass all of the relay operating characteristics that must be blocked during a stable power swing condition. The starter zone will preferably also encompass the largest relay operating characteristic used in the unstable power swing detection and tripping logic, if a user enables that function.  
         [0089]     During the occurrence of a power swing condition and upon the generation of the power swing detection signal PSB, only phase-faults are blocked by the PSB signal and prevent relay activation. Ground-faults are not blocked by the power swing detection signal PSB because a power swing is a three-phase balanced phenomenon. Therefore, preferably, three-phase and phase-to-phase faults are detected so that the relay blocking function can be disabled, allowing such faults to be cleared during the occurrence of the power swing. In order to detect phase-to-phase faults, a directional overcurrent element based on a negative-sequence directional element can be used.  
         [0090]     If a power swing is detected during an open-pole situation, the ground-faults detector is preferably blocked because, under these circumstances, the power swing is not balanced. Detection of any subsequent fault is important and can be carried out by monitoring the phasor angle ratio of the zero-sequence current over the negative-sequence current. For example, if phase-A is open, the angle ratio normally lies between −60° and 60°. If a fault occurs on phase-B or phase-C, or both, the relation no longer holds and the relays would be allowed to clear such faults.  
         [0091]      FIG. 10  also illustrates the no-setting power swing detection technique illustrated in  FIG. 9  but shows details of a preferred circuit that may be used to implement the reset logic  120 . The logic shown in  FIG. 10  is used to set and reset the power swing detection signal PSB, which is used to provide relay blocking. As will be appreciated, the power swing detection signal PSB is controlled by the output of SR flip-flop  128 . As shown, swing-center voltage (SCV) slope detector  116  and swing signature detector  118  are used to set the flip-flop  128 . Preferred circuit implementations of these two system elements are illustrated in  FIGS. 12 and 14 , respectively. A preferred circuit implementation of the dependable power swing detector  114  is illustrated in  FIG. 15 . As shown in  FIG. 10 , dependable power swing detector  114  supplements the swing-center voltage slope detector  116  and the swing signature detector  118 .  
         [0092]     Still referring to  FIG. 10 , the power swing detection signal PSB is set when the output signal SD of slope detector  116  goes HIGH. Slope detector  116  measures the time-derivative of the swing-center voltage and will detect most power swing conditions.  
         [0093]     The power swing detection signal PSB will also be set when the output signal SSD of swing signature detector  118  goes HIGH. Swing signature detector  118  detects a power swing only if the power swing causes one of the outermost zone mho-phase elements, desired to be blocked, to pick-up. If there is a power swing with no pick-up by such a mho-phase element, SSD will not be asserted.  
         [0094]     The power swing detection signal PSB will also be set when the output signal DPSB of the dependable power swing detector  114  goes HIGH. The dependable power swing detector  114  does not control flip-flop  128  and is used in those relatively infrequent occasions when slope detector  116  and swing signature detector  118  fail to detect a power swing. As further shown in  FIG. 10 , the power swing detection signal PSB is inhibited during the occurrence of a three-phase fault, permitting the relays to operate and clear any such faults.  
         [0095]     The reset logic  120  is preferably implemented with a plurality of logic gates including comparators  131 - 133 , OR gates  134 - 137 , AND gates  138 - 140 , and counters  141 - 143 . The circuit elements are preferably coupled as shown in  FIG. 10 .  
         [0096]     The power swing detection signal PSB will be reset as a result of the reset logic  120  causing flip-flop  128  to be reset. In the illustrated example, a reset signal will be sent to flip-flop  128  when the unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping or pole slipping function is not enabled, EOOST is set to O in  FIG. 10 , and when the positive sequence swing-center voltage SCV 1  magnitude goes below 0.85 Volts per unit per cycle (V(pu)/cycle) or the positive sequence impedance Z 1  goes outside the starter zone for a time interval greater than 0.5 seconds. A reset signal will also be sent to flip-flop  128  when the unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping or pole slipping function is enabled, EOOST is set to I in  FIG. 10 , and the positive sequence impedance Z 1  stays outside a predetermined zone defined by the unstable power swing detection logic (referred to as zone  7  in  FIG. 10 ) for an interval of time greater than 0.5 seconds. Still further, a reset signal will be sent to flip-flop  128  when the magnitude of the slow derivative of the positive-sequence swing center voltage |dSCV 1 _S| falls below 0.0026 V(pu)/cycle for more than ten cycles and a fault is not detected in the same time. It has been observed that, for the illustrated case, the threshold of 0.0026 V(pu)/cyc is the value of the minimum detectable swing center voltage rate of change. A reset signal will also be sent to flip-flop  128  when the ultra-fast derivative of the positive-sequence swing center voltage |dSCV 1 _UF| exceeds 0.55 V(pu)/cycle for more than four cycles. It has been observed that, for the illustrated case, the threshold of 0.55 V(pu)/cyc is the maximum boundary for the measurement of the swing center voltage rate of change.  
         [0097]     The preceding circumstances refer to instances where the power swing detection signal PSB will be reset by flip-flop  128  and the relay blocking function will be inhibited. The examples used refer to time derivatives for the positive sequence swing-center voltage signal SCV 1 .  FIG. 11  illustrates the measurement of the first and second time derivatives for the positive sequence swing-center voltage signal SCV 1 , including slow, fast, ultra-fast and unfiltered derivatives, as shown. These derivatives are used in the preceding examples and in other examples set forth in this disclosure. In particular, the preferred circuits used to implement swing center voltage slope detector  116  and swing signature detector  118  require these measurements to operate.  
         [0098]     Preferably, function processing is carried out every eighth of one cycle. As such, there are four types of first-order time derivatives and a single second-order time derivative applicable. Referring to  FIG. 11 , the positive sequence voltage V 1  and positive sequence current I 1  are received from a full-cycle cosine filter (not shown). When a pole-open condition exists, it is important that the corresponding voltage and current are set to zero when the computation of the positive sequence voltage and current are performed. Doing otherwise can lead to a very noisy positive sequence swing center voltage SCV 1  and positive sequence impedance Z 1 . Noise becomes particularly noxious when the derivatives of SCV 1  are measured.  
         [0099]     The positive sequence impedance Z 1  is calculated as shown in the formula within box  150 . Similarly, the positive sequence swing-center voltage is established using the positive sequence voltage V 1  and current I 1  as shown in the formula within box  152 . SCV 1 _Unflt represents the unfiltered normalized (per unit) positive sequence swing center voltage. The unfiltered first order derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _Unflt) is computed by taking the difference over two samples of the unfiltered swing center voltage (SCV 1 _Unflt), as represented by box  154 . The positive sequence swing center voltage SCV 1  is the product of passing the unfiltered per unit positive sequence swing center voltage SCV 1 _Unflt through a low-pass fourth-order Butterworth filter  156  with a cut-off frequency at fifty hertz. The ultra-fast first order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _UF) is computed by taking the difference between two successive samples of the positive sequence swing center voltage (SCV 1 ), as represented by block  158 . The ultra-fast second order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (d 2 SCV 1 _UF), also referred to as the discontinuity detector, is computed by taking the difference over one sample interval of the ultra-fast first order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _UF), as represented by block  160 . The fast first-order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _F) is computed by taking a three-point average of the ultra-fast first-order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _UF), as represented by block  162 . Finally, the slow first-order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _S) is computed by taking an eight-point average of the ultra-fast first order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _UF), as represented by block  164 .  
