Question: A private U.S. for-profit company founded in 1989 that specializes in information security and cybersecurity training founded the certification entity in what year?
Context: Lt. Col. Frederick “F.” Lynn McNulty (1939 - 2012) was the first Director of Information Systems Security for the U.S. State Department, a pioneer in the field of cybersecurity, and has been characterized as the “father” of U.S. federal information security.  His peers eulogized him as a tireless advocate for the security of the nation.  He was an early and persistent champion of information security in government. The Anna University - K. B. Chandrashekar Research Centre (AU-KBC) is a multi disciplinary training centre located in the Madras Institute of Technology (MIT).  The centre was founded by volunteer K. B. Chandrashekar, MIT alumnus and co-founder of Great Lakes Institute of Management, Chennai.  The AU-KBC Research Centre is a first of its kind, a public-private research centre in India, being the partnership between a wholly for-profit company (KBC Research Foundation Private Limited, KBCRF) and a state institution (Anna University).  The Center has no employees, and all researchers stationed there are employees of the for-profit company KBCRF.  The Centre's original goal, when it had its own employees, was to generate research and products of international quality.  Its current goal is to create revenue for KBCRF and its sister for-profit concerns. The International Information System Security Certification Consortium, or (ISC)², is a non-profit organization which specializes in information security education and certifications.  It has been described as the "world's largest IT security organization".  The most widely known certification offered by (ISC)² is the Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) certification. Information security awareness is an evolving part of information security that focuses on raising consciousness regarding potential risks of the rapidly evolving forms of information and the rapidly evolving threats to that information which target human behavior.  As threats have matured and information has increased in value, attackers have increased their capabilities and expanded to broader intentions, developed more attack methods and methodologies and are acting on more diverse motives.  As information security controls and processes have matured, attacks have matured to circumvent controls and processes.  Attackers have targeted and successfully exploited individuals human behavior to breach corporate networks and critical infrastructure systems.  Targeted individuals who are unaware of information and threats may unknowingly circumvent traditional security controls and processes and enable a breach of the organization.  In response, information security awareness is maturing.  Cybersecurity as a business problem has dominated the agenda of most chief information officers (CIO)s, exposing a need for countermeasures to today's cyber threat landscape.  The goal of Information security awareness is to make everyone aware that they are susceptible to the opportunities and challenges in today’s threat landscape, change human risk behaviors and create or enhance a secure organizational culture. The SANS Institute (officially the Escal Institute of Advanced Technologies) is a private U.S. for-profit company founded in 1989 that specializes in information security and cybersecurity training.  Topics available for training include cyber and network defenses, penetration testing, incident response, digital forensics, and audit.  The information security courses are developed through a consensus process involving administrators, security managers, and information security professionals.  The courses cover security fundamentals and technical aspects of information security.  The Institute has been recognized for its training programs and certification programs.  SANS stands for SysAdmin, Audit, Network and Security. Global Information Assurance Certification (GIAC) is an information security certification entity that specialises in technical and practical certification as well as new research in the form of its GIAC Gold program.  SANS Institute founded the certification entity in 1999 and the term GIAC is trademarked by The Escal Institute of Advanced Technologies. The Organizational Systems Security Analyst (OSSA) is a technical vendor-neutral Information Security certification programme which is being offered in Asia.  This programme consists of a specialized technical information security training and certification course and practical examination which technical Information Technology professionals can attend in order to become skilled and effective technical Information Security professionals and to prove their level of competence and skill by undergoing the examination. ISO 27001 Lead Implementer is a professional certification for professionals specializing in information security management systems (ISMS) based on the ISO/IEC 27001 standard.  This professional certification is intended for information security professionals wanting to understand the steps required to implement the ISO 27001 standard (as opposed to the ISO 27001 Lead Auditor certification which is intended for an auditor wanting to audit and certify a system to the ISO 27001 standard). Lawrence A. Gordon is the EY Alumni Professor of Managerial Accounting and Information Assurance at the University of Maryland’s Robert H. Smith School of Business.  He is also an Affiliate Professor in the University of Maryland Institute for Advanced Computer Studies.  Dr. Gordon earned his Ph.D. in Managerial Economics from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.  An internationally known scholar in the areas of managerial accounting (often called management accounting) and cybersecurity economics, Dr. Gordon's research focuses on such issues as economic aspects of information security (including cybersecurity or computer security), corporate performance measures, cost management systems, and capital investments.  He is the author of approximately 100 articles, published in such journals as The Accounting Review, ACM Transactions on Information and System Security, Communications of the ACM, Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Journal of Computer Security, MIS Quarterly, Accounting, Organizations and Society, and the Journal of Accounting and Public Policy.  Dr. Gordon's current research emphasizes the importance of applying concepts from economics and managerial accounting to an information-based economy.  Dr. Gordon is the co-creator (with Martin P. Loeb) of the Gordon-Loeb Model, which provides a mathematical economic model for deriving an organization's optimal investment level in cyber/information security.  The Gordon-Loeb Model has been featured in The Wall Street Journal and The Financial Times.  For a 3-minute video that provides a non-mathematical overview of the Model, go to: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cd8dT0FuqQ4.  Dr. Gordon also is the author of several books, including Managerial Accounting: Concepts and Empirical Evidence, Managing Cybersecurity Resources: A Cost-Benefit Analysis and Improving Capital Budgeting: A Decision Support System Approach.  In addition, he is the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Accounting and Public Policy and serves on the editorial boards of several other journals.  Dr. Gordon's research has over 6,400 citations in Google Scholar. ISO/IEC 27006, part of a growing family of ISO/IEC Information Security Management System (ISMS) standards, the 'ISO/IEC 27000 series', is an information security standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).  It is titled "Information technology - Security techniques - Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of information security management systems".
Answer: 1999