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+{"directed": true, "multigraph": false, "graph": {"root": 7345184}, "nodes": [{"title": "Main topic articles", "pages": [{"id": 14924067, "title": "Academic discipline", "abstract": "An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. Academic disciplines are conventionally divided into the humanities, including language, art and cultural studies, and the scientific disciplines, such as physics, chemistry, and biology; the social sciences are sometimes considered a third category.\nIndividuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists.\nWhile academic disciplines in and of themselves are more or less focused practices, scholarly approaches such as multidisciplinarity/interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and cross-disciplinarity integrate aspects from multiple academic disciplines, therefore addressing any problems that may arise from narrow concentration within specialized fields of study. For example, professionals may encounter trouble communicating across academic disciplines because of differences in language, specified concepts, or methodology.\nSome researchers believe that academic disciplines may, in the future, be replaced by what is known as Mode 2 or \"post-academic science\", which involves the acquisition of cross-disciplinary knowledge through the collaboration of specialists from various academic disciplines.\nIt is also known as a field of study, field of inquiry, research field and branch of knowledge. The different terms are used in different countries and fields."}, {"id": 39206, "title": "Business", "abstract": "Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services). It is also \"any activity or enterprise entered into for profit.\"Having a business name does not separate the business entity from the owner, which means that the owner of the business is responsible and liable for debts incurred by the business. If the business acquires debts, the creditors can go after the owner's personal possessions. The taxation system for businesses is different from that of the corporates. A business structure does not allow for corporate tax rates. The proprietor is personally taxed on all income from the business.\nThe term is also often used colloquially (but not by lawyers or public officials) to refer to a company, such as a corporation or cooperative.\nCorporations, in contrast with sole proprietors and partnerships, are separate legal entities and provide limited liability for their owners/members, as well as being subject to corporate tax rates. A corporation is more complicated and expensive to set up, but offers more protection and benefits for the owners/members."}, {"id": 5177, "title": "Communication", "abstract": "Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not only transmits meaning but also creates it. Models of communication are simplified overviews of its main components and their interactions. Many models include the idea that a source uses a coding system to express information in the form of a message. The message is sent through a channel to a receiver who has to decode it to understand it. The main field of inquiry investigating communication is called communication studies.\nA common way to classify communication is by whether information is exchanged between humans, members of other species, or non-living entities such as computers. For human communication, a central contrast is between verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication involves the exchange of messages in linguistic form, including spoken and written messages as well as sign language. Non-verbal communication happens without the use of a linguistic system, for example, using body language, touch, and facial expressions. Another distinction is between interpersonal communication, which happens between distinct persons, and intrapersonal communication, which is communication with oneself. Communicative competence is the ability to communicate well and applies to the skills of formulating messages and understanding them.\nNon-human forms of communication include animal and plant communication. Researchers in this field often refine their definition of communicative behavior by including the criteria that observable responses are present and that the participants benefit from the exchange. Animal communication is used in areas like courtship and mating, parent\u2013offspring relations, navigation, and self-defense. Communication through chemicals is particularly important for the relatively immobile plants. For example, maple trees release so-called volatile organic compounds into the air to warn other plants of a herbivore attack. Most communication takes place between members of the same species. The reason is that its purpose is usually some form of cooperation, which is not as common between different species. Interspecies communication happens mainly in cases of symbiotic relationships. For instance, many flowers use symmetrical shapes and distinctive colors to signal to insects where nectar is located. Humans engage in interspecies communication when interacting with pets and working animals.\nHuman communication has a long history and how people exchange information has changed over time. These changes were usually triggered by the development of new communication technologies. Examples are the invention of writing systems, the development of mass printing, the use of radio and television, and the invention of the internet. The technological advances also led to new forms of communication, such as the exchange of data between computers."}, {"id": 6978, "title": "Concept", "abstract": "A concept is defined as an abstract idea. It is understood to be a fundamental building block underlying principles, thoughts and beliefs.\nConcepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, and these disciplines are interested in the logical and psychological structure of concepts, and how they are put together to form thoughts and sentences. The study of concepts has served as an important flagship of an emerging interdisciplinary approach, cognitive science.In contemporary philosophy, three understandings of a concept prevail:\nmental representations, such that a concept is an entity that exists in the mind (a mental object)\nabilities peculiar to cognitive agents (mental states)\nFregean senses, abstract objects rather than a mental object or a mental stateConcepts are classified into a hierarchy, higher levels of which are termed \"superordinate\" and lower levels termed \"subordinate\". Additionally, there is the \"basic\" or \"middle\" level at which people will most readily categorize a concept. For example, a basic-level concept would be \"chair\", with its superordinate, \"furniture\", and its subordinate, \"easy chair\".\n\nConcepts may be exact, or inexact.\nWhen the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking.\nA concept is instantiated (reified) by all of its actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real world or other ideas.\nConcepts are studied as components of human cognition in the cognitive science disciplines of linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, where an ongoing debate asks whether all cognition must occur through concepts. Concepts are regularly formalized in mathematics, computer science, databases and artificial intelligence. Examples of specific high-level conceptual classes in these fields include classes, schema or categories. In informal use the word concept often just means any idea."}, {"id": 19159508, "title": "Culture", "abstract": "Culture ( KUL-ch\u0259r) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups. Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region or location.\nHumans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.\nA cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.\nAccepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.\nThus in military culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group.\nCultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies.\nOrganizations like UNESCO attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage."}, {"id": 6639133, "title": "Economy", "abstract": "An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the production, use, and management of scarce resources. A given economy is a set of processes that involves its culture, values, education, technological evolution, history, social organization, political structure, legal systems, and natural resources as main factors. These factors give context, content, and set the conditions and parameters in which an economy functions. In other words, the economic domain is a social domain of interrelated human practices and transactions that does not stand alone.\nEconomic agents can be individuals, businesses, organizations, or governments. Economic transactions occur when two groups or parties agree to the value or price of the transacted good or service, commonly expressed in a certain currency. However, monetary transactions only account for a small part of the economic domain.\nEconomic activity is spurred by production which uses natural resources, labor and capital. It has changed over time due to technology, innovation (new products, services, processes, expanding markets, diversification of markets, niche markets, increases revenue functions) and changes in industrial relations (most notably child labor being replaced in some parts of the world with universal access to education)."}, {"id": 9252, "title": "Education", "abstract": "Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits and comes in many forms. Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework, like public schools. Non-formal education is also structured but takes place outside the formal schooling system, while informal education is unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are divided into levels that include early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Other classifications focus on the teaching method, like teacher-centered and student-centered education, and on the subject, like science education, language education, and physical education. The term \"education\" can also refer to the mental states and qualities of educated people and the academic field studying educational phenomena.\nThe precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about what the aims of education are and to what extent education is different from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking. These disagreements affect how to identify, measure, and improve forms of education. Fundamentally, education socializes children into society by teaching cultural values and norms. It equips them with the skills needed to become productive members of society. This way, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems. Organized institutions affect many aspects of education. For example, governments set education policies to determine when school classes happen, what is taught, and who can or must attend. International organizations, like UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education for all children.\nMany factors influence whether education is successful. Psychological factors include  motivation, intelligence, and personality. Social factors, like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender, are often linked to discrimination. Further factors include access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement.\nThe main academic field investigating education is called education studies. It examines what education is, what aims and effects it has, and how to improve it. Education studies has many subfields, like philosophy, psychology, sociology, and economics of education. It also discusses comparative education, pedagogy, and the history of education.\nIn prehistory, education happened informally through oral communication and imitation. With the rise of ancient civilizations, writing was invented, and the amount of knowledge grew. This caused a shift from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was mainly available to elites and religious groups. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century made books more widely available. This increased general literacy. Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries, public education became more important. This development led to the worldwide process of making primary education available to all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a certain age. Today, over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school."}, {"id": 9649, "title": "Energy", "abstract": "In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek  \u1f10\u03bd\u03ad\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 (en\u00e9rgeia) 'activity') is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light. Energy is a conserved quantity\u2014the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The unit of measurement for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J).\nCommon forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object (for instance due to its position in a field), the elastic energy stored in a solid object, chemical energy associated with chemical reactions, the radiant energy carried by electromagnetic radiation, and the internal energy contained within a thermodynamic system. All living organisms constantly take in and release energy.\nDue to mass\u2013energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy. \nHuman civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The Earth's climate and ecosystems processes are driven by the energy the planet receives from the Sun (although a small amount is also contributed by geothermal energy)."}, {"id": 9251, "title": "Engineering", "abstract": "Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving infrastructure, machinery, vehicles, electronics, materials, and energy systems.The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. See glossary of engineering.\nThe term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning \"cleverness\" and ingeniare, meaning \"to contrive, devise\"."}, {"id": 9262, "title": "Entertainment", "abstract": "Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but it is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audience's attention.\nAlthough people's attention is held by different things because individuals have different preferences, most forms of entertainment are recognisable and familiar. Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures, were supported in royal courts, and developed into sophisticated forms over time, becoming available to all citizens. The process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products. Entertainment evolves and can be adapted to suit any scale, ranging from an individual who chooses private entertainment from a now enormous array of pre-recorded products, to a banquet adapted for two, to any size or type of party with appropriate music and dance, to performances intended for thousands, and even for a global audience.\nThe experience of being entertained has come to be strongly associated with amusement, so that one common understanding of the idea is fun and laughter, although many entertainments have a serious purpose. This may be the case in various forms of ceremony, celebration, religious festival, or satire, for example. Hence, there is the possibility that what appears to be entertainment may also be a means of achieving insight or intellectual growth.\nAn important aspect of entertainment is the audience, which turns a private recreation or leisure activity into entertainment. The audience may have a passive role, as in the case of people watching a play, opera, television show, or film; or the audience role may be active, as in the case of games, where the participant and audience roles may be routinely reversed. Entertainment can be public or private, involving formal, scripted performances, as in the case of theatre or concerts, or unscripted and spontaneous, as in the case of children's games. Most forms of entertainment have persisted over many centuries, evolving due to changes in culture, technology, and fashion, as with stage magic. Films and video games, although they use newer media, continue to tell stories, present drama, and play music. Festivals devoted to music, film, or dance allow audiences to be entertained over a number of consecutive days.\nSome entertainment, such as public executions, is now illegal in most countries. Activities such as fencing or archery, once used in hunting or war, have become spectator sports. In the same way, other activities, such as cooking, have developed into performances among professionals, staged as global competitions, and then broadcast for entertainment. What is entertainment for one group or individual may be regarded as work or an act of cruelty by another.\nThe familiar forms of entertainment have the capacity to cross over into different media and have demonstrated a seemingly unlimited potential for creative remix. This has ensured the continuity and longevity of many themes, images, and structures."}, {"id": 42176, "title": "Entity", "abstract": "An entity is something that exists as itself. It does not need to be of material existence. In particular, abstractions and legal fictions are usually regarded as entities. In general, there is also no presumption that an entity is animate, or present.\nThe term is broad in scope and may refer to animals; natural features such as mountains; inanimate objects such as tables; numbers or sets as symbols written on a paper; human contrivances such as laws, corporations and academic disciplines; or supernatural beings such as gods and spirits.\nThe adjectival form is entitative."}, {"id": 9258, "title": "Ethics", "abstract": "Ethics or moral philosophy is the philosophical study of moral phenomena. It investigates normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. It is usually divided into three major fields: normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics.\nNormative ethics tries to discover and justify universal principles that govern how people should act in any situation. According to consequentialists, an act is right if it leads to the best consequences. Deontologists hold that morality consists in fulfilling duties, like telling the truth and keeping promises. Virtue theorists see the manifestation of virtues, like courage and compassion, as the fundamental principle of morality. Applied ethics examines concrete ethical problems in real-life situations, for example, by exploring the moral implications of the universal principles discovered in normative ethics within a specific domain. Bioethics studies moral issues associated with living organisms including humans, animals, and plants. Business ethics investigates how ethical principles apply to corporations, while professional ethics focuses on what is morally required of members of different professions. Metaethics is a metatheory that examines the underlying assumptions and concepts of ethics. It asks whether moral facts have mind-independent existence, whether moral statements can be true, how it is possible to acquire moral knowledge, and how moral judgments motivate people.\nEthics is closely connected to value theory, which studies what value is and what types of value there are. Two related empirical fields are moral psychology, which investigates psychological moral processes, and descriptive ethics, which provides value-neutral descriptions of the dominant moral codes and beliefs in different societies.\nThe history of ethics started in the ancient period with the development of ethical principles and theories in ancient Egypt, India, China, and Greece. During the medieval period, ethical thought was strongly influenced by religious teachings. In the modern period, this focus shifted to a more secular approach concerned with moral experience, practical reason, and the consequences of actions. An influential development in the 20th century was the emergence of metaethics."}, {"id": 18963910, "title": "Geography", "abstract": "Geography (from Ancient Greek \u03b3\u03b5\u03c9\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 ge\u014dgraph\u00eda; combining g\u00ea 'Earth' and gr\u00e1ph\u014d 'write') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities\u2014not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science. Geography has been called \"a bridge between natural science and social science disciplines.\"The first recorded use of the word \u03b3\u03b5\u03c9\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 was as a title of a book by Greek scholar Eratosthenes (276\u2013194 BC). However, the concepts of geography (such as cartography) date back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BCE in ancient Babylon. The history of geography as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale.Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. There have been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography, and into branches. Techniques employed can generally be broken down into quantitative and qualitative approaches, with many studies taking mixed-methods approaches. Common techniques include cartography, remote sensing, interviews, and surveys."}, {"id": 12229, "title": "Government", "abstract": "A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state.\nIn the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. In many countries, the government has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy.\nWhile all types of organizations have governance, the term government is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments and subsidiary organizations.\nThe main types of modern  political systems recognized are democracies, totalitarian regimes, and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes with a variety of hybrid regimes. Modern classification system also include monarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three. Historically prevalent forms of government include monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, theocracy, and tyranny. These forms are not always mutually exclusive, and mixed governments are common. The main aspect of any philosophy of government is how political power is obtained, with the two main forms being electoral contest and hereditary succession."}, {"id": 80381, "title": "Health", "abstract": "Health has a variety of definitions, which have been used for different purposes over time. Health can be promoted by encouraging healthful activities, such as regular physical exercise and adequate sleep, and by reducing or avoiding unhealthful activities or situations, such as smoking or excessive stress. Some factors affecting health are due to individual choices, such as whether to engage in a high-risk behavior, while others are due to structural causes, such as whether the society is arranged in a way that makes it easier or harder for people to get necessary healthcare services. Still, other factors are beyond both individual and group choices, such as genetic disorders."}, {"id": 10772350, "title": "History", "abstract": "History (derived from Ancient Greek  \u1f31\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 (histor\u00eda) 'inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation') is the systematic study and documentation of the human past.The period of events before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. \"History\" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers. History is incomplete and still has debatable mysteries.\nHistory is an academic discipline which uses a narrative to describe, examine, question, and analyze past events, and investigate their patterns of cause and effect. Historians debate which narrative best explains an event, as well as the significance of different causes and effects. Historians debate the nature of history as an end in itself, and its usefulness in giving perspective on the problems of the present.Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the tales surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends. History differs from myth in that it is supported by verifiable evidence. However, ancient cultural influences have helped create variant interpretations of the nature of history, which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and certain topical or thematic elements of historical investigation. History is taught as a part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in universities.\nHerodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the \"father of history\", as one of the first historians in the Western tradition, though he has been criticized as the \"father of lies\". Along with his contemporary Thucydides, he helped form the foundations for the modern study of past events and societies. Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In East Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals, was reputed to date from as early as 722 BC, though only 2nd-century BC texts have survived."}, {"id": 563299, "title": "Human behavior", "abstract": "Human behavior is the potential and expressed capacity (mentally, physically, and socially) of human individuals or groups to respond to internal and external stimuli throughout their life. Behavior is driven by genetic and environmental factors that affect an individual. Behavior is also driven, in part, by thoughts and feelings, which provide insight into individual psyche, revealing such things as attitudes and values. Human behavior is shaped by psychological traits, as personality types vary from person to person, producing different actions and behavior.\nSocial behavior accounts for actions directed at others. It is concerned with the considerable influence of social interaction and culture, as well as ethics, interpersonal relationships, politics, and conflict. Some behaviors are common while others are unusual. The acceptability of behavior depends upon social norms and is regulated by various means of social control. Social norms also condition behavior, whereby humans are pressured into following certain rules and displaying certain behaviors that are deemed acceptable or unacceptable depending on the given society or culture.\nCognitive behavior accounts for actions of obtaining and using knowledge. It is concerned with how information is learned and passed on, as well as creative application of knowledge and personal beliefs such as religion. Physiological behavior accounts for actions to maintain the body. It is concerned with basic bodily functions as well as measures taken to maintain health. Economic behavior accounts for actions regarding the development, organization, and use of materials as well as other forms of work. Ecological behavior accounts for actions involving the ecosystem. It is concerned with how humans interact with other organisms and how the environment shapes human behavior."}, {"id": 53132, "title": "Humanities", "abstract": "Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture, including the fundamental questions asked by humans. During the Renaissance, the term 'humanities' referred to the study of classical literature and language, as opposed to the study of religion or 'divinity.' The study of the humanities was a key part of the secular curriculum in universities at the time. Today, the humanities are more frequently defined as any fields of study outside of natural sciences, social sciences, formal sciences (like mathematics), and applied sciences (or professional training). They use methods that are primarily critical, speculative, or interpretative and have a significant historical element\u2014as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of science.The humanities include the studies of philosophy, religion, linguistics, foreign languages, history, language arts (literature, writing, oratory, rhetoric, poetry, etc.), performing arts (theater, music, dance, etc.), and visual arts (painting, sculpture, photography, filmmaking, etc.).Some definitions of the humanities encompass law and religion due to their shared characteristics, such as the study of language and culture.However, these definitions are not universally accepted, as law and religion are often considered professional subjects rather than humanities subjects. Professional subjects, like some social sciences, are sometimes classified as being part of both the liberal arts and professional development education, whereas humanities subjects are generally confined to the traditional liberal arts education. Although sociology, anthropology, archaeology, linguistics and psychology share some similarities with the humanities, these are often considered social sciences. Similarly, disciplines such as finance, business administration, political science, economics, and global studies have closer ties to the social sciences rather than the humanities.\nScholars in the humanities are called humanities scholars or sometimes humanists. The term humanist also describes the philosophical position of humanism, which antihumanist scholars in the humanities reject. Renaissance scholars and artists are also known as humanists. Some secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting of literature, history, foreign language, and art.\nHuman disciplines like history and language mainly use the comparative method and comparative research. Other methods used in the humanities include hermeneutics, source criticism, esthetic interpretation, and speculative reason."}, {"id": 18985062, "title": "Information", "abstract": "Information is an abstract concept that refers to that which has the power to inform.  At the most fundamental level, information pertains to the interpretation (perhaps formally) of that which may be sensed, or their abstractions.  Any natural process that is not completely random and any observable pattern in any medium can be said to convey some amount of information.  Whereas digital signals and other data use discrete signs to convey information, other phenomena and artifacts such as analogue signals, poems, pictures, music or other sounds, and currents convey information in a more continuous form.  Information is not knowledge itself, but the meaning that may be derived from a representation through interpretation.The concept of information is relevant or connected to various concepts, including constraint, communication, control, data, form, education, knowledge, meaning, understanding, mental stimuli, pattern, perception, proposition, representation, and entropy.\nInformation is often processed iteratively: Data available at one step are processed into information to be interpreted and processed at the next step.  For example, in written text each symbol or letter conveys information relevant to the word it is part of, each word conveys information relevant to the phrase it is part of, each phrase conveys information relevant to the sentence it is part of, and so on until at the final step information is interpreted and becomes knowledge in a given domain.  In a digital signal, bits may be interpreted into the symbols, letters, numbers, or structures that convey the information available at the next level up.  The key characteristic of information is that it is subject to interpretation and processing.\nThe derivation of information from a signal or message may be thought of as the resolution of ambiguity or uncertainty that arises during the interpretation of patterns within the signal or message.Information may be structured as data. Redundant data can be compressed up to an optimal size, which is the theoretical limit of compression.\nThe information available through a collection of data may be derived by analysis.  For example, a restaurant collects data from every customer order.  That information may be analyzed to produce knowledge that is put to use when the business subsequently wants to identify the most popular or least popular dish.Information can be transmitted in time, via data storage, and space, via communication and telecommunication. Information is expressed either as the content of a message or through direct or indirect observation. That which is perceived can be construed as a message in its own right, and in that sense, all information is always conveyed as the content of a message.\nInformation can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation (for example, information may be encoded into a sequence of signs, or transmitted via a signal). It can also be encrypted for safe storage and communication.\nThe uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence. Uncertainty is inversely proportional to the probability of occurrence. Information theory takes advantage of this by concluding that more uncertain events require more information to resolve their uncertainty. The bit is a typical unit of information. It is 'that which reduces uncertainty by half'. Other units such as the nat may be used. For example, the information encoded in one \"fair\" coin flip is log2(2/1) = 1 bit, and in two fair coin flips is log2(4/1) = 2 bits. A 2011 Science article estimates that 97% of technologically stored information was already in digital bits in 2007 and that the year 2002 was the beginning of the digital age for information storage (with digital storage capacity bypassing analogue for the first time)."}, {"id": 14539, "title": "Internet", "abstract": "The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the interlinked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing.\nThe origins of the Internet date back to research to enable time-sharing of computer resources and the development of packet switching in the 1960s. The set of rules (communication protocols) to enable internetworking on the Internet arose from research and development commissioned in the 1970s by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the United States Department of Defense in collaboration with universities and researchers across the United States and in the United Kingdom and France. The ARPANET initially served as a backbone for the interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the United States to enable resource sharing. The funding of the National Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial extensions, encouraged worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies and the merger of many networks using DARPA's Internet protocol suite. The linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s, as well as the advent of the World Wide Web, marked the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet, and generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to the network. Although the Internet was widely used by academia in the 1980s, subsequent commercialization is what incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life.\nMost traditional communication media, including telephone, radio, television, paper mail, and newspapers, are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as email, Internet telephone, Internet television, online music, digital newspapers, and video streaming websites. Newspaper, book, and other print publishing have adapted to website technology or have been reshaped into blogging, web feeds, and online news aggregators. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interaction through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking services. Online shopping has grown exponentially for major retailers, small businesses, and entrepreneurs, as it enables firms to extend their \"brick and mortar\" presence to serve a larger market or even sell goods and services entirely online. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.\nThe Internet has no single centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies. The overarching definitions of the two principal name spaces on the Internet, the Internet Protocol address (IP address) space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise. In November 2006, the Internet was included on USA Today's list of the New Seven Wonders."}, {"id": 243391, "title": "Knowledge", "abstract": "Knowledge is an awareness of facts, a familiarity with individuals and situations, or a practical skill. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often characterized as true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of justification. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies focus on justification. This includes questions like how to understand justification, whether it is needed at all, and whether something else besides it is needed. These controversies intensified in the latter half of the 20th century due to a series of thought experiments that provoked alternative definitions.\nKnowledge can be produced in many ways. The main source of empirical knowledge is perception, which involves the usage of the senses to learn about the external world. Introspection allows people to learn about their internal mental states and processes. Other sources of knowledge include memory, rational intuition, inference, and testimony. According to foundationalism, some of these sources are basic in that they can justify beliefs, without depending on other mental states. Coherentists reject this claim and contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge. According to infinitism, an infinite chain of beliefs is needed.\nThe main discipline investigating knowledge is epistemology, which studies what people know, how they come to know it, and what it means to know something. It discusses the value of knowledge and the thesis of philosophical skepticism, which questions the possibility of knowledge. Knowledge is relevant to many fields like the sciences, which aim to acquire knowledge using the scientific method based on repeatable experimentation, observation, and measurement. Various religions hold that humans should seek knowledge and that God or the divine is the source of knowledge. The anthropology of knowledge studies how knowledge is acquired, stored, retrieved, and communicated in different cultures. The sociology of knowledge examines under what sociohistorical circumstances knowledge arises, and what sociological consequences it has. The history of knowledge investigates how knowledge in different fields has developed, and evolved, in the course of history."}, {"id": 17524, "title": "Language", "abstract": "Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and written forms, and may also be conveyed through sign languages. The vast majority of human languages have developed writing systems that allow for the recording and preservation of the sounds or signs of language. Human language is characterized by its cultural and historical diversity, with significant variations observed between cultures and across time. Human languages possess the properties of productivity and displacement, which enable the creation of an infinite number of sentences, and the ability to refer to objects, events, and ideas that are not immediately present in the discourse. The use of human language relies on social convention and is acquired through learning.\nEstimates of the number of human languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000. Precise estimates depend on an arbitrary distinction (dichotomy) established between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken, signed, or both; however, any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli \u2013 for example, writing, whistling, signing, or braille. In other words, human language is modality-independent, but written or signed language is the way to inscribe or encode the natural human speech or gestures.\nDepending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, \"language\" may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings. Oral, manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances.\nThe scientific study of language is called linguistics. Critical examinations of languages, such as philosophy of language, the relationships between language and thought, how words represent experience, etc., have been debated at least since Gorgias and Plato in ancient Greek civilization. Thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712\u20131778) have argued that language originated from emotions, while others like Immanuel Kant (1724\u20131804) have argued that languages originated from rational and logical thought. Twentieth century philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889\u20131951) argued that philosophy is really the study of language itself. Major figures in contemporary linguistics of these times include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky.\nLanguage is thought to have gradually diverged from earlier primate communication systems when early hominins acquired the ability to form a theory of mind and shared intentionality. This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume, and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions. Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain, but especially in Broca's and Wernicke's areas. Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently by approximately three years old. Language and culture are codependent. Therefore, in addition to its strictly communicative uses, language has social uses such as signifying group identity, social stratification, as well as use for social grooming and entertainment.\nLanguages evolve and diversify over time, and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur. A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family; in contrast, a language that has been demonstrated to not have any living or non-living relationship with another language is called a language isolate. There are also many unclassified languages whose relationships have not been established, and spurious languages may have not existed at all. Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100."}, {"id": 18949668, "title": "Law", "abstract": "Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the art of justice. State-enforced laws can be made by a group legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes; by the executive through decrees and regulations; or established by judges through precedent, usually in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that adopt alternative ways of resolving disputes to standard court litigation. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and also serves as a mediator of relations between people.\nLegal systems vary between jurisdictions, with their differences analysed in comparative law. In civil law jurisdictions, a legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates the law. In common law systems, judges may make binding case law through precedent, although on occasion this may be overturned by a higher court or the legislature. Historically, religious law has influenced secular matters and is, as of the 21st century, still in use in some religious communities. Sharia law based on Islamic principles is used as the primary legal system in several countries, including Iran and Saudi Arabia.The scope of law can be divided into two domains: public law concerns government and society, including constitutional law, administrative law, and criminal law; while private law deals with legal disputes between parties in areas such as contracts, property, torts, delicts and commercial law. This distinction is stronger in civil law countries, particularly those with a separate system of administrative courts; by contrast, the public-private law divide is less pronounced in common law jurisdictions.Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis and sociology. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, and justice."}, {"id": 18393, "title": "Life", "abstract": "Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from matter that does not, and is defined descriptively by the capacity for homeostasis, organisation, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction. Many philosophical definitions of living systems have been proposed, such as self-organizing systems. Viruses in particular make definition difficult as they replicate only in host cells. Life exists all over the Earth in air, water, and soil, with many ecosystems forming the biosphere. Some of these are harsh environments occupied only by extremophiles. \nLife has been studied since ancient times, with theories such as Empedocles's materialism asserting that it was composed of four eternal elements, and Aristotle's hylomorphism asserting that living things have souls and embody both form and matter. Life originated at least 3.5 billion years ago, resulting in a universal common ancestor. This evolved into all the species that exist now, by way of many extinct species, some of which have left traces as fossils. Attempts to classify living things, too, began with Aristotle. Modern classification began with Carl Linnaeus's system of binomial nomenclature in the 1740s.\nLiving things are composed of biochemical molecules, formed mainly from a few core chemical elements. All living things contain two types of large molecule, proteins and nucleic acids, the latter usually both DNA and RNA: these carry the information needed by each species, including the instructions to make each type of protein. The proteins, in turn, serve as the machinery which carries out the many chemical processes of life. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. Smaller organisms, including prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), consist of small single cells. Larger organisms, mainly eukaryotes, can consist of single cells or may be multicellular with more complex structure. Life is confirmed only on Earth but extraterrestrial life is thought probable. Artificial life is being simulated and explored by scientists and engineers."}, {"id": 71429322, "title": "List (information)", "abstract": "A list is a set of discrete items of information collected and set forth in some format for utility, entertainment, or other purposes. A list may be memorised in any number of ways, including existing only in the mind of the list-maker, but lists are frequently written down on paper, or maintained electronically. Lists are \"most frequently a tool\", and \"one does not read but only uses a list: one looks up the relevant information in it, but usually does not need to deal with it as a whole\"."}, {"id": 19641, "title": "Mass media", "abstract": "Mass media includes the diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication.\nBroadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films, radio, recorded music, or television. Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email, social media sites, websites, and Internet-based radio and television. Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on the web, by such means as linking to or running TV ads online, or distributing QR codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website. In this way, they can use the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords, as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently. Outdoor media transmit information via such media as AR advertising; billboards; blimps; flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes); placards or kiosks placed inside and outside buses, commercial buildings, shops, sports stadiums, subway cars, or trains; signs; or skywriting. Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, or pamphlets. Event organising and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media.\nThe organisations that control these technologies, such as movie studios, publishing companies, and radio and television stations, are also known as the mass media."}, {"id": 18831, "title": "Mathematics", "abstract": "Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics with the major subdisciplines of number theory, algebra, geometry, and analysis, respectively. There is no general consensus among mathematicians about a common definition for their academic discipline.\nMost mathematical activity involves the discovery of properties of abstract objects and the use of pure reason to prove them. These objects consist of either abstractions from nature or\u2014in modern mathematics\u2014entities that are stipulated to have certain properties, called axioms. A proof consists of a succession of applications of deductive rules to already established results. These results include previously proved theorems, axioms, and\u2014in case of abstraction from nature\u2014some basic properties that are considered true starting points of the theory under consideration.Mathematics is essential in the natural sciences, engineering, medicine, finance, computer science and the social sciences. Although mathematics is extensively used for modeling phenomena, the fundamental truths of mathematics are independent from any scientific experimentation. Some areas of mathematics, such as statistics and game theory, are developed in close correlation with their applications and are often grouped under applied mathematics. Other areas are developed independently from any application (and are therefore called pure mathematics), but often later find practical applications. The problem of integer factorization, for example, which goes back to Euclid in 300 BC, had no practical application before its use in the RSA cryptosystem, now widely used for the security of computer networks.Historically, the concept of a proof and its associated mathematical rigour first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements. Since its beginning, mathematics was primarily divided into geometry and arithmetic (the manipulation of natural numbers and fractions), until the 16th and 17th centuries, when algebra and infinitesimal calculus were introduced as new fields. Since then, the interaction between mathematical innovations and scientific discoveries has led to a correlated increase in the development of both. At the end of the 19th century, the foundational crisis of mathematics led to the systematization of the axiomatic method, which heralded a dramatic increase in the number of mathematical areas and their fields of application. The contemporary Mathematics Subject Classification lists more than 60 first-level areas of mathematics."}, {"id": 92357, "title": "Military", "abstract": "A military, also known collectively as an armed forces, are a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a distinct military uniform. They may consist of one or more military branches such as an army, navy, air force, space force, marines, or coast guard. The main task of a military is usually defined as defence of their state and its interests against external armed threats.\nIn broad usage, the terms \"armed forces\" and \"military\" are often synonymous, although in technical usage a distinction is sometimes made in which a country's armed forces may include other paramilitary forces such as armed police.\n\nA nation's military may function as a discrete social subculture, with dedicated infrastructure such as military housing, schools, utilities, logistics, hospitals, legal services, food production, finance, and banking services. Beyond warfare, the military may be employed in additional sanctioned and non-sanctioned functions within the state, including internal security threats, crowd control, promotion of political agendas, emergency services and reconstruction, protecting corporate economic interests, social ceremonies, and national honour guards.The profession of soldiering is older than recorded history. Some of the most enduring images of  classical antiquity portray the power and feats of military leaders. The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC, a defining point in the reign of Ramses II, features in bas-relief monuments. The first Emperor of a unified China, Qin Shi Huang, created the Terracotta Army to represent his military might.\nThe Ancient Romans left to posterity many treatises and writings on warfare, as well as many decorated triumphal arches and victory columns."}, {"id": 21830, "title": "Nature", "abstract": "Nature is an inherent character or constitution, particularly of the ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the laws, elements and phenomena of the physical world, including life. Although humans are part of nature, human activity or humans as a whole are often described as at times at odds, or outright separate and even superior to nature.During the advent of modern scientific method in the last several centuries, nature became the passive reality, organized and moved by divine laws. With the Industrial revolution, nature increasingly became seen as the part of reality deprived from intentional intervention: it was hence considered as sacred by some traditions (Rousseau, American transcendentalism) or a mere decorum for divine providence or human history (Hegel, Marx). However, a vitalist vision of nature, closer to the pre-Socratic one, got reborn at the same time, especially after Charles Darwin.Within the various uses of the word today, \"nature\" often refers to geology and wildlife. Nature can refer to the general realm of living plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects\u2014the way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord, such as the weather and geology of the Earth. It is often taken to mean the \"natural environment\" or wilderness\u2014wild animals, rocks, forest, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention. For example, manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature, unless qualified as, for example, \"human nature\" or \"the whole of nature\". This more traditional concept of natural things that can still be found today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial, with the artificial being understood as that which has been brought into being by a human consciousness or a human mind. Depending on the particular context, the term \"natural\" might also be distinguished from the unnatural or the supernatural."}, {"id": 219599, "title": "Person", "abstract": "A person (pl.: people or persons, depending on context) is a being who has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations such as kinship, ownership of property, or legal responsibility. The defining features of personhood and, consequently, what makes a person count as a person, differ widely among cultures and contexts.In addition to the question of personhood, of what makes a being count as a person to begin with, there are further questions about personal identity and self: both about what makes any particular person that particular person instead of another, and about what makes a person at one time the same person as they were or will be at another time despite any intervening changes.\nThe plural form \"people\" is often used to refer to an entire nation or ethnic group (as in \"a people\"), and this was the original meaning of the word; it subsequently acquired its use as a plural form of person. The plural form \"persons\" is often used in philosophical and legal writing."}, {"id": 13692155, "title": "Philosophy", "abstract": "Philosophy (love of wisdom in ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.\nHistorically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic\u2013Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic\u2013Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.\nMajor branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and properties. Other subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, and political philosophy. Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote different principles, theories, or methods.\nPhilosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications."}, {"id": 22986, "title": "Politics", "abstract": "Politics (from Ancient Greek  \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac (politik\u00e1) 'affairs of the cities') is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies politics and government is referred to as political science.\nIt may be used positively in the context of a \"political solution\" which is compromising and nonviolent, or descriptively as \"the art or science of government\", but also often carries a negative connotation. The concept has been defined in various ways, and different approaches have fundamentally differing views on whether it should be used extensively or in a limited way, empirically or normatively, and on whether conflict or co-operation is more essential to it.\nA variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and exercising internal and external force, including warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states, to the international level.\nIn modern nation states, people often form political parties to represent their ideas. Members of a party often agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties.\nA political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society. The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Confucius's political manuscripts and Chanakya's Arthashastra."}, {"id": 25414, "title": "Religion", "abstract": "Religion is a range of social-cultural systems, including designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relate humanity to supernatural, transcendental, and spiritual elements\u2014although there is no scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion. Different religions may or may not contain various elements ranging from the divine, sacredness, faith, and a supernatural being or beings.Religious practices may include rituals, sermons, commemoration or veneration (of deities or saints), sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances, initiations, matrimonial and funerary services, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, or public service. Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred texts, symbols, and holy places, that primarily aim to give life meaning. Religions may contain symbolic tales that may attempt to explain the origin of life, the universe, and other phenomena; some followers believe these to be true stories; others regard them as myth. Traditionally, both faith and reason have been considered sources of religious beliefs.There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, though nearly all of them have regionally based, relatively small followings. Four religions\u2014Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism\u2014account for over 77% of the world's population, and 92% of the world either follows one of those four religions or identifies as nonreligious, meaning that the remaining 9,000+ faiths account for only 8% of the population combined. The religiously unaffiliated demographic includes those who do not identify with any particular religion, atheists, and agnostics, although many in the demographic still have various religious beliefs.Many world religions are also organized religions, most definitively including the Abrahamic religions Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, while others are arguably less so, in particular folk religions, indigenous religions, and some Eastern religions. A portion of the world's population are members of new religious movements. Scholars have indicated that global religiosity may be increasing due to religious countries having generally higher birth rates.The study of religion comprises a wide variety of academic disciplines, including theology, philosophy of religion, comparative religion, and social scientific studies. Theories of religion offer various explanations for its origins and workings, including the ontological foundations of religious being and belief."}, {"id": 26700, "title": "Science", "abstract": "Science is a rigorous, systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world. Modern science is typically divided into three major branches: the natural sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, and biology), which study the physical world; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study formal systems, governed by axioms and rules. There is disagreement whether the formal sciences are science disciplines, because they do not rely on empirical evidence. Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in engineering and medicine.The history of science spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to Bronze Age Egypt and Mesopotamia from around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes, while further advancements, including the introduction of the Hindu\u2013Arabic numeral system, were made during the Golden Age of India.:\u200a12\u200a Scientific research deteriorated in these regions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire during the early middle ages (400 to 1000 CE), but in the Medieval renaissances (Carolingian Renaissance, Ottonian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century) scholarship flourished again. Some Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded upon in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age and later by the efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe in the Renaissance.\nThe recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived \"natural philosophy\", which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape, along with the changing of \"natural philosophy\" to \"natural science\".New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems. Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and research institutions, government agencies, and companies. The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the ethical and moral development of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental protection."}, {"id": 37235, "title": "Society", "abstract": "A society () is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members.\nHuman social structures are complex and highly cooperative, featuring the specialization of labor via social roles. Societies construct roles and other patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or concepts acceptable or unacceptable\u2014these expectations around behavior within a given society are known as societal norms. So far as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis.\nSocieties vary based on level of technology and type of economic activity. Larger societies with larger food surpluses often exhibit stratification or dominance patterns.  Societies can have many different forms of government, various ways of understanding kinship, and different gender roles.  Human behavior varies immensely between different societies; humans shape society, but society in turn shapes human beings."}, {"id": 25778403, "title": "Sport", "abstract": "Sport pertains to any form of physical activity or game, often competitive and organized, that aims to use, maintain, or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants and, in some cases, entertainment to spectators. Sports can, through casual or organized participation, improve participants' physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously or consecutively, with one winner; in others, the contest (a match) is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a \"tie\" or \"draw\", in which there is no single winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs.\nSport is generally recognised as system of activities based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity, with major competitions such as the Olympic Games admitting only sports meeting this definition. Other organisations, such as the Council of Europe, preclude activities without a physical element from classification as sports. However, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition as mind sports. The International Olympic Committee (through ARISF) recognises both chess and bridge as bona fide sports, and SportAccord, the international sports federation association, recognises five non-physical sports: bridge, chess, draughts (checkers), Go and xiangqi, and limits the number of mind games which can be admitted as sports.Sport is usually governed by a set of rules or customs, which serve to ensure fair competition, and allow consistent adjudication of the winner. Winning can be determined by physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring elements of the sporting performance, including objective or subjective measures such as technical performance or artistic impression.\nRecords of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced or reported in sport news. Sport is also a major source of entertainment for non-participants, with spectator sport drawing large crowds to sport venues, and reaching wider audiences through broadcasting. Sport betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in some cases is central to the sport.\nAccording to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013. The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."}, {"id": 29816, "title": "Technology", "abstract": "Technology is the application of conceptual knowledge for achieving practical goals, especially in a reproducible way. The word technology can also mean the products resulting from such efforts,:\u200a117\u200a including both tangible tools such as utensils or machines, and intangible ones such as software. Technology plays a critical role in science, engineering, and everyday life.\nTechnological advancements have led to significant changes in society. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used during prehistoric times, followed by the control of fire, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language during the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age allowed greater travel and the creation of more complex machines. More recent technological inventions, including the printing press, telephone, and the Internet, have lowered barriers to communication and ushered in the knowledge economy.\nWhile technology contributes to economic development and improves human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution and resource depletion, and can cause social harms like technological unemployment resulting from automation. As a result, there are ongoing philosophical and political debates about the role and use of technology, the ethics of technology, and ways to mitigate its downsides."}, {"id": 30012, "title": "Time", "abstract": "Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, and into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to compare the duration of events or the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change of quantities in material reality or in the conscious experience. Time is often referred to as a fourth dimension, along with three spatial dimensions.Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units (SI) and International System of Quantities. The SI base unit of time is the second, which is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms. General relativity is the primary framework for understanding how spacetime works. Through advances in both theoretical and experimental investigations of spacetime, it has been shown that time can be distorted and dilated, particularly at the edges of black holes.\nThroughout history, time has been an important subject of study in religion, philosophy, and science. Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists and has been a prime motivation in navigation and astronomy. Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value (\"time is money\") as well as personal value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day and in human life spans."}, {"id": 31880, "title": "Universe", "abstract": "The universe is all of space and time and their contents. It comprises all of existence, any fundamental interaction, physical process and physical constant, and therefore all forms of energy and matter, and the structures they form, from sub-atomic particles to entire galaxies. Space and time, according to the prevailing cosmological theory of the Big Bang, emerged together 13.787\u00b10.020 billion years ago, and the universe has been expanding ever since. Today the universe has expanded into an age and size that is physically only in parts observable as the observable universe, which is approximately 93 billion light-years in diameter at the present day, while the spatial size, if any, of the entire universe is unknown.Some of the earliest cosmological models of the universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric, placing Earth at the center. Over the centuries, more precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus Copernicus to develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System. In developing the law of universal gravitation, Isaac Newton built upon Copernicus's work as well as Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion and observations by Tycho Brahe.\nFurther observational improvements led to the realization that the Sun is one of a few hundred billion stars in the Milky Way, which is one of a few hundred billion galaxies in the observable universe. Many of the stars in a galaxy have planets. At the largest scale, galaxies are distributed uniformly and the same in all directions, meaning that the universe has neither an edge nor a center. At smaller scales, galaxies are distributed in clusters and superclusters which form immense filaments and voids in space, creating a vast foam-like structure. Discoveries in the early 20th century have suggested that the universe had a beginning and has been expanding since then.According to the Big Bang theory, the energy and matter initially present have become less dense as the universe expanded. After an initial accelerated expansion called the inflationary epoch at around 10\u221232 seconds, and the separation of the four known fundamental forces, the universe gradually cooled and continued to expand, allowing the first subatomic particles and simple atoms to form. Dark matter gradually gathered, forming a foam-like structure of filaments and voids under the influence of gravity. Giant clouds of hydrogen and helium were gradually drawn to the places where dark matter was most dense, forming the first galaxies, stars, and everything else seen today.\nFrom studying the movement of galaxies, it has been discovered that the universe contains much more matter than is accounted for by visible objects; stars, galaxies, nebulas and interstellar gas. This unseen matter is known as dark matter (dark means that there is a wide range of strong indirect evidence that it exists, but we have not yet detected it directly). The \u039bCDM model is the most widely accepted model of the universe. It suggests that about 69.2%\u00b11.2% of the mass and energy in the universe is dark energy which is responsible for the acceleration of the expansion of the universe, and about 25.8%\u00b11.1% is dark matter. Ordinary ('baryonic') matter is therefore only 4.84%\u00b10.1% of the physical universe. Stars, planets, and visible gas clouds only form about 6% of the ordinary matter.There are many competing hypotheses about the ultimate fate of the universe and about what, if anything, preceded the Big Bang, while other physicists and philosophers refuse to speculate, doubting that information about prior states will ever be accessible. Some physicists have suggested various multiverse hypotheses, in which the universe might be one among many."}], "id": 60661632}, {"title": "Academic disciplines", "pages": [{"id": 14924067, "title": "Academic discipline", "abstract": "An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. Academic disciplines are conventionally divided into the humanities, including language, art and cultural studies, and the scientific disciplines, such as physics, chemistry, and biology; the social sciences are sometimes considered a third category.\nIndividuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists.\nWhile academic disciplines in and of themselves are more or less focused practices, scholarly approaches such as multidisciplinarity/interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and cross-disciplinarity integrate aspects from multiple academic disciplines, therefore addressing any problems that may arise from narrow concentration within specialized fields of study. For example, professionals may encounter trouble communicating across academic disciplines because of differences in language, specified concepts, or methodology.\nSome researchers believe that academic disciplines may, in the future, be replaced by what is known as Mode 2 or \"post-academic science\", which involves the acquisition of cross-disciplinary knowledge through the collaboration of specialists from various academic disciplines.\nIt is also known as a field of study, field of inquiry, research field and branch of knowledge. The different terms are used in different countries and fields."}, {"id": 54251016, "title": "List of academic fields", "abstract": "An academic discipline or field of study is known as a branch of knowledge. It is taught as an accredited part of higher education. A scholar's discipline is commonly defined and recognized by a university faculty. That person will be accredited by learned societies to which they belong along with the academic journals in which they publish. However, no formal criteria exist for defining an academic discipline.\nDisciplines vary between universities and even programs. These will have well-defined rosters of journals and conferences supported by a few universities and publications. Most disciplines are broken down into (potentially overlapping) branches called sub-disciplines.\nThere is no consensus on how some academic disciplines should be classified (e.g., whether anthropology and linguistics are disciplines of social sciences or fields within the humanities). More generally, the proper criteria for organizing knowledge into disciplines are also open to debate."}, {"id": 242710, "title": "Outline of academic disciplines", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to academic disciplines:\nAn academic discipline or field of study is a branch of knowledge, taught and researched as part of higher education. A scholar's discipline is commonly defined by the university faculties and learned societies to which they belong and the academic journals in which they publish research.\nDisciplines vary between well-established ones that exist in almost all universities and have well-defined rosters of journals and conferences, and nascent ones supported by only a few universities and publications. A discipline may have branches, and these are often called sub-disciplines.\nThe following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to academic disciplines. In each case an entry at the highest level of the hierarchy (e.g., Humanities) is a group of broadly similar disciplines; an entry at the next highest level (e.g., Music) is a discipline having some degree of autonomy and being the basic identity felt by its scholars; and lower levels of the hierarchy are sub-disciplines not normally having any role in the structure of the university's governance."}, {"id": 48919032, "title": "American literature (academic discipline)", "abstract": "American literature is an academic discipline devoted to the study of American literature."}, {"id": 42256038, "title": "Architectural analytics", "abstract": "Architectural analytics is the field of study that focuses on the discovery and identification of meaningful patterns in architecture.\nArchitecture represents a snapshot in time and can, in a very detailed fashion, animate the civilisation and people that created it. Architectural analytics can allow a large amount of information about a monument, settlement or civilisation to be discerned. This ability to inform and present previously unknown facts makes architectural analytics important in piecing together the larger understanding of civilisations and the human story."}, {"id": 10795015, "title": "Arts administration", "abstract": "Arts administration (alternatively arts management) is a field in the arts sector that facilitates programming within cultural organizations. Arts administrators are responsible for facilitating the day-to-day operations of the organization as well as the long term goals by and fulfilling its vision, mission and mandate. Arts management became present in the arts and culture sector in the 1960s. Organizations include professional non-profit (referred to as not-for-profit in Canada) entities. For examples theaters, museums, symphony orchestras, concert bands, jazz organizations, opera houses, ballet companies and many smaller professional and non-professional for-profit arts-related organizations (e.g. auction houses, art galleries, music companies, etc.). The duties of an arts administrator can include staff management, marketing, budget management, public relations, fundraising, program development evaluation, community engagement, strategic planning, and board relations."}, {"id": 63512539, "title": "Bildwissenschaft", "abstract": "Bildwissenschaft is an academic discipline in the German-speaking world. Similar to visual studies, and defined in relation to art history, Bildwissenschaft (approximately, \"image-science\") refers to a number of different approaches to images, their interpretation and their social significance. \nOriginating in the early 20th century, the field has become more prominent since the 1990s. In the contemporary period, significant theorists and practitioners of Bildwissenschaft have included Klaus Sachs-Hombach, Gottfried Boehm, Hans Belting, Horst Bredekamp and Lambert Wiesing, each of whom have developed distinct orientations toward their subject matter."}, {"id": 9634115, "title": "Business informatics", "abstract": "Business informatics (BI) is a discipline combining economics, the economics of digitization, business administration, accounting, internal auditing, information technology (IT), and concepts of computer science. Business informatics centers around creating programming and equipment frameworks which ultimately provide the organization with effective operation based on information technology application. The focus on programming and equipment boosts the value of the analysis of economics and information technology. The BI discipline was created in Germany (in German: Wirtschaftsinformatik). It is an established academic discipline, including bachelor, master, diploma, and PhD programs in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, The Netherlands, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey, and is establishing itself in an increasing number of other countries as well, including Finland, Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Malaysia, Mexico, Poland, India and South Africa."}, {"id": 40351046, "title": "Clinical physiology", "abstract": "Clinical physiology is both an academic discipline within the medical sciences and a clinical medical specialty for physicians in the health care systems of Sweden, Denmark and Finland. Clinical physiology is characterized as a branch of physiology that uses a functional approach to understand the pathophysiology of a disease."}, {"id": 7378, "title": "Comparative law", "abstract": "Comparative law is the study of differences and similarities between the law (legal systems) of different countries. More specifically, it involves the study of the different legal \"systems\" (or \"families\") in existence in the world, including the common law, the civil law, socialist law, Canon law, Jewish Law, Islamic law, Hindu law, and Chinese law. It includes the description and analysis of foreign legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken. The importance of comparative law has increased enormously in the present age of internationalism, economic globalization, and democratization."}, {"id": 34154970, "title": "Criminology", "abstract": "Criminology (from Latin crimen, \"accusation\", and Ancient Greek -\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1, -logia, from \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 logos meaning: \"word, reason\") is the interdisciplinary study of crime and deviant behaviour. Criminology is a multidisciplinary field in both the behavioural and social sciences, which draws primarily upon the research of sociologists, political scientists, economists, legal sociologists, psychologists, philosophers, psychiatrists, social workers, biologists, social anthropologists, scholars of law and jurisprudence, as well as the processes that define administration of justice and the criminal justice system.\nCriminologists are individuals who engage in the exploration and investigation of the intersection between crime and society's reactions to it. Certain criminologists delve into the behavioral trends of potential offenders. In a broader sense, these professionals undertake research and inquiries, formulating hypotheses, and scrutinizing observable trends in a systematic manner.\nThe interests of criminologists include the study of nature of crime and criminals, origins of criminal law, etiology of crime, social reaction to crime, and the functioning of law enforcement agencies and the penal institutions. It can be broadly said that criminology directs its inquiries along three lines: first, it investigates the nature of criminal law and its administration and conditions under which it develops; second, it analyzes the causation of crime and the personality of criminals; and third, it studies the control of crime and the rehabilitation of offenders. Thus, criminology includes within its scope the activities of legislative bodies, law-enforcement agencies, judicial institutions, correctional institutions and educational, private and public social agencies."}, {"id": 19455353, "title": "Critical terrorism studies", "abstract": "Critical terrorism studies (CTS) applies a critical theory approach rooted in counter-hegemonic and politically progressive critical theory to the study of terrorism. With links to the Frankfurt School of critical theory and the Aberystwyth School of critical security studies, CTS seeks to understand terrorism as a social construction, or a label, that is applied to certain violent acts through a range of political, legal and academic processes. It also seeks to understand and critique dominant forms of counter-terrorism."}, {"id": 8741613, "title": "Curriculum studies", "abstract": "Curriculum studies is a concentration in the different types of curriculum and instruction concerned with understanding curricula as an active force influenced by human educational experiences. Its proponents investigate the relationship between curriculum theory and educational practice in addition to the relationship between school programs, the contours of the society, and the culture in which schools are located."}, {"id": 55797400, "title": "Design studies", "abstract": "Design studies can refer to any design-oriented studies but is more formally an academic discipline or field of study that pursues, through both theoretical and practical modes of inquiry, a critical understanding of design practice and its effects in society."}, {"id": 73841642, "title": "Dress history", "abstract": "Dress history is the study of history which uses clothing and textiles to understand the past. Through analysing modes of dress, different garment types, textiles, and accessories of a certain time in history, a dress historian may research and identify the social, cultural, economic, technological, and political contexts which influence such phenomena and experiences of living during the period under investigation. \nMethods of research used in dress history are wide ranging, with dress history scholars often approaching analysis from a variety of perspectives and topic interests, which may place focus on, for example, manufacture, retail, and/or consumption of clothing, modes of dress, means of sartorial expression, dress traditions, labour, trade, and capital, geography, or chronology."}, {"id": 45633, "title": "Economic history", "abstract": "Economic history is the study of history using methodological tools from economics or with a special attention to economic phenomena. Research is conducted using a combination of historical methods, statistical methods and the application of economic theory to historical situations and institutions. The field can encompass a wide variety of topics, including equality, finance, technology, labour, and business. It emphasizes historicizing the economy itself, analyzing it as a dynamic entity and attempting to provide insights into the way it is structured and conceived.\nUsing both quantitative data and qualitative sources, economic historians emphasize understanding the historical context in which major economic events take place. They often focus on the institutional dynamics of systems of production, labor, and capital, as well as the economy's impact on society, culture, and language. Scholars of the discipline may approach their analysis from the perspective of different schools of economic thought, such as mainstream economics, Austrian economics, Marxian economics, the Chicago school of economics, and Keynesian economics.\nEconomic history has several sub-disciplines. Historical methods are commonly applied in financial and business history, which overlap with areas of social history such as demographic and labor history. In the sub-discipline called New Economic History or cliometrics, economists use quantitative (econometric) methods. In history of capitalism, historians explain economic historical issues and processes from a historical point of view."}, {"id": 18974570, "title": "English studies", "abstract": "English studies (or simply, English) is an academic discipline taught in primary, secondary, and post-secondary education in English-speaking countries. This is not to be confused with English taught as a foreign language, which is a distinct discipline. An Anglicist is someone who works in the field of English studies. The English studies discipline involves the study, analysis, and exploration of texts created in English literature. \nEnglish studies include: \n\nThe study of literature, especially novels, plays, short stories, and poetry. Although any English-language literature may be studied, the most commonly analyzed literature originates from Britain, the United States, and Ireland. Additionally, any given country or region teaching English studies will often emphasize its own local or national English-language literature.\nEnglish composition, involving both the analysis of the structures of works of literature as well as the application of these structures in one's own writing.\nEnglish language arts, which is the study of grammar, usage, and style.\nEnglish sociolinguistics, including discourse analysis of written and spoken texts in the English language, the history of the English language, English language learning and teaching, and the study of World of English.English linguistics (syntax, morphology, phonetics, phonology, etc.) is regarded as a distinct discipline, taught in a department of linguistics.The North American Modern Language Association (MLA) divides English studies into two disciplines: a language-focused discipline, and a literature-focused discipline. At universities in non-English-speaking countries, one department often covers all aspects of English studies as well as English taught as a foreign language and English linguistics.\nIt is common for departments of English to offer courses and scholarships in all areas of the English language, such as literature, public speaking and speech-writing, rhetoric, composition studies, creative writing, philology and etymology, journalism, poetry, publishing, the philosophy of language, and theater and play-writing, among many others. In most English-speaking countries, the study of texts produced in non-English languages takes place in other departments, such as departments of foreign language or comparative literature.\nEnglish studies is taught in a wide variety of manners, but one unifying commonality of all English studies is that students engage with an English-language text in a critical manner. However, the methods of teaching a text, the manner of engaging with a text, and the selection of texts are all widely-debated subjects within the English studies field. Another unifying commonality is that this engagement with the text will produce a wide variety of skills, which can translate into many different careers."}, {"id": 64919, "title": "Environmental science", "abstract": "Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physics, biology, and geography (including ecology, chemistry, plant science, zoology, mineralogy, oceanography, limnology, soil science, geology and physical geography, and atmospheric science) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment. Today it provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.Environmental studies incorporates more of the social sciences for understanding human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. Environmental engineering focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality in every aspect.\nEnvironmental scientists seek to understand the earth's  physical, chemical, biological, and geological processes, and to use that knowledge to understand how issues such as alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and the effects of global warming and climate change influence and affect the natural systems and processes of earth.\nEnvironmental issues almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems. Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate space, and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.\nEnvironmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by (a) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze complex environmental problems, (b) the arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific environmental protocols of investigation and (c) the growing public awareness of a need for action in addressing environmental problems. Events that spurred this development included the publication of Rachel Carson's landmark environmental book Silent Spring along with major environmental issues becoming very public, such as the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, and the Cuyahoga River of Cleveland, Ohio, \"catching fire\" (also in 1969), and helped increase the visibility of environmental issues and create this new field of study."}, {"id": 1195462, "title": "Environmental studies", "abstract": "Environmental studies (EVS or EVST) is a multidisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment. Environmental studies connects principles from the physical sciences, commerce/economics, the humanities, and social sciences to address complex contemporary environmental issues. It is a broad field of study that includes the natural environment, the built environment, and the relationship between them. The field encompasses study in basic principles of ecology and environmental science, as well as associated subjects such as ethics, geography, anthropology, public policy (environmental policy), education, political science (environmental politics), urban planning, law, economics, philosophy, sociology and social justice, planning, pollution control and natural resource management. There are many Environmental Studies degree programs, including a Master's degree and a Bachelor's degree. Environmental Studies degree programs provide a wide range of skills and analytical tools needed to face the environmental issues of our world head on.  Students in Environmental Studies gain the intellectual and methodological tools to understand and address the crucial environmental issues of our time and the impact of individuals, society, and the planet. Environmental education's main goal is to instill in all members of society a pro-environmental thinking and attitude. This will help to create environmental ethics and raise people's awareness of the importance of environmental protection and biodiversity."}, {"id": 475037, "title": "Forensic psychology", "abstract": "Forensic psychology is the practice of psychology applied to the law. Forensic psychology is the application of scientific knowledge and methods to help answer legal questions arising in criminal, civil, contractual, or other judicial proceedings. Forensic psychology includes research on various psychology-law topics, such as jury selection, reducing systemic racism in criminal law, eyewitness testimony, evaluating competency to stand trial, or assessing military veterans for service-connected disability compensation. The American Psychological Association's Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists reference several psychology subdisciplines, such as social, clinical, experimental, counseling, and neuropsychology."}, {"id": 74220589, "title": "Island studies", "abstract": "Island studies, also known as Nissology, is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to analyzing Islands. Island studies examines the relationship between islands and islanders."}, {"id": 63707904, "title": "Genome informatics", "abstract": "Genome Informatics (also genoinformatics or genetic information processing) is a scientific study of information processing in genomes."}, {"id": 74847, "title": "Geographer", "abstract": "A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interacts. The Greek prefix \"geo\" means \"earth\" and the Greek suffix, \"graphy\", meaning \"description\", so a geographer is someone who studies the earth. The word \"geography\" is a Middle French word that is believed to have been first used in 1540.Although geographers are historically known as people who make maps, map making is actually the field of study of cartography, a subset of geography. Geographers do not study only the details of the natural environment or human society, but they also study the reciprocal relationship between these two. For example, they study how the natural environment contributes to human society and how human society affects the natural environment.In particular, physical geographers study the natural environment while human geographers study human society and culture. Some geographers are practitioners of GIS (geographic information system) and are often employed by local, state, and federal government agencies as well as in the private sector by environmental and engineering firms.The paintings by Johannes Vermeer titled The Geographer and The Astronomer are both thought to represent the growing influence and rise in prominence of scientific enquiry in Europe at the time of their painting in 1668\u201369."}, {"id": 34488928, "title": "Human services", "abstract": "Human services is an interdisciplinary field of study with the objective of meeting human needs through an applied knowledge base, focusing on prevention as well as remediation of problems, and maintaining a commitment to improving the overall quality of life of service populations. The process involves the study of social technologies (practice methods, models, and theories), service technologies (programs, organizations, and systems), and scientific innovations designed to ameliorate problems and enhance the quality of life of individuals, families and communities to improve the delivery of service with better coordination, accessibility and accountability. The mission of human services is to promote a practice that involves simultaneously working at all levels of society (whole-person approach) in the process of promoting the autonomy of individuals or groups, making informal or formal human services systems more efficient and effective, and advocating for positive social change within society.\nHuman services practitioners strive to advance the autonomy of service users through civic engagement, education, health promotion and social change at all levels of society. Practitioners also engage in advocating so human systems remain accessible, integrated, efficient and effective.\nHuman services academic programs can be readily found in colleges and universities, which award degrees at the associate, baccalaureate, and graduate levels. Human services programs exist in countries all around the world."}, {"id": 2104181, "title": "Industrial arts", "abstract": "Industrial arts is an educational program that features the fabrication of objects in wood or metal using a variety of hand, power, or machine tools. Industrial Arts are commonly referred to as Technology Education. It may include small engine repair and automobile maintenance, and all programs usually cover technical drawing as part of the curricula. As an educational term, industrial arts dates from 1904 when Charles R. Richards of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York suggested it to replace manual training.