         [0100]      FIG. 12  illustrates a preferred circuit used to implement the swing-center voltage slope detector logic  116 , which performs the primary functions related to power swing detection and responsive relay blocking. Swing center voltage slope detector  116  detects a power swing by monitoring the time rate of change of the swing center voltage signal. The minimum and maximum values for the useful rate-of-change interval that will be measured are defined establishing parameters for detection of power swing conditions. As derived above, assuming the output voltage E for a two-machine system with a transmission line between the two machines, the swing center voltage SCV and the angle difference  8  between the two sources is given by:  
       SCV   =     E   ⁢           ⁢     cos   ⁡     (     δ   2     )               
 Furthermore, the first order time derivative of the swing center voltage, given as a function of the rate of change of the angle between the two machines, is given by:  
           ⅆ     (   SCV   )         ⅆ   t       =       -     E   2       ⁢     sin   ⁡     (     δ   2     )       ⁢       ⅆ   δ       ⅆ   t               
 The rate of change of the angle between the two machines dδ/dt is also called the slip frequency. When setting the desired interval of the slip frequency for detection of a power swing, it is important to determine the corresponding safe interval for the rate of change of the swing center voltage (d(SCV)/dt). The interval chosen for this preferred example is a slip frequency between 0.1 and 7 hertz. For the purpose of computing the upper boundary, the maximum value of the derivative of the swing center voltage will occur when δ is close to one hundred eighty degrees. Expressing the rate of change of the swing center voltage in per unit value of the rated voltage per cycle and introducing a security factor of 1.5 yields:  
         max   ⁡     (       ⅆ     (   SCV   )         ⅆ   t       )       =       -       1.5   ⁢           ⁢   2   ⁢           ⁢   π   ⁢           ⁢   7       2   ⁢           ⁢   60         =     0.55   ⁢           ⁢       V   ⁡     (   pu   )       /   cyc               
 Computing the lower boundary corresponding to a slip frequency of 0.1 Hz and introducing a security factor of two yields:  
         min   ⁡     (       ⅆ     (   SCV   )         ⅆ   t       )       =       -       2   ⁢           ⁢   π   ⁢           ⁢   0.1       2   ⁢           ⁢   2   ⁢           ⁢   60         =     0.0026   ⁢           ⁢       V   ⁡     (   pu   )       /   cyc               
         [0101]     Referring to  FIG. 12 , the swing center voltage slope detector logic preferably includes, as shown, a plurality of logic gates including comparators  170 - 178 , OR gates  179 - 185 , AND gates  186 - 195 , and counters  196 - 200 . These circuit elements are preferably coupled in the manner shown in  FIG. 12 .  
         [0102]     In operation, if the absolute value of the ultra-fast first-order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (|dSCV 1 _UF|) is greater than the maximum value established above (0.55 V(pu)/cyc), as determined by comparator  170 , measurement of the variation of the swing center voltage is inhibited. Counter  196  functions as a dropout timer and extends the inhibition for a half cycle when the condition is removed.  
         [0103]     The same inhibition is applicable when the ultra-fast second order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (|d 2 SCV 1 _UF|), also known as the discontinuity detector, is greater than 0.23, as determined by comparator  171 , and |dSCV 1 _UF| is greater than 0.2, as determined by comparator  172 . These two conditions ensure that no measurement is made of the time rate of change of the swing center voltage when the maximum rate-of-change is exceeded and/or when the discontinuity detector reflects that one or more select changes have occurred on the network (fault or other). If a fault is detected on the network (at least one of M 2 P to M 5 P go HIGH at OR gate  179 ), measurement of the rate of change of swing center voltage is also inhibited during the duration of the fault detection. This ensures that a power swing condition is not detected during a fault, which would block select relay operation. Consequently, the fault will be cleared.  
         [0104]     Comparators  173  and  174  monitor a negative time-change of the positive sequence swing center voltage. The minimum rate of change threshold for this example established above (−0.0026 V(pu)/cyc) is compared with the slow first order derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _S), at comparator  174 . If this slow derivative is below the minimum threshold for at least five cycles, as determined by counter  198 , the condition is recognized. Similarly, time-rates below −0.0172 V(pu)/cyc are detected by the fast first order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _F) and must last 1.75 cycles before they are detected, as determined by comparator  173  and timer  197 .  
         [0105]     Comparators  175  and  176  monitor a positive time change of the positive sequence swing center voltage. For this example, the minimum detectable change is 0.0026 V(pu)/cyc, as established above. This minimum change is compared with the slow first order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _S) at comparator  176  and as before, the change has to be present for at least five cycles to be detected, as determined by counter  200 . Similarly, changes above 0.0172 V(pu)/cyc are detected by the fast first order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (dSCV 1 _F), at comparator  175 , and must last 1.75 cycles before they are detected, as determined by counter  199 .  
         [0106]     Upon detection of the occurrence of any significant rate of change of the swing center voltage, the output of OR gate  183  goes HIGH. As a result, the swing center voltage slope detector signal SLD will be asserted when the absolute value of the positive sequence swing center voltage is less than 0.85 pu, as determined by comparator  177 , and the location of the positive sequence impedance (Z  1 ) is inside the starter zone, as determined by AND gate  193 , and the absolute value of the positive sequence swing center voltage exceeds 0.05, as determined by comparator  178  and AND gate  194 . Alternatively, when there is a significant rate of change of the swing center voltage causing the output of OR gate  183  to go HIGH, the swing center voltage slope detector signal SLD will assert if an unstable power swing is detected (i.e., EOOST=I, O, C) and if the positive sequence impedance (Z 1 ) is inside a predetermined zone (referred to as zone  7 ).  
         [0107]      FIG. 13  illustrates the calculation of the maximum unfiltered first order time derivative of the positive swing center voltage used in the preferred circuit implementation of the swing signature detector logic illustrated in  FIG. 14 .  FIG. 13  also illustrates the calculation of the average ultra-fast second order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage used in the preferred circuit implementation of the dependable power swing detector logic illustrated in  FIG. 15 .  
         [0108]     The upper portion of  FIG. 13  illustrates a twenty-four sample memory buffer used to store the unfiltered first order time derivatives of the positive sequence swing center voltage over three cycles at a processing rate of eight samples per cycle. The input to the memory buffer comes from a differentiator-smoother output, specifically block  154  of  FIG. 11 . The maximum unfiltered first order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage is determined from the absolute values of the past three-cycle derivatives saved. In this example, an index with a higher value represents a more recent swing center voltage derivative result. Index (k) represents the present swing center voltage derivative, while index (k−23) represents a swing center voltage derivative at the time instant of −23 samples.  
