 observational cosmology is the study of the structure, the evolution and the origin of the universe through observation, using instruments such as telescopes and cosmic ray detectors. ==early observations== the science of physical cosmology as it is practiced today had its subject material defined in the years following the shapley-curtis debate when it was determined that the universe had a larger scale than the milky way galaxy. this was precipitated by observations that established the size and the dynamics of the cosmos that could be explained by einstein's general theory of relativity. in its infancy, cosmology was a speculative science based on a very limited number of observations and characterized by a dispute between steady state theorists and promoters of big bang cosmology. it was not until the 1990s and beyond that the astronomical observations would be able to eliminate competing theories and drive the science to the "golden age of cosmology" which was heralded by david schramm at a national academy of sciences colloquium in 1992.arthur m. sackler colloquia of the national academy of sciences: physical cosmology; irvine, california: march 27â28, 1992. ===hubble's law and the cosmic distance ladder===  distance measurements in astronomy have historically been and continue to be confounded by considerable measurement uncertainty. in particular, while stellar parallax can be used to measure the distance to nearby stars, the observational limits imposed by the difficulty in measuring the minuscule parallaxes associated with objects beyond our galaxy meant that astronomers had to look for alternative ways to measure cosmic distances. to this end, a standard candle measurement for cepheid variables was discovered by henrietta swan leavitt in 1908 which would provide edwin hubble with the rung on the cosmic distance ladder he would need to determine the distance to spiral nebula. hubble used the 100-inch hooker telescope at mount wilson observatory to identify individual stars in those galaxies, and determine the distance to the galaxies by isolating individual cepheids. this firmly established the spiral nebula as being objects well outside the milky way galaxy. determining the distance to "island universes", as they were dubbed in the popular media, established the scale of the universe and settled the shapley-curtis debate once and for all."island universe" is a reference to speculative ideas promoted by a variety of scholastic thinkers in the 18th and 19th centuries. the most famous early proponent of such ideas was philosopher immanuel kant who published a number of treatises on astronomy in addition to his more famo
Observational_astronomy Observational_cosmology Physical_cosmology