The study will incorporate a harmonized protocol among the 8 countries to estimate point-prevalence of high-risk HPV (HR HPV) in low socio-economic populations and, among specific sub-populations, the incidence of persistent HPV infection. Due to differences in study settings, study population, targeted age-group, and eligibility criteria, country-specific protocols will be developed to complement the multi-country master protocol. In the master protocol, general principles on study design and methodology will be described, while the country-specific protocol will elaborate in more detail on methodology in each country related to subject identification, the enrolment process, and laboratory analysis. A standardized survey questionnaire, with some minor country-specific adaptations, and laboratory assays will be implemented throughout the participating countries in order to generate comparable data.

Two separate approaches will be implemented to estimate prevalence and incidence respectively in each participating country. First, cross-sectional surveys (CSS) will be conducted in both urban and rural areas of selected countries in order to estimate the point prevalence of HPV infection in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The CSS will enrol girls and women aged 9-50 years, with equal sample size from four age-strata: 9-14, 15-20, 21- 30, 31-50. For specific populations, age-strata will be modified to include 12-35 years olds considering the target population characteristics and local context. Multi-stage cluster random sampling or another applicable sampling strategy will be applied to ensure representativeness. Urine samples will be collected for HPV testing, along with data on demographics, socioeconomic status, sexual and reproductive history, attitudes towards and awareness and uptake of cervical cancer screening and HPV vaccination, and potential risk factors for HPV infection and cervical cancer. Additional data will be collected on knowledge of HPV, and attitudes, uptake and use of vaccines, using standardized questionnaires and case report forms.

Second, Longitudinal studies (LS) will estimate the incidence of persistent HPV infection in sexually active girls and young women in geographically defined communities and special populations. Depending on the country setting, the LS will enroll sexually active girls and women who are aged between 15-35 years and follow them up to 24 months. Participants will be tested every 6 months for 24 months to determine incident persistent HR HPV infection. In selected countries, urine and self-collected vaginal swabs (SCVS) will be collected at the first visit to determine the comparability of HPV genotyping results from both sample types. For all the other visits, only SCVS will be collected. Data on demographics, socioeconomic status, sexual and reproductive history, cervical screening, HPV vaccination, and other potential risk factors will be collected using standardized questionnaires.

Furthermore, the qualitative sub-studies in five selected countries (Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Sierra Leone, DR Congo) will follow and draw on findings from the CSS, focusing on girls and women of different age strata as well as community members (including boys and men) and key informants in the health care system in each study site. Qualitative study methods will vary depending on the site and CSS findings, but will include both individual in- depth interviews (IDIs) (up to \~ 30 individuals per site), key informant interviews as well as multiple focus group discussions (FGDs) with \~6-8 participants/group. Detailed qualitative study methodology will be developed separately as another study protocol and adapted according to the procedures for each site.