         [0109]     The lower portion of  FIG. 13  illustrates a nineteen sample memory buffer used to store the ultra-fast second order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (discontinuity detector) for the past 2.375 cycles, as output from block  160  of  FIG. 11 . A control bit, referred to as Freeze Averages in  FIG. 11 , is used with this calculation. When the control bit is not asserted, the average ultra-fast second order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage is calculated as the average of absolute values of saved second derivatives from samples k−1 to k−18, skipping the present sample k. When the control bit is asserted, the average ultra-fast second order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage takes the previous calculated value.  
         [0110]      FIG. 14  illustrates a preferred circuit implementation of the swing signature detector logic  118 . The swing signature detector logic  118  is designed to block or inhibit the operation of the distance elements prone to operate improperly during power swing conditions. The swing signature detector logic  118  uses the most overreaching distance element subject to power swing blocking as the detection boundary. Therefore, no additional power swing detection zones are required. At the time that the most overreaching distance element picks up, the swing signature detector logic  118  evaluates the unfiltered first order time derivatives of the positive sequence swing center voltage saved in the three cycle memory buffer as illustrated in  FIG. 13  and finds the signature differentiating power swings from faults. If the swing signature detector logic  118  determines that the distance element pickup is due to a power swing, then the logic asserts its output signal SSD, which, in turn, causes the distance element output stage to block the distance element from operation. If there is a power swing condition on the system, but the swing does not cause any distance elements subject to power swing blocking to pick up, then the swing signature detector logic  118  is inactive.  
         [0111]     Preferably, the swing signature detector logic  118  and, for that matter, the rest of the power swing detection logic, is processed after the distance element logic and before the final distance element output (trip) logic.  
         [0112]     The preferred circuit implementation of the swing signature detector logic  118  includes a plurality of logic gates including comparators  210 - 219  (with comparators  212 - 216  not shown in  FIG. 14 ), OR gates  220 - 223 , AND gates  224 - 237 , counters  238 - 239 , and summation element/adder  240 . These circuit elements are preferably coupled as shown in  FIG. 14 .  
         [0113]     In operation, if the transmission line section protected is not in a single-pole-open condition (SPO is LOW), the AND gates  228 - 231  and OR gate  239  monitor the most overreaching phase distance element subject to power swing detection and responsive relay blocking. When the most overreaching phase distance element picks up, the AND gate  239  allows the element to output if the output of AND gate  235  is LOW. The output of AND gate  235  is conditioned upon system unbalanced protection logic picking up and its pickup duration being less than eight cycles without the single-pole-open (SPO) condition, as determined by AND gates  232 ,  235  and counter  239 . The system unbalanced protection logic monitors the forward unbalanced condition on the system and is further explained with reference to  FIG. 17 . If that logic picks up at the time that the most overreaching phase distance element picks up, then the distance element indicates a fault condition because power swings are a balanced phenomenon without a single-pole-open condition. If the logic picks up for more than eight cycles without the single-pole-open condition on the line section under protection, then the condition indicates a possible single-pole-open condition of adjacent lines and will reset the system unbalanced protection logic on the phase distance element outputs through AND gate  239 .  
         [0114]     During a single-pole-open condition on the protected line, the AND gates  224 - 227  and OR gate  221  monitor the most overreaching ground distance element subject to power swing detection and responsive relay blocking. When the most overreaching ground distance element picks up, AND gate  233  allows the element to output if the output of OR gate  220  is asserted. OR gate  220  has inputs of PSBA, PSBB and PSBC elements that indicate a single-pole-open condition for each phase without any additional faults on the line. PSBA, PSBB and PSBC elements are further explained with reference to  FIG. 18 .  
         [0115]     The most overreaching phase and ground distance elements subject to power swing detection and responsive relay blocking are inputs to OR gate  223 , with its output connected to the input of the counter/timer  238 . Counter  238  has an instantaneous pickup time and a half cycle dropout time, as shown. Its purpose is to de-bounce the distance elements that may drop out and then pick up again for a brief duration during a clearance of a fault.  
         [0116]     At the rising edge of the output of counter  238 , provided the output of AND gate  236  is asserted, the output of AND gate  237  asserts to indicate a power swing condition. When a system operates at equilibrium/steady state, the swing center voltage time derivative is relatively close to zero. If a fault occurs on the system, the swing center voltage time derivative will jump to a relatively high value. Considering the total filtering delay of a typical microprocessor relay, the maximum swing center voltage time derivative caused by a fault will appear in the first cycle of the three cycle memory buffer. Comparators  210 - 217  compare the absolute values of the unfiltered first order time derivatives of the positive sequence swing center voltage from the oldest one cycle of the buffer with the maximum unfiltered first order time derivative of the positive sequence voltage, as derived from  FIG. 13 . The output of comparator  219  is asserted if the number of these derivatives that are greater than five percent of the maximum value is greater than or equal to two, as shown. The purpose of comparator  218  is to ensure that the maximum unfiltered first order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage is a valid value instead of noise. The output of AND gate  236  goes HIGH upon the occurrence of a disturbance on the system prior to distance element pickup.  
         [0117]      FIG. 15  illustrates the preferred circuit implementation for the dependable power swing detector  114 . For a system with a small stability margin, the system may start to swing during an external multi-phase fault. Depending on the system stability reserve margin, the fault clearance time and the fault type, the angle difference between two equivalent machines may already swing to a large value at the time of the fault clearance. Therefore, by the time the fault is cleared, the impedance measured by a distance relay may already reside in a protection zone subject to power swing blocking and the power swing detection logic will fail to operate to block the distance element operation.  
         [0118]     Due to the manner in which it operates, the swing signature detector logic  118  will correctly pick up and block the distance element in such situation if the initial fault is in the reverse direction. However, the swing center voltage slope detector  116  and the swing signature detector  118  will fail to block the distance element if the initial fault is in a forward distance zone subject to power swing detection and responsive relay blocking and the system starts to swing inside this distance zone after the fault is cleared.  
         [0119]     The dependable power swing detector logic  114  is designed to deal with these difficulties. As shown in  FIG. 15 , the preferred circuit implementation of dependable power swing detector logic  114  includes a plurality of logic gates, including comparators  250 - 251 , OR gates  252 - 256 , AND gates  257 - 268 , and counters  269 - 276 . The circuit elements are preferably coupled as shown in  FIG. 15 .  
         [0120]     The dependable power swing detector logic  114  is responsive to the detection of an external multi-phase fault. If the detected external multi-phase fault is on the system for two and one-half cycles without the power swing detection and responsive relay blocking operation and the local trip, then the dependable power swing detection logic will be initiated. If the zone-2 phase distance element picks up within one and one-half cycles of a reverse fault clearance, or if the zone-1 phase element picks up or the second time derivative of the swing center voltage has a sudden change after the dependable power swing detector logic is initiated, then a power swing condition is declared.  
         [0121]     Following the declaration of a power swing condition by the dependable power swing detector logic  114 , if the zone-2 distance element stays in a pickup state for more than one second, or the rate change of the positive-sequence impedance Z 1  is less than a predetermined minimum threshold for one and one half power cycles, then the power swing detection signal resets. These reset conditions are safety measurements in case an internal multi-phase fault does occur following the clearance of the external multi-phase fault. The rate of change of the impedance is a good indication if the disturbance evolves into an internal multi-phase fault. However, as a last line of defense, if the time that the zone-2 element picks up is determined to exceed a predetermined relatively very long period of time (one second in this example), the logic resets the power swing detection signal even if the positive sequence impedance rate change condition is not satisfied.  
