Question: The Edge of Evolution is by this American biochemist, author, and intelligent design (ID) advocate born in what year
Context: Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed is a 2008 documentary film directed by Nathan Frankowski and starring Ben Stein.  The film contends that the mainstream science establishment suppresses academics who believe they see evidence of intelligent design (ID) in nature and who criticize evidence supporting Darwinian evolution and the modern evolutionary synthesis as part of a "scientific conspiracy to keep God out of the nation's laboratories and classrooms."  The scientific theory of evolution is portrayed by the film as contributing to communism, fascism, atheism, eugenics and, in particular, Nazi atrocities in the Holocaust.  The film portrays intelligent design as motivated by science, rather than religion, though it does not give a detailed definition of the phrase or attempt to explain it on a scientific level.  Other than briefly addressing issues of irreducible complexity, "Expelled" examines it as a political issue. Phillip E. Johnson (born June 18, 1940) is a retired UC Berkeley law professor and author who is considered the father of the intelligent design movement.  He is a critic of Darwinism, which he has described as "fully naturalistic evolution, involving chance mechanisms and natural selection".  Johnson has said he believes "that a God exists who could create out of nothing if He wanted to do so, but who also might have chosen to work through a natural evolutionary process instead".  Johnson rejects that evolution is a fact and favors neo-creationary views known as intelligent design (ID).  He was a co-founder of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture (CSC) and is credited with establishing the wedge strategy, which aims to change public opinion and scientific consensus, and seeks to convince the scientific community to allow a role for theism, or causes beyond naturalistic explanation, in scientific discourse.  The consensus of the scientific community considers Johnson's opinions on evolution to be pseudoscience.  Johnson has argued that scientists accepted the theory of evolution "before it was rigorously tested, and thereafter used all their authority to convince the public that naturalistic processes are sufficient to produce a human from a bacterium, and a bacterium from a mix of chemicals." The intelligent design movement is a neo-creationist religious campaign for broad social, academic and political change to promote and support the pseudoscientific idea of intelligent design (ID), which asserts that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection."  Its chief activities are a campaign to promote public awareness of this concept, the lobbying of policymakers to include its teaching in high school science classes, and legal action, either to defend such teaching or to remove barriers otherwise preventing it.  The movement arose out of the previous Christian fundamentalist and evangelistic creation science movement in the United States, and is driven by a small group of proponents.  The overall goal of the intelligent design movement is to overthrow materialism and atheism.  Its proponents believe that society has suffered "devastating" cultural consequences from adopting materialism and that science is the cause of the decay into materialism because it seeks only natural explanations, and is therefore atheistic.  They believe that the scientific theory of evolution implies that humans have no spiritual nature, no moral purpose, and no intrinsic meaning.  They seek to "reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview" represented by the theory of evolution in favor of "a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions." Michael J. Behe ( ; born January 18, 1952) is an American biochemist, author, and intelligent design (ID) advocate.  He serves as professor of biochemistry at Lehigh University in Pennsylvania and as a senior fellow of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture.  Behe is best known for his argument for his stance on irreducible complexity (IC), which argues that some biochemical structures are too complex to be explained by known evolutionary mechanisms and are therefore probably the result of intelligent design.  Behe has testified in several court cases related to intelligent design, including the court case "Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District" that resulted in a ruling that intelligent design was not science and was religious in nature. The Edge of Evolution: The Search for the Limits of Darwinism is an intelligent design book by Discovery Institute fellow Michael Behe, published by the Free Press in 2007.  Behe argues that while evolution can produce changes within species, there is a limit to the ability of evolution to generate diversity, and this limit (the "edge of evolution") is somewhere between species and orders.  On this basis, he says that known evolutionary mechanisms cannot be responsible for all the observed diversification from the last universal ancestor and the intervention of an intelligent designer can adequately account for much of the diversity of life.  It is Behe's second intelligent design book, his first being "Darwin's Black Box". Tammy Kitzmiller, et al. v. Dover Area School District, et al. (400 F. Supp.  2d 707, Docket No. 4cv2688) was the first direct challenge brought in the United States federal courts testing a public school district policy that required the teaching of intelligent design.  In October 2004, the Dover Area School District of York County, Pennsylvania, changed its biology teaching curriculum to require that intelligent design be presented as an alternative to evolution theory, and that "Of Pandas and People", a textbook advocating intelligent design, was to be used as a reference book.  The prominence of this textbook during the trial was such that the case is sometimes referred to as the Dover Panda Trial, a name which recalls the popular name of the Scopes Monkey Trial in Tennessee, 80 years earlier.  The plaintiffs successfully argued that intelligent design is a form of creationism, and that the school board policy violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.  The judge's decision sparked considerable response from both supporters and critics. The Santorum Amendment was a failed proposed amendment to the 2001 education funding bill (which became known as the No Child Left Behind Act), proposed by Republican Rick Santorum (then a United States Senator for Pennsylvania), which promoted the teaching of intelligent design while questioning the academic standing of evolution in US public schools.  In response, a coalition of 96 scientific and educational organizations wrote a letter to the conference committee, urging that the amendment be stricken from the final bill, arguing that evolution is, in the scientific fields, regarded as fact and that the amendment creates the misperception that evolution is not fully accepted in the scientific community, and thus weakens science curricula.  The words of the amendment survive in modified form in the Bill's Conference Report and do not carry the weight of law.  As one of the Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns it became a cornerstone in the intelligent design movement's "Teach the Controversy" campaign. Signature in the Cell: DNA and the Evidence for Intelligent Design is a 2009 book about intelligent design by philosopher and intelligent design advocate Stephen C. Meyer.  The book was well received by some within the conservative, intelligent design and evangelical communities, but several other reviewers were critical and wrote that Meyer's claims are incorrect. Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science and Theology is a 1999 book by William A. Dembski which presents an argument in support of intelligent design.  Dembski defines the term "specified complexity", and argues that instances of it in nature cannot be explained by Darwinian evolution, but instead are consistent with the intelligent design.  He also derives an instance of his self-declared law of conservation of information and uses it to argue against Darwinian evolution.  The book is a summary treatment of the mathematical theory he presents in "The Design Inference" (1998), and is intended to be largely understandable by a nontechnical audience.  Dembski also provides a Christian theological commentary, and analysis of, what he perceives to be the historical and cultural significance of the ideas. The relationship between intelligent design and science has been a contentious one.  Intelligent design (ID) is presented by its proponents as science and claims to offer an alternative to evolution.  The Discovery Institute, a politically conservative think tank and the leading proponents of intelligent design, launched a campaign entitled "Teach the Controversy" which claims that a controversy exists within the scientific community over evolution.  The scientific community, however, states that there is no controversy and rejects intelligent design as creationism due to ID proponents' lack of peer-reviewed research and the scientifically undefined quality of observable intelligence.
Answer: 1952