\nIn the United States, industrial arts classes are colloquially known as \"shop class\"; these programs expose students to the basics of home repair, manual craftsmanship, and machine safety. Most industrial arts programs were established in comprehensive rather than dedicated vocational schools and focused on a broad range of skills rather than on a specific vocational training. In 1980, the name of industrial arts education in New York State was changed to \"technology education\" during what was called the \"Futuring Project\". The project goal was to increase students' technological literacy.In Victoria (VIC, Australia) industrial arts is still a key part of the high school curriculum. The term now describes a key study of technology that focuses on both engineering and industrial technologies. Additionally, design using the aforementioned technologies is now a key part of the industrial arts curriculum and has been since the mid-1980s when the subject of technics was introduced into Victorian high schools.\nOne of the most important aspects of industrial arts is still that while students design they ultimately realize a solution; learning the challenges involved with working with materials and also the challenges of small-scale project management.\nSome universities have doctoral programs in industrial arts\nIndustrial arts includes:  product design, industrial design, industrial photography and digital business arts, which are popular and investigative over the countries."}, {"id": 39800770, "title": "Integrated modification methodology", "abstract": "Integrated modification methodology (IMM) is a procedure encompassing an open set of scientific techniques for morphologically analyzing the built environment in a multiscale manner and evaluating its performance in actual states or under specific design scenarios.\nThe methodology is structured around a nonlinear phasing process aiming for delivering a systemic understanding of any given urban settlement, formulating the modification set-ups for improving its performance, and examining the modification strategies to transform that system. The basic assumption in IMM is the recognition of the built environment as a Complex Adaptive System.IMM has been developed by IMMdesignlab, a research lab based at Politecnico di Milano at the Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction Engineering (DABC)."}, {"id": 75302123, "title": "Irish studies", "abstract": "Irish Studies is an interdisciplinary field of research devoted to the study of Irish language, culture, literature, politics and history in Ireland and elsewhere. It is sometimes subsumed within the category of Celtic studies and European studies."}, {"id": 16366, "title": "Jurisprudence", "abstract": "Jurisprudence is the philosophy and theory of law. It is concerned primarily with what the law is and what it ought to be. That includes questions of how persons and social relations are understood in legal terms, and of the values in and of law. Work that is counted as jurisprudence is mostly philosophical, but it includes work that also belongs to other disciplines, such as sociology, history, politics and economics.\nModern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was based on the first principles of natural law, civil law, and the law of nations. General jurisprudence can be divided into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered. \nContemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems internal to law and legal systems and problems of law as a social institution that relates to the larger political and social context in which it exists. Ancient natural law is the idea that there are rational objective limits to the power of legislative rulers. The foundations of law are accessible through reason, and it is from these laws of nature that human laws gain whatever force they have. Analytic jurisprudence rejects natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be. It espouses the use of a neutral point of view and descriptive language when referring to aspects of legal systems. It encompasses such theories of jurisprudence as legal positivism, holds that there is no necessary connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from basic social facts; and \"legal realism\", which argues that the real-world practice of law determines what law is, the law having the force that it does because of what legislators, lawyers, and judges do with it. Unlike experimental jurisprudence, which seeks to investigate the content of folk legal concepts using the methods of social science, the traditional method of both natural law and analytic jurisprudence is philosophical analysis. Normative jurisprudence is concerned with \"evaluative\" theories of law. It deals with what the goal or purpose of law is, or what moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law. It not only addresses the question \"What is law?\", but also tries to determine what the proper function of law should be, or what sorts of acts should be subject to legal sanctions, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted."}, {"id": 221742, "title": "Legal history", "abstract": "Legal history or the history of law is the study of how law has evolved and why it has changed. Legal history is closely connected to the development of civilisations and operates in the wider context of social history. Certain jurists and historians of legal process have seen legal history as the recording of the evolution of laws and the technical explanation of how these laws have evolved with the view of better understanding the origins of various legal concepts; some consider legal history a branch of intellectual history. Twentieth-century historians viewed legal history in a more contextualised manner \u2013 more in line with the thinking of social historians. They have looked at legal institutions as complex systems of rules, players and symbols and have seen these elements interact with society to change, adapt, resist or promote certain aspects of civil society. Such legal historians have tended to analyse case histories from the parameters of social-science inquiry, using statistical methods, analysing class distinctions among litigants, petitioners and other players in various legal processes. By analyzing case outcomes, transaction costs, and numbers of settled cases, they have begun an analysis of legal institutions, practices, procedures and briefs that gives a more complex picture of law and society than the study of jurisprudence, case law and civil codes can achieve."}, {"id": 10945255, "title": "List of fields of doctoral studies in the United States", "abstract": "This is the list of the fields of doctoral studies in the United States used for the annual Survey of Earned Doctorates, conducted by NORC at the University of Chicago for the National Science Foundation and other federal agencies, as used for the 2015 survey.These are fields of research-oriented doctoral studies, leading mostly to Ph.D.s \u2013 in the academic year 2014\u201315, 98% of the 55,006 research doctorates awarded in the U.S. were Ph.D.s; 1.1% were Ed.D.s; 0.9% were other research doctorates. Professional degrees, though they are also considered doctorates (earned, not honorary), and do entitle the holder to call themselves \"Doctor\", such as D.D.S., D.Min., M.D., D.Pharm., D.V.M, J.D., Psy.D., and Th.D., are not included in the survey."}, {"id": 5993039, "title": "Liturgics", "abstract": "Liturgics, also called liturgical studies or liturgiology, is the academic discipline dedicated to the study of liturgy (public worship rites, rituals, and practices). Liturgics scholars typically specialize in a single approach drawn from another scholarly field.  The most common sub-disciplines are: history or church history, theology, and anthropology. Although liturgics scholars using these approaches apply the principles of their respective disciplines to their research, all liturgics scholars focus their work in the ritual behaviors of the members of faith communities."}, {"id": 68366124, "title": "M\u0101tauranga M\u0101ori", "abstract": "M\u0101tauranga (literally M\u0101ori knowledge) is a modern term for the traditional knowledge of the M\u0101ori people of New Zealand. M\u0101ori traditional knowledge is multi-disciplinary and holistic, and there is considerable overlap between concepts. It includes environmental stewardship and economic development, with the purpose of preserving M\u0101ori culture and improving the quality of life of the M\u0101ori people over time.\nThe ancestors of the M\u0101ori first settled in New Zealand (Aotearoa) from other Polynesian islands in the late 13th century CE and developed a distinctive culture and knowledge-system. M\u0101tauranga covers the entire time-period since then. Therefore, it includes oceanic navigation and other knowledge shared across the Polynesian world. Due to European colonisation, beginning in the early 19th century, much m\u0101tauranga has been lost or highly influenced by Christianity and by other aspects of foreign culture. From the 1960s, m\u0101tauranga has achieved renewed importance both in M\u0101ori and wider New Zealand culture.\nM\u0101tauranga M\u0101ori has only recently gained recognition in the scientific community for including some knowledge consistent with the scientific method; it was previously perceived by scientific institutions and researchers as entirely mythological lore, entirely superseded by modern science. In the 21st century, m\u0101tauranga is often used by academics and government institutions when addressing particular environmental problems, with institutions or organisations partnering with iwi, typically with government funding."}, {"id": 9332763, "title": "Medical entomology", "abstract": "The discipline of medical entomology, or public health entomology, and also veterinary entomology is focused upon insects and arthropods that impact human health. Veterinary entomology is included in this category, because many animal diseases can \"jump species\" and become a human health threat, for example, bovine encephalitis. Medical entomology also includes scientific research on the behavior, ecology, and epidemiology of arthropod disease vectors, and involves a tremendous outreach to the public, including local and state officials and other stake holders in the interest of public safety.\nPublic health entomology has seen a huge surge in interest since 2005, due to the resurgence of the bed bug, Cimex lectularius."}, {"id": 73555334, "title": "New philology (medieval studies)", "abstract": "New philology is, in medieval studies, an intellectual movement which seeks to move beyond the text-critical method associated with Karl Lachmann, which sought to gather manuscripts of a given text and use them reconstruct a version of that text as close as possible to the earliest written version (or \"archetype\"). In contrast, New Philology seeks to edit and study texts in the form in which they are attested. Some of the key Anglophone proponents of the movement have also referred to it as New Medievalism."}, {"id": 27460908, "title": "Performance Writing", "abstract": "Performance Writing was pioneered at Dartington College of Arts in Devon, UK as a radical new approach to writing. It is a multi-modal approach which explores through artistic practice how writing interacts with other art forms and practices \u2014 visual art, sound art, time-based media, installation, electronic literature, bookworks, and performance art."}, {"id": 23193, "title": "Philology", "abstract": "Philology (from Ancient Greek  \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 (philolog\u00eda) 'love of word') is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics with strong ties to etymology. Philology is also defined as the study of literary texts and oral and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. A person who pursues this kind of study is known as a philologist. In older usage, especially British, philology is more general, covering comparative and historical linguistics.Classical philology studies classical languages. Classical philology principally originated from the Library of Pergamum and the Library of Alexandria around the fourth century BC, continued by Greeks and Romans throughout the Roman and Byzantine Empire. It was eventually resumed by European scholars of the Renaissance, where it was soon joined by philologies of other European (Germanic, Celtic), Eurasian (Slavistics, etc.), Asian (Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Chinese, etc.), and African (Egyptian, Nubian, etc.) languages. Indo-European studies involve the comparative philology of all Indo-European languages.\nPhilology, with its focus on historical development (diachronic analysis), is contrasted with linguistics due to Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis. While the contrast continued with the emergence of structuralism and the emphasis of Noam Chomsky on syntax, research in historical linguistics often relies on philological materials and findings."}, {"id": 21704563, "title": "Politics in education", "abstract": "As an academic discipline the study of politics in education has two main roots:  The first root is based on theories from political science while the second root is footed in organizational theory.    Political science attempts to explain how societies and social organizations use power to establish regulations and allocate resources.  Organizational theory uses scientific theories of management to develop deeper understandings regarding the function of organizations.\nResearchers have drawn a distinction between two types of politics in schools.  The term micro-politics refers to the use of formal and informal power by individuals and groups to achieve their goals in organizations. Cooperative and conflictive processes are integral components of micro-politics. Macro-politics refers to how power is used and decision making is conducted at district, state, and federal levels.  Macro-politics is generally considered to exist outside the school, but researchers have noted that micro- and macro-politics may exist at any level of school systems depending on circumstance.There exist significant difference between \"Politics of Education\" and \"Politics in Education\". More debates on the prevailing differences are solicited from academia of the world to define politics educationally.  An example of politics in education is in Freidus and Ewings' article about educational policy.  They suggest that an example of politics in education is race in Neoliberal school policies."}, {"id": 10003704, "title": "Postgraduate research", "abstract": "Postgraduate research represents a formal area of study that is recognized by a university or institute of higher learning. The notion of \"postgraduate\" refers to studies following a undergraduate degree. Postgraduate research either occurs within a postgraduate degree that also includes taught elements, such as the thesis completed after the all but dissertation stage of an American-style Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree, or refers to research degrees common in Commonwealth countries such as a masters by research or British-style doctorate."}, {"id": 424562, "title": "Praxeology", "abstract": "In philosophy, praxeology or praxiology (; from Ancient Greek  \u03c0\u03c1\u1fb6\u03be\u03b9\u03c2 (praxis) 'deed, action', and  -\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 (-logia) 'study of') is the theory of human action, based on the notion that humans engage in purposeful behavior, contrary to reflexive behavior and other unintentional behavior.\nFrench social philosopher Alfred Espinas gave the term its modern meaning, and praxeology was developed independently by two principal groups: the Austrian school, led by Ludwig von Mises, and the Polish school, led by Tadeusz Kotarbi\u0144ski."}, {"id": 73258542, "title": "Primate archaeology", "abstract": "Primate archaeology is a field of research established in 2008 that combines research interests and foci from primatology and archaeology. The main aim of primate archaeology is to study behavior of extant and extinct primates and the associated material records. The discipline attempts to move beyond archaeology's anthropocentric perspective by placing the focus on both past and present primate tool use.Primate archaeology is characterized by the combination of archaeological and primatological methods, and researchers consider both non-human primate tools and their behaviour in tandem. Primate archaeology has the unique opportunity to observe the tool-use behaviors of extant non-human primates and the formation of the material record that emerges from that behavior. It is this ability to observe behavior and the subsequent material deposition resulting in a material record recoverable using standard archaeological field methods that gives this new field of research the possibility of reconstructing, predicting, and interpreting extant primates' tool use spatial patterns. Overall, primate archaeology helps researchers understand how early hominins used material culture, what these patterns reveal about ancient hominin cognition, as well as patterns of landscape use that could allow researchers to identify behaviors that are difficult to detect archaeologically. Primate archaeology's main focus is on the study of the non-human primates that have been observed using tools in the wild: chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), robust capuchins (Sapajus spp.) and long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea). Since its conception primate archaeology has also implemented the use of captive studies akin to archaeological experiments with non-human primates looking into stone tool manufacture."}, {"id": 18973869, "title": "Psychiatry", "abstract": "Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of deleterious mental conditions. These include various matters related to mood, behaviour, cognition, and perceptions.\nInitial psychiatric assessment of a person begins with a case history and mental status examination. Physical examinations, psychological tests, and laboratory tests may be conducted. On occasion, neuroimaging or other neurophysiological studies are performed. Mental disorders are diagnosed in accordance with diagnostic manuals such as the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), edited by the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The fifth edition of the DSM (DSM-5), published in May 2013, reorganized the categories of disorders and added newer information and insights consistent with current research.Treatment may include psychotropics (psychiatric medicines) and psychotherapy, and also other modalities such as assertive community treatment, community reinforcement, substance-abuse treatment, and supported employment. Treatment may be delivered on an inpatient or outpatient basis, depending on the severity of functional impairment or risk to the individual or community. Research within psychiatry is conducted on an interdisciplinary basis with other professionals, such as epidemiologists, nurses, social workers, occupational therapists, and clinical psychologists."}, {"id": 36071642, "title": "Public interest design", "abstract": "Public interest design is a human-centered and participatory design practice that places emphasis on the \u201ctriple bottom line\u201d of sustainable design that includes ecological, economic, and social issues and on designing products, structures, and systems that address issues such as economic development and the preservation of the environment. Projects incorporating public interest design focus on the general good of the local citizens with a fundamentally collaborative perspective.Starting in the late 1990s, several books, convenings, and exhibitions have generated new momentum and investment in public interest design. Since then, public interest design\u2014frequently described as a movement or field\u2014has gained public recognition."}, {"id": 18023463, "title": "Social savings", "abstract": "Social savings is a growth in accounting techniques in order to evaluate the historical implications of new technology on economic growth. Developed in 1950 by American economic historian and scientist Robert Fogel, explains the methodology works to estimate the cost-savings of the new technology compared with the next best alternative. The first oral presentation was at the 1960 Purdue Cliometrics meeting, and the first published version was in the Journal of economic history in 1962.\nA recent survey can be found in \"economic and history: surveys in Cliometrics\", edited by David Greasley and Les Oxley and published by Wiley-Blackwell in 2011. The relevant chapter is entitled \"social savings\" and is by Tim Leunig, London School of Economics. [1]"}, {"id": 26781, "title": "Social science", "abstract": "Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original \"science of society\", established in the 18th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, human geography, linguistics, management science, communication science, and political science.Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those used in the natural sciences as tools for understanding societies, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Interpretivist or speculative social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research). The term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share similar goals and methods."}, {"id": 146717, "title": "Social work", "abstract": "Social work is an academic discipline and practice-based profession concerned with meeting the basic needs of individuals, families, groups, communities, and society as a whole to enhance their individual and collective well-being. Social work practice draws from areas such as psychology, sociology, health, political science, community development, law, and economics to engage with systems and policies, conduct assessments, develop interventions, and enhance social functioning and responsibility. The ultimate goals of social work include the improvement of people's lives, alleviation of biopsychosocial concerns, empowerment of individuals and communities, and the achievement of social justice.\nSocial work practice is often divided into three levels. Micro-work involves working directly with individuals and families, such as providing individual counseling/therapy or assisting a family in accessing services. Mezzo-work involves working with groups and communities, such as conducting group therapy or providing services for community agencies. Macro-work involves fostering change on a larger scale through advocacy, social policy, research development, non-profit and public service administration, or working with government agencies. Starting in the 1960s, a few universities began social work management programmes, to prepare students for the management of social and human service organizations, in addition to classical social work education.The social work profession developed in the 19th century, with some of its roots in voluntary philanthropy and in grassroots organizing. However, responses to social needs had existed long before then, primarily from public almshouses, private charities and religious organizations. The effects of the Industrial Revolution and of the Great Depression of the 1930s placed pressure on social work to become a more defined discipline as social workers responded to the child welfare concerns related to widespread poverty and reliance on child labor in industrial settings."}, {"id": 29501, "title": "Sustainable development", "abstract": "Sustainable development is an organizing principle that aims to meet human development goals while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary natural resources and ecosystem services to humans. The desired result is a society where living conditions and resources meet human needs without undermining the planetary integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental protection, and social well-being. The Brundtland Report in 1987 defined sustainable development as \"development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs\". The concept of sustainable development nowadays has a focus on economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations.\nSustainable development was first institutionalized with the Rio Process initiated at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. In 2015 the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (2015 to 2030) and explained how the goals are integrated and indivisible to achieve sustainable development at the global level. The UNGA's 17 goals address the global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice.\n\nSustainable development is interlinked with the normative concept of sustainability. UNESCO formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: \"Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it.\" The concept of sustainable development has been criticized in various ways. While some see it as paradoxical (or as an oxymoron) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far. Part of the problem is that \"development\" itself is not consistently defined.:\u200a16"}, {"id": 41500402, "title": "Textual scholarship", "abstract": "Textual scholarship (or textual studies) is an umbrella term for disciplines that deal with describing, transcribing, editing or annotating texts and physical documents."}, {"id": 73224090, "title": "Veterans studies", "abstract": "Veterans studies is an academic field that examines the diverse experiences of military veterans and their families in society. As a multidisciplinary field committed to advancing understanding of all aspects of the \u201cveteran in society,\" inquiry draws on the intersections of the theoretical and the applied, the creative and the performative, the normative and the empirical. Topics within veterans studies could include but are not limited to combat exposure, reintegration challenges, and the complex systems and institutions that shape the \"veteran experience.\" Veterans studies, by its very nature, may analyze experiences closely tied to military studies, but the emphasis of veterans studies is the \u201cveteran experience,\u201d that is, what happens after the service member departs the Armed Forces."}, {"id": 669120, "title": "Visual communication", "abstract": "Visual communication is the use of visual elements to convey ideas and information which include (but are not limited to) signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, industrial design, advertising, animation, and electronic resources. Visual communication has been proven to be unique when compared to other verbal or written languages because of its more abstract structure. It stands out for its uniqueness, as the interpretation of signs varies on the viewer's field of experience. The interpretation of imagery is often compared to the set alphabets and words used in oral or written languages. Another point of difference found by scholars is that, though written or verbal languages are taught, sight does not have to be learned and therefore people of sight may lack awareness of visual communication and its influence in their everyday life. Many of the visual elements listed above are forms of visual communication that humans have been using since prehistoric times.  Within modern culture, there are several types of characteristics when it comes to visual elements, they consist of objects, models, graphs, diagrams, maps, and photographs. Outside the different types of characteristics and elements, there are seven components of visual communication: color, shape, tones, texture, figure-ground, balance, and hierarchy.Each of these characteristics, elements, and components play an important role in daily lives. Visual communication holds a specific purpose in aspects such as social media, culture, politics, economics, and science. In considering these different aspects, visual elements present various uses and how they convey information. Whether it is advertisements, teaching and learning, or speeches and presentations, they all involve visual aids that communicate a message. In reference to the visual aids, the following are the most common: chalkboard or whiteboard, poster board, handouts, video excerpts, projection equipment, and computer-assisted presentations."}], "id": 693763}, {"title": "Government", "pages": [{"id": 12229, "title": "Government", "abstract": "A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state.\nIn the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. In many countries, the government has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy.\nWhile all types of organizations have governance, the term government is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments and subsidiary organizations.\nThe main types of modern  political systems recognized are democracies, totalitarian regimes, and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes with a variety of hybrid regimes. Modern classification system also include monarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three. Historically prevalent forms of government include monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, theocracy, and tyranny. These forms are not always mutually exclusive, and mixed governments are common. The main aspect of any philosophy of government is how political power is obtained, with the two main forms being electoral contest and hereditary succession."}, {"id": 49214523, "title": "Outline of government", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to government:\nGovernment \u2013 system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state.\nIn the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. In many countries, the government has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy.\nWhile all types of organizations have governance, the term government is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments and subsidiary organizations."}, {"id": 862851, "title": "State government", "abstract": "A state government is the government that controls a subdivision of a country in a federal form of government, which shares political power with the federal or national government. A state government may have some level of political autonomy, or be subject to the direct control of the federal government. This relationship may be defined by a constitution.\nThe reference to \"state\" denotes country subdivisions that are officially or widely known as \"states\", and should not be confused with a \"sovereign state\". Most federations designate their federal units \"state\" or the equivalent term in the local language; however, in some federations, other designations are used such as Oblast or Republic. Some federations are asymmetric, designating greater powers to some federal units than others.\nProvinces are usually divisions of unitary states but occasionally the designation is also given to the federal units such as the Provinces of Argentina or Canada. Their governments, which are also provincial governments, are not the subject of this article. Many people confuse the state with city governments, and while a small ticket or small crime will be overlooked by the federal government and handled by the state or city government, that are not the same."}, {"id": 2211969, "title": "Administrative centre", "abstract": "An administrative centre is a seat of regional administration or local government, or a county town, or the place where the central administration of a commune is located.\nIn countries with French as administrative language (such as Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland and many African countries), a chef-lieu (French pronunciation: [\u0283\u025bflj\u00f8], plural form chefs-lieux, literally 'chief place' or 'main place'), is a town or city that is important from an administrative perspective."}, {"id": 59539440, "title": "Artificial intelligence in government", "abstract": "Artificial intelligence (AI) has a range of uses in government. It can be used to further public policy objectives (in areas such as emergency services, health and welfare), as well as assist the public to interact with the government  (through the use of virtual assistants, for example). According to the Harvard Business Review, \"Applications of artificial intelligence to the public sector are broad and growing, with early experiments taking place around the world.\" Hila Mehr from the Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation at Harvard University notes that AI in government is not new, with postal services using machine methods in the late 1990s to recognise handwriting on envelopes to automatically route letters. The use of AI in government comes with significant benefits, including efficiencies resulting in cost savings (for instance by reducing the number of front office staff), and reducing the opportunities for corruption. However, it also carries risks."}, {"id": 5606238, "title": "Blue-ribbon committee", "abstract": "In the United States, a blue-ribbon committee (or panel or commission) is a group of exceptional people appointed to investigate, study or analyze a given question. Blue-ribbon committees generally have a degree of independence from political influence or other authority, and such committees usually have no direct authority of their own. Their value comes from their ability to use their expertise to issue findings or recommendations which can then be used by those with decision-making power to act.\nA blue-ribbon committee is often appointed by a government body or executive to report on a matter of controversy. It might be composed of independent scientific experts or academics with no direct government ties to study a particular issue or question, or it might be composed of citizens well known for their general intelligence, experience and non-partisan interests to study a matter of political reform. The \"blue-ribbon\" aspect comes from the presentation of the committee as the \"best and brightest\" for the task; the appointment of such a committee, ad hoc, is meant to signal its perspective as outsiders of the usual process for study and decisions.\nThe designation \"blue-ribbon\" is often made by the appointing authority, and may be disputed by others who might see the committee as less independent, or as a way for an authority to dodge responsibility.\nExamples of high-level blue-ribbon committees in the United States would be the Warren Commission investigating the Kennedy Assassination, the 9/11 Commission investigating the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the Iraq Study Group assessing the Iraq War and the Clinton Administration's White House Task Force on National Health Care Reform. In each case, the committee did not have authority to indict or legislate, and their brief was to investigate and issue a report on the facts as they found them with recommendations for changes for government policy in the future. The current Blue Ribbon Panel on \"sustaining America's diverse fish & wildlife resources\" emphasizes incentives of industries, businesses and landowners to aid in conservation funding to prevent species from being added to the endangered species list.The term has leaked into official usage. From January 29, 2010, to January 2012, the U.S. had a Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future. There are other government and private commissions with \"Blue Ribbon Commission\" in their names. These and others are often referred to simply as \"the Blue Ribbon Commission\" or \"the blue ribbon commission\", creating the potential for confusion."}, {"id": 20949522, "title": "Bureaucracy", "abstract": "Bureaucracy (; bure-OK-r\u0259-see) is a body of non-elected governing officials or an administrative policy-making group. Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials. Today, bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution, whether publicly owned or privately owned. The public administration in many jurisdictions and sub-jurisdictions exemplifies bureaucracy, but so does any centralized hierarchical structure of an institution, e.g. hospitals, academic entities, business firms, professional societies, social clubs, etc.\nThere are two key dilemmas in bureaucracy. The first dilemma revolves around whether bureaucrats should be autonomous or directly accountable to their political masters. The second dilemma revolves around bureaucrats' responsibility to follow preset rules, and what degree of latitude they may have to determine appropriate solutions for circumstances that are unaccounted for in advance.Various commentators have argued for the necessity of bureaucracies in modern society. The German sociologist Max Weber (1864\u20131920) argued that bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and rational way in which human activity can be organized and that systematic processes and organized hierarchies are necessary to maintain order, to maximize efficiency, and to eliminate favoritism. On the other hand, Weber also saw unfettered bureaucracy as a threat to individual freedom, with the potential of trapping individuals in an impersonal \"iron cage\" of rule-based, rational control."}, {"id": 38566163, "title": "Bureaucratic inertia", "abstract": "Bureaucratic inertia is the supposed inevitable tendency of bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate the established procedures and modes, even if they are counterproductive and/or diametrically opposed to established organizational goals. This unchecked growth may continue independently of the organization's success or failure. Through bureaucratic inertia, organizations tend to take on a life of their own beyond their formal objectives."}, {"id": 52674452, "title": "Cabinet crisis", "abstract": "A cabinet crisis, government crisis or political crisis refers to a situation where an incumbent government is unable to form or function, is toppled through an uprising, or collapses. Political crises may correspond with, cause or be caused by economic crisis, and may spread between neighbouring countries."}, {"id": 240683, "title": "Caretaker government", "abstract": "A caretaker government is a temporary ad hoc government that performs some governmental duties and functions in a country until a regular government is elected or formed. Depending on specific practice, it usually consists of either randomly selected or approved members of parliament or outgoing members until their dismissal.\nCaretaker governments in representative democracies are usually limited in their function, serving only to maintain the status quo, rather than truly govern and propose new legislation. Unlike the government it is meant to temporarily replace, a caretaker government does not have a legitimate mandate (electoral approval) to exercise aforementioned functions."}, {"id": 42299690, "title": "Center of government", "abstract": "The center of government (CoG) is the institution or group of institutions that provide direct support to the chief executive (president or prime minister) in leading the management of government. Unlike line ministries and other government agencies, the CoG does not deliver services directly to the citizens, and it does not focus on a specific policy area. On the contrary, the CoG performs cross-government functions. A similar concept is \"Core Executive\"."}, {"id": 6784, "title": "Citizenship", "abstract": "Citizenship is the enjoyment by a natural person of civil and political rights of a polity, as well as the incurring of duties, which are not afforded to non-citizens.Though citizenship is often legally conflated with nationality in today's Anglo-Saxon world, international law does not usually use the term citizenship to refer to nationality, these two notions being conceptually different dimensions of collective membership.Generally citizenships have no expiration and allow persons to work, reside and vote in the polity, as well as identify with the polity, possibly acquiring a passport. Though through discriminatory laws, like disfranchisement and outright apartheid citizens have been made second-class citizens. Historically, populations of states were mostly subjects, while citizenship was a particular status which originated in the rights of urban populations, like the rights of the male public of cities and republics, particularly ancient city-states, giving rise to a civitas and the social class of the burgher or bourgeoisie. Since then states have expanded the status of citizenship to most of their national people, while the extent of citizen rights remain contested."}, {"id": 2589535, "title": "Civilian control of the military", "abstract": "Civilian control of the military is a doctrine in military and political science that places ultimate responsibility for a country's strategic decision-making in the hands of the civilian political leadership, rather than professional military officers. \nCivilian oversight over militaries, mainly used in democratic governments, puts the power to take military action in the hands of a civilian leader or legislative agency. Allowing the civilian component of government to retain control over the military or state security shows a healthy respect for democratic values and good governance. Giving power to the civilian component of the government over what the military can do and how much money it can spend protects the democratic process from abuse. Nations that can achieve legitimate relationship between the two structures serves to be more effective and provide accountability between government and military. Security relies on both sides compromising on the civilian and security needs to find the best resulting arrangement. Making the effectiveness of this type of arrangement does not rely on equipment quality or number of men, but how the two systems work together. A government and military must agree to confine the military to the rule of law and submit to government oversight to make an effective security apparatus possible. Transparency has taken hold throughout the international system to improve bureaucracy and the democratisation of both democratic countries and resistant authoritarian holdovers. This has grown to involve the armed forces/security forces themselves to work towards the international norm of fully liberalising these organisations.Civilian control is often seen as a prerequisite feature of a stable liberal democracy. Use of the term in scholarly analyses tends to take place in the context of a democracy governed by elected officials, though the subordination of the military to political control is not unique to these societies. One example is the People's Republic of China. Mao Zedong stated that \"Our principle is that the Party commands the gun, and the gun must never be allowed to command the Party,\" reflecting the primacy of the Chinese Communist Party over the People's Liberation Army.\nAs noted by University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill professor Richard H. Kohn, \"civilian control is not a fact but a process\". Affirmations of respect for the values of civilian control notwithstanding, the actual level of control sought or achieved by the civilian leadership may vary greatly in practice, from a statement of broad policy goals that military commanders are expected to translate into operational plans, to the direct selection of specific targets for attack on the part of governing politicians. National leaders with limited experience in military matters often have little choice but to rely on the advice of professional military commanders trained in the art and science of warfare to inform the limits of policy; in such cases, the military establishment may enter the bureaucratic arena to advocate for or against a particular course of action, shaping the policy-making process and blurring any clear cut lines of civilian control.\nThe reverse situation, where professional military officers control national politics, is called a military dictatorship. \nA lack of control over the military may result in a state within a state. One author, paraphrasing Samuel P. Huntington's writings in The Soldier and the State, has summarised the civilian control ideal as \"the proper subordination of a competent, professional military to the ends of policy as determined by civilian authority\"."}, {"id": 25690925, "title": "Classification of the Functions of Government", "abstract": "Classification of the Functions of Government (COFOG) is a classification defined by the United Nations Statistics Division. These functions are designed to be general enough to apply to the government of different countries. The accounts of each country in the United Nations are presented under these categories. The value of this is that the accounts of different countries can be compared."}, {"id": 46638919, "title": "Diplomatic capital", "abstract": "Diplomatic capital refers to the trust, goodwill, and influence which a diplomat, or a state represented by its diplomats, has within international diplomacy. According to political scientist Rebecca Adler-Nissen, diplomatic capital is a kind of currency that can be traded in diplomatic negotiations and that is increased when positive \u2033social competences, reputation and personal authority\" are portrayed."}, {"id": 3628628, "title": "Dual mandate", "abstract": "A dual mandate is the practice in which elected officials serve in more than one elected or other public position simultaneously. This practice is sometimes known as double jobbing in Britain and cumul des mandats in France; not to be confused with double dipping in the United States (e.g. being employed by and receiving a retirement pension from the same public authority at the same time).  Thus, if someone who is already mayor of a town or city councillor becomes elected as MP or senator at the national or state legislature and retains both positions, this is a dual mandate.\nPolitical and legal approaches toward dual mandate-holding vary widely. In some countries, dual mandates are a well-established part of the political culture; in others they may be prohibited by law. For example, in federal states, federal office holders are often not permitted to hold state office. In most states, membership of an independent judiciary or civil service generally disqualifies a person from simultaneously holding office in the executive or the legislature. In states with a presidential or dualist-parliamentary system of government, members of the executive cannot simultaneously be members of the legislature and vice versa. In states with bicameral legislatures, one usually cannot simultaneously be a member of both houses. The holder of one office who wins election or appointment to another where a dual mandate is prohibited must either resign the former office or refuse the new one."}, {"id": 5162951, "title": "Exclusive mandate", "abstract": "An exclusive mandate is a government's assertion of its legitimate authority over a certain territory, part of which another government controls with stable, de facto sovereignty. It is also known as a claim to sole representation or an exclusive authority claim. The concept was particularly important during the Cold War period when a number of states were divided on ideological grounds."}, {"id": 5670063, "title": "Favourite", "abstract": "A favourite was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In post-classical and early-modern Europe, among other times and places, the term was used of individuals delegated significant political power by a ruler. It was especially a phenomenon of the 16th and 17th centuries, when government had become too complex for many hereditary rulers with no great interest in or talent for it, and political institutions were still evolving. From 1600 to 1660 there were particular successions of all-powerful minister-favourites in much of Europe, particularly in Spain, England, France and Sweden.The term is also sometimes employed by writers who want to avoid terms such as \"royal mistress\", \"friend\", \"companion\", or \"lover\" (of any gender). Some favourites had sexual relations with their monarch (or the monarch's spouse), but this was far from universal. Many were favoured for their skill as administrators, while others were close friends of the monarch. \nThe term has an inbuilt element of disapproval and is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as \"One who stands unduly high in the favour of a prince\", citing Shakespeare: \"Like favourites/ Made proud by Princes\" (Much Ado about Nothing, 3.1.9)."}, {"id": 25202419, "title": "Government spin-off", "abstract": "Government spin-off is civilian goods which are the collateral result of military or governmental research. One prominent example of a type of government spin-off is technology that has been commercialized through NASA funding, research, licensing, facilities, or assistance.  NASA spin-off technologies have been publicized by the agency in its Spinoff publication since 1976.\nThe Internet is a specific example of a government spin-off resulting from DARPA funding.In some fields, such as computer hardware, private sector development has outpaced government and military research, and the government procures commercial off-the-shelf products for many applications."}, {"id": 3870861, "title": "Governmental accounting", "abstract": "Government accounting refers to the process of recording and the management of all financial transactions incurred by the government which includes its income and expenditures.\nVarious governmental accounting systems are used by various public sector entities. In the United States, for instance, there are two levels of government which follow different accounting standards set forth by independent, private sector boards. At the federal level, the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB) sets forth the accounting standards to follow. Similarly, there is the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) for state and local level government."}, {"id": 70482891, "title": "Greek Civil Service", "abstract": "The Civil Service of the Hellenic Republic, or Public Sector (Greek:\u0394\u03b7\u03bc\u03cc\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03b1\u03c2), includes the General Government, the Legal Entities of Public Law, as well as the enterprises that do not belong to the General Government, and organizations of Chapter A of Law 3429/2005 (A 314), regardless of whether they have been excluded from its application.In February 2022, 565,418 people served in the Greek Civil Service."}, {"id": 75686702, "title": "Gunoutsav Assam", "abstract": "Gunoutsav Assam  is an initiative of Government of Assam in Elementary education and Secondary school education, by Samagra Shiksha Assam  ,to uplift the quality of education in schools for students, infrastructure of schools and teachers to students ratio. It is method of assessment and rating of schools, for Education in Assam so that  inferior one can go for improvement by External Evaluator. The External Evaluator are all Gazetted Officer (India) of Government of Assam , may or may not be from Education department in 2017 for first time and is held every year."}, {"id": 3680801, "title": "Head of state succession", "abstract": "Head of state succession is the process by which nations transfer leadership of their highest office from one person to another. The succession of a head of state can be brought about through various means, the most common of which include:\n\nDeath of the current head of state\nA military coup d'\u00e9tat against the present government\nA general election\nA vote of no confidence by the national legislature\nHereditary succession or appointment by a pre-determined council\nResignation (usually of a president)\nImpeachment (usually of a president)\nAbdication (usually of a monarch)"}, {"id": 4900279, "title": "Interest articulation", "abstract": "Interest articulation is a way for members of a society to express their needs to a system of government. It can range from personal contact with government officials to the development of interest groups (e.g. trade unions, professional associations, religious groups) who act in the interest of larger groups of people. Interest articulation can have different effects in different types of government and can include both legal (i.e.: lobbying, peaceful protest, phone calls and letters to policymakers) and illegal activities (e.g. assassination, riots). Interest articulation leads to interest aggregation. According to Gabriel Almond Interest articulation are four types they are given below:-\nThe types of interest groups, as identified by Gabriel Almond, are:\nAnomic Groups\ngenerally spontaneous groups with a collective response to a particular frustration\nNonassociational Groups\nrarely well organized and their activity is dependent upon the issue at hand. They differ from Anomic groups in that they are usually similar to one another and have a common identity.\nInstitutional Groups\nmostly formal and have some other political or social function in addition to the particular interest.\nAssociational Groups\nformed explicitly to represent an issue of a particular group."}, {"id": 7198484, "title": "Internal security", "abstract": "Internal security is the act of keeping peace within the borders of a sovereign state or other self-governing territories, generally by upholding the national law and defending against internal security threats. Responsibility for internal security may range from police to paramilitary forces, and in exceptional circumstances, the military itself."}, {"id": 5594801, "title": "Joint session", "abstract": "A joint session or joint convention is, most broadly, when two normally separate decision-making groups meet, often in a special session or other extraordinary meeting, for a specific purpose.\nMost often it refers to when both houses of a bicameral legislature sit together. A joint session typically occurs to receive foreign or domestic diplomats or leaders, or to allow both houses to consider bills together.\nSome constitutions give special power to a joint session, voting by majority of all members of the legislature regardless of which house or chamber they belong to. For example, in Switzerland a joint session of the two houses elects the members of the Federal Council (cabinet). In India, disputes between houses are resolved by a joint sitting but without an intervening election."}, {"id": 16553762, "title": "Legislative calendar", "abstract": "A legislative calendar is used by legislatures in the United States to plan their business during the legislative session."}, {"id": 4927404, "title": "Legislative session", "abstract": "A legislative session is the period of time in which a legislature, in both parliamentary and presidential systems, is convened for purpose of lawmaking, usually being one of two or more smaller divisions of the entire time between two elections. In each country the procedures for opening, ending, and in between sessions differs slightly. A session may last for the full term of the legislature or the term may consist of a number of sessions. These may be of fixed duration, such as a year, or may be used as a parliamentary procedural device. A session of the legislature is brought to an end by an official act of prorogation. In either event, the effect of prorogation is generally the clearing of all outstanding matters before the legislature."}, {"id": 465640, "title": "Majority government", "abstract": "A majority government is a government by one or more governing parties that hold an absolute majority of seats in a legislature. Such a government can consist of one party that holds a majority on its own, or be a coalition government of multiple parties. This is as opposed to a minority government, where the government doesn't have a majority, and needs to cooperate with opposition parties to get legislation passed. A government majority determines the balance of power. A government is not a majority government if it only has a majority when counting parties outside the government that have a confidence agreement with it.\nA majority government is usually assured of having its legislation passed and rarely if ever, has to fear being defeated in parliament, a state also known as a working majority. In contrast, a minority government must constantly bargain for support from other parties in order to pass legislation and avoid being defeated on motions of no confidence. Single-party majority governments tend to be formed in the aftermath of strong election performances.\nThe term \"majority government\" may also be used for a stable long-term coalition of two or more parties to form an absolute majority. One example of such an electoral coalition is in Australia, where the Liberal and National parties have run as an electoral bloc, known simply as the Coalition, for decades. The Coalition is the only party or coalition in Australia to have won at least 90 of the 151 seats in the House of Representatives at a federal election (this has happened three times, in 1975, in 1996 and 2013). The largest majority government in Australia was elected in 1975, when the Coalition won 71.65% of the seats in a landslide victory.\nIn electoral systems where one party usually wins a majority of seats on their own, such as first past the post, coalitions are rare, but may happen when an election returns a hung parliament. An example of this was the 2010\u20132015 coalition government in the United Kingdom, which was composed of the Conservative Party and the Liberal Democrats. The Conservatives won the most seats of any single party in the 2010 election, but fell short of an absolute majority. However, by combining with the Liberal Democrats a solid majority in the House of Commons was created. This was the first true coalition government in the UK since World War II.\nMajority government differs from consensus government or national unity government in not requiring a consensus or supermajority."}, {"id": 859412, "title": "Ministry (collective executive)", "abstract": "In constitutional usage in Commonwealth realms, a ministry (usually preceded by the definite article, i.e., the ministry) is a collective body of government ministers led by a head of government, such as a prime minister. It is described by Oxford Dictionaries as \"a period of government under one prime minister\". Although the term \"cabinet\" can in some circumstances be a synonym, a ministry can be a broader concept which might include office-holders who do not participate in cabinet meetings. Other titles can include \"administration\" (in the United States) or \"government\" (in common usage among most parliamentary systems) to describe similar collectives.\nThe term is primarily used to describe the successive governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, which share a common political heritage. In the United Kingdom and Australia a new ministry begins after each election, regardless of whether the prime minister is re-elected, and whether there may have been a minor rearrangement of the ministry. For example, after winning the 1979 general election, Margaret Thatcher (as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom) formed the first Thatcher ministry. After being re-elected at the 1983 general election, she formed the second Thatcher ministry, and so on. In Canada and New Zealand, a new ministry is formed only when there is a change of prime minister."}, {"id": 233475, "title": "Multi-party system", "abstract": "In political science, a multi-party system is a political system in which multiple political parties across the political spectrum run for national elections, and all have the capacity to gain control of government offices, separately or in coalition. Apart from one-party-dominant and two-party systems, multi-party systems tend to be more common in parliamentary systems than presidential systems and far more common in countries that use proportional representation compared to countries that use first-past-the-post elections. Several parties compete for power and all of them have a reasonable chance of forming government.\nIn multi-party systems that use proportional representation, each party wins a number of legislative seats proportional to the number of votes it receives. \nUnder first-past-the-post, the electorate is divided into a number of districts, each of which selects one person to fill one seat by a plurality of the vote. First-past-the-post is not conducive to a proliferation of parties, and naturally gravitates toward a two-party system, in which only two parties have a real chance of electing their candidates to office. This gravitation is known as Duverger's law. \nProportional representation, on the other hand, does not have this tendency, and allows multiple major parties to arise. Proportional systems either has multi-member districts with more than one representative elected from a given district to the same legislative body or some other type of pooling of the votes, and thus there are a greater number of viable parties. Duverger's law states that the number of viable political parties is one, plus the number of seats in a district.\nArgentina, Armenia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Sweden, Tunisia, Turkey and Ukraine are examples of nations that have used a multi-party system effectively in their democracies. In these countries, usually no single party has a parliamentary majority by itself (hung parliaments). Instead, multiple political parties are compelled to form compromised coalitions for the purpose of developing power blocks, usually majority control of the assembly, and attaining legitimate mandate."}, {"id": 2609064, "title": "Municipal services", "abstract": "Municipal services or city services refer to basic services that residents of a city expect the local government to provide in exchange for the taxes which citizens pay. Basic city services may include sanitation (both sewer and refuse), water, streets, the public library, schools, food inspection, fire department, police, ambulance, and other health department issues and transportation. City governments often operate or contract for additional utilities like electricity, gas and cable television.  Mumbai even provides a lighthouse service.\nThe available municipal services for any individual municipality will depend on location, history, geography, statutes and tradition. Provided services may vary from country to country or even within a country. Services may be run directly by a department of the municipality or be sub-contracted to a third party."}, {"id": 24493, "title": "Outline of public affairs", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to public affairs:\nPublic affairs \u2013 catch-all term that includes public policy as well as public administration, both of which are closely related to and draw upon the fields of political science and economics."}, {"id": 325419, "title": "Political authorities", "abstract": "Political authorities hold positions of power or influence within a system of government.  Although some are exclusive to one or another form of government, many exist within several types.\n\nCabinet (government)\nMinister\nSecretary\nSecretary of state\nAttorney general\nCampaign contributors\nHead of state\nPresident\nMonarch\nEmperor\nHead of government\nPrime minister\nLegislatures\nMilitary\nUnions\nPolitical parties\nOne-party system\nDominant-party system\nMulti-party system\nVoters / populace"}, {"id": 1019827, "title": "Polity", "abstract": "A polity is a term for an identifiable political entity, defined as a group of people with a collective identity, who are organized by some form of institutionalized social relations, and have a capacity to mobilize resources. A polity can be any group of people organized for governance, such as the board of a corporation, the government of a country, or the government of a country subdivision. A polity may be a republic administered by an elected representative or the realm of a hereditary monarch."}, {"id": 73892130, "title": "Portal e-Cidadania", "abstract": "The e-Cidadania Portal is a website platform created in 2012 by the Federal Senate of Brazil to encourage citizen participation in the Senate's legislative, budgetary, oversight, and representative activities. The website was established months after the creation of the Access to Information Law, meeting the demands for transparency in public power.It is a tool free of partisan ties, enabling citizen participation in the Brazilian legislative process. Between May 2012 and March 2020, more than 74 million users had accessed the Portal. In 2017 alone, the site counted more than 130.5 million accesses by more than 21 million users. On July 26, 2016, the site recorded record participation of the population, with more than 300,000 votes on the Nonpartisan School (Escola sem Partido) project. In total, there were 183 thousand demonstrations against and 173 thousand in favor of the project.Almost all pages on the site are responsive (adapting to mobile devices) and approximately 85% of users access via cell phones."}, {"id": 598010, "title": "Provisional government", "abstract": "A provisional government, also called an interim government, an emergency government, a transitional government or provisional leadership, is a temporary government formed to manage a period of transition, often following state collapse. Provisional governments are generally appointed, and frequently arise, either during or after civil or foreign wars, or during difficult times such as during invasion, economic crisis, or widespread infiltration of saboteurs and counter-revolutionaries such as during the French Revolution.\nProvisional governments maintain power until a new government can be appointed by a regular political process, which is generally an election. They may be involved with defining the legal structure of subsequent regimes, guidelines related to human rights and political freedoms, the structure of the economy, government institutions, and international alignment. Provisional governments differ from caretaker governments, which are responsible for governing within an established parliamentary system and serve as placeholders following a motion of no confidence,  or following the dissolution of the ruling coalition.In opinion of Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz, provisional governments can be classified to four groups:\nRevolutionary provisional governments (when the former regime is overthrown and the power belongs to the people who have overthrown it).\nPower sharing provisional governments (when the power is shared between former regime and the ones who are trying to change it).\nIncumbent provisional governments (when the power during transitional period belongs to the former regime).\nInternational provisional governments (when the power during the transitional period belongs to the international community).The establishment of provisional governments is frequently tied to the implementation of transitional justice. Decisions related to transitional justice can determine who is allowed to participate in a provisional government.The early provisional governments were created to prepare for the return of royal rule. Irregularly convened assemblies during the English Revolution, such as Confederate Ireland (1641\u201349), were described as \"provisional\". The Continental Congress, a convention of delegates from 13 British colonies on the east coast of North America became the provisional government of the United States in 1776, during the American Revolutionary War. The government shed its provisional status in 1781, following ratification of the Articles of Confederation, and continued in existence as the Congress of the Confederation until it was supplanted by the United States Congress in 1789.\nThe practice of using \"provisional government\" as part of a formal name can be traced to Talleyrand's government in France in 1814. In 1843, American pioneers in the Oregon Country, in the Pacific Northwest region of North America established the Provisional Government of Oregon\u2014as the U.S. federal government had not yet extended its jurisdiction over the region\u2014which existed until March 1849. The numerous provisional governments during the Revolutions of 1848 gave the word its modern meaning: A liberal government established to prepare for elections."}, {"id": 826604, "title": "Public inquiry", "abstract": "A public inquiry, also known as a tribunal of inquiry, government inquiry, or simply inquiry, is an official review of events or actions ordered by a government body. In many common law countries, such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and Canada, such an inquiry differs from a royal commission in that a public inquiry accepts evidence and conducts its hearings in a more public forum and focuses on a more specific occurrence. Interested members of the public and organisations may make (written) evidential submissions, as is the case with most inquiries, and also listen to oral evidence given by other parties.\nTypical events for a public inquiry are those that cause multiple deaths, such as public transport crashes or mass murders. In addition, in the UK, the Planning Inspectorate, an agency of the Department for Communities and Local Government, routinely holds public inquiries into a range of major and lesser land use developments, including highways and other transport proposals.\nAdvocacy groups and opposition political parties are likely to ask for public inquiries for all manner of issues. The government of the day typically only accedes to a fraction of these requests. The political decision whether to appoint a public inquiry into an event was found to be dependent on several factors. The first is the extent of media coverage of the event; those that receive more media interest are more likely to be inquired. Second, since the appointment of a public inquiry is typically made by government ministers, events that involve allegations of blame on the part of the relevant minister are less likely to be investigated by a public inquiry. Third, a public inquiry generally takes longer to report and costs more on account of its public nature. Thus, when a government refuses a public inquiry on some topic, it is usually on at least one of these grounds.\nThe conclusions of the inquiry are delivered in the form of a written report, given first to the government, and soon after published to the public. The report will generally make recommendations to improve the quality of government or management of public organisations in the future. Recent studies have shown that the reports of public inquiries are not effective in changing public opinion regarding the event in question. Despite claims that appointing a public inquiry leads to a decline in media attention to the inquired issue, empirical studies do not find support for this claim. Public inquiry reports appear to enjoy public trust only when they are critical of the government, and tend to lose credibility when they find no fault on the part of the government."}, {"id": 5265708, "title": "Public participation", "abstract": "Public participation, also known as citizen participation or patient and public involvement, is the inclusion of the public in the activities of any organization or project. Public participation is similar to but more inclusive than stakeholder engagement.\nGenerally public participation seeks and facilitates the involvement of those potentially affected by or interested in a decision. This can be in relation to individuals, governments, institutions, companies or any other entities that affect public interests. The principle of public participation holds that those who are affected by a decision have a right to be involved in the decision-making process. Public participation implies that the public's contribution will influence the decision. Public participation may be regarded as a form of empowerment and as vital part of democratic governance. In the context of knowledge management the establishment of ongoing participatory processes is seen by some in the facilitator of collective intelligence and inclusiveness, shaped by the desire for the participation of the whole community or society.Public participation is part of \"people centred\" or \"human centric\" principles, which have emerged in Western culture over the last thirty years, and has had some bearings of education, business, public policy and international relief and development programs. Public participation is advanced by the humanist movements. Public participation may be advanced as part of a \"people first\" paradigm shift. In this respect public participation may challenge the concept that \"big is better\" and the logic of centralized hierarchies, advancing alternative concepts of \"more heads are better than one\" and arguing that public participation can sustain productive and durable change.Some legal and other frameworks have developed a human rights approach to public participation. For example, the right to public participation in economic and human development was enshrined in the 1990 African Charter for Popular Participation in Development and Transformation. Similarly major environmental and sustainability mechanisms have enshrined a right to public participation, such as the Rio Declaration."}, {"id": 174363, "title": "Public trust", "abstract": "The concept of public trust relates back to the origins of democratic government and its seminal idea that within the public lies the true power and future of a society; therefore, whatever trust citizens place in its officials must be respected.\nOne of the reasons that bribery is regarded as a notorious evil is that it contributes to a culture of political corruption in which public trust is eroded. Other issues related to political corruption or betrayal of public trust are lobbying, special interest groups and the public cartel."}, {"id": 416518, "title": "Puppet ruler", "abstract": "A puppet ruler is a person who has a title indicating possession of political power, but who, in reality, is either loyal to or controlled by outside individuals or forces.  Such outside power can be exercised by a foreign government, in which case the puppet ruler's domain is called a puppet state.  But the puppet ruler may also be controlled by internal forces, such as non-elected officials. A figurehead monarch, as source of legitimacy and possibly divine reign, has been the used form of government in several situations and places of history.\nThere are two basic forms of using puppets as monarchs (rulers, kings, emperors): a figurehead in which the monarch is a puppet of another person or a group in the country who rules instead of the nominal ruler; and a puppet government under a foreign power. Examples of the first type are the Emperors who were the puppets of the sh\u014dguns of Japan and the kings who were the puppets of the Mayor of Palace in the Frankish kingdom. Client kingdoms under the Roman Republic and Roman Empire and the British Empire's colonial relationship with King Farouk of Egypt in the 1950s are examples of the second type."}, {"id": 250522, "title": "Regime", "abstract": "In politics, a regime (also \"r\u00e9gime\") is the form of government or the set of rules, cultural or social norms, etc., that regulate the operation of a government or institution and its interactions with society. The two broad categories of regimes that appear in most literature are democratic and autocratic. However, autocratic regimes can be broken down into a subset of many different types (dictatorial, totalitarian, absolutist, monarchic, oligarchic, etc.). The key similarity between all regimes are the presence of rulers, and either formal or informal institutions.According to Yale professor Juan Jos\u00e9 Linz there a three main types of political regimes today: democracies, \ntotalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes (with hybrid regimes)."}, {"id": 1163448, "title": "Ruling clique", "abstract": "A ruling clique is a group of people who jointly rule an oligarchic form of government.\n\nRuling cliques generally differ from another type of oligarchy: a military junta. Military juntas are always ruled by military personnel (often high-ranking like general). A ruling clique is typically formed by people from various professions, who, once in positions of power or leadership, tend to form councils, a political party, or perhaps some other form of organized group. Members of such a grouping may share a rough balance of power, although this may shift as members seek greater influence, often at the expense of others. Ruling cliques tend to reduce accountability within the governing elite, thereby steering the established political system towards one that is more autocratic, rather than democratic, in nature. The danger of ruling cliques stems from the inherent self-interest of any informally organised system of political governance. This point is captured by George Orwell in the following quote, taken back from his 1943 work 'Looking Back on the Spanish War':\u201cNazi theory indeed specifically denies that such a thing as \"the truth\" exists. [\u2026] The implied objective of this line of thought is a nightmare world in which the Leader, or some ruling clique, controls not only the future but the past. If the Leader says of such and such an event, \"It never happened\"\u2014well, it never happened. If he says that two and two are five\u2014well, two and two are five. This prospect frightens me much more than bombs [\u2026]\u201dSome ruling cliques could be considered a form of aristocracy while others are based on a very small circle of rulers rather than a broader based organization such as a political party. In some cases, the entire ruling clique is composed of a council of leaders who are the only members of the clique."}, {"id": 75438033, "title": "Santa Clarita Valley Sheriff Station", "abstract": "The Santa Clarita Valley Sheriff's Station, also known as the \"SCV Sheriff Station,\" is an American law enforcement agency that serves the unincorporated areas of Los Angeles County, specifically, Santa Clarita, California. It is part of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department (LASD).The station provides a variety of services including correctional programs, disaster services, environmental services, holiday assistance, law enforcement services, substance abuse services, and youth services."}, {"id": 25062892, "title": "Soil and grain", "abstract": "Soil and grain was a common Chinese political term in the Sinosphere for the state. Shejitan, the altars of soil and grain, were constructed alongside ancestral altars. Chinese monarchs of the Ming and Qing dynasties performed ceremonies of soil and grain to affirm their sovereignty at the Beijing Shejitan.\nDuring the Chinese Warring States period, ministers defied their rulers by claiming a greater loyalty to the \"soil and grain\".A similar concept to sheji is that of the earth deities Tudi and Houtu. It is also linked to Sheshen or deities which are sometimes directly called soil (\u793e)\nHoutu is the overlord of all the Tudigongs (\"Lord of Local Land\"), Sheji (\"the State\"), Shan Shen (\"God of Mountains\"), City Gods (\"God of Local City\"), and landlord gods world wide."}, {"id": 298608, "title": "State of emergency", "abstract": "A state of emergency is a situation in which a government is empowered to put through policies that it would normally not be permitted to do, for the safety and protection of its citizens. A government can declare such a state during a natural disaster, civil unrest, armed conflict, medical pandemic or epidemic or other biosecurity risk."}, {"id": 73331001, "title": "SIGLA", "abstract": "States and Institutions of Governance in Latin America (SIGLA) is an online multilingual database that provides systematic information on legal and political institutions in Latin America. SIGLA is hosted by the Center for Latin American Studies (CLAS) within the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.Launched in April 2022, the SIGLA database serves as a successor to the Political Database of the Americas (PDBA), also based at CLAS within Georgetown University's School of Foreign Service."}, {"id": 3512364, "title": "Tribal chief", "abstract": "A tribal chief, chieftain, or headman is the leader of a tribal society or chiefdom."}], "id": 697609}, {"title": "Society", "pages": [{"id": 37235, "title": "Society", "abstract": "A society () is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members.\nHuman social structures are complex and highly cooperative, featuring the specialization of labor via social roles. Societies construct roles and other patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or concepts acceptable or unacceptable\u2014these expectations around behavior within a given society are known as societal norms. So far as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis.\nSocieties vary based on level of technology and type of economic activity. Larger societies with larger food surpluses often exhibit stratification or dominance patterns.  Societies can have many different forms of government, various ways of understanding kinship, and different gender roles.  Human behavior varies immensely between different societies; humans shape society, but society in turn shapes human beings."}, {"id": 603901, "title": "Affluent society", "abstract": "An affluent society is form of society characterized by material abundance for broad segments of the population.\nA typical image for the affluent society is the literary topos of the Cockaigne, a mythical land of luxury goods. Similar terms, used more in a negative context, are throw-away society and consumer society."}, {"id": 65638919, "title": "Collaborative society", "abstract": "Collaborative society is a view of human society defined as encompassing the emerging phenomena of citizen science, collaborative media, digital communication gift economy, peer production, remix culture, and the sharing economy. It relies on various modes of distribution of resources in the economy, and their resulting consumption, based around the basic principles of sharing and collaboration. Dariusz Jemielniak and Aleksandra Przegali\u0144ska have defined it as \"a series of services... that enable peer-to-peer exchanges and interactions through technology\" as well as \"an increasingly recurring phenomenon of emergent and enduring cooperative groups, whose members have developed particular patterns of relationships through technology-mediated cooperation\" :\u200a4\u201311"}, {"id": 67753658, "title": "Collectors, Shooters and Hunters", "abstract": "Collectors, Shooters and Hunters (in Portuguese: \"Colecionadores, Atiradores desportivos e Ca\u00e7adores\" - CACs), in Brazilian law, is the designation given to those citizens, who, fulfilling the imposed demands, in relation to criminal records and handling and firing proficiency, have the right to possession of firearms and ammunitions for exercise the collecting, shooting and hunting activities, being able to exercise one, two or all of them.According to data collected from the Army and the Federal Police, in January 2021, there were more than 1 million registered CACs in Brazil."}, {"id": 38443689, "title": "Communist society", "abstract": "In Marxist thought, a communist society or the communist system is the type of society and economic system postulated to emerge from technological advances in the productive forces, representing the ultimate goal of the political ideology of communism. A communist society is characterized by common ownership of the means of production with free access to the articles of consumption and is classless, stateless, and moneyless, implying the end of the exploitation of labour.Communism is a specific stage of socioeconomic development predicated upon a superabundance of material wealth, which is postulated to arise from advances in production technology and corresponding changes in the social relations of production. This would allow for distribution based on needs and social relations based on freely-associated individuals.The term communist society should be distinguished from the Western concept of the communist state, the latter referring to a state ruled by a party which professes a variation of Marxism\u2013Leninism.In some Marxist theories there is a socialist society before the communist society. socialist stage appears before the communist stage. Su Shaozhi and Feng Langrui article created two subdivisions within the socialist mode of production; The first phase was the transition from the capitalist mode of production to the socialist mode of production\u2014the phase in which the proletariat seized power and set-up the dictatorship of the proletariat and in which undeveloped socialism was created. The second phase was advanced socialism; the socialism that Marx wrote about. after the socialist society it is the turn of the communist society. communist stage appears after the socialist stage. Karl Marx distinguishes between two phases of marketless communism: an initial phase, with labor vouchers, and a higher phase, with free access."}, {"id": 65942245, "title": "Confessional society", "abstract": "Confessional society describes the emerging trend of people to share daily life and thoughts with strangers through new information and communication tools. The term has been coined by Polish sociologist Zygmunt Bauman. He defined it as a society which is 'notorious for effacing the boundary which once separated the private from the public'. One of the examples used by Bauman is the social media platform Facebook, which he likens to an online \"confessional\u2026 where  inner-truths [about its users] are revealed\"; he also described mobile phones and similar portable communication devices as \"portable electronic confessionals\".Bauman sees this a form of a pervasive marketing strategy in which consumers became producers, and are encouraged by social media platforms to advertise or market themselves to others, to increase their own visibility (and corresponding platform visibility and ad revenue). In the modern society, therefore, fame and celebrity status, associated with and sometimes achieved through extreme display of one's private life on the Internet, are \"an ultimate goal or dream\" for many, although Bauman at the same time observes that such a summary risks oversimplification of a more nuanced system. The concept of the marketing society has been analyzed in the context of market research studies, with David Beer observing this trend means that increasingly, people are sharing data about themselves that previously, marketing companies had to struggle to acquire, and concluding that \"If Bauman\u2019s vision is correct, then the market researcher operating in this confessional society will be researching people marketing themselves.\" In 2013 Beer would describe the term \"confessional society\" as \"increasingly influential\"."}, {"id": 10401954, "title": "Family", "abstract": "Family (from Latin: familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Ideally, families offer predictability, structure, and safety as members mature and learn to participate in the community. Historically, most human societies use family as the primary purpose of attachment, nurturance, and socialization.Anthropologists classify most family organizations as matrifocal (a mother and her children), patrifocal (a father and his children), conjugal (a married couple with children, also called the nuclear family), avuncular (a man, his sister, and her children), or extended (in addition to parents and children, may include grandparents, aunts, uncles, or cousins).\nThe field of genealogy aims to trace family lineages through history. The family is also an important economic unit studied in family economics. The word \"families\" can be used metaphorically to create more inclusive categories such as community, nationhood, and global village."}, {"id": 6160922, "title": "Footprint", "abstract": "Footprints are the impressions or images left behind by a person walking or running. Hoofprints and pawprints are those left by animals with hooves or paws rather than feet, while \"shoeprints\" is the specific term for prints made by shoes. They may either be indentations in the ground or something placed onto the surface that was stuck to the bottom of the foot. A \"trackway\" is a set of footprints in soft earth left by a life-form; animal tracks are the footprints, hoofprints, or pawprints of an animal.\n\nFootprints can be followed when tracking during a hunt or can provide evidence of activities. Some footprints remain unexplained, with several famous stories from mythology and legend. Others have provided evidence of prehistoric life and behaviours."}, {"id": 70996973, "title": "Friends of society", "abstract": "A \"friends of\" is type of not-for-profit society created solely to support some other organization or enterprise, typically through fundraising, lobbying, and publicity.  They are very common in the galleries, libraries, archives, and museums (GLAM) sector.  They have a long history going back to the 19th century, particularly in Western Europe.\nThe first know friends of a museum society is the Vorarlberger Landesmuseumverein of Austria, set up in 1857.  Other early examples include the \nSoci\u00e9t\u00e9 des amis des monuments parisiens (\"Friends of Parisien Monuments\", 1885), the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des amis des monuments rouennais (\"Friends of Rouennais Monuments\", founded 1886), and the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des amis du Louvre (\"Friends of the Louvre\", founded 1897), the later of which became so popular that it has an American counterpart, the American Friends of the Louvre, based in New York."}, {"id": 13831, "title": "Human rights", "abstract": "Human rights are moral principles or norms for certain standards of human behaviour and are regularly protected in municipal and international law. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights \"to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being\" and which are \"inherent in all human beings\", regardless of their age, ethnic origin, location, language, religion, ethnicity, or any other status. They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. They are regarded as requiring empathy and the rule of law and imposing an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others, and it is generally considered that they should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances.The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international law and global and regional institutions. Actions by states and non-governmental organisations form a basis of public policy worldwide. The idea of human rights suggests that \"if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights\". The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable scepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day. The precise meaning of the term right is controversial and is the subject of continued philosophical debate; while there is consensus that human rights encompass a wide variety of rights such as the right to a fair trial, protection against enslavement, prohibition of genocide, free speech or a right to education, there is disagreement about which of these particular rights should be included within the general framework of human rights; some thinkers suggest that human rights should be a minimum requirement to avoid the worst-case abuses, while others see it as a higher standard. It has also been argued that human rights are \"God-given\", although this notion has been criticized.Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the events of the Holocaust, culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition that became prominent during the European Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui and which featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century, possibly as a reaction to slavery, torture, genocide and war crimes, as a realization of inherent human vulnerability and as being a precondition for the possibility of a just society. Human rights advocacy has continued into the early 21st century, centered around achieving greater economic and political freedom."}, {"id": 53132, "title": "Humanities", "abstract": "Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture, including the fundamental questions asked by humans. During the Renaissance, the term 'humanities' referred to the study of classical literature and language, as opposed to the study of religion or 'divinity.' The study of the humanities was a key part of the secular curriculum in universities at the time. Today, the humanities are more frequently defined as any fields of study outside of natural sciences, social sciences, formal sciences (like mathematics), and applied sciences (or professional training). They use methods that are primarily critical, speculative, or interpretative and have a significant historical element\u2014as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of science.The humanities include the studies of philosophy, religion, linguistics, foreign languages, history, language arts (literature, writing, oratory, rhetoric, poetry, etc.), performing arts (theater, music, dance, etc.), and visual arts (painting, sculpture, photography, filmmaking, etc.).Some definitions of the humanities encompass law and religion due to their shared characteristics, such as the study of language and culture.However, these definitions are not universally accepted, as law and religion are often considered professional subjects rather than humanities subjects. Professional subjects, like some social sciences, are sometimes classified as being part of both the liberal arts and professional development education, whereas humanities subjects are generally confined to the traditional liberal arts education. Although sociology, anthropology, archaeology, linguistics and psychology share some similarities with the humanities, these are often considered social sciences. Similarly, disciplines such as finance, business administration, political science, economics, and global studies have closer ties to the social sciences rather than the humanities.\nScholars in the humanities are called humanities scholars or sometimes humanists. The term humanist also describes the philosophical position of humanism, which antihumanist scholars in the humanities reject. Renaissance scholars and artists are also known as humanists. Some secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting of literature, history, foreign language, and art.\nHuman disciplines like history and language mainly use the comparative method and comparative research. Other methods used in the humanities include hermeneutics, source criticism, esthetic interpretation, and speculative reason."}, {"id": 273856, "title": "Industrial society", "abstract": "In sociology, an industrial society is a society driven by the use of technology and machinery to enable mass production, supporting a large population with a high capacity for division of labour. Such a structure developed in the Western world in the period of time following the Industrial Revolution, and replaced the agrarian societies of the pre-modern, pre-industrial age. Industrial societies are generally mass societies, and may be succeeded by an information society. They are often contrasted with traditional societies.Industrial societies use external energy sources, such as fossil fuels, to increase the rate and scale of production. The production of food is shifted to large commercial farms where the products of industry, such as combine harvesters and fossil fuel-based fertilizers, are used to decrease required human labor while increasing production. No longer needed for the production of food, excess labor is moved into these factories where mechanization is utilized to further increase efficiency. As populations grow, and mechanization is further refined, often to the level of automation, many workers shift to expanding service industries.\nIndustrial society makes urbanization desirable, in part so that workers can be closer to centers of production, and the service industry can provide labor to workers and those that benefit financially from them, in exchange for a piece of production profits with which they can buy goods. This leads to the rise of very large cities and surrounding suburb areas with a high rate of economic activity.\nThese urban centers require the input of external energy sources in order to overcome the diminishing returns of agricultural consolidation, due partially to the lack of nearby arable land, associated transportation and storage costs, and are otherwise unsustainable. This makes the reliable availability of the needed energy resources high priority in industrial government policies."