         [0122]     The dependable power swing detection logic  114  considers external multi-phase faults only because the transient stability margin of a power system is sized under severe transient disturbances, such as three-phase or multi-phase faults.  
         [0123]     Referring to  FIG. 15 , in operation, DIR 3  is a relay setting that sets the direction of zone-3 distance elements. If DIR 3 =F, then the zone-3 distance elements detect faults that are in the forward direction. If DIR 3 =R, then the zone-3 distance elements detect faults that are in the reverse direction. M 3 P is a zone-3 phase distance element. The state of M 3 P is HIGH if any multi-phase faults are detected inside the zone-3 protection region. DIR 4  and M 4 P are the direction setting and phase distance element for zone-4 protection. DIR 5  and M 5 P are the direction setting and phase distance element for zone-5 protection. M 2 P is the zone-2 phase distance element that is fixed to the forward direction. MAB 12 , MBC 12  and MCA 12  are zone-1 phase distance elements with a fixed security pickup count.  
         [0124]     FF 1  is the output of the circuit illustrated in  FIG. 10 . When a power swing condition has been detected by the no-setting power swing detection circuit illustrated in  FIG. 10 , FF 1  is in a HIGH state. TRIP is the output of the relay trip logic. When TRIP is in a HIGH state, this is an indication that the relay has closed its contact output and energized a circuit breaker trip coil. MAB 2 _I, MBC 2 _I and MCA 2 _I are zone-2 phase elements taken before the security counters in the phase zone-2 mho logic.  
         [0125]     A two-input AND gate  257  outputs the zone-3 phase distance element, M 3 P, to a three-input OR gate  252 , if the zone-3 direction is set to reverse. Similarly, AND gates  258 ,  259  output zone-4 and zone-5 phase distance elements, M 4 P and M 5 P respectively, to OR gate  252 , if their directions are set to reverse-looking. The output of OR gate  252  therefore represents any multi-phase faults behind the relay that are inside zone-3, zone-4 or zone-5 protection regions when they are set as reverse-looking protection elements.  
         [0126]     The output of OR gate  252  is coupled to a three-input AND gate  263 , which also receives inputs from existing relay elements, TRIP and FF 1 . The output of AND gate  263  indicates a condition that there is a reverse multi-phase fault without the power swing condition detected and the relay is not issuing a trip output. The output of AND gate  263  is then fed to a counter or delay pickup timer  269 , which has a 2.5-cycle delay pickup time and an instantaneous dropout time. The falling edge of the output of delay pickup timer  269  feeds to a counter or timer  270 , which has an instantaneous pickup timer and a one and one-half cycle delay dropout time, as shown. The output of timer  270  serves as one of the inputs for a two-input AND gate  264 . The other input of AND gate  264  is fed by the output of counter or timer  273 . The input to timer  273  is the output of OR gate  256 , which is a function of MAB 2 _I, MBC 2 _I and MCA 2 _I, identified above. The output of timer  273  is therefore any internal zone-2 phase element pickups that are de-bounced by a 0.25-cycle delay dropout time, as shown.  
         [0127]     The two-input AND gates  260 - 262  route zone-3, zone-4 or zone-5 phase distance elements to a four-input OR gate  253 , if their directions are set as forward. Zone-2 phase distance element M 2 P is the fourth input of OR gate  253 . The directionality of zone-2 phase element is fixed as forward-looking only. The output of OR gate  253  therefore represents any multi-phase faults in the front of the relay that are inside zone-2, zone-3, zone-4 or zone-5 protection regions when zone-3, zone-4 or zone-5 are set as forward-looking protection elements.  
         [0128]     The output of OR gate  253  is an input to the three-input AND gate  265 . The other two inputs of AND gate  265  come from existing relay elements, TRIP and PSB. The output of AND gate  265  indicates a condition that there is a forward multi-phase fault without the power swing condition detected and the relay is not issuing a trip output. The output of AND gate  265  is then fed to a counter or delay pickup timer  271 , which has a two and one-half cycle delay pickup time and an instantaneous dropout time.  
         [0129]     The output of delay pickup timer  271  is fed to one of the inputs of a two-input AND gate  266 . The other input of AND gate  266  is fed by the output of the four-input OR gate  254 . Three of the four inputs of OR gate  254  are three zone-1 phase distance elements, MAB 12 , MBC 12  and MCA 12 . These zone-1 phase elements differ from the normal zone-1 phase distance elements, MAB 1 , MBC 1  and MCA 1  in that MA 12 , MBC 12  and MCA 12  are faster than MAB 1 , MBC 1 , and MCA 1 , respectively. The other input of OR gate  254  is fed by the output of counter or timer  272 , which has a two-processing-count delay pickup time and an instantaneous dropout time. The input of timer  272  is fed by the output of comparator  250 , which is in a HIGH state when the ultra-fast second order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage exceeds two times its average (as calculated in  FIG. 13 ), plus 0.06. The output of AND gate  266  represents a condition that either a zone-1 multi-phase fault has been detected, or the second order time derivative of the swing center voltage has a sudden change after a forward overreach zone detects a multi-phase fault for two and one-half power cycles.  
         [0130]     The rising edge of the output of AND gate  266  feeds one input of three-input OR gate  255 . When the output of AND  266  transitions HIGH, the input of OR gate  255  goes HIGH for one processing cycle. Otherwise, that input is LOW. Another input of OR gate  255  is fed by the output of AND gate  264 , causing the output of OR gate  255  to go HIGH for one processing cycle upon the output of AND gate  264  transitioning HIGH.  
         [0131]     The output of OR gate  255  feeds counter or qualifying timer  276 . Timer  276  has a 0.125-cycle delay pickup time and an instantaneous dropout time. The delay pickup time of timer  273  must be less than the time difference between MAB 12 , MBC 12  and MCA 12  element pickup time and MAB 1 , MBC 1  and MCA 1  element pickup time when their adaptive pickup time is at the upper value.  
         [0132]     Comparator  251 , AND gates  267 - 268 , and two counters/timers  274 - 275  form a seal-in and unlatch logic for the output of OR gate  255 . Once the output of OR gate  255  is initially asserted by either a rising edge of the output of AND gate  264  or a rising edge of the output of AND gate  266 , the output of OR gate  255  is sealed in as long as the output of AND gate  268  is in a HIGH state.  
         [0133]     The positive input of comparator  251  is fixed as the Z 1 MAG setting, which corresponds to the secondary ohm value of the transmission line under protection. |Z 1   k −Z 1   k-1 |*8*fnom is the absolute value of the rate change of the positive-sequence impedance, Z 1 , scaled to ohms per second. With the assumptions of a maximum power swing detection period of two seconds and the total system impedance equaling one and one-half times the line impedance, the minimum value of this quantity is (3π/8) times Z 1 MAG, which occurs when the phase difference (δ) is equal to one hundred eighty degrees. For convenience, a value of 1.0 may be used to approximate (3π/8). The output of comparator  251  indicates a condition that the time rate change of the positive-sequence impedance is smaller than the minimum value of the rate of change that results from a legitimate power swing condition.  
