Question: What award was given to the Norwegian-born American physical chemist which Bruria Kaufman used applied spinor analysis to rederive the result of on the partition function of the two-dimensional Ising Model
Context: In physics, a partition function describes the statistical properties of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium .  Partition functions are functions of the thermodynamic state variables, such as the temperature and volume.  Most of the aggregate thermodynamic variables of the system, such as the total energy, free energy, entropy, and pressure, can be expressed in terms of the partition function or its derivatives. Lars Onsager (November 27, 1903 – October 5, 1976) was a Norwegian-born American physical chemist and theoretical physicist.  He held the Gibbs Professorship of Theoretical Chemistry at Yale University.  He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1968. The vibrational partition function traditionally refers to the component of the canonical partition function resulting from the vibrational degrees of freedom of a system.  The vibrational partition function is only well-defined in model systems where the vibrational motion is relatively uncoupled with the system's other degrees of freedom. The Ising model ( ; ] ), named after the physicist Ernst Ising, is a mathematical model of ferromagnetism in statistical mechanics.  The model consists of discrete variables that represent magnetic dipole moments of atomic "spins" that can be in one of two states (+1 or −1).  The spins are arranged in a graph, usually a lattice, allowing each spin to interact with its neighbors.  The model allows the identification of phase transitions, as a simplified model of reality.  The two-dimensional square-lattice Ising model is one of the simplest statistical models to show a phase transition. The partition function or configuration integral, as used in probability theory, information theory and dynamical systems, is a generalization of the definition of a partition function in statistical mechanics.  It is a special case of a normalizing constant in probability theory, for the Boltzmann distribution.  The partition function occurs in many problems of probability theory because, in situations where there is a natural symmetry, its associated probability measure, the Gibbs measure, has the Markov property.  This means that the partition function occurs not only in physical systems with translation symmetry, but also in such varied settings as neural networks (the Hopfield network), and applications such as genomics, corpus linguistics and artificial intelligence, which employ Markov networks, and Markov logic networks.  The Gibbs measure is also the unique measure that has the property of maximizing the entropy for a fixed expectation value of the energy; this underlies the appearance of the partition function in maximum entropy methods and the algorithms derived therefrom. Bruria Kaufman (August 21, 1918 – January 7, 2010) was an Israeli theoretical physicist.  She is known for contributions to Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, to statistical physics, where she used applied spinor analysis to rederive the result of Lars Onsager on the partition function of the two-dimensional Ising Model, and to the study of the Mössbauer effect, on which she collaborated with John von Neumann and Harry Lipkin. In statistical physics, the axial (or anisotropic) next-nearest-neighbor Ising model, usually known as the ANNNI model, is a variant of the Ising model in which competing ferromagnetic and In physics, a lattice model is a physical model that is defined on a lattice, as opposed to the continuum of space or spacetime.  Lattice models originally occurred in the context of condensed matter physics, where the atoms of a crystal automatically form a lattice.  Currently, lattice models are quite popular in theoretical physics, for many reasons.  Some models are exactly solvable, and thus offer insight into physics beyond what can be learned from perturbation theory.  Lattice models are also ideal for study by the methods of computational physics, as the discretization of any continuum model automatically turns it into a lattice model.  Examples of lattice models in condensed matter physics include the Ising model, the Potts model, the XY model, the Toda lattice.  The exact solution to many of these models (when they are solvable) includes the presence of solitons. Techniques for solving these include the inverse scattering transform and the method of Lax pairs, the Yang-Baxter equation and quantum groups.  The solution of these models has given insights into the nature of phase transitions, magnetization and scaling behaviour, as well as insights into the nature of quantum field theory.  Physical lattice models frequently occur as an approximation to a continuum theory, either to give an ultraviolet cutoff to the theory to prevent divergences or to perform numerical computations.  An example of a continuum theory that is widely studied by lattice models is the QCD lattice model, a discretization of quantum chromodynamics.  However, digital physics considers nature fundamentally discrete at the Planck scale, which imposes , aka Holographic principle.  More generally, lattice gauge theory and lattice field theory are areas of study.  Lattice models are also used to simulate the structure and dynamics of polymers.  Examples include the bond fluctuation model and the 2nd model. The isothermal–isobaric ensemble (constant temperature and constant pressure ensemble) is a statistical mechanical ensemble that maintains constant temperature formula_1 and constant pressure formula_2 applied.  It is also called the formula_3-ensemble, where the number of particles formula_4 is also kept as a constant.  This ensemble plays an important role in chemistry as chemical reactions are usually carried out under constant pressure condition.  The partition function can be written as the weighted sum of the partition function of canonical ensemble, formula_5 . The Kramers–Wannier duality is a symmetry in statistical physics.  It relates the free energy of a two-dimensional square-lattice Ising model at a low temperature to that of another Ising model at a high temperature.  It was discovered by Hendrik Kramers and Gregory Wannier in 1941.  With the aid of this duality Kramers and Wannier found the exact location of the critical point for the Ising model on the square lattice.
Answer: Nobel Prize in Chemistry