}, {"id": 64001655, "title": "Modern capitalist society", "abstract": "Modern capitalist society is a term used to describe a type of capitalist society in which a capitalist class of \"new elites\" and \"old elites\" concerned with maximizing their wealth secures a political system that serves and protects their interests, leading to the development of a wage-earning class. The term is commonly used by historians to refer to a transition from a premodern feudal society to a modern capitalist society, with consensus being that England emerged as the first modern capitalist society through the English Civil War (1642-51) and the Glorious Revolution (1688-89). Historians identify that the transition into modern capitalist society is often defined by a bourgeois revolution in which rising elites secure a system of representative democracy, rather than direct democracy, that serves their interests over the interests of the previously ruling royal aristocracy, such as in the American Revolution.Modern capitalist societies rely on calculated and systematic production, different from the merchant capitalism of the Italian city-states, and are defined by the existence of a wage-earning class that functions as the counterpart to a capitalist class. They are described as highly competitive and individualistic, focusing on private interests over public welfare, through prioritizing commodity production and profit maximization. Defending private property, preserving law and order, maintaining the economic exploitation and political impotence of the wage-earning class, training the wage-earning class in the tasks that modern capitalist society requires to function, educating the wage-earning class to internalize the principles of capitalist-democracy, often through forms of propaganda in the mass media, and conditioning the wage-earning class to believe that they are autonomous and live in a society ruled by the citizenry, have all been identified by scholars as forces which maintain modern capitalist societies.Modern capitalist societies are positioned in Western culture as a phase of human progression that is superior or \"more advanced\" than \"premodern\" forms of society. This perspective was most evidently portrayed through colonial logics which asserted that Indigenous peoples belonged to more \"primitive\" cultures and therefore should assimilate into more \"civilized\" societies or face genocide (e.g., \"Kill the Indian, Save the Man\"). For Marxists, anarchists, and others, modern capitalist society is a phase which will eventually lead to the emergence of a qualitatively different form of society. In opposition, liberals and others are opposed to the structural transformation of modern capitalist society."}, {"id": 33524705, "title": "Origins of society", "abstract": "The origins of society \u2014 the evolutionary emergence of distinctively human social organization \u2014 is an important topic within evolutionary biology, anthropology, prehistory and palaeolithic archaeology. While little is known for certain, debates since Hobbes and Rousseau have returned again and again to the philosophical, moral and evolutionary questions posed."}, {"id": 34407451, "title": "Parallel society", "abstract": "Parallel society  refers to the self-organization of an ethnic or religious minority, often but not always immigrant groups, with the intent of a reduced or minimal spatial, social and cultural contact with the majority society into which they immigrate.The term was introduced into the debate about migration and integration in the early 1990s by the German sociologist Wilhelm Heitmeyer. It rose to prominence in the European public discourse following the murder of Dutch director and critic of Islam Theo van Gogh. In 2004, it was elected by the Association for the German Language second as Word of the year."}, {"id": 36055387, "title": "Planetary consciousness", "abstract": "Planetary consciousness is the idea that human beings are members of a planetary society of Earth as much as they are members of their nations, provinces, districts, islands, cities or villages."}, {"id": 251368, "title": "Power structure", "abstract": "A power structure is the way in which power and authority are organized or distributed in an organization or society. Political sociology has an overall focus on understanding why power structures are the way they are in any given societal context. A power structure focuses on the way power and authority is related between people within groups such as a government, nation, institution, organization, or a society. Such structures are of interest to various fields, including sociology, government, economics, and business. Power structures can be formally organized, such as a military or a church. Conversely, a power structure may be an informal set of roles, such as those found in a dominance hierarchy in which members of a social group interact, often aggressively, to create a ranking system. A culture that is organized in a dominance hierarchy is a dominator culture, the opposite of an egalitarian culture of partnership. A visible, dominant group or elite that holds power or authority within a power structure is often referred to as being the Establishment. Power structures are fluid, with changes occurring constantly, either slowly or rapidly, evolving or revolutionary, peacefully or violently."}, {"id": 11033682, "title": "Societal marketing", "abstract": "Societal responsibility of \nmarketing  is a marketing concept that holds that a company should make marketing decisions not only by considering consumers' wants, the company's requirements, but also society's long-term interests.\nThe societal marketing concept holds that the organization's task is to determine the needs, wants, and interests of a target market and to deliver the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors in a way that preserves or enhances the well-being of both the individual consumer and society in general. Therefore, marketers must endeavor to satisfy the needs and wants of their target markets in ways that preserve and enhance the well-being of consumers and society as a whole. [1] It is closely linked with the principles of corporate social responsibility and of sustainable development."}, {"id": 75336241, "title": "Society & Organizations Institute", "abstract": "The Society & Organizations Institute is an interdisciplinary center, unique in Europe, which members, professors and researchers, work on societal and environmental issues. Their research, teaching activities and experiments are applied to companies. It is located on the HEC Paris campus in Jouy-en-Josas."}, {"id": 4228181, "title": "Stateless society", "abstract": "A stateless society is a society that is not governed by a state. In stateless societies, there is little  concentration of authority; most positions of authority that do exist are very limited in  power and are generally not permanently-held positions; and social bodies that resolve disputes through predefined rules tend to be small. Different stateless societies feature highly variable economic systems and cultural practices.While stateless societies were the norm in human prehistory, few stateless societies exist today; almost the entire global population resides within the jurisdiction of a sovereign state, though in some regions nominal state authorities may be very weak and may wield  little or no actual power. Over the course of history most stateless peoples have become integrated into external state-based societies.Some political  philosophies, particularly anarchism, regard the state as an unwelcome institution and stateless societies as the ideal, while Marxism considers that in a post-capitalist society, the state would become unnecessary and would  wither away."}, {"id": 29678, "title": "Trade", "abstract": "Trade involves the transfer of goods and services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Economists refer to a system or network that allows trade as a market.\nAn early form of trade, barter, saw the direct exchange of goods and services for other goods and services, i.e. trading things without the use of money. Modern traders generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and letters of credit, paper money, and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade, while trade involving more than two traders is called multilateral trade.\nIn one modern view, trade exists due to specialization and the division of labor, a predominant form of economic activity in which individuals and groups concentrate on a small aspect of production, but use their output in trade for other products and needs. Trade exists between regions because different regions may have a comparative advantage (perceived or real) in the production of some trade-able commodity \u2013 including the production of scarce or limited natural resources elsewhere. For example, different regions' sizes may encourage mass production. In such circumstances, trading at market price between locations can benefit both locations. Different types of traders may specialize in trading different kinds of goods; for example, the spice trade and grain trade have both historically been important in the development of a global, international economy.\n\nRetail trade consists of the sale of goods or merchandise from a very fixed location (such as a department store, boutique, or kiosk), online or by mail, in small or individual lots for direct consumption or use by the purchaser. Wholesale trade is the traffic in goods that are sold as merchandise to retailers,  industrial, commercial, institutional, or other professional business users, or to other wholesalers and related subordinated services.\nHistorically, openness to free trade substantially increased in some areas from 1815 until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Trade openness increased again during the 1920s but collapsed (in particular in Europe and North America) during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Trade openness increased substantially again from the 1950s onward (albeit with a slowdown during the oil crisis of the 1970s). Economists and economic historians contend that current levels of trade openness are the highest they have ever been."}, {"id": 69865234, "title": "Treaty body", "abstract": "In international law, a treaty body (or treaty-based body) is an internationally established body of independent experts that monitor how States party to a particular international legal instrument are implementing their obligations under it."}], "id": 1633936}, {"title": "Health", "pages": [{"id": 80381, "title": "Health", "abstract": "Health has a variety of definitions, which have been used for different purposes over time. Health can be promoted by encouraging healthful activities, such as regular physical exercise and adequate sleep, and by reducing or avoiding unhealthful activities or situations, such as smoking or excessive stress. Some factors affecting health are due to individual choices, such as whether to engage in a high-risk behavior, while others are due to structural causes, such as whether the society is arranged in a way that makes it easier or harder for people to get necessary healthcare services. Still, other factors are beyond both individual and group choices, such as genetic disorders."}, {"id": 2054607, "title": "Age of onset", "abstract": "The age of onset is the age at which an individual acquires, develops, or first experiences a condition or symptoms of a disease or disorder. For instance, the general age of onset for the spinal disease scoliosis is \"10-15 years old,\" meaning that most people develop scoliosis when they are of an age between ten and fifteen years.\nDiseases are often categorized by their ages of onset as congenital, infantile, juvenile, or adult. Missed or delayed diagnosis often occurs if a disease that is typically diagnosed in juveniles (such as asthma) is present in adults, and vice versa (such as arthritis). Depending on the disease, ages of onset may impact features such as phenotype, as is the case in Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. For example, the phenotype for juvenile Huntington's disease clearly differs from adult-onset Huntington's disease and late-onset Parkinson's exhibits more severe motor and non-motor phenotypes."}, {"id": 50015690, "title": "Attachment and health", "abstract": "Attachment and health is psychological model which considers how attachment theory pertains to people's preferences and expectations for the proximity of others when faced with stress, threat, danger or pain. In 1982 the American Psychiatrist, Lawrence Kolb, noticed that patients with chronic pain displayed behaviours with their healthcare providers akin to what children might display with an attachment figure, thus marking one of the first applications of attachment theory to physical health. Development of adult attachment theory and adult attachment measures in the 1990s provided researchers with the means to apply attachment theory to health in a more systematic way. Since that time, it has been used to understand variation in stress response, health outcomes and health behaviour. Ultimately, the application of attachment theory to health care may enable health care practitioners to provide more personalized medicine by creating a deeper understanding of patient distress and allowing clinicians to better meet their needs and expectations."}, {"id": 3127042, "title": "Behavioral medicine", "abstract": "Behavioral medicine is concerned with the integration of knowledge in the biological, behavioral, psychological, and social sciences relevant to health and illness. These sciences include epidemiology, anthropology, sociology, psychology, physiology, pharmacology, nutrition, neuroanatomy, endocrinology, and immunology. The term is often used interchangeably, but incorrectly, with health psychology. The practice of behavioral medicine encompasses health psychology, but also includes applied psychophysiological therapies such as biofeedback, hypnosis, and bio-behavioral therapy of physical disorders, aspects of occupational therapy, rehabilitation medicine, and physiatry, as well as preventive medicine. In contrast, health psychology represents a stronger emphasis specifically on psychology's role in both behavioral medicine and behavioral health.Behavioral medicine is especially relevant in recent days, where many of the health problems are primarily viewed as behavioral in nature, as opposed to medical. For example, smoking, leading a sedentary lifestyle, and alcohol use disorder or other substance use disorder are all factors in the leading causes of death in the modern society. Practitioners of behavioral medicine include appropriately qualified nurses, social workers, psychologists, and physicians (including medical students and residents), and these professionals often act as behavioral change agents, even in their medical roles.Behavioral medicine uses the biopsychosocial model of illness instead of the medical model. This model incorporates biological, psychological, and social elements into its approach to disease instead of relying only on a biological deviation from the standard or normal functioning."}, {"id": 67349370, "title": "Community diagnosis", "abstract": "Community diagnosis is the identification and quantification of health problems in a given population using health indicators to define those at risk or those in need of care and the opportunities and resources available to address these factors."}, {"id": 261925, "title": "Health care", "abstract": "Health care, or healthcare, is the improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Health care is delivered by health professionals and allied health fields. Medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, midwifery, nursing, optometry, audiology, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy, athletic training, and other health professions all constitute health care. The term includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health.\nAccess to healthcare may vary across countries, communities, and individuals, influenced by social and economic conditions as well as health policies. Providing health care services means \"the timely use of personal health services to achieve the best possible health outcomes\". Factors to consider in terms of healthcare access include financial limitations (such as insurance coverage), geographical and logistical barriers (such as additional transportation costs and the ability to take paid time off work to use such services), sociocultural expectations, and personal limitations (lack of ability to communicate with health care providers, poor health literacy, low income). Limitations to health care services affects negatively the use of medical services, the efficacy of treatments, and overall outcome (well-being, mortality rates).\nHealth systems are organizations established to meet the health needs of targeted populations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning healthcare system requires a financing mechanism, a well-trained and adequately paid workforce, reliable information on which to base decisions and policies, and well-maintained health facilities to deliver quality medicines and technologies.\nAn efficient healthcare system can contribute to a significant part of a country's economy, development, and industrialization. Health care is conventionally regarded as an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental health and well-being of people around the world. An example of this was the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980, declared by the WHO, as the first disease in human history to be eliminated by deliberate healthcare interventions."}, {"id": 25123709, "title": "Health Disparities Center", "abstract": "Health Disparities Centers are institutions in the United States that cover a broad range of needs and focus areas to decrease currently disproportionate illness and disease rates that lead to health disparities. They also promote the engagement, empowerment and recruitment of underrepresented populations in health professions. Many programs devote significant resources to developing cultural competency training to promote the delivery of culturally sensitive healthcare by faculty and staff, as well as current and future healthcare providers. These services are usually tailored to meeting specific goals or missions of the individual components common in most of the operating Health Disparities Centers."}, {"id": 1810614, "title": "Health equity", "abstract": "Health equity arises from access to the social determinants of health, specifically from wealth, power and prestige. Individuals who have consistently been deprived of these three determinants are significantly disadvantaged from health inequities, and face worse health outcomes than those who are able to access certain resources. It is not equity to simply provide every individual with the same resources; that would be equality. In order to achieve health equity, resources must be allocated based on an individual need-based principle.According to the World Health Organization, \"Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity\". The quality of health and how health is distributed among economic and social status in a society can provide insight into the level of development within that society. Health is a basic human right and human need, and all human rights are interconnected. Thus, health must be discussed along with all other basic human rights.Health equity is defined by the CDC as \"the state in which everyone has a fair and just opportunity to attain their highest level of health\".  It is closely associated with the social justice movement, with good health considered a fundamental human right.  These inequities may include differences in the \"presence of disease, health outcomes, or access to health care\":\u200a3\u200a between populations with a different race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, disability, or socioeconomic status.Health inequity differs from health inequality in that the latter term is used in a number of countries to refer to those instances whereby the health of two demographic groups (not necessarily ethnic or racial groups) differs despite similar access to health care services. It can be further described as differences in health that are avoidable, unfair, and unjust, and cannot be explained by natural causes, such as biology, or differences in choice. Thus, if one population dies younger than another because of genetic differences, a non-remediable/controllable factor, we tend to say that there is a health inequality. Conversely, if a population has a lower life expectancy due to lack of access to medications, the situation would be classified as a health inequity. These inequities may include differences in the \"presence of disease, health outcomes, or access to health care\". Although it is important to recognize the difference in health equity and equality, having equality in health is essential to begin achieving health equity. The importance of equitable access to healthcare has been cited as crucial to achieving many of the Millennium Development Goals."}, {"id": 8695082, "title": "Health policy", "abstract": "Health policy can be defined as the \"decisions, plans, and actions that are undertaken to achieve specific healthcare goals within a society\". According to the World Health Organization, an explicit health policy can achieve several things: it defines a vision for the future; it outlines priorities and the expected roles of different groups; and it builds consensus and informs people."}, {"id": 60976, "title": "Health system", "abstract": "A health system, health care system or healthcare system is an organization of people, institutions, and resources that delivers health care services to meet the health needs of target populations.\nThere is a wide variety of health systems around the world, with as many histories and organizational structures as there are nations. Implicitly, nations must design and develop health systems in accordance with their needs and resources, although common elements in virtually all health systems are primary healthcare and public health measures.In certain nations, the orchestration of health system planning is decentralized, with various stakeholders in the market assuming responsibilities. In contrast, in other regions, a collaborative endeavor exists among governmental entities, labor unions, philanthropic organizations, religious institutions, or other organized bodies, aimed at the meticulous provision of healthcare services tailored to the specific needs of their respective populations. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that the process of healthcare planning is frequently characterized as an evolutionary progression rather than a revolutionary transformation.As with other social institutional structures, health systems are likely to reflect the history, culture and economics of the states in which they evolve. These peculiarities bedevil and complicate international comparisons and preclude any universal standard of performance."}, {"id": 20875984, "title": "Healthcare and the LGBT community", "abstract": "Various topics in medicine relate to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. According to the US Gay and Lesbian Medical Association (GLMA), besides HIV/AIDS, issues related to LGBT health include breast and cervical cancer, hepatitis, mental health, substance use disorders, alcohol use, tobacco use, depression, access to care for transgender persons, issues surrounding marriage and family recognition, conversion therapy, refusal clause legislation, and laws that are intended to \"immunize health care professionals from liability for discriminating against persons of whom they disapprove.\"LGBT people may face barriers to accessing healthcare on the basis of their sexual orientation and/or gender identity or expression. Many avoid or delay care or receive inappropriate or inferior care because of perceived or real homophobia or transphobia and discrimination by healthcare providers and institutions; in other words, negative personal experience, the assumption or expectation of negative experience based on knowledge of the history of such experience in other LGBT people, or both."}, {"id": 1511309, "title": "Mens sana in corpore sano", "abstract": "Mens sana in corpore sano (Classical Latin: [m\u1ebd\u02d0s \u02c8sa\u02d0na \u026a\u014b \u02c8k\u0254rp\u0254r\u025b \u02c8sa\u02d0no\u02d0]) is a Latin phrase, usually translated as \"a healthy mind in a healthy body\". The phrase is widely used in sporting and educational contexts to express that physical exercise is an important or essential part of mental and psychological well-being."}, {"id": 75444815, "title": "Ministry of Health (Maldives)", "abstract": "The Ministry of health  of the Republic of Maldives is a government ministry in the Maldives."}, {"id": 258666, "title": "Polyuria", "abstract": "Polyuria () is excessive or an abnormally large production or passage of urine (greater than 2.5 L or 3 L over 24 hours in adults). Increased production and passage of urine may also be termed diuresis. Polyuria often appears in conjunction with polydipsia (increased thirst), though it is possible to have one without the other, and the latter may be a cause or an effect. Primary polydipsia may lead to polyuria. Polyuria is usually viewed as a symptom or sign of another disorder (not a disease by itself), but it can be classed as a disorder, at least when its underlying causes are not clear."}, {"id": 2379996, "title": "Population health", "abstract": "Population health has been defined as \"the health outcomes of a group of individuals, including the distribution of such outcomes within the group\". It is an approach to health that aims to improve the health of an entire human population. It has been described as consisting of three components. These are \"health outcomes, patterns of health determinants, and policies and interventions\".A priority considered important in achieving the aim of population health is to reduce health inequities or disparities among different population groups due to, among other factors, the social determinants of health (SDOH). The SDOH include all the factors (social, environmental, cultural and physical) that the different populations are born into, grow up and function with throughout their lifetimes which potentially have a measurable impact on the health of human populations. The population health concept represents a change in the focus from the individual-level, characteristic of most mainstream medicine. It also seeks to complement the classic efforts of public health agencies by addressing a broader range of factors shown to impact the health of different populations. The World Health Organization's Commission on Social Determinants of Health, reported in 2008, that the SDOH factors were responsible for the bulk of diseases and injuries and these were the major causes of health inequities in all countries.  In the US, SDOH were estimated to account for 70% of avoidable mortality.From a population health perspective, health has been defined not simply as a state free from disease but as \"the capacity of people to adapt to, respond to, or control life's challenges and changes\". The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader sense in 1946 as \"a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.\""}, {"id": 72262712, "title": "Psychological impact of discrimination on health", "abstract": "The psychological impact of discrimination on health refers to the cognitive pathways through which discrimination impacts mental and physical health in members of marginalized, subordinate, and low-status groups (e.g. racial and sexual minorities). Research on the relation between discrimination and health became a topic of interest in the 1990s, when researchers proposed that persisting racial/ethnic disparities in health outcomes could potentially be explained by racial/ethnic differences in experiences with discrimination. Although the bulk of the research tend to focus on the interactions between interpersonal discrimination and health, researchers studying discrimination and health in the United States have proposed that institutional discrimination and cultural racism also give rise to conditions that contribute to persisting racial and economic health disparities.A stress and coping framework is often applied to investigate how discrimination influences health outcomes in racial, gender, and sexual minorities, as well as on immigrants and indigenous populations. Findings indicate that experiences of discrimination tend to translate into worse physical and mental health and lead to increased participation in unhealthy behaviors. Evidence of the inverse link between discrimination and health has been consistent across multiple population groups and various cultural and national contexts."}, {"id": 62966467, "title": "Relationships and health", "abstract": "There is empirical evidence of the causal impact of social relationships on health. The social support theory suggests that relationships might promote health especially by promoting adaptive behavior or regulating the stress response. Troubled relationships as well as loneliness and social exclusion may have negative consequences on health. Neurosciences of health investigate the neuronal circuits implicated in the context of both social connection and disconnection."}, {"id": 1043143, "title": "Single-payer healthcare", "abstract": "Single-payer healthcare is a type of universal healthcare in which the costs of essential healthcare for all residents are covered by a single public system (hence \"single-payer\").Single-payer systems may contract for healthcare services from private organizations (as is the case in Canada) or may own and employ healthcare resources and personnel (as is the case in the United Kingdom). \"Single-payer\" describes the mechanism by which healthcare is paid for by a single public authority, not a private authority, nor a mix of both."}, {"id": 66215951, "title": "Sleep tracking", "abstract": "Sleep tracking is the process of monitoring a person's sleep, most commonly through measuring inactivity and movement. A device that tracks a person's sleep is called a sleep tracker. Sleep tracking may be beneficial in diagnosing sleep disorders. As sleep abnormalities are also symptoms of mental illness or relapsing psychotic disorders, it may also be beneficial in diagnosing mental disorders and psychotic disorders as well.Polysomnography, the \"gold standard\" method for sleep tracking that requires attaching electrodes and monitors to the patient as they sleep, was developed in the late 1950s. It is considered by sleep researchers as providing the most accurate sleep data, however, it is an expensive, often uncomfortable experience for patients with findings that may be skewed due to the \"first night effect\". The actigraphy, a sleep-tracking device that is worn on one's wrist, was developed in the early 1970s and uses motion sensors. It is considered the \"silver standard\" method of sleep tracking, is comparably less expensive than a polysomnograph, and easier to incorporate into a patient's every day schedule as it looks and feels like a wrist-watch. However, it cannot track sleep-staging, is still generally expensive, and still requires a specialist to analyze the data it collects.Sleep trackers are now available to consumers in many different forms such as smartphones, smartwatches, fitness trackers, and other wearable devices. Compared to a polysomonograph or an actigraph, consumer sleep-tracking devices are already incorporated into the day-to-day lives of patients and are the most cost-effective sleep-tracking method for patients. However, consumer sleep-tracking devices as they currently are, do not provide reliable sleep data for consumers or healthcare professionals. Additionally, consumer sleep tracking devices do not share their sleep tracking methods or algorithms with the public and may unintentionally undermine the sleep recommendations of health professionals or the need to seek professional help regarding improving sleep quality."}, {"id": 71652174, "title": "Trans-European Drug Information", "abstract": "The Trans-European Drug Information (TEDI) project is a European database compiling information from different drug checking services located on the European continent. The non-governmental organizations feeding into the database are referred to as the TEDI network."}, {"id": 73912949, "title": "Unidade de Pronto Atendimento", "abstract": "Unidade de Pronto Atendimento (English: Emergency Care Unit), abbreviated UPA or UPA 24h, is a type of health center that can be found in many cities in Brazil. They are responsible for providing medium complexity health care, forming a network organized in conjunction with primary care and hospital care. The units also have the purpose of reducing the queues in hospital emergency rooms, avoiding that less complex cases are transferred directly to the hospitals, as well as increasing the service capacity of the Unified Health System (SUS)."}, {"id": 570661, "title": "Universal health care", "abstract": "Universal health care (also called universal health coverage, universal coverage, or universal care) is a health care system in which all residents of a particular country or region are assured access to health care. It is generally organized around providing either all residents or only those who cannot afford on their own, with either health services or the means to acquire them, with the end goal of improving health outcomes.Universal healthcare does not imply coverage for all cases and for all people \u2013 only that all people have access to healthcare when and where needed without financial hardship. Some universal healthcare systems are government-funded, while others are based on a requirement that all citizens purchase private health insurance. Universal healthcare can be determined by three critical dimensions: who is covered, what services are covered, and how much of the cost is covered. It is described by the World Health Organization as a situation where citizens can access health services without incurring financial hardship. Then-Director General of the WHO Margaret Chan described universal health coverage as the \"single most powerful concept that public health has to offer\" since it unifies \"services and delivers them in a comprehensive and integrated way\". One of the goals with universal healthcare is to create a system of protection which provides equality of opportunity for people to enjoy the highest possible level of health. Critics say that universal healthcare leads to longer wait times and worse quality healthcare.As part of Sustainable Development Goals, United Nations member states have agreed to work toward worldwide universal health coverage by 2030. Therefore the inclusion of the universal health coverage (UHC) within the SDGs targets can be related to the reiterated endorsements operated by the WHO."}, {"id": 73767855, "title": "Wellbeing Literacy", "abstract": "Wellbeing literacy is defined as the intentional use of wellbeing relevant vocabulary, knowledge and language skills to maintain or improve the wellbeing of oneself, others and the world.  The term was originally coined and published by Prof. Lindsay Oades and colleagues in 2017, who described wellbeing literacy as the potential \"missing link\" or \"missing ingredient\" in positive education, and now supports systems-informed approaches to education (2020).More broadly, wellbeing literacy relates to how people communicate about and for wellbeing (2021).Wellbeing literacy is a construct that reflects the intersection between the words that people use to describe wellbeing and the understanding they have of  wellbeing, according to Waters and Higgins (2022)."}], "id": 751381}, {"title": "Entertainment", "pages": [{"id": 9262, "title": "Entertainment", "abstract": "Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but it is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audience's attention.\nAlthough people's attention is held by different things because individuals have different preferences, most forms of entertainment are recognisable and familiar. Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures, were supported in royal courts, and developed into sophisticated forms over time, becoming available to all citizens. The process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products. Entertainment evolves and can be adapted to suit any scale, ranging from an individual who chooses private entertainment from a now enormous array of pre-recorded products, to a banquet adapted for two, to any size or type of party with appropriate music and dance, to performances intended for thousands, and even for a global audience.\nThe experience of being entertained has come to be strongly associated with amusement, so that one common understanding of the idea is fun and laughter, although many entertainments have a serious purpose. This may be the case in various forms of ceremony, celebration, religious festival, or satire, for example. Hence, there is the possibility that what appears to be entertainment may also be a means of achieving insight or intellectual growth.\nAn important aspect of entertainment is the audience, which turns a private recreation or leisure activity into entertainment. The audience may have a passive role, as in the case of people watching a play, opera, television show, or film; or the audience role may be active, as in the case of games, where the participant and audience roles may be routinely reversed. Entertainment can be public or private, involving formal, scripted performances, as in the case of theatre or concerts, or unscripted and spontaneous, as in the case of children's games. Most forms of entertainment have persisted over many centuries, evolving due to changes in culture, technology, and fashion, as with stage magic. Films and video games, although they use newer media, continue to tell stories, present drama, and play music. Festivals devoted to music, film, or dance allow audiences to be entertained over a number of consecutive days.\nSome entertainment, such as public executions, is now illegal in most countries. Activities such as fencing or archery, once used in hunting or war, have become spectator sports. In the same way, other activities, such as cooking, have developed into performances among professionals, staged as global competitions, and then broadcast for entertainment. What is entertainment for one group or individual may be regarded as work or an act of cruelty by another.\nThe familiar forms of entertainment have the capacity to cross over into different media and have demonstrated a seemingly unlimited potential for creative remix. This has ensured the continuity and longevity of many themes, images, and structures."}, {"id": 9988, "title": "Outline of entertainment", "abstract": "The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to entertainment and the entertainment industry:\nEntertainment is any activity which provides a diversion or permits people to amuse themselves in their leisure time, and may also provide fun, enjoyment, and laughter. People may create their own entertainment, such as when they spontaneously invent a  game; participate actively in an activity they find entertaining, such as when they play sport as a hobby; or consume an entertainment product passively, such as when they attend a performance.\nThe entertainment industry (informally known as show business or show biz) is part of the tertiary sector of the economy and includes many sub-industries devoted to entertainment. However, the term is often used in the mass media to describe the mass media companies that control the distribution and manufacture of mass media entertainment. In the popular parlance, the term show biz in particular connotes the commercially popular performing arts, especially musical theatre, vaudeville, comedy, film, fun, and music. It applies to every aspect of entertainment including cinema, television, radio, theatre, and music."}, {"id": 511640, "title": "5.1 surround sound", "abstract": "5.1 surround sound (\"five-point one\") is the common name for surround sound audio systems. 5.1 is the most commonly used layout in home theatres. It uses five full bandwidth channels and one low-frequency effects channel (the \"point one\"). Dolby Digital, Dolby Pro Logic II, DTS, SDDS, and THX are all common 5.1 systems. 5.1 is also the standard surround sound audio component of digital broadcast and music.All 5.1 systems use the same speaker channels and configuration, having a Front Left (FL) and Front Right (FR), a Center Channel (CNT), two surround channels (Surround Left - SL and Surround Right - SR) and the low-frequency effects (SW) channel designed for a subwoofer."}, {"id": 9367761, "title": "Entertainment in the 16th century", "abstract": "British Entertainment in the 16th century included art, fencing, painting, the stocks and even executions.\nWhile the 16th century and early 17th century squarely fall into the Renaissance period in Europe, that period was not only one of scientific and cultural advance, but also involved the development of changing forms of entertainment \u2013 both for the masses and for the elite.\nDespite the great breadth of advancements in the arts during this time, the economic conditions of this period affected the types of entertainment available. There were three classes in society: A wealthy nobility, a merchant class,  and the peasantry, who were typically poor."}, {"id": 31604229, "title": "Ancillary market", "abstract": "Ancillary markets are non-theatrical markets for feature films, like home video, television, Pay Per View, VOD, Internet streaming, airlines and others."}, {"id": 2042178, "title": "Ball pit", "abstract": "A ball pit (originally called a ball crawl, also known as a ball pool or ball pond) is a padded box or pool filled with small colorful hollow plastic balls generally no larger than 3 inches (7.6 cm) in diameter. They are typically marketed as recreation and exercise for children.\n\nThey are sometimes found at nurseries, carnivals, amusement parks, fun centers, fast-food restaurants, and large video arcades, frequently incorporated into larger play structures such as mazes, slides and jungle gyms. They may be rented for parties, and smaller versions are sold for home use. Ball pits are also sometimes used in therapy and educational settings, as they can provide a stimulating and sensory-rich environment."}, {"id": 7566837, "title": "Bioscope show", "abstract": "A Bioscope show was a music hall and fairground attraction consisting of a travelling cinema. The heyday of the Bioscope was from the late 1890s until World War I."}, {"id": 339806, "title": "Burlesque", "abstract": "A burlesque is a literary, dramatic or musical work intended to cause laughter by caricaturing the manner or spirit of serious works, or by ludicrous treatment of their subjects. The word derives from the Italian burlesco, which, in turn, is derived from the Italian burla \u2013 a joke, ridicule or mockery.Burlesque overlaps with caricature, parody and travesty, and, in its theatrical form, with extravaganza, as presented during the Victorian era. The word \"burlesque\" has been used in English in this literary and theatrical sense since the late 17th century. It has been applied retrospectively to works of Chaucer and Shakespeare and to the Graeco-Roman classics. Contrasting examples of literary burlesque are Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock and Samuel Butler's Hudibras. An example of musical burlesque is Richard Strauss's 1890 Burleske for piano and orchestra. Examples of theatrical burlesques include W. S. Gilbert's Robert the Devil and the A. C. Torr \u2013 Meyer Lutz shows, including Ruy Blas and the Blas\u00e9 Rou\u00e9.\nA later use of the term, particularly in the United States, refers to performances in a variety show format. These were popular from the 1860s to the 1940s, often in cabarets and clubs, as well as theatres, and featured bawdy comedy and female striptease. Some Hollywood films attempted to recreate the spirit of these performances from the 1930s to the 1960s, or included burlesque-style scenes within dramatic films, such as 1972's Cabaret and 1979's All That Jazz, among others. There has been a resurgence of interest in this format since the 1990s."}, {"id": 2605599, "title": "Calligraphic projection", "abstract": "Calligraphic projection is a system for displaying or projecting an image composed of a beam of light or electrons directly tracing the image, as opposed to sweeping in raster order over the entire display surface, as in a standard pixel-based display. Calligraphic projection is presently often used for laser lighting displays, whereby one or more laser beams draws an image on a screen by reflecting the laser beam from one or more mirrors attached to a deflecting mechanism.\nAnalog oscilloscopes have customarily employed this kind of vector graphics, as did a number of CRT-based vector monitor computer graphics terminals in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the Tektronix 4014 and the Evans & Sutherland Picture System.\nCalligraphic projection is sometimes called Lissajous projection, after the mathematical figure (and mathematician)."}, {"id": 35970102, "title": "Caption contest", "abstract": "A caption contest or caption competition is a competition between multiple participants, who are required to give the best description for a certain image offered by the contest organizer. Rules and information about the competition process are also given by the competition organizer."}, {"id": 8727319, "title": "Cat burning", "abstract": "Cat burning was an alleged form of cruelty to animals as an entertainment or festivity in Western and Central Europe during the Middle Ages prior to the 1800s. People would gather cats and hoist them onto a bonfire causing death by burning or otherwise through the effects of exposure to extreme heat. In the medieval to early modern periods, cats, which were associated with vanity and witchcraft, were sometimes burned as symbols of the devil."}, {"id": 35694818, "title": "Convenience technologies", "abstract": "Convenience technologies enable viewers and users of television, Internet, mobile devices, Digital Video Recorders (DVR), Video on Demand (VOD) and Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) to more easily seek out specific content and view it in individualized patterns. These technologies increase viewers\u2019 ability to choose when they want to watch a program with the use of DVR, VOD and DVD, and where to watch a program with the use of DVD, iPOD, TiVo ToGo and mobile phones. These technological enhancers provide the most comprehensive and varied adjustments in the technological potential of the medium (Amanda D. Lotz, 2007, p. 59).Convenience Technologies encourage active selection instead of generally watching what \u201ccomes on next\u201d or \u201cis on\u201d. Because of this, consequently, viewers focused more on programs they wanted to watch than on the networks that supplied them (Lotz, 2007, p. 59)\nThe main problem for networks is that the DVR using audience appears, by basically every measure that's vital to advertisers, more wanted than the non-DVR crowds. According to a Horizon Media Study, early adopters of technology are usually above the national average in income, in a \u201cwell-off\u201d set. They are typically college graduates and white-collar workers (Lowry, 2010)."}, {"id": 9955923, "title": "Corporate entertainment", "abstract": "Corporate entertainment describes private events held by corporations or businesses for their staff, clients or stakeholders. These events can be for large audiences such as conventions and conferences, or smaller events such as retreats, holiday parties or even private concerts.\nIt is also commonly used to mean corporate hospitality, the process of entertaining guests at corporate events.The companies that provide corporate entertainment are called corporate event planners or corporate booking agencies."}, {"id": 1017350, "title": "Cosmorama", "abstract": "A cosmorama is an exhibition of perspective pictures of different places in the world, usually world landmarks. Careful use of illumination and lenses gives the images greater realism.\nCosmorama was also the name of an entertainment in 19th century London, at 207-209 Regent Street, at which the public could view scenes of distant lands and exotic subjects through optical devices that magnified the pictures. It was later converted into an exhibition of curiosities named the Prince of Wales Bazaar. Exhibits included a sea lion, a sea serpent and L. Bertolotto's Flea circus."}, {"id": 217777, "title": "Educational entertainment", "abstract": "Educational entertainment, also referred to by the portmanteau edutainment, is media designed to educate through entertainment. The term was used as early as 1954 by Walt Disney. Most often it includes content intended to teach but has incidental entertainment value. It has been used by academia, corporations, governments, and other entities in various countries to disseminate information in classrooms and/or via television, radio, and other media to influence viewers' opinions and behaviors."}, {"id": 36094236, "title": "Entertainment in education", "abstract": "Entertainment products have been used in a variety of ways in the field of education. They may be used to teach academic lessons or help students learn social skills."}, {"id": 216003, "title": "Entertainment law", "abstract": "Entertainment law, also referred to as media law, is legal services provided to the entertainment industry. These services in entertainment law overlap with intellectual property law. Intellectual property has many moving parts that include trademarks, copyright, and the \"right of publicity\". However, the practice of entertainment law often involves questions of employment law, contract law, torts, labor law, bankruptcy law, immigration, securities law, security interests, agency, right of privacy, defamation, advertising, criminal law, tax law, International law (especially private international law), and insurance law.\nMuch of the work of an entertainment law practice is transaction based, i.e., drafting contracts, negotiation and mediation. Some situations may lead to litigation or arbitration."}, {"id": 8957966, "title": "Entertainment management", "abstract": "Entertainment management is a relatively new business management discipline that is increasingly being taught as a Bachelor of Science degree. Entertainment management courses aim to provide graduates with appropriate knowledge and skills to progress into management careers within the entertainment sector, managing aspiring and established artists and entertainers, as well as facilities such as sport events, theme parks, theaters, cinemas, live music venues, museums, art galleries, broadcast media companies and night clubs.The Lubin School of Business at Pace University offers a BBA degree in management with a concentration in arts and entertainment.A number of master's-level programs have emerged recently, including Carnegie Mellon University's Master of Entertainment Industry Management \u2013 which offers students with undergraduate degrees in the film and television the opportunity to refocus their education on the management dimension of the work, or Northwestern University's Master of Science in Leadership for Creative Enterprises program, which offers students with backgrounds in visual, performing, or interactive arts with management and entrepreneurial skills.\nGrowth in these courses has been linked with growth in both the creative and cultural industries. This growth is linked to increased consumer expenditure on recreation and entertainment activities. The result is a population assigning greater importance to the free time they have and a consequential willingness to spend more of their income on the 'experience' economy."}, {"id": 3720589, "title": "Entertainment technology", "abstract": "Entertainment technology is the discipline of using manufactured or created components to enhance or make possible any sort of entertainment experience. Because entertainment categories are so broad, and because entertainment models the world in many ways, the types of implemented technology are derived from a variety of sources.  Thus, in theatre, for example, entertainment technology practitioners must be able to design and construct scenery, install electrical systems, build clothing, use motors if there is scenery automation, and provide plumbing (if functioning kitchen fixtures are required, or if \"singing in the rain\"). In this way, the entertainment technology field intersects with most other types of technology.\nEntertainment technology helps people relax and enjoy some free time. The latest technology has revolutionized daily entertainment. Old ways such as recording on records, tapes, and CDs, have made music more accessible across the world. Movies are brought into living rooms through photography, film, and video. With the emergence of computer technology, ways of being entertained have been optimized greatly. Many households are now having computers, consoles, or any other kind of hand-holding computer game. The diversity and complexity of entertainment technology will bring endless joy and convenience to people's spare time. Traditionally, entertainment technology is derived from theatrical stagecraft, and stagecraft is an important subset of the discipline. However, the rise of new types and venues for entertainment, as well as rapidly advancing technological development, has increased the range and scope of its practice.\nIn animation and game design, the phrase \"entertainment technology\" refers to entertainment experiences made possible by the advent of primarily computer-mediated digital technologies."}, {"id": 1151595, "title": "Escapism", "abstract": "Escapism is mental diversion from unpleasant aspects of daily life, typically through activities involving imagination or entertainment. Escapism also may be used to occupy one's self away from persistent feelings of depression or general sadness."}, {"id": 2529054, "title": "Family entertainment center", "abstract": "A family entertainment center, often abbreviated FEC in the entertainment industry, also known as an indoor amusement park, family amusement center, family fun center, soft play, or simply fun center, is a small amusement park marketed towards families with small children to teenagers, often entirely indoors. They usually cater to \"sub-regional markets of larger metropolitan areas.\" FECs are generally small compared to full-scale amusement parks, with fewer attractions, a lower per-person per-hour cost to consumers than a traditional amusement park, and not usually major tourist attractions, but sustained by an area customer base. Many are locally owned and operated, although there are a number of chains and franchises in the field. Some, operated by non-profit organizations as children's museums or science museums, tend to be geared toward edutainment experiences rather than simply amusement."}, {"id": 2035871, "title": "Fit-up", "abstract": "Fit-up refers to the old style of theatre or circus where companies of travelling players or performers would tour from town or village to village in the provinces of Ireland, Britain and elsewhere, particularly throughout the 19th century. The term is theatre slang to describe a stage or tent that can be transported and erected quickly for shows.\nA fit-up company would be a travelling company of players which carries its scenery, props and costumes that can be set up in a temporary venue, which might be a large tent, a barn or a village hall. Fit-up companies were particularly prevalent in 19th century Ireland and a study of the performance histories of these has been made by Irish academics. The oldest of these Irish companies included the J. B. Carrickford Company and Tommy Conway/Keegan, who formed the Bohemian Minstrels in the early 19th century.The number of fit-up companies grew at the beginning of the 20th century with estimates of about 60 companies touring the Irish countryside by 1930. Their performances usually involved some form of variety act and a melodrama followed by a farce. While World War I made times difficult for theatres in Ireland with conscription and travelling restrictions making it difficult for overseas performers to get to venues, the fit-up companies were able to continue largely unaffected. The company of the actor Anew McMaster formed in 1925 continued this earlier tradition and travelled to the remote parts of Ireland to perform until the middle of the 20th century. Examples in the 21st century would include travelling circuses, travelling fairs and Punch and Judy shows.\nGenerally, a fit-up company\n\ncarried all their props, costumes, scenery, curtains and light systems and if necessary the materials for a temporary improvised stage which they would fit-up in whatever sort of venue was available.\n\nTheatrical companies would travel to often remote locations and fit up the local theatres or halls. Very often these travelling shows might be the only entertainment a village might see for some time and would therefore usually play to capacity audiences. They would often perform the works of classic authors such as Shakespeare. In literature the novel Nicholas Nickleby (1838) by Charles Dickens includes the Crummles troupe of travelling players that Nickleby joins. Headed by Vincent Crummles, a larger-than-life actor-manager who takes Nicholas under his wing, he and his family take their act to America to pursue greater success on the theatrical stage."}, {"id": 2247943, "title": "Home theater in a box", "abstract": "A home theater in a box (HTIB) is an integrated home theater package which \"bundles\" together a combination  DVD or Blu-ray player, a multi-channel amplifier (which includes a surround sound decoder, a radio tuner, and other features), speaker wires, connection cables, a remote control, a set of five or more surround sound speakers (or more rarely, just left and right speakers, a lower-price option known as \"2.1\") and a low-frequency subwoofer cabinet. Manufacturers also have come out with the \"soundbar\", an all in one device to put underneath the television and that contains all the speakers in one unit."}, {"id": 39184350, "title": "Military\u2013entertainment complex", "abstract": "The military\u2013entertainment complex is the cooperation between militaries and entertainment industries to their mutual benefit, especially in such fields as cinema, multimedia, virtual reality, and multisensory extended reality.Though the term can be used to describe any military\u2013entertainment complex in any nation, the most prominent complex is between the United States Department of Defense (DoD) and the film industry of the United States."}, {"id": 39455287, "title": "Naked butler", "abstract": "A naked butler is a popular type of entertainment used at hen parties and for corporate entertainment. It was introduced into the UK in the early 2000s and is now popular across the USA, New Zealand, Australia and Canada."}, {"id": 56337347, "title": "Out-of-home entertainment", "abstract": "Out-of-home entertainment (OOHE or OHE) is a term coined by the amusement industry to collectively refer to experiences at regional attractions like theme parks and waterparks with their thrill rides and slides, and smaller community-based entertainment venues such as family entertainment and cultural venues.\nIn the US alone, there are nearly 30,000 attractions\u2014theme and amusement parks, attractions, water parks, family entertainment centers, zoos, aquariums, science centers, museums, and resorts, producing a total nationwide economic impact of $219 billion in 2011, according to leading international industry association, International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA). The industry directly employs more than 1.3 million and indirectly generates 1 million jobs in the US, creating a total job impact of 2.3 million.In recent years, the use of this term has gained acceptance with and been popularized by amusement industry players, industry associations, trade magazines and even securities analysts.  This stems from the desire to distinguish between the social, competitive atmosphere and dedicated hardware found in location-based entertainment venues from at-home consumer-game entertainment, mobile entertainment or even augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR).  The reality is that the lines are increasingly blurred with today's sophisticated consumers and emerging technologies.\nThis term is not to be confused with out-of-home media advertising as used by the advertising industry, although the convergence of digital out-of-home advertising and the digital out-of-home entertainment is producing innovations in retail and hospitality, steeped in fundamentals of social gaming experiences defined by the video amusement industry during the 70\u2019s."}, {"id": 6607106, "title": "Party motivator", "abstract": "A party motivator is a person paid to entertain attendants at a party. Typically, party motivators are attractive young men and women who dress fashionably and attempt to engage guests in socializing and dancing. Hiring party motivators is primarily a phenomenon within the American upper middle and upper classes; they are especially common at bar mitzvahs."}, {"id": 2955100, "title": "Patter", "abstract": "Patter is a prepared and practiced speech that is designed to produce a desired response from its audience. Examples of occupations with a patter include the auctioneer, salesperson, dance caller, magician, and comedian.\nThe term may have been a colloquial shortening of \"Pater Noster\", or the Lord's Prayer, and may have referred to the practice of mouthing or mumbling prayers quickly and mechanically.\nFrom this, it became a slang word for the secret and equally incomprehensible mutterings of a cant language used by beggars, thieves, fences, etc., and then the fluent plausible talk that a cheap-jack employs to pass off his goods. Many illusionists, e.g., card magicians, use patter both to enhance the show and to distract the attention of the spectators.\nIn some circumstances, the talk becomes a different sense of \"patter\": to make a series of rapid strokes or pats, as of raindrops. Here, it is a form of onomatopoeia.\nIn hypnotherapy, the hypnotist uses a 'patter' or script to deliver positive suggestions for change to the client.\nIn London Labour and the London Poor (1851), Henry Mayhew divides the street-sellers of his time into two groups: the patterers, and everyone else."}, {"id": 490309, "title": "Peep show", "abstract": "A peep show or peepshow is a presentation of a live sex show or pornographic film which is viewed through a viewing slot.\nSeveral historical media provided voyeuristic entertainment through hidden erotic imagery. Before the development of the cinema in 1895, motion pictures were presented in peep boxes, such as the kinetoscope and the mutoscope. These remained relatively popular for erotic and pornographic films, such as What the Butler Saw. \nIn contemporary use, a peep show is a piecewise presentation of pornographic films or a live sex show which is viewed through a viewing slot, which shuts after the time paid for has expired. The viewing slots can be operated by a money box device, or paid for at a counter. \nPornographic peep shows became popular in the 1970s as part of the developing pornography industry. Until home video became widespread, peep shows made up a major part of the way in which video pornography was accessed. In 1986 a US Presidential report into pornography said that peep shows were making significant earnings which were often undeclared or untaxed, and in some US locations peep shows were subsequently suppressed.For live peep shows, booths can surround a stage upon which usually a female performer performs a striptease and sexually explicit poses. In Barcelona female performers at times also perform sexual intercourse with male performers on stage. In some cases, booths include paper towel dispensers for customers who engage in masturbation. A customer and performer can mutually agree on a fee for a \"private dance\", which can take place in a peep show booth with a clear window and seating space for only one spectator."}, {"id": 22938, "title": "Performing arts", "abstract": "The performing arts are arts such as music, dance, and drama which are performed for an audience. They are different from the visual arts, which involve the use of paint, canvas or various materials to create physical or static art objects. Performing arts include a range of disciplines which are performed in front of a live audience, including theatre, music, and dance.\nTheatre, music, dance, object manipulation, and other kinds of performances are present in all human cultures. The history of music and dance date to pre-historic times whereas circus skills date to at least Ancient Egypt. Many performing arts are performed professionally. Performance can be in purpose-built buildings, such as theatres and opera houses, on open air stages at festivals, on stages in tents such as circuses or on the street.\nLive performances before an audience are a form of entertainment. The development of audio and video recording has allowed for private consumption of the performing arts. The performing arts often aims to express one's emotions and feelings."}, {"id": 5976008, "title": "Performing arts education", "abstract": "Education in the performing arts is a key part of many primary and secondary education curricula and is also available as a specialisation at the tertiary level. The performing arts, which include, but are not limited to dance, music and theatre, are key elements of culture and engage participants at a number of levels.The endpoint for performing arts education varies: some educators integrate arts into school classrooms to support other curricula while simultaneously building students' art skills, and some focus on performing arts as an academic discipline in itself."}, {"id": 6332549, "title": "Performing arts presenters", "abstract": "Performing arts presenting organizations facilitate exchanges between artists and audiences through creative, educational, and performance opportunities. The work that these artists perform is produced outside of the presenting organization.Performing arts presenters are typically found in three varieties:\n\nThose attached to a college, university, or other educational institution, with performances usually taking place on campus;\nThose that are an administrative branch of a theater or concert hall, usually presenting performances only in that space;\nThose that are independently administered outside any specific venue, usually renting multiple venues for performances.Many organizations also experiment with performances of a more conceptual nature or work across genres.The Association of Performing Arts Presenters, located in Washington, D.C., is the largest organizing body of performing arts presenters in the United States. The primary international organizing body of performing arts presenters is the International Society for the Performing Arts.[1]\nPerforming arts presenters as a segment of the live performance market confronted particular difficulties during the COVID-19 pandemic. National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) chair, Maria Rosario Jackson was quoted in the Chicago Tribune as saying, \"Few areas of the U.S. economy were hit harder than the performing arts, with the value added by performing arts presenters (including festivals) to Gross Domestic Product falling by nearly 73% between 2019 and 2020.\" A press release from the NEA added the following quote, \"Performing arts presenters and performing arts companies joined oil drilling/exploration and air transportation as the steepest-declining areas of the U.S. economy in 2020.\""}, {"id": 483292, "title": "Petting zoo", "abstract": "A petting zoo (also called a children's zoo, children's farm, or petting farm) features a combination of domesticated animals and some wild species that are docile enough to touch and feed. In addition to independent petting zoos, many general zoos contain a petting zoo.\nMost petting zoos are designed to provide only relatively placid, herbivorous domesticated animals, such as sheep, goats, pigs, rabbits or ponies, to feed and interact physically with safety. This is in contrast to the usual zoo experience, where normally wild animals are viewed from behind safe enclosures where no contact is possible. A few provide wild species (such as pythons or big cat cubs) to interact with, but these are rare and usually found outside Western nations."}, {"id": 5669042, "title": "Pleorama", "abstract": "The best-known pleorama was a 19th-century moving panorama entertainment where the viewers sat in a rocking boat while panoramic views on painted canvas rolled past. The word has sometimes been used for other entertainments or innovations.\nArchitect Carl Ferdinand Langhans introduced a pleorama in Breslau in 1831 with scenes of the Bay of Naples on both sides of 24 \"voyagers\" sitting in a wooden boat floating in a pool of water. The illusion was enhanced by light and sound effects: the boatman singing, Vesuvius erupting. Writer/artist August Kopisch was involved in designing the hour-long show.\nCarl Wilhelm Gropius, who had a diorama exhibit in Berlin, took over management of this pleorama in 1832, and there was also a pleorama of a journey along the river Rhine.\nThe Swiss writer Bernard Comment, among others, has pointed out the similarities between Langhans' pleorama and the ambitious mareorama at the 1900 Paris Exhibition.\nA similar idea was used for a London padorama in 1834. Spectators were seated in railway carriages to watch a moving panorama of scenes visible from the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.\nIn 1850s Finland the name pleorama was given to shows which presented historic scenes and panoramic views using glass, but posters for these do not mention anything resembling Langhans' boat concept."}, {"id": 6451027, "title": "Politainment", "abstract": "Politainment, a portmanteau word  composed of politics and entertainment, describes tendencies in politics and mass media to liven up political reports and news coverage using elements from public relations to create a new kind of political communication. Politainment, while outwardly emphasizing the political aspects of the information communicated, nevertheless draws heavily upon techniques from pop culture and journalism to make complex information more accessible or convincing and distract public attention from politically unfavorable topics. The interdependencies of politicians and media are known as the politico-media complex.\nOf doubtful virtue, declining amounts of content and substance can easily be compensated by giving news stories a sensationalistic twinge. Sensationalism in the news can be traced back to the Muckrakers in 1905, they set out to reform journalism and public perception of injustices. Politainment thus ranges on the same level as edu- and infotainment.\nTypical catchlines in politainment reports or media will at times bluntly argue ad hominem in a generalizing manner and try to emphasize virtues and charisma (\"xyz will Make America Great Again\") or vices and weaknesses (by denunciation: \"xyz will wreck this country\", \"lynching\", etc.). The latter example is also known as fear appeal. More moderate forms make extensive use of imprecise, metaphoric language (allegories, metonymy, periphrases, kennings etc.).\nPolitainment can be both a communication aspect of (1) politicians and spin doctors to their and their party's own advantage and the political adversary's disadvantage or (2) a strategy for news publishers, journalists, etc., to promote their medium and journalistic work.Politainment may be a factor in party identification, mass-influencing voter's choices, it has thus become an indispensable tool in political campaigns and elections. As such it can also be one of the\u2014seemingly innocuous\u2014ingredients of crowd manipulation up to political psychological warfare."}, {"id": 166518, "title": "Pub quiz", "abstract": "A pub quiz is a quiz held in a pub or bar. These events are also called quiz nights, trivia nights, or bar trivia and may be held in other settings. The pub quiz is a modern example of a pub game, and often attempts to lure customers to the establishment on quieter days. The pub quiz has become part of British culture since its popularization in the UK in the 1970s by Burns and Porter, although the first mentions in print can be traced to 1959. It then became a staple in Irish pub culture, and its popularity has continued to spread internationally. Although different pub quizzes can cover a range of formats and topics, they have many features in common. Most quizzes have a limited number of team members, offer prizes for winning teams, and distinguish rounds by category or theme."}, {"id": 2377896, "title": "Raree show", "abstract": "A raree show, peep show or peep box is an exhibition of pictures or objects (or a combination of both), viewed through a small hole or magnifying glass. In 17th and 18th century Europe, it was a popular form of entertainment provided by wandering showmen."}, {"id": 13252351, "title": "Retailtainment", "abstract": "Retailtainment is retail marketing as entertainment. In his book, Enchanting a Disenchanted World: Revolutionizing the Means of Consumption (1999), author George Ritzer describes \"retailtainment\" as the \"use of ambience, emotion, sound and activity to get customers interested in the merchandise and in a mood to buy.\"Sometimes called \"inspirational retailing\" or \"entertailing,\" it has also been defined as \"the modern trend of combining shopping and entertainment opportunities as an anchor for customers.\"In 2001, Codeluppi described it as a way for marketers to \"offer the consumer physical and emotional sensations during the shopping experience.\" And, in an article entitled \"Using sonic branding in the retail environment\" in the 2003 issue of the Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Fulberg described it as a way for retailers to entertain the consumer with a dramatization of their values.\"\nAccording to Michael Morrison at the Australian Centre for Retail Studies:\n\n\u201cThere is a move towards the concept of 'retailtainment.' This phenomenon, which brings together retailing, entertainment, music and leisure ... Retailers need to look further than the traditional retail store elements such as colour, lighting and visual merchandising to influence buying decisions. The specific atmosphere the retailer creates can, in some cases, be more influential in the decision-making process than the product itself. As goods and services become more of a commodity, it is what a shopper experiences and what atmosphere retailers create that really matters. Brand building is a combination of physical, functional, operational and psychological elements. Consumers will be willing to pay more for a brand if there is a perceived or actual added value from their experience of using the product or service.\u201d\n\nShopper marketing expert Simon Temperley of Los Angeles agency The Marketing Arm, formerly U.S. Marketing & Promotions (Usmp), describes \"retailtainment\" as a \"live brand experience\" that frequently includes the use of \"brand ambassadors\" who \"converse with the consumer.\""}, {"id": 181885, "title": "Ribaldry", "abstract": "Ribaldry or blue comedy is humorous entertainment that ranges from bordering on indelicacy to indecency. Blue comedy is also referred to as \"bawdiness\" or being \"bawdy\". Like any humour, ribaldry may be read as conventional or subversive. Ribaldry typically depends on a shared background of sexual conventions and values, and its comedy generally depends on seeing those conventions broken.\nThe ritual taboo-breaking that is a usual counterpart of ribaldry underlies its controversial nature and explains why ribaldry is sometimes a subject of censorship. Ribaldry, whose usual aim is not \"merely\" to be sexually stimulating, often does address larger concerns than mere sexual appetite. However, being presented in the form of comedy, these larger concerns may be overlooked by censors.\nSex is presented in ribald material more for the purpose of poking fun at the foibles and weaknesses that manifest themselves in human sexuality, rather than to present sexual stimulation either overtly or artistically. Also, ribaldry may use sex as a metaphor to illustrate some non-sexual concern, in which case ribaldry borders satire.\nRibaldry differs from black comedy in that the latter deals with topics which would normally be considered painful or frightening, whereas ribaldry deals with topics that would only be considered offensive."}, {"id": 3447151, "title": "Scientific demonstration", "abstract": "A scientific demonstration is a procedure carried out for the purposes of demonstrating scientific principles, rather than for hypothesis testing or knowledge gathering (although they may originally have been carried out for these purposes).\nMost scientific demonstrations are simple laboratory demonstrations intended to demonstrate physical principles, often in a surprising or entertaining way. They are carried out in schools and universities, and sometimes in public demonstrations in popular science lectures and TV programs aimed at the public. Many scientific demonstrations are chosen for their combination of educational merit and entertainment value, which is often provided by dramatic phenomena such as explosions.\nPublic scientific demonstrations were a common occurrence in the Age of Enlightenment, and have long  been a feature of the British Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, which date back to 1825. In the television era, scientific demonstrations have featured in science-related entertainment shows such as MythBusters and Brainiac: Science Abuse.\nMany scientific demonstrations are potentially dangerous, and should not be attempted without considerable laboratory experience and appropriate safety precautions. Many older well-known scientific demonstrations, once mainstays of science education, are now effectively impossible to demonstrate to an audience without breaking health and safety laws. Some older demonstrations, such as allowing the audience to play with liquid mercury, are sufficiently dangerous that they should not be attempted by anyone under any circumstances."}, {"id": 31613084, "title": "Script market", "abstract": "A script market is the system in which a screenwriter and producer engage in the buying and selling of a script for the film and television industries.  The process of selling a script may begin with the pitch, however since the end of the 1980s the ability to pitch a film to producers has greatly depended on the notoriety of the screenwriter.  One reason attributed to this effect is that studios are looking for the next big hit, but scared to take a chance on a script that doesn\u2019t meet a pre-established formula guaranteed to make money since no one knows what will work.  The majority of scripts are read by studio interns and others, who give the scripts a \u201cconsider\u201d, \u201cpass\u201d, or \u201crecommend\u201d status, with most scripts receiving a \u201cpass\u201d rating.  However, an agent who's signed the Artists-Managers Agreement drawn up by the Writers Guild of America can submit scripts to producers directly.  Agents try to create buzz in the script market using spec script. With everyone in the entertainment industry trying to pursue the million-dollar dream, and Hollywood so desperate for new material ideas, the script market functions and business practices have been pursued in the spec script manner.\nStudio executives, producers, and agents don't have time to read every script, so readers or script analysts prepare script coverage for them. Spec scripts are written in hopes of being purchased by a producer or studio. A spec script can be passed around by an agent, which can create a bidding war. The spec script process is considered by some to be problematic, because the bidding process can attract inflated prices from the boosting of mediocre scripts."}, {"id": 2518059, "title": "Season ticket", "abstract": "A season ticket, or season pass, is a ticket that grants privileges over a defined period of time."}, {"id": 16998086, "title": "Seat filler", "abstract": "A seat filler is a person who fills in an empty seat during an event. There are two types of seat fillers:\n\nA person who subscribes to a seat-filling theatre club. Members of these clubs help fill in unsold seats for theatre, music, film, sporting events, dance performances and other live events. The producers of the event give complimentary tickets to the seat-filling organization, who pass them on to their members. The producers get a fuller audience and therefore a better experience for the paying patrons (and talent), while the seat-filler is able to see an event for a small service charge. Within the industry, this is also referred to as \"papering the house\".Some seat-filling companies charge no surcharge per ticket and only a membership based fee. This model is popular in cities with a larger number of shows and therefore a higher number of tickets to go around.\nA person who takes up spare seats when the person allocated the seat is elsewhere. An example of this is the Academy Awards in which members of the audience are on the stage receiving their awards, or because they are involved in producing the show. Seat fillers are primarily employed so that when TV cameras show audience shots, there are no empty seats."}, {"id": 25445767, "title": "Shadowgraphy (performing art)", "abstract": "Shadowgraphy or ombromanie is the art of performing a story or show using images made by hand shadows. It can be called \"cinema in silhouette\". Performers are titled as a shadowgraphist or shadowgrapher.\nThe art has declined since the late 19th century when electricity became available to homes because light bulbs and electric lamps do not give off good shadows and because cinema and television were becoming a new form of entertainment. Shadows are greatly defined by candlelight; therefore hand shadows were common in earlier centuries.\nThe modern art of hand shadows was made popular by the French entertainer F\u00e9licien Trewey in the 19th century. He popularized the art by making silhouettes of famous personalities."}, {"id": 1981875, "title": "Showroom", "abstract": "A showroom is a large space used to display products or show entertainment."}, {"id": 72371677, "title": "Social entertainment", "abstract": "Social entertainment are forms of entertainment that involve attending public venues, but do not involve significant physical activity, such as spectator sports or going to the theatre."}, {"id": 57168807, "title": "Social impact entertainment", "abstract": "Social Impact Entertainment (SIE) is \"all storytelling that is self-aware of its potential impact on its audiences and incorporates that knowledge to effect positive change at the individual, local, or global scale on one or more social issues\", as defined by the SIE Society.The practitioners in this field are predominately producers and directors who want to add a \"social surplus\" to their entertainment, as contrasted to the field of Entertainment-Education which often starts out with a social change directive and then creates the entertainment around it.The topic is explored in the book, The Power of Storytelling: Social Impact Entertainment written by Robert Rippberger."}, {"id": 542704, "title": "Spoiler (media)", "abstract": "A spoiler is an element of a disseminated summary or description of a media narrative that reveals significant plot elements, with the implication that the experience of discovering the plot naturally, as the creator intended it, has been robbed of its full effect. Typically, the conclusion of a plot, including the climax and ending, is regarded as highly susceptible to spoilers. Plot twists are also prone to spoilers. Any narrative medium can produce spoilers, although they are usually associated with movies and television shows. Some people attempt to avoid being \"spoiled\" while others seek out spoilers to learn as much as possible about a narrative before experiencing it. Spoilers have become more common in the present day with the rise of social media, which provides an outlet for people to spread spoilers.\nThere are three types of spoilers: short spoilers, long spoilers, and thematic spoilers. Short spoilers reveal the plot ending in a very brief and less detailed manner, without any summary or explanation of themes in the story, typically spanning one to three sentences. Long spoilers usually provide more context and range between two and five sentences. They provide a summary and reveal the ending of a story. Lastly, thematic spoilers reveal a story's unifying theme as well as providing a synopsis of the plot and revealing the ending. They range from three to six sentences in length. The general consensus is that there are only negative effects of spoilers. However, research shows that it is short and long spoilers that can cause negative effects, while thematic spoilers generally have a positive effect."}, {"id": 363786, "title": "Stereopticon", "abstract": "A stereopticon is a slide projector or relatively powerful \"magic lantern\", which has two lenses, usually one above the other, and has mainly been used to project photographic images. These devices date back to the mid 19th century, and were a popular form of entertainment and education before the advent of moving pictures.\nMagic lanterns originally used rather weak light sources, like candles or oil lamps, that produced projections that were just large and strong enough to entertain small groups of people. During the 19th century stronger light sources, like limelight, became available.  \nFor the \"dissolving views\" lantern shows that were popularized by Henry Langdon Childe since the late 1830s, lanternists needed to be able to project two aligned pictures in the same spot on a screen, gradually dimming a first picture while revealing a second one. This could be done with two lanterns, but soon biunial lanterns (with two objectives placed one above the other) became common.\nWilliam and Frederick Langenheim from Philadelphia introduced a photographic glass slide technology at the Crystal Palace Exhibition in London in 1851. For circa two centuries magic lanterns had been used to project painted images from glass slides, but the Langenheim brothers seem to have been the firsts to incorporate the relatively new medium of photography (introduced in 1839). To enjoy the details of photographic slides optimally, the stronger lanterns were needed.\nBy 1860 Massachusetts chemist and businessman John Fallon improved a large biunial lantern, imported from England, and named it \u2018stereopticon\u2019.For a usual fee of ten cents, people could view realistic images of nature, history, and science themes. The two lenses are used to dissolve between images when projected. This \"visual storytelling\" with technology directly preceded the development of the first moving pictures.The term stereopticon has been widely misused to name a stereoscope. The stereopticon has not commonly been used for three-dimensional images."}], "id": 693016}, {"title": "Time", "pages": [{"id": 30012, "title": "Time", "abstract": "Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, and into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to compare the duration of events or the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change of quantities in material reality or in the conscious experience. Time is often referred to as a fourth dimension, along with three spatial dimensions.Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units (SI) and International System of Quantities. The SI base unit of time is the second, which is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms. General relativity is the primary framework for understanding how spacetime works. Through advances in both theoretical and experimental investigations of spacetime, it has been shown that time can be distorted and dilated, particularly at the edges of black holes.\nThroughout history, time has been an important subject of study in religion, philosophy, and science. Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists and has been a prime motivation in navigation and astronomy. Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value (\"time is money\") as well as personal value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day and in human life spans."}, {"id": 1941, "title": "Aeon", "abstract": "The word aeon , also spelled eon (in American and Australian English), originally meant \"life\", \"vital force\" or \"being\", \"generation\" or \"a period of time\", though it tended to be translated as \"age\" in the sense of  \"ages\", \"forever\", \"timeless\" or \"for eternity\". It is a Latin transliteration from the ancient Greek word \u1f41 \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd (ho aion), from the archaic \u03b1\u1f30\u03dd\u03ce\u03bd (aiwon) meaning \"century\". In Greek, it literally refers to the timespan of one hundred years. A cognate Latin word aevum or aeuum (cf. \u03b1\u1f30\u03dd\u03ce\u03bd) for \"age\" is present in words such as longevity and mediaeval.Although the term aeon may be used in reference to a period of a billion years (especially in geology, cosmology and astronomy), its more common usage is for any long, indefinite period.  Aeon can also refer to the four aeons on the geologic time scale that make up the Earth's history, the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and the current aeon, Phanerozoic."}, {"id": 60731, "title": "Anachronism", "abstract": "An anachronism (from the Greek \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac ana, 'against' and \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 khronos, 'time') is a chronological inconsistency in some arrangement, especially a juxtaposition of people, events, objects, language terms and customs from different time periods. The most common type of anachronism is an object misplaced in time, but it may be a verbal expression, a technology, a philosophical idea, a musical style, a material, a plant or animal, a custom, or anything else associated with a particular period that is placed outside its proper temporal domain.\nAn anachronism may be either intentional or unintentional. Intentional anachronisms may be introduced into a literary or artistic work to help a contemporary audience engage more readily with a historical period. Anachronism can also be used intentionally for purposes of rhetoric, propaganda, comedy, or shock. Unintentional anachronisms may occur when a writer, artist, or performer is unaware of differences in technology, terminology and language, customs and attitudes, or even fashions between different historical periods and eras."}, {"id": 27373201, "title": "Auspicious wedding dates", "abstract": "Auspicious wedding dates refer to auspicious, or lucky, times to get married, and is a common belief among many cultures.\nAlthough there are a few periods, such as the month of May, which they agree on, a number of cultures, including Hindu, Chinese, Catholic, Scottish, Irish, Old English, Ancient Roman and Moroccan culture, favor and avoid particular months and dates for weddings. A number of cultures, including the Chinese and Hindu cultures, favor particular auspicious dates for weddings. Auspicious days may also be chosen for the dates of betrothals. Dates for a particular couple's wedding may often be determined with the help of a traditional fortune-teller."}, {"id": 10188326, "title": "B-theory of time", "abstract": "The B-theory of time, also called the \"tenseless theory of time\", is one of two positions regarding the temporal ordering of events in the philosophy of time. B-theorists argue that the flow of time is only a subjective illusion of human consciousness, that the past, present, and future are equally real, and that time is tenseless: temporal becoming is not an objective feature of reality. Therefore, there is nothing privileged about the present, ontologically speaking.The B-theory is derived from a distinction drawn by J. M. E. McTaggart between A series and B series. The B-theory is often drawn upon in theoretical physics, and is seen in theories such as eternalism."}, {"id": 5407398, "title": "C date and time functions", "abstract": "The C date and time functions are a group of functions in the standard library of the C programming language implementing date and time manipulation operations. They provide support for time acquisition, conversion between date formats, and formatted output to strings."}, {"id": 11109606, "title": "Chronemics", "abstract": "Chronemics is an anthropological, philosophical, and linguistic subdiscipline that describes how time is perceived, coded, and communicated across a given culture. It is one of several subcategories to emerge from the study of nonverbal communication. According to the Encyclopedia of Special Education, \"Chronemics includes time orientation, understanding and organisation, the use of and reaction to time pressures, the innate and learned awareness of time, by physically wearing or not wearing a watch, arriving, starting, and ending late or on time.\" A person's perception and values placed on time plays a considerable role in their communication process. The use of time can affect lifestyles, personal relationships, and work life. Across cultures, people usually have different time perceptions, and this can result in conflicts between individuals. Time perceptions include punctuality, interactions, and willingness to wait."}, {"id": 5738671, "title": "Chronocentrism", "abstract": "Chronocentrism is the assumption that certain time periods (typically the present) are better, more important, or a more significant frame of reference than other time periods, either past or future. The perception of more positive attributes such as morality, technology, and sophistication to one's own time could lead an individual as a member of a collectivity to impose their forms of time on others and impede the efforts towards more homogeneous temporal commons."}, {"id": 55931, "title": "Chronology", "abstract": "Chronology (from Latin chronologia, from Ancient Greek \u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, chr\u00f3nos, \"time\"; and -\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1, -logia) is the science of arranging events in their order of occurrence in time. Consider, for example, the use of a timeline or sequence of events. It is also \"the determination of the actual temporal sequence of past events\".Chronology is a part of periodization. It is also a part of the discipline of history including earth history, the earth sciences, and study of the geologic time scale."}, {"id": 33889100, "title": "Chronophobia", "abstract": "Chronophobia, also known as prison neurosis, is considered an anxiety disorder describing the fear of time and time moving forward, which is commonly seen in prison inmates. Next to prison inmates, chronophobia is also identified in individuals experiencing quarantine due to COVID-19. As time is understood as a specific concept, chronophobia is categorized as a specific phobia.The term chronophobia comes from the Greek \"chronos\", meaning time, and \"phobo\", meaning fear."}, {"id": 2881125, "title": "Chronosophy", "abstract": "Chronosophy is the neologistic designation given by scholar Julius Thomas (J.T.) Fraser to \"the interdisciplinary and normative study of time sui generis.\""}, {"id": 41766625, "title": "Clock Constraints Specification Language", "abstract": "The Clock Constraint Specification Language or CCSL, is a software language for modeling relations among so-called clocks. It is part of the time model defined in the UML Profile for MARTE.CCSL provides a concrete syntax to handle logical clocks. The term logical clock refers to Leslie Lamport's logical clocks and its usage in CCSL is directly inspired from Synchronous programming languages (like Esterel or Signal).\nA solver of CCSL constraints is implemented in the TimeSquare tool."