         [0134]     The output of comparator  251  feeds a two-input AND gate  267 . The other input of AND gate  267  is fed by the output of OR gate  255 . Timer  274  has a one and one-half cycle delay pickup time and an instantaneous dropout time, as shown. Timer  274  qualifies the output of AND gate  267  accordingly. This output is asserted when the output of OR gate  255  is HIGH and the impedance rate of change has fallen below a minimum value for at least 1.5 cycles.  
         [0135]     The output of timer  267  feeds an active LOW input of a four-input AND gate  268 . AND gate  268  has another active LOW input fed by the output of timer  275 . The input of timer  275  is fed by the output of AND gate  268 , creating a feedback-type relationship, as shown. Timer  275  has a delay pickup time of one second and an instantaneous dropout time, as shown. AND gate has two more inputs, one is fed by the output of timer  273  and the other is fed by the output of OR gate  255 .  
         [0136]     When the output of OR gate  255  is asserted and the internal zone-2 elements stay picking up, the output of AND gate  268  will be asserted, provided that the outputs from timers  274 - 275  remain LOW. The output of AND gate  268  feeds OR gate  255  and latches its output. The output of AND  268  can be reset when its output asserts for more than one second or when the impedance rate of change is below a predetermined minimum threshold for more than one and one-half power cycles.  
         [0137]     The dependable power swing detection signal DPSB is the final output of the dependable power swing detector  114 . This signal DPSB complements the remainder of the no-setting power swing detection and responsive relay blocking scheme to increase the dependability of stable power swing detection after an external multi-phase fault is cleared.  
         [0138]      FIG. 16  illustrates a preferred circuit implementation of three-phase fault detector  122 , which is included in order to detect the occurrence of three-phase faults during power swing conditions and inhibit the relay blocking function until such time as the detected three-phase fault is cleared. Three-phase fault detector  122  preferably includes a plurality of logic gates, including comparators  280 - 293 , AND gates  284 - 287 , counters or timers  288 - 291 , and OR gate  292  arranged and coupled as shown in  FIG. 16 .  
         [0139]     The magnitude of the discontinuity detector (|d 2 SCV 1 _UF|) will exceed 0.23 when a change has taken place on the network that could be a fault. The output of timer  228  will agree when this condition exists. Timer  228  has a dropout time of six cycles.  
         [0140]     The output of timer  289  will assert only when the following conditions occur for more than two power cycles: the magnitude of the slow first order time derivative of the positive sequence swing center voltage (|dSCV 1 _S|) must fall below 0.01; the magnitude of the positive sequence swing center voltage (SCV 1 ) must fall below 0.1; the flip-flop  128  illustrated in  FIG. 10  must be asserted; and the positive sequence impedance (Z 1 ) location must be within a predetermined inner zone.  
         [0141]     A three-phase fault is detected if timer  288  and timer  289  are asserted. In response, three-phase fault detection signal DTF will be asserted.  
         [0142]     If timer  288  is not asserted and the conditions referenced above causing timer  289  to be asserted last for more than five cycles, the output of timer  290  is asserted, as shown. In response, a three-phase fault is detected and the three-phase fault detection signal DTF is asserted.  
         [0143]     If flip-flop  128  (see  FIG. 10 ) is asserted, the positive sequence impedance (Z 1 ) is within the predetermined inner zone, the magnitude of the positive sequence swing center voltage is less than 0.1 and all three conditions exist for more than ten cycles, a three phase fault is detected, as determined by AND gate  285 , comparator  283  and timer  291 . Consequently, three-phase fault detection signal DTF is asserted through OR gate  292 .  
         [0144]     Referring back to  FIG. 10 , when the three-phase fault detection signal DTF is asserted upon the detection of a three-phase fault, the power swing detection signal PSB is inhibited to permit the three-phase fault to be cleared.  
         [0145]     During a three-phase fault, the positive sequence swing-center voltage SCV 1  is expected to take a low value. It has been observed that for lines with a lower angle, the positive sequence swing center voltage could exceed 0.1 during a three-phase fault. For this reason, the maximum value of 0.1 or the cosine of the line angle serves as the threshold value for comparators  281 ,  283  in  FIG. 16 .  
         [0146]      FIG. 17  illustrates system unbalanced protection logic  300  designed to detect an unbalanced system condition in the relay forward direction. This logic  300  is preferably incorporated within the swing signature detector logic  118  and is preferably also incorporated in the phase mho logic to reset the power swing detection condition. As illustrated, logic  300  preferably includes comparators  301 ,  302 , counters or timers  303 ,  304  and AND gate  305 .  
         [0147]     The system unbalanced condition represented by the negative-sequence current I 2  is qualified by requiring its magnitude be greater than a 2  (defined herein) times the magnitude of the positive-sequence current I 1 . Setting a 2  is an existing relay setting that is normally set to above normal unbalance of the system coming from different line conductor arrangements and/or untranposed lines. The negative-sequence quantity always has a transient output when there is a line-switching event. The total system filtering and the negative-sequence filtering determine the duration of the transient. With filters used in typical distance relays, the transient duration is less than one and one-half cycles. The timer  303  is therefore set to qualify the unbalanced condition by requiring the output of comparator  301  to last for more than one and one-half cycles.  
         [0148]     Comparator  302  qualifies the quantity of the positive-sequence current by requiring it be greater than 0.1 times the nominal current setting In. During a power swing condition, the phase current magnitude oscillates. To prevent the system unbalanced protection logic from dropping out during a current minimum, timer  304  is set with a half-cycle delay dropout time to support the qualification of the I 1  during a power swing condition.  
         [0149]     As shown in  FIG. 17 , system unbalanced protection logic  300  asserts if the outputs of timers  303  and  304  and the negative-sequence forward directional element, represented as  32 Q, assert.  
         [0150]      FIG. 18  illustrates a representative circuit  320  used to enable blocking of the ground distance elements during a single pole open condition. The outputs of circuit  320 , namely signals PSBA, PSBB and PSBC indicate a single-pole-open condition for each phase without any additional faults on the line. PSBA, PSBB and PSBC are fed to OR gate  220  of the swing signature detector logic illustrated in  FIG. 14 . During a single-pole-open condition for a phase without any additional faults on the line, the system may lose its synchronism. Therefore, it is desired to block the ground distance elements during these circumstances using the power swing detection logic output. Should an additional emerging fault occur on the system, it is important to inhibit the power swing blocking function. This single-pole-open power swing blocking logic represented by circuit  320  is designed to fulfill this purpose. Circuit  320  includes AND gates  322 - 329  and OR gates  330 - 334 . The logic uses the angle difference between the zero-sequence current and the negative-sequence current. This angle difference stays in certain sections on the angle plane for different poles opened. In particular, the angle difference is between positive and negative sixty degrees when A-phase is open, the angle difference is between sixty degrees and one hundred eighty degrees when B-phase is open, and the angle difference is between negative sixty degrees and negative one hundred eighty degrees when C-phase is open. If the measured angle difference does not match the pole that is opened, then the mismatch indicates an additional fault during the single-pole-open condition. Should a phase-phase-ground fault occur on the remaining two phases during a single-pole-open condition, the angle difference between the zero-sequence current (I 0 ) and negative-sequence current (I 2 ) will not deviate from the angle sector that matches the pole opened. In this situation, the same three-phase fault detector is used to inhibit the power swing blocking function from blocking operation of the distance elements.  
         [0151]     During a single-pole-open condition, if there is a sufficient amount of load current, the induced zero-sequence current and negative-sequence current will cause elements  50 GF,  50 GR,  50 QF and  50 QR to be picked up. Based on the logic between OR gates  330 ,  331  and AND gate  323 , if  50 GF or  50 GR and  50 QF or  50 QR pick up, the AND gate  323  will assert its output, which in turn, will assert the output of AND gate  322  under this condition. A HIGH output from AND gate  322  will enable the calculation of the angle difference between the zero-sequence current and negative-sequence current to be made, as illustrated in  FIG. 18 . This HIGH output from AND gate  322  will also open the select one of AND gates  324 - 326  to output the angle sector decision.  
         [0152]     If the calculated angle difference is within the range reserved for A-phase (±60°) and the pole opened is A-phase (i.e., SPOA is asserted), then the output of AND gate  327  will assert. If the calculated angle difference is within the range reserved for B-phase (between 60° and 180°) and the pole opened is B-phase (i.e., SPOB is asserted), then the output of AND gate  328  will assert. If the calculated angle difference is within the range reserved for C-phase (between −60° and −180°) and the pole opened is C-phase (i.e., SPOC is asserted), then the output of AND gate  329  will assert.  
         [0153]     Based on OR gates  332 - 334 , PSBB and PSBC will assert when the output of AND gate  327 , which indicates that there is no additional fault on the system during the A-phase open period, and therefore the B-phase and C-phase ground distance elements can be blocked using the power swing blocking function. Similarly, PSBC and PSBA will assert when the output of AND gate  328  asserts to allow C-phase and A-phase ground distance elements to be blocked using the power swing blocking function. Also, PSBA and PSBB will assert when the output of AND gate  329  asserts to allow A-phase and B-phase ground distance elements to be blocked using the power swing blocking function.  
         [0154]      FIG. 19  illustrates a representation for defining the starter zone, namely that zone where the positive sequence impedance (Z 1 ) must lie prior to the declaration of a power swing condition. It will be appreciated that with the subject invention, the area covered by the starter zone is not critical. It is only necessary to define the starter zone such that all mho detectors that are to be blocked during a power swing condition have their characteristic within the starter zone. Accordingly, the starter zone area may simply be defined as the rectangle illustrated by  FIG. 19 . In addition, if it is desired to enable the unstable power swing tripping function (i.e., EOOST is not set to N), then the starter zone preferably includes the outermost zone-7 of the unstable power swing tripping function with a margin of twenty percent. Upon occurrence of a power swing, if for the line of interest, the positive sequence impedance does not cross the starter zone, the power swing detection and responsive relay blocking signal (PSB) will not assert and thus the power swing will not be detected.  
         [0155]      FIG. 20  illustrates a preferred inner zone corresponding to the zone within five percent around the transmission line extended positive sequence impedance characteristic in the complex plane. A three-phase fault is detected (see  FIG. 16 ) only if the positive sequence impedance (Z  1 ) lies within the inner zone. The purpose of the inner zone is therefore to add to the reliability of the three-phase fault detector.  
         [0156]      FIG. 21  illustrates the resistive and reactive blinders that are used for the unstable power swing detection and responsive selective tripping or pole slipping function. The logic used to carry out this function takes advantage of already available calculations for the left, right, top, and bottom blinders of the sixth and seventh zones. The settings to be used are R 1 R 6 , R 1 R 7 , X 1 T 6 , and X 1 T 7 . Settings X 1 B 6  and X 1 B 7  can be specified by a user under the advanced settings option. The above settings are not difficult to calculate and do not require any stability studies as long as it is desired to perform an out-of-step trip on-the-way-out (TOWO). The out-of-step tripping on-the-way-in (TOWI) option requires a fast and robust detection of an unstable power swing, and a very accurate relative phase angle difference between equivalent sources to allow tripping before unsafe and dangerous conditions are reached. Therefore, the settings for this option are generally more difficult to calculate. Nonetheless, the application of this TOWI option is infrequent (may be not even applied at all). If a user desires to apply the TOWI option, stability studies to determine the proper settings for right and left hand blinders RR 6  and RR 7  must be performed.  
         [0157]      FIG. 22  illustrates a representative logic circuit  350  used to derive logic bits X 6 , X 7 , R 6 , R 7 , RR 6 , RR 7 , RL 6 , and RL 7 , which are defined as zones in the illustration of  FIG. 21 . As shown,  FIG. 22  includes comparators  351 - 359 , OR gate  360 , and AND gates  361 - 372 . Several calculations related to the zone-6 and zone-7 right, left, top, and bottom blinders serve as inputs for comparators  352 - 359  in  FIG. 22 . The formulas for each of these calculations are set forth below: 
 
 Zone 6:  
         Left   ⁢           ⁢   Hand   ⁢           ⁢   Blinder   ⁢     :     ⁢           ⁢   R1L6_C     =       R1L6     sin   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )         +       Im   ⁡     (   Z1   )         tan   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )                         Right   ⁢           ⁢   Hand   ⁢           ⁢   Blinder   ⁢     :     ⁢           ⁢   R1R6_C     =       R1R6     sin   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )         +       Im   ⁡     (   Z1   )         tan   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )                         Top   ⁢           ⁢   Blinder   ⁢     :     ⁢           ⁢   X1T6_C     =       X1T6     sin   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )         -       Re   ⁡     (   Z1   )         tan   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )                         Bottom   ⁢           ⁢   Blinder   ⁢     :     ⁢           ⁢   X1B6_C     =       X1B6     sin   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )         -       Re   ⁡     (   Z1   )         tan   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )                 
 Zone 7:  
         Left   ⁢           ⁢   Hand   ⁢           ⁢   Blinder   ⁢     :     ⁢           ⁢   R1L7_C     =       R1L7     sin   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )         +       Im   ⁡     (   Z1   )         tan   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )                         Right   ⁢           ⁢   Hand   ⁢           ⁢   Blinder   ⁢     :     ⁢           ⁢   R1R7_C     =       R1R7     sin   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )         +       Im   ⁡     (   Z1   )         tan   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )                         Top   ⁢           ⁢   Blinder   ⁢     :     ⁢           ⁢   X1T7_C     =       X1T7     sin   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )         -       Re   ⁡     (   Z1   )         tan   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )                         Bottom   ⁢           ⁢   Blinder   ⁢     :     ⁢           ⁢   X1B7_C     =       X1B7     sin   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )         -       Re   ⁡     (   Z1   )         tan   ⁡     (   Z1ANG   )                 
         [0158]     Still referring to  FIG. 22 , each of the top inputs for AND gates  365 - 372  is an inverted output of OR gate  360 . If a three-pole open condition exists (i.e., 3PO is HIGH) or a loss of potential is detected by the relay (i.e., ILOP is HIGH), the output of OR gate  360  is asserted and the logic bits X 6 , X 7 , R 6 , R 7 , RR 6 , RR 7 , RL 6 , and RL 7  are inhibited from asserting.  