}, {"id": 12527335, "title": "Cosmic time", "abstract": "Cosmic time, or cosmological time, is the time coordinate commonly used in the Big Bang models of physical cosmology. Such time coordinate may be defined for a homogeneous, expanding universe so that the universe has the same density everywhere at each moment in time (the fact that this is possible means that the universe is, by definition, homogeneous). The clocks measuring cosmic time should move along the Hubble flow.\nCosmic time \n  \n    \n      \n        t\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle t}\n   is a measure of time by a physical clock with zero peculiar velocity in the absence of matter over-/under-densities (to prevent time dilation due to relativistic effects or confusions caused by expansion of the universe). Unlike other measures of time such as temperature, redshift, particle horizon, or Hubble horizon, the cosmic time (similar and complementary to the comoving coordinates) is blind to the expansion of the universe.\nThere are two main ways for establishing a reference point for the cosmic time. The most trivial way is to take the present time as the cosmic reference point (sometimes referred to as the lookback time).\nAlternatively, the Big Bang may be taken as reference to define \n  \n    \n      \n        t\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle t}\n   as the age of the universe, also known as time since the big bang. The current physical cosmology estimates the present age as 13.8 billion years. The \n  \n    \n      \n        t\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle t=0}\n   doesn't necessarily have to correspond to a physical event (such as the cosmological singularity) but rather it refers to the point at which the scale factor would vanish for a standard cosmological model such as \u039bCDM. For instance, in the case of inflation, i.e. a non-standard cosmology, the hypothetical moment of big bang is still determined using the benchmark cosmological models which may coincide with the end of the inflationary epoch. For technical purposes, concepts such as the average temperature of the universe (in units of eV) or the particle horizon are used when the early universe is the objective of a study since understanding the interaction among particles is more relevant than their time coordinate or age.\nCosmic time is the standard time coordinate for specifying the Friedmann\u2013Lema\u00eetre\u2013Robertson\u2013Walker solutions of Einstein field equations."}, {"id": 462524, "title": "Countdown", "abstract": "A countdown is a sequence of backward counting to indicate the time remaining before an event is scheduled to occur. NASA commonly employs the terms \"L-minus\" and \"T-minus\" during the preparation for and anticipation of a rocket launch, and even \"E-minus\" for events that involve spacecraft that are already in space, where the \"T\" could stand for \"Test\" or \"Time\", and the \"E\" stands for \"Encounter\", as with a comet or some other space object.Other events for which countdowns are commonly used include the detonation of an explosive, the start of a race, the start of the New Year, or any anxiously anticipated event. An early use of a countdown once signaled the start of a Cambridge University rowing race.One of the first known associations with rockets was in the 1929 German science fiction movie Frau im Mond (English: Woman in the Moon) written by Thea von Harbou and directed by Fritz Lang in an attempt to increase the drama of the launch sequence of the story's lunar-bound rocket."}, {"id": 322355, "title": "Deep time", "abstract": "Deep time is a term introduced and applied by John McPhee to the concept of geologic time in his book Basin and Range (1981), parts of which originally appeared in the New Yorker magazine.The philosophical concept of geological time was developed in the 18th century by Scottish geologist James Hutton (1726\u20131797); his \"system of the habitable Earth\" was a deistic mechanism keeping the world eternally suitable for humans. The modern concept entails huge changes over the age of the Earth which has been determined to be, after a long and complex history of developments, around 4.55 billion years."}, {"id": 50503497, "title": "Dwell time (GNSS)", "abstract": "The dwell time in GNSS is the time required to test for the presence of a satellite signal for a certain combination of parameters. A search process detects whether a GNSS satellite is present or not in an area of the sky, based on correlation of a received signal with a reference signal stored in the receiver.\nThe dwell times are associated with the performance of a certain detector. They can be classified into single dwell times, when the decision is taken in one step, and multiple dwell times, when the decision is taken in two or more steps."}, {"id": 340094, "title": "Estimated time of arrival", "abstract": "The estimated time of arrival (ETA) is the time when a ship, vehicle, aircraft, cargo, person, or emergency service is expected to arrive at a certain place."}, {"id": 184672, "title": "Father Time", "abstract": "Father Time is a personification of time. In recent centuries he is usually depicted as an elderly bearded man, sometimes with wings, dressed in a robe and carrying a scythe and an hourglass or other timekeeping device.\nAs an image, \"Father Time's origins are curious.\" The ancient Greeks themselves began to associate chronos, their word for time, with the god Chronos, who had the attribute of a harvester's sickle. The Romans equated Cronos with Saturn, who also had a sickle, and was treated as an old man, often with a crutch. The wings and hourglass were early Renaissance additions and he eventually became a companion of the Grim Reaper, personification of Death, often taking his scythe. He may have as an attribute a snake with its tail in its mouth, an ancient Egyptian symbol of eternity."}, {"id": 163103, "title": "Future", "abstract": "The future is the time after the past and present. Its arrival is considered inevitable due to the existence of time and the laws of physics. Due to the apparent nature of reality and the unavoidability of the future, everything that currently exists and will exist can be categorized as either permanent, meaning that it will exist forever, or temporary, meaning that it will end. In the Occidental view, which uses a linear conception of time, the future is the portion of the projected timeline that is anticipated to occur. In special relativity, the future is considered absolute future, or the future light cone.In the philosophy of time, presentism is the belief that only the present exists and the future and the past are unreal. Religions consider the future when they address issues such as karma, life after death, and eschatologies that study what the end of time and the end of the world will be. Religious figures such as prophets and diviners have claimed to see into the future. \nFuture studies, or futurology, is the science, art, and practice of postulating possible futures. Modern practitioners stress the importance of alternative and plural futures, rather than one monolithic future, and the limitations of prediction and probability, versus the creation of possible and preferable futures. Predeterminism is the belief that the past, present, and future have been already decided.\nThe concept of the future has been explored extensively in cultural production, including art movements and genres devoted entirely to its elucidation, such as the 20th-century movement futurism."}, {"id": 13371925, "title": "Instant", "abstract": "In physics and the philosophy of science, instant refers to an infinitesimal interval in time, whose passage is instantaneous. In ordinary speech, an instant has been defined as \"a point or very short space of time,\" a notion deriving from its etymological source, the Latin verb instare, from in- + stare ('to stand'), meaning 'to stand upon or near.'The continuous nature of time and its infinite divisibility was addressed by Aristotle in his Physics, where he wrote on Zeno's paradoxes. The philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell was still seeking to define the exact nature of an instant thousands of years later.As of October 2020, the smallest time interval certified in regulated measurements is on the order of 397 zeptoseconds (397 \u00d7 10\u221221 seconds)."}, {"id": 318580, "title": "International Date Line", "abstract": "The International Date Line (IDL) is an internationally accepted demarcation of the surface of Earth, running between the South and North Poles and serving as the boundary between one calendar day and the next. It passes through the Pacific Ocean, roughly following the 180.0\u00b0 line of longitude and deviating to pass around some territories and island groups. Crossing the date line eastbound decreases the date by one day, while crossing the date line westbound increases the date."}, {"id": 5331179, "title": "KronoScope", "abstract": "KronoScope. Journal for the Study of Time is a peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to the interdisciplinary study of time, both in the humanities and in the sciences. It is published biannually under the imprint of Brill Publishers on behalf of the International Society for the Study of Time. It is indexed in Sociological Abstracts."}, {"id": 587163, "title": "Light-time correction", "abstract": "Light-time correction is a displacement in the apparent position of a celestial object from its true position (or geometric position) caused by the object's motion during the time it takes its light to reach an observer.\nLight-time correction occurs in principle during the observation of any moving object, because the speed of light is finite. The magnitude and direction of the displacement in position depends upon the distance of the object from the observer and the motion of the object, and is measured at the instant at which the object's light reaches the observer. It is independent of the motion of the observer. It should be contrasted with the aberration of light, which depends upon the instantaneous velocity of the observer at the time of observation, and is independent of the motion or distance of the object.\nLight-time correction can be applied to any object whose distance and motion are known. In particular, it is usually necessary to apply it to the motion of a planet or other Solar System object. For this reason, the combined displacement of the apparent position due to the effects of light-time correction and aberration is known as planetary aberration. By convention, light-time correction is not applied to the positions of stars, because their motion and distance may not be known accurately."}, {"id": 2345070, "title": "Liminality", "abstract": "In anthropology, liminality (from Latin  l\u012bmen 'a threshold') is the quality of ambiguity or disorientation that occurs in the middle stage of a rite of passage, when participants no longer hold their pre-ritual status but have not yet begun the transition to the status they will hold when the rite is complete. During a rite's liminal stage, participants \"stand at the threshold\" between their previous way of structuring their identity, time, or community, and a new way (which completing the rite establishes).\nThe concept of liminality was first developed in the early twentieth century by folklorist Arnold van Gennep and later taken up by Victor Turner. More recently, usage of the term has broadened to describe political and cultural change as well as rites. During liminal periods of all kinds, social hierarchies may be reversed or temporarily dissolved, continuity of tradition may become uncertain, and future outcomes once taken for granted may be thrown into doubt. The dissolution of order during liminality creates a fluid, malleable situation that enables new institutions and customs to become established. The term has also passed into popular usage and has been expanded to include liminoid experiences that are more relevant to post-industrial society."}, {"id": 25372042, "title": "Linked timestamping", "abstract": "Linked timestamping is a type of trusted timestamping where issued time-stamps are related to each other."}, {"id": 1439667, "title": "Local time", "abstract": "Local time is the time observed in a specific locality. There is no canonical definition. Originally it was mean solar time, but since the introduction of time zones it is generally the time as determined by the time zone in effect, with daylight saving time where and when applicable.  In some places this is known as standard time.\nSome sources continue to use the term local time to mean solar time as opposed to standard time, but they are in the minority.  Terms such as local mean time also relate to solar time."}, {"id": 57226400, "title": "Mars sol", "abstract": "Sol (borrowed from the Latin word for sun) is a solar day on Mars; that is, a Mars-day. A sol is the apparent interval between two successive returns of the Sun to the same meridian (sundial time) as seen by an observer on Mars. It is one of several units for timekeeping on Mars.\nA sol is slightly longer than an Earth day. It is approximately 24 hours, 39 minutes, 35 seconds long. A Martian year is approximately 668.6 sols, equivalent to approximately 687 Earth days or 1.88 Earth years.\nThe sol was adopted in 1976 during the Viking Lander missions and is a measure of time mainly used by NASA when, for example, scheduling the use of a Mars rover."}, {"id": 14847900, "title": "Multiple time dimensions", "abstract": "The possibility that there might be more than one dimension of time has occasionally been discussed in physics and philosophy. Similar ideas appear in folklore and fantasy literature."}, {"id": 758833, "title": "Past", "abstract": "The past is the set of all events that occurred before a given point in time. The past is contrasted with and defined by the present and the future. The concept of the past is derived from the linear fashion in which human observers experience time, and is accessed through memory and recollection. In addition, human beings have recorded the past since the advent of written language. The first known use of the word \"past\" was in the fourteenth century; it developed as the past participle of the Middle English verb passen meaning \"to pass.\""}, {"id": 873021, "title": "Present", "abstract": "The present is the period of time that is occurring now. The present is contrasted with the past, the period of time that has already occurred, and the future, the period of time that has yet to occur.\nIt is sometimes represented as a hyperplane in space-time, typically called \"now\", although modern physics demonstrates that such a hyperplane cannot be defined uniquely for observers in relative motion. The present may also be viewed as a duration."}, {"id": 4957366, "title": "Pulse-per-second signal", "abstract": "A pulse per second (PPS or 1PPS) is an electrical signal that has a width of less than one second and a sharply rising or abruptly falling edge that accurately repeats once per second. PPS signals are output by radio beacons, frequency standards, other types of precision oscillators and some GPS receivers. Precision clocks are sometimes manufactured by interfacing a PPS signal generator to processing equipment that aligns the PPS signal to the UTC second and converts it to a useful display. Atomic clocks usually have an external PPS output, although internally they may operate at 9,192,631,770 Hz. PPS signals have an accuracy ranging from a 12 picoseconds to a few microseconds per second, or 2.0 nanoseconds to a few milliseconds per day based on the resolution and accuracy of the device generating the signal."}, {"id": 20290990, "title": "Reference Broadcast Synchronization", "abstract": "Reference Broadcast Synchronization (RBS) is a synchronization method in which the receiver uses the physical layer broadcasts for comparing the clocks. This slightly differs from traditional methods which synchronize the sender's with the receiver's clock.\nRBS allows nodes to synchronize their clocks to the resolution necessary for example for wireless sensor network applications. Rather than broadcasting a timestamp in a synchronization packet as in protocols such as Network Time Protocol, RBS allows the nodes receiving the synchronization packets to use the packet's arrival time as a reference point for clock synchronization. Because most of the non-deterministic propagation time involved in transmitting a packet over a wireless channel lies between the construction of the packet and the sender's transmitter (e.g., sender's queue delay, MAC contention delay, etc.), by timestamping only at the receiver, RBS removes most delay uncertainty involved in typical time synchronization protocols. \nFor single-hop networks, the RBS algorithm is very simple. First, a transmitter broadcasts some number M as reference broadcasts. Each receiver that receives these broadcasts exchanges the time that each reference broadcast was received locally with its neighbors. Nodes then calculate phase shifts relative to each other as the average of the difference of the timestamps of the node's local clocks for the M reference broadcasts. In multihop networks, time synchronization can be performed hop by hop between two nodes as long as the nodes on each link along the path have a common node whose reference broadcasts they can synchronize to."}, {"id": 1462833, "title": "Rephotography", "abstract": "Rephotography is the act of repeat photography of the same site, with a time lag between the two images; a diachronic, \"then and now\" view of a particular area. Some are casual, usually taken from the same view point but without regard to season, lens coverage or framing. Some are very precise and involve a careful study of the original image."}, {"id": 2511080, "title": "Retarded time", "abstract": "In electromagnetism, electromagnetic waves in vacuum travel at the speed of light c, according to Maxwell's Equations. The retarded time is the time when the field began to propagate from the point where it was emitted to an observer. The term \"retarded\" is used in this context (and the literature) in the sense of propagation delays."}, {"id": 12856226, "title": "Scalar expectancy", "abstract": "The scalar timing or scalar expectancy theory (SET) is a model of the processes that govern behavior controlled by time. The model posits an internal clock, and particular memory and decision processes. SET is one of the most important models of animal timing behavior."}, {"id": 28758, "title": "Spacetime", "abstract": "In physics, spacetime is any mathematical model that fuses the three dimensions of space and the one dimension of time into a single four-dimensional continuum. Spacetime diagrams are useful in visualizing and understanding relativistic effects such as how different observers perceive where and when events occur.\nUntil the turn of the 20th century, the assumption had been that the three-dimensional geometry of the universe (its description in terms of locations, shapes, distances, and directions) was distinct from time (the measurement of when events occur within the universe). However, space and time took on new meanings with the Lorentz transformation and special theory of relativity.\nIn 1908, Hermann Minkowski presented a geometric interpretation of special relativity that fused time and the three spatial dimensions of space into a single four-dimensional continuum now known as Minkowski space. This interpretation proved vital to the general theory of relativity, wherein spacetime is curved by mass and energy."}, {"id": 4977373, "title": "Temporal encroachment", "abstract": "Temporal encroachment is an action that affects the perception of time or that affects the ability to take action in the future. Temporal means related to the measurement or passing of time and encroachment is an intrusion, usually unwelcome, into the space of another.\nThe space that temporal encroachment refers to is temporal space, the temporal \"space\" or \"territory\" upon which others attach significance.\nThere are various kinds of temporal encroachment:"}, {"id": 20355262, "title": "Temporal expressions", "abstract": "A temporal expression in a text is a sequence of tokens (words, numbers and characters) that denote time, that is express a point in time, a duration or a frequency. \nExamples:\n\nA point in time:He was born on <TIMEX>6 May, 1980</TIMEX>.\nA duration:The show lasted <TIMEX>7 minutes</TIMEX>.\nA frequency:The pump circulates the water <TIMEX>every 2 hours</TIMEX>.\nInitially, temporal expressions were considered a type of named entities and their identification was part of the named entity recognition task. Since the Automatic Content Extraction program in 2004 there has been a separate task identified and called Temporal Expression Recognition and Normalisation (TERN). Timex evaluation is now evaluated in two major temporal annotation challenges: TempEval and i2b2, both of which prefer the TimeML-level TIMEX3 standard."}, {"id": 33136925, "title": "Temporal typography", "abstract": "Temporal typography is typography that appears to move or change over time.  It normally appears in screen-based media, and in particular title sequences, TV station idents, and advertising.\nWithin the field of typography, letterforms typically embody either static or kinetic forms. However there is another category of typography that escapes the purely static or purely kinetic. Unlike static typography, these forms are not bound by one iteration within a singular viewing experience. Similar to kinetic type, temporal typography carries the stamp of time but is not relegated to movement or time-based media.\nTemporal letterforms have the ability to manifest themselves in both static and kinetic ways, as well as physical and digital ways, and therefore cannot be evaluated by the same functional factors of traditional typography: legibility and readability. Viewership and perception are elevated, and formal and experiential conditions are re-prioritized as the forms transition from one state to the next."}, {"id": 13718304, "title": "Terminal countdown demonstration test", "abstract": "A terminal countdown demonstration test (TCDT) is a simulation of the final hours of a launch countdown and serves as a practice exercise in which both the launch team and flight crew rehearse launch day timelines and procedures. In the specific case of a TCDT for the Space Shuttle, the test culminated in a simulated ignition and RSLS Abort (automated shutdown of the orbiter's main engines). Following the simulated abort, the flight crew was briefed on emergency egress procedures and use of the fixed service structure slidewire system. On some earlier shuttle missions, and Apollo missions, the test would conclude with the flight crew evacuating the launch pad by use of these emergency systems, but this is no longer part of the test.\nUnmanned carrier rocket launches also undergo TCDTs, when countdown procedures are followed. These vary for specific rockets, for example solid-fuelled rockets would not simulate an engine shutdown, as it is impossible to shut down a solid rocket after it has been lit.\nTCDTs typically are carried out a few days before launch."}, {"id": 405944, "title": "Time complexity", "abstract": "In theoretical computer science, the time complexity is the computational complexity that describes the amount of computer time it takes to run an algorithm. Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm, supposing that each elementary operation takes a fixed amount of time to perform. Thus, the amount of time taken and the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm are taken to be related by a constant factor.\nSince an algorithm's running time may vary among different inputs of the same size, one commonly considers the worst-case time complexity, which is the maximum amount of time required for inputs of a given size. Less common, and usually specified explicitly, is the average-case complexity, which is the average of the time taken on inputs of a given size (this makes sense because there are only a finite number of possible inputs of a given size). In both cases, the time complexity is generally expressed as a function of the size of the input.:\u200a226\u200a Since this function is generally difficult to compute exactly, and the running time for small inputs is usually not consequential, one commonly focuses on the behavior of the complexity when the input size increases\u2014that is, the asymptotic behavior of the complexity. Therefore, the time complexity is commonly expressed using big O notation, typically \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n        (\n        n\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle O(n)}\n  , \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n        (\n        n\n        log\n        \u2061\n        n\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle O(n\\log n)}\n  , \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n        (\n        \n          n\n          \n            \u03b1\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle O(n^{\\alpha })}\n  , \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n        (\n        \n          2\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle O(2^{n})}\n  , etc., where n is the size in units of bits needed to represent the input.\nAlgorithmic complexities are classified according to the type of function appearing in the big O notation. For example, an algorithm with time complexity \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n        (\n        n\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle O(n)}\n   is a linear time algorithm and an algorithm with time complexity \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n        (\n        \n          n\n          \n            \u03b1\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle O(n^{\\alpha })}\n   for some constant \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b1\n        >\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\alpha >1}\n   is a polynomial time algorithm."}, {"id": 17670991, "title": "Time displacement", "abstract": "Time displacement in sociology refers to the idea that new forms of activities may replace older ones. New activities that cause time displacement are usually technology-based, most common are the information and communication technologies such as Internet and television. Those technologies are seen as responsible for declines of previously more common activities such as in- and out-of-home socializing, work, and even personal care and sleep.\nFor example, Internet users may spend time online using it as a substitute of other activities that served similar function(s) (watching television, reading printed media, face to face interaction, etc.). Internet is not the first technology to result in time displacement. Earlier, television had a similar impact, as it shifted people's time from activities such as listening to radio, going to movie theaters or, talking in house, or spending time outside it."}, {"id": 19595664, "title": "Time in physics", "abstract": "In physics, time is defined by its measurement: time is what a clock reads.  In classical, non-relativistic physics, it is a scalar quantity (often denoted by the symbol \n  \n    \n      \n        t\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle t}\n  ) and, like length, mass, and charge, is usually described as a fundamental quantity. Time can be combined mathematically with other physical quantities to derive other concepts such as motion, kinetic energy and time-dependent fields.  Timekeeping is a complex of technological and scientific issues, and part of the foundation of recordkeeping."}, {"id": 66501526, "title": "Time metrology", "abstract": "Time metrology or time and frequency metrology is the application of metrology for time keeping, including frequency stability.\nIts main tasks are the realization of the second as the SI unit of measurement for time and the establishment of time standards and frequency standards as well as their dissemination."}, {"id": 715886, "title": "Time-to-digital converter", "abstract": "In electronic instrumentation and signal processing, a time-to-digital converter (TDC) is a device for recognizing events and providing a digital representation of the time they occurred. For example, a TDC might output the time of arrival for each incoming pulse. Some applications wish to measure the time interval between two events rather than some notion of an absolute time.\nIn electronics time-to-digital converters (TDCs) or time digitizers are devices commonly used to measure a time interval and convert it into digital (binary) output. In some cases  interpolating TDCs are also called time counters (TCs).\nTDCs are used to determine the time interval between two signal pulses (known as start and stop pulse). Measurement is started and stopped when the rising or falling edge of a signal pulse crosses a set threshold. This pattern is seen in many physical experiments, like time-of-flight and lifetime measurements in atomic and high energy physics, experiments that involve laser ranging and electronic research involving the testing of integrated circuits and high-speed data transfer."}, {"id": 1624732, "title": "Time-lapse photography", "abstract": "Time-lapse photography is a technique in which the frequency at which film frames are captured (the frame rate) is much lower than the frequency used to view the sequence. When played at normal speed, time appears to be moving faster and thus lapsing. For example, an image of a scene may be captured at 1 frame per second but then played back at 30 frames per second; the result is an apparent 30 times speed increase. Similarly, film can also be played at a much lower rate than at which it was captured, which slows down an otherwise fast action, as in slow motion or high-speed photography.\nProcesses that would normally appear subtle and slow to the human eye, such as the motion of the sun and stars in the sky or the growth of a plant, become very pronounced. Time-lapse is the extreme version of the cinematography technique of undercranking. Stop motion animation is a comparable technique; a subject that does not actually move, such as a puppet, can repeatedly be moved manually by a small distance and photographed. Then, the photographs can be played back as a film at a speed that shows the subject appearing to move."}, {"id": 35530574, "title": "Time-saving bias", "abstract": "Time-saving bias is a concept that describes people's tendency to misestimate the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) speed.In general, people underestimate the time that could be saved when increasing from a relatively low speed - e.g., 25 mph (40 km/h) or 40 mph (64 km/h) - and overestimate the time that could be saved when increasing from a relatively high speed - e.g., 55 mph (89 km/h) or 90 mph (140 km/h). People also underestimate the time that could be lost when decreasing from a low speed and overestimate the time that could be lost when decreasing from a high speed."}, {"id": 64998690, "title": "Timeless universe", "abstract": "The timeless universe is the philosophical and ontological view that time and associated ideas are human illusions caused by our ordering of observable phenomena. Unlike most variants of presentism and eternalism, the timeless universe entirely rejects the notion of the reality of any time, arguing that it is exclusively a human illusion, and since the universe can know no time, no dimension of time can be permitted in any theoretical explanation of parts of the observable universe. All purported measurements of time must hence according to this view be correlation measurements between movements, as stated by physicist Ernst Mach in 1883:It is utterly beyond our power to measure the changes of things by time. Quite the contrary, time is an abstraction at which we arrive by means of the changes of things; made because we are not restricted to any one definite measure, all being interconnected.In a timeless universe the cosmos in its broadest definition is eternal, without beginning or end, and all physical processes operate within a timeless framework. Since fundamental problems related to time, such as the Arrow of time and time travel, are still among the great unsolved problems of physics, discussions of timeless universes revolve around proposed solutions to these fundamental problems and paradoxa, and the related fundamental problems of philosophy and science."}, {"id": 735430, "title": "Timestamp", "abstract": "A timestamp is a sequence of characters or encoded information identifying when a certain event occurred, usually giving date and time of day, sometimes accurate to a small fraction of a second. Timestamps do not have to be based on some absolute notion of time, however. They can have any epoch, can be relative to any arbitrary time, such as the power-on time of a system, or to some arbitrary time in the past."}, {"id": 1847690, "title": "Timestream", "abstract": "The timestream or time stream is a metaphorical conception of time as a stream, a flowing body of water. In Brave New Words: The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction, the term is more narrowly defined as: \"the series of all events from past to future, especially when conceived of as one of many such series\". Timestream is the normal passage or flow of time and its historical developments, within a given dimension of reality.  The concept of the time stream, and the ability to travel within and around it, are the fundamentals of a genre of science fiction.\nThis conception has been widely used in mythology and in fiction.\nThis analogy is useful in several ways:\n\nStreams flow only one way. Time moves only forward.\nStreams flow constantly. Time never stops.\nPeople can stand in a stream, but will be pulled along by it. People exist within time, but move with it.\nSome physicists and science fiction writers have speculated that time is branching\u2014it branches into alternate universes (see many-worlds interpretation). Streams can converge and also diverge.Science fiction scholar Andrew Sawyer writes, \"The paradoxes of time\u2014do we move in time, or does it move by us? Does it exist or is it merely an illusion of our limited perception?\u2014are puzzles that exercise both physicists and philosophers...\""}, {"id": 2388144, "title": "Timing", "abstract": "Timing is the tracking or planning of the spacing of events in time. It may refer to:\n\nTimekeeping, the process of measuring the passage of time\nSynchronization, controlling the timing of a process relative to another process\nTime metrology, the measurement of time"}, {"id": 14155727, "title": "Trusted timestamping", "abstract": "Trusted timestamping is the process of securely keeping track of the creation and modification time of a document. Security here means that no one\u2014not even the owner of the document\u2014should be able to change it once it has been recorded provided that the timestamper's integrity is never compromised.\nThe administrative aspect involves setting up a publicly available, trusted timestamp management infrastructure to collect, process and renew timestamps."}, {"id": 23737949, "title": "Two-way satellite time and frequency transfer", "abstract": "Two-way satellite time and frequency transfer (TWSTFT) is a high-precision long distance time and frequency transfer mechanism used between time bureaux to determine and distribute time and frequency standards.\nAs of 2003 TWSTFT is being evaluated as an alternative to be used by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures in the determination of International Atomic Time (TAI), as a complement to the current standard method of simultaneous observations of GPS transmissions."}, {"id": 14369471, "title": "Vierordt's law", "abstract": "Karl von Vierordt in 1868 was the first to record a law of time perception which relates perceived duration to actual duration over different interval magnitudes, and according to task complexity.\nVierordt's law is \"a robust phenomenon in time estimation research that has been observed with different time estimation methods\". It states that, retrospectively, \"short\" intervals of time tend to be overestimated, and \"long\" intervals of time tend to be underestimated. The other major paradigm of time estimation methodology measures time prospectively."}, {"id": 5219129, "title": "Window of opportunity", "abstract": "A window of opportunity, also called a margin of opportunity or critical window, is a period of time during which some action can be taken that will achieve a desired outcome. Once this period is over, or the \"window is closed\", the specified outcome is no longer possible."}], "id": 744728}, {"title": "Universe", "pages": [{"id": 31880, "title": "Universe", "abstract": "The universe is all of space and time and their contents. It comprises all of existence, any fundamental interaction, physical process and physical constant, and therefore all forms of energy and matter, and the structures they form, from sub-atomic particles to entire galaxies. Space and time, according to the prevailing cosmological theory of the Big Bang, emerged together 13.787\u00b10.020 billion years ago, and the universe has been expanding ever since. Today the universe has expanded into an age and size that is physically only in parts observable as the observable universe, which is approximately 93 billion light-years in diameter at the present day, while the spatial size, if any, of the entire universe is unknown.Some of the earliest cosmological models of the universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric, placing Earth at the center. Over the centuries, more precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus Copernicus to develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System. In developing the law of universal gravitation, Isaac Newton built upon Copernicus's work as well as Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion and observations by Tycho Brahe.\nFurther observational improvements led to the realization that the Sun is one of a few hundred billion stars in the Milky Way, which is one of a few hundred billion galaxies in the observable universe. Many of the stars in a galaxy have planets. At the largest scale, galaxies are distributed uniformly and the same in all directions, meaning that the universe has neither an edge nor a center. At smaller scales, galaxies are distributed in clusters and superclusters which form immense filaments and voids in space, creating a vast foam-like structure. Discoveries in the early 20th century have suggested that the universe had a beginning and has been expanding since then.According to the Big Bang theory, the energy and matter initially present have become less dense as the universe expanded. After an initial accelerated expansion called the inflationary epoch at around 10\u221232 seconds, and the separation of the four known fundamental forces, the universe gradually cooled and continued to expand, allowing the first subatomic particles and simple atoms to form. Dark matter gradually gathered, forming a foam-like structure of filaments and voids under the influence of gravity. Giant clouds of hydrogen and helium were gradually drawn to the places where dark matter was most dense, forming the first galaxies, stars, and everything else seen today.\nFrom studying the movement of galaxies, it has been discovered that the universe contains much more matter than is accounted for by visible objects; stars, galaxies, nebulas and interstellar gas. This unseen matter is known as dark matter (dark means that there is a wide range of strong indirect evidence that it exists, but we have not yet detected it directly). The \u039bCDM model is the most widely accepted model of the universe. It suggests that about 69.2%\u00b11.2% of the mass and energy in the universe is dark energy which is responsible for the acceleration of the expansion of the universe, and about 25.8%\u00b11.1% is dark matter. Ordinary ('baryonic') matter is therefore only 4.84%\u00b10.1% of the physical universe. Stars, planets, and visible gas clouds only form about 6% of the ordinary matter.There are many competing hypotheses about the ultimate fate of the universe and about what, if anything, preceded the Big Bang, while other physicists and philosophers refuse to speculate, doubting that information about prior states will ever be accessible. Some physicists have suggested various multiverse hypotheses, in which the universe might be one among many."}, {"id": 9649, "title": "Energy", "abstract": "In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek  \u1f10\u03bd\u03ad\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 (en\u00e9rgeia) 'activity') is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light. Energy is a conserved quantity\u2014the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The unit of measurement for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J).\nCommon forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object (for instance due to its position in a field), the elastic energy stored in a solid object, chemical energy associated with chemical reactions, the radiant energy carried by electromagnetic radiation, and the internal energy contained within a thermodynamic system. All living organisms constantly take in and release energy.\nDue to mass\u2013energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy. \nHuman civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The Earth's climate and ecosystems processes are driven by the energy the planet receives from the Sun (although a small amount is also contributed by geothermal energy)."}], "id": 48005914}, {"title": "Nature", "pages": [{"id": 21830, "title": "Nature", "abstract": "Nature is an inherent character or constitution, particularly of the ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the laws, elements and phenomena of the physical world, including life. Although humans are part of nature, human activity or humans as a whole are often described as at times at odds, or outright separate and even superior to nature.During the advent of modern scientific method in the last several centuries, nature became the passive reality, organized and moved by divine laws. With the Industrial revolution, nature increasingly became seen as the part of reality deprived from intentional intervention: it was hence considered as sacred by some traditions (Rousseau, American transcendentalism) or a mere decorum for divine providence or human history (Hegel, Marx). However, a vitalist vision of nature, closer to the pre-Socratic one, got reborn at the same time, especially after Charles Darwin.Within the various uses of the word today, \"nature\" often refers to geology and wildlife. Nature can refer to the general realm of living plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects\u2014the way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord, such as the weather and geology of the Earth. It is often taken to mean the \"natural environment\" or wilderness\u2014wild animals, rocks, forest, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention. For example, manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature, unless qualified as, for example, \"human nature\" or \"the whole of nature\". This more traditional concept of natural things that can still be found today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial, with the artificial being understood as that which has been brought into being by a human consciousness or a human mind. Depending on the particular context, the term \"natural\" might also be distinguished from the unnatural or the supernatural."}, {"id": 37205291, "title": "Aesthetics of nature", "abstract": "Aesthetics of nature is a sub-field of philosophical ethics, and refers to the study of natural objects from their aesthetical perspective."}, {"id": 60842665, "title": "Back to nature", "abstract": "Back to nature or return to nature is a philosophy or style of living which emphasises closeness to nature, rather than artifice and civilisation.  In this, the rustic customs and pastoralism of country life are preferred to urban fashion and sophistication.At the end of the nineteenth century, a variety of back to nature movements developed in Germany which were collectively known as Lebensreform (life reform).  These included naturism and naturopathy."}, {"id": 19468941, "title": "Balance of nature", "abstract": "The balance of nature, also known as ecological balance, is a theory that proposes that ecological systems are usually in a stable equilibrium or homeostasis, which is to say that a small change (the size of a particular population, for example) will be corrected by some negative feedback that will bring the parameter back to its original \"point of balance\" with the rest of the system. The balance is sometimes depicted as easily disturbed and delicate, while other times it is inversely portrayed as powerful enough to correct any imbalances by itself. The concept has been described as \"normative\", as well as teleological, as it makes a claim about how nature should be: nature is balanced because \"it is supposed to be balanced\".\nThe theory has been employed to describe how populations depend on each other, for example in predator-prey systems, or relationships between herbivores and their food source. It is also sometimes applied to the relationship between the Earth's ecosystem, the composition of the atmosphere, and weather.The balance of nature, as a theory, has been largely discredited by scientists working in ecology, as it has been found that constant disturbances leading to chaotic and dynamic changes are the norm in nature. During the later half of the 20th century, it was superseded by catastrophe theory, chaos theory, and thermodynamics. Nevertheless, the idea maintains popularity amongst the general public."}, {"id": 9228, "title": "Earth", "abstract": "Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being a water world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all of Earth's water is contained in its global ocean, covering 70.8% of Earth's crust. The remaining 29.2% of Earth's crust is land, most of which is located in the form of continental landmasses within one hemisphere, Earth's land hemisphere. Most of Earth's land is somewhat humid and covered by vegetation, while large sheets of ice at Earth's polar deserts retain more water than Earth's groundwater, lakes, rivers and atmospheric water combined. Earth's crust consists of slowly moving tectonic plates, which interact to produce mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Earth has a liquid outer core that generates a magnetosphere capable of deflecting most of the destructive solar winds and cosmic radiation.\nEarth has a dynamic atmosphere, which sustains Earth's surface conditions and protects it from most meteoroids and UV-light at entry. It has a composition of primarily nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor is widely present in the atmosphere, forming clouds that cover most of the planet. The water vapor acts as a greenhouse gas and, together with other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), creates the conditions for both liquid surface water and water vapor to persist via the capturing of energy from the Sun's light. This process maintains the current average surface temperature of 14.76 \u00b0C, at which water is liquid under atmospheric pressure. Differences in the amount of captured energy between geographic regions (as with the equatorial region receiving more sunlight than the polar regions) drive atmospheric and ocean currents, producing a global climate system with different climate regions, and a range of weather phenomena such as precipitation, allowing components such as nitrogen to cycle.\nEarth is rounded into an ellipsoid with a circumference of about 40,000 km. It is the densest planet in the Solar System. Of the four rocky planets, it is the largest and most massive. Earth is about eight light-minutes away from the Sun and orbits it, taking a year (about 365.25 days) to complete one revolution. Earth rotates around its own axis in slightly less than a day (in about 23 hours and 56 minutes). Earth's axis of rotation is tilted with respect to the perpendicular to its orbital plane around the Sun, producing seasons. Earth is orbited by one permanent natural satellite, the Moon, which orbits Earth at 384,400 km (1.28 light seconds) and is roughly a quarter as wide as Earth. The Moon's gravity helps stabilize Earth's axis, and also causes tides which gradually slow Earth's rotation. As a result of tidal locking, the same side of the Moon always faces Earth.\nEarth, like most other bodies in the Solar System, formed 4.5 billion years ago from gas in the early Solar System. During the first billion years of Earth's history, the ocean formed and then life developed within it. Life spread globally and has been altering Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to the Great Oxidation Event two billion years ago. Humans emerged 300,000 years ago in Africa and have spread across every continent on Earth with the exception of Antarctica. Humans depend on Earth's biosphere and natural resources for their survival, but have increasingly impacted the planet's environment. Humanity's current impact on Earth's climate and biosphere is unsustainable, threatening the livelihood of humans and many other forms of life, and causing widespread extinctions."}, {"id": 40159918, "title": "Ecosystem health", "abstract": "Ecosystem health is a metaphor used to describe the condition of an ecosystem. Ecosystem condition can vary as a result of fire, flooding, drought, extinctions, invasive species, climate change, mining,  fishing, farming or logging, chemical spills, and a host of other reasons. There is no universally accepted benchmark for a healthy ecosystem, rather the apparent health status of an ecosystem can vary depending upon which health metrics are employed in judging it and which societal aspirations are driving the assessment. Advocates of the health metaphor argue for its simplicity as a communication tool. \"Policy-makers and the public need simple, understandable concepts like health.\" Some critics  worry that ecosystem health, a \"value-laden construct\", can be \"passed off as science to unsuspecting policy makers and the public.\" However, this term is often used in portraying the state of ecosystems worldwide and in conservation and management. For example, scientific journals and the UN often use the terms planetary and ecosystem health, such as the recent journal The Lancet Planetary Health."}, {"id": 9649, "title": "Energy", "abstract": "In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek  \u1f10\u03bd\u03ad\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 (en\u00e9rgeia) 'activity') is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light. Energy is a conserved quantity\u2014the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The unit of measurement for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J).\nCommon forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object (for instance due to its position in a field), the elastic energy stored in a solid object, chemical energy associated with chemical reactions, the radiant energy carried by electromagnetic radiation, and the internal energy contained within a thermodynamic system. All living organisms constantly take in and release energy.\nDue to mass\u2013energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy. \nHuman civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The Earth's climate and ecosystems processes are driven by the energy the planet receives from the Sun (although a small amount is also contributed by geothermal energy)."}, {"id": 73091262, "title": "Environmental Science Center", "abstract": "The Environmental Science Center is a research center at Qatar University and was established in 1980 to promote environmental studies across the state of Qatar with main focus on marine science, atmospheric and biological sciences. For the past 18 years, ESC monitored and studied Hawksbill turtle nesting sites in Qatar."}, {"id": 74382102, "title": "Love Lake, Dubai", "abstract": "Love Lake is an artificial lake shaped like a heart, and it is part of the Qudra Lakes in Saih Al Salam, Dubai, United Arab Emirates. There are mesquite trees all around the lake."}, {"id": 74973939, "title": "Mfinda", "abstract": "Mfinda is a spiritual concept of the forest in Kongo religion."}, {"id": 14389994, "title": "Natural landscape", "abstract": "A natural landscape is the original landscape that exists before it is acted upon by human culture. The natural landscape and the cultural landscape are separate parts of the landscape. However, in the 21st century, landscapes that are totally untouched by human activity no longer exist, so that reference is sometimes now made to degrees of naturalness within a landscape.In Silent Spring (1962) Rachel Carson describes a roadside verge as it used to look: \"Along the roads, laurel, viburnum and alder, great ferns and wildflowers delighted the traveler\u2019s eye through much of the year\" and then how it looks now following the use of herbicides: \"The roadsides, once so attractive, were now lined with browned and withered vegetation as though swept by fire\". Even though the landscape before it is sprayed is biologically degraded, and may well contains alien species, the concept of what might constitute a natural landscape can still be deduced from the context.\nThe phrase \"natural landscape\" was first used in connection with landscape painting, and landscape gardening, to contrast a formal style with a more natural one, closer to nature. Alexander von Humboldt (1769 \u2013 1859) was to further conceptualize this into the idea of a natural landscape separate from the cultural landscape. Then in 1908 geographer Otto Schl\u00fcter developed the terms original landscape (Urlandschaft) and its opposite cultural landscape (Kulturlandschaft) in an attempt to give the science of geography a subject matter that was different from the other sciences. An early use of the actual phrase \"natural landscape\" by a geographer can be found in Carl O. Sauer's paper \"The Morphology of Landscape\" (1925)."}, {"id": 1209760, "title": "Natural product", "abstract": "A natural product is a natural compound or substance produced by a living organism\u2014that is, found in nature. In the broadest sense, natural products include any substance produced by life. Natural products can also be prepared by chemical synthesis (both semisynthesis and total synthesis) and have played a central role in the development of the field of organic chemistry by providing challenging synthetic targets. The term natural product has also been extended for commercial purposes to refer to cosmetics, dietary supplements, and foods produced from natural sources without added artificial ingredients.Within the field of organic chemistry, the definition of natural products is usually restricted to organic compounds isolated from natural sources that are produced by the  pathways of  secondary metabolism.  Within the field of medicinal chemistry, the definition is often further restricted to secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites (or specialized metabolites) are not essential for survival, but nevertheless provide organisms that produce them an evolutionary advantage. Many secondary metabolites are cytotoxic and have been selected and optimized through evolution for use as \"chemical warfare\" agents against prey, predators, and competing organisms. Secondary or specialized metabolites are often unique to species, which is contrasted to primary metabolites which have broad use across kingdoms. Secondary metabolites are marked by chemical complexity which is why they are of such interest to chemists.\nNatural sources may lead to basic research on potential bioactive components for commercial development as lead compounds in drug discovery. Although natural products have inspired numerous  drugs, drug development from natural sources has received declining attention in the 21st century by pharmaceutical companies, partly due to unreliable access and supply, intellectual property, cost, and profit concerns, seasonal or environmental variability of composition, and loss of sources due to rising extinction rates."}, {"id": 67037141, "title": "Natural risk", "abstract": "Natural risks or nature risks are risks recognized in risk management that are related to the loss of natural assets. They may impact businesses or economies by impacting directly on operations or by negatively affecting society in a way that then creates market risks. The loss of nature can also contribute to systemic geopolitical risk because nature's assets and services, such as clean air, plentiful fresh water, fertile soils, a stable climate, provide vital public goods on which human societies rely for their functioning. An example is tropical deforestation. It is a key source of nature risk for sectors that either have an impact or dependency on tropical forests."}, {"id": 42796964, "title": "Naturalism (philosophy)", "abstract": "In philosophy, naturalism is the idea that only natural laws and forces (as opposed to supernatural ones) operate in the universe. In its primary sense it is also known as ontological naturalism, metaphysical naturalism, pure naturalism, philosophical naturalism and antisupernaturalism.   \"Ontological\" refers to ontology, the philosophical study of what exists. Philosophers often treat naturalism as equivalent to materialism.\nFor example, philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that nature is best accounted for by reference to material principles. These principles include mass, energy, and other physical and chemical properties accepted by the scientific community. Further, this sense of naturalism holds that spirits, deities, and ghosts are not real and that there is no \"purpose\" in nature. This stronger formulation of naturalism is commonly referred to as metaphysical naturalism. On the other hand, the more moderate view that naturalism should be assumed in one's working methods as the current paradigm, without any further consideration of whether naturalism is true in the robust metaphysical sense, is called methodological naturalism.With the exception of pantheists \u2013 who believe that Nature is identical with divinity while not recognizing a distinct personal anthropomorphic god \u2013 theists challenge the idea that nature contains all of reality. According to some theists, natural laws may be viewed as secondary causes of God(s).\nIn the 20th century, Willard Van Orman Quine, George Santayana, and other philosophers argued that the success of naturalism in science meant that scientific methods should also be used in philosophy. According to this view, science and philosophy are not always distinct from one another, but instead form a continuum.\n\n\"Naturalism is not so much a special system as a point of view or tendency common to a number of philosophical and religious systems; not so much a well-defined set of positive and negative doctrines as an attitude or spirit pervading and influencing many doctrines. As the name implies, this tendency consists essentially in looking upon nature as the one original and fundamental source of all that exists, and in attempting to explain everything in terms of nature. Either the limits of nature are also the limits of existing reality, or at least the first cause, if its existence is found necessary, has nothing to do with the working of natural agencies. All events, therefore, find their adequate explanation within nature itself. But, as the terms nature and natural are themselves used in more than one sense, the term naturalism is also far from having one fixed meaning\"."}, {"id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions", "abstract": "Nature-based solutions (NBS or NbS) is the sustainable management and use of natural features and processes to tackle socio-environmental issues. These issues include for example climate change (mitigation and adaptation), water security, food security, preservation of biodiversity, and disaster risk reduction. Through the use of NBS healthy, resilient, and diverse ecosystems (whether natural, managed, or newly created) can provide solutions for the benefit of both societies and overall biodiversity. The 2019 UN Climate Action Summit highlighted nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change. For example, NBS in the context of climate action can include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal defences, providing local cooling, restoring natural fire regimes.:\u200a310\u200aFor instance, the restoration and/or protection of mangroves along coastlines utilises a nature-based solution to accomplish several goals. Mangroves moderate the impact of waves and wind on coastal settlements or cities and sequester CO2. They also provide nursery zones for marine life that can be the basis for sustaining fisheries on which local populations may depend. Additionally, mangrove forests can help to control coastal erosion resulting from sea level rise. Similarly, green roofs or walls are Nature-based solutions that can be implemented in cities to moderate the impact of high temperatures, capture storm water, abate pollution, and act as carbon sinks, while simultaneously enhancing biodiversity.\nNBS are increasingly being incorporated into mainstream national and international policies and programmes (e.g. climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment, and financing mechanisms), with increasing attention being given to NBS by the European Commission since 2013. However, NBS still face many implementation barriers and challenges."}, {"id": 577886, "title": "Nurture", "abstract": "Nurture is usually defined as the process of caring for an organism as it grows, usually a human. It is often used in debates as the opposite of \"nature\", whereby nurture means the process of replicating learned cultural information from one mind to another, and nature means the replication of genetic non-learned behavior.Nurture is important in the nature versus nurture debate as some people see either nature or nurture as the final outcome of the origins of most of humanity's behaviours. There are many agents of socialization that are responsible, in some respects the outcome of a child's personality, behaviour, thoughts, social and emotional skills, feelings, and mental priorities."}, {"id": 35659147, "title": "Patterns in nature", "abstract": "Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled mathematically. Natural patterns include symmetries, trees, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks and stripes. Early Greek philosophers studied pattern, with Plato, Pythagoras and Empedocles attempting to explain order in nature. The modern understanding of visible patterns developed gradually over time.\nIn the 19th century, the Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau examined soap films, leading him to formulate the concept of a minimal surface. The German biologist and artist Ernst Haeckel painted hundreds of marine organisms to emphasise their symmetry. Scottish biologist D'Arcy Thompson pioneered the study of growth patterns in both plants and animals, showing that simple equations could explain spiral growth. In the 20th century, the British mathematician Alan Turing predicted mechanisms of morphogenesis which give rise to patterns of spots and stripes. The Hungarian biologist Aristid Lindenmayer and the French American mathematician Beno\u00eet Mandelbrot showed how the mathematics of fractals could create plant growth patterns.\nMathematics, physics and chemistry can explain patterns in nature at different levels and scales. Patterns in living things are explained by the biological processes of natural selection and sexual selection. Studies of pattern formation make use of computer models to simulate a wide range of patterns."}, {"id": 3759820, "title": "Physis", "abstract": "Fusis, Phusis or Physis (; Ancient Greek: \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 [p\u02b0\u00fdsis]) is a Greek philosophical, theological, and scientific term, usually translated into English\u2014according to its Latin translation \"natura\"\u2014as \"nature\". The term originated in ancient Greek philosophy, and was later used in Christian theology and Western philosophy. In pre-Socratic usage, physis was contrasted with \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, nomos, \"law, human convention\". Another opposition, particularly well-known from the works of Aristotle, is that of physis and techne \u2013 in this case, what is produced and what is artificial are distinguished from beings that arise spontaneously from their own essence, as do agents such as humans. Further, since  Aristotle the physical (the subject matter of physics, properly  \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c6\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac \"natural things\") has been juxtaposed to the metaphysical."}, {"id": 169115, "title": "Preternatural", "abstract": "The preternatural (or praeternatural) is that which appears outside or beside (Latin: pr\u00e6ter) the natural. It is \"suspended between the mundane and the miraculous\".In theology, the term is often used to distinguish marvels or deceptive trickery, often attributed to witchcraft or demons, from purely divine power of genuinely supernatural origin that transcends the laws of nature. Preternatural is also used to describe gifts such as immortality, possessed by Adam and Eve before the fall of man into original sin, and the power of flight that angels are thought to have. In the early modern period, the term was used by scientists to refer to abnormalities and strange phenomena of various kinds that seemed to depart from the norms of nature."}, {"id": 27667, "title": "Space", "abstract": "Space is a three-dimensional continuum containing positions and directions. In classical physics, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions. Modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of fundamental importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework.\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine geometries that are non-Euclidean, in which space is conceived as curved, rather than flat, as in the Euclidean space. According to Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, space around gravitational fields deviates from Euclidean space. Experimental tests of general relativity have confirmed that non-Euclidean geometries provide a better model for the shape of space."}, {"id": 55382, "title": "Supernatural", "abstract": "Supernatural refers to phenomena or entities that are beyond the laws of nature. The term is derived from Medieval Latin supernaturalis, from Latin super- (above, beyond, or outside of) + natura (nature). Although the corollary term \"nature\" has had multiple meanings since the ancient world, the term \"supernatural\" emerged in the Middle Ages and did not exist in the ancient world.The supernatural is featured in folklore and religious contexts, but can also feature as an explanation in more secular contexts, as in the cases of superstitions or belief in the paranormal. The term is attributed to non-physical entities, such as angels, demons, gods, and spirits. It also includes claimed abilities embodied in or provided by such beings, including magic, telekinesis, levitation, precognition, and extrasensory perception."}, {"id": 75665799, "title": "Trift Glacier Foreland", "abstract": "The Trift glacier foreland in the Swiss canton of Bern comprises a wide variety of geomorphological forms and habitats for pioneers and plant communities. At the southern end of Lake Trift, a delta is emerging and an alpine alluvial plain represents a biologically valuable area for a variety of species, some of which are rare and endangered. The Trift basin also harbours potential for generating electricity from a hydroelectric power plant, which is currently being planned."}, {"id": 70645783, "title": "Warren Farm, Southall", "abstract": "Warren Farm is a 61-acre (25 hectare) plot of Metropolitan Open Land located in Norwood Green (Southall) that was previously used as playing fields by local schools. The site also has disused changing rooms and pavilions. After falling out of use as playing fields, it is now a wildflower meadow."}, {"id": 3134920, "title": "The World We Live In (Life magazine)", "abstract": "The World We Live In appeared in the pages of LIFE magazine from December 8, 1952, to December 20, 1954. A science series, it comprised 13 parts published on an average of every eight weeks. Written by Lincoln Barnett, The World We Live In spanned a diverse range of topics concerning planet Earth and universe, and employed the talents of artists and photographers, including cameramen Alfred Eisenstaedt and Fritz Goro and artists Rudolph Zallinger and Chesley Bonestell. The parts were illustrated with art and photos, often presented in large gatefolds which showed two sides of a scenario."}], "id": 696603}, {"title": "Military", "pages": [{"id": 92357, "title": "Military", "abstract": "A military, also known collectively as an armed forces, are a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a distinct military uniform. They may consist of one or more military branches such as an army, navy, air force, space force, marines, or coast guard. The main task of a military is usually defined as defence of their state and its interests against external armed threats.\nIn broad usage, the terms \"armed forces\" and \"military\" are often synonymous, although in technical usage a distinction is sometimes made in which a country's armed forces may include other paramilitary forces such as armed police.\n\nA nation's military may function as a discrete social subculture, with dedicated infrastructure such as military housing, schools, utilities, logistics, hospitals, legal services, food production, finance, and banking services. Beyond warfare, the military may be employed in additional sanctioned and non-sanctioned functions within the state, including internal security threats, crowd control, promotion of political agendas, emergency services and reconstruction, protecting corporate economic interests, social ceremonies, and national honour guards.The profession of soldiering is older than recorded history. Some of the most enduring images of  classical antiquity portray the power and feats of military leaders. The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC, a defining point in the reign of Ramses II, features in bas-relief monuments. The first Emperor of a unified China, Qin Shi Huang, created the Terracotta Army to represent his military might.\nThe Ancient Romans left to posterity many treatises and writings on warfare, as well as many decorated triumphal arches and victory columns."}, {"id": 75805251, "title": "Battle of Hastivanj", "abstract": "The Battle of Hastivanj was fought on 10 October 1586 between the Mughal army led by the Mir Bahr Qasim Khan and a Kashmiri army under the Chak leader Shams Chak."}, {"id": 12186216, "title": "Central Military Hospital 108", "abstract": "The 108 Central Military Hospital, formerly known as the 108 Military Hospital, is affiliated with the Ministry of Defence of Vietnam. It is a general hospital, a strategic final-level care provider, and a special-grade national hospital. The Hospital is mandated to provide medical services to senior officers of the Communist Party, the State, and the People's Army of Vietnam as well as international and other service users.\n\u2022 Originally known as Thuy Khau Hospital and established in 1950 to serve the Border campaign in Thuy Khau - China, the 108 Military Central Hospital was officially founded on April 1, 1951, in Lang Nong, Yen Trach, Phu Luong, Thai Nguyen province, with the initial name - Yen Trach Central Hospital. In July 1951, the hospital was renamed \u201cThe 8 Sub-Hospital\u201d. Since its relocation to the capital in 1954, the hospital underwent various name changes, including The 108 Military Hospital (June 1956) and The 108 Military Medical Institute (1960).\n\u2022 The current location of the hospital was formerly Don Thuy Hospital, originally built by the French army in 1894 and known as Lanessan Hospital. This location now houses The 108 Military Central Hospital and The Vietnam-Soviet Friendship Hospital.\n\u2022 In 1995, the hospital was officially named \u201cThe 108 Military Central Hospital\u201d. On September 6, 2002, it was transferred from the General Department of Logistics to be affiliated with the Ministry of Defence of Vietnam.\n\u2022 On May 8, 2003, the Minister of National Defence decided to grant Central Military Hospital 108 the signal name  of The 108 Research Institute of Clinical Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences under the Ministry of National Defense. The hospital possesses its own seal and serves a role in postgraduate training, offering programs for Level-1, Level-2 Specialist Doctor, and M.D (Doctor of Medicine)."}, {"id": 72127153, "title": "Deconfliction line", "abstract": "A deconfliction line is an official line of communications established between militaries who are or could be hostile, to avoid dangerous misunderstandings and miscalculations based on ignorance. The ultimate aim is to avoid accidents and conflict escalation.\nIn the 2010s and 2020s, the US and Russia set up deconfliction lines during  the Syrian civil war and Russo-Ukrainian War. They were regularly tested by military staff, and used by air traffic controllers and senior military officers. They were used to avoid midair collisions between aircraft in the same or adjacent airspace, and sometimes to give warning of airstrikes. In April 2017, Russia severed the Syrian line in retaliation for a called strike."}, {"id": 69503622, "title": "Equipment support", "abstract": "Equipment Support, sometimes abbreviated as ES or Equip Spt, is a term used to describe maintenance and supply duties of certain Army units in the Western World.  The term is sometimes also described as 'materiel', however this term typically refers to the supply of equipment, rather than the actual practice of providing support for certain items."}, {"id": 75763418, "title": "Gallery of distinctive unit insignias", "abstract": "A distinctive unit insignia (DUI) is a metallic heraldic badge or device worn by soldiers in the United States Army. The DUI design is derived from the coat of arms authorized for a unit."}, {"id": 75630768, "title": "Jubilee Medal \"100th anniversary of the state security and foreign intelligence agencies (1919-2019)\"", "abstract": "\"Az\u0259rbaycan Respublikas\u0131 d\u00f6vl\u0259t t\u0259hl\u00fck\u0259sizliyi v\u0259 xarici k\u0259\u015ffiyyat orqanlar\u0131n\u0131n 100 illiyi (1919\u20132019)\" yubiley medal\u0131 - Jubilee medal \"100th Anniversary of State Security and Foreign Intelligence Services of the Republic of Azerbaijan (1919\u20132019)\" - is a state award (medal) of the Republic of Azerbaijan."}, {"id": 49025267, "title": "Military call sign", "abstract": "Military call signs are call signs or specialized form of nickname assigned as unique identifiers to military communications. In wartime, monitoring an adversary's communications can be a valuable form of intelligence. Consistent call signs can aid in this monitoring, so in wartime, military units often employ tactical call signs and sometimes change them at regular intervals. In peacetime, some military stations will use fixed call signs in the international series."}, {"id": 69415711, "title": "Military censorship", "abstract": "Military censorship is a type of censorship that is the process of keeping military intelligence and tactics confidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter espionage. Military censorship intensifies during wartime."}, {"id": 988138, "title": "Military discipline", "abstract": "Military discipline is the obedience to a code of conduct while in military service.According to the U.S. Army Field Manual 7-21.13 4-4:\nDiscipline in the Army is one of the most basic elements of warfighting. Its purpose is to train you so you can execute orders quickly and intelligently under the most difficult conditions. Insistence on performing tasks properly enhances military discipline. For example, it means ensuring you wear your uniform properly, march well or repeating tasks until you perform them correctly. (...) Discipline in routine conduct such as saluting, police call, and physical training, can make discipline much easier to achieve when responding to more difficult conduct such as advancing under fire, refusing an illegal order, or moving a wounded Soldier to safety."}, {"id": 44368785, "title": "Military impostor", "abstract": "A military impostor is a person who makes false claims about their military service in civilian life. This includes claims by people that have never been in the military as well as lies or embellishments by genuine veterans. Some individuals who do this also wear privately obtained uniforms or medals which were never officially issued to them.\nIn British military slang, such impostors are called \"Walts\", based on James Thurber's fictional character, Walter Mitty, who daydreamed of being a war hero.  In the United States since the early 2000s, the term stolen valor has become popular slang for this behavior, named for the 1998 book Stolen Valor.  Other terms include \"fake warriors\", \"military phonies\",  \"medal cheats\", and \"military posers\".Lying about military service or wearing a uniform or medals that were not earned is criminalized in some circumstances, especially if done with the goal of obtaining money or any other kind of tangible benefit, though laws vary by country."}, {"id": 2726726, "title": "Military logistics", "abstract": "Military logistics is the discipline of planning and carrying out the movement, supply, and maintenance of military forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with:\n\nDesign, development, acquisition, storage, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of materiel.\nTransport of personnel.\nAcquisition or construction, maintenance, operation and disposition of facilities.\nAcquisition or furnishing of services.\nMedical and health service support."}, {"id": 938728, "title": "Military service", "abstract": "Military service is service by an individual or group in an army or other militia, air forces, and naval forces, whether as a chosen job (volunteer) or as a result of an involuntary draft (conscription).\nSome nations, such as Israel, require a specific amount of military service from every citizen, except for special cases, such as limitation determined by a military physical or religious belief. Most countries that use conscription systems only conscript men; a few countries also conscript women. For example, Norway, Sweden, North Korea, Israel, and Eritrea conscript both men and women. However, only Norway and Sweden have a gender-neutral conscription system, where men and women are conscripted and serve on equal formal terms. Some nations with conscription systems do not enforce them.\nNations which conscript for military service typically also rely on citizens choosing to join the armed forces as a career.Some nations with armed forces do not conscript their personnel (e.g. most NATO and European Union states). Instead, they promote military careers to attract and select recruits; see military recruitment.\nSome, usually smaller, nations have no armed forces at all or rely on an armed domestic security force (e.g. police, coast guard)."}, {"id": 20622, "title": "Militia", "abstract": "A militia () is generally an army or some other fighting organization of non-professional and/or part-time soldiers; citizens of a country, or subjects of a state, who may perform military service during a time of need, as opposed to a professional force of regular, full-time military personnel; or, historically, to members of a warrior-nobility class (e.g. knights or samurai). When acting independently militias are generally unable to hold ground against regular forces; militias commonly support regular troops by skirmishing, holding fortifications, or conducting irregular warfare, instead of undertaking offensive campaigns by themselves. Local civilian laws often limit militias to serve only in their home region, and to serve only for a limited time; this further reduces their use in long military campaigns. Militias may also, however, serve as a pool of available manpower for regular forces to draw from, particularly in emergencies.\nBeginning in the late 20th century, some militias (in particular officially recognized and sanctioned militias of a government) act as professional forces, while still being \"part-time\" or \"on-call\" organizations. For instance, the members of United States National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to the same standards that their \"full-time\" (active duty) counterparts are.Militias thus can be either military or paramilitary, depending on the instance. Some of the contexts in which the term \"militia\" can apply include: \n\nforces engaged in a defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws,\nthe entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state available to be called to arms\na subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up\na subset of these who actually respond to a call-up regardless of legal obligation\na private (non-governmental) force not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by a government\nan irregular armed force that enables its leader to exercise military, economic, or political control over a subnational territory within a sovereign state\nin Russia and some countries of the former Soviet Union, an official reserve army composed of citizen soldiers known as the militsiya\na select militia composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population,\nmaritime militias composed of fishermen and other participants of the marine industry which are organized and sanctioned by a state to enforce its maritime boundaries."}, {"id": 40953958, "title": "Public opinion of militaries", "abstract": "Militaries and especially their troops are held in high regard in most countries. In the United States, military officers are regarded as having one of the most prestigious jobs.While military support is very high in most countries, there is variation. While 10% of Canadians viewed the military as \"not at all favorable,\" only 3% of Britons had a \"low\" or \"very low\" view of the military. 65% of Russians believe their military does their job \"just about always\" or \"most of the time\". In the United States, 89% of white Americans had a \"very\" or \"somewhat\" favorable opinion of the military, compared to 77% of Latinos and 72% of blacks."}, {"id": 62891155, "title": "Separation of military and police roles", "abstract": "The separation of military and police roles is the principle by which the military and law enforcement perform clearly differentiated duties and do not interfere with each other's areas of discipline. Whereas the military's purpose is to fight wars, law enforcement is meant to enforce domestic law. Neither is trained specifically to do the other's job. Military and law enforcement differ, sometimes fundamentally, in areas such as source of authority, training in use of force, training in investigation and prosecution, and training in enforcing laws and ensuring civil liberties.:\u200a3\u200aEven \"gray area\" threats like drug trafficking, organized crime or terrorism will require sophisticated investigative skills and adherence to procedures for building a case as well as close collaboration with prosecutorial and judicial authorities. These are arguably traits solely attributed to law enforcement officers. Military personnel, on the other hand, are trained to defend the national territory from foreign military threats and are equipped with weapons designed to kill the enemy, rather than to stun or disable.:\u200a25\u200a The presence of a heavily-armed military standing in for the law enforcement personnel may reassure anxious civilians or not, but it should at best be partial and short-term.:\u200a26"}, {"id": 75767165, "title": "Shiraz expedition", "abstract": "The Shiraz expedition (or the Chiraz expedition) was an expedition led by Josef Pousette to link up with the third regiment of the Persian gendarmerie which was stationed in Shiraz."}, {"id": 45297264, "title": "Suicide in the military", "abstract": "Suicide in the military is the act of ending one's life during or after a career in the armed forces.\n\nWhile suicide rates in military organisations vary internationally, official statistics in several countries show a consistently higher risk in certain subgroups.\nIn the United Kingdom (UK), young serving personnel are markedly more likely than older personnel and same-age civilians to end their lives.The risk among former military personnel is higher than among either serving personnel or the general population, according to research in Australia, Canada, the UK, and the United States (US). The risk is particularly marked among veterans who joined up at a young age.Contrary to popular belief, deployment to a war zone has not been associated with an increased risk of suicide overall, according to research in Canada, Denmark, the UK, and the US. Participating in, or witnessing killing and wounding, however, can increase the risk.A study of the US army found that the career stage carrying the greatest suicide risk was not deployment, but initial military training,  as a time of disorientation and stress.Individuals most at risk of suicide during or after a military career include those who: had a troubled childhood; are of low rank; have close-combat roles in war; and/or leave service soon after joining. Certain other known risk factors for suicide are common in military life, including depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, alcohol misuse, bullying and sexual harassment.Variations in the suicide rate in military populations may also signify changes in the prevalence of related mental health problems, such as anxiety, depression, and histories of self-harm."}], "id": 716572}, {"title": "Entities", "pages": [{"id": 42176, "title": "Entity", "abstract": "An entity is something that exists as itself. It does not need to be of material existence. In particular, abstractions and legal fictions are usually regarded as entities. In general, there is also no presumption that an entity is animate, or present.\nThe term is broad in scope and may refer to animals; natural features such as mountains; inanimate objects such as tables; numbers or sets as symbols written on a paper; human contrivances such as laws, corporations and academic disciplines; or supernatural beings such as gods and spirits.\nThe adjectival form is entitative."}], "id": 60023454}, {"title": "Main topic classifications", "pages": [], "id": 7345184}, {"title": "Economy", "pages": [{"id": 6639133, "title": "Economy", "abstract": "An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the production, use, and management of scarce resources. A given economy is a set of processes that involves its culture, values, education, technological evolution, history, social organization, political structure, legal systems, and natural resources as main factors. These factors give context, content, and set the conditions and parameters in which an economy functions. In other words, the economic domain is a social domain of interrelated human practices and transactions that does not stand alone.\nEconomic agents can be individuals, businesses, organizations, or governments. Economic transactions occur when two groups or parties agree to the value or price of the transacted good or service, commonly expressed in a certain currency. However, monetary transactions only account for a small part of the economic domain.\nEconomic activity is spurred by production which uses natural resources, labor and capital. It has changed over time due to technology, innovation (new products, services, processes, expanding markets, diversification of markets, niche markets, increases revenue functions) and changes in industrial relations (most notably child labor being replaced in some parts of the world with universal access to education)."}], "id": 47397287}, {"title": "Engineering", "pages": [{"id": 9251, "title": "Engineering", "abstract": "Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving infrastructure, machinery, vehicles, electronics, materials, and energy systems.The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. See glossary of engineering.\nThe term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning \"cleverness\" and ingeniare, meaning \"to contrive, devise\"."}, {"id": 9987, "title": "Outline of engineering", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to engineering:\nEngineering is the scientific discipline and profession that applies scientific theories, mathematical methods, and empirical evidence to design, create, and analyze technological solutions cognizant of safety, human factors, physical laws, regulations, practicality, and cost."}, {"id": 152552, "title": "Aerospike engine", "abstract": "The aerospike engine is a type of rocket engine that maintains its aerodynamic efficiency across a wide range of altitudes. It belongs to the class of altitude compensating nozzle engines. Aerospike engines were proposed for many single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) designs. They were a contender for the Space Shuttle main engine. However, as of 2023 no such engine was in commercial production, although some large-scale aerospikes were in testing phases.The term aerospike was originally used for a truncated plug nozzle with a rough conical taper and some gas injection, forming an \"air spike\" to help make up for the absence of the plug tail. However, a full-length plug nozzle may also be called an aerospike."}, {"id": 6570919, "title": "Asset management", "abstract": "Asset management is a systematic approach to the governance and realization of all value for which a group or entity is responsible. It may apply both to tangible assets (physical objects such as complex process or manufacturing plants, infrastructure, buildings or equipment) and to intangible assets (such as intellectual property, goodwill or financial assets). Asset management is a systematic process of developing, operating, maintaining, upgrading, and disposing of assets in the most cost-effective manner (including all costs, risks, and performance attributes).Theory of asset management primarily deals with the periodic matter of improving, maintaining or in other circumstances assuring the economic and capital value of an asset over time. The term is commonly used in engineering, the business world, and public infrastructure sectors to ensure a coordinated approach to the optimization of costs, risks, service/performance, and sustainability. The term has traditionally been used in the financial sector to describe people and companies who manage investments on behalf of others. Those include, for example, investment managers who manage the assets of a pension fund.\nThe ISO 55000 series of standards, developed by ISO TC 251, are the international standards for Asset Management. ISO 55000 provides an introduction and requirements specification for a management system for asset management. The ISO 55000 standard defines an asset as an \"item, thing or entity that has potential or actual value to an organization\". ISO 55001 specifies requirements for an asset management system within the context of the organization, and ISO 55002 gives guidelines for the application of an asset management system, in accordance with the requirements of ISO 55001."}, {"id": 60928950, "title": "Bug (engineering)", "abstract": "In engineering, a bug is a defect in the design, manufacture or operation of machinery, circuitry, electronics, hardware, or software that produces undesired results or impedes operation. It is contrasted with a glitch which may only be transient. Sometimes what might be seen as unintended or defective operation can be seen as a feature."}, {"id": 74391075, "title": "Charenton Metro-Viaduct", "abstract": "The Charenton Metro-Viaduct is a railroad girder bridge located in the French department of Val-de-Marne in the \u00cele-de-France region. It links the communes of Charenton-le-Pont and Maisons-Alfort, crossing the Marne river, as well as the A4 autoroute and 103 departmental road. First put into operation in 1970, the viaduct is used by trains on line 8 of the Paris metro.\nThe total length of the viaduct is 199 m. Made up of steel beams resting on concrete piers, the viaduct has a continuous gradient, due to the difference in level between the two banks of the Marne. It was renovated for the first time in 2011."}, {"id": 67433501, "title": "Generalized renewal process", "abstract": "In the mathematical theory of probability, a generalized renewal process (GRP)  or G-renewal process is a stochastic point process used to model failure/repair behavior of repairable systems in reliability engineering. Poisson point process is a particular case of GRP."}, {"id": 36535684, "title": "Glossary of engineering: A\u2013L", "abstract": "This glossary of engineering terms is a list of definitions about the major concepts of engineering. Please see the bottom of the page for glossaries of specific fields of engineering."}, {"id": 68711047, "title": "Glossary of engineering: M\u2013Z", "abstract": "This glossary of engineering terms is a list of definitions about the major concepts of engineering. Please see the bottom of the page for glossaries of specific fields of engineering."}, {"id": 65175699, "title": "Glossary of microelectronics manufacturing terms", "abstract": "Glossary of microelectronics manufacturing terms\nThis is a list of terms used in the manufacture of electronic micro-components. Many of the terms are already defined and explained in Wikipedia; this glossary is for looking up, comparing, and reviewing the terms. You can help enhance this page by adding new terms or clarifying definitions of existing ones.\n\n2.5D integration \u2013 an advanced integrated circuit packaging technology that bonds dies and/or chiplets onto an interposer for enclosure within a single package3D integration \u2013 an advanced semiconductor technology that incorporates multiple layers of circuitry into a single chip, integrated both vertically and horizontally3D-IC (also 3DIC or 3D IC) \u2013 Three-dimensional integrated circuit; an integrated circuit built with 3D integrationadvanced packaging \u2013 the aggregation and interconnection of components before traditional packagingALD \u2013 see atomic layer depositionatomic layer deposition (ALD) \u2013 chemical vapor deposition process by which very thin films of a controlled composition are grownback end of line (BEoL) \u2013 wafer processing steps from the creation of metal interconnect layers through the final etching step that creates pad openings (see also front end of line, far back end of line, post-fab)BEoL \u2013 see back end of linebonding \u2013 any of several technologies that attach one electronic circuit or component to another; see wire bonding, thermocompression bonding, flip chip, hybrid bonding, etc.breadboard \u2013 a construction base for prototyping of electronicsbumping \u2013 the formation of microbumps on the surface of an electronic circuit in preparation for flip chip assemblycarrier wafer \u2013 a wafer that is attached to dies, chiplets, or another wafer during intermediate steps, but is not a part of the finished devicechip \u2013 an integrated circuit; may refer to either a bare die or a packaged devicechip carrier \u2013 a package built to contain an integrated circuitchiplet \u2013 a small die designed to be integrated with other components within a single packagechemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) \u2013 smoothing a surface with the combination of chemical and mechanical forces, using an abrasive/corrosive chemical slurry and a polishing padcircuit board \u2013 see printed circuit boardclass 10, class 100, etc. \u2013 a measure of the air quality in a cleanroom; class 10 means fewer than 10 airborne particles of size 0.5 \u03bcm or larger are permitted per cubic foot of aircleanroom (clean room) \u2013 a specialized manufacturing environment that maintains extremely low levels of particulatesCMP \u2013 see chemical-mechanical polishingcopper pillar \u2013 a type of microbump with embedded thin-film thermoelectric materialdeep reactive-ion etching (DRIE) \u2013 process that creates deep, steep-sided holes and trenches in a wafer or other substrate, typically with high aspect ratiosdicing \u2013 cutting a processed semiconductor wafer into separate diesdie \u2013 an unpackaged integrated circuit; a rectangular piece cut (diced) from a processed waferdie-to-die (also die-on-die) stacking \u2013 bonding and integrating individual bare dies atop one anotherdie-to-wafer (also die-on-wafer) stacking \u2013 bonding and integrating dies onto a wafer before dicing the waferdoping \u2013 intentional introduction of impurities into a semiconductor material for the purpose of modulating its propertiesDRIE \u2013 see deep reactive-ion etchinge-beam \u2013 see electron-beam processingEDA \u2013 see electronic design automationelectron-beam processing (e-beam) \u2013 irradiation with high energy electrons for lithography, inspection, etc.electronic design automation (EDA) \u2013 software tools for designing electronic systemsetching (etch, etch processing) \u2013 chemically removing layers from the surface of a wafer during semiconductor device fabricationfab \u2013 a semiconductor fabrication plantfan-out wafer-level packaging \u2013 an extension of wafer-level packaging in which the wafer is diced, dies are positioned on a carrier wafer and molded, and then a redistribution layer is addedfar back end of line (FBEoL) \u2013 after normal back end of line, additional in-fab processes to create RDL, copper pillars, microbumps, and other packaging-related structures (see also front end of line, back end of line, post-fab)FBEoL \u2013 see far back end of lineFEoL \u2013 see front end of lineflip chip \u2013 interconnecting electronic components by means of microbumps that have been deposited onto the contact padsfront end of line (FEoL) \u2013 initial wafer processing steps up to (but not including) metal interconnect (see also back end of line, far back end of line, post-fab)heterogeneous integration \u2013 combining different types of integrated circuitry into a single device; differences may be in fabrication process, technology node, substrate, or functionHIC - see hybrid integrated circuithybrid bonding \u2013 a permanent bond that combines a dielectric bond with embedded metal to form interconnectionshybrid integrated circuit (HIC) \u2013 a miniaturized circuit constructed of both semiconductor devices and passive components bonded to a substrateIC \u2013 see integrated circuitintegrated circuit (IC) \u2013 a miniature electronic circuit formed by microfabrication on semiconducting material, performing the same function as a larger circuit made from discrete componentsinterconnect (n.) \u2013 wires or signal traces that carry electrical signals between the elements in an electronic deviceinterposer \u2013 a small piece of semiconductor material (glass, silicon, or organic) built to host and interconnect two or more dies and/or chiplets in a single packagelead \u2013 a metal structure connecting the circuitry inside a package with components outside the packagelead frame (or leadframe) \u2013 a metal structure inside a package that connects the chip to its leadsmask \u2013 see photomaskMCM \u2013 see multi-chip modulemicrobump \u2013 a very small solder ball that provides contact between two stacked physical layers of electronicsmicroelectronics \u2013 the study and manufacture (or microfabrication) of very small electronic designs and componentsmicrofabrication \u2013 the process of fabricating miniature structures of sub-micron scaleMoore\u2019s Law \u2013 an observation by Gordon Moore that the transistor count per square inch on ICs doubled every year, and the prediction that it would continue to do somore than Moore \u2013 a catch-all phrase for technologies that attempt to bypass Moore\u2019s Law, creating smaller, faster, or more powerful ICs without shrinking the size of the transistormulti-chip module (MCM) \u2013 an electronic assembly integrating multiple ICs, dies, chiplets, etc. onto a unifying substrate so that they can be treated as one ICnanofabrication \u2013 design and manufacture of devices with dimensions measured in nanometersnode \u2013 see technology nodeoptical mask \u2013 see photomaskpackage \u2013 a chip carrier; a protective structure that holds an integrated circuit and provides connections to other componentspackaging \u2013 the final step in device fabrication, when the device is encapsulated in a protective package.pad (contact pad or bond pad) \u2013 designated surface area on a printed circuit board or die where an electrical connection is to be madepad opening \u2013 a hole in the final passivation layer that exposes a padparasitics (parasitic structures, parasitic elements) \u2013 unwanted intrinsic electrical elements that are created by proximity to actual circuit elementspassivation layer \u2013 an oxide layer that isolates the underlying surface from electrical and chemical conditionsPCB \u2013 see printed circuit boardphotolithography \u2013 a manufacturing process that uses light to transfer a geometric pattern from a photomask to a photoresist on the substratephotomask (optical mask) \u2013  an opaque plate with holes or transparencies that allow light to shine through in a defined patternphotoresist \u2013 a light-sensitive material used in processes such as photolithography to form a patterned coating on a surfacepitch \u2013 the distance between the centers of repeated elementsplanarization \u2013 a process that makes a surface planar (flat)polishing \u2013 see chemical-mechanical polishingpost-fab \u2013 processes that occur after cleanroom fabrication is complete; performed outside of the cleanroom environment, often by another companyprinted circuit board (PCB) \u2013 a board that supports electrical or electronic components and connects them with etched traces and padsquilt packaging \u2013 a technology that makes electrically and mechanically robust chip-to-chip interconnections by using horizontal structures at the chip edgesredistribution layer (RDL) \u2013 an extra metal layer that makes the pads of an IC available in other locations of the chipreticle \u2013 a partial plate with holes or transparencies used in photolithography integrated circuit fabricationRDL \u2013 see redistribution layersemiconductor \u2013 a material with an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor and an insulator; its resistivity falls as its temperature risessilicon \u2013 the semiconductor material used most frequently as a substrate in electronicssilicon on insulator (SoI) \u2013 a layered silicon\u2013insulator\u2013silicon substrateSiP \u2013 see system in packageSoC \u2013 see system on chipSoI \u2013 see silicon on insulatorsplit-fab (split fabrication, split manufacturing) \u2013 performing FEoL wafer processing at one fab and BEoL at anothersputtering (sputter deposition) \u2013 a thin film deposition method that erodes material from a target (source) onto a substratestepper \u2013 a step-and-scan system used in photolithographysubstrate \u2013 the semiconductor material underlying the circuitry of an IC, usually siliconsystem in package (SiP) \u2013 a number of integrated circuits (chips or chiplets) enclosed in a single package that functions as a complete systemsystem on chip (SoC) \u2013 a single IC that integrates all or most components of a computer or other electronic systemtechnology node \u2013 an industry standard semiconductor manufacturing process generation defined by the minimum size of the transistor gate lengththermocompression bonding \u2013 a bonding technique where two metal surfaces are brought into contact with simultaneous application of force and heatthin-film deposition \u2013 a technique for depositing a thin film of material onto a substrate or onto previously deposited layers; in IC manufacturing, the layers are insulators, semiconductors, and conductorsthrough-silicon via (TSV) \u2013 a vertical electrical connection that pierces the (usually silicon) substratetrace (signal trace) \u2013 the microelectronic equivalent of a wire; a tiny strip of conductor (copper, aluminum, etc.) that carries power, ground, or signal horizontally across a circuitTSV \u2013 see through-silicon viavia \u2013 a vertical electrical connection between layers in a circuitwafer \u2013 a disk of semiconductor material (usually silicon) on which electronic circuitry can be fabricatedwafer-level packaging (WLP) \u2013 packaging ICs before they are diced, while they are still part of the waferwafer-to-wafer (also wafer-on-wafer) stacking \u2013 bonding and integrating whole processed wafers atop one another before dicing the stack into dieswire bonding \u2013 using tiny wires to interconnect an IC or other semiconductor device with its package (see also thermocompression bonding, flip chip, hybrid bonding, etc.)WLP \u2013 see wafer-level packaging"}, {"id": 25274290, "title": "Integrity engineering", "abstract": "Technical Integrity Engineering, also known as Asset Integrity, involves various engineering disciplines that focus on making sure a product, process, or system meets its intended requirements when it's used. Applying these disciplines to reduce costs, maintain schedules, manage technical risks, and handle legal concerns during a project's entire life cycle ensures operations run smoothly and safely in industries like Oil and Gas, Power Generation, and Nuclear Power. This helps plants work efficiently, stay safe, and deal with challenges like hazards effectively.\nIntegrity Engineering is a profession that uses science, math, economics, social insights, legal knowledge, and practical skills to ensure that products and systems are not only safe but also meet their legal and business requirements. Integrity Engineers perform tasks such as organizing inspections, managing integrity programs, and making sure plant facilities, including structures, pipelines, equipment, and piping systems, stay in good shape.\nFor Integrity Management, it's crucial that Integrity Engineers make independent, impartial decisions to ensure equipment is designed, maintained, operated, and decommissioned following the best industry practices. This independence helps maintain a high level of integrity and safety."}, {"id": 73877676, "title": "Marine construction", "abstract": "Marine construction is the process of building structures in or adjacent to large bodies of water, usually the sea. These structures can be built for a variety of purposes, including transportation, energy production, and recreation. Marine construction can involve the use of a variety of building materials, predominantly steel and concrete. Some examples of marine structures include ships, offshore platforms, moorings, pipelines, cables, wharves, bridges, tunnels, breakwaters and docks. Marine construction may require diving work, but professional diving is expensive and dangerous, and may involve relatively high risk, and the types of tools and equipment that can both function underwater and be safely used by divers are limited. Remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) and other types of submersible equipment are a lower risk alternative, but they are also expensive and limited in applications, so when reasonably practicable, most underwater construction involves either removing the water from the building site by dewatering behind a cofferdam or inside a caisson, or prefabrication of structural units off-site with mainly assembly and installation done on-site."}, {"id": 61854053, "title": "Metal assisted chemical etching", "abstract": "Metal Assisted Chemical Etching (also known as MACE) is the process of wet chemical etching of semiconductors (mainly silicon) with the use of a metal catalyst, usually deposited on the surface of a semiconductor in the form of a thin film or nanoparticles. The semiconductor, covered with the metal is then immersed in an etching solution containing and oxidizing agent and hydrofluoric acid. The metal on the surface catalyzes the reduction of the oxidizing agent and therefore in turn also the dissolution of silicon. In the majority of the conducted research this phenomenon of increased dissolution rate is also spatially confined, such that it is increased in close proximity to a metal particle at the surface. Eventually this leads to the formation of straight pores that are etched into the semiconductor (see figure to the right). This means that a pre-defined pattern of the metal on the surface can be directly transferred to a semiconductor substrate."}, {"id": 51937029, "title": "Oilfield scale inhibition", "abstract": "Oilfield scale inhibition is the process of preventing the formation of scale from blocking or hindering fluid flow through pipelines, valves, and pumps used in oil production and processing. Scale inhibitors (SIs) are a class of specialty chemicals that are used to slow or prevent scaling in water systems. Oilfield scaling is the precipitation and accumulation of insoluble crystals (salts) from a mixture of incompatible aqueous phases in oil processing systems. Scale is a common term in the oil industry used to describe solid deposits that grow over time, blocking and hindering fluid flow through pipelines, valves, pumps etc. with significant reduction in production rates and equipment damages. Scaling represents a major challenge for flow assurance in the oil and gas industry. Examples of oilfield scales are calcium carbonate (limescale), iron sulfides, barium sulfate and strontium sulfate. Scale inhibition encompasses the processes or techniques employed to treat scaling problems."}, {"id": 20166782, "title": "PDF/E", "abstract": "ISO 24517-1:2008 is an ISO Standard published in 2008.\n\nDocument management\u2014Engineering document format using PDF\u2014Part 1: Use of PDF 1.6 (PDF/E-1)This standard defines a format (PDF/E) for the creation of documents used in geospatial, construction and manufacturing workflows and is based on the PDF Reference version 1.6 from Adobe Systems. The specification also supports interactive media, including animation and 3D.\nPDF/E is a subset of PDF, designed to be an open and neutral exchange format for engineering and technical documentation."}, {"id": 36079379, "title": "SLR Consulting", "abstract": "SLR Consulting is a privately owned international sustainability consultancy with offices in Europe, North America, South America, Australasia, and Africa. In 2019, it reported revenues of \u00a3150.8 million. Its purpose is \u2018Making Sustainability Happen\u2019, which it achieves through its global team of expert advisors and technicians, who partner with clients to tackle some of the world\u2019s most complex sustainability challenges."}, {"id": 458422, "title": "Stanford University School of Engineering", "abstract": "Stanford University School of Engineering is one of the schools of Stanford University. The current dean is Jennifer Widom, the former senior associate dean of faculty affairs and computer science chair. She is the school's 10th dean."}, {"id": 8443072, "title": "Stepped profile", "abstract": "A stepped profile describes the edge of something that has a series of defined steps. It has applications in architecture, construction, engineering, and geology."}, {"id": 32594594, "title": "Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector", "abstract": "The superconducting nanowire single-photon detector (SNSPD or SSPD) is a type of optical and near-infrared single-photon detector based on a current-biased superconducting nanowire. It was first developed by scientists at Moscow State Pedagogical University and at the University of Rochester in 2001. The first fully operational prototype was demonstrated in 2005 by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (Boulder), and BBN Technologies as part of the DARPA Quantum Network.As of 2023, a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector is the fastest single-photon detector (SPD) for photon counting.\nIt is a key enabling technology for quantum optics and optical quantum technologies. SNSPDs are available with very high detection efficiency, very low dark count rate and very low timing jitter, compared to other types of single-photon detectors. SNSPDs are covered by International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) international standards. As of 2023, commercial SNSPD devices are available in multichannel systems in a price range of 100,000 euros.\nIt was recently discovered that superconducting wires as wide as 1.5 \u00b5m can detect single infra-red photons. This is important because optical lithography rather than electron lithography can be used in their construction. This reduces the cost for applications that require large photodetector areas. One application is in dark matter detection experiments, where the target is a scintillating GaAs crystal. GaAs suitably doped with silicon and boron is a luminous cryogenic scintillator that has no apparent afterglow and is available commercially in the form of large, high-quality crystals."}, {"id": 73971166, "title": "Third medium contact method", "abstract": "The third medium contact (TMC) is an implicit formulation for contact mechanics. Contacting bodies are embedded in a highly compliant medium (the third medium), which becomes increasingly stiff under compression. The stiffening of the third medium allows tractions to be transferred between the contacting bodies when the third medium between the bodies is compressed. In itself, the method is inexact; however, in contrast to most other contact methods, the third medium approach is continuous and differentiable, which makes it applicable to applications such as topology optimization.The method was first proposed by Peter Wriggers et al. where a St. Venant-Kirchhoff material was used to model the third medium. This approach requires explicit treatment of surface normals. A simplification to the method was offered by Bog et al. by applying a Hencky material with the inherent property of becoming rigid under ultimate compression. This property has made the explicit treatment of surface normals redundant, thereby transforming the third medium contact method into a fully implicit method. The addition of a new void regularization by Bluhm et al. further extended the method to applications involving moderate sliding, rendering it practically applicable"}, {"id": 70699926, "title": "UNESCO World Engineering Day for Sustainable Development", "abstract": "The World Engineering Day for Sustainable Development (acronym: WED) is one of the UNESCO international days and is celebrated every 4 March. It was proclaimed by UNESCO General Conference on 25 November 2019, based on a proposal by the World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO).\nIt is celebrated by major engineering professional institutions, such as the Institution of Civil Engineers, the China Association for Science and Technology, Engineers Canada, Engineers Australia, Ing\u00e9nieurs et scientifiques de France,  as well as NGOs such as DiscoverE, Engineers Without Borders, universities such as Imperial College London or Technische Hochschule Georg Agricola and corporations supporting the event.\nThe first edition of WED in 2019, as well as the following ones, were based on the concept of holding simultaneous online and on-site celebrations, hosted by UNESCO, WFEO, engineering institutions members of WFEO, as well as generating social media trends and message on the theme of event, engaging with UN agencies such as UNEP, corporate bodies, other associations, media and students.\nIn 2022, the concept extended to a 24-hour streaming hosted by WFEO, live streaming featured celebrations in various regions of the world.Since 2022, the celebration includes global events such as an international hackathon competition for engineering students in relations to sustainable development matters."}, {"id": 10917819, "title": "Lists of unsolved problems", "abstract": "List of unsolved problems may refer to several notable conjectures or open problems in various academic fields:"}], "id": 692903}, {"title": "Geography", "pages": [{"id": 18963910, "title": "Geography", "abstract": "Geography (from Ancient Greek \u03b3\u03b5\u03c9\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 ge\u014dgraph\u00eda; combining g\u00ea 'Earth' and gr\u00e1ph\u014d 'write') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities\u2014not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science. Geography has been called \"a bridge between natural science and social science disciplines.\"The first recorded use of the word \u03b3\u03b5\u03c9\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 was as a title of a book by Greek scholar Eratosthenes (276\u2013194 BC). However, the concepts of geography (such as cartography) date back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BCE in ancient Babylon. The history of geography as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale.Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. There have been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography, and into branches. Techniques employed can generally be broken down into quantitative and qualitative approaches, with many studies taking mixed-methods approaches. Common techniques include cartography, remote sensing, interviews, and surveys."}, {"id": 26044771, "title": "Outline of geography", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geography:\nGeography \u2013 study of earth and its people."}, {"id": 33964621, "title": "Counter-mapping", "abstract": "Counter-mapping is creating maps that challenge \"dominant power structures, to further seemingly progressive goals\". Counter-mapping is used in multiple disciplines to reclaim colonized territory. Counter-maps are prolific in indigenous cultures, \"counter-mapping may reify, reinforce, and extend settler boundaries even as it seeks to challenge dominant mapping practices; and still, counter-mapping may simultaneously create conditions of possibility for decolonial ways of representing space and place.\" The term came into use in the United States when Nancy Peluso used it in 1995 to describe the commissioning of maps by forest users in Kalimantan, Indonesia, to contest government maps of forest areas that undermined indigenous interests. The resultant counter-hegemonic maps strengthen forest users' resource claims. There are numerous expressions closely related to counter-mapping: ethnocartography, alternative cartography, mapping-back, counter-hegemonic mapping, deep mapping and public participatory mapping. Moreover, the terms: critical cartography, subversive cartography, bio-regional mapping, and remapping are sometimes used interchangeably with counter-mapping, but in practice encompass much more.Whilst counter-mapping still refers to indigenous mapping, it is increasingly being applied to non-indigenous mapping in economically developed countries. Such counter-mapping has been facilitated by processes of neoliberalism, and technological democratisation. Examples of counter-mapping include attempts to demarcate and protect traditional territories, community mapping, public participation geographic information systems, and mapping by a relatively weak state to counter the resource claims of a stronger state. The power of counter-maps to advocate policy change in a bottom-up manner led commentators to affirm that counter-mapping should be viewed as a tool of governance.Despite its emancipatory potential, counter-mapping has not gone without criticism. There is a tendency for counter-mapping efforts to overlook the knowledge of women, minorities, and other vulnerable, disenfranchised groups. From this perspective, counter-mapping is only empowering for a small subset of society, whilst others become further marginalised."}, {"id": 6786225, "title": "Distance decay", "abstract": "Distance decay is a geographical term which describes the effect of distance on cultural or spatial interactions.  The distance decay effect states that the interaction between two locales declines as the distance between them increases. Once the distance is outside of the two locales' activity space, their interactions begin to decrease. It is thus an assertion that the mathematics of the inverse square law in physics can be applied to many geographic phenomena, and is one of the ways in which physics principles such as gravity are often applied metaphorically to geographic situations."}, {"id": 16971924, "title": "Economic restructuring", "abstract": "Economic restructuring is used to indicate changes in the constituent parts of an economy in a very general sense. In the western world, it is usually used to refer to the phenomenon of urban areas shifting from a manufacturing to a service sector economic base. It has profound implications for productive capacities and competitiveness of cities and regions.  This transformation has affected demographics including income distribution, employment, and social hierarchy; institutional arrangements including the growth of the corporate complex, specialized producer services, capital mobility, informal economy, nonstandard work, and public outlays; as well as geographic spacing including the rise of world cities, spatial mismatch, and metropolitan growth differentials."}, {"id": 47802272, "title": "Edgelands", "abstract": "Edgelands is a term for the transitional, liminal zone of space created between rural and urban areas as formed by urbanisation. These spaces often contain nature alongside cities, towns, roads and other unsightly but necessary buildings, such as power substations or depots, at the edge of cities."}, {"id": 16953152, "title": "Extreme environment", "abstract": "An extreme environment is a habitat that is considered very hard to survive in due to its considerably extreme conditions such as temperature, accessibility to different energy sources or under high pressure. For an area to be considered an extreme environment, it must contain certain conditions and aspects that are considered very hard for other life forms to survive. Pressure conditions may be extremely high or low; high or low content of oxygen or carbon dioxide in the atmosphere; high levels of radiation, acidity, or alkalinity; absence of water; water containing a high concentration of salt; the presence of sulphur, petroleum, and other toxic substances.Examples of extreme environments include the geographical poles, very arid deserts, volcanoes, deep ocean trenches, upper atmosphere, outer space, and the environments of every planet in the Solar System except the Earth. Any organisms living in these conditions are often very well adapted to their living circumstances, which is usually a result of long-term evolution. Physiologists have long known that organisms living in extreme environments are especially likely to exhibit clear examples of evolutionary adaptation because of the presumably intense past natural selection they have experienced."}, {"id": 8081066, "title": "Fundamental plane (spherical coordinates)", "abstract": "The fundamental plane in a spherical coordinate system is a plane of reference that divides the sphere into two hemispheres. The geocentric latitude of a point is then the angle between the fundamental plane and the line joining the point to the centre of the sphere.For a geographic coordinate system of the Earth, the fundamental plane is the Equator. \nAstronomical coordinate systems have varying fundamental planes:\nThe horizontal coordinate system uses the observer's horizon.\nThe Besselian coordinate system uses Earth's terminator (day/night boundary). This is a Cartesian coordinate system (x, y, z).\nThe equatorial coordinate system uses the celestial equator.\nThe ecliptic coordinate system uses the ecliptic.\nThe galactic coordinate system uses the Milky Way's galactic equator."}, {"id": 36248807, "title": "Geo-literacy", "abstract": "As defined by National Geographic, geo-literacy is \"the ability to use geographic understanding and geographic reasoning to make decisions\"."}, {"id": 15516115, "title": "Geo-replication", "abstract": "Geo-replication systems are designed to provide improved availability and disaster tolerance by using geographically distributed data centers. This is intended to improve the response time for applications such as web portals. Geo-replication can be achieved using software, hardware or a combination of the two."}, {"id": 1149904, "title": "Geoarchaeology", "abstract": "Geoarchaeology is a multi-disciplinary approach which uses the techniques and subject matter of geography, geology, geophysics and other Earth sciences to examine topics which inform archaeological knowledge and thought. Geoarchaeologists study the natural physical processes that affect archaeological sites such as geomorphology, the formation of sites through geological processes and the effects on buried sites and artifacts post-deposition. Geoarchaeologists' work frequently involves studying soil and sediments as well as other geographical concepts to contribute an archaeological study. Geoarchaeologists may also use computer cartography, geographic information systems (GIS) and digital elevation models (DEM) in combination with disciplines from human and social sciences and earth sciences. Geoarchaeology is important to society because it informs archaeologists about the geomorphology of the soil, sediment, and rocks on the buried sites and artifacts they are researching. By doing this, scientists are able to locate ancient cities and artifacts and estimate by the quality of soil how \"prehistoric\" they really are. Geoarchaeology is considered a sub-field of environmental archaeology because soil can be altered by human behavior, which archaeologists are then able to study and reconstruct past landscapes and conditions."}, {"id": 23668992, "title": "Geocriticism", "abstract": "Geocriticism is a method of literary analysis and literary theory that incorporates the study of geographic space. The term designates a number of different critical practices.  In France, Bertrand Westphal has elaborated the concept of g\u00e9ocritique in several works.  In the United States, Robert Tally has argued for a geocriticism as a critical practice suited to the analysis of what he has termed \"literary cartography\"."}, {"id": 57425862, "title": "Geographic contiguity", "abstract": "Geographic contiguity is the characteristic in geography of political or geographical land divisions, as a group, not being interrupted by other land or water. Such divisions are referred to as being contiguous.  In the United States, for example, the \"48 contiguous states\" excludes Hawaii and Alaska, which do not share borders with other U.S. states.Other examples of geographical contiguity might include the \"contiguous European Union\" excluding member states such as Ireland, Sweden, Finland (between \u00c5land and Turku Archipelago), Malta and Cyprus (these being non-contiguous), or the \"contiguous United Kingdom\" referring to all parts of the country excepting Northern Ireland (it being geographically non-contiguous).\nTwo or more contiguous municipalities can be consolidated into one, or one municipality can consist of many noncontiguous elements. For example, the Financially Distressed Municipalities Act allows the commonwealth of Pennsylvania to merge contiguous municipalities to reduce financial distress.\nGeographic contiguity is important in biology, especially animal ranges. For a particular species, its habitat may be a 'contiguous range', or it might be broken, requiring periodic, typically seasonal migrations (see: Disjunct distribution). The same concept of contiguous range is true for human transportation studies in an attempt to understand census geography. It also comes into play with electoral geography and politics.In United States real property and mineral rights law, touching of two tracts at a common corner (as checkerboarded land) is generally considered contiguous."}, {"id": 75508098, "title": "Geographic levels", "abstract": "In geography, different geographic (scale) levels are distinguished:\n\nThe local scale level relates to a small area, usually a city or municipality;\nThe regional scale level relates to a larger area, usually a region, state or province;\nThe national scale level relates to a country;\nThe continental scale level refers to a continent;\nThe global scale applies to the entire world;\nThe fluvial scale level relates to river basins (this scale level is mainly used in the context of pollution, for example).Within geography the use of geographic levels is also known as scales of analysis.\nAn area of several countries (such as the Middle East or West Africa) is sometimes counted under the continental scale level, sometimes under the regional scale. Actually, both are incorrect, because it does not include a continent but is larger than a country, while the regional scale is smaller than the national scale. Sometimes the international scale level is also used for this, but this term is not in general use."}, {"id": 13387896, "title": "Geographic targeting", "abstract": "Geographic targeting  is a viable way for resource allocation, especially  to  alleviate poverty in a country. In this context, public expenditure and policy interventions can be deployed to reach the neediest people in the poorest areas.Geographical targeting for poverty alleviation employs a variety of techniques, such as database, and geographic information systems to construct poverty maps."}, {"id": 31346116, "title": "Geographical cluster", "abstract": "A geographical cluster is a localized anomaly, usually an excess of something given the distribution or variation of something else. Often it is considered as an incidence rate that is unusual in that there is more of some variable than might be expected. Examples would include: a local excess disease rate, a crime hot spot, areas of high unemployment, accident blackspots, unusually high positive residuals from a model, high concentrations of flora or fauna, areas with high levels of creative activity, physical features or events like earthquake epicenters etc...Identifying these extreme regions may be useful in that there could be implicit geographical associations with other variables that can be identified and would be of interest. Pattern detection via the identification of such geographical clusters is a very simple and generic form of geographical analysis that has many applications in many different contexts. The emphasis is on localized clustering or patterning because this may well contain the most useful information.A geographical cluster is different from a high concentration as it is generally second order, involving the factoring in of the distribution of something else."}, {"id": 17351446, "title": "Geographical feature", "abstract": "A feature (also called an object or entity), in the context of geography and geographic information science, is something that exists at a moderate to global scale at a location in the space and scale of relevance to geography; that is, at or near the surface of Earth.:\u200a62\u200a It is an item of geographic information, and may be represented in maps, geographic information systems, remote sensing imagery, statistics, and other forms of geographic discourse. Such representations of features consist of descriptions of their inherent nature, their spatial form and location, and their characteristics or properties."}, {"id": 53452291, "title": "Geography of aging", "abstract": "Geography of aging or gerontological geography is an emerging field of knowledge of human geography that analyzes the socio-spatial implications of aging of the population from the understanding of the relationships between the physical-social environment and the elderly, at different scales, micro (City, region, country), etc.\nSince the 1970s in a number of developed countries such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, France, Spain, Australia, New Zealand and Japan, there have been increasing studies focusing on the understanding of spatial patterns of aging population, as well as aspects related to residential changes and provision of health and social services. Among the geographers of aging is S. Harper, who identified the phenomenon of aging associated with the social construction of old age and the processes of residential mobility of this group to the urban periphery, mainly nursing homes and sheltered housing.\nThe contribution of geographers of aging, such as Graham D. Rowles, SM. Golant, S. Harper, G. Laws, are contributing to environmental gerontology by understanding the environmental aspects of gerontology in developed and developing countries. Also in Spain, some geographers, such as Gloria Fern\u00e1ndez-Mayoralas, Fermina Rojo-P\u00e9rez and Vicente Rodr\u00edguez-Rodr\u00edguez, have made outstanding contributions to the study of residential strategies, access to health services, and, in general, quality of Life of the elderly, as well as the impacts of Northern European retirees on the Costa del Sol, Spain.\nIn Latin America and Spain, Diego S\u00e1nchez-Gonz\u00e1lez has shed light on the deepening of issues such as the physical-built and social environment and the quality of life of the elderly; the importance of the natural environment (therapeutic natural landscape) on active and healthy aging in the place; residential strategies for the maintenance of the elderly in the communities; the socio-environmental vulnerability of the elderly in the face of climate change; as well as issues related to the attachment to the place (identity and public space); elderly people with disabilities and social exclusion; leisure and tourism of elderly; and the planning of gerontological and geriatric services."}, {"id": 71520442, "title": "Geomorphosite", "abstract": "A geomorphosite, or geomorphological heritage site, is a landform or an assemblage of landforms that have a scientific, educational, historic-cultural, aesthetic or socio-economic value.\nGeomorphosites are included among the geoheritage sites (geosites) and may comprise landforms (or sites of former landforms) that have been hidden or destroyed due to human activities, as well as anthropogenic landforms of archaeological or historical interest.The value of a geomorphosite, for purposes of analysis, comparison and protection, can be qualitatively assessed using several methods. Some of these methods are based only on expert judgements and a few evaluation criteria, while others involve assigning a qualitative score to each relevant characteristic of a site (e.g. its scientific importance, educational value etc.) and then weighting and summing (or ranking) the scores to obtain the site's overall value (or rank)."}, {"id": 898161, "title": "Geopark", "abstract": "A geopark is a protected area with internationally significant geology within which sustainable development is sought and which includes tourism, conservation, education and research concerning not just geology but other relevant sciences.In 2005, a European Geopark was defined as being:\n\"a territory with a particular geological heritage and with a sustainable territorial development....the ultimate aim of a European Geopark is to bring enhanced employment opportunities for the people who live there.\"Today the geopark is virtually synonymous with the UNESCO geopark, which is defined and managed under the voluntary authority of UNESCO's International Geoscience and Geoparks Programme (IGGP). UNESCO provides a standard for geoparks and a certification service to territories that apply for it. The service is available to member states of UNESCO. \nThe list of members is not the same as the member states of the United Nations. Membership in the UN does not automatically imply membership of UNESCO, even though UNESCO is part of the UN. Both lists have about 193 member nations, but not exactly the same 193. The UN list covers most of the geopolitical world, but the UNESCO list lacks Israel, for example, which resigned in 2018 because they believed UNESCO is anti-Israel.\nThe UNESCO Global Geoparks Network co-ordinates the activities of the many UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGp's) around the world. It is divided into regional networks, such as the European Geoparks Network. The EGN historically preceded the UGGN, being founded in 2000 with the first four geoparks. It joined with UNESCO in 2001 and in 2005 agreed in the Madonie Declaration to be a regional network of the UGGps, which had been created by UNESCO in 2004.The Madonie Declaration of 2004, which was signed by Nikolas Zouros for the EGN and Wolfgang Eder for UNESCO, established what was later called a \"bottom up\" system of precedence. An applicant geopark must first be a member of the EGN before applying to the UGGN. Furthermore, another level was created, the National Geoparks Network, which at first glance seems a contradiction in terms. Geoparks are international. What the Declaration meant was, if a potentially international type of site (a possible geosite) existed within the candidate park's country, the park must belong to it before it can apply to the regional network. This type was dubbed an NGN. Its sites could then be included under the geopark umbrella by being candidates for the international network. In 2014 the creation of other regions besides the EGN was allowed and encouraged, permitting geoparks to fulfill their declared global nature."}, {"id": 47470974, "title": "Glacial refugium", "abstract": "A glacial refugium (plural refugia) is a geographic region which made possible the survival of flora and fauna during ice ages and allowed for post-glacial re-colonization. Different types of glacial refugia can be distinguished, namely nunatak, peripheral, and lowland. Glacial refugia have been suggested as a major cause of floral and faunal distribution patterns in both temperate and tropical latitudes. With respect to disjunct populations of modern-day species, especially in birds, doubt has been cast on the validity of such inferences, as much of the differentiation between populations observed today may have occurred before or after their restriction to refugia. In contrast, isolated geographic locales that host one or more critically endangered species (regarded as paleoendemics or glacial relicts) are generally uncontested as bona fide glacial refugia."}, {"id": 711728, "title": "Governmentality", "abstract": "Governmentality is a concept first developed by the French philosopher Michel Foucault in the later years of his life, roughly between 1977 and his death in 1984, particularly in his lectures at the Coll\u00e8ge de France during this time.\nGovernmentality can be understood as:\n\nthe organized practices (mentalities, rationalities, and techniques) through which subjects are governedGovernmentality may also be understood as:\n\nthe \"art of government\"\nthe \"how\" of governing (that is, the calculated means of directing how we behave and act)\n\"governmental rationality\"\n\"a 'guideline' for the analysis that Michel Foucault offers by way of historical reconstructions embracing a period starting from Ancient Greece right through to modernity and neo-liberalism\"\n\"the techniques and strategies by which a society is rendered governable\"\nThe \"reasoned way of governing best and, at the same time, reflection on the best possible way of governing\"Peter Miller, Nikolas Rose and Mitchell Dean, among other scholars, have elaborated on the notion of governmentality."}, {"id": 31655501, "title": "Hemispheres of Earth", "abstract": "In geography and cartography, hemispheres of Earth are any division of the globe into two equal halves (hemispheres), typically divided into northern and southern halves by the equator or into western and eastern halves by an imaginary line passing through the poles. Hemispheres can be divided geographically, culturally, religiously, or based on prominent geographic features. Understanding these divisions is essential for studying Earth's geographic distribution, cultural differences, and the prominence of various geographic features."}, {"id": 501118, "title": "Hermit kingdom", "abstract": "The term hermit kingdom is an epithet used to refer to any country, organization or society that willfully walls itself off, either metaphorically or physically, from the rest of the world. North Korea is commonly cited as a prominent example of a hermit kingdom in the present day."}, {"id": 5949047, "title": "Hjulstr\u00f6m curve", "abstract": "The Hjulstr\u00f6m curve, named after Filip Hjulstr\u00f6m (1902\u20131982), is a graph used by hydrologists and geologists to determine whether a river will erode, transport, or deposit sediment. It was originally published in his doctoral thesis \"Studies of the morphological activity of rivers as illustrated by the River Fyris.\" in 1935. The graph takes sediment particle size and water velocity into account.The upper curve shows the critical erosion velocity in cm/s as a function of particle size in mm, while the lower curve shows the deposition velocity as a function of particle size. Note that the axes are logarithmic. \nThe plot shows several key concepts about the relationships between erosion, transportation, and deposition. For particle sizes where friction is the dominating force preventing erosion, the curves follow each other closely and the required velocity increases with particle size. However, for cohesive sediment, mostly clay but also silt, the erosion velocity increases with decreasing grain size, as the cohesive forces are relatively more important when the particles get smaller. The critical velocity for deposition, on the other hand, depends on the settling velocity, and that decreases with decreasing grainsize. The Hjulstr\u00f6m curve shows that sand particles of a size around 0.1 mm require the lowest stream velocity to erode.\nThe curve was expanded by \u00c5ke Sundborg in 1956. He significantly improved the level of detail in the cohesive part of the diagram, and added lines for different modes of transportation. The result is called the Sundborg diagram, or the Hjulstr\u00f6m-Sundborg Diagram, in the academic literature.\nThis curve dates back to early 20th century research on river geomorphology and has no more than a historical value nowadays, although its simplicity is still attractive. Among the drawbacks of this curve are that it does not take the water depth into account and more importantly, that it does not show that sedimentation is caused by flow velocity deceleration and erosion is caused by flow acceleration. The dimensionless Shields Diagram, in combination with the Shields formula is now unanimously accepted for initiation of sediment motion in rivers. Much work was done on river sediment transport formulae in the second half of the 20th century and that work should be used preferably to Hjulstr\u00f6m's curve."}, {"id": 50427403, "title": "International date line in Judaism", "abstract": "The international date line  in Judaism is used to demarcate the change of one calendar day to the next in the Jewish calendar. The Jewish calendar defines days as running from sunset to sunset rather than midnight to midnight. So in the context of Judaism, an international date line demarcates when the line of sundown moving across the Earth's surface stops being the sunset ending and starting one day and starts being the sunset ending and starting the following day.\nHowever, the conventional International Date Line is a relatively recent geographic and political construct whose exact location has moved from time to time depending on the needs of different interested parties. While it is well-understood why the conventional date line is located in the Pacific Ocean, there are not really objective criteria for its exact placement within the Pacific. In that light, it cannot be taken for granted that the conventional International Date Line can (or should) be used as a date line under Jewish law. In practice, within Judaism the halakhic date line is similar to, but not necessarily identical with, the conventional Date Line, and the differences can have consequences under religious law."}, {"id": 6974596, "title": "Land cover", "abstract": "Land cover is the physical material at the surface of Earth. Land covers include grass, asphalt, trees, bare ground, water, etc. Earth cover is the expression used by ecologist Frederick Edward Clements that has its closest modern equivalent being vegetation.:\u200a52\u200a The expression continues to be used by the United States Bureau of Land Management.There are two primary methods for capturing information on land cover: field survey, and analysis of remotely sensed imagery. Land change models can be built from these types of data to assess changes in land cover over time.\nOne of the major land cover issues (as with all natural resource inventories) is that every survey defines similarly named categories in different ways. For instance, there are many definitions of \"forest\"\u2014sometimes within the same organisation\u2014that may or may not incorporate a number of different forest features (e.g., stand height, canopy cover, strip width, inclusion of grasses, and rates of growth for timber production). Areas without trees may be classified as forest cover \"if the intention is to re-plant\" (UK and Ireland), while areas with many trees may not be labelled as forest \"if the trees are not growing fast enough\" (Norway and Finland)."}, {"id": 38262946, "title": "Land systems", "abstract": "Land systems constitute the terrestrial component of the Earth system and encompass all processes and activities related to the human use of land, including socioeconomic, technological and organizational investments and arrangements, as well as the benefits gained from land and the unintended social and ecological outcomes of societal activities. Changes in land systems have large consequences for the local environment and human well-being and are at the same time pervasive factors of global environmental change. Land provides vital resources to society, such as food, fuel, fibres and many other ecosystem services that support production functions, regulate risks of natural hazards, or provide cultural and spiritual services.  By using the land, society alters and modifies the quantity and quality of the provision of these services.\nLand system changes are the direct result of human decision making at multiple scales ranging from local land owners decisions to national scale land use planning and global trade agreements. The aggregate impact of many local land system changes has far reaching consequences for the Earth System, that feedback on ecosystem services, human well-being and decision making. As a consequence, land system change is both a cause and consequence of socio-ecological processes.\nThe Global Land Programme (GLP) of Future Earth is an interdisciplinary community of science and practice fostering the study of land systems and the co-design of solutions for global sustainability."}, {"id": 3439019, "title": "Landlocked developing countries", "abstract": "The landlocked developing countries (LLDC) are developing countries that are landlocked. Due to the economic and other disadvantages suffered by such countries, the majority of landlocked countries are least developed countries (LDCs), with inhabitants of these countries occupying the bottom billion tier of the world's population in terms of poverty. Outside of Europe, there is not a single highly developed landlocked country as measured by the Human Development Index (HDI), and nine of the twelve countries with the lowest HDI scores are landlocked. Landlocked European countries are exceptions in terms of development outcomes due to their close integration with the regional European market. Landlocked countries that rely on transoceanic trade usually suffer a cost of trade that is double that of their maritime neighbours. Landlocked countries experience economic growth 6% less than non-landlocked countries, holding other variables constant.32 out of the world's 44 landlocked countries, including all the landlocked countries in Africa, Asia, and South America, have been classified as the Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) by the United Nations. As of 2012, about 442.8 million people lived in these LLDCs."}, {"id": 286960, "title": "Mainland", "abstract": "Mainland is defined as \"relating to or forming the main part of a country or continent, not including the islands around it [regardless of status under territorial jurisdiction by an entity].\" The term is often politically, economically and/or demographically more significant than politically associated remote territories, such as exclaves or oceanic islands situated outside the continental shelf.\nIn geography, \"mainland\" can denote the continental (i.e. non-insular) part of any polity or the main island within an island nation. In geopolitics, \"mainland\" is sometimes used interchangeably with terms like metropole as an antonym to overseas territories. In the sense of \"heartland\", mainland is the opposite of periphery. In some language a separate concept of \"mainland\" is missing and is replaced with a \"continental portion\".\nThe term is relative: in Tasmania, continental Australia is the mainland, while to residents of Flinders Island, the main island of Tasmania is also \"the mainland\", although the geological Australian continent includes all the former plus the island of New Guinea and all the smaller islands (e.g. the Torres Strait Islands) in between."}, {"id": 19877, "title": "Map", "abstract": "A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, or themes.\nMany maps are static, fixed to paper or some other durable medium, while others are dynamic or interactive. Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent any space, real or fictional, without regard to context or scale, such as in brain mapping, DNA mapping, or computer network topology mapping. The space being mapped may be two dimensional, such as the surface of the Earth, three dimensional, such as the interior of the Earth, or even more abstract spaces of any dimension, such as arise in modeling phenomena having many independent variables.\nAlthough the earliest maps known are of the heavens, geographic maps of territory have a very long tradition and exist from ancient times. The word \"map\" comes from the medieval Latin: Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant 'napkin' or 'cloth' and mundi 'the world'. Thus, \"map\" became a shortened term referring to a two-dimensional representation of the surface of the world."}, {"id": 67613318, "title": "Mediterranean outflow", "abstract": "The Mediterranean Outflow is a current flowing from the Mediterranean Sea towards the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. Once it has reached the western side of the Strait of Gibraltar, it divides into two branches, one flowing westward following the Iberian continental slope, and another returning to the Strait of Gibraltar circulating cyclonically. In the Strait of Gibraltar and in the Gulf of C\u00e1diz, the Mediterranean Outflow core has a width of a few tens of km. Through its nonlinear interactions with tides and topography, as it flows out of the Mediterranean basin it undergoes such strong mixing that the water masses composing this current become indistinguishable upon reaching the western side of the strait."}, {"id": 16629237, "title": "Menaca", "abstract": "MENACA is a geographical term referring to the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia. Notably, these regions have historically been heavily influenced by Zoroastrianism, Islam and Turco-Iranian tradition. Due to the close socio-economic and cultural relations in the region, the U.S. has a Foreign Relations Subcommittee dedicated to it."}, {"id": 374673, "title": "Mountain pass", "abstract": "A mountain pass is a navigable route through a mountain range or over a ridge. Since mountain ranges can present formidable barriers to travel, passes have played a key role in trade, war, and both human and animal migration throughout history. At lower elevations it may be called a hill pass. A mountain pass is typically formed between two volcanic peaks or created by erosion from water or wind."}, {"id": 36908659, "title": "Mountain research", "abstract": "Mountain Research or Mountain Science / Mountology, traditionally also known as orology (from Greek oros \u1f44\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 for 'mountain' and logos \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2), is a field of research that regionally concentrates on the Earth's surface's part covered by mountain environments."}, {"id": 14389994, "title": "Natural landscape", "abstract": "A natural landscape is the original landscape that exists before it is acted upon by human culture. The natural landscape and the cultural landscape are separate parts of the landscape. However, in the 21st century, landscapes that are totally untouched by human activity no longer exist, so that reference is sometimes now made to degrees of naturalness within a landscape.In Silent Spring (1962) Rachel Carson describes a roadside verge as it used to look: \"Along the roads, laurel, viburnum and alder, great ferns and wildflowers delighted the traveler\u2019s eye through much of the year\" and then how it looks now following the use of herbicides: \"The roadsides, once so attractive, were now lined with browned and withered vegetation as though swept by fire\". Even though the landscape before it is sprayed is biologically degraded, and may well contains alien species, the concept of what might constitute a natural landscape can still be deduced from the context.\nThe phrase \"natural landscape\" was first used in connection with landscape painting, and landscape gardening, to contrast a formal style with a more natural one, closer to nature. Alexander von Humboldt (1769 \u2013 1859) was to further conceptualize this into the idea of a natural landscape separate from the cultural landscape. Then in 1908 geographer Otto Schl\u00fcter developed the terms original landscape (Urlandschaft) and its opposite cultural landscape (Kulturlandschaft) in an attempt to give the science of geography a subject matter that was different from the other sciences. An early use of the actual phrase \"natural landscape\" by a geographer can be found in Carl O. Sauer's paper \"The Morphology of Landscape\" (1925)."}, {"id": 25313082, "title": "Pan-region", "abstract": "A Skillet locale is a geographic region or state's sphere of economic, political and social impact reaching out past that state's borders. For instance, the Skillet locale of the US of America (US) areas both lining the US and its nearby neighbors' including, Canada, Mexico, and many other South America states."}, {"id": 10943769, "title": "Place identity", "abstract": "Place identity or place-based identity refers to a cluster of ideas about place and identity in the fields of geography, urban planning, urban design, landscape architecture, interior design, spatial design, environmental psychology, ecocriticism and urban sociology/ecological sociology. Place identity is sometimes called urban character, neighbourhood character or local character. Place identity has become a significant issue in the last 25 years in urban planning and design. Place identity concerns the meaning and significance of places for their inhabitants and users, and how these meanings contribute to individuals' conceptualizations of self. Place identity also relates to the context of modernity, history and the politics of representation. In other words, historical determinism, which intersects historical events, social spaces and groups by gender, class, ethnicity. In this way, it explores how spaces have evolved over time by exploring the social constructs through time and the development of space, place and power. To the same extent, the politics of representation is brought into context, as the making of place identity in a community also relates to the exclusion or inclusion in a community.  Through this, some have argued that place identity has become an area for social change because it gives marginalized communities agency over their own spaces. In the same respect, it is argued that place identity has also been used to intervene social change and perpetuate oppression from a top-down approach by creating segregated spaces for marginalized communities."}, {"id": 128608, "title": "Population density", "abstract": "Population density (in agriculture: standing stock or plant density) is a measurement of population per unit land area. It is mostly applied to humans, but sometimes to other living organisms too. It is a key geographical term."}, {"id": 50516307, "title": "Primary care service area", "abstract": "Primary Care Service Areas are geographic areas that are self-sufficient markets of primary care. These areas are designed in a manner such that the majority of patients living in these areas use primary care services form within the area. This ensures that any geographic targeting of policies and resources reach the patients they are meant for. These geographies have been created in Australia, United States  and Switzerland  using big data and Geographic information systems. In Australia, while they have been developed for the state of New South Wales, they have not found application among policymakers, where, as of 2016 much larger geographies called Primary Health Networks are used for primary care management. However, they have found an especially wide audience amongst policymakers and researchers in the United States,  where they were first developed. Thus for example the Health Resources and Services Administration uses them to designate areas of workforce shortage. Primary Care Service Areas are thus for example an appropriate geography for measuring  primary care physician supply or geographic access to General practitioners."}, {"id": 10063629, "title": "Rank\u2013size distribution", "abstract": "Rank\u2013size distribution is the distribution of size by rank, in decreasing order of size. For example, if a data set consists of items of sizes 5, 100, 5, and 8, the rank-size distribution is 100, 8, 5, 5 (ranks 1 through 4). This is also known as the rank\u2013frequency distribution, when the source data are from a frequency distribution. These are particularly of interest when the data vary significantly in scales, such as city size or word frequency. These distributions frequently follow a power law distribution, or less well-known ones such as a stretched exponential function or parabolic fractal distribution, at least approximately for certain ranges of ranks; see below.\nA rank-size distribution is not a probability distribution or cumulative distribution function. Rather, it is a discrete form of a quantile function (inverse cumulative distribution) in reverse order, giving the size of the element at a given rank."}, {"id": 55633, "title": "Region", "abstract": "In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as areas, zones, lands or territories, are portions of the Earth's surface that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and the interaction of humanity and the environment (environmental geography). Geographic regions and sub-regions are mostly described by their imprecisely defined, and sometimes transitory boundaries, except in human geography, where jurisdiction areas such as national borders are defined in law. More confined or well bounded portions are called locations or places.\nApart from the global continental regions, there are also hydrospheric and atmospheric regions that cover the oceans, and discrete climates above the land and water masses of the planet. The land and water global regions are divided into subregions geographically bounded by large geological features that influence large-scale ecologies, such as plains and features.\nAs a way of describing spatial areas, the concept of regions is important and widely used among the many branches of geography, each of which can describe areas in regional terms.  For example, ecoregion is a term used in environmental geography, cultural region in cultural geography, bioregion in biogeography, and so on.  The field of geography that studies regions themselves is called regional geography. Regions are an area or division, especially part of a country or the world having definable characteristics but not always fixed boundaries. \nIn the fields of physical geography, ecology, biogeography, zoogeography, and environmental geography, regions tend to be based on natural features such as ecosystems or biotopes, biomes, drainage basins, natural regions, mountain ranges, soil types. Where human geography is concerned, the regions and subregions are described by the discipline of ethnography."}, {"id": 2044975, "title": "Riverscape", "abstract": "A riverscape (also called river landscape) comprises the features of the landscape which can be found on and along a river. Most features of riverscapes include natural landforms (such as meanders and oxbow lakes) but they can also include artificial landforms (such as man-made levees and river groynes). Riverscapes can be divided into upper course riverscapes, middle course riverscapes, and lower course riverscapes.\n\nThe term riverine is sometimes used to indicate the same type of landscape as a riverscape, or only the riverbank. Riverine landscapes may also be defined as a network of rivers and their surrounding land, which is excellent for agricultural use because of the rich and fertile soil. The word riverine is also used as an adjective which means \"relating to or found on a river or the banks of a river\"."}, {"id": 3439212, "title": "Small Island Developing States", "abstract": "The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are a grouping of developing countries which are small island countries and tend to share similar sustainable development challenges. These include small but growing populations, limited resources, remoteness, susceptibility to natural disasters, vulnerability to external shocks, excessive dependence on international trade, and fragile environments. Their growth and development are also held back by high communication, energy and transportation costs, irregular international transport volumes, disproportionately expensive public administration and infrastructure due to their small size, and little to no opportunity to create economies of scale. They consist of some of the most vulnerable countries to anthropogenic climate change.\nThe SIDS were first recognized as a distinct group of developing countries at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in June 1992. The Barbados Programme of Action was produced in 1994 to assist the SIDS in their sustainable development efforts. The United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States (UN-OHRLLS) represents the group of states."}, {"id": 27891886, "title": "Solar equator", "abstract": "The solar equator is the latitude on Earth at which the Sun is observed directly overhead at midday. Due to the obliquity of Earth's axis, the solar equator varies during the year, from the Tropic of Capricorn on the December solstice to the Tropic of Cancer on the June solstice. On the day of either equinox, the Sun's position is at the zenith when viewed from the geographic equator. The Sun can never be observed directly overhead from outside of the tropics."}, {"id": 37628586, "title": "Spatial citizenship", "abstract": "Spatial citizenship describes the ability of individuals and groups to interact and participate in societal spatial decision making through the reflexive production and use of geo-media (geographic media such as maps, virtual globes, GIS, and the Geoweb). Spatial citizens are lay users who are able to use geo-media to question existing perspectives on action in space (e.g. social rules, spatial planning) and to produce, communicate, and negotiate alternative spatial visions.\nSpatial citizenship is an educational approach at the intersection of citizenship education and geography education. Its main theoretical reference points are emancipatory forms of citizenship and the \"reflexive appropriation of space\"."}, {"id": 19021764, "title": "Spatial justice", "abstract": "Spatial justice links social justice to space, most notably in the works of geographers David Harvey and Edward W. Soja. The field analyzes the impact of regional planning and urban planning decisions. It is promoted by the scholarly tradition of critical geography, which arose in the 1970s."}, {"id": 404571, "title": "Spatial mismatch", "abstract": "Spatial mismatch is the mismatch between where low-income households reside and suitable job opportunities. In its original formulation (see below) and in subsequent research, it has mostly been understood as a phenomenon affecting African-Americans, as a result of residential segregation, economic restructuring, and the suburbanization of employment.\nSpatial mismatch was first proposed by John F. Kain, following the theory of John Meyer, in a seminal 1968 article, \"Housing Segregation, Negro Employment, and Metropolitan Decentralization\". That article did not specifically use the term \"spatial mismatch\", and Kain disclaimed credit.In 1987, William Julius Wilson was an important exponent, elaborating the role of economic restructuring, as well as the departure of the black middle-class, in the development of a ghetto underclass in the United States."}, {"id": 2371378, "title": "Surroundings", "abstract": "Surroundings, or environs is an area around a given physical or geographical point or place.  The exact definition depends on the field. Surroundings can also be used in geography (when it is more precisely known as vicinity, or vicinage) and mathematics, as well as philosophy, with the literal or metaphorically extended definition.\nIn thermodynamics, the term (and its synonym, environment) is used in a more restricted sense, meaning everything outside the thermodynamic system. Often, the simplifying assumptions are that energy and matter may move freely within the surroundings, and that the surroundings have a uniform composition."}, {"id": 79239, "title": "Topography", "abstract": "Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps.\nTopography is a field of geoscience and planetary science and is concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief, but also natural, artificial, and cultural features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings. In the United States, topography often means specifically relief, even though the USGS topographic maps record not just elevation contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on.Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms; this is also known as geomorphometry. In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form (DEM). It is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by a variety of cartographic relief depiction techniques, including contour lines, hypsometric tints, and relief shading."}], "id": 693800}, {"title": "Human behavior", "pages": [{"id": 563299, "title": "Human behavior", "abstract": "Human behavior is the potential and expressed capacity (mentally, physically, and socially) of human individuals or groups to respond to internal and external stimuli throughout their life. Behavior is driven by genetic and environmental factors that affect an individual. Behavior is also driven, in part, by thoughts and feelings, which provide insight into individual psyche, revealing such things as attitudes and values. Human behavior is shaped by psychological traits, as personality types vary from person to person, producing different actions and behavior.\nSocial behavior accounts for actions directed at others. It is concerned with the considerable influence of social interaction and culture, as well as ethics, interpersonal relationships, politics, and conflict. Some behaviors are common while others are unusual. The acceptability of behavior depends upon social norms and is regulated by various means of social control. Social norms also condition behavior, whereby humans are pressured into following certain rules and displaying certain behaviors that are deemed acceptable or unacceptable depending on the given society or culture.\nCognitive behavior accounts for actions of obtaining and using knowledge. It is concerned with how information is learned and passed on, as well as creative application of knowledge and personal beliefs such as religion. Physiological behavior accounts for actions to maintain the body. It is concerned with basic bodily functions as well as measures taken to maintain health. Economic behavior accounts for actions regarding the development, organization, and use of materials as well as other forms of work. Ecological behavior accounts for actions involving the ecosystem. It is concerned with how humans interact with other organisms and how the environment shapes human behavior."}, {"id": 1686342, "title": "Adaptive behavior", "abstract": "Adaptive behavior is behavior that enables a person (usually used in the context of children) to cope in their environment with greatest success and least conflict with others. This is a term used in the areas of psychology and special education. Adaptive behavior relates to everyday skills or tasks that the \"average\" person is able to complete, similar to the term life skills.\nNonconstructive or disruptive social or personal behaviors can sometimes be used to achieve a constructive outcome. For example, a constant repetitive action could be re-focused on something that creates or builds something. In other words, the behavior can be adapted to something else.\nIn contrast, maladaptive behavior is a type of behavior that is often used to reduce one's anxiety, but the result is dysfunctional and non-productive coping. For example, avoiding situations because you have unrealistic fears may initially reduce your anxiety, but it is non-productive in alleviating the actual problem in the long term. Maladaptive behavior is frequently used as an indicator of abnormality or mental dysfunction, since its assessment is relatively free from subjectivity. However, many behaviors considered moral can be maladaptive, such as dissent or abstinence.\nAdaptive behavior reflects an individual's social and practical competence to meet the demands of everyday living.\nBehavioral patterns change throughout a person's development, life settings and social constructs, evolution of personal values, and the expectations of others. It is important to assess adaptive behavior in order to determine how well an individual functions in daily life: vocationally, socially and educationally."}, {"id": 13413780, "title": "Alloplastic adaptation", "abstract": "Alloplastic adaptation (from the Greek word \"allos\", meaning \"other\") is a form of adaptation where the subject attempts to change the environment when faced with a difficult situation. Criminality, mental illness, and activism can all be classified as categories of alloplastic adaptation.\nThe concept of alloplastic adaptation was developed by Sigmund Freud, S\u00e1ndor Ferenczi, and Franz Alexander. They proposed that when an individual was presented with a stressful situation, he could react in one of two ways: \n\nAutoplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change himself, i.e. the internal environment.\nAlloplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change the situation, i.e. the external environment."}, {"id": 21559940, "title": "Animal spirits (Keynes)", "abstract": "Animal spirits is a term used by John Maynard Keynes in his 1936 book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money to describe the instincts, proclivities and emotions that seemingly influence human behavior, which can be measured in terms of consumer confidence."}, {"id": 2081132, "title": "Antilocution", "abstract": "Antilocution describes a form of prejudice in which negative verbal remarks against a person, group, or community, are made but not addressed directly to the subject."}, {"id": 862496, "title": "Assertiveness", "abstract": "Assertiveness is the quality of being self-assured and confident without being aggressive to defend a right point of view or a relevant statement. In the field of psychology and psychotherapy, it is a skill that can be learned and a mode of communication. Dorland's Medical Dictionary defines assertiveness as: \n\n\"a form of behavior characterized by a confident declaration or affirmation of a statement without need of proof; this affirms the person's rights or point of view without either aggressively threatening the rights of another (assuming a position of dominance) or submissively permitting another to ignore or deny one's rights or point of view.\"Assertiveness is a communication skill that can be taught and the skills of assertive communication effectively learned.\nAssertiveness is a method of critical thinking, where an individual speaks up in defense of their views or in light of erroneous information. Additionally, assertive people are capable of being outspoken and analyze information and point out areas of information lacking substance, details or evidence. Thus, it can be noted that assertiveness supports creative thinking and effective communication.\nThe level of assertiveness demonstrated in any human community is a factor of social and cultural practices at the time of inquiry. These factors can evolve with time and may vary from one community to another. For example, nowadays, in the western world, there are global public discussions about controversial topics such as drug addiction, rape and sexual abuse of women and children, which were not openly discussed in 1940.\nHowever, during the second half of the 20th century, assertiveness was increasingly singled out as a behavioral skill taught by many personal development experts, behavior therapists, and cognitive behavioral therapists. But now assertiveness is often linked to self-esteem. The term and concept was popularized to the general public by books such as Your Perfect Right: A Guide to Assertive Behavior (1970) by Robert Eating."}, {"id": 25992931, "title": "Attention seeking", "abstract": "Attention seeking behavior is to act in a way that is likely to elicit attention. Attention seeking behavior is defined in the DSM-5 as \"engaging in behavior designed to attract notice and to make oneself the focus of others' attention and admiration\".:\u200a780\u200a This definition does not ascribe a motivation to the behavior and assumes a human actor, although the term \"attention seeking\" sometimes also assumes a motive of seeking validation. People are thought to engage in both positive and negative attention seeking behavior independent of the actual benefit or harm to health. In line with much research and a dynamic self-regulatory processing model of narcissism, motivations for attention seeking are considered to be driven by self-consciousness and thus an externalization of personality rather than internal and self-motivated behavior. Attention seeking is often caused by threats to one's self-concept and the need for social acceptance. This type of influence on behavior can result in a potential loss of a person's sense of agency, personality disorder and the behavior associated with these conditions.\nEnjoying the attention of others is socially acceptable in some situations, and attention-seeking may be adaptive in some contexts like acting (upstaging) or marketing. However, an excessive need for attention is often a symptom of an underlying personality disorder and can lead to difficulties in interpersonal relationships. One strategy often used by teachers and behavior analysts to counter attention-seeking behavior is planned or tactical ignoring."}, {"id": 1962537, "title": "Attitude change", "abstract": "Attitudes are associated beliefs and behaviors towards some object. They are not stable, and because of the communication and behavior of other people, are subject to change by social influences, as well as by the individual's motivation to maintain cognitive consistency when cognitive dissonance occurs\u2014when two attitudes or attitude and behavior conflict. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of affective and cognitive components. It has been suggested that the inter-structural composition of an associative network can be altered by the activation of a single node. Thus, by activating an affective or emotional node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined."}, {"id": 13413800, "title": "Autoplastic adaptation", "abstract": "Autoplastic adaptation (from the Greek word auto) is a form of adaptation where the subject attempts to change itself when faced with a difficult situation.\nThe concept of autoplastic adaptation was developed by Sigmund Freud, S\u00e1ndor Ferenczi, and Franz Alexander. They proposed that when an individual was presented with a stressful situation, he could react in one of two ways: \n\nAutoplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change himself, i.e. the internal environment.\nAlloplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change the situation, i.e. the external environment."}, {"id": 24747438, "title": "Avoidance coping", "abstract": "In psychology, avoidance coping is a coping mechanism and form of experiential avoidance. It is characterized by a person's efforts, conscious or unconscious, to avoid dealing with a stressor in order to protect oneself from the difficulties the stressor presents. Avoidance coping can lead to substance abuse, social withdrawal, and other forms of escapism. High levels of avoidance behaviors may lead to a diagnosis of avoidant personality disorder, though not everyone who displays such behaviors meets the definition of having this disorder. Avoidance coping is also a symptom of post-traumatic stress disorder and related to symptoms of depression and anxiety. Additionally, avoidance coping is part of the approach-avoidance conflict theory introduced by psychologist Kurt Lewin.Literature on coping often classifies coping strategies into two broad categories: approach/active coping and avoidance/passive coping. Approach coping includes behaviors that attempt to reduce stress by alleviating the problem directly, and avoidance coping includes behaviors that reduce stress by distancing oneself from the problem. Traditionally, approach coping has been seen as the healthiest and most beneficial way to reduce stress, while avoidance coping has been associated with negative personality traits, potentially harmful activities, and generally poorer outcomes. However, avoidance coping can reduce stress when nothing can be done to address the stressor."}, {"id": 53782753, "title": "Behavior change (individual)", "abstract": "A behavioral change can be a temporary or permanent effect that is considered a change in an individual's behavior when compared to previous behavior. It is sometimes considered a mental disorder, yet it is also a strategy used to improve such disorders. This change is generally characterized by changes in thinking, interpretations, emotions, or relationships. These changes can be either good or bad, depending on which behavior is being affected. Often, it takes much more work to change behavior for the better than it does to experience a negative change. Medications can cause this change as a side effect. The interaction between physiological processes and their effect on individual behavior is the basis of psychophysiology. Several theories exist as to why and how behavioral change can be affected, including behaviorism, Self-efficacy theory, and the stages of change model.Behavioral change can be very beneficial to an individual. Two such theories on the subject include behavior modification theory and cognitive behavioral theory. Both of these seek to help a patient engage in a positive behavioral change. Both legal and illegal drugs have been shown to alter behavior, both acutely and chronically. In both cases, following common sense harm reduction strategies can potentially reduce these side-effects. With mental illness, behavioral change is a menace, with drugs it is expected, and with the right techniques it can be a method to improve quality of life. In recent decades there has been an increased knowledge of common causes of these changes, such as mental illness and drug use, while several psychological fields regarding the study of inducing beneficial changes in individuals have been developed and applied, resulting in a variety of novel solutions."}, {"id": 1573182, "title": "Behavior change (public health)", "abstract": "Behavior change, in context of public health, refers to efforts put in place to change people's personal habits and attitudes, to prevent disease. Behavior change in public health can take place at several levels and is known as social and behavior change (SBC). More and more, efforts focus on prevention of disease to save healthcare care costs. This is particularly important in low and middle income countries, where supply side health interventions have come under increased scrutiny because of the cost."}, {"id": 61926174, "title": "Behavioral change support system", "abstract": "A Behavioral Change Support System (BCSS) is any information and communications technology (ICT) tool, web platform, or gamified environment which targets behavioral changes in its end-users. BCSS are built upon persuasive systems design techniques."}, {"id": 13552978, "title": "Behavioral confirmation", "abstract": "Behavioral confirmation is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations. The phenomenon of belief creating reality is known by several names in literature: self-fulfilling prophecy, expectancy confirmation, and behavioral confirmation, which was first coined by social psychologist Mark Snyder in 1984. Snyder preferred this term because it emphasizes that it is the target's actual behavior that confirms the perceiver's beliefs.:\u200a68"}, {"id": 19682421, "title": "Behavioral contagion", "abstract": "Behavioral contagion is a form of social contagion involving the spread of behavior through a group. It refers to the propensity for a person to copy a certain behavior of others who are either in the vicinity, or whom they have been exposed to. The term was originally used by Gustave Le Bon in his 1895 work The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind to explain undesirable aspects of behavior of people in crowds. In the digital age, behavioral contagion is also concerned with the spread of online behavior and information. A variety of behavioral contagion mechanisms were incorporated in  models of collective human behavior.Behavioral contagion has been attributed to a variety of different factors. Often it is distinguished from collective behavior that arises from a direct attempt at social influence. A prominent theory involves the reduction of restraints, put forth by Fritz Redl in 1949 and analyzed in depth by Ladd Wheeler in 1966. Social psychologists acknowledge a number of other factors, which influence the likelihood of behavioral contagion occurring, such as deindividuation (Festinger, Pepitone, & Newcomb, 1952) and the emergence of social norms (Turner, 1964). In 1980, Freedman et al. have focused on the effects of physical factors on contagion, in particular, density and number.J. O. Ogunlade (1979, p. 205) describes behavioral contagion as a \"spontaneous, unsolicited and uncritical imitation of another's behavior\" that occurs when certain variables are met: a) the observer and the model share a similar situation or mood (this is one way behavioral contagion can be readily applied to mob psychology); b) the model's behavior encourages the observer to review his condition and to change it; c) the model's behavior would assist the observer to resolve a conflict by reducing restraints, if copied; and d) the model is assumed to be a positive reference individual."}, {"id": 33673135, "title": "Behavioral ethics", "abstract": "Behavioural ethics is a new field of social scientific research that seeks to understand how people actually behave when confronted with ethical dilemmas. It refers to behaviour that is judged according to generally accepted norms of behaviour.Behavioural ethics lead to the development of ethical models such as the so-called \"bystander intervention\", which describes ethical behavior as far harder to display because of what we learn from social institutions such as family, school, and religion. Here, intervening in an ethically challenging situation means that an individual must go through several steps and that failure to complete all means a failure to behave ethically."}, {"id": 34534118, "title": "Behavioral urbanism", "abstract": "Behavioral urbanism and its related area of study, behavioral architecture, is an interdisciplinary field focused on the interaction between humans and the built environment, studying the effects of social, cognitive, and emotional factors in understanding the spatial behavior of individuals."}, {"id": 63035175, "title": "Behavioural archaeology", "abstract": "Behavioural archaeology is an archaeological theory that expands upon the nature and aims of archaeology in regards to human behaviour and material culture. The theory was first published in 1975 by American archaeologist Michael B. Schiffer and his colleagues J. Jefferson Reid, and William L. Rathje. The theory proposes four strategies that answer questions about past, and present cultural behaviour. It is also a means for archaeologists to observe human behaviour and the archaeological consequences that follow.The theory was developed as a reaction to changes in archaeological thought, and expanding archaeological practise during the mid-late 20th century. It reacted to the increasing number of sub-disciplines emerging within archaeology as each came with their own unique methodologies. The theory was also a reaction to the processual thought process that emerged within the discipline some years prior.In recent years the use of behavioural archaeology has been regarded as a significant contribution to the archaeological community. The strategies outlined by Schiffer and his colleagues have developed into sub-disciplines or methodologies that are used and well-regarded in contemporary archaeological practise. Behavioural archaeology has positive effects on the method in which archaeologists use to reconstruct human behaviour."}, {"id": 694295, "title": "Chocoholic", "abstract": "A chocoholic is a person who craves or compulsively consumes chocolate. The word \"chocoholic\" was first used in 1968, according to Merriam-Webster. It is a portmanteau of \"chocolate\" and \"alcoholic\". The term is used loosely or humorously to describe a person who is inordinately fond of chocolate; however, there is medical evidence to support the existence of actual addiction to chocolate.  Psychoactive constituents of chocolate that trigger a \u2018feel-good\u2019 reaction for the consumer include tryptophan and phenylethylamine, which may contribute to cravings and addiction-like responses, particularly in people with specific genetic alleles. The quantity of sugars used in chocolate confections also impacts the psychoactive effects of chocolate.Although the concept of a chocolate addiction is still controversial in the medical literature, chocolate (especially dark chocolate) is considered to have effects on mood, and chocolate confectioneries almost always top the list of foods people say they crave. The craving can be so strong in some cases that chocoholics may experience withdrawal symptoms if the craving is not fulfilled."}, {"id": 11537515, "title": "Civil inattention", "abstract": "Civil inattention is the process whereby strangers who are in close proximity demonstrate that they are aware of one another, without imposing on each other \u2013 a recognition of the claims of others to a public space, and of their own personal boundaries."}, {"id": 61613309, "title": "Communal coping", "abstract": "Communal coping is the collective effort of members of a connected network (familial or social) to manage a distressing event (Lyons, Michelson, Sullivan and Coyne, 1998). This definition and the scope of the concept positions communal coping as an offshoot of social support. According to Lyons et al. (1998), the communal coping conceptual framework emerged for two reasons. First, to expand the research that supports the claim that the coping process sometimes requires individual and collective effort (e.g. Fukuyama, 1995). Second, the need for a specific framework for investigating the cooperative characteristic of coping. To support the need for a framework which explores the social aspect of coping as a combined effort, the authors argued that the communal coping conceptual framework emphasizes the connectedness and reliance on personal network for coping. Developments to the communal coping framework include the explanation of the complex nature of the communal coping process (Afifi, Helgeson & Krouse, 2006) and specific personal outcomes (Helgeson, Jakubiak, Vleet, & Zajdel, 2018) following a communal coping process."}, {"id": 74446282, "title": "Competence (polyseme)", "abstract": "Competence (also called competency or capability) is a polyseme indicating a variety of different notions. In current literature, three notions are most evident. The first notion is that of a general competence, which is someone's capacity or ability to perform effectively on a specified set of behavioral attributes (e.g. performances, skills, attitudes, tasks, roles, talents, and so forth). The second notion refers to someone's capacity or ability to successfully perform a specific behavioral attribute \u2014 be it overt or covert \u2014 like learning a language, reading a book or playing a musical instrument. In both notions, someone may be qualified as being competent. In a third notion, behavioral attribute and competence are synonymous. One may for example excel at the competence of baking, the competency of ceramics, or the capability of reflexivity.\nThe pluralized forms of competence and competency are respectively competences and competencies. According to Boyatzis (2008) competencies are part of a behavioral approach to emotional, social, and cognitive intelligence. Moreover, competence is measurable and can be developed through training. In the context of human resources, practice may enable someone to improve the efficiency or performance of an activity or a job.Concepts like knowledge, expertise, values or desires are not behavioral attributes but can be contained in behavior once executed. Take for example sharing knowledge or actualizing a desire."}, {"id": 1060279, "title": "Coping", "abstract": "Coping refers to conscious strategies used to reduce unpleasant emotions. Coping strategies can be cognitions or behaviors and can be individual or social. To cope is to deal with and overcome struggles and difficulties in life. It is a way for people to maintain their mental and emotional well-being. Everybody has ways of handling difficult events that occur in life, and that is what it means to cope. Coping can be healthy and productive, or destructive and unhealthy. It is recommended that an individual cope in ways that will be beneficial and healthy. \"Managing your stress well can help you feel better physically and psychologically and it can impact your ability to perform your best.\""}, {"id": 56733622, "title": "Coping planning", "abstract": "Coping planning is an approach to supporting people who are distressed. It is part of a biopsychosocial approach to mental health and well-being that comprises healthy environments, responsive parenting, belonging, healthy activities, coping, psychological resilience and treatment of illness. Coping planning normalises distress as a universal human experience. It draws on a health-focused approach to coping, to improve emotion regulation and decrease the memory of unpleasant emotions. Coping planning interventions are effective when people are supported in the process of forming coping plans."}, {"id": 151604, "title": "Deception", "abstract": "Deception is an act or statement that misleads, hides the truth, or promotes a belief, concept, or idea that is not true. This occurs when a deceiver uses information against a person to make them believe an idea is true. Deception can be used with both verbal and nonverbal messages. The person creating the deception knows it to be false while the receiver of the message has a tendency to believe it (although it\u2019s not always the case). It is often done for personal gain or advantage. Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda and sleight of hand as well as distraction, camouflage or concealment. There is also self-deception, as in bad faith. It can also be called, with varying subjective implications, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, ruse, or subterfuge.\nDeception is a major relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal and distrust between relational partners. Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a negative violation of expectations. Most people expect friends, relational partners, and even strangers to be truthful most of the time. If people expected most conversations to be untruthful, talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information. A significant amount of deception occurs between some romantic and relational partners.Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort, or contract law (where it is known as misrepresentation or fraudulent misrepresentation if deliberate), or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud. It also forms a vital part of psychological warfare in denial and deception."}, {"id": 42306483, "title": "Denunciation", "abstract": "Denunciation (from Latin denuntiare, \"to denounce\") is the act of publicly assigning to a person the blame for a perceived wrongdoing, with the hope of bringing attention to it.\nNotably, centralized social control in authoritarian states requires some level of cooperation from the populace. The following two forms of cooperation occur: first, authorities actively use incentives to elicit denunciations from the populace, either through coercion or through the promise of  rewards. Second, authorities passively gain access to political negative networks, as individuals denounce to harm others whom they dislike and to gain relative to them. Paradoxically, social control is most effective when authorities provide individuals maximum freedom to direct its coercive power. The most famous informer in western cultural history is Judas - according to the New Testament, Judas, one of the twelve disciples of Jesus of Nazareth,  betrayed Jesus, making his arrest and his subsequent delivery to the  Romans possible. \nCommonly, denunciation is justified by proponents because it allegedly leads to a better society by reducing or discouraging crime. The punishment of the denounced person is said to be justified because the convicted criminal is morally deserving of punishment. Yet, this reasoning does not present a compelling argument for society's right to inflict punishment on a specific individual. Society may recognize a crime's impact on law-abiding society, but traditional punishment theories do not even attempt to deal with punishment's effect on law-abiding society. Just as punishment may impact potential lawbreakers, it may also impact those who abide by the law. To fully understand society's right to inflict punishment, one must recognize punishment's full impact on all segments of society, not just on potential lawbreakers."}, {"id": 10930626, "title": "Description error", "abstract": "A description error or selection error is an error, or more specifically a human error, that occurs when a person performs the correct action on the wrong object due to insufficient specification of an action which would have led to a desired result. This commonly happens when similar actions lead to different results. A typical example is a panel with rows of identical switches, where it is easy to carry out a correct action (flip a switch) on a wrong switch due to their insufficient differentiation.This error can be very disorienting and usually causes a brief loss of situation awareness or automation surprise if noticed right away. But much worse, if it goes unnoticed, it could cause more serious problems. So allowances such as clearly highlighting a selected item should be made in interaction design.\nDonald Norman describes the subject in his book The Design of Everyday Things. There he describes how user-centered design can help account for human limitations that can lead to errors like description errors.  James Reason also covers the subject in his book Human Error."}, {"id": 68498249, "title": "Civilian victimization", "abstract": "Civilian victimization is the intentional use of violence against noncombatants in a conflict. It includes both lethal forms of violence (such as killings), as well as non-lethal forms of violence such as torture, forced expulsion, and rape.Scholars have identified various factors that may either provide incentives for the use of violence against civilians, or create incentives for restraint. Violence against civilians occurs in many types of civil conflict, and can include any acts in which force is used to harm or damage civilians or civilian targets. It can be lethal or nonlethal. During periods of armed conflict, there are structures, actors, and processes at a number of levels that affect the likelihood of violence against civilians.Violence towards civilians is not \u201cirrational, random, or the result of ancient hatreds between ethnic groups.\u201d:\u200a91\u200a Rather, violence against civilians may be used strategically in a variety of ways, including attempts to increase civilian cooperation and support; increase costs to an opponent by targeting their civilian supporters; and physically separate an opponent from its civilian supporters by removing civilians from an area.Patterns of violence towards civilians can be described at a variety of levels and a number of determinants of violence against civilians have been identified."}, {"id": 2105018, "title": "Disinhibition", "abstract": "Disinhibition, also referred to as behavioral disinhibition, is medically recognized as an orientation towards immediate gratification, leading to impulsive behaviour driven by current thoughts, feelings, and external stimuli, without regard for past learning or consideration for future consequences. It is one of five pathological personality trait domains in certain psychiatric disorders. In psychology, it is defined as a lack of restraint manifested in disregard of social conventions, impulsivity, and poor risk assessment. Hypersexuality, hyperphagia, and aggressive outbursts are indicative of disinhibited instinctual drives.Certain psychoactive substances that have effects on the limbic system of the brain may induce disinhibition."}, {"id": 675275, "title": "Distraction", "abstract": "Distraction is the process of diverting the attention of an individual or group from a desired area of focus and thereby blocking or diminishing the reception of desired information. Distraction is caused by: the lack of ability to pay attention; lack of interest in the object of attention; or the great intensity, novelty or attractiveness of something other than the object of attention. Distractions come from both external sources, and internal sources. External distractions include factors such as visual triggers, social interactions, music, text messages, and phone calls. There are also internal distractions such as hunger, fatigue, illness, worrying, and daydreaming. Both external and internal distractions contribute to the interference of focus."}, {"id": 2925542, "title": "Dropping out", "abstract": "Dropping out refers to leaving high school, college, university or another group for practical reasons, necessities, inability, apathy, or disillusionment with the system from which the individual in question leaves."}, {"id": 293526, "title": "Dual loyalty", "abstract": "In politics, dual loyalty is loyalty to two separate interests that potentially conflict with each other, leading to a conflict of interest."}, {"id": 1239477, "title": "Eccentricity (behavior)", "abstract": "Eccentricity (also called quirkiness) is an unusual or odd behavior on the part of an individual. This behavior would typically be perceived as unusual or unnecessary, without being demonstrably maladaptive. Eccentricity is contrasted with normal behavior, the nearly universal means by which individuals in society solve given problems and pursue certain priorities in everyday life. People who consistently display benignly eccentric behavior are labeled as \"eccentrics\"."}, {"id": 63309675, "title": "The Elephant in the Brain", "abstract": "The Elephant in the Brain: Hidden Motives in Everyday Life is a 2018 nonfiction book by Kevin Simler and Robin Hanson. Simler is a writer and software engineer, while Hanson is an associate professor of economics at George Mason University. The book explores self-deception and hidden motives in human behaviour. The publisher's website describes the aim of the book as 'to track down the darker, unexamined corners of our psyches and blast them with floodlights'."}, {"id": 1739069, "title": "Entomophagy in humans", "abstract": "Entomophagy in humans or human entomophagy describes the consumption of insects (entomophagy) by humans in a cultural and biological context. The scientific term used in anthropology, cultural studies, biology and medicine is anthropo-entomophagy. Anthropo-entomophagy does not include the eating of arthropods other than insects such as arachnids and myriapods, which is defined as arachnophagy.\nEntomophagy is scientifically documented as widespread among non-human primates and common among many human communities. The eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults of certain insects have been eaten by humans from prehistoric times to the present day. Around 3,000 ethnic groups practice entomophagy. Human insect-eating (anthropo-entomophagy) is common to cultures in most parts of the world, including Central and South America, Africa, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Eighty percent of the world's nations eat insects of 1,000 to 2,000 species. FAO has registered some 1,900 edible insect species and estimates that there were, in 2005, some two billion insect consumers worldwide. FAO suggests eating insects as a possible solution to environmental degradation caused by livestock production.In some societies, primarily western nations, entomophagy is uncommon or taboo. Today, insect eating is uncommon in North America and Europe, but insects remain a popular food elsewhere, and some companies are trying to introduce insects as food into Western diets.Insects eaten around the world include crickets, cicadas, grasshoppers, ants, various beetle grubs (such as mealworms, the larvae of the darkling beetle), and various species of caterpillar (such as bamboo worms, mopani worms, silkworms and waxworms)."}, {"id": 50161687, "title": "Functional Ensemble of Temperament", "abstract": "Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET) is a neurochemical model suggesting specific functional roles of main neurotransmitter systems in the regulation of behaviour."}, {"id": 48847382, "title": "Gunslinger's gait", "abstract": "The gunslinger's gait or KGB walk is a walking pattern observed in individuals associated with the KGB or the Red Army. It is a standard walk, except with the non-dominant hand swinging freely, but the other in place, near a pocket or a holster, so that the individual is ready to draw a gun at a moment's notice if there were to be an unexpected threat. This type of walk is taught in the manuals for KGB officers and it is where it is believed to have originated, but it is a recurring behavior in the Red Army and other military, security, and espionage organizations. The term \"gunslinger's gait\" was coined by a group of British researchers in 2015, who published a study analysing this unusual walking pattern in Vladimir Putin and other several high-ranked Russian government officials; Dimitry Medvedev, Anatoly Serdyukov, Sergei Ivanov, and Anatoly Sidorov. Serdyukov, Ivanov, and Sidorov all have had prior KGB or Red Army training, but Medvedev is an exception."}, {"id": 474880, "title": "Hawthorne effect", "abstract": "The Hawthorne effect is a type of human behavior reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. The effect was discovered in the context of research conducted at the Hawthorne Western Electric plant; however, some scholars think the descriptions are fictitious.The original research involved workers who made electrical relays at the Hawthorne Works, a Western Electric plant in Cicero, Illinois. Between 1924 and 1927, the lighting study was conducted. Workers experienced a series of lighting changes in which productivity was said to increase with almost any change in the lighting. This turned out not to be true. In another study associated with Elton Mayo, which ran from 1928 to 1932, a series of changes in work structure were implemented (e.g., changes in rest periods) in a group of five women. However, this was a methodologically poor, uncontrolled study that did not permit any firm conclusions to be drawn.One of the later interpretations by Henry Landsberger, a sociology professor at UNC-Chapel Hill, suggested that the novelty of being research subjects and the increased attention from such could lead to temporary increases in workers' productivity. This interpretation was dubbed \"the Hawthorne effect\"."}, {"id": 20853872, "title": "Health action process approach", "abstract": "The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) is a psychological theory of health behavior change, developed by Ralf Schwarzer, Professor of Psychology at the Freie University Berlin of Berlin, Germany and SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Wroclaw, Poland, first published in 1992.Health behavior change refers to a replacement of health-compromising behaviors (such as sedentary behavior) by health-enhancing behaviors (such as physical exercise). To describe, predict, and explain such processes, theories or models are being developed. Health behavioural change theories are designed to examine a set of psychological constructs that jointly aim at explaining what motivates people to change and how they take preventive action.HAPA is an open framework of various motivational and volitional constructs that are assumed to explain and predict individual changes in health behaviors such as quitting smoking or drinking, and improving physical activity levels, dental hygiene, seat belt use, breast self-examination, dietary behaviors, and avoiding drunk driving. HAPA suggests that the adoption, initiation, and maintenance of health behaviors should be conceived of as a structured process including a motivation phase and a volition phase. The former describes the intention formation while the latter refers to planning, and action (initiative, maintenance, recovery). The model emphasizes the particular role of perceived self-efficacy at different stages of health behavior change."}, {"id": 4744384, "title": "Human nature", "abstract": "Human nature comprises the fundamental dispositions and characteristics\u2014including ways of thinking, feeling, and acting\u2014that humans are said to have naturally. The term is often used to denote the essence of humankind, or what it 'means' to be human. This usage has proven to be controversial in that there is dispute as to whether or not such an essence actually exists.\nArguments about human nature have been a central focus of philosophy for centuries and the concept continues to provoke lively philosophical debate. While both concepts are distinct from one another, discussions regarding human nature are typically related to those regarding the comparative importance of genes and environment in human development (i.e., 'nature versus nurture'). Accordingly, the concept also continues to play a role in academic fields, such as both the natural and the social sciences, and philosophy, in which various theorists claim to have yielded insight into human nature. Human nature is traditionally contrasted with human attributes that vary among societies, such as those associated with specific cultures.\nThe concept of nature as a standard by which to make judgments is traditionally said to have begun in Greek philosophy, at least in regard to its heavy influence on Western and Middle Eastern languages and perspectives. By late antiquity and medieval times, the particular approach that came to be dominant was that of Aristotle's teleology, whereby human nature was believed to exist somehow independently of individuals, causing humans to simply become what they become. This, in turn, has been understood as also demonstrating a special connection between human nature and divinity, whereby human nature is understood in terms of final and formal causes. More specifically, this perspective believes that nature itself (or a nature-creating divinity) has intentions and goals, including the goal for humanity to live naturally. Such understandings of human nature see this nature as an \"idea\", or \"form\" of a human. However, the existence of this invariable and metaphysical human nature is subject of much historical debate, continuing into modern times.\nAgainst Aristotle's notion of a fixed human nature, the relative malleability of man has been argued especially strongly in recent centuries\u2014firstly by early modernists such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In his Emile, or On Education, Rousseau wrote: \"We do not know what our nature permits us to be.\" Since the early 19th century, such thinkers as Darwin, Freud, Marx, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Sartre, as well as structuralists and postmodernists more generally, have also sometimes argued against a fixed or innate human nature.\nCharles Darwin's theory of evolution has particularly changed the shape of the discussion, supporting the proposition that the ancestors of modern humans were not like humans today. As in much of modern science, such theories seek to explain with little or no recourse to metaphysical causation. They can be offered to explain the origins of human nature and its underlying mechanisms, or to demonstrate capacities for change and diversity which would arguably violate the concept of a fixed human nature."}, {"id": 1211612, "title": "Idleness", "abstract": "Idleness is a lack of motion or energy. In describing a person, idle suggests having no labor: \"idly passing the day\". \nIn physics, an idle machine exerts no transfer of energy. When a vehicle is not in motion, an idling engine does no useful thermodynamic work. In computing, an idle processor or network circuit is not being used by any program, application, or message."}, {"id": 25203299, "title": "Information behavior", "abstract": "Information behavior is a field of information science research that seeks to understand the way people search for and use information in various contexts. It can include information seeking and information retrieval, but it also aims to understand why people seek information and how they use it. The term 'information behavior' was coined by Thomas D. Wilson in 1982 and sparked controversy upon its introduction. The term has now been adopted and Wilson's model of information behavior is widely cited in information behavior literature. In 2000, Wilson defined information behavior as \"the totality of human behavior in relation to sources and channels of information\".A variety of theories of information behavior seek to understand the processes that surround information seeking. An analysis of the most cited publications on information behavior during the early 21st century shows its theoretical nature. Information behavior research can employ various research methodologies grounded in broader research paradigms from psychology, sociology and education.In 2003, a framework for information-seeking studies was introduced that aims to guide the production of clear, structured descriptions of research objects and positions information-seeking as a concept within information behavior."}, {"id": 25067310, "title": "Intelligent disobedience", "abstract": "Intelligent disobedience occurs where a service animal trained to help a disabled person goes directly against the owner's instructions in an effort to make a better decision. This behavior is a part of the dog's training and is central to a service animal's success on the job. The concept of intelligent disobedience has been in use and a common part of service animals' training since at least 1936."}, {"id": 60619734, "title": "Interactionism (nature versus nurture)", "abstract": "In the context of the nature-nurture debate, interactionism is the view that all human behavioral traits develop from the interaction of both \"nature\" and \"nurture\", that is, from both genetic and environmental factors. This view further holds that genetic and environmental influences on organismal development are so closely interdependent that they are inseparable from one another. Historically, it has often been confused with the statistical concept of gene-environment interaction. Historically, interactionism has presented a limited view of the manner in which behavioral traits develop, and has simply demonstrated that \"nature\" and \"nurture\" are both necessary. Among the first biologists to propose an interactionist theory of development was Daniel Lehrman. Since then, numerous interactionist perspectives have been proposed, and the contradictions between many of these perspectives has led to much controversy in evolutionary psychology and behavioral genetics. Proponents of various forms of interactionist perspectives include Philip Kitcher, who refers to his view as \"causal democracy\", and Susan Oyama, who describes her perspective as \"constructive interactionism\". Critics of interactionism include major figures in behavioral genetics such as Arthur Jensen, Robert Plomin, and philosopher Neven Sesardic."}, {"id": 691626, "title": "Irrationality", "abstract": "Irrationality is cognition, thinking, talking, or acting without rationality. \nIrrationality often has a negative connotation, as thinking and actions that are less useful or more illogical than other more rational alternatives. The concept of irrationality is especially important in Albert Ellis's rational emotive behavior therapy,  where it is characterized specifically as the tendency and leaning that humans have to act, emote and think in ways that are inflexible, unrealistic, absolutist and most importantly self-defeating and socially defeating and destructive.However, irrationality is not always viewed as a negative. Much subject matter in literature can be seen as an expression of human longing for the irrational. The Romantics valued irrationality over what they perceived as the sterile, calculating and emotionless philosophy which they thought to have been brought about by the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. Dada Surrealist art movements embraced irrationality as a means to \"reject reason and logic\". Andr\u00e9 Breton, for example, argued for a rejection of pure logic and reason which are seen as responsible for many contemporary social problems."}, {"id": 27087481, "title": "Jeitinho", "abstract": "Jeitinho (Brazilian Portuguese: [\u0292ej\u02c8t\u0283\u0129\u0272u], literally \"little way\") is a Portuguese word to describe a method of finding a way to accomplish something by circumventing or bending the rules or transgressing social conventions. The concept is a deeply ingrained part of Brazilian culture."}, {"id": 728513, "title": "Laziness", "abstract": "Laziness (also known as indolence or sloth) is disinclination to activity or exertion despite having the ability to act or to\nexert oneself. It is often used as a pejorative; terms for a person seen to be lazy\ninclude \"couch potato\", \"slacker\", and \"bludger\". Related concepts include sloth, a Christian sin, abulia, a medical term for reduced motivation, and lethargy, a state of lacking energy.\nDespite famed neurologist Sigmund Freud's discussion of the \"pleasure principle\", Leonard Carmichael noted in 1954 that \"laziness is not a word that appears in the table of contents of most technical books on psychology\". A 1931 survey found high-school students more likely to attribute their failing performance to laziness, while teachers ranked \"lack of ability\" as the major cause, with laziness coming in second. Laziness should not be confused with avolition, a negative symptom of certain mental and neurodevelopmental disorders such as  depression, ADHD, ASD, sleep disorders, substance use disorders and schizophrenia."}, {"id": 21482040, "title": "Loner", "abstract": "A loner is a person who does not seek out, actively avoids, or fails to maintain interaction with other people. There are many potential reasons for their solitude. Intentional reasons include introversion, mysticism, spirituality, religion, or personal considerations. Unintentional reasons involve being highly sensitive or shy. More than one type of loner exists, and those who meet the criteria for being called loners often actually enjoy social interactions with people but display a degree of introversion which leads them to seek out time alone."}, {"id": 47172, "title": "Misanthropy", "abstract": "Misanthropy is the general hatred, dislike, or distrust of the human species, human behavior, or human nature. A misanthrope or misanthropist is someone who holds such views or feelings. Misanthropy involves a negative evaluative attitude toward humanity that is based on humankind's flaws. Misanthropes hold that these flaws characterize all or at least the greater majority of human beings. They claim that there is no easy way to rectify them short of a complete transformation of the dominant way of life. Various types of misanthropy are distinguished in the academic literature based on what attitude is involved, at whom it is directed, and how it is expressed. Either emotions or theoretical judgments can serve as the foundation of the attitude. It can be directed at all humans without exception or exclude a few idealized people. In this regard, some misanthropes condemn themselves while others consider themselves superior to everyone else. Misanthropy is sometimes associated with a destructive outlook aiming to hurt other people or an attempt to flee society. Other types of misanthropic stances include activism by trying to improve humanity, quietism in the form of resignation, and humor mocking the absurdity of the human condition.\nThe negative misanthropic outlook is based on different types of human flaws. Moral flaws are often seen as the main factor. They include cruelty, indifference to the suffering of others, selfishness, injustice, and greed. They may result in harm to humans and animals, such as genocides and factory farming of livestock. Other flaws include intellectual flaws, like dogmatism and cognitive biases, as well as aesthetic flaws concerning ugliness and lack of sensitivity to beauty. Many debates in the academic literature discuss whether misanthropy is a valid viewpoint and what its implications are. Proponents of misanthropy usually point to human flaws and the harm they have caused as a sufficient reason for condemning humanity. Critics have responded to this line of thought by claiming that severe flaws concern only a few extreme cases, like mentally ill perpetrators, but not humanity at large. Another objection is based on the claim that humans also have virtues besides their flaws and that a balanced evaluation might be overall positive. A further criticism rejects misanthropy because of its association with hatred, which may lead to violence, and because it may make people friendless and unhappy. Defenders of misanthropy have responded by claiming that this applies only to some forms of misanthropy but not to misanthropy in general.\nA related issue concerns the question of the psychological and social factors that cause people to become misanthropes. They include socio-economic inequality, living under an authoritarian regime, and undergoing personal disappointments in life. Misanthropy is relevant in various disciplines. It has been discussed and exemplified by philosophers throughout history, like Heraclitus, Diogenes, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Arthur Schopenhauer, and Friedrich Nietzsche. Misanthropic outlooks form part of some religious teachings discussing the deep flaws of human beings, like the Christian doctrine of original sin. Misanthropic perspectives and characters are also found in literature and popular culture. They include William Shakespeare's portrayal of Timon of Athens, Moli\u00e8re's play The Misanthrope, and Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift. Misanthropy is closely related to but not identical to philosophical pessimism. Some misanthropes promote antinatalism, the view that humans should abstain from procreation."}, {"id": 43562466, "title": "Mockery", "abstract": "Mockery or mocking is the act of insulting or making light of a person or other thing, sometimes merely by taunting, but often by making a caricature, purporting to engage in imitation in a way that highlights unflattering characteristics. Mockery can be done in a lighthearted and gentle way, but can also be cruel and hateful, such that it \"conjures images of corrosion, deliberate degradation, even subversion; thus, 'to laugh at in contempt, to make sport of' (OED)\". Mockery appears to be unique to humans, and serves a number of psychological functions, such as reducing the perceived imbalance of power between authority figures and common people. Examples of mockery can be found in literature and the arts."}, {"id": 569092, "title": "Behavioral modernity", "abstract": "Behavioral modernity is a suite of behavioral and cognitive  traits that distinguishes current Homo sapiens from other anatomically modern humans, hominins, and primates. Most scholars agree that modern human behavior can be characterized by abstract thinking, planning depth, symbolic behavior (e.g., art, ornamentation), music and dance, exploitation of large game, and blade technology, among others.\nUnderlying these behaviors and technological innovations are cognitive and cultural foundations that have been documented experimentally and ethnographically by evolutionary and cultural anthropologists. These human universal patterns include cumulative cultural adaptation, social norms, language, and extensive help and cooperation beyond close kin.Within the tradition of evolutionary anthropology and related disciplines, it has been argued that the development of these modern behavioral traits, in combination with the climatic conditions of the Last Glacial Period and Last Glacial Maximum causing population bottlenecks, contributed to the evolutionary success of Homo sapiens worldwide relative to Neanderthals, Denisovans, and other archaic humans.Debate continues as to whether anatomically modern humans were behaviorally modern as well. There are many theories on the evolution of behavioral modernity. These generally fall into two camps: cognitive and gradualist approaches. The Later Upper Paleolithic Model theorizes that modern human behavior arose through cognitive, genetic changes in Africa abruptly around 40,000\u201350,000 years ago around the time of the Out-of-Africa migration, prompting the movement of modern humans out of Africa and across the world.Other models focus on how modern human behavior may have arisen through gradual steps, with the archaeological signatures of such behavior appearing only through demographic or subsistence-based changes. Many cite evidence of behavioral modernity earlier (by at least about 150,000\u201375,000 years ago and possibly earlier) namely in the African Middle Stone Age. Sally McBrearty and Alison S. Brooks are notable proponents of gradualism, challenging European-centric models by situating more change in the Middle Stone Age of African pre-history, though this version of the story is more difficult to develop in concrete terms due to a thinning fossil record as one goes further back in time."}, {"id": 61739095, "title": "Nature Human Behaviour", "abstract": "Nature Human Behaviour is a monthly multidisciplinary online-only peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of human behaviour. It was established in January 2017 and is published by Nature Portfolio. The editor-in-chief is Stavroula Kousta. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 29.9."}, {"id": 39807, "title": "Nature versus nurture", "abstract": "Nature versus nurture is a long-standing debate in biology and society about the relative influence on human beings of their genetic inheritance (nature) and the environmental conditions of their development (nurture). The alliterative expression \"nature and nurture\" in English has been in use since at least the Elizabethan period and goes back to medieval French.\nThe complementary combination of the two concepts is an ancient concept (Ancient Greek: \u1f01\u03c0\u03cc \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f50\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1\u03c2). Nature is what people think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning on an individual.\nThe phrase in its modern sense was popularized by the Victorian polymath Francis Galton, the modern founder of eugenics and behavioral genetics when he was discussing the influence of heredity and  environment on social advancement. Galton was influenced by On the Origin of Species written by his half-cousin, the evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin.\nThe view that humans acquire all or almost all their behavioral traits from \"nurture\" was termed tabula rasa ('blank tablet, slate') by John Locke in 1690. A blank slate view (sometimes termed blank-slatism) in human developmental psychology, which assumes that human behavioral traits develop almost exclusively from environmental influences, was widely held during much of the 20th century.  The debate between \"blank-slate\" denial of the influence of heritability, and the view admitting both environmental and heritable traits, has often been cast in terms of nature versus nurture. These two conflicting approaches to human development were at the core of an ideological dispute over research agendas throughout the second half of the 20th century. As both \"nature\" and \"nurture\" factors were found to contribute substantially, often in an inextricable manner, such views were seen as naive or outdated by most scholars of human development by the 21st century.The strong dichotomy of nature versus nurture has thus been claimed to have limited relevance in some fields of research. Close feedback loops have been found in which nature and nurture influence one another constantly, as seen in self-domestication. In ecology and behavioral genetics, researchers think nurture has an essential influence on the nature of an individual. Similarly in other fields, the dividing line between an inherited and an acquired trait becomes unclear, as in epigenetics or fetal development."}, {"id": 28066742, "title": "Neanderthal behavior", "abstract": "Almost everything about Neanderthal behaviour remains controversial. From their physiology, Neanderthals are presumed to have been omnivores, but animal protein formed the majority of their dietary protein, showing them to have been carnivorous apex predators and not scavengers. Although very little is known of their social organization, it appears patrilines would make up the nucleus of the tribe, and women would seek out partners in neighbouring tribes once reaching adolescence, presumably to avoid inbreeding. An analysis based on finger-length ratios suggests that Neanderthals were more sexually competitive and promiscuous than modern-day humans.The quality of stone tools at archaeological sites suggests Neanderthals were good at \"expert\" cognition, a form of observational learning and practice \u2013 acquired through apprenticeship \u2013 that relies heavily on long-term procedural memory. Neanderthal toolmaking changed little over hundreds of thousands of years. The lack of innovation may imply a reduced capacity for thinking by analogy and less working memory. Researchers have speculated that Neanderthal behaviour would probably seem neophobic, dogmatic and xenophobic to modern humans,  and of a degree of rationality. There is genetic evidence that supports interbreeding with Homo sapiens, language capability (including the FOXP2 gene), archaeological signs of cultural development and potential for cumulative cultural evolution. Few Neanderthals lived past the age of 35."}, {"id": 674639, "title": "Neophobia", "abstract": "Neophobia is the fear of anything new, but is directly correlated with conditions such as OCD or autism spectrum disorder. In its milder form, it can manifest as the unwillingness to try new things or break from routine. In the context of children, the term is generally used to indicate a tendency to reject unknown or novel foods. Food neophobia, as it may be referred to, is an important concern in pediatric psychology.In biomedical research, neophobia is often associated with the study of taste."}, {"id": 1791712, "title": "Normality (behavior)", "abstract": "Normality is a behavior that can be normal for an individual (intrapersonal normality) when it is consistent with the most common behavior for that person. Normal is also used to describe individual behavior that conforms to the most common behavior in society (known as conformity). However, normal behavior is often only recognized in contrast to abnormality. In many cases normality is used to make moral judgements, such that normality is seen as good while abnormality is seen as bad, or conversely normality can be seen as boring and uninteresting. Someone being seen as normal or not normal can have social ramifications, such as being included, excluded or stigmatized by wider society."}, {"id": 11132183, "title": "Normative social influence", "abstract": "Normative social influence is a type of social influence that leads to conformity. It is defined in social psychology as \"...the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them.\" The power of normative social influence stems from the human identity as a social being, with a need for companionship and association.Normative social influence involves a change in behaviour that is deemed necessary in order to fit in a particular group. The need for a positive relationship with the people around leads us to conformity. This fact often leads to people exhibiting public compliance\u2014but not necessarily private acceptance\u2014of the group's social norms in order to be accepted by the group. Social norms refers to the unwritten rules that govern social behavior. These are customary standards for behavior that are widely shared by members of a culture.In many cases, normative social influence serves to promote social cohesion. When a majority of group members conform to social norms, the group generally becomes more stable. This stability translates into social cohesion, which allows group members to work together toward a common understanding, or \"good,\" but also has the unintended impact of making the group members less individualistic."}, {"id": 358677, "title": "Obedience (human behavior)", "abstract": "Obedience, in human behavior, is a form of \"social influence in which a person yields to explicit instructions or orders from an authority figure\". Obedience is generally distinguished from compliance, which some authors define as  behavior influenced by peers while others use it as a more general term for positive responses to another individual's request, and from conformity, which is behavior intended to match that of the majority.  Depending on context, obedience can be seen as moral, immoral, or amoral. For example, in psychological research, individuals are usually confronted with immoral demands designed to elicit an internal conflict. If individuals still choose to submit to the demand, they are acting obediently.Humans have been shown to be obedient in the presence of perceived legitimate authority figures, as shown by the Milgram experiment in the 1960s, which was carried out by Stanley Milgram to find out how the Nazis managed to get ordinary people to take part in the mass murders of the Holocaust. The experiment showed that obedience to authority was the norm, not the exception. Regarding obedience, Milgram said that \"Obedience is as basic an element in the structure of social life as one can point to. Some system of authority is a requirement of all communal living, and it is only the man dwelling in isolation who is not forced to respond, through defiance or submission, to the commands of others.\" A similar conclusion was reached in the Stanford prison experiment."}, {"id": 88369, "title": "Obfuscation", "abstract": "Obfuscation is the obscuring of the intended meaning of communication by making the message difficult to understand, usually with confusing and ambiguous language. The obfuscation might be either unintentional or intentional (although intent usually is connoted), and is accomplished with circumlocution (talking around the subject), the use of jargon (technical language of a profession), and the use of an argot (ingroup language) of limited communicative value to outsiders.In expository writing, unintentional obfuscation usually occurs in draft documents, at the beginning of composition; such obfuscation is illuminated with critical thinking and editorial revision, either by the writer or by an editor. Etymologically, the word obfuscation derives from the Latin obfuscatio, from obfusc\u0101re (to darken); synonyms include the words beclouding and abstrusity."}, {"id": 8768899, "title": "Obstructionism", "abstract": "Obstructionism is the practice of deliberately delaying or preventing a process or change, especially in politics."}, {"id": 2396037, "title": "Opportunism", "abstract": "Opportunism is the practice of taking advantage of circumstances \u2013 with little regard for principles or with what the consequences are for others. Opportunist actions are expedient actions guided primarily by self-interested motives. The term can be applied to individual humans and living organisms, groups, organizations, styles, behaviors, and trends.\nOpportunism or \"opportunistic behaviour\" is an important concept in such fields of study as biology, transaction cost economics, game theory, ethics, psychology, sociology and politics."}, {"id": 1127548, "title": "Passive-aggressive behavior", "abstract": "Passive-aggressive behavior is characterized by a pattern of passive hostility and an avoidance of direct communication. Inaction where some action is socially customary is a typical passive-aggressive strategy (showing up late for functions, staying silent when a response is expected).  Such behavior is sometimes protested by associates, evoking exasperation or confusion. People who are recipients of passive-aggressive behavior may experience anxiety due to the discordance between what they perceive and what the perpetrator is saying."}, {"id": 973778, "title": "Pedant", "abstract": "A pedant ( PED-ent) is a person who is excessively concerned with formalism, accuracy and precision, or one who makes an ostentatious and arrogant show of learning."}, {"id": 822164, "title": "Personal advertisement", "abstract": "A personal advertisement, sometimes called a contact ad, is a form of classified advertising in which a person seeks to find another person for friendship, romance, marriage, or sexual activity. In British English, it is commonly known as an advert in a lonely hearts column. In India, it is a dating ad or matrimonial ad.\nThe earliest personal ads were placed in newspapers among other classified ads, and typically had matrimony as the objective. As interest in personal ads grew, newspapers provided personals sections specifically for those ads. Later, newspapers and magazines for the sole purpose of personal ads were published. Lonely hearts clubs were organized in the 20th century to provide listings of ads to their fee-paying members. With the advent of the Internet, personal ads began to appear on online sites as well, eventually turning into profiles on dating sites and apps.\nPersonal ads have been described by a researcher as \"a valuable way of finding potential mates for those whose social world has been artificially constrained by contemporary urban life and the demands of modern employment practices\". However, personals have also been used by criminals\u2014con artists, fraudsters, and killers\u2014to find and lure victims.\nPublic opinion toward personal ads varies over time, from disapproval and suspicion in the 17th and 18th centuries to a patriotic service in the United States during the Civil War and to general public acceptance in modern day."}, {"id": 67389627, "title": "Personal initiative", "abstract": "Personal initiative (PI) is self-starting and proactive behavior that overcomes barriers to achieve a goal. The concept was developed by Michael Frese and coworkers in the 1990s .\nThe three facets of PI \u2013 self-starting, future oriented, and overcoming barriers form a syndrome of proactive behaviors relating to each other empirically. Self-starting implies that the goals are set by an individual themselves and not by someone else. These self-started goals are often related to future orientation that involves having long-term focus and preparation for future demands and problems. Future demands can be met by proactive actions \u2013 'pro' meaning preparatory or beforehand in Greek. Thus, a proactive approach attempts to get pre-signals signifying future obstacles and developing plans to prevent them. Implementation of long-term goals often leads to new setbacks.  Initiative, therefore, implies that one will overcome these barriers actively and persistently.\nPI stands in contrast to a passive approach, which is characterized by doing what one is told, giving up when faced with difficulties, and reacting to environmental demands. Proponents of PI have argued that it may become more important in future workplaces as they require a high degree of self-reliance.PI is often conceptualized as the behavioral component of the general proactivity concept; it is also related but not identical to work engagement."}, {"id": 74619486, "title": "Pet humanization", "abstract": "Pet humanization is a form of anthropomorphism in which pets, typically animals kept for companionship such as dogs, cats and even smaller animals like rabbits or hamsters, are treated more like human family members than traditional pets. This trend of pet culture involves providing pets with a higher level of care, attention and often even luxury, similar to the way humans are treated.\nThe phenomenon of pet humanization refers to pets kept for companionship that are treated, cared for and valued in a manner that mirrors the way humans are treated within a family or social context. It involves attributing human-like qualities, emotions and needs to pets and providing them with care, attention and comforts similar to those given to human family members.  In a pet-humanized context, pets are often regarded as beloved members of the family, rather than just animals or possessions.\nIt is important to note that pet humanization can have both positive and negative aspects. On the positive side, it reflects a deep love and care for animals and can lead to improved welfare and well-being for pets. However, it can potentially lead to unrealistic expectations, anthropomorphism and overlooking the unique needs and behaviors of different species.\nOverall, pet humanization is a complex and evolving cultural shift that reflects the evolving role of pets in modern society and the deep emotional connections people form with their animal companions."}, {"id": 901369, "title": "Pet peeve", "abstract": "A pet peeve, pet aversion, or pet hate is a minor annoyance that an individual finds particularly irritating to a greater degree than the norm."}, {"id": 11963403, "title": "Phi complex", "abstract": "The phi complex is a brain rhythm in the awake human brain that appears to serve various social functions. Phi is one of several brain rhythms in the awake human brain that coordinate human behavior. \"Phi\" operates in the 10-Hz band (ten oscillations per second), and is located above the right centro-parietal cortex. It consists of two components, one favoring independent behaviors, and the other favoring interpersonal coordination between people.\nThe brain wave patterns of the phi complex are consistent with those of waves produced in the human mirror neuron system. The phi complex may reflect the influence of one person upon another's behavior, with phi-1 expressing the inhibition of the human mirror neuron system and phi-2 its enhancement."}, {"id": 229719, "title": "Popularity", "abstract": "In sociology, popularity is how much a person, idea, place, item or other concept is either liked or accorded status by other people. Liking can be due to reciprocal liking, interpersonal attraction, and similar factors. Social status can be due to dominance, superiority, and similar factors. For example, a kind person may be considered likable and therefore more popular than another person, and a wealthy person may be considered superior and therefore more popular than another person.\nThere are two primary types of interpersonal popularity: perceived and sociometric. Perceived popularity is measured by asking people who the most popular or socially important people in their social group are. Sociometric popularity is measured by objectively measuring the number of connections a person has to others in the group. A person can have high perceived popularity without having high sociometric popularity, and vice versa.\nAccording to psychologist Tessa Lansu at the Radboud University Nijmegen, \"Popularity [has] to do with being the middle point of a group and having influence on it.\""}, {"id": 364338, "title": "Respect", "abstract": "Respect, also called esteem, is a positive feeling or deferential action shown towards someone or something considered important or held in high esteem or regard. It conveys a sense of admiration for good or valuable qualities. It is also the process of honoring someone by exhibiting care, concern, or consideration for their needs or feelings.In many cultures, people are considered to be worthy of respect until they prove otherwise. Some people may earn special respect through their exemplary actions or social roles. In so-called \"honor cultures\", respect is more often earned in this way than granted by default. Courtesies that show respect may include simple words and phrases like \"thank you\" in the West or \"namaste\" in the Indian subcontinent, or simple physical signs like a slight bow, a smile, direct eye contact, or a handshake. Such acts may have very different interpretations depending on the cultural context."}, {"id": 61936973, "title": "Sadfishing", "abstract": "Sadfishing is a term used to describe a behavioural trend where people make exaggerated claims about their emotional problems to generate sympathy. The name is a play on \"catfishing.\" Sadfishing is a common reaction for someone going through a hard time, or pretending to be going through a hard time. Sadfishing is said to hurt younger people, exposing them to bullying and child grooming. This is due to people sharing their personal and emotional stories online, a practice which sometimes result in the individual sharing the story being targeted by online abusers.\nAnother consequence of this behaviour is that people with \"real problems\" end up being overlooked or even accused of sadfishing themselves and being bullied for it.\nYoung people who seek support online have started being accused of sadfishing, a report has said. The report says that the accusations of sadfishing could further harm young people with mental health problems. Sadfishing is related to cyberbullying, and is often looked upon as a method of attention seeking. Sadfishing has been said to attract bullies and paedophiles."}, {"id": 45413769, "title": "Safety behaviors (anxiety)", "abstract": "Safety behaviors (also known as safety-seeking behaviors) are coping behaviors used to reduce anxiety and fear when the user feels threatened. An example of a safety behavior in social anxiety is to think of excuses to escape a potentially uncomfortable situation. These safety behaviors, although useful for reducing anxiety in the short term, might become maladaptive over the long term by prolonging anxiety and fear of nonthreatening situations. This problem is commonly experienced in anxiety disorders. Treatments such as exposure and response prevention focus on eliminating safety behaviors due to the detrimental role safety behaviors have in mental disorders. There is a disputed claim that safety behaviors can be beneficial to use during the early stages of treatment."}, {"id": 74041891, "title": "Selective eating", "abstract": "A variety of behaviours whereby people are highly selective in what they eat and do not eat are known as picky eating or selective eating. Picky eating is common in younger children and can be a cause of concern for parents. It is also seen in many adults. There is no generally accepted definition of picky eating. It is generally associated with increased food neophobia. It can be associated with rejecting mixed or lumpy foods. It can also be associated with sensory sensitivity.Picky eating in children may lead to a nutritionally poor diet, but cases mostly resolve with age.Picky eating can be measured with a list heuristic, where the number of foods that the person rejects on a standard list is counted. Adult picky eating may show some relationship to measures of anxiety, depression and OCD.There is debate as to whether picky eating represents an eating disorder or is related to eating disorders. Some extreme forms of picky eating are recognised as psychological disorders, like avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder, or have been proposed as psychological disorders, as with orthorexia nervosa."}, {"id": 4585349, "title": "Self-actualization", "abstract": "Self-actualization, in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, is the highest level of psychological development, where personal potential is fully realized after basic bodily and ego needs have been fulfilled.\nSelf-actualization was coined by the organismic theorist Kurt Goldstein for the motive to realize one's full potential: \"the tendency to actualize itself as fully as possible is the basic drive ... the drive of self-actualization.\" Carl Rogers similarly wrote of \"the curative force in psychotherapy \u2013 man's tendency to actualize himself, to become his potentialities ... to express and activate all the capacities of the organism.\""}, {"id": 203510, "title": "Social constructionism", "abstract": "Social constructionism is a term used in sociology, social ontology, and communication theory. The term can serve somewhat different functions in each field; however, the foundation of this theoretical framework suggests various facets of social reality\u2014such as concepts, beliefs, norms, and values\u2014are formed through continuous interactions and negotiations among society's members, rather than empirical observation of physical reality. The theory of social constructionism posits that much of what individuals perceive as 'reality' is actually the outcome of a dynamic process of construction influenced by social conventions and structures.Unlike phenomena that are innately determined or biologically predetermined, these social constructs are collectively formulated, sustained, and shaped by the social contexts in which they exist. These constructs significantly impact both the behavior and perceptions of individuals, often being internalized based on cultural narratives, whether or not these are empirically verifiable. In this two-way process of reality construction, individuals not only interpret and assimilate information through their social relations but also contribute to shaping existing societal narratives.\nExamples of social constructs range widely, encompassing the assigned value of money, conceptions of concept of self/self-identity, beauty standards, gender, language, race, ethnicity, social class, social hierarchy, nationality, religion, social norms, the modern calendar and other units of time, marriage, education, citizenship, stereotypes, femininity and masculinity, social institutions, and even the idea of 'social construct' itself. These constructs are not universal truths but are flexible entities that can vary dramatically across different cultures and societies. They arise from collaborative consensus and are shaped and maintained through collective human interactions, cultural practices, and shared beliefs. This articulates the view that people in society construct ideas or concepts that may not exist without the existence of people or language to validate those concepts, meaning without a society these constructs would cease to exist."}, {"id": 26513284, "title": "Social contagion", "abstract": "Social contagion involves behaviour, emotions, or conditions spreading spontaneously through a group or network. The phenomenon has been discussed by social scientists since the late 19th century, although much work on the subject was based on unclear or even contradictory conceptions of what social contagion is, so exact definitions vary. Some scholars include the unplanned spread of ideas through a population as social contagion, though others prefer to class that as memetics. Generally social contagion is understood to be separate from the collective behaviour which results from a direct attempt to exert social influence.\nTwo broad divisions of social contagion are behavioural contagion and emotional contagion. The study of social contagion has intensified in the 21st century. Much recent work involves academics from social psychology, sociology, and network science investigating online social networks. Studies in the 20th century typically focused on negative effects such as violent mob behaviour, whereas those of the 21st century, while sometimes looking at harmful effects, have often focused on relatively neutral contagion such as influence on shopping choices, and even on positive effects like the tendency for people to take action on climate change once a sufficient number of their neighbours do."}, {"id": 3357557, "title": "Social influences on fitness behavior", "abstract": "Physical fitness is maintained by a range of physical activities. Physical activity is defined by the World Health Organization as \"any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure.\" Human factors and social influences are important in starting and maintaining such activities. Social environments can influence motivation and persistence, through pressures towards social conformity."}, {"id": 1129572, "title": "Social loafing", "abstract": "In social psychology, social loafing is the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when working alone. It is seen as one of the main reasons groups are sometimes less productive than the combined performance of their members working as individuals.\nResearch on social loafing began with rope pulling experiments by Max Ringelmann, who found that members of a group tended to exert less effort in pulling a rope than did individuals alone. In more recent research, studies involving modern technology, such as online and distributed groups, have also shown clear evidence of social loafing. Many of the causes of social loafing stem from individual members' feeling their individual effort will not matter to the group. This is seen as one of the main reasons groups are sometimes less productive than the combined performance of their members working as individuals, but should be distinguished from the accidental coordination problems that groups sometimes experience.\nSeveral studies found the most prevalent motivational origins of social loafing to be the lack of an understanding of individual contributions, unchallenging tasks given to the individual, low personal satisfaction from the task, and lack of a united group. Theories investigating why social loafing occurs range from group members' feeling that their contributions will not be noticed to group members' realizing their efforts are not necessary. In a work setting, most managers agree if a task is new or complex that employees should work alone, while tasks that are well-known and have room for individual effort are better when done in groups.In order to diminish social loafing from a group, several strategies could be put forward. Social loafing primarily happens when an individual unconsciously or consciously exerts less effort due to a decrease in social awareness. In order to counteract the likelihood of this happening, Miguel Herraez conducted a study on students where he used accountability and cooperation when unequal participation is found. The students were encouraged to provide equal participation in the work and to point out sources of conflict that could arise. The conclusion of the study found that providing support to the group members lacking in commitment and creating options for independence among group members lowered social loafing. The support for the weaker students improves their standing while also benefiting the other students."}, {"id": 697354, "title": "Social proof", "abstract": "Social proof (or informational social influence) is a psychological and social phenomenon wherein people copy the actions of others in choosing how to behave in a given situation. The term was coined by Robert Cialdini in his 1984 book Influence: Science and Practice.\nSocial proof is used in ambiguous social situations where people are unable to determine the appropriate mode of behavior, and is driven by the assumption that the surrounding people possess more knowledge about the current situation.\nThe effects of social influence can be seen in the tendency of large groups to conform. This is referred to in some publications as the herd behavior. Although social proof reflects a rational motive to take into account the information possessed by others, formal analysis shows that it can cause people to converge too quickly upon a single distinct choice, so that decisions of even larger groups of individuals may be grounded in very little information (see information cascades).\nSocial proof is one type of conformity.  When a person is in a situation where they are unsure of the correct way to behave, they will often look to others for clues concerning the correct behavior. When \"we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more accurate than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action\", it is informational social influence.  This is contrasted with normative social influence wherein a person conforms to be liked or accepted by others.\nSocial proof often leads not only to public compliance (conforming to the behavior of others publicly without necessarily believing it is correct) but also private acceptance (conforming out of a genuine belief that others are correct).\nSocial proof is more powerful when being accurate is more important and when others are perceived as especially knowledgeable."}, {"id": 21766531, "title": "Spotlight effect", "abstract": "The spotlight effect is the psychological phenomenon by which people tend to believe they are being noticed more than they really are. Being that one is constantly in the center of one's own world, an accurate evaluation of how much one is noticed by others is uncommon. The reason for the spotlight effect is the innate tendency to forget that although one is the center of one's own world, one is not the center of everyone else's. This tendency is especially prominent when one does something atypical.Research has empirically shown that such drastic over-estimation of one's effect on others is widely common. Many professionals in social psychology encourage people to be conscious of the spotlight effect and to allow this phenomenon to moderate the extent to which one believes one is in a social spotlight."}, {"id": 4409451, "title": "Staring", "abstract": "Staring is a prolonged gaze or fixed look. In staring, one subject or person is the continual focus of visual interest, for an amount of time. Staring can be interpreted as being either hostile like disapproval of another's behavior, or the result of intense concentration, interest or affection. Staring behavior can be considered as a form of aggression like when it is an invasion of an individual's privacy in certain contexts, or as a nonverbal cue to convey feelings of attraction in a social setting. The resultant behavior or action defines whether it is aggressive in nature (e.g. leering that results in street harassment), passive or active expression of attraction, etc. However, to some extent staring often occurs accidentally, and often a person would be simply staring into a space for awareness, or could be lost in thought, stupefied, or be unable to see. As such, the meaning of a person's staring behavior depends upon the attributions made by the observer.\nIn a staring contest, a mutual staring can take the form of a battle of wills. When eye contact is reciprocated, it could be an aggressive-dominating game where the loser is the person who looks away first.\nStaring conceptually also implies confronting the inevitable \u2013 'staring death in the face', or 'staring into the abyss'. Group staring evokes and emphasizes paranoia; such as the archetypal stranger walking into a saloon in a Western to be greeted by the stares of all the regulars.  The fear of being stared at is called scopophobia."}, {"id": 16592741, "title": "Stonewalling", "abstract": "Stonewalling is a refusal to communicate or cooperate.  Such behaviour occurs in situations such as marriage guidance counseling, diplomatic negotiations, politics and legal cases.  Body language may indicate and reinforce this by avoiding contact and engagement with the other party. People use deflection in a conversation in order to render a conversation pointless and insignificant. Tactics in stonewalling include giving sparse, vague responses, refusing to answer questions, or responding to questions with additional questions. Stonewalling can be used as a stalling tactic rather than an avoidance tactic."}, {"id": 24538180, "title": "Superficial charm", "abstract": "Superficial charm (or insincere charm) refers to the social act of saying or doing things because they are well received by others, rather than what one actually believes or wants to do. It is sometimes referred to as \"telling people what they want to hear\". Generally, superficial charm is an effective way to ingratiate or persuade and it is one of the many elements of impression management/self-presentation.Flattery and charm accompanied by obvious ulterior motives is generally not socially appreciated, and most people consider themselves to be skilled at distinguishing sincere compliments from superficial, however, researchers have demonstrated that even obviously manipulative charm can be effective. While expressed attitudes are negative or dismissive, implicit attitudes are often positively affected. The effectiveness of charm and flattery, in general, stems from the recipient\u2019s natural desire to feel good about one's self.On the contrary, superficial charm can be self damaging. However, the ability to be superficially charming often leads to success in areas like the theatre, salesmanship, or politics and diplomacy. In excess, being adept in social intelligence and endlessly taking social cues from other people, can lead to the sacrificing of one's motivations and sense of self.Superficial charm can be exploitative. Individuals with antisocial personality disorder, for example, are known to have limited guilt or anxiety when it comes to exploiting others in harmful ways. While intimidation and violence are common means of exploitation, the use of superficial charm is not uncommon. Superficial charm is listed on the Hare Psychopathy Checklist."}, {"id": 25998383, "title": "Sycophancy", "abstract": "In modern English, sycophant denotes an \"insincere flatterer\" and is used to refer to someone practising sycophancy (i.e., insincere flattery to gain advantage). The word has its origin in the legal system of Classical Athens. Most legal cases of the time were brought by private litigants as there was  no police force and only a limited number of officially appointed public prosecutors. By the fifth century BC this practice had given rise to abuse by \"sycophants\": litigants who brought unjustified prosecutions. The word retains the same meaning ('slanderer') in Modern Greek, French (where it also can mean 'informer'), and Italian. In modern English, the meaning of the word has shifted to its present usage."}, {"id": 4811617, "title": "Taunting", "abstract": "A taunt is a battle cry, sarcastic remark, gesture, or insult intended to demoralize the recipient, or to anger them and encourage reactionary behaviors without thinking. Taunting can exist as a form of social competition to gain control of the target's cultural capital (i.e., status). In sociological theory, the control of the three social capitals is used to produce an advantage in the social hierarchy, so as to enforce one's own position in relation to others. Taunting is committed by either directly or indirectly encouraging others to taunt the target. The target may give a response in kind to maintain status, as in fighting words and trash-talk.\nTaunts are also a genre of folklore."}, {"id": 239414, "title": "Teasing", "abstract": "Teasing  has multiple meanings and uses. In human interactions, teasing exists in three major forms: playful, hurtful,  and educative. Teasing can have a variety of effects, depending on how it is used and its intended effect. When teasing is unwelcome, it may be regarded as harassment or mobbing, especially in the workplace and school, or as a form of bullying or emotional abuse. If done in public, it may be regarded as humiliation. Teasing can also be regarded as educative when it is used as a way of informal learning. Adults in some of the Indigenous American communities often tease children to playfully illustrate and teach them how their behavior negatively affects the community. Children in many Indigenous American communities also learn by observing what others do in addition to collaborating with them. Along with teasing, this form of informal learning is different from the ways that Western American children learn. Informal ways of child learning include mutual responsibility, as well as active collaboration with adults and peers. This differentiates from the more formal way of learning because it is not adult-oriented.\nPeople may be teased on matters such as their appearance, weight, behavior, family, gender, faith, health/medical issues, abilities, clothing, and intelligence. From the victim's point of view, this kind of teasing is often hurtful, irrespective of the intention of the teaser.\nOne may also tease an animal. Some animals, such as dogs and cats, may recognize this both as play or harassment."}, {"id": 9196294, "title": "Tend and befriend", "abstract": "Tend-and-befriend is a behavior exhibited by some animals, including humans, in response to threat. It refers to protection of offspring (tending) and seeking out their social group for mutual defense (befriending). In evolutionary psychology, tend-and-befriend is theorized as having evolved as the typical female response to stress. \nThe tend-and-befriend theoretical model was originally developed by Shelley E. Taylor and her research team at the University of California, Los Angeles and first described in a Psychological Review article published in the year 2000."}, {"id": 48722353, "title": "Token resistance", "abstract": "Token resistance is a term, commonly referred to in the seduction community, denoting a rejection of advances, almost always of the sexual kind, with intention of actually engaging in the activity that was initially rejected."}, {"id": 1064845, "title": "Turncoat", "abstract": "A turncoat is a person who shifts allegiance from one loyalty or ideal to another, betraying or deserting an original cause by switching to the opposing side or party. In political and social history, this is distinct from being a traitor, as the switch mostly takes place under the following circumstances:\n\nIn groups, often driven by one or more leaders.\nWhen the goal that formerly motivated and benefited the person becomes (or is perceived as having become) either no longer feasible or too costly even if success is achieved.From a military perspective, opposing armies generally wear uniforms of contrasting colors to prevent incidents of friendly fire.  Thus the term \"turn-coat\" indicates that an individual has changed sides and his uniform coat to one matching the color of his former enemy.  For example, in the English Civil War during the 17th century, Oliver Cromwell's soldiers turned their coats inside out to match the colors of the Royal army (see Examples below)."}, {"id": 22505590, "title": "Uncle Tom syndrome", "abstract": "Uncle Tom syndrome is a theory in multicultural psychology referring to a coping skill in which individuals use passivity and submissiveness when confronted with a threat, leading to subservient behaviour and appeasement, while concealing their true thoughts and feelings."}, {"id": 165390, "title": "Venality", "abstract": "Venality is a vice associated with being bribeable or willing to sell one's services or power, especially when people are intended to act in a decent way instead. In its most recognizable form, venality causes people to lie and steal for their own personal advantage, and is related to bribery and nepotism, among other vices.\nThough not in line with dictionary definitions of the term, modern writers often use it to connote vices only tangentially related to bribery or self-interest, such as cruelty, selfishness, and general dishonesty."}, {"id": 1150894, "title": "Victim blaming", "abstract": "Victim blaming occurs when the victim of a crime or any wrongful act is held entirely or partially at fault for the harm that befell them. There is historical and current prejudice against the victims of domestic violence and sex crimes, such as the greater tendency to blame victims of rape than victims of robbery if victims and perpetrators knew each other prior to the commission of the crime."}, {"id": 46112, "title": "Violence", "abstract": "Violence is the use of physical force to cause harm to people, animals, or property, such as pain, injury, death, damage, or destruction. Some definitions are somewhat broader, such as the World Health Organization's definition of violence as \"the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation.\"Internationally, violence resulted in deaths of an estimated 1.28 million people in 2013 up from 1.13 million in 1990. However, the global population grew by roughly 1.9 billion during those years, showing a dramatic reduction in violence per capita. Of the deaths in 2013, roughly 842,000 were attributed to self-harm (suicide), 405,000 to interpersonal violence, and 31,000 to collective violence (war) and legal intervention. For each single death due to violence, there are dozens of hospitalizations, hundreds of emergency department visits, and thousands of doctors' appointments. Furthermore, violence often has lifelong consequences for physical and mental health and social functioning and can slow economic and social development.\nIn 2013, of the estimated 405,000 deaths due to interpersonal violence globally, assault by firearm was the cause in 180,000 deaths, assault by sharp object was the cause in 114,000 deaths, and the remaining 110,000 deaths from other causes.Violence in many forms can be preventable. There is a strong relationship between levels of violence and modifiable factors in a country such as an concentrated (regional) poverty, income and gender inequality, the harmful use of alcohol, and the absence of safe, stable, and nurturing relationships between children and parents. Strategies addressing the underlying causes of violence can be relatively effective in preventing violence, although mental and physical health and individual responses, personalities, etc. have always been decisive factors in the formation of these behaviors."}, {"id": 51289352, "title": "Widowhood effect", "abstract": "The widowhood effect is the increase in the probability of a person dying a relatively short amount of time after a long-time spouse has died. It can also be referred to as \"dying of a broken heart\". Being widowed increases the likelihood of developing severe mental disorders along with psychological and other physical illnesses."}, {"id": 55466103, "title": "Witching hour", "abstract": "In folklore, the witching hour or devil's hour is a time of night that is associated with supernatural events, whereby witches, demons and ghosts are thought to appear and be at their most powerful. Definitions vary, and include the hour immediately after midnight, and the time between 3:00 am and 4:00 am. The term now has a widespread colloquial and idiomatic usage that is associated with human physiology and behaviour to more superstitious phenomena such as luck."}, {"id": 3753857, "title": "Work behavior", "abstract": "Work behavior is the behavior one uses in employment and is normally more formal than other types of human behavior. This varies from profession to profession, as some are far more casual than others. For example, a computer programmer would usually have far more leeway in their work behavior than a lawyer.\nPeople are usually more careful than outside work in how they behave around their colleagues, as many actions intended to be in jest can be perceived as inappropriate or even harassment in the work environment. In some cases, men may take considerably more care so as not to be perceived as being sexually harassing than they would ordinarily.\nWork behavior is one of the significant aspects of Human Behavior. It is an individual's communication towards the rest of the members of the work place. It involves both verbal as well as non-verbal mode of communication. For example, trust is a non-verbal behavior which is often reflected by a verbal communication at a work place. It represents your attitude towards your team and colleagues. A positive and good work behavior of an individual leads to higher performance, productivity and great outputs by the team or an individual. From the organizational perspective it is the most important area where Human Resource managers should focus."}, {"id": 33912, "title": "Working memory", "abstract": "Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. It is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience."}, {"id": 22709409, "title": "Workplace deviance", "abstract": "Workplace deviance, in group psychology, may be described as the deliberate (or intentional) desire to cause harm to an organization \u2013 more specifically, a workplace. The concept has become an instrumental component in the field of organizational communication. More accurately, it can be seen as \"voluntary behavior that violates institutionalized norms and in doing so threatens the well-being of the organization\"."}, {"id": 31595214, "title": "Yale attitude change approach", "abstract": "In social psychology, the Yale attitude change approach (also known as the Yale attitude change model) is the study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages. This approach to persuasive communications was first studied by Carl Hovland and his colleagues at Yale University during World War II. The basic model of this approach can be described as \"who said what to whom\": the source of the communication, the nature of the communication and the nature of the audience. According to this approach, many factors affect each component of a persuasive communication. The credibility and attractiveness of the communicator (source), the quality and sincerity of the message (nature of the communication), and the attention, intelligence and age of the audience (nature of the audience) can influence an audience's attitude change with a persuasive communication. Independent variables include the source, message, medium and audience, with the dependent variable the effect (or impact) of the persuasion.\nThe Yale attitude change approach has generated research and insight into the nature of persuasion. This approach has helped social psychologists understand the process of persuasion and companies make their marketing and advertising strategies more effective. Like most other theories about persuasion and attitude change, this approach is not perfect. Not a systematic theory about persuasive communications, this approach is a general framework within which research was conducted. The Yale researchers did not specify levels of importance among the factors of a persuasive message; they emphasized analyzing the aspects of attitude change over comparing them."}], "id": 2524202}, {"title": "Language", "pages": [{"id": 17524, "title": "Language", "abstract": "Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and written forms, and may also be conveyed through sign languages. The vast majority of human languages have developed writing systems that allow for the recording and preservation of the sounds or signs of language. Human language is characterized by its cultural and historical diversity, with significant variations observed between cultures and across time. Human languages possess the properties of productivity and displacement, which enable the creation of an infinite number of sentences, and the ability to refer to objects, events, and ideas that are not immediately present in the discourse. The use of human language relies on social convention and is acquired through learning.\nEstimates of the number of human languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000. Precise estimates depend on an arbitrary distinction (dichotomy) established between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken, signed, or both; however, any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli \u2013 for example, writing, whistling, signing, or braille. In other words, human language is modality-independent, but written or signed language is the way to inscribe or encode the natural human speech or gestures.\nDepending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, \"language\" may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings. Oral, manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances.\nThe scientific study of language is called linguistics. Critical examinations of languages, such as philosophy of language, the relationships between language and thought, how words represent experience, etc., have been debated at least since Gorgias and Plato in ancient Greek civilization. Thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712\u20131778) have argued that language originated from emotions, while others like Immanuel Kant (1724\u20131804) have argued that languages originated from rational and logical thought. Twentieth century philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889\u20131951) argued that philosophy is really the study of language itself. Major figures in contemporary linguistics of these times include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky.\nLanguage is thought to have gradually diverged from earlier primate communication systems when early hominins acquired the ability to form a theory of mind and shared intentionality. This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume, and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions. Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain, but especially in Broca's and Wernicke's areas. Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently by approximately three years old. Language and culture are codependent. Therefore, in addition to its strictly communicative uses, language has social uses such as signifying group identity, social stratification, as well as use for social grooming and entertainment.\nLanguages evolve and diversify over time, and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur. A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family; in contrast, a language that has been demonstrated to not have any living or non-living relationship with another language is called a language isolate. There are also many unclassified languages whose relationships have not been established, and spurious languages may have not existed at all. Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100."}, {"id": 74315764, "title": "Achuar Chicham", "abstract": "The Achuar language, known as Achuar Chicham, is an indigenous language spoken by the Achuar community. This ethnic group resides in the regions of the Pastaza, Bobonaza, Morona, Macusari, Tigre, Huasaga, and Corrientes rivers, located in Per\u00fa and Ecuador.Approximately 50% of Achuar language speakers are literate. Only 1% of those who speak Achuar as a second language are literate, as the majority prefer to use Spanish."}, {"id": 25429108, "title": "Angelic tongues", "abstract": "Angelic tongues are the languages believed by some religious traditions to be used by angels. It usually refers to sung praise in Second Temple period Jewish materials."}, {"id": 72588431, "title": "Anglicisation (linguistics)", "abstract": "In linguistics, anglicisation or anglicization is the practice of modifying foreign words, names, and phrases to make them easier to spell, pronounce or understand in English. The term commonly refers to the respelling of foreign words or loan words in English, often to a more drastic degree than that implied in, for example, romanisation. One instance is the word \"dandelion\", modified from the French dent-de-lion (\"lion's tooth\", a reference to the plant's sharply indented leaves). The term can also refer to phonological adaptation without spelling change: for example, pasta (pronounced [\u02c8pasta] in Italian) is accepted in English with Italian spelling, but anglicised phonetically in being pronounced  in American English and  in British English. The anglicisation of non-English words for use in English is just one case of the more widespread domestication of foreign words that is a feature of many languages, sometimes involving shifts in meaning. The term does not cover the unmodified adoption of foreign words into English (e.g. kindergarten) or the unmodified adoption of English words into foreign languages (e.g. internet, computer, web)."}, {"id": 20324399, "title": "Artificial language", "abstract": "Artificial languages are languages of a typically very limited size which emerge either in computer simulations between artificial agents, robot interactions or controlled psychological experiments with humans. They are different from both constructed languages and formal languages in that they have not been consciously devised by an individual or group but are the result of (distributed) conventionalisation processes, much like natural languages. Opposed to the idea of a central designer, the field of artificial language evolution in which artificial languages are studied can be regarded as a sub-part of the more general cultural evolution studies."}, {"id": 11517229, "title": "Closed-ended question", "abstract": "A closed-ended question refers to any question for which a researcher provides research participants with options from which to choose a response. Closed-ended questions are sometimes phrased as a statement which requires a response.\nA closed-ended question contrasts with an open-ended question, which cannot easily be answered with specific information."}, {"id": 20324344, "title": "Constructed language", "abstract": "A constructed language (shortened to conlang) is a language whose phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, instead of having developed naturally, are consciously devised for some purpose, which may include being devised for a work of fiction. A constructed language may also be referred to as an artificial, planned or invented language, or (in some cases) a fictional language. Planned languages (or engineered languages/engelangs) are languages that have been purposefully designed; they are the result of deliberate, controlling intervention and are thus of a form of language planning.There are many possible reasons to create a constructed language, such as to ease human communication (see international auxiliary language and code); to give fiction or an associated constructed setting an added layer of realism; for experimentation in the fields of linguistics, cognitive science, and machine learning; for artistic creation; for fantasy role-playing games; and for language games. Some people may also make constructed languages as a hobby.\nThe expression planned language is sometimes used to indicate international auxiliary languages and other languages designed for actual use in human communication. Some prefer it to the adjective artificial, as this term may be perceived as pejorative. Outside Esperanto culture, the term language planning means the prescriptions given to a natural language to standardize it; in this regard, even a \"natural language\" may be artificial in some respects, meaning some of its words have been crafted by conscious decision. Prescriptive grammars, which date to ancient times for classical languages such as Latin and Sanskrit, are rule-based codifications of natural languages, such codifications being a middle ground between na\u00efve natural selection and development of language and its explicit construction. The term glossopoeia  is also used to mean language construction, particularly construction of artistic languages.Conlang speakers are rare. For example, the Hungarian census of 2011 found 8,397 speakers of Esperanto, and the census of 2001 found 10 of Romanid, two each of Interlingua and Ido and one each of Idiom Neutral and Mundolinco. The Russian census of 2010 found that there were in Russia about 992 speakers of Esperanto (on place 120) and nine of the Esperantido Ido."}, {"id": 13775689, "title": "Cultural emphasis", "abstract": "Cultural emphasis is an important aspect of a culture which is often reflected though language and, more specifically, vocabulary. This means that the vocabulary people use in a culture indicates what is important to that group of people. If there are many words to describe a certain topic in a specific culture, then there is a good chance that that topic is considered important to that culture."}, {"id": 65969489, "title": "Degree of endangerment", "abstract": "Degree of endangerment is an evaluation assigned by UNESCO  to the languages in the Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. Evaluation is given according to nine criteria, the most important of which is the criterion of language transmission between generations."}, {"id": 8128, "title": "Dialect", "abstract": "Dialect (from Latin dialectus, dialectos, from the Ancient Greek word \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, di\u00e1lektos 'discourse', from \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac, di\u00e1 'through' and \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9, l\u00e9g\u014d 'I speak') refers to two distinctly different types of linguistic relationships. \nThe more common usage of the term refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. The dialects or varieties of a particular language are closely related and, despite their differences, are most often largely mutually intelligible, especially if geographically close to one another in a dialect continuum. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class or ethnicity. A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect, a dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed an ethnolect, and a geographical/regional dialect may be termed a regiolect (alternative terms include 'regionalect', 'geolect', and 'topolect'). Any variety of a given language can be classified as a \"dialect\", including any standardized varieties.\nThe other usage, which is specific to colloquial settings in a few countries like Italy, such as dialetto, patois in France, much of East Central Europe, and the Philippines, carries a pejorative undertone and underlines the politically and socially subordinated status of a non-national language to the country's single official language. In this case, these \"dialects\" are not actual dialects in the same sense as in the first usage, as they do not derive from one dominant language and are therefore not one of its varieties since they evolved in a separate and parallel way. While they may be historically cognate with and share genetic roots in the same subfamily as the dominant national language and may even, to a varying degree, share some mutual intelligibility with the latter, \"dialects\" under this second definition may be better defined as separate languages from the standard or national language. Under this definition, the standard or national language would not itself be considered a dialect, as it is the dominant language in terms of linguistic prestige, social or political (e.g. official) status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above. Dialect used this way implies a political connotation, being mostly used to refer to \"low-prestige\" languages (regardless of their actual degree of distance from the national language), languages lacking institutional support, or those perceived as \"unsuitable for writing\". The designation dialect is also used popularly to refer to the unwritten or non-codified languages of developing countries or isolated areas, where the term \"vernacular language\" would be preferred by linguists.Features that distinguish dialects from each other can be found in lexicon (vocabulary) and grammar, as well as in pronunciation (phonology, including prosody). In instances where the salient distinctions are only or mostly to be observed in pronunciation, the more specific term accent may be used instead of dialect.  Differences that are largely concentrated in lexicon may be classified as creoles. When lexical differences are mostly concentrated in the specialized vocabulary of a profession or other organization, they are jargons. Differences in vocabulary that are deliberately cultivated to exclude outsiders or to serve as shibboleths are known as cryptolects or cant, and include slangs and argots. The particular speech patterns used by an individual are referred to as that person's idiolect. \nLanguages are classified as dialects based on linguistic distance. The dialects of a language with a writing system will operate at different degrees of distance from the standardized written form. Some dialects of a language are not mutually intelligible in spoken form, leading to debate as to whether they are regiolects or separate languages."}, {"id": 604771, "title": "Ergative\u2013absolutive alignment", "abstract": "In linguistic typology, ergative\u2013absolutive alignment is a type of morphosyntactic alignment in which the single argument (\"subject\") of an intransitive verb behaves like the object of a transitive verb, and differently from the agent (\"subject\") of a transitive verb. Examples include Basque, Georgian, Mayan, Tibetan, and certain Indo-European languages (such as Pashto and the Kurdish languages and many Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi\u2013Urdu). It has also been attributed to the Semitic modern Aramaic (also called Neo-Aramaic) languages. Ergative languages are classified into 2 groups: those that are morphologically ergative but syntactically behave as accusative (for instance, Basque, Pashto and Urdu) and those that\u2014on top of being ergative morphologically\u2014also show ergativity in syntax. No language has been recorded in which both the morphological and syntactical ergative are present. Languages that belong to the former group are more numerous than those to the latter. Dyirbal is said to be the only representative of syntactic ergativity, yet it displays accusative alignment with certain pronouns.\nThe ergative-absolutive alignment is in contrast to nominative\u2013accusative alignment, which is observed in English and most other Indo-European languages, where the single argument of an intransitive verb (\"She\" in the sentence \"She walks\") behaves grammatically like the agent (subject) of a transitive verb (\"She\" in the sentence \"She finds it\") but different from the object of a transitive verb (\"her\" in the sentence \"He likes her\"). When ergative\u2013absolutive alignment is coded by grammatical case, the case used for the single argument of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb is the absolutive, and the case used for the agent of a transitive verb is the ergative. In nominative-accusative languages, the case for the single argument of an intransitive verb and the agent of a transitive verb is the nominative, while the case for the direct object of a transitive verb is the accusative.\nMany languages have ergative\u2013absolutive alignment only in some parts of their grammar (e.g., in the case marking of nouns), but nominative-accusative alignment in other parts (e.g., in the case marking of pronouns, or in person agreement). This is known as split ergativity."