         [0159]     Each middle input for AND gates  365 - 372  is fed by the output of comparator  351 . Output C 1  must be asserted (logic HIGH) to allow any of the logic bits X 6 , X 7 , R 6 , R 7 , RR 6 , RR 7 , RL 6 , and RL 7  to assert, depending upon the status of the respective bottom input of AND gates  365 - 372 .  
         [0160]     X 6  is the zone defined between the top blinder XT 6  and bottom blinder XB 6  illustrated by  FIG. 21 . The X 6  bit is the output of three input AND gate  369 . For X 6  to assert, the output of comparator  351  must be asserted, the output of OR gate  360  must not be asserted, and the output of AND gate  363  must be asserted. The outputs of comparators  356  and  357  must be asserted in order for the output of AND gate  363  to assert. The output of comparator  356  is asserted if the calculated value of X 1 T 6 _C is greater than the imaginary part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ). The output of comparator  357  is asserted if the calculated value of X 1 B 6 _C is less than the imaginary part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ).  
         [0161]     X 7  is the zone defined between the top blinder XT 7  and bottom blinder XB 7  illustrated by  FIG. 21 . The X 7  bit is the output of a three input AND gate  365 . For X 7  to assert, the output of comparator  351  must be asserted, the output of OR gate  360  must not be asserted, and the output of AND gate  361  must be asserted. The outputs of comparators  352  and  353  must be asserted in order for the output of AND gate  361  to assert. The output of comparator  352  is asserted if the calculated value of X 1 T 7 _C is greater than the imaginary part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ). The output of comparator  353  is asserted if the calculated value of X 1 B 7 _C is less than the imaginary part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ).  
         [0162]     R 6  is the zone defined between the right blinder RR 6  and left blinder RL 6  illustrated by  FIG. 21 . The R 6  bit is the output of a three input AND gate  371 . For R 6  to assert, the output of comparator  351  must be asserted, the output of OR gate  360  must not be asserted, and the output of AND gate  364  must be asserted. The outputs of comparators  358  and  359  must be asserted in order for the output of AND gate  364  to assert. The output of comparator  358  is asserted if the calculated value of R 1 R 6 _C is greater than the real part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ). The output of comparator  359  is asserted if the calculated value of R 1 L 6 _C is less than the real part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ).  
         [0163]     R 7  is the zone defined between the right blinder RR 7  and left blinder RL 7  illustrated by  FIG. 21 . The R 7  bit is the output of a three input AND gate  367 . For R 7  to assert, the output of comparator  351  must be asserted, the output of OR gate  360  must not be asserted, and the output of AND gate  362  must be asserted. The outputs of comparators  354  and  355  must be asserted in order for the output of AND gate  362  to assert. The output of comparator  354  is asserted if the calculated value of R 1 R 7 _C is greater than the real part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ). The output of comparator  355  is asserted if the calculated value of R 1 L 7 _C is less than the real part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ).  
         [0164]     RR 6  is the zone defined to the left of blinder RR 6  illustrated by  FIG. 21 . The RR 6  bit is the output of a three input AND gate  370 . For RR 6  to assert, the output of comparator  351  must be asserted, the output of OR gate  360  must not be asserted, and the output of comparator  358  must be asserted. The output of comparator  358  is asserted if the calculated value of R 1 R 6 _C is greater than the real part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ).  
         [0165]     RR 7  is the zone defined to the left of blinder RR 7  illustrated by  FIG. 21 . The RR 7  bit is the output of a three input AND gate  366 . For bit RR 7  to assert, the output of comparator  351  must be asserted, the output of OR gate  360  must not be asserted, and the output of comparator  354  must be asserted. The output of comparator  354  is asserted if the calculated value of R 1 R 7 _C is greater than the real part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ).  
         [0166]     RL 6  is the zone defined to the right of blinder RR 6  illustrated by  FIG. 21 . The RL 6  bit is the output of a three input AND gate  372 . For RL 6  to assert, the output of comparator  351  must be asserted, the output of OR gate  360  must not be asserted, and the output of comparator  359  must be asserted. The output of comparator  359  is asserted if the calculated value of R 1 L 6 _C is less than the real part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ).  
         [0167]     RL 7  is the zone defined to the right of blinder RR 6  illustrated by  FIG. 21 . The RL 7  bit is the output of a three input AND gate  368 . For RL 7  to assert, the output of comparator  351  must be asserted, the output of OR gate  360  must not be asserted, and the output of comparator  355  must be asserted. The output of comparator  355  is asserted if the calculated value of R 1 L 7 _C is less than the real part of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 1 ).  
         [0168]      FIG. 23  illustrates the logic diagram of a circuit  400  designed to carry out the unstable power swing detection and selective relay tripping function. As shown, circuit  400  includes AND gates  401 - 413 , OR gates  421 - 425 , flip flops  431 - 436 , and counter  440 .  
         [0169]     For the unstable power swing detection logic to function, the output of AND gate  401  must be asserted. Two conditions must be satisfied for the output of AND gate  401  to assert. First, the PSB_I bit, shown in  FIG. 10 , must be asserted. Second, the EOOST bit must be enabled and not set to N. The possible EOOST settings are N, I, O, and C. When EOOST is I, trip-on-the-way-in (TOWI) is permitted. When EOOST is O or C trip-on-the-way-out (TOWO) is permitted during the first slip cycle as long as the positive sequence impedance trajectory lies within zone X 6 . When EOOST is C trip-on-the-way-out (TOWO) is permitted after a set number of slip cycles as long as the positive sequence impedance trajectory lies within zone X 7  and outside zone X 6 .  
         [0170]     The unstable power detection logic monitors the movement of the calculated positive-sequence impedance (Z 11 ) trajectory during a power swing and tracks it as it moves from the right to the left hand plane of the X-axis in the R-X diagram, or as it moves from the left to the right hand plane of the X-axis of the R-X diagram. In  FIG. 23 , the logic comprised of AND gates  401 ,  404 ,  405  and  406 , OR gate  421  and flip-flops  432  and  433  is responsible for tracking the calculated positive-sequence impedance as it moves from the right to the left hand plane of the X-axis in the R-X diagram. The logic comprised of AND gates  401 ,  407 ,  408  and  409 , OR gate  421  and flip-flops  434  and  435  is responsible for tracking the calculated positive-sequence impedance as it moves from the left to the right hand plane of the X-axis in the R-X diagram.  
         [0171]     AND gates  410  and  411  allow trip-on-the-way-out (TOWO) as long as the calculated positive-sequence impedance lies in zone X 6 . AND gates  410 ,  412  and  413 , flip-flop  436 , and pole-slip counter  440  allow trip-on-the-way-out (TOWO) after a set number of slip cycles as long as the positive-sequence impedance lies in zone X 7  and outside zone X 6 .  
         [0172]     The logic comprised of AND gates  402  and  403  and flip-flop  431  allow trip-on-the-way-in (TOWI) as long as the calculated positive-sequence impedance lies between zones R 6  and X 6  and EOOST is set to I.  
         [0173]     To facilitate an understanding of how this logic works and how it tracks the calculated positive-sequence impedance during a power swing, reference is made to  FIG. 21  and an example is provided wherein the areas are defined as follows. Area  1  is defined as that area to the right of blinder RR 7 ; area  2  is defined as that area between blinders RR 6  and RR 7 ; area  3  is defined as that area between blinders RL 6  and RR 6 ; area  4  is defined as that area between blinders RL 6  and RL 7 ; area  5  is defined as that area to the left of blinder RL 7 ; area  6  is defined as that area between blinders XT 6  and XT 7 ; area  7  is defined as that area between blinders XB 6  and XB 7 ; and, area  8  is defined as that area between blinders XT 6  and XB 6 .  
         [0174]     The unstable power swing detection circuit  400  asserts its output (OST bit) provided that a power swing has been detected (i.e., PSB_I is asserted), the setting EOOST is not set to N (i.e., EOOST is enabled), and the positive-sequence impedance trajectory travels from the right to the left hand plane of the X-axis in the R-X diagram. Under these circumstances, the output of AND gate  401  is asserted because PSB_I is asserted (HIGH) and EOOST is not set to N. If the positive-sequence impedance trajectory is in areas  1  or  2 , then the RL 6  bit is asserted and the RR 6  bit is not asserted (see  FIG. 22 ), which causes the output of AND gate  404  to be asserted and sets the output of flip-flop  432 . If the positive-sequence impedance trajectory moves in zone R 6 , i.e. between blinders RL 6  and RR 6  (in area  3 ), then the output of AND gate  405  is asserted and sets the output of flip-flop  433 .  
         [0175]     If the positive-sequence impedance trajectory moves to area  4  (between blinders RL 6  and RL 7 ) and then into area  5 , as soon as RL 6  drops-out, the output of AND gate  406  is asserted and through OR gate  421 , the upper input of AND gate  410  is satisfied. If it is desired to trip-on-the-way-out (TOWO), i.e., EOOST is set to O or C, the only remaining condition necessary for the output of AND gate  410  to be asserted is for the positive-sequence impedance trajectory to move to the left of blinder RL 7  (area  5 ), which will prevent the output of zone R 7  from being asserted. AND gate  411  verifies if the positive-sequence trajectory lies in zone X 6 , i.e. between blinders XT 6  and XB 6 . If that is true, then the output of AND gate  411  is asserted, causing a trip on-the-way-out on the first slip cycle.  
         [0176]     Movement of the positive-sequence impedance trajectory from the left to the right hand plane of X-axis in the R-X plane is tracked in a similar manner, but uses the logic of AND gates  407 - 409  and flip-flops  434  and  435  as described herein. The output of AND gate  401  is asserted since PSB_I is asserted and the EOOST setting is enabled (not set to N). If the positive-sequence impedance trajectory is in areas  5  or  4 , then the RR 6  bit is asserted and the RL 6  bit is not asserted, causing the output of AND gate  407  to assert and set the output of flip-flop  434 . If the positive-sequence impedance trajectory moves in zone R 6 , i.e. between blinders RL 6  and RR 6  (in area  3 ), then the output of AND gate  408  is asserted and sets the output of flip-flop  435 .  
         [0177]     If the positive-sequence impedance trajectory moves to area  2  (between blinders RR 6  and RR 7 ) and then into area  1 , as soon as RR 6  drops-out, the output of AND gate  409  is asserted and through OR gate  421 , the upper input of AND gate  410  is satisfied. If it is desired to trip-on-the-way-out (TOWO), i.e., the EOOST setting is set to O or C, the only remaining condition necessary for the output of AND gate  410  to be asserted is for the positive-sequence impedance trajectory to move to the right of blinder RR 7  (area  1 ), which will prevent the output of zone R 7  from being asserted. AND gate  411  verifies if the positive-sequence trajectory lies in zone X 6 , i.e. between blinders XT 6  and XB 6 . If so, the output of AND gate  411  is asserted, causing a trip on-the-way-out on the first slip cycle.  
         [0178]     Assuming now that the positive-sequence trajectory is moving between blinders XT 6  and XT 7  or between blinders XB 6  and XB 7 , i.e., in zone X 7  and outside of zone X 6 . Under such circumstances, if it is desired to trip after a set number of slip cycles, i.e., setting EOOST is set to C, AND gate  412  is asserted after the positive-sequence impedance trajectory moves across the R-X plane (either from right to left, or left to right) and the pole slip counter  440  is incremented by one count. When the positive-sequence impedance trajectory returns to the right hand plane after the first slip cycle, as soon as it crosses the RR 7  blinder from right to left and RR 7  asserts, flip-flops  432  and  434  are reset and the logic is ready to process the second slip cycle. Following satisfaction of the setting for the pole-slip counter  440 , the output of flip-flop  436  is set. Thereafter, as soon as the positive-sequence impedance trajectory moves outside of zone R 7 , the output of AND gate  413  is asserted, causing a trip-on-the-way-out (TOWO) to occur after a preset number of slip cycles.  
         [0179]     Referring now to application of a trip-on-the-way-in (TOWI), this function is accomplished if the following described conditions are satisfied. First, the output of AND gate  401  is asserted if PSB_I is asserted and setting EOOST is not set to N (i.e., EOOST is enabled). If the positive-sequence impedance trajectory moves from left to right, or right to left and enters area  3 , i.e., zone R 6 , the output of AND gate  402  is asserted and the output of flip-flop  431  is set, which causes the bottom input of AND gate  403  to be satisfied. The trip-on-the-way-in (TOWI) will then take place (signified by assertion of the output of AND gate  403 ) if EOOST has been set to I and the positive-sequence impedance trajectory is in zone X 6 , i.e. between blinders XT 6  and XB 6 .  
         [0180]     Still referring to  FIG. 23 , reset of the PSB_I bit will in turn reset flip-flops  431 - 436  and will also reset pole-slip counter  440 . Flip-flops  432  and  433  will also reset on dropout of RR 7 . Similarly, and flip-flops  434  and  435  will reset on dropout of RL 7 . This is done to allow the tracking of the impedance trajectory on subsequent slip cycles in order to be able to increment the pole-slip counter  440 .  
         [0181]     While the several aspects of the inventive subject matter described herein have been described with reference to certain illustrative embodiments, it will be understood that this description shall not be construed in a limiting sense. Rather, various changes and modifications can be made to the illustrative embodiments without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention, as defined by the following claims. Furthermore, it will be appreciated that any such changes and modifications will be recognized by those skilled in the art as an equivalent to one or more elements of the following claims, and shall be covered by such claims to the fullest extent permitted by law.