}, {"id": 63718061, "title": "Evolution of languages", "abstract": "The evolution of languages or history of language includes the evolution, divergence and development of languages throughout time, as reconstructed based on glottochronology, comparative linguistics, written records and other historical linguistics techniques. The origin of language is a hotly contested topic, with some languages tentatively traced back to the Paleolithic. However, archaeological and written records extend the history of language into ancient times and the Neolithic.\nThe distribution of languages has changed substantially over time. Major regional languages like Elamite, Sogdian, Koine Greek, or Nahuatl in ancient, post-classical and early modern times have been overtaken by others due to changing balance of power, conflict and migration. The relative status of languages has also changed, as with the decline in prominence of French and German relative to English in the late 20th century."}, {"id": 39104546, "title": "Evolutionary psychology of language", "abstract": "Evolutionary psychology of language is the study of the evolutionary history of language as a psychological faculty within the discipline of evolutionary psychology. It makes the assumption that language is the result of a Darwinian adaptation.\nThere are many competing theories of how language might have evolved, if indeed it is an evolutionary adaptation. They stem from the belief that language development could result from an adaptation, an exaptation, or a by-product. Genetics also influence the study of the evolution of language. It has been speculated that the FOXP2 gene may be what gives humans the ability to develop grammar and syntax."}, {"id": 15864296, "title": "Fluency", "abstract": "Fluency (also called volubility and eloquency) refers to continuity, smoothness, rate, and effort in speech production. \nIt is also used to characterize language production, language ability or language proficiency.\nIn speech language pathology it means the flow with which sounds, syllables, words and phrases are joined when speaking quickly, where fluency disorder has been used as a collective term for cluttering and stuttering."}, {"id": 15220, "title": "Imprecise language", "abstract": "Imprecise language, informal spoken language, or everyday language is less precise than any more formal or academic languages.Language might be said to be imprecise because it exhibits one or more of the following features:\n\nambiguity \u2013 when a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs.\nvagueness \u2013 when borderline cases interfere with an interpretation.\nequivocation \u2013 the misleading use of a term with more than one meaning or sense (by glossing over which meaning is intended at a particular time).\naccent \u2013 when the use of bold or italics causes confusion over the meaning of a statement.\namphiboly \u2013 when a sentence may be interpreted in more than one way due to ambiguous sentence structure.While imprecise language is not desirable in various scientific fields, it may be helpful, illustrative or discussion-stimulative in other contexts. Imprecision in a discourse may or may not be the intention of the author(s) or speaker(s). The role of imprecision may depend on audience, end goal, extended context and subject matter. Relevant players and real stakes will also bear on truth-grounds of statements."}, {"id": 10956960, "title": "Information and media literacy", "abstract": "Information and media literacy (IML) enables people to show and make informed judgments as users of information and media, as well as to become skillful creators and producers of information and media messages. IML is a combination of information literacy and media literacy. The transformative nature of IML includes creative works and creating new knowledge; to publish and collaborate responsibly requires ethical, cultural and social understanding.\nThe term \"media and information literacy\" is used by UNESCO to differentiate the combined study from the existing study of information literacy.\nRenee Hobbs suggests that \u201cfew people verify the information they find online \u2015 both adults and children tend to uncritically trust information they found from whatever source.\u201dPeople need to gauge the credibility of information and can do so by answering three questions:\n\nWho is the author?\nWhat is the purpose of this message?\nHow was this message constructed?Prior to the 1990s, the primary focus of information literacy was research skills. Media literacy, a study that emerged around the 1970s, traditionally focuses on the analysis and the delivery of information through various forms of media. These days, the study of information literacy has been extended to include the study of media literacy in many countries like the UK, Australia and New Zealand. It is also referred to as information and communication technologies (ICT) in the United States. Educators such as Gregory Ulmer have also defined the field as electracy."}, {"id": 32017750, "title": "Languaculture", "abstract": "Languaculture means that a language includes elements such as grammar and vocabulary, past knowledge, local and cultural information, habits, and behaviors. The American anthropologist Michael Agar created the term."}, {"id": 75572016, "title": "Language attitudes", "abstract": "Language attitudes refer to an individual's evaluative reactions or opinions toward languages and the speakers of those languages. These attitudes can be positive, negative, or neutral, and they play a crucial role in shaping language use, communication patterns, and interactions within a society. Language attitudes are extensively studied in several areas such as social psychology, sociolinguistics or education It has long been considered to be a triad of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Language attitudes play an important role in language learning, identity construction, language maintenance, language planning and policy, among other facets of language development. These attitudes are dynamic and multifaceted, shaping our perceptions, interactions, and societal structures."}, {"id": 1378250, "title": "Language classification", "abstract": "In linguistics, language classification is the grouping of related languages into the same category. There are two main kinds of language classification: genealogical and typological classification."}, {"id": 33674235, "title": "Language complexity", "abstract": "Language complexity is a topic in linguistics which can be divided into several sub-topics such as phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic complexity. The subject also carries importance for language evolution.Language complexity has been studied less than many other traditional fields of linguistics. While the consensus is turning towards recognizing that complexity is a suitable research area, a central focus has been on methodological choices. Some languages, particularly pidgins and creoles, are considered simpler than most other languages, but there is no direct ranking, and no universal method of measurement although several possibilities are now proposed within different schools of analysis."}, {"id": 373299, "title": "Language of mathematics", "abstract": "The language of mathematics or mathematical language is an extension of the natural language (for example English) that is used in mathematics and in science for expressing results (scientific laws, theorems, proofs, logical deductions, etc) with concision, precision and unambiguity."}, {"id": 9736296, "title": "Linguistic performance", "abstract": "The term linguistic performance was used by Noam Chomsky in 1960 to describe \"the actual use of language in concrete situations\".  It is used to describe both the production, sometimes called  parole, as well as the comprehension of language.  Performance is defined in opposition to \"competence\"; the latter describes the mental knowledge that a speaker or listener has of language.Part of the motivation for the distinction between performance and competence comes from speech errors: despite having a perfect understanding of the correct forms, a speaker of a language may unintentionally produce incorrect forms. This is because performance occurs in real situations, and so is subject to many non-linguistic influences. For example, distractions or memory limitations can affect lexical retrieval (Chomsky 1965:3), and give rise to errors in both production and perception.  Such non-linguistic factors are completely independent of the actual knowledge of language, and establish that speakers' knowledge of language (their competence) is distinct from their actual use of language (their performance)."}, {"id": 22760983, "title": "Linguistics", "abstract": "Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Linguistics is based on a theoretical as well as a descriptive study of language and is also interlinked with the applied fields of language studies and language learning, which entails the study of specific languages. Before the 20th century, linguistics evolved in conjunction with literary study and did not exclusively employ scientific methods.Traditional areas of linguistic analysis correspond to syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds and equivalent gestures in sign languages), phonology (the abstract sound system of a particular language), and pragmatics (how social context contributes to meaning). Subdisciplines such as biolinguistics (the study of the biological variables and evolution of language) and psycholinguistics (the study of psychological factors in human language) bridge many of these divisions.Linguistics encompasses many branches and subfields that span both theoretical and practical applications. Theoretical linguistics (including traditional descriptive linguistics) is concerned with understanding the universal and fundamental nature of language and developing a general theoretical framework for describing it. Applied linguistics seeks to utilise the scientific findings of the study of language for practical purposes, such as developing methods of improving language education and literacy.Linguistic features may be studied through a variety of perspectives: synchronically (by describing the shifts in a language at a certain specific point of time) or diachronically (through the historical development of language over several periods of time), in monolinguals or in multilinguals, amongst children or amongst adults, in terms of how it is being learned or how it was acquired, as abstract objects or as cognitive structures, through written texts or through oral elicitation, and finally through mechanical data collection or through practical fieldwork.Linguistics emerged from the field of philology,  of which some branches are more qualitative and holistic in approach. Today, philology and linguistics are now variably described as related fields, subdisciplines, or separate fields of language study but, by and large, linguistics can be seen as an umbrella term. Linguistics is also related to the philosophy of language, stylistics, rhetoric, semiotics, lexicography, and translation."}, {"id": 34384656, "title": "Metafunction", "abstract": "The term metafunction originates in systemic functional linguistics and is considered to be a property of all languages. Systemic functional linguistics is functional and semantic rather than formal and syntactic in its orientation. As a functional linguistic theory, it claims that both the emergence of grammar and the particular forms that grammars take should be explained \"in terms of the functions that language evolved to serve\". While languages vary in how and what they do, and what humans do with them in the contexts of human cultural practice, all languages are considered to be shaped and organised in relation to three functions, or metafunctions. Michael Halliday, the founder of systemic functional linguistics, calls these three functions the ideational, interpersonal, and textual. The ideational function is further divided into the experiential and logical.\nMetafunctions are systemic clusters; that is, they are groups of semantic systems that make meanings of a related kind. The three metafunctions are mapped onto the structure of the clause. For this reason, systemic linguists analyse a clause from three perspectives. Halliday argues that the concept of metafunction is one of a small set of principles that are necessary to explain how language works; this concept of function in language is necessary to explain the organisation of the semantic system of language. Function is considered to be \"a fundamental property of language itself\".According to Ruqaiya Hasan, the metafunctions in SFL \"are not hierarchised; they have equal status, and each is manifested in every act of language use: in fact, an important task for grammatics is to describe how the three metafunctions are woven together into the same linguistic unit\". Hasan argues that this is one way in which Halliday's account of the functions of language is different from that of Karl B\u00fchler, for example, for whom functions of language are hierarchically ordered, with the referential function the most important of all. For Buhler, the functions were considered to operate one at a time. In SFL, the metafunctions operate simultaneously, and any utterance is a harmony of choices across all three functions."}, {"id": 53111373, "title": "Multiethnolect", "abstract": "A multiethnolect is a language variety, typically formed in youth communities in working class, immigrant neighborhoods of urban areas, that contains influences from a variety of different languages. Unlike an ethnolect, which associates one language variety with one particular ethnic group, speakers of a multiethnolect often come from varied ethnic backgrounds, and their language usage can be more closely attributed to the neighborhood in which they live than their nationality or that of their parents. The term \"multiethnolect\" was first coined by Clyne (2000) and Quist (2000). Research of multiethnolects has thus far focused primarily on urban areas in northwestern Europe, such as Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and Great Britain, but the phenomenon is far more universal than that. Researchers Jacomine Nortier and Margreet Dorleijn call multiethnolects \u201ca phenomenon of all times, that was only waiting for linguists to give it a name.\" In recent research, multiethnolects are often explored as a form of contact language, meaning a language that is used for communication between two speakers who don\u2019t share a native tongue.\n\nMultiethnolects appear to be less homogeneous than either dialects or sociolects and are assumed to be context-bound and transient, to the extent that they are \u2018youth languages'. Aasheim (1995) first coined the term kebabnorsk, referring to the Norwegian multiethnolect spoken primarily by immigrant youth in neighborhoods of eastern Oslo. Wiese (2006) uses the term German Kiezdeutsch, meaning \u2018neighbourhood German\u2019, to refer to multiethnic youth language in Germany. Cheshire et al. (2011) claim that the term Jafaican, which refers to youth language in multiethnic parts of London, a name that has close associations with hip-hop, is a type of multiethnolect; many older people claim that young people in London today sound as if they are \"talking black\". Kotsinas (1988) uses the term rinkebysvenska (named after one such district, Rinkeby) to refer to the Swedish characteristics of multiethnolects that are spoken in districts of Stockholm. Multiethnolects are considered to be a type of Labovian \"vernacular\". The reasons for the emergence of European multiethnolects at this point in history is presumably linked to specific types of community formation in urban areas which have seen very large-scale immigration from developing countries. People of different language backgrounds have settled in already quite underprivileged neighbourhoods, and economic deprivation has led to the maintenance of close kin and neighbourhood ties. Castells (2000) writes of prosperous metropolises containing communities such as these: \u2018It is this distinctive feature of being globally connected and locally disconnected, physically and socially, that makes mega-cities a new urban form\u2019.Cheshire, Nortier, and Adger state that 'a defining characteristic is that [multiethnolects] are used by (usually monolingual) young people from non-immigrant backgrounds as well as by their bilingual peers'."}, {"id": 24822996, "title": "Musivisual language", "abstract": "In art, musivisual language is a semiotic system that is the synchronous union of music and image. The term was coined by Spanish composer Alejandro Rom\u00e1n, and for over a century, has appeared in film and other media (television, video or multimedia)."}, {"id": 21173, "title": "Natural language", "abstract": "In neuropsychology, linguistics, and philosophy of language, a natural language or ordinary language is any language that occurs naturally in a human community by a process of use, repetition, and change without conscious planning or premeditation. It can take different forms, namely either a spoken language or a sign language. Natural languages are distinguished from constructed and formal languages such as those used to program computers or to study logic."}, {"id": 18894210, "title": "Open-ended question", "abstract": "An open-ended question is a question that cannot be answered with a \"yes\" or \"no\" response, or with a static response. Open-ended questions are phrased as a statement which requires a longer answer. They can be compared to closed questions which demand a \u201cyes\u201d/\u201cno\u201d or short answer."}, {"id": 36253964, "title": "Origin of speech", "abstract": "The origin of speech differs from the origin of language because language is not necessarily spoken; it could equally be written or signed. Language is a fundamental aspect of human communication and plays a vital role in the everyday lives of humans. It allows them to convey thoughts, emotions, and ideas, and providing the ability to connect with others and shape collective reality.\nMany attempts have been made to explain scientifically how speech emerged in humans, although to date no theory has generated agreement.\nNon-human primates, like many other animals, have evolved specialized mechanisms for producing sounds for purposes of social communication. On the other hand, no monkey or ape uses its tongue for such purposes. The human species' unprecedented use of the tongue, lips and other moveable parts seems to place speech in a quite separate category, making its evolutionary emergence an intriguing theoretical challenge in the eyes of many scholars."}, {"id": 22209, "title": "Orthography", "abstract": "An orthography is a set of conventions for writing a language, including norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word boundaries, emphasis, and punctuation.\nMost transnational languages in the modern period have a writing system, and most of these systems have undergone substantial standardization, thus exhibiting less dialect variation than the spoken language. These processes can fossilize pronunciation patterns that are no longer routinely observed in speech (e.g., \"would\" and \"should\"); they can also reflect deliberate efforts to introduce variability for the sake of national identity, as seen in Noah Webster's efforts to introduce easily noticeable differences between American and British spelling (e.g., \"honor\" and \"honour\"). \nSome nations (e.g. France and Spain) have established language academies in an attempt to regulate orthography officially. For most languages (including English), no such authority exists, and a sense of \"correct\" orthography develops through encounters with print in schooling, workplace, and informal contexts. Some organizations, such as newspapers of record and academic journals, choose greater orthographic homogeneity by enforcing a particular style guide or spelling standard such as Oxford spelling."}, {"id": 36047835, "title": "Orthology (language)", "abstract": "Orthology is the study of linguistic norms. The word comes from Greek ortho- (\"correct\") and -logy (\"science of\"). This science is a place where psychology, philosophy, linguistics and other fields of learning come together. The most noted use of orthology is for the selection of words for the language of Basic English by the Orthological Institute.\nThe book The Meaning of Meaning, by C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards, is an important book dealing with orthology."}, {"id": 71088653, "title": "Phonetic change \"f \u2192 h\" in Spanish", "abstract": "The phonetic sound change /f/ \u2192 [h] and subsequent phonemic restructuring to complete loss, /f/ > /\u00d8/, is a distinctive but by no means unique development of the phonological history of the Spanish language, occurring also among the Romance languages in Gascon, Aromanian, Moldavian and Transylvanian Romanian and, sporadically, other Romance languages. Under certain phonological conditions, the initial Latin /f/ came to be articulated as [h], which then disappeared in standard Spanish, although its pronunciation is preserved for some words in several varieties, especially in a large part of Andalusia, Extremadura and Spanish America (it is also maintained in dialects of transition with the Spanish language such as Cantabro and Extremaduran). The phenomenon is exemplified by a word such as Latin FAR\u012aNA, which evolved to /a\u02c8rina/ in Spanish (with <h> kept in the spelling harina) vs. Italian /fa\u02c8rina/ farina (all meaning 'flour')."}, {"id": 1854841, "title": "Pivot language", "abstract": "A pivot language, sometimes also called a bridge language, is an artificial or natural language used as an intermediary language for translation between many different languages \u2013 to translate between any pair of languages A and B, one translates A to the pivot language P, then from P to B. Using a pivot language avoids the combinatorial explosion of having translators across every combination of the supported languages, as the number of combinations of language is linear (\n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        \u2212\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n-1}\n  ), rather than quadratic \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              \n                \n                  (\n                \n                \n                  n\n                  2\n                \n                \n                  )\n                \n              \n            \n            =\n            \n              \n                \n                  \n                    n\n                    \n                      2\n                    \n                  \n                  \u2212\n                  n\n                \n                2\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(\\textstyle {\\binom {n}{2}}={\\frac {n^{2}-n}{2}}\\right)}\n   \u2013 one need only know the language A and the pivot language P (and someone else the language B and the pivot P), rather than needing a different translator for every possible combination of A and B.\nThe disadvantage of a pivot language is that each step of retranslation introduces possible mistakes and ambiguities \u2013 using a pivot language involves two steps, rather than one. For example, when Hern\u00e1n Cort\u00e9s communicated with Mesoamerican Indians, he spoke Spanish to Ger\u00f3nimo de Aguilar, who spoke Mayan to Malintzin, who spoke Nahuatl to the locals."}, {"id": 50594391, "title": "Polyglossia", "abstract": "Polyglossia () refers to the coexistence of multiple languages (or distinct varieties of the same language) in one society or area. The term implies a living interaction among multiple languages within a single cultural system, producing significant effects on that culture. The word was used in a number of anthropology journals in the 1970s referencing multilingual communities in Malaysia, Singapore and the Caucasus region."}, {"id": 5767788, "title": "Problem of religious language", "abstract": "The problem of religious language considers whether it is possible to talk about God meaningfully if the traditional conceptions of God as being incorporeal, infinite, and timeless, are accepted. Because these traditional conceptions of God make it difficult to describe God, religious language has the potential to be meaningless. Theories of religious language either attempt to demonstrate that such language is meaningless, or attempt to show how religious language can still be meaningful.\nTraditionally, religious language has been explained as via negativa, analogy, symbolism, or myth, each of which describes a way of talking about God in human terms. The via negativa is a way of referring to God according to what God is not; analogy uses human qualities as standards against which to compare divine qualities; symbolism is used non-literally to describe otherwise ineffable experiences; and a mythological interpretation of religion attempts to reveal fundamental truths behind religious stories. Alternative explanations of religious language cast it as having political, performative, or imperative functions.\nEmpiricist David Hume's requirement that claims about reality must be verified by evidence influenced the logical positivist movement, particularly the philosopher A. J. Ayer. The movement proposed that, for a statement to hold meaning, it must be possible to verify its truthfulness empirically \u2013 with evidence from the senses. Consequently, the logical positivists argued that religious language must be meaningless because the propositions it makes are impossible to verify. Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein has been regarded as a logical positivist by some academics because he distinguished between things that can and cannot be spoken about; others have argued that he could not have been a logical positivist because he emphasised the importance of mysticism. British philosopher Antony Flew proposed a similar challenge based on the principle that, in so far as assertions of religious belief cannot be empirically falsified, religious statements are rendered meaningless.\nThe analogy of games \u2013 most commonly associated with Ludwig Wittgenstein \u2013 has been proposed as a way of establishing meaning in religious language. The theory asserts that language must be understood in terms of a game: just as each game has its own rules determining what can and cannot be done, so each context of language has its own rules determining what is and is not meaningful. Religion is classified as a possible and legitimate language game which is meaningful within its own context. Various parables have also been proposed to solve the problem of meaning in religious language. R. M. Hare used his parable of a lunatic to introduce the concept of \"bliks\" \u2013 unfalsifiable beliefs according to which a worldview is established \u2013 which are not necessarily meaningless. Basil Mitchell used a parable to show that faith can be logical, even if it seems unverifiable. John Hick used his parable of the Celestial City to propose his theory of eschatological verification, the view that if there is an afterlife, then religious statements will be verifiable after death."}, {"id": 162986, "title": "Second language", "abstract": "A second language (L2) is a language spoken in addition to one's first language (L1). A second language may be a neighbouring language, another language of the speaker's home country, or a foreign language. A speaker's dominant language, which is the language a speaker uses most or is most comfortable with, is not necessarily the speaker's first language. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as \"the first language learned in childhood and still spoken\", recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known as language attrition. This can happen when young children start school or move to a new language environment."}, {"id": 72673267, "title": "Siberian dialects", "abstract": "Siberian dialects are a group of Northern Russian dialects under the serious lexical influence of the Southern Russian dialects and foreign inclusions (primarily Turkic and sometimes Yukaghir and Even). It is spoken by Siberian old-timers: Siberiaks, Chaldons, Kerzhaks, Cossacks, Old Believers, Pokhodchans (Kolymchans), Russian Ustians (Indigirshchiks), and Markovites (Anadyrshchiks).\nFrom a phonetic and grammatical point of view, Siberian dialects genetically go back to Northern Russian dialects and are characterized by okanye, clear pronunciation of vowels, plosive /g/, absence of /\u0255\u02d0/ (replaced by long /\u0282\u02d0/), dropping out vowels (which leads to changes in the adjective declension) and consonants, a variety of pluperfect forms, as well as frequent use of postpositive articles."}, {"id": 2917649, "title": "Speech", "abstract": "Speech is a human vocal communication using language. Each language uses phonetic combinations of vowel and consonant sounds that form the sound of its words (that is, all English words sound different from all French words, even if they are the same word, e.g., \"role\" or \"hotel\"), and using those words in their semantic character as words in the lexicon of a language according to the syntactic constraints that govern lexical words' function in a sentence. In speaking, speakers perform many different intentional speech acts, e.g., informing, declaring, asking, persuading, directing, and can use enunciation, intonation, degrees of loudness, tempo, and other non-representational or paralinguistic aspects of vocalization to convey meaning.  In their speech, speakers also unintentionally communicate many aspects of their social position such as sex, age, place of origin (through accent), physical states (alertness and sleepiness, vigor or weakness, health or illness), psychological states (emotions or moods), physico-psychological states (sobriety or drunkenness, normal consciousness and trance states), education or experience, and the like.\nAlthough people ordinarily use speech in dealing with other persons (or animals), when people swear they do not always mean to communicate anything to anyone, and sometimes in expressing urgent emotions or desires they use speech as a quasi-magical cause, as when they encourage a player in a game to do or warn them not to do something.  There are also many situations in which people engage in solitary speech. People talk to themselves sometimes in acts that are a development of what some psychologists (e.g., Lev Vygotsky) have maintained is the use of silent speech in an interior monologue to vivify and organize cognition, sometimes in the momentary adoption of a dual persona as self addressing self as though addressing another person.  Solo speech can be used to memorize or to test one's memorization of things, and in prayer or in meditation (e.g., the use of a mantra).\nResearchers study many different aspects of speech:  speech production and speech perception of the sounds used in a language, speech repetition, speech errors, the ability to map heard spoken words onto the vocalizations needed to recreate them, which plays a key role in children's enlargement of their vocabulary, and what different areas of the human brain, such as Broca's area and Wernicke's area, underlie speech. Speech is the subject of study for  linguistics, cognitive science, communication studies, psychology, computer science, speech pathology, otolaryngology, and acoustics. \nSpeech compares with written language, which may differ in its vocabulary, syntax, and phonetics from the spoken language, a situation called diglossia.\nThe evolutionary origins of speech are unknown and subject to much debate and speculation. While animals also communicate using vocalizations, and trained apes such as Washoe and Kanzi can use simple sign language, no animals' vocalizations are articulated phonemically and syntactically, and do not constitute speech."}, {"id": 1187874, "title": "Speech balloon", "abstract": "Speech balloons (also speech bubbles, dialogue balloons, or word balloons) are a graphic convention used most commonly in comic books, comics, and cartoons to allow words (and much less often, pictures) to be understood as representing a character's speech or thoughts. A formal distinction is often made between the balloon that indicates speech and the one that indicates thoughts; the balloon that conveys thoughts is often referred to as a thought bubble or conversation cloud."}, {"id": 12563101, "title": "Speech production", "abstract": "Speech production is the process by which thoughts are translated into speech. This includes the selection of words, the organization of relevant grammatical forms, and then the articulation of the resulting sounds by the motor system using the vocal apparatus. Speech production can be spontaneous such as when a person creates the words of a conversation, reactive such as when they name a picture or read aloud a written word, or imitative, such as in speech repetition. Speech production is not the same as language production since language can also be produced manually by signs.\nIn ordinary fluent conversation people pronounce roughly four syllables, ten or twelve phonemes and two to three words out of their vocabulary (that can contain 10 to 100 thousand words) each second. Errors in speech production are relatively rare occurring at a rate of about once in every 900 words in spontaneous speech. Words that are commonly spoken or learned early in life or easily imagined are quicker to say than ones that are rarely said, learnt later in life, or are abstract.Normally speech is created with pulmonary pressure provided by the lungs that generates sound by phonation through the glottis in the larynx that then is modified by the vocal tract into different vowels and consonants. However speech production can occur without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech by using the upper parts of the vocal tract. An example of such alaryngeal speech is Donald Duck talk.The vocal production of speech may be associated with the production of hand gestures that act to enhance the comprehensibility of what is being said.The development of speech production throughout an individual's life starts from an infant's first babble and is transformed into fully developed speech by the age of five. The first stage of speech doesn't occur until around age one (holophrastic phase). Between the ages of one and a half and two and a half the infant can produce short sentences (telegraphic phase). After two and a half years the infant develops systems of lemmas used in speech production. Around four or five the child's lemmas are largely increased; this enhances the child's production of correct speech and they can now produce speech like an adult. An adult now develops speech in four stages: Activation of lexical concepts, select lemmas needed, morphologically and phonologically encode speech, and the word is phonetically encoded."}, {"id": 25490263, "title": "Speech repetition", "abstract": "Speech repetition occurs when individuals speak the sounds that they have heard another person pronounce or say.  In other words, it is the saying by one individual of the spoken vocalizations made by another individual. Speech repetition requires the person repeating the utterance to have the ability to map the sounds that they hear from the other person's oral pronunciation to similar places and manners of articulation in their own vocal tract.\nSuch speech imitation often occurs independently of speech comprehension such as in speech shadowing in which people automatically say words heard in earphones, and the pathological condition of echolalia in which people reflexively repeat overheard words. That links to speech repetition of words being separate in the brain to speech perception. Speech repetition occurs in the dorsal speech processing stream, and speech perception occurs in the ventral speech processing stream. Repetitions are often incorporated unawares by that route into spontaneous novel sentences immediately or after delay after the storage in phonological memory.\nIn humans, the ability to map heard input vocalizations into motor output is highly developed because of the copying ability playing a critical role in children's rapid expansion of their spoken vocabulary. In older children and adults, that ability remains important, as it enables the continued learning of novel words and names and additional languages. That repetition is also necessary for the propagation of language from generation to generation. It has also been suggested that the phonetic units out of which speech is made have been selected upon by the process of vocabulary expansion and vocabulary transmissions because  children prefer to copy words in terms of more easily-imitated elementary units."}, {"id": 305869, "title": "Standard language", "abstract": "A standard language (also standard variety, standard dialect, standardized dialect, and standard) is a language variety that has undergone substantial codification of grammar and usage, although occasionally the term refers to the entirety of a language that includes a standardized form as one of its varieties. Typically, the language varieties that undergo substantive standardization are the dialects associated with centers of commerce, power and government. By processes that linguistic anthropologists call \"referential displacement\" and that sociolinguists call \"elaboration of function\", these varieties acquire the social prestige associated with commerce and government. As a sociological effect of these processes, most users of this language come to believe that the standard language is inherently superior or consider it the linguistic baseline against which to judge other varieties of language.The standardization of a language is a continual process, because a language-in-use cannot be permanently standardized like the parts of a machine. Typically, standardization processes include efforts to stabilize the spelling of the prestige dialect, to codify usages and particular (denotative) meanings through formal grammars and dictionaries, and to encourage public acceptance of the codifications as intrinsically correct. In that vein, a pluricentric language has interacting standard varieties; examples are English, French, Catalan, and Portuguese, German, Korean, and Serbo-Croatian, Spanish and Swedish, Armenian and Mandarin Chinese; whereas monocentric languages, such as Russian and Japanese, have one standardized idiom.In Europe, a standardized written language is sometimes identified with the German word Schriftsprache (written language). The term literary language is occasionally used as a synonym for standard language, a naming convention still prevalent in the linguistic traditions of eastern Europe. In contemporary linguistic usage, the terms standard dialect and standard variety are neutral synonyms for the term standard language, usages which indicate that the standard language is one of many dialects and varieties of a language, rather than the totality of the language, whilst minimizing the negative implication of social subordination that the standard is the only idiom worthy of the appellation \"language\"."}, {"id": 71451362, "title": "Stratification (linguistics)", "abstract": "In linguistics, stratification is the idea that language is organized in terms of hierarchically ordered strata (such as phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics). This notion can be traced back to Saussure's dichotomy between signified and signifier and Hjelmslev's expression plane and content plane, but has been explicictly explored as a theoretical concept in stratificational linguistics and systemic functional linguistics."}, {"id": 47796313, "title": "Structural approach", "abstract": "Structural approach is an approach in the study of language that emphasizes the examination of language in very detailed manner.This strategy, which is considered a traditional approach, examines language products such as sounds, morphemes, words, sentences, and vocabulary, among others. It also facilitates the process of learning language on the basis of structures."}, {"id": 623398, "title": "Sublanguage", "abstract": "A sublanguage is a subset of a language. Sublanguages occur in natural language, computer programming language, and relational databases."}, {"id": 60316903, "title": "Symbolic language (art)", "abstract": "In art, symbolic language is the use of characters or images to represent concepts and imagery to communicate meaning by displaying an accessible concept, the signifier, to represent a signified concept.\nSymbolic language in art may be used figuratively, to reference ideas and \"convey concepts in terms of images\", as when images and positioning of objects such as flowers or animals are used to signify cultural concepts.Symbolic language in art may be used more literally, as in floriography, where arrangements of flowers are decoded with the help of special dictionaries, enabling communication of secret, unspoken information as a form of cryptography.Similarly, in religious iconography, symbolic languages may be developed to communicate between believers in a hostile environment, with progressive teachings providing increasing access to hidden meanings in the images."}, {"id": 26860, "title": "Syntax", "abstract": "In linguistics, syntax ( SIN-taks) is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure (constituency), agreement, the nature of crosslinguistic variation, and the relationship between form and meaning (semantics). There are numerous approaches to syntax that differ in their central assumptions and goals."}, {"id": 70376369, "title": "Tangale people", "abstract": "The Tangale people are one of the ethnic groups in Northern Nigeria, situated in Gombe State. The Tangale people that majorly speak Tangale got their name from \u201cTangal\u201d, a chief of Billiri, in the present day Gombe state of Nigeria. It is believed that Tangal was instrumental in organizing the clans under his leadership and because of this, the people under him were referred to as the Tangale (as it was customary in many African communities to name a land or ethnic group after their leader)."}, {"id": 39189535, "title": "Terministic screen", "abstract": "Terministic screen is a term in the theory and criticism of rhetoric. It involves the acknowledgment of a language system that determines an individual's perception and symbolic action in the world."}, {"id": 71986552, "title": "Text-to-video model", "abstract": "A text-to-video model is a machine learning model which takes as input a natural language description and produces a video matching that description.Video prediction on making objects realistic in a stable background is performed by using recurrent neural network for a sequence to sequence model with a connector convolutional neural network encoding and decoding each frame pixel by pixel,  creating video using deep learning."}, {"id": 18630637, "title": "Translation", "abstract": "Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.\nA translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such \"spill-overs\" have sometimes imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator. More recently, the rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated \"language localisation\"."}, {"id": 33957665, "title": "Uncertain plural", "abstract": "An uncertain plural occurs when a writer does not know in advance whether a word should be written in the singular or plural.  For English nouns, this may be demonstrated by enclosing the trailing s in parentheses, such as \"book(s)\".In the case of articles, \"they\" or \"their\" may be used to include a single individual, when uncertain."}, {"id": 12393342, "title": "Vernacular orientation", "abstract": "Vernacular orientation refers to the status that a language is afforded by one of its mother-tongue speakers (Tiessen, 2003).  This status is exhibited through the sociolinguistic behaviours of a mother-tongue speaker.  A speaker who exhibits positive vernacular orientation is one who exhibits a preferred status for their mother tongue in such things as patterns of language use, language attitudes, social networks and even levels of language proficiency.  Likewise, a speaker who exhibits negative vernacular orientation is one who exhibits a preferred status for a language other than their mother tongue in these areas of sociolinguistic behaviour.\nAn example of research into vernacular orientation as expressed in a community can be found at [1].  This is a study on vernacular orientation in the Talysh community of the city of Sumgayit in the Republic of Azerbaijan for the purpose of gaining a greater understanding of its causes.  Vernacular orientation is described in three areas of sociolinguistic behaviour: patterns of vernacular language use, vernacular language proficiency and frequency of vernacular-speaking individuals in social networks. Data was collected through personal interviews. The questionnaires for these interviews were developed using a qualitative-relational research approach. The description of vernacular orientation takes the form of a criteria-based typology of which an analysis of influential factors is ultimately made. This analysis of influential factors demonstrates the interaction between vernacular orientation as described in the typology and the contextual elements of the family, socio-economic dynamics and individual attitudes."}, {"id": 2892491, "title": "Visual language", "abstract": "A visual language is a system of communication using visual elements. Speech as a means of communication cannot strictly be separated from the whole of human communicative activity which includes the visual and the term 'language' in relation to vision is an extension of its use to describe the perception, comprehension and production of visible signs."}, {"id": 191445, "title": "Vocabulary", "abstract": "A vocabulary (also known as a lexicon) is a set of words, typically the set in a language or the set known to an individual. The word vocabulary originated from the Latin vocabulum, meaning \"a word, name\". It forms an essential component of language and communication, helping convey thoughts, ideas, emotions, and information. Vocabulary can be oral, written, or signed and can be categorized into two main types: active vocabulary (words one uses regularly) and passive vocabulary (words one recognizes but does not use often). An individual's vocabulary continually evolves through various methods, including direct instruction, independent reading, and natural language exposure, but it can also shrink due to forgetting, trauma, or disease. Furthermore, vocabulary is a significant focus of study across various disciplines, like linguistics, education, psychology, and artificial intelligence. Vocabulary is not limited to single words; it also encompasses multi-word units known as collocations, idioms, and other types of phraseology. Acquiring an adequate vocabulary is one of the largest challenges in learning a second language."}, {"id": 1034781, "title": "Vulgarity", "abstract": "Vulgarity is the quality of being common, coarse, or unrefined. This judgement may refer to language, visual art, social class, or social climbers. John Bayley claims the term can never be self-referential, because to be aware of vulgarity is to display a degree of sophistication which thereby elevates the subject above the vulgar."}, {"id": 29584019, "title": "Word family", "abstract": "A word family is the base form of a word plus its inflected forms and derived forms made with suffixes and prefixes plus its cognates, i.e. all words that have a common etymological origin, some of which even native speakers don't recognize as being related (e.g. \"wrought (iron)\" and \"work(ed)\"). In the English language, inflectional affixes include third person -s, verbal -ed and -ing, plural -s, possessive -s, comparative -er and superlative -est. Derivational affixes include -able, -er, -ish, -less, -ly, -ness, -th, -y, non-, un-, -al, -ation, -ess, -ful, -ism, -ist, -ity, -ize/-ise, -ment, in-. The idea is that a base word and its inflected forms support the same core meaning, and can be considered learned words if a learner knows both the base word and the affix.\nBauer and Nation proposed seven levels of affixes based on their frequency in English. It has been shown that word families can assist with deriving related words via affixes, along with decreasing the time needed to derive and recognize such words."}, {"id": 32977, "title": "Writing", "abstract": "Writing is a cognitive and social activity involving neuropsychological and physical processes and the use of writing systems to create persistent representations of human language. A system of writing relies on many of the same semantic structures as the language it represents, such as lexicon and syntax, with the added dependency of a system of symbols representing that language's phonology and morphology. Nevertheless, written language may take on characteristics distinctive from any available in spoken language.The outcome of this activity, also called \"writing\", and sometimes a \"text\", is a series of physically inscribed, mechanically transferred, or digitally represented linguistic symbols. The interpreter or activator of a text is called a \"reader\".Writing systems do not themselves constitute languages (with the debatable exception of computer languages); they are a means of rendering language into a form that can be read and reconstructed by other humans separated by time and/or space.  While not all languages use a writing system, those that do can complement and extend the capacities of spoken language by creating durable forms of language that can be transmitted across space (e.g. written correspondence) and stored over time (e.g. libraries or other public records). Writing can also have knowledge-transforming effects, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms that are easier to reflect on, elaborate on, reconsider, and revise."}], "id": 8017451}, {"title": "Life", "pages": [{"id": 18393, "title": "Life", "abstract": "Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from matter that does not, and is defined descriptively by the capacity for homeostasis, organisation, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction. Many philosophical definitions of living systems have been proposed, such as self-organizing systems. Viruses in particular make definition difficult as they replicate only in host cells. Life exists all over the Earth in air, water, and soil, with many ecosystems forming the biosphere. Some of these are harsh environments occupied only by extremophiles. \nLife has been studied since ancient times, with theories such as Empedocles's materialism asserting that it was composed of four eternal elements, and Aristotle's hylomorphism asserting that living things have souls and embody both form and matter. Life originated at least 3.5 billion years ago, resulting in a universal common ancestor. This evolved into all the species that exist now, by way of many extinct species, some of which have left traces as fossils. Attempts to classify living things, too, began with Aristotle. Modern classification began with Carl Linnaeus's system of binomial nomenclature in the 1740s.\nLiving things are composed of biochemical molecules, formed mainly from a few core chemical elements. All living things contain two types of large molecule, proteins and nucleic acids, the latter usually both DNA and RNA: these carry the information needed by each species, including the instructions to make each type of protein. The proteins, in turn, serve as the machinery which carries out the many chemical processes of life. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. Smaller organisms, including prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), consist of small single cells. Larger organisms, mainly eukaryotes, can consist of single cells or may be multicellular with more complex structure. Life is confirmed only on Earth but extraterrestrial life is thought probable. Artificial life is being simulated and explored by scientists and engineers."}, {"id": 8553751, "title": "Biological organisation", "abstract": "Biological organisation is the organisation of complex biological structures and systems that define life using a reductionistic approach. The traditional hierarchy, as detailed below, extends from atoms to biospheres. The higher levels of this scheme are often referred to as an ecological organisation concept, or as the field,  hierarchical ecology.\nEach level in the hierarchy represents an increase in organisational complexity, with each \"object\" being primarily composed of the previous level's basic unit. The basic principle behind the organisation is the concept of emergence\u2014the properties and functions found at a hierarchical level are not present and irrelevant at the lower levels.\nThe biological organisation of life is a fundamental premise for numerous areas of scientific research, particularly in the medical sciences. Without this necessary degree of organisation, it would be much more difficult\u2014and likely impossible\u2014to apply the study of the effects of various physical and chemical phenomena to diseases and physiology (body function). For example, fields such as cognitive and behavioral neuroscience could not exist if the brain was not composed of specific types of cells, and the basic concepts of pharmacology could not exist if it was not known that a change at the cellular level can affect an entire organism. These applications extend into the ecological levels as well. For example, DDT's direct insecticidal effect occurs at the subcellular level, but affects higher levels up to and including multiple ecosystems. Theoretically, a change in one atom could change the entire biosphere."}, {"id": 3447756, "title": "Carbon-based life", "abstract": "Carbon is a primary component of all known life on Earth, representing approximately 45\u201350% of all dry biomass. Carbon compounds occur naturally in great abundance on Earth. Complex biological molecules consist of carbon atoms bonded with other elements, especially oxygen and hydrogen and frequently also nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur (collectively known as CHNOPS).\nBecause it is lightweight and relatively small in size, carbon molecules are easy for enzymes to manipulate. It is frequently assumed in astrobiology that if life exists elsewhere in the Universe, it will also be carbon-based. Critics refer to this assumption as carbon chauvinism."}, {"id": 72244968, "title": "Francevillian B Formation", "abstract": "The Francevillian B Formation, also known as the Francevillian Formation or FB2 in scientific research, is a geologic formation of black shale provinces close to the town of Franceville, Gabon from where it gets its name from. The formation was deposited between 2.14-2.08 Ga (billion years ago) in the Palaeoproterozoic, and, uniquely, has not experienced any thermal overprinting due to diagenesis after burial nor significant metamorphism since it was deposited, unlike other formations deposited around the same time. The formation contains possible fossils, including the macroscopic \"Francevillian Biota\", which has been suggested by some authors to represent the oldest known multicellular organisms, though other authors have questioned the supposed biological origin of the structures, and have suggested that they may instead be inorganic, such as artifacts of diagenesis."}, {"id": 16554664, "title": "Living systems", "abstract": "Living systems are life forms (or, more colloquially known as living things) treated as a system. They are said to be open self-organizing and said to interact with their environment. These systems are maintained by flows of information, energy and matter. Multiple theories of living systems have been proposed. Such theories attempt to map general principles for how all living systems work."}, {"id": 4585070, "title": "Non-cellular life", "abstract": "Non-cellular life, also known as acellular life, is life that exists without a cellular structure for at least part of its life cycle. Historically, most definitions of life postulated that an organism must be composed of one or more cells, but this is for some no longer considered necessary, and modern criteria allow for forms of life based on other structural arrangements.The primary candidates for non-cellular life are viruses. Some biologists consider viruses to be organisms, but others do not. Their primary objection is that no known viruses are capable of autonomous reproduction; they must rely on cells to copy them."}, {"id": 18789195, "title": "The Seven Pillars of Life", "abstract": "The Seven Pillars of Life are the essential principles of life described by Daniel E. Koshland in 2002 in order to create a universal definition of life. One stated goal of this universal definition is to aid in understanding and identifying artificial and extraterrestrial life. The seven pillars are Program, Improvisation, Compartmentalization, Energy, Regeneration, Adaptability, and Seclusion. These can be abbreviated as PICERAS."}], "id": 2389032}, {"title": "Concepts", "pages": [{"id": 6978, "title": "Concept", "abstract": "A concept is defined as an abstract idea. It is understood to be a fundamental building block underlying principles, thoughts and beliefs.\nConcepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, and these disciplines are interested in the logical and psychological structure of concepts, and how they are put together to form thoughts and sentences. The study of concepts has served as an important flagship of an emerging interdisciplinary approach, cognitive science.In contemporary philosophy, three understandings of a concept prevail:\nmental representations, such that a concept is an entity that exists in the mind (a mental object)\nabilities peculiar to cognitive agents (mental states)\nFregean senses, abstract objects rather than a mental object or a mental stateConcepts are classified into a hierarchy, higher levels of which are termed \"superordinate\" and lower levels termed \"subordinate\". Additionally, there is the \"basic\" or \"middle\" level at which people will most readily categorize a concept. For example, a basic-level concept would be \"chair\", with its superordinate, \"furniture\", and its subordinate, \"easy chair\".\n\nConcepts may be exact, or inexact.\nWhen the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking.\nA concept is instantiated (reified) by all of its actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real world or other ideas.\nConcepts are studied as components of human cognition in the cognitive science disciplines of linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, where an ongoing debate asks whether all cognition must occur through concepts. Concepts are regularly formalized in mathematics, computer science, databases and artificial intelligence. Examples of specific high-level conceptual classes in these fields include classes, schema or categories. In informal use the word concept often just means any idea."}, {"id": 38191512, "title": "Concept-driven strategy", "abstract": "A concept-driven strategy is a process for formulating strategy that draws on the explanation of how humans inquire provided by linguistic pragmatic philosophy. This argues that thinking starts by selecting (explicitly or implicitly) a set of concepts (frames, patterns, lens, principles, etc.) gained from our past experiences. These are used to reflect on whatever happens, or is done, in the future.Concept-driven strategy therefore starts from agreeing and enacting a set of strategic concepts (organizing principles) that \"works best\" for an organisation. For example, a hospital might set its strategy as intending to be Caring, World Class, Local, Evidence Based, and Team Based. A University might set its strategy as intending to be Ranked, Problem Solving, Online, Equis, and Offering Pathways. A commercial corporation might set its strategy as intending to be Innovative, Global, Have Visible Supply Chains, Agile and Market Share Dominant. These strategic concepts make up its statement of intent (or purpose)."}, {"id": 42415226, "title": "Conceptual combination", "abstract": "Conceptual combination is a fundamental   cognitive process by which two or more existing basic concepts are mentally synthesized to generate a composite, higher-order concept. The products of this process are sometimes referred to as \"complex concepts.\" Combining concepts allows individuals to use a finite number of concepts which they already understand to construct a potentially limitless quantity of new, related concepts. It is an essential component of many abilities, such as perception, language, synthetic reasoning, creative thought and abstraction.Conceptual combination is an important concept in the fields of cognitive psychology and cognitive science."}, {"id": 1973470, "title": "Fuzzy concept", "abstract": "A fuzzy concept is a kind of concept of which the boundaries of application can vary considerably according to context or conditions, instead of being fixed once and for all. This means the concept is vague in some way, lacking a fixed, precise meaning, without however being unclear or meaningless altogether. It has a definite meaning, which can be made more precise only through further elaboration and specification - including a closer definition of the context in which the concept is used. The study of the characteristics of fuzzy concepts and fuzzy language is called fuzzy semantics. The inverse of a \"fuzzy concept\" is a \"crisp concept\" (i.e. a precise concept).\nA fuzzy concept is understood by scientists as a concept which is \"to an extent applicable\" in a situation. That means the concept has gradations of significance or unsharp (variable) boundaries of application. A fuzzy statement is a statement which is true \"to some extent\", and that extent can often be represented by a scaled value. The term is also used these days in a more general, popular sense \u2013 in contrast to its technical meaning \u2013 to refer to a concept which is \"rather vague\" for any kind of reason.\nIn the past, the very idea of reasoning with fuzzy concepts faced considerable resistance from academic elites. They did not want to endorse the use of imprecise concepts in research or argumentation. Yet although people might not be aware of it, the use of fuzzy concepts has risen gigantically in all walks of life from the 1970s onward. That is mainly due to advances in electronic engineering, fuzzy mathematics and digital computer programming. The new technology allows very complex inferences about \"variations on a theme\" to be anticipated and fixed in a program.New neuro-fuzzy computational methods make it possible to identify, measure and respond to fine gradations of significance with great precision. It means that practically useful concepts can be coded and applied to all kinds of tasks, even if ordinarily these concepts are never precisely defined. Nowadays engineers, statisticians and programmers often represent fuzzy concepts mathematically, using fuzzy logic, fuzzy values, fuzzy variables and fuzzy sets."}, {"id": 34644725, "title": "Jurisprudence of concepts", "abstract": "The jurisprudence of concepts was the first sub-school of legal positivism, according to which, the written law must reflect concepts, when interpreted. Its main representatives were Ihering, Savigny and Puchta.\nThis school was, thus, the preceding trigger of the idea that law comes from a dogmatic source, imposition from man over man and not a natural consequence of other sciences or of metaphysical faith.\nAmong the main characters of the jurisprudence of concepts are:\n\nformalism, search of rights in written law\nsystemisation\nsearch for justifying specific norm with basis from more generic ones.So, according to this school, law should have prevailing sources based upon the legislative process, although needing to be proven by more inclusive ideas of a social sense."}, {"id": 37673, "title": "Symbol", "abstract": "A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences. All communication (and data processing) is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas, or visual images and are used to convey other ideas and beliefs. For example, a red octagon is a common symbol for \"STOP\"; on maps, blue lines often represent rivers; and a red rose often symbolizes love and compassion. Numerals are symbols for numbers; letters of an alphabet may be symbols for certain phonemes; and personal names are symbols representing individuals.\nThe academic study of symbols is semiotics. In cartography, an organized collection of symbols forms a legend for a map."}], "id": 24980271}, {"title": "Energy", "pages": [{"id": 9649, "title": "Energy", "abstract": "In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek  \u1f10\u03bd\u03ad\u03c1\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 (en\u00e9rgeia) 'activity') is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light. Energy is a conserved quantity\u2014the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The unit of measurement for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J).\nCommon forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object (for instance due to its position in a field), the elastic energy stored in a solid object, chemical energy associated with chemical reactions, the radiant energy carried by electromagnetic radiation, and the internal energy contained within a thermodynamic system. All living organisms constantly take in and release energy.\nDue to mass\u2013energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy. \nHuman civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The Earth's climate and ecosystems processes are driven by the energy the planet receives from the Sun (although a small amount is also contributed by geothermal energy)."}, {"id": 23721650, "title": "Index of energy articles", "abstract": "This is an index of energy articles."}, {"id": 1841288, "title": "Outline of energy", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to energy:\nEnergy \u2013 in physics, this is an indirectly observed quantity often understood as the ability of a physical system to do work on other physical systems. Since work is defined as a force acting through a distance (a length of space), energy is always equivalent to the ability to exert force (a pull or a push) against an object that is moving along a definite path of certain length."}, {"id": 6300090, "title": "Absorption heat pump", "abstract": "An absorption heat pump (AHP) is a heat pump driven by thermal energy such as combustion of natural gas, steam solar-heated water, air or geothermal-heated water differently from compression heat pumps that are driven by mechanical energy.\nAHPs are more complex and require larger units compared to compression heat pumps. In particular, the lower electricity demand of such heat pumps is related to the liquid pumping only. Their applications are restricted to those cases when electricity is extremely expensive or a large amount of unutilized heat at suitable temperatures is available and when the cooling or heating output has a greater value than heat input consumed. Absorption refrigerators also work on the same principle, but are not reversible and cannot serve as a heat source."}, {"id": 11003420, "title": "Brown energy", "abstract": "Brown energy or brown power are terms that have been coined to describe energy produced from polluting sources as a contrast to green energy from renewable, non-polluting sources. The term \"grey energy\" or \"gray energy\" has been used instead, including by the United Nations."}, {"id": 36238152, "title": "Driving factors", "abstract": "In energy monitoring and targeting, a driving factor is something recurrent and measurable whose variation explains variation in energy consumption. The term independent variable is sometimes used as a synonym.\nOne of the most common driving factors is the weather, expressed usually as heating or cooling degree days. In energy-intensive processes, production throughputs would usually be used. For electrical circuits feeding outdoor lighting, the number of hours of darkness can be employed. For a borehole pump, the quantity of water delivered would be used; and so on. What these examples all have in common is that on a weekly basis (say) numerical values can be recorded for each factor and one would expect particular streams of energy consumption to correlate with them either singly or in a  multivariate model.\nCorrelation is arguably more important than causality. Variation in the driving factor merely has to explain variation in consumption; it does not necessarily have to cause it, although that will in most scenarios be the case.Driving factors differ from static factors, such as building floor areas, which determine energy consumption but change only rarely (if at all)."}, {"id": 944638, "title": "Earth's energy budget", "abstract": "Earth's energy budget (or Earth's energy balance) accounts for the balance between the energy that Earth receives from the Sun and the energy the Earth loses back into outer space. Smaller energy sources, such as Earth's internal heat, are taken into consideration, but make a tiny contribution compared to solar energy. The energy budget also accounts for how energy moves through the climate system.:\u200a2227\u200a  Because the Sun heats the equatorial tropics more than the polar regions, received solar irradiance is unevenly distributed. As the energy seeks equilibrium across the planet, it drives interactions in Earth's climate system, i.e., Earth's water, ice, atmosphere, rocky crust, and all living things.:\u200a2224\u200a The result is Earth's climate.\nEarth's energy budget depends on many factors, such as atmospheric aerosols, greenhouse gases, the planet's surface albedo (reflectivity), clouds, vegetation, land use patterns, and more. When the incoming and outgoing energy fluxes are in balance, Earth is in radiative equilibrium and the climate system will be relatively stable. Global warming occurs when earth receives more energy than it gives back to space, and global cooling takes place when the outgoing energy is greater.Multiple types of measurements and observations show a warming imbalance since at least year 1970. The rate of heating from this human-caused event is without precedent.:\u200a54\u200a The main origin of changes in the Earth's energy is from human-induced changes in the composition of the atmosphere. During 2005 to 2019 the Earth's energy imbalance (EEI) averaged about 460 TW or globally 0.90 \u00b1 0.15 W per m2.When the energy budget changes, there is a delay before average global surface temperature changes significantly. This is due to the thermal inertia of the oceans, land and cryosphere. Accurate quantification of these energy flows and storage amounts is a requirement within most climate models."}, {"id": 177696, "title": "Energy economics", "abstract": "Energy economics is a broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to supply and use of energy in societies. Considering the cost of energy services and associated value gives economic meaning to the efficiency at which energy can be produced. Energy services can be defined as functions that generate and provide energy to the \u201cdesired end services or states\u201d. The efficiency of energy services is dependent on the engineered technology used to produce and supply energy. The goal is to minimise energy input required (e.g. kWh, mJ, see Units of Energy) to produce the energy service, such as lighting (lumens), heating (temperature) and fuel (natural gas). The main sectors considered in energy economics are transportation and building, although it is relevant to a broad scale of human activities, including households and businesses at a microeconomic level and resource management and environmental impacts at a macroeconomic level."}, {"id": 1800265, "title": "Emergy", "abstract": "Emergy is the amount of energy consumed in direct and indirect transformations to make a product or service. Emergy is a measure of quality differences between different forms of energy. Emergy is an expression of all the energy used in the work processes that generate a product or service in units of one type of energy. Emergy is measured in units of emjoules, a unit referring to the available energy consumed in transformations. Emergy accounts for different forms of energy and resources (e.g. sunlight, water, fossil fuels, minerals, etc.) Each form is generated by transformation processes in nature and each has a different ability to support work in natural and in human systems. The recognition of these quality differences is a key concept."}, {"id": 38328166, "title": "Energy broker", "abstract": "Energy brokers assist clients in procuring electric or natural gas from energy wholesalers/suppliers. Since electricity and natural gas are commodities, prices change daily with the market. It is challenging for most businesses without energy managers to obtain price comparisons from a variety of suppliers since prices must be compared on exactly the same day. In addition, the terms of the particular contract offered by the supplier influences the price that is quoted. An energy broker can provide a valuable service if they work with a large number of suppliers and can actually compile the sundry prices from suppliers. An important aspect of this consulting role is to assure that the client understands the differences between the contract offers. Under some State Laws they use the term \"Suppliers\" to refer to energy suppliers, brokers, and aggregators, however there are very important differences between them all.\nEnergy brokers do not own or distribute energy, nor are allowed to sell energy directly to you. They simply present the rates of a wholesaler, or supplier."}, {"id": 41731857, "title": "Energy customer switching", "abstract": "Energy customer switching is a concept stemming from the global energy markets. The concept refers to the action of one energy customer switching energy supplier, a switch is essentially seen as the free (by choice) movement of a customer. In addition to that a switch can include:\n\nA re-switch: When a customer switches for the second or subsequent time.\nA switch-back: When a customer switches back to his/her former or previous supplier.If a customer moves, there is often a switch, however this will only be counted if the customer is not dealing with the incumbent in the new area of residence.\nThe above is the official definition of switching and is being used by public energy institutions such as CEER & ERGEG (forerunner to ACER). The definition was originally developed by Dr Philip E. Lewis, international switching expert.\nSwitching is a key concept to understanding competition-related issues on the global energy markets as the switching level of a concrete market reveals the state of the competition; High switching rates equals high level of competition and low switching rates equals limited competition. Thus measuring and assessing switching rates is necessary in order to have a correct impression of the energy markets. The action of switching is often done via a price comparison website or by the traditional door-to-door sales method, where a salesperson assists the customer in switching.\nThis is a concept that has become particularly popular in countries such as the United Kingdom, Australia, France, Spain and Germany, where large numbers of competitor brands operate. Price comparison services have crossed international borders by offering their services in multiple free markets. Popular brands such as uSwitch, MoneySupermarket, Utility Switchboard and Go Compare have contributed considerably to a change in user behaviour, leading customers to always compare before making a purchase directly through a provider."}, {"id": 1610231, "title": "Energy density", "abstract": "In physics, energy density or volumic energy is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit volume. It is sometimes confused with energy per unit mass which is properly called massic energy or gravimetric energy density.\nOften only the useful or extractable energy is measured, which is to say that inaccessible energy (such as rest mass energy) is ignored. In cosmological and other general relativistic contexts, however, the energy densities considered are those that correspond to the elements of the stress-energy tensor and therefore do include mass energy as well as energy densities associated with pressure.\nEnergy per unit volume has the same physical units as pressure and in many situations is synonymous. For example, the energy density of a magnetic field may be expressed as and behaves like a physical pressure. Likewise, the energy required to compress a gas to a certain volume may be determined by multiplying the difference between the gas pressure and the external pressure by the change in volume. A pressure gradient describes the potential to perform work on the surroundings by converting internal energy to work until equilibrium is reached."}, {"id": 321382, "title": "Energy flow (ecology)", "abstract": "Energy flow is the flow of energy through living things within an ecosystem. All living organisms can be organized into producers and consumers, and those producers and consumers can further be organized into a food chain. Each of the levels within the food chain is a trophic level. In order to more efficiently show the quantity of organisms at each trophic level, these food chains are then organized into trophic pyramids. The arrows in the food chain show that the energy flow is unidirectional, with the head of an arrow indicating the direction of energy flow; energy is lost as heat at each step along the way.The unidirectional flow of energy and the successive loss of energy as it travels up the food web are patterns in energy flow that are governed by thermodynamics, which is the theory of energy exchange between systems. Trophic dynamics relates to thermodynamics because it deals with the transfer and transformation of energy (originating externally from the sun via solar radiation) to and among organisms."}, {"id": 44689684, "title": "Energy informatics", "abstract": "Energy informatics is a research field covering the use of information and communication technology to address energy utilization and management challenges. Methods used for \"smart\" implementations often combine IoT sensors with artificial intelligence and machine learning. Energy Informatics is founded on flow networks that are the major suppliers and consumers of energy. Their efficiency  can be improved by collecting and analyzing  information."}, {"id": 28672294, "title": "Energy management", "abstract": "Energy management includes planning and operation of energy production and energy consumption units as well as energy distribution and storage. Objectives are resource conservation, climate protection and cost savings, while the users have permanent access to the energy they need. It is connected closely to environmental management, production management, logistics and other established business functions. The VDI-Guideline 4602 released a definition which includes the economic dimension: \"Energy management is the proactive, organized and systematic coordination of procurement, conversion, distribution and use of energy to meet the requirements, taking into account environmental and economic objectives\". It is a systematic endeavor to optimize energy efficiency for specific political, economic, and environmental objectives through Engineering and Management techniques."}, {"id": 22807593, "title": "Energy management software", "abstract": "Energy Management Software (EMS) is a general term and category referring to a variety of energy-related software applications which may provide utility bill tracking, real-time metering, building HVAC and lighting control systems, building simulation and modeling, carbon and sustainability reporting, IT equipment management, demand response, and/or energy audits. Managing energy can require a system of systems approach.Energy management software often provides tools for reducing energy costs and consumption for buildings, communities or industries. EMS collects energy data and uses it for three main purposes: Reporting, Monitoring and Engagement. Reporting may include verification of energy data, benchmarking, and setting high-level energy use reduction targets. Monitoring may include trend analysis and tracking energy consumption to identify cost-saving opportunities. Engagement can mean real-time responses (automated or manual), or the initiation of a dialogue between occupants and building managers to promote energy conservation. One engagement method that has recently gained popularity is the real-time energy consumption display available in web applications or an onsite energy dashboard/display."}, {"id": 74727689, "title": "Energy management system (building management)", "abstract": "An Energy Management System is, in the context of energy conservation, a computer system which is designed specifically for the automated control and monitoring of those electromechanical facilities in a building which yield significant energy consumption such as heating, ventilation and lighting installations. The scope may span from a single building to a group of buildings such as university campuses, office buildings, retail stores networks or factories. Most of these energy management systems also provide facilities for the reading of electricity, gas and water meters. The data obtained from these can then be used to perform self-diagnostic and optimization routines on a frequent basis and to produce trend analysis and annual consumption forecasts.Energy management systems are also often commonly used by individual commercial entities to monitor, measure, and control their electrical building loads. Energy management systems can be used to centrally control devices like HVAC units and lighting systems across multiple locations, such as retail, grocery and restaurant sites. Energy management systems can also provide metering, submetering, and monitoring functions that allow facility and building managers to gather data and insight that allows them to make more informed decisions about energy activities across their sites.\nAs electric vehicle (EV) charging becomes more popular smaller residential devices that manage when an EV can charge based on the total load vs total capacity of an electrical service are becoming popular. The global energy management system market is projected to grow exponentially over the next 10\u201315 years."}, {"id": 74331367, "title": "Energy materials", "abstract": "Energy materials are used for energy harvesting, storage, and conversion. Applications of energy materials include photovoltaics, as well as piezoelectronics. The study of energy materials is usually interdisciplinary, uniting materials scientists, chemists, physicists, biologists, and engineers."}, {"id": 26356935, "title": "Energy operator", "abstract": "In quantum mechanics, energy is defined in terms of the energy operator, acting on the wave function of the system as a consequence of time translation symmetry."}, {"id": 64982850, "title": "Energy poverty and gender", "abstract": "Energy poverty is defined as lacking access to the affordable sustainable energy service. Geographically, it is unevenly distributed in developing and developed countries. In 2019, there were an estimated 770 million people who have no access to electricity, with approximately 95% distributed in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.In developing countries, poor women and girls living in the rural areas are significantly affected by energy poverty, because they are usually responsible for providing the primary energy for households. In developed countries, old women living alone are mostly affected by energy poverty due to the low income and high cost of energy service.Even though energy access is an important climate change adaptation tool especially for maintaining health (i.e. access to air conditioning, information etc.), a systematic review published in 2019 found that research does not account for these effects onto vulnerable populations like women."}, {"id": 52058583, "title": "Energy system", "abstract": "An energy system is a system primarily designed to supply energy-services to end-users.:\u200a941\u200a The intent behind energy systems is to minimise energy losses to a negligible level, as well as to ensure the efficient use of energy. The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report defines an energy system as \"all components related to the production, conversion, delivery, and use of energy\".:\u200a1261\u200aThe first two definitions allow for demand-side measures, including daylighting, retrofitted building insulation, and passive solar building design, as well as socio-economic factors, such as aspects of energy demand management and remote work, while the third does not. Neither does the third account for the informal economy in traditional biomass that is significant in many developing countries.The analysis of energy systems thus spans the disciplines of engineering and economics.:\u200a1\u200a Merging ideas from both areas to form a coherent description, particularly where macroeconomic dynamics are involved, is challenging.The concept of an energy system is evolving as new regulations, technologies, and practices enter into service \u2013 for example, emissions trading, the development of smart grids, and the greater use of energy demand management, respectively."}, {"id": 1686779, "title": "Fusion energy gain factor", "abstract": "A fusion energy gain factor, usually expressed with the symbol Q, is the ratio of fusion power produced in a nuclear fusion reactor to the power required to maintain the plasma in steady state. The condition of Q = 1, when the power being released by the fusion reactions is equal to the required heating power, is referred to as breakeven, or in some sources, scientific breakeven.\nThe energy given off by the fusion reactions may be captured within the fuel, leading to self-heating. Most fusion reactions release at least some of their energy in a form that cannot be captured within the plasma, so a system at Q = 1 will cool without external heating. With typical fuels, self-heating in fusion reactors is not expected to match the external sources until at least Q \u2248 5. If Q increases past this point, increasing self-heating eventually removes the need for external heating. At this point the reaction becomes self-sustaining, a condition called ignition, and is generally regarded as highly desirable for practical reactor designs. Ignition corresponds to infinite Q.\nOver time, several related terms have entered the fusion lexicon. Energy that is not captured within the fuel can be captured externally to produce electricity. That electricity can be used to heat the plasma to operational temperatures. A system that is self-powered in this way is referred to as running at engineering breakeven. Operating above engineering breakeven, a machine would produce more electricity than it uses and could sell that excess. One that sells enough electricity to cover its operating costs is sometimes known as economic breakeven. Additionally, fusion fuels, especially tritium, are very expensive, so many experiments run on various test gasses like hydrogen or deuterium. A reactor running on these fuels that reaches the conditions for breakeven if tritium was introduced is said to be at extrapolated breakeven.\nFor over two decades since 1997, the record for Q was held by JET at Q = 0.67. The record for Qext was held by JT-60, with Qext = 1.25, slightly besting JET's earlier Qext = 1.14. In December 2022, the National Ignition Facility reached Q = 1.54 with a 3.15 MJ output from a 2.05 MJ laser heating, which remains the record as of 2023."}, {"id": 180236, "title": "Greisen\u2013Zatsepin\u2013Kuzmin limit", "abstract": "The Greisen\u2013Zatsepin\u2013Kuzmin limit (GZK limit or GZK cutoff) is a theoretical upper limit on the energy of cosmic ray protons traveling from other galaxies through the intergalactic medium to our galaxy. The limit is 5\u00d71019 eV (50 EeV), or about 8 joules (the energy of a proton travelling at \u2248 99.99999999999999999998% the speed of light). The limit is set by the slowing effect of interactions of the protons with the microwave background radiation over long distances (\u2248 160 million light-years). The limit is at the same order of magnitude as the upper limit for energy at which cosmic rays have experimentally been detected, although indeed some detections appear to have exceeded the limit, as noted below. For example, one extreme-energy cosmic ray, the Oh-My-God Particle, which has been found to possess a record-breaking 3.12\u00d71020 eV (50 joules) of energy (about the same as the kinetic energy of a 95 km/h baseball).\nThe precise GZK limit is derived under the assumption that ultra-high energy cosmic rays are protons. Measurements by the largest cosmic-ray observatory, the Pierre Auger Observatory, suggest that most ultra-high energy cosmic rays are heavier elements known as HZE ions. In this case, the argument behind the GZK limit does not apply in the originally simple form: however, as Greisen noted, the giant dipole resonance also occurs roughly in this energy range (at 10 EeV/nucleon) and similarly restricts very long-distance propagation.\nIn the past, the apparent violation of the GZK limit has inspired cosmologists and theoretical physicists to suggest other ways that circumvent the limit. These theories propose that ultra-high energy cosmic rays are produced near our galaxy or that Lorentz covariance is violated in such a way that protons do not lose energy on their way to our galaxy."}, {"id": 70717136, "title": "Heat content (fuel)", "abstract": "In the U.S. energy industry, heat content is the amount of heat energy that will be released by combustion of a unit quantity of a fuel or by transformation of another energy form. For example, fossil fuels are rated by heat content, with a distinction made between gross heat content (which includes heat energy used to vaporize moisture in the fuel) and net heat content (which excludes heat energy used to vaporize moisture in the fuel.) The term is also sometimes applied to other energy forms, such as heat content of a kilowatt-hour of electricity or a pound of steam."}, {"id": 40111102, "title": "Intelligent Energy", "abstract": "Intelligent Energy is a fuel cell engineering business focused on the development, manufacture and commercialisation of its proton-exchange membrane fuel cell technologies for a range of markets including automotive, stationary power, materials handling equipment and UAVs. Headqartered in the UK with representation in the US, Japan, South Korea, and China."}, {"id": 26894208, "title": "Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources", "abstract": "Greenhouse gas emissions are one of the environmental impacts of electricity generation. Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global warming potential of energy sources through life-cycle assessment. These are usually sources of only electrical energy but sometimes sources of heat are evaluated. The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source. The scale uses the global warming potential unit, the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), and the unit of electrical energy, the kilowatt hour (kWh). The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source, from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management.\nIn 2014, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide. This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source. Coal is by far the worst emitter, followed by natural gas, with solar, wind and nuclear all low-carbon. Hydropower, biomass, geothermal and ocean power may generally be low-carbon, but poor design or other factors could result in higher emissions from individual power stations.\nFor all technologies, advances in efficiency, and therefore reductions in CO2e since the time of publication, have not been included. For example, the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication. Similarly, due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted, nuclear Generation II reactor's CO2e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors. Other limitations of the data include: a) missing life cycle phases, and, b) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source. The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world, rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation."}, {"id": 58439642, "title": "Margham", "abstract": "Margham is an oil and gas field in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the largest onshore gas field in the emirate. The field is managed by Dusup - the Dubai Supply Authority. Condensate production ran at some 25,000 barrels per day in 2010. Margham also has an oil production capability."}, {"id": 3595285, "title": "Maximum power principle", "abstract": "The maximum power principle or Lotka's principle has been proposed as the fourth principle of energetics in open system thermodynamics, where an example of an open system is a biological cell. According to Howard T. Odum, \"The maximum power principle can be stated: During self-organization, system designs develop and prevail that maximize power intake, energy transformation, and those uses that reinforce production and efficiency.\""}, {"id": 61355226, "title": "NET Power Demonstration Facility", "abstract": "The NET Power Test Facility, located in La Porte, Tx, is an oxy-combustion, zero-emissions 50 MWth natural gas power plant owned and operated by NET Power. NET Power is owned by Constellation Energy Corporation, Occidental Petroleum Corporation (Oxy) Low Carbon Ventures, Baker Hughes Company and 8 Rivers Capital, the company holding the patents for the technology. The plant is a first of its kind Allam-Fetvedt Cycle which achieved first-fire in May of 2018. The Allam-Fetvedt cycle delivers lower cost power while eliminating atmospheric emissions. The plant was featured in The Global CCS Institutes 2018 Status of CCS report. In recognition of the Allam-Fetvedt Cycle demonstration plant in La Porte, Texas, NET Power was awarded the 2018 International Excellence in Energy Breakthrough Technological Project of the Year at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition and Conference (ADIPEC)."}, {"id": 52660479, "title": "Open energy system databases", "abstract": "Open energy system database projects employ open data methods to collect, clean, and republish energy-related datasets for open use.  The resulting information is then available, given a suitable open license, for statistical analysis and for building numerical energy system models, including open energy system models.  Permissive licenses like Creative Commons CC0 and CC BY are preferred, but some projects will house data made public under market transparency regulations and carrying unqualified copyright.\nThe databases themselves may furnish information on national power plant fleets, renewable generation assets, transmission networks, time series for electricity loads, dispatch, spot prices, and cross-border trades, weather information, and similar.  They may also offer other energy statistics including fossil fuel imports and exports, gas, oil, and coal prices, emissions certificate prices, and information on energy efficiency costs and benefits.\nMuch of the data is sourced from official or semi-official agencies, including national statistics offices, transmission system operators, and electricity market operators.  Data is also crowdsourced using public wikis and public upload facilities.  Projects usually also maintain a strict record of the provenance and version histories of the datasets they hold.  Some projects, as part of their mandate, also try to persuade primary data providers to release their data under more liberal licensing conditions.Two drivers favor the establishment of such databases.  The first is a wish to reduce the duplication of effort that accompanies each new analytical project as it assembles and processes the data that it needs from primary sources.  And the second is an increasing desire to make public policy energy models more transparent to improve their acceptance by policymakers and the public.  Better transparency dictates the use of open information, able to be accessed and scrutinized by third-parties, in addition to releasing the source code for the models in question."}, {"id": 939466, "title": "Orders of magnitude (energy)", "abstract": "This list compares various energies in joules (J), organized by order of magnitude."}, {"id": 1652353, "title": "Photon noise", "abstract": "Photon noise is the randomness in signal associated with photons arriving at a detector.  For a simple black body emitting on an absorber, the noise-equivalent power is given by\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            N\n            E\n            P\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        =\n        2\n        \n          h\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \n          \u03bd\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \u0394\n        \u03bd\n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              \n                n\n                \u03b7\n              \n            \n            +\n            \n              n\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {NEP} ^{2}=2h^{2}\\nu ^{2}\\Delta \\nu \\left({\\frac {n}{\\eta }}+n^{2}\\right)}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h}\n   is the Planck constant, \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03bd\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\nu }\n   is the central frequency, \n  \n    \n      \n        \u0394\n        \u03bd\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Delta \\nu }\n   is the bandwidth, \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n   is the occupation number and \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b7\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\eta }\n   is the optical efficiency.\nThe first term is essentially shot noise whereas the second term is related to the bosonic character of photons, variously known as \"Bose noise\" or \"wave noise\".  At low occupation number, such as in the visible spectrum, the shot noise term dominates.  At high occupation number, however, typical of the radio spectrum, the Bose term dominates."}, {"id": 1417710, "title": "Energy policy", "abstract": "Energy policy is the manner in which a given entity (often governmental) has decided to address issues of energy development including energy conversion, distribution and use as well as reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in order to contribute to climate change mitigation. The attributes of energy policy may include legislation, international treaties, incentives to investment, guidelines for energy conservation, taxation and other public policy techniques. Energy is a core component of modern economies. A functioning economy requires not only labor and capital but also energy, for manufacturing processes, transportation, communication, agriculture, and more. Energy planning is more detailed than energy policy.   \nEnergy policy is closely related to climate change policy because totalled worldwide the energy sector emits more greenhouse gas than other sectors."}, {"id": 1413688, "title": "Primary energy", "abstract": "Primary energy (PE) is the energy found in nature that has not been subjected to any human engineered conversion process. It encompasses energy contained in raw fuels and other forms of energy, including waste, received as input to a system. Primary energy can be non-renewable or renewable.\nTotal primary energy supply (TPES) is the sum of production and imports, plus or minus stock changes, minus exports and international bunker storage.\nThe International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) prefers total energy supply (TES) to refer to this indicator. These expressions are often used to describe the total energy supply of a national territory.\nSecondary energy is a carrier of energy, such as electricity. These are produced by conversion from a primary energy source.\nPrimary energy is used as a measure in energy statistics in the compilation of energy balances, as well as in the field of energetics. In energetics, a primary energy source (PES) refers to the energy forms required by the energy sector to generate the supply of energy carriers used by human society. Primary energy only counts raw energy and not usable energy and fails to account well for energy losses, particularly the large losses in thermal sources. It therefore generally grossly undercounts non thermal renewable energy sources ."}, {"id": 29952, "title": "Thermodynamics", "abstract": "Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics which convey a quantitative description using measurable macroscopic physical quantities, but may be explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, biochemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering, but also in other complex fields such as meteorology.\nHistorically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Sadi Carnot (1824) who believed that engine efficiency was the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars. Scots-Irish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854 which stated, \"Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency.\"  German physicist and mathematician Rudolf Clausius restated Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle and gave to the theory of heat a truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, \"On the Moving Force of Heat\", published in 1850, first stated the second law of thermodynamics. In 1865 he introduced the concept of entropy. In 1870 he introduced the virial theorem, which applied to heat.The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was quickly extended to the study of chemical compounds and chemical reactions. Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field. Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged. Statistical thermodynamics, or statistical mechanics, concerns itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior. In 1909, Constantin Carath\u00e9odory presented a purely mathematical approach in an axiomatic formulation, a description often referred to as geometrical thermodynamics."}, {"id": 26830333, "title": "Water-energy nexus", "abstract": "The water-energy nexus is the relationship between the water used for energy production, including both electricity and sources of fuel such as oil and natural gas, and the energy consumed to extract, purify, deliver, heat/cool, treat and dispose of water (and wastewater) sometimes referred to as the energy intensity (EI). Energy is needed in every stage of the water cycle from producing, moving, treating and heating water to collecting and treating wastewater. The relationship is not truly a closed loop as the water used for energy production need not be the same water that is processed using that energy, but all forms of energy production require some input of water making the relationship inextricable.\nAmong the first studies to evaluate the water and energy relationship was a life-cycle analysis conducted by Peter Gleick in 1994 that highlighted the interdependence and initiated the joint study of water and energy. In 2014 the US Department of Energy (DOE) released their report on the water-energy nexus citing the need for joint water-energy policies and better understanding of the nexus and its susceptibility to climate change as a matter of national security. The hybrid Sankey diagram in the DOE's 2014 water-energy nexus report summarizes water and energy flows in the US by sector, demonstrating interdependence as well as singling out thermoelectric power as the single largest user of water, used mainly for cooling."}], "id": 865456}, {"title": "History", "pages": [{"id": 10772350, "title": "History", "abstract": "History (derived from Ancient Greek  \u1f31\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 (histor\u00eda) 'inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation') is the systematic study and documentation of the human past.The period of events before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. \"History\" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers. History is incomplete and still has debatable mysteries.\nHistory is an academic discipline which uses a narrative to describe, examine, question, and analyze past events, and investigate their patterns of cause and effect. Historians debate which narrative best explains an event, as well as the significance of different causes and effects. Historians debate the nature of history as an end in itself, and its usefulness in giving perspective on the problems of the present.Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the tales surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends. History differs from myth in that it is supported by verifiable evidence. However, ancient cultural influences have helped create variant interpretations of the nature of history, which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and certain topical or thematic elements of historical investigation. History is taught as a part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in universities.\nHerodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the \"father of history\", as one of the first historians in the Western tradition, though he has been criticized as the \"father of lies\". Along with his contemporary Thucydides, he helped form the foundations for the modern study of past events and societies. Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In East Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals, was reputed to date from as early as 722 BC, though only 2nd-century BC texts have survived."}, {"id": 21014942, "title": "Glossary of history", "abstract": "This glossary of history is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to the study of history and its related fields and sub-disciplines, including both prehistory and the period of human history."}, {"id": 3402732, "title": "Outline of history", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to history:\nHistory \u2013 discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented (the beginning of recorded history)."}, {"id": 75837620, "title": "Armenian merchantry", "abstract": "Armenians historically served as merchants at the crossroads of Central Asia, India, China, and the Mediterranean, facing persistent attacks from various quarters vying for control over the pivotal trade routes.From antiquity, Armenian merchants have played a pivotal role in transcontinental trade across Eurasia. Positioned strategically along the vital trade route linking Europe and Asia, Armenia's geographical advantage has sustained its centrality of international trade in the economic life of Armenians until the close of the early modern period.Armenians established colonies in various urban centers across Europe and Asia. Simultaneously, they developed necessary infrastructure for successful involvement in long-distance trade.In the early modern era, Armenians played a highly active and potentially dominant role in overland trade. The significance of the Armenians in long-distance trade across Asia during the 16th to the 18th century is a pivotal subject in trade history."}, {"id": 35404177, "title": "Art and culture law", "abstract": "Art and culture law refers to legal aspects of the visual arts, antiquities, cultural heritage and the art market and encompasses the safeguarding, regulation, and facilitation of artistic creation, utilization, and promotion. Practitioners of art law navigate various legal areas, including intellectual property, contract, constitutional, tort, tax, commercial, immigration law, estates and wills, cultural property law, and international law to protect the interests of their clients.While the term \"art\" can encompass a wide range of creative forms, art law typically concentrates on the realm of fine art or visual arts."}, {"id": 42696666, "title": "Bajrangarh Fort", "abstract": "Bajrangarh Fort (also known as Jharkon) is located in Bajrangarh village of Guna District in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.\nThe Bajrangarh fort lies at an altitude of 92.3 metres (303 feet) and is in ruins. The fort is about 10 kilometres (6.2 miles) from Guna on Guna to Aron road on the bank of Chapet river around 8 kilometres (5.0 miles) south-west of Guna city. It spreads over 72 bighas of land on a high hill. ,The Bajrangarh fort had four gates in four directions. Inside the fort, Moti Mahal, Rangmahal, Ram Mandir, and Bajrang Mandir are still intact.\nThere is a big step well inside the complex that was used for storing drinking water for the horses. The fort also has an ancient temple which is frequented by local inhabitants."}, {"id": 7370562, "title": "Biography", "abstract": "A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life. It involves more than just basic facts like education, work, relationships, and death; it portrays a person's experience of these life events. Unlike a profile or curriculum vitae (r\u00e9sum\u00e9), a biography presents a subject's life story, highlighting various aspects of their life, including intimate details of experience, and may include an analysis of the subject's personality.\nBiographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life. One in-depth form of biographical coverage is called legacy writing. Works in diverse media, from literature to film, form the genre known as biography.\nAn authorized biography is written with the permission, cooperation, and at times, participation of a subject or a subject's heirs. An autobiography is written by the person themselves, sometimes with the assistance of a collaborator or ghostwriter."}, {"id": 75618392, "title": "Carnation Plot", "abstract": "The Carnation Plot, was one of the many plans that failed to free the royal family of France from the Revolution. Also known as the \"le complot de l'oeillet\", it was a plan to free Marie Antoinette, former Queen of France, in August 1793. Conspired by Alexandre Gonsse de Rougeville, who was loyal to Louis XVI and was with Louis XVI when a crowd entered the Tuileries Palace, and was also present at the insurrection at the Tuileries Palace (10th of August). However it did not succeed.\n\nAfter the event at the Tuileries Palace, Rougeville met the family's jail administrator, Jean-Baptiste Michonis. Michonis was originally a revolutionary, but supposedly after he talked and spoke to Rougeville, he  too wanted to free the Queen. They both agreed that Rougeville along with Michonis would go to Conciergerie, where the Queen is located. Rougeville wrote that;\"The room was small, damp, and ill-smelling...there were three beds: one for the Queen, the other, by the side of hers, for the woman who served her; the third, for the two gendarmes, who never left the room on any occasion or under any circumstances whatsoever.\"Rougeville also wrote that when he visited the Queen at Conciergerie, she was thin, weak and could barely walk. Before visiting the Queen, Rougeville had pinned two carnations onto his lapel, which resulted in the scheme being called the Carnation Plot. This was part of his plan, for he gave Marie one carnation, which had a note inside. We do not know what happened next, but there are many theories. One theory suggests that a gendarmes spotted the note and read the note. Another, which is probably the least likely suggested that a warden's wife Madame Richard noticed the note, and when picking it up, Rougeville rushed to Madame Richard and ate the note. The third and most plausible theory is that Marie Antoinette noticed the note after Rougeville and Michonis left, and read the note without anyone noticing. After reading the note, Marie Antoinette contacted Rougeville. They spoke privately, while Michonis was talking and occupying the gendarmes. However, later Michonis was fearing that the gendarmes would start to supect Michonis, so he contacted Rougeville and they left. However, Rougeville supposedly left money for the Queen for bribes, and also left another note informing the Queen that Rougeville will come back on Friday. Afterwards, it is claimed that the Queen used a pin to pierce a message, which read;\"I am constantly watched; I neither talk nor write; I trust in you; I shall come\" Marie Antoinette gave the note to a gendarme, Jean Gilbert. Instead of giving the note to Rougeville, Jean Gilbert gave the note to Madame Richard, who gave it to Michonis. Rougeville arrived on Friday as promised, and gave the Queen some money, which was used to bribe Toussaint Richard (the warden) and Madame Richard. The Queen's escape date was set to be on 2 September and 3 September.\nThe plan was to release Marie using Michonis, then Rougeville would receive Marie, and would receive Madame Jarjayes in Livry-Gargan, and then the Queen would be taken to Germany. To make sure the gendarmes would not tell anyone of the plot, they were given 50 Louis d'or. However, the plot was ruined when a guard stopped the Queen from leaving and, \"declared that if they carried the Queen away, he would call the guard.\" The plotters could not change the guard's mind, so thus the plan failed. \n\nLater, on 3 September, Jean Gilbert announced the planned escape. The public was amazed, and the Convention took drastic measures. Rougeville moved to Reims, and died there in 1814. The other members, Michonis, Toussaint Richard, and Madame Richard were all arrested. Marie Antoinette never told the examiners anything, but they increased surveillance and the Queen was executed on 16 October 1793.Michonis was later found guilty and was executed on 17 July 1794. Toussaint Richard and Madame Richard were released after the Queen's death. Madame Richard returned to work and was later murdered."}, {"id": 1827281, "title": "List of historical classifications", "abstract": "Historical classification groups the various history topics into different categories according to subject matter as shown below."}, {"id": 75749684, "title": "Danish-Hanseatic War (1361-1370)", "abstract": "The Danish-Hanseatic War (1361\u20131370) was a both a trade and territorial conflict mainly between the Kingdom of Denmark, led by King Valdemar IV, and the Hanseatic League, the latter of which was led by the rich and powerful merchant city of L\u00fcbeck. Though the first few years of the war resulted in several Danish victories, and even led to a beneficial truce for Denmark in 1365, the Hanseatic League, furious at the terms of the truce, resumed hostilities along with several allies and managed to defeat the Danes.\nThough initiated by the Danish conquest of Gotland, the war quickly spread to encompass all territories where Denmark and the Hansa had conflicting claims. Scania and the Oresund, along with several coastal ports belonging to the Danish ally of Norway, were attacked and raided, and even the Danish capital of Copenhagen was ransacked. The resulting treaty, signed at Stralsund, secured the Hanseatic League's position as a great power in Northern Europe.\nThe Danish-Hanseatic War is split into two parts, one part starting with the Danish conquest of Gotland and ending with the Treaty of Vordingborg, which secured a tenuous truce between the combatants. The second part starts with the Hanseatic League's resumption of hostilities against Denmark and ending with the Treaty of Stralsund in 1370."}, {"id": 74499149, "title": "Economy of the Qing dynasty", "abstract": "The economy of the Qing dynasty (1636\u20131912) was a large and varied economy and was the most populated country on Earth for nearly two centuries. The High Qing era saw a period of rapid growth both demographically and economically followed by a near century of stagnation brought about by the unequal treaties, rebellions, floods and a fiscally conservative and decentralised government.\nSome scholars have described the period up to the High Qing era as a second commercial revolution, which was even more transformative than the first that occurred during the Song dynasty. By the end of the 18th century what historians sometimes refer to as a \"circulation economy\" or \"commodity economy\" developed, in which commercialization penetrated local rural society to an unprecedented degree. During this period the European trend to imitate Chinese artistic traditions, known as chinoiserie gained great popularity in Europe in the 18th century due to the rise in trade with China and the broader current of Orientalism."}, {"id": 1827600, "title": "Environmental history", "abstract": "Environmental history is the study of human interaction with the natural world over time, emphasising the active role nature plays in influencing human affairs and vice versa.\nEnvironmental history first emerged in the United States out of the environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s, and much of its impetus still stems from present-day global environmental concerns. The field was founded on conservation issues but has broadened in scope to include more general social and scientific history and may deal with cities, population or sustainable development. As all history occurs in the natural world, environmental history tends to focus on particular time-scales, geographic regions, or key themes. It is also a strongly multidisciplinary subject that draws widely on both the humanities and natural science.\nThe subject matter of environmental history can be divided into three main components. The first, nature itself and its change over time, includes the physical impact of humans on the Earth's land, water, atmosphere and biosphere. The second category, how humans use nature, includes the environmental consequences of increasing population, more effective technology and changing patterns of production and consumption. Other key themes are the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer communities to settled agriculture in the neolithic revolution, the effects of colonial expansion and settlements, and the environmental and human consequences of the industrial and technological revolutions. Finally, environmental historians study how people think about nature \u2013 the way attitudes, beliefs and values influence interaction with nature, especially in the form of myths, religion and science."}, {"id": 11325429, "title": "Historical figure", "abstract": "A historical figure is a significant person in history.\nThe significance of such figures in human progress has been debated. Some think they play a crucial role, while others say they have little impact on the broad currents of thought and social change.  The concept is generally used in the sense that the person really existed in the past, as opposed to being legendary. However, the legends that can grow up around historical figures may be hard to distinguish from fact.  Sources are often incomplete and may be inaccurate, particularly those from early periods of history. Without a body of personal documents, the more subtle aspects of personality of a historical figure can only be deduced. With historical figures who were also religious figures attempts to separate fact from belief may be controversial.\nIn education, presenting information as if it were being told by a historical figure may give it greater impact. Since classical times, students have been asked to put themselves in the place of a historical figure as a way of bringing history to life. Historical figures are often represented in fiction, where fact and fancy are combined. In earlier traditions, before the rise of a critical historical tradition, authors took less care to be as accurate when describing what they knew of historical figures and their actions, interpolating imaginary elements intended to serve a moral purpose to events. More recently there has been a tendency once again for authors to freely depart from the \"facts\" when they conflict with their creative goals."}, {"id": 28045, "title": "Hijackers in the September 11 attacks", "abstract": "The hijackers in the September 11 attacks were 19 men affiliated with Islamist jihadist organization al-Qaeda. They hailed from four countries; 15 of them were citizens of Saudi Arabia, two were from the United Arab Emirates, one was from Egypt, and one from Lebanon. To carry out the attacks, the hijackers were organized into four teams each led by a pilot-trained hijacker who would commandeer the flight with three or four \"muscle hijackers\" who were trained to help subdue the pilots, passengers, and crew. Each team was assigned to a different flight and given a unique target to crash their respective planes into.\nThe first hijackers to arrive in the United States were Khalid al-Mihdhar and Nawaf al-Hazmi, who settled in San Diego County, California, in January 2000. They were followed by three hijacker-pilots, Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, and Ziad Jarrah in mid-2000 to undertake flight training at Huffman Aviation flight-training school in Venice, Florida. The fourth hijacker-pilot, Hani Hanjour, arrived in San Diego in December 2000. The rest of the \"muscle hijackers\" arrived in early- and mid-2001."}, {"id": 69491097, "title": "Historical culture", "abstract": "Historical culture is a relatively new concept that encompasses \"both material and immaterial culture as well as academic and popular articulations\" of history."}, {"id": 60209193, "title": "Historical significance", "abstract": "Historical significance is a historiographical key concept that explores and seeks to explain the selection of particular social and cultural past events for remembrance by human societies. This element of selection involved in both ascribing and analyzing historical significance is one factor in making the discipline of history distinct from the past. Historians consider knowledge of dates and events within and between specific historical periods the primary content of history, also known as \"first-order knowledge\" or substantive concepts. In contrast, historical significance is an example of a subject specific secondary key concept or \"second-order knowledge\" also known as a meta-concept, or disciplinary concept, which is typically used to help organize knowledge within a subject area, frame suitable areas of inquiry, provide the framework upon which substantive knowledge can be built, and map learner progression within a subject discipline. Specifically with regards to historical significance, the way dates and events are chosen and ascribed relative significance is not fixed and can change over time according to which criteria were used to form the judgement of significance as well as how those criteria were chosen themselves in the first place. This aspect to significance has been described as:\n\u201ca flexible relationship between us and the past\u201d.    \nHistorical significance is often regarded as involving judging why a particular person or event is remembered and why another is not, it is this aspect of reasoned and evaluative judgement about historical significance that makes history writing differ from being simply a record of past events.   \n\"as soon as we turn to questions of significance\u2014of why something happened versus the mere fact of its happening\u2014history becomes an act of judgment.\"   \nThis emphasis on exploring what has been deemed significant by certain societies in contrast to what has been left out of the historical record has led to historical significance often being paired with the concept of historical silence, which looks at why and how certain social class, racial, and/or ethnic groups have not featured in the historical record or whose contributions have not been seen as significant at particular times, and in particular contexts. Thus historical significance is not an intrinsic or fixed property of a particular historical event but rather more of an assessment of who, why, and how that event was judged significant enough to be remembered. With this potential fluidity in mind, it therefore follows that any assessment of historical significance should not be seen as fixed or permanent.  \"historical significance is not an enduring or unchanging characteristic of any particular event. It is a contingent quality that depends on the perspective from which that event is subsequently viewed.\""}, {"id": 14329, "title": "Historicism", "abstract": "Historicism is an approach to explaining the existence of phenomena, especially social and cultural practices (including ideas and beliefs), by studying their history; that is, by studying the process by which they came about. The term is widely used in philosophy, anthropology, and sociology.\nThis historical approach to explanation differs from and complements the approach known as functionalism, which seeks to explain a phenomenon, such as for example a social form, by providing reasoned arguments about how that social form fulfills some function in the structure of a society. In contrast, rather than taking the phenomenon as a given and then seeking to provide a justification for it from reasoned principles, the historical approach asks \"Where did this come from?\" and \"What factors led up to its creation?\"; that is, historical explanations often place a greater emphasis on the role of process and contingency.\nHistoricism is often used to help contextualize theories and narratives, and is a useful tool to help understand how social and cultural phenomena came to be.\nThe historicist approach differs from individualist theories of knowledge such as strict empiricism and de-contextualised rationalism, which neglect the role of traditions. Historicism may be contrasted with reductionist theories\u2014which assume that all developments can be explained by fundamental principles (such as in economic determinism)\u2014or with theories that posit that historical changes occur entirely at random.\nDavid Summers, building on the work of E. H. Gombrich, defines historicism negatively, writing that it posits \"that laws of history are formulatable and that in general the outcome of history is predictable,\" adding \"the idea that history is a universal matrix prior to events, which are simply placed in order within that matrix by the historian.\" This approach, he writes, \"seems to make the ends of history visible, thus to justify the liquidation of groups seen not to have a place in the scheme of history\" and that it has led to the \"fabrication of some of the most murderous myths of modern times.\""}, {"id": 74400681, "title": "History of catering", "abstract": "The history of catering involves the development and evolution of the service industry that provides food, beverage, and other event services. The word catering comes from the Latin word cater, which means to provide. The business of providing food for parties, meetings, and other gatherings has been around for millennia, with traces back to ancient civilizations. Over time, this profession has grown and evolved into the diverse industry it is today."}, {"id": 9719987, "title": "History of ice hockey", "abstract": "Ice hockey is believed to have evolved from simple stick and ball games played in the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain, Ireland, and elsewhere, primarily bandy, hurling, and shinty. The North American sport of lacrosse was also influential. These games were brought to North America and several similar winter games using informal rules developed, such as shinny and ice polo, but were later absorbed into a new organized game with codified rules which today is ice hockey.\n\nThe origin of ice hockey was bandy, a game that has its roots in the Middle Ages. Just as for practically all other sports, the game of bandy achieved its modern form during the 19th century in England, more exactly in the Fen district on the East coast. From the Fen district the game was spread to London and from London to the Continent during the second half of the 19th century.\nBritish soldiers stationed in eastern Canada brought the game to the North American continent in the 1850s and '60s. You could find similar games there, played by immigrants (chiefly Dutch) and by Indians. Thus there were a number of different games played on skates with a stick and ball and with varying rules in America before ice hockey was invented."}, {"id": 71832514, "title": "History of magic", "abstract": "The history of magic extends from the earliest literate cultures, who relied on charms, divination and spells to interpret and influence the forces of nature. Even societies without written language left crafted artifacts, cave art and monuments that have been interpreted as having magical purpose. Magic and what would later be called science were often practiced together, with the notable examples of astrology and alchemy, before the Scientific Revolution of the late European Renaissance moved to separate science from magic on the basis of repeatable observation. Despite this loss of prestige, the use of magic has continued both in its traditional role, and among modern occultists who seek to adapt it for a scientific world."}, {"id": 14400, "title": "History of science", "abstract": "The history of science covers the development of science from ancient times to the present. It encompasses all three major branches of science: natural, social, and formal.Science's earliest roots can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia around 3000 to 1200 BCE. These civilizations' contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine influenced later Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, wherein formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Latin-speaking Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but continued to thrive in the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) Empire. Aided by translations of Greek texts, the Hellenistic worldview was preserved and absorbed into the Arabic-speaking Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age. The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West.Natural philosophy was transformed during the Scientific Revolution in 16th- to 17th-century Europe, as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The New Science that emerged was more mechanistic in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined scientific method. More \"revolutions\" in subsequent centuries soon followed. The chemical revolution of the 18th century, for instance, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements for chemistry. In the 19th century, new perspectives regarding the conservation of energy, age of Earth, and evolution came into focus. And in the 20th century, new discoveries in genetics and physics laid the foundations for new sub disciplines such as molecular biology and particle physics. Moreover, industrial and military concerns as well as the increasing complexity of new research endeavors ushered in the era of \"big science,\" particularly after World War II."}, {"id": 13502171, "title": "Local history", "abstract": "Local history is the study of history in a geographically local context, often concentrating on a relatively small local community. It incorporates cultural and social aspects of history. Local history is not merely national history writ small but a study of past events in a given geographical area which is based on a wide variety of documentary evidence and placed in a comparative context that is both regional and national. Historic plaques are one form of documentation of significant occurrences in the past and oral histories are another.\nLocal history is often documented by local historical societies or groups that form to preserve a local historic building or other historic site. Many works of local history are compiled by amateur historians working independently or archivists employed by various organizations. An important aspect of local history is the publication and cataloguing of documents preserved in local or national records which relate to particular areas.\nIn a number of countries a broader concept of local lore is known, which is a comprehensive study of everything pertaining to a certain locality: history, ethnography, geography, natural history, etc."}, {"id": 59680714, "title": "Mancos Opera House", "abstract": "The Mancos Opera House, at 136 W. Grand Ave. in Mancos, Colorado, was built in 1910.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.  It has also been known as Checkerboard Hall.It is a three-story building which was built and owned by A.J. Ames and George Woods.  It is prominent on Grand Avenue, the main street of Mancos.  It and the Bauer Bank Building, also NRHP-listed, \"are among the largest, intact commercial buildings in Mancos and in Montezuma County.On March 10, 1910, A.J. Ames and George D. Woods announced in the Mancos Times and Tribune (the \"Times\") their intention to build the Mancos Opera House Block to house Woods\u2019 drug store and the Mancos Meat and Grocery Co. on the ground floor, with an Opera Hall on the second floor. Ames and Woods engaged architect W.L. Morse to design the building. W.L. Morse and George Bauer were hired as the contractors for the construction.\nOn June 3, 1910, Woods and Ames announced in the Times that they intended to construct the building out of locally produced brick to \u201ckeep the money at home.\" On July 29, the Times reported that the brick kiln had been completed, and that 200,000 bricks would be fired. Of those, 100,000 of which would be used for the Opera House, the rest to be used in other projects. By November 11, 1910, the building had progressed to the point that George Woods printed an announcement in the Times that his drug store would hold its opening on Thanksgiving Day, November 24, 1910 and welcomed the town to the \u201cBig Surprise Party.\" On December 10, 1910, the Times reported that the auditorium level of the building had been finished, Montezuma County\u2019s first moving picture machine installed, curtains hung, and all was ready for use. On December 16, 1910, The Mancos Meat Grocery Co., Theodore Parker, Proprietor, advertised that they were \u201cDealer in all kinds of fresh and cured meats, Fruit, Farm Produce, Butter, Eggs, etc.\u201d\nFor many years high school graduations were held in the hall as well as traveling road shows and square dances. The first moving picture show in Montezuma County was shown in the opera house and in the 1920s, silent movies were held on Saturday nights.[1] After the movie, the ushers removed the seats and a public dance was held. The hall became known as the \"Checkerboard Ballroom\" because of the checkerboard pattern painted on the floor with numbers in the center of the squares. At the public dances, when the band stopped playing, a number was called and the couple standing on that number won a prize. The music for the dances was usually furnished by local musicians such as the six member Goff family orchestra or the band called the Slumber Wreckers. \nThe opera house had several celebrities perform on the stage. In 1942, singer Jaye P. Morgan (later J.P. Morgan) whose parents were onetime residents of Mancos, gave a performance. In 1965, Diane Hall, later known as Diane Keaton, played the lead in Little Mary Sunshine on the opera house stage. Diane was one of fourteen southern California college students who came to Mancos to revive the \"mellerdramer\" during the summer in the opera house. This was the last performance held in the opera house. \nin 1953, the first floor became the headquarters for the local post of the Veterans of Foreign Wars. The large display windows were bricked up leaving entry doors in each bay flanked by small rectangular windows. The original first floor facade of display windows with clerestories and recessed entrances, was bricked up in 1958. The VFW used the first floor as their meeting space, as well as for community uses. In the 1960s and 1970s, the VFW provided space on the first floor for the fledgling collections of the Mancos Public Library and the Historical Museum.\nIn 1985, plans were made by the townspeople and the VFW for the restoration of the opera house. A Theater Renovation Committee was established to seek and apply for funds and grants and preliminary plans and estimates were prepared. \nIn 2002, when the building was in danger of collapsing, The Colorado Historical Fund financed an expensive remodel of the building, including the installation of stabilizing beams under some of the balconies in the theater and repairs to the roof. Because the building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and had been a recipient of Historical Fund money, the building\u2019s exterior was not changed.[2] \nIn 2017, Philip and Linda Walters began the task of renovating the opera house.[3] \nBoth Philip and Linda Walters were longtime preservationists. Philip was involved with the 2002 project to rehabilitate the opera house. Linda was a member of the Mancos Valley Historical Society and had helped restore the Mancos Common Press.[4] \nIn 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic and as renovations continued, the Mancos Opera House served as the headquarters for filming a TV-pilot for \"Badwater,\" scripted by Cortez novelist Chuck (C. Joseph) Greaves and directed by Fel\u00edx Enr\u00edquez Alcal\u00e1 (\u201cER,\u201d \u201cCriminal Minds,\u201d \u201cThe Good Wife\u201d and \u201cBreaking Bad.\u201d) [5]\nIn 2022, Colorado Preservation, Inc. awarded Philip and Linda Walters with the Dana Crawford and Alpine Bank State Honor Award for their preservation work.[6]"}, {"id": 53372308, "title": "National memory", "abstract": "National memory is a form of collective memory defined by shared experiences and culture. It is an integral part to national identity.\nIt represents one specific form of cultural memory, which makes an essential contribution to national group cohesion. Historically national communities have drawn upon commemorative ceremonies and monuments, myths and rituals, glorified individuals, objects, and events in their own history to produce a common narrative.According to Lorraine Ryan, national memory is based on the public's reception of national historic narratives and the ability of people to affirm the legitimacy of these narratives."}, {"id": 75790244, "title": "Ndoro community", "abstract": "Ndoro  is a community located in Ekeremor Local Government Area of Bayelsa State, Nigeria."}, {"id": 22687, "title": "Oral history", "abstract": "Oral history is the collection and study of historical information about people, families, important events, or everyday life using audiotapes, videotapes, or transcriptions of planned interviews. These interviews are conducted with people who participated in or observed past events and whose memories and perceptions of these are to be preserved as an aural record for future generations. Oral history strives to obtain information from different perspectives and most of these cannot be found in written sources. Oral history also refers to information gathered in this manner and to a written work (published or unpublished) based on such data, often preserved in archives and large libraries. Knowledge presented by Oral History (OH) is unique in that it shares the tacit perspective, thoughts, opinions and understanding of the interviewee in its primary form.The term is sometimes used in a more general sense to refer to any information about past events that witnesses told anybody else, but professional historians usually consider this to be oral tradition. The Columbia Encyclopedia explains: \n\nPrimitive societies have long relied on oral tradition to preserve a record of the past in the absence of written histories. In Western society, the use of oral material goes back to the early Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides, both of whom made extensive use of oral reports from witnesses. The modern concept of oral history was developed in the 1940s by Allan Nevins and his associates at Columbia University."}, {"id": 67306520, "title": "Redemptive violence", "abstract": "Redemptive violence  is defined as a belief that \"violence is a useful mechanism for control and order\", or, alternately, a belief in \"using violence to rid and save the world from evil\". The French Revolution involved violence that was depicted as redemptive by revolutionaries, and decolonization theorist Frantz Fanon was an advocate of redemptive violence. Pacifism rejects the idea that violence can be redemptive."}, {"id": 222291, "title": "Social history", "abstract": "Social history, often called \"history from below\", is a field of history that looks at the lived experience of the past. Historians who write social history are called social historians. Social history came to prominence in the 1960s, with some arguing that its origins lie over a century earlier.\nIn its \"golden age\" it was a major field in the 1960s and 1970s among young historians, and still is well represented in history departments in Britain, Canada, France, Germany, and the United States. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.  In the history departments of British and Irish universities in 2014, of the 3410 faculty members reporting, 878 (26%) identified themselves with social history while political history came next with 841 (25%)."}, {"id": 75700571, "title": "Tlangpi", "abstract": "Tlangpi also known as Klangpi is a mountainous village of Chin people in Thantlang Township,  Chin State, Myanmar. It is located in the west of Chin State, 13 km away from the south of Camp Victoria, Headquarters of Chin National Front in India-Myanmar border. In the 2014 Myanmar Census, the population in Tlangpi was 1,648 (females: 823 and males: 825)."}, {"id": 18630637, "title": "Translation", "abstract": "Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.\nA translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such \"spill-overs\" have sometimes imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator. More recently, the rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated \"language localisation\"."}, {"id": 75789841, "title": "Urua Inyang", "abstract": "Urua Inyang is a town located in Ika, Nigeria. It shares boundaries with two villages: Ikot Eseden and Ikot Usun.\nThe former Super Eagle keeper Vincent Enyeama hails from Urua Inyang."}, {"id": 4305070, "title": "History of Western civilization", "abstract": "Western civilization traces its roots back to Europe and the Mediterranean. It is linked to ancient Greece, the Roman Empire and Medieval Western Christendom which emerged during the Middle Ages and experienced such transformative episodes as the development of Scholasticism, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, the Scientific Revolution, and the development of liberal democracy. The civilizations of Classical Greece and Ancient Rome are considered seminal periods in Western history. Major cultural contributions also came from the Christianized Germanic peoples, such as the Franks, the Goths, and the Burgundians. Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire and he is referred to as the \"Father of Europe.\" Contributions also emerged from pagan peoples of pre-Christian Europe, such as the Celts and Germanic pagans as well as some significant religious contributions derived from Judaism and Hellenistic Judaism stemming back to Second Temple Judea, Galilee, and the early Jewish diaspora; and some other Middle Eastern influences. Western Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, which throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture. (There were Christians outside of the West, such as China, India, Russia, Byzantium and the Middle East). Western civilization has spread to produce the dominant cultures of modern Americas and Oceania, and has had immense global influence in recent centuries in many ways.\nFollowing the 5th century Fall of Rome, Europe entered the Middle Ages, during which period the Catholic Church filled the power vacuum left in the West by the fall of the Western Roman Empire, while the Eastern Roman Empire (or Byzantine Empire) endured in the East for centuries, becoming a Hellenic Eastern contrast to the Latin West. By the 12th century, Western Europe was experiencing a flowering of art and learning, propelled by the construction of cathedrals, the establishment of medieval universities, and greater contact with the medieval Islamic world via Al-Andalus and Sicily, from where Arabic texts on science and philosophy were translated into Latin. Christian unity was shattered by the Reformation from the 16th century. A merchant class grew out of city states, initially in the Italian peninsula (see Italian city-states), and Europe experienced the Renaissance from the 14th to the 17th century, heralding an age of technological and artistic advance and ushering in the Age of Discovery which saw the rise of such global European empires as those of Portugal and Spain.\nThe Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 18th century. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, the Age of Revolution emerged from the United States and France as part of the transformation of the West into its industrialised, democratised modern form. The lands of North and South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand became first part of European empires and then home to new Western nations, while Africa and Asia were largely carved up between Western powers. Laboratories of Western democracy were founded in Britain's colonies in Australasia from the mid-19th centuries, while South America largely created new autocracies. In the 20th century, absolute monarchy disappeared from Europe, and despite episodes of Fascism and Communism, by the close of the century, virtually all of Europe was electing its leaders democratically. Most Western nations were heavily involved in the First and Second World Wars and protracted Cold War. World War II saw Fascism defeated in Europe, and the emergence of the United States and Soviet Union as rival global powers and a new \"East-West\" political contrast.\nOther than in Russia, the European empires disintegrated after World War II and civil rights movements and widescale multi-ethnic, multi-faith migrations to Europe, the Americas and Oceania lowered the earlier predominance of ethnic Europeans in Western culture. European nations moved towards greater economic and political co-operation through the European Union. The Cold War ended around 1990 with the collapse of Soviet-imposed Communism in Central and Eastern Europe. In the 21st century, the Western World retains significant global economic power and influence. The West has contributed a great many technological, political, philosophical, artistic and religious aspects to modern international culture: having been a crucible of Catholicism, Protestantism, democracy, industrialisation; the first major civilisation to seek to abolish slavery during the 19th century, the first to enfranchise women (beginning in Australasia at the end of the 19th century) and the first to put to use such technologies as steam, electric and nuclear power. The West invented cinema, television, radio, telephone, the automobile, rocketry, flight, electric light, the personal computer and the Internet; produced artists such as Michelangelo, Shakespeare, Leonardo da Vinci, Beethoven, Vincent van Gogh, Picasso, Bach, Mozart and Villa-Lobos; developed sports such as soccer, cricket, golf, tennis, rugby and basketball; and transported humans to an astronomical object for the first time with the 1969 Apollo 11 Moon Landing."}], "id": 693555}, {"title": "Information", "pages": [{"id": 18985062, "title": "Information", "abstract": "Information is an abstract concept that refers to that which has the power to inform.  At the most fundamental level, information pertains to the interpretation (perhaps formally) of that which may be sensed, or their abstractions.  Any natural process that is not completely random and any observable pattern in any medium can be said to convey some amount of information.  Whereas digital signals and other data use discrete signs to convey information, other phenomena and artifacts such as analogue signals, poems, pictures, music or other sounds, and currents convey information in a more continuous form.  Information is not knowledge itself, but the meaning that may be derived from a representation through interpretation.The concept of information is relevant or connected to various concepts, including constraint, communication, control, data, form, education, knowledge, meaning, understanding, mental stimuli, pattern, perception, proposition, representation, and entropy.\nInformation is often processed iteratively: Data available at one step are processed into information to be interpreted and processed at the next step.  For example, in written text each symbol or letter conveys information relevant to the word it is part of, each word conveys information relevant to the phrase it is part of, each phrase conveys information relevant to the sentence it is part of, and so on until at the final step information is interpreted and becomes knowledge in a given domain.  In a digital signal, bits may be interpreted into the symbols, letters, numbers, or structures that convey the information available at the next level up.  The key characteristic of information is that it is subject to interpretation and processing.\nThe derivation of information from a signal or message may be thought of as the resolution of ambiguity or uncertainty that arises during the interpretation of patterns within the signal or message.Information may be structured as data. Redundant data can be compressed up to an optimal size, which is the theoretical limit of compression.\nThe information available through a collection of data may be derived by analysis.  For example, a restaurant collects data from every customer order.  That information may be analyzed to produce knowledge that is put to use when the business subsequently wants to identify the most popular or least popular dish.Information can be transmitted in time, via data storage, and space, via communication and telecommunication. Information is expressed either as the content of a message or through direct or indirect observation. That which is perceived can be construed as a message in its own right, and in that sense, all information is always conveyed as the content of a message.\nInformation can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation (for example, information may be encoded into a sequence of signs, or transmitted via a signal). It can also be encrypted for safe storage and communication.\nThe uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence. Uncertainty is inversely proportional to the probability of occurrence. Information theory takes advantage of this by concluding that more uncertain events require more information to resolve their uncertainty. The bit is a typical unit of information. It is 'that which reduces uncertainty by half'. Other units such as the nat may be used. For example, the information encoded in one \"fair\" coin flip is log2(2/1) = 1 bit, and in two fair coin flips is log2(4/1) = 2 bits. A 2011 Science article estimates that 97% of technologically stored information was already in digital bits in 2007 and that the year 2002 was the beginning of the digital age for information storage (with digital storage capacity bypassing analogue for the first time)."}, {"id": 18765601, "title": "Bum steer", "abstract": "\"Bum steer\", a term denoting misdirection, is predominantly from Australia, New Zealand and North America. The idiom means to provide information, intentionally or unintentionally,  that is incorrect, was unhelpful, or caused one to be led astray.  The idiom, as used in Australia and New Zealand, reached the United States in the 1920s probably after exposure to Australian troops on the Western Front during World War I, and is recorded in the UK since 1944.\nIts origin is possibly from 19th-century American maritime humour and the difficulty of trying to steer a vessel in reverse.  A ship's stern is flat and lacks the pointed structure of a bow, and a ship is therefore difficult to maneuver in reverse when using the rudder, also found on the stern. The reverse maneuvering was accomplished therefore through shouted instructions from the wharf to the wheelhouse, via intermediary deckhands.  Such communication  was prone to misunderstanding owing to the wide variety of nationalities employed on United States merchant vessels during the 19th century."}, {"id": 239121, "title": "Calculation", "abstract": "A calculation is a deliberate mathematical process that transforms one or more inputs into one or more outputs or results. The term is used in a variety of senses, from the very definite arithmetical calculation of using an algorithm, to the vague heuristics of calculating a strategy in a competition, or calculating the chance of a successful relationship between two people.\nFor example, multiplying 7 by 6 is a simple algorithmic calculation. Extracting the square root or the cube root of a number using mathematical models is a more complex algorithmic calculation.\nStatistical estimations of the likely election results from opinion polls also involve algorithmic calculations, but produces ranges of possibilities rather than exact answers.\nTo calculate means to determine mathematically in the case of a number or amount, or in the case of an abstract problem to deduce the answer using logic, reason or common sense. The English word derives from the Latin calculus, which originally meant a pebble (from Latin calx), for instance the small stones used as a counters on an abacus (Latin: abacus, Greek: \u1f04\u03b2\u03b1\u03be, romanized: abax). The abacus was an instrument used by Greeks and Romans for arithmetic calculations, preceding the slide-rule and the electronic calculator, and consisted of perforated pebbles sliding on iron bars.\nCalculation is a prerequisite for computation."}, {"id": 42130800, "title": "Children's use of information", "abstract": "Children's use of information is an issue in ethics and child development. Information is learned from many different sources and source monitoring (see also source-monitoring error) is important in understanding how people use information and decide which information is credible. \nConsider the example of a parent whose child has been diagnosed with hyperactivity; the parent searches the internet for information, reads books, participates in an online chat room with other parents in the same situation, and consults various medical professionals. Some of these sources will be credible (contain reliable information), and others will not. To be well-informed, the parent must filter information according to the reliability of the source. Children learn about the world in much the same way. They are told things by numerous people (e.g., teachers, parents, siblings, and friends), see things on the television or internet, and read information in books. Can children be effective consumers of information? At what age are they able to do this? How do they deal with ambiguous resources? This page will detail answers to those questions (and others) by drawing on peer-reviewed scientific research."}, {"id": 13353993, "title": "Cognitive miser", "abstract": "In psychology, the human mind is considered to be a cognitive miser due to the tendency of humans to think and solve problems in simpler and less effortful ways rather than in more sophisticated and effortful ways, regardless of intelligence. Just as a miser seeks to avoid spending money, the human mind often seeks to avoid spending cognitive effort. The cognitive miser theory is an umbrella theory of cognition that brings together previous research on heuristics and attributional biases to explain when and why people are cognitive misers.The term cognitive miser was first introduced by Susan Fiske and Shelley Taylor in 1984. It is an important concept in social cognition theory and has been influential in other social sciences such as economics and political science.\nPeople are limited in their capacity to process information, so they take shortcuts whenever they can."}, {"id": 22963407, "title": "Community indicators", "abstract": "Community indicators are \"measurements that provide information about past and current trends and assist planners and community leaders in making decisions that affect future outcomes\". They provide insight into the overall direction of a community: whether it is improving, declining, or staying the same, or is some mix of all three.\nIn essence, indicators are measurements that reflect the interplay between social, environmental, and economic factors affecting a region\u2019s or community\u2019s well-being. Community indicators projects typically are conducted by nonprofit organizations within a community, although in some cases they are initiated by the public sector."}, {"id": 3951220, "title": "Computational theory of mind", "abstract": "In philosophy of mind, the computational theory of mind (CTM), also known as computationalism, is a family of views that hold that the human mind is an information processing system and that cognition and consciousness together are a form of computation. Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts (1943) were the first to suggest that neural activity is computational. They argued that neural computations explain cognition. The theory was proposed in its modern form by Hilary Putnam in 1967, and developed by his PhD student, philosopher, and cognitive scientist Jerry Fodor in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. It was vigorously disputed in analytic philosophy in the 1990s due to work by Putnam himself, John Searle, and others.\nThe computational theory of mind holds that the mind is a computational system that is realized (i.e. physically implemented) by neural activity in the brain. The theory can be elaborated in many ways and varies largely based on how the term computation is understood. Computation is commonly understood in terms of Turing machines which manipulate symbols according to a rule, in combination with the internal state of the machine. The critical aspect of such a computational model is that we can abstract away from particular physical details of the machine that is implementing the computation. For example, the appropriate computation could be implemented either by silicon chips or biological neural networks, so long as there is a series of outputs based on manipulations of inputs and internal states, performed according to a rule. CTM therefore holds that the mind is not simply analogous to a computer program, but that it is literally a computational system.Computational theories of mind are often said to require mental representation because 'input' into a computation comes in the form of symbols or representations of other objects. A computer cannot compute an actual object but must interpret and represent the object in some form and then compute the representation. The computational theory of mind is related to the representational theory of mind in that they both require that mental states are representations. However, the representational theory of mind shifts the focus to the symbols being manipulated. This approach better accounts for systematicity and productivity. In Fodor's original views, the computational theory of mind is also related to the language of thought. The language of thought theory allows the mind to process more complex representations with the help of semantics. (See below in semantics of mental states).\nRecent work has suggested that we make a distinction between the mind and cognition. Building from the tradition of McCulloch and Pitts, the computational theory of cognition (CTC) states that neural computations explain cognition. The computational theory of mind asserts that not only cognition, but also phenomenal consciousness or qualia, are computational. That is to say, CTM entails CTC. While phenomenal consciousness could fulfill some other functional role, computational theory of cognition leaves open the possibility that some aspects of the mind could be non-computational. CTC, therefore, provides an important explanatory framework for understanding neural networks, while avoiding counter-arguments that center around phenomenal consciousness."}, {"id": 64641137, "title": "Coverage (information systems)", "abstract": "The Coverage of an Information system is a criterion for the completeness of the records in the information system.\nIt is defined as the ratio of the number of instances/records in the system (mostly implemented as a Database) that represent real world entities  and the number of entities that exist (in the real world) and should be represented in the information system according to its purpose.\nExample: If there are 170 countries in the world and an information system holds 153 country records then the coverage of countries of this information system is 90%."}, {"id": 72245879, "title": "Data ecosystem", "abstract": "A data ecosystem is the complex environment of co-dependent networks and actors that contribute to data collection, transfer and use. They can span across sectors - such as healthcare or finance, to inform one another's practices.  A data ecosystem often consists of numerous data assemblages. Research into data ecosystems has developed in response to the rapid proliferation and availability of information through the web, which has contributed to the commodification of data."}, {"id": 34900000, "title": "Digital firm", "abstract": "The Digital Firm is a kind of organization that has enabled core business relationships through digital networks In these digital networks are supported by enterprise class technology platforms that have been leveraged within an organization to support critical business functions and services. Some examples of these technology platforms are Customer Relationship Management (CRM), Supply Chain Management (SCM), Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Knowledge Management System (KMS), Enterprise Content Management (ECM), and Warehouse Management System (WMS) among others. The purpose of these technology platforms is to digitally enable seamless integration and information exchange within the organization to employees and outside the organization to customers, suppliers, and other business partners."}, {"id": 599325, "title": "Fact sheet", "abstract": "A factsheet, fact sheet or fact file is a single page document containing essential information about a product, substance, service or other topic. Factsheets are frequently used to provide information to an end user, consumer or member of the public in concise, simple language. They generally contain key safety points, operating instructions or basic information about a topic depending on the purpose of the fact sheet."}, {"id": 53986, "title": "Fallacy", "abstract": "A fallacy, is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning in the construction of an argument that may appear to be well-reasoned if unnoticed. The term was introduced in the Western intellectual tradition by the Aristotelian De Sophisticis Elenchis.Fallacies may be committed intentionally to manipulate or persuade by deception, unintentionally because of human limitations such as carelessness, cognitive or social biases and ignorance, or potentially due to the limitations of language and understanding of language. These delineations include not only the ignorance of the right reasoning standard but also the ignorance of relevant properties of the context. For instance, the soundness of legal arguments depends on the context in which they are made.Fallacies are commonly divided into \"formal\" and \"informal.\" A formal fallacy is a flaw in the structure of a deductive argument that renders the argument invalid, while an informal fallacy originates in an error in reasoning other than an improper logical form. Arguments containing informal fallacies may be formally valid, but still fallacious.A special case is a mathematical fallacy, an intentionally invalid mathematical proof with a concealed, or subtle, error. Mathematical fallacies are typically crafted and exhibited for educational purposes, usually taking the form of false proofs of obvious contradictions."}, {"id": 22769766, "title": "Global information system", "abstract": "Global information system is an information system which is developed and / or used in a global context. Some examples of GIS are SAP,  The Global Learning Objects Brokered Exchange and other systems."}, {"id": 63449421, "title": "Infodemic", "abstract": "An infodemic is a rapid and far-reaching spread of both accurate and inaccurate information about certain issues. The word is a portmanteau of \"information\" and \"epidemic\" and is used as a metaphor to describe how misinformation and disinformation can spread like a virus from person to person and affect people like a disease. This term, originally coined in 2003 by David Rothkopf, rose to prominence in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic."}, {"id": 58151566, "title": "InfoQ", "abstract": "Information quality (InfoQ) is the potential of a data set to achieve a specific (scientific or practical) goal using a given empirical analysis method."}, {"id": 1655450, "title": "Informal fallacy", "abstract": "Informal fallacies are a type of incorrect argument in natural language. The source of the error is not just due to the form of the argument, as is the case for formal fallacies, but can also be due to their content and context. Fallacies, despite being incorrect, usually appear to be correct and thereby can seduce people into accepting and using them. These misleading appearances are often connected to various aspects of natural language, such as ambiguous or vague expressions, or the assumption of implicit premises instead of making them explicit. \nTraditionally, a great number of informal fallacies have been identified, including the fallacy of equivocation, the fallacy of amphiboly, the fallacies of composition and division, the false dilemma, the fallacy of begging the question, the ad hominem fallacy and the appeal to ignorance. There is no general agreement as to how the various fallacies are to be grouped into categories. One approach sometimes found in the literature is to distinguish between fallacies of ambiguity, which have their root in ambiguous or vague language, fallacies of presumption, which involve false or unjustified premises, and fallacies of relevance, in which the premises are not relevant to the conclusion despite appearances otherwise.\nThe traditional approach to fallacies has received a lot of criticism in contemporary philosophy. This criticism is often based on the argument that the alleged fallacies are not fallacious at all, or at least not in all cases. To overcome this problem, alternative approaches for conceiving arguments and fallacies have been proposed. These include the dialogical approach, which conceives arguments as moves in a dialogue-game aimed at rationally persuading the other person. This game is governed by various rules. Fallacies are defined as violations of the dialogue rules impeding the progress of the dialogue. The epistemic approach constitutes another framework. Its core idea is that arguments play an epistemic role: they aim to expand our knowledge by providing a bridge from already justified beliefs to not yet justified beliefs. Fallacies are arguments that fall short of this goal by breaking a rule of epistemic justification. In the Bayesian approach, the epistemic norms are given by the laws of probability, which our degrees of belief should track.\nThe study of fallacies aims at providing an account for evaluating and criticizing arguments. This involves both a descriptive account of what constitutes an argument and a normative account of which arguments are good or bad. In philosophy, fallacies are usually seen as a form of bad argument and are discussed as such in this article. Another conception, more common in non-scholarly discourse, sees fallacies not as arguments but rather as false yet popular beliefs."}, {"id": 726587, "title": "Information cascade", "abstract": "An Information cascade or informational cascade is a phenomenon described in behavioral economics and network theory in which a number of people make the same decision in a sequential fashion. It is similar to, but distinct from herd behavior.An information cascade is generally accepted as a two-step process. For a cascade to begin an individual must encounter a scenario with a decision, typically a binary one. Second, outside factors can influence this decision (typically, through the observation of actions and their outcomes of other individuals in similar scenarios).\nThe two-step process of an informational cascade can be broken down into five basic components:\n\nThere is a decision to be made \u2013 for example; whether to adopt a new technology, wear a new style of clothing, eat in a new restaurant, or support a particular political position\nA limited action space exists (e.g. an adopt/reject decision)\nPeople make the decision sequentially, and each person can observe the choices made by those who acted earlier\nEach person has some information aside from their own that helps guide their decision\nA person can't directly observe the outside information that other people know, but he or she can make inferences about this information from what they doSocial perspectives of cascades, which suggest that agents may act irrationally (e.g., against what they think is optimal) when social pressures are great, exist as complements to the concept of information cascades. More often the problem is that the concept of an information cascade is confused with ideas that do not match the two key conditions of the process, such as social proof, information diffusion, and social influence. Indeed, the term information cascade has even been used to refer to such processes."}, {"id": 542949, "title": "Information ecology", "abstract": "Information ecology is the application of ecological concepts for modeling the information society. It considers the dynamics and properties of the increasingly dense, complex and important digital informational environment. \"Information ecology\" often is used as metaphor, viewing the information space as an ecosystem, the information ecosystem.\nInformation ecology also makes a connection to the concept of collective intelligence and knowledge ecology (P\u00f3r 2000).  Eddy et al. (2014) use information ecology for science-policy integration in ecosystems-based management (EBM)."}, {"id": 58644759, "title": "Information engineering", "abstract": "Information engineering is the engineering discipline that deals with the generation, distribution, analysis, and use of information, data, and knowledge in systems. The field first became identifiable in the early 21st century.\n\nThe components of information engineering include more theoretical fields such as machine learning, artificial intelligence, control theory, signal processing, and information theory, and more applied fields such as computer vision, natural language processing, bioinformatics, medical image computing, cheminformatics, autonomous robotics, mobile robotics, and telecommunications. Many of these originate from computer science, as well as other branches of engineering such as computer engineering, electrical engineering, and bioengineering.\n\nThe field of information engineering is based heavily on mathematics, particularly probability, statistics, calculus, linear algebra, optimization, differential equations, variational calculus, and complex analysis.\nInformation engineers often hold a degree in information engineering or a related area, and are often part of a professional body such as the Institution of Engineering and Technology or Institute of Measurement and Control. They are employed in almost all industries due to the widespread use of information engineering."}, {"id": 66924132, "title": "Information hazard", "abstract": "An information hazard, or infohazard, is \"a risk that arises from the dissemination of (true) information that may cause harm or enable some agent to cause harm\", as defined by philosopher Nick Bostrom in 2011, or contained in information sensitivity. It is an idea that contradicts the idea of Freedom of information as it states that some types of information is too dangerous for every single person to have access to, as they could either be harmed by it or harm others. This is sometimes the reason information being classified of importance to information sensitivity. One example would be instructions for creating a thermonuclear weapon as following the instructions could cause massive amounts of harm to others, and limiting or at least controlling who has access to that information would be a way to avoid that harm."}, {"id": 464877, "title": "Information management", "abstract": "Information management (IM) is the appropriate and optimized capture, storage, retrieval, and use of information. It may be personal information management or organizational. IM for organizations concerns a cycle of organizational activity: the acquisition of information from one or more sources, the custodianship and the distribution of that information to those who need it, and its ultimate disposal through archiving or deletion and extraction.\nThis cycle of information organisation involves a variety of stakeholders, including those who are responsible for assuring the quality, accessibility and utility of acquired information; those who are responsible for its safe storage and disposal; and those who need it for decision making. Stakeholders might have rights to originate, change, distribute or delete information according to organisational information management policies.\nInformation management embraces all the generic concepts of management, including the planning, organizing, structuring, processing, controlling, evaluation and reporting of information activities, all of which is needed in order to meet the needs of those with organisational roles or functions that depend on information. These generic concepts allow the information to be presented to the audience or the correct group of people. After individuals are able to put that information to use, it then gains more value.\nInformation management is closely related to, and overlaps with, the management of data, systems, technology, processes and \u2013 where the availability of information is critical to organisational success \u2013 strategy. This broad view of the realm of information management contrasts with the earlier, more traditional view, that the life cycle of managing information is an operational matter that requires specific procedures, organisational capabilities and standards that deal with information as a product or a service."}, {"id": 51114899, "title": "Information oriented software development", "abstract": "Information Oriented Software Development is a software development methodology focused on working with information inside a computer program as opposed to working with just data. A significant difference exists between data and information. Information Oriented Software Development relies on data structures specifically designed to hold information, and relies on frameworks that support those data structures. Information oriented software development focuses on the conceptual needs of users and customers rather than the data storage models and object models."}, {"id": 34517249, "title": "Information policy", "abstract": "Information policy is the set of all public laws, regulations and policies that encourage, discourage, or regulate the creation, use, storage, access, and communication and dissemination of information. It thus encompasses any other decision-making practice with society-wide constitutive efforts that involve the flow of information and how it is processed.There are several fundamental issues that comprise information policy. Most prominent are public policy issues concerned with the use of information for democratization and commercialization of social life. These issues include, inter alia, digital environment, such as the digital divide, intellectual property, economic regulations, freedom of expression, confidentiality or privacy of information, information security, access management, and regulating how the dissemination of public information occurs. Certain categories of information are of particular importance for information policy. These include news information, health information, and census information.\nInformation policy is the central problem for information societies. As nations make the transition from industrialism to post-industrialism, information issues become increasingly critical. According to sociologist Daniel Bell, \"what counts now is not raw  muscle power or energy but information\" (Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, 1973, p. 37). While all societies have been to some extent based on information, information societies are almost wholly dependent on computerized information. As Marc Uri Porat, the first researcher to use the term \"information policy\", wrote: \"The foundation of the information economy, our new central fact, is the computer. Its ability to manipulate and process information represents a profound departure from our modest human abilities\". The computer's combination with telecommunications, he continued, posed \"the policy problems of the future\". (Marc Uri Porat, The Information Economy, 1976, p. 205.)"}, {"id": 149354, "title": "Information science", "abstract": "Information science (also known as information studies) is an academic field which is primarily concerned with analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination, and protection of information. Practitioners within and outside the field study the  application and the usage of knowledge in organizations in addition to the interaction between people, organizations, and any existing information systems with the aim of creating, replacing, improving, or understanding the information systems.\nHistorically, information science (informatics) is associated with computer science, data science, psychology, technology, library science, healthcare, and intelligence agencies. However, information science also incorporates aspects of diverse fields such as archival science, cognitive science, commerce, law, linguistics, museology, management, mathematics, philosophy, public policy, and social sciences."}, {"id": 5316476, "title": "Information sensitivity", "abstract": "Information sensitivity is the control of access to information or knowledge that might result in loss of an advantage or level of security if disclosed to others.Loss, misuse, modification, or unauthorized access to sensitive information can adversely affect the privacy or welfare of an individual, trade secrets of a business or even the security and international relations of a nation depending on the level of sensitivity and nature of the information."}, {"id": 163901, "title": "Information society", "abstract": "An information society is a society or subculture where the usage, creation, distribution, manipulation and integration of information is a significant activity. Its main drivers are information and communication technologies, which have resulted in rapid growth of a variety of forms of information. Proponents of this theory posit that these technologies are impacting most important forms of social organization, including education, economy, health, government, warfare, and levels of democracy. The people who are able to partake in this form of society are sometimes called either computer users or even digital citizens, defined by K. Mossberger as \u201cThose who use the Internet regularly and effectively\u201d. This is one of many dozen internet terms that have been identified to suggest that humans are entering a new and different phase of society.Some of the markers of this steady change may be technological, economic, occupational, spatial, cultural, or a combination of all of these.\nInformation society is seen as a successor to industrial society. Closely related concepts are the post-industrial society (post-fordism), post-modern society, computer society and knowledge society, telematic society,  society of the spectacle (postmodernism), Information Revolution and Information Age, network society (Manuel Castells) or even liquid modernity."}, {"id": 22928408, "title": "Information space", "abstract": "Information space is the set of concepts, and relations among them, held by an information system; it describes the range of possible values or meanings an entity can have under the given rules and circumstances."}, {"id": 237495, "title": "Information system", "abstract": "An information system (IS) is a formal, sociotechnical, organizational system designed to collect, process, store, and distribute information. From a sociotechnical perspective, information systems are composed by four components: task, people, structure (or roles), and technology. Information systems can be defined as an integration of components for collection, storage and processing of data of which the data is used to provide information, contribute to knowledge as well as digital products that facilitate decision making.Bachelor of Business Information Systems  BBIS  is an Information Technology(IT) and management focused undergraduate program designed to better understand the needs of rapidly growing technology in business and IT sector.It is bachelor degree that combines elements of business administration and computer science with majoring on information systems and technology.The purpose of this course is to equip students with the skills and knowledge needed to effectively manage and utilize information technology in a business and IT industry.\nA computer information system is a system that is composed of people and computers that processes or interprets information. The term is also sometimes used to simply refer to a computer system with software installed.\n\"Information systems\" is also an academic field study about systems with a specific reference to information and the complementary networks of computer hardware and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and also distribute data. An emphasis is placed on an information system having a definitive boundary, users, processors, storage, inputs, outputs and the aforementioned communication networks.In many organizations, the department or unit responsible for information systems and data processing is known as \"information services\".Any specific information system aims to support operations, management and decision-making. An information system is the information and communication technology (ICT) that an organization uses, and also the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes.Some authors make a clear distinction between information systems, computer systems, and business processes. Information systems typically include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing instead on the end-use of information technology. Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of business processes.Alter argues for advantages of viewing an information system as a special type of work system. A work system is a system in which humans or machines perform processes and activities using resources to produce specific products or services for customers. An information system is a work system whose activities are devoted to capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying information.As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other. An information system is a form of communication system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-formal language which supports human decision making and action.\nInformation systems are the primary focus of study for organizational informatics."}, {"id": 18575557, "title": "Informatization", "abstract": "Informatization or informatisation refers to the extent by which a geographical area, an economy or a society is becoming information-based, i.e. the increase in size of its information labor force. Usage of the term was inspired by Marc Porat\u2019s categories of ages of human civilization: the Agricultural Age, the Industrial Age and the Information Age (1978). Informatization is to the Information Age what industrialization was to the Industrial Age. It has been stated that:\n\nThe Agricultural Age has brought about the agriculturization of the planet. The Industrial Age has caused among other things the industrialization of agriculture. The Information Age has resulted to the informatization of the agricultural industry (Flor, 1993).The term has mostly been used within the context of national development. Everett Rogers defines informatization as the process through which new communication technologies are used as a means for furthering development as a nation becomes more and more an information society. However, some observers, such as Alexander Flor (1986) have cautioned about the negative impact of informatization on traditional societies.\nRecently, the technological determinism dimension has been highlighted in informatization. Randy Kluver of Texas A&M University defines informatization as the process primarily by which information technologies, such as the World Wide Web and other communication technologies, have transformed economic and social relations to such an extent that cultural and economic barriers are minimized. Kluver expands the concept to encompass the civic and cultural arenas. He believes that it is a process whereby information and communication technologies shape cultural and civic discourse.\nG. Wang describes the same phenomenon (1994) which she calls \"informatization\" as a \"process\" of change that features (a) the use of informatization and IT (information technologies) to such an extent that they become the dominant forces in commanding economic, political, social and cultural development; and (b) unprecedented growth in the speed, quantity, and popularity of information production and distribution.\""}, {"id": 15368, "title": "Insider trading", "abstract": "Insider trading is the trading of a public company's stock or other securities (such as bonds or stock options) based on material, nonpublic information about the company. In various countries, some kinds of trading based on insider information are illegal. This is because it is seen as unfair to other investors who do not have access to the information, as the investor with insider information could potentially make larger profits than a typical investor could make. The rules governing insider trading are complex and vary significantly from country to country. The extent of enforcement also varies from one country to another. The definition of insider in one jurisdiction can be broad and may cover not only insiders themselves but also any persons related to them, such as brokers, associates, and even family members. A person who becomes aware of non-public information and trades on that basis may be guilty of a crime.\nTrading by specific insiders, such as employees, is commonly permitted as long as it does not rely on material information, not in the public domain. Many jurisdictions require that such trading be reported so that the transactions can be monitored. In the United States and several other jurisdictions, trading conducted by corporate officers, key employees, directors, or significant shareholders must be reported to the regulator or publicly disclosed, usually within a few business days of the trade. In these cases, insiders in the United States are required to file Form 4 with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) when buying or selling shares of their own companies. The authors of one study claim that illegal insider trading raises the cost of capital for securities issuers, thus decreasing overall economic growth. Some economists, such as Henry Manne, argued that insider trading should be allowed and could, in fact, benefit markets.There has long been \"considerable academic debate\" among business and legal scholars over whether or not insider trading should be illegal. Several arguments against outlawing insider trading have been identified: for example, although insider trading is illegal, most insider trading is never detected by law enforcement, and thus the illegality of insider trading might give the public the potentially misleading impression that \"stock market trading is an unrigged game that anyone can play.\" Some legal analysis has questioned whether insider trading actually harms anyone in the legal sense, since some have questioned whether insider trading causes anyone to suffer an actual \"loss\" and whether anyone who suffers a loss is owed an actual legal duty by the insiders in question."}, {"id": 39845988, "title": "Knowledge society", "abstract": "A knowledge society generates, shares, and makes available to all members of the society knowledge that may be used to improve the human condition. A knowledge society differs from an information society in that the former serves to transform information into resources that allow society to take effective action, while the latter only creates and disseminates the raw data. The capacity to gather and analyze information has existed throughout human history. However, the idea of the present-day knowledge society is based on the vast increase in data creation and information dissemination that results from the innovation of information technologies. The UNESCO World Report addresses the definition, content and future of knowledge societies."}, {"id": 20033941, "title": "Low information voter", "abstract": "Low information voters, also known as misinformation voters, are people who may vote yet are generally poorly informed about issues. The phrase is mainly used in the United States and has become popular since the mid-1990s."}, {"id": 2141578, "title": "Market moving information", "abstract": "Market moving information is a term used in stock market investing, defined as information that would cause any reasonable investor to make a buy or sell decision.  It is also sometimes referred to as material information.\nWhen a public company insider fails to publicly disclose material, market moving information to everyone and only to certain parties, that is called selective disclosure, an act that is prohibited by the Securities Exchange Commission's Regulation FD.\nMany types of events can be considered market moving information.  A bad freeze in Florida can cause the price of orange juice to increase.  An expected drought in the Midwest might cause corn or soybean prices to rise on fears of poor crop outputs and limited supplies. Statements by certain figures might also be market moving information. For instance, Elon Musk was fined by the SEC in 2018 for tweeting that he had secured investment funding sufficient to take Tesla, Inc. private, causing wild swings in the company's stock price."}, {"id": 994704, "title": "Mental model", "abstract": "A mental model in psychology is an internal representation of external reality, hypothesized to play a major role in cognition, reasoning and decision-making. The term was coined by Kenneth Craik in 1943 who suggested that the mind constructs \"small-scale models\" of reality that it uses to anticipate events.\nMental models can help shape behaviour and set an approach to solving problems (similar to a personal algorithm) and doing tasks.\nIn psychology, the term mental models is sometimes used to refer to mental representations or mental simulation generally. The concepts of schema (psychology) and conceptual models are cognitively adjacent. At other times it is used to refer to \u00a7 Mental models and reasoning and to the mental model theory of reasoning developed by Philip Johnson-Laird and Ruth M.J. Byrne."}, {"id": 42141307, "title": "Pattern-of-life analysis", "abstract": "Pattern-of-life analysis is a method of surveillance that documents or understands the habits of a person or population. Motives may include security, profit, scientific research, regular censuses, and traffic analysis. The data of interest may reflect anything in a person or persons' life: their travels, purchases, internet browsing habits, choices, and so forth. The data is used to predict a subject's future action or to detect anomalous behavior."}, {"id": 3062911, "title": "Price signal", "abstract": "A price signal is information conveyed to consumers and producers, via the prices offered or requested for, and the amount requested or offered of a product or service, which provides a signal to increase or decrease quantity supplied or quantity demanded. It also provides potential business opportunities. When a certain kind of product is in shortage supply and the price rises, people will pay more attention to and produce this kind of product. The information carried by prices is an essential function in the fundamental coordination of an economic system, coordinating things such as what has to be produced, how to produce it and what resources to use in its production.In mainstream (neoclassical) economics, under perfect competition relative prices signal to producers and consumers what production or consumption decisions will contribute to allocative efficiency. According to Friedrich Hayek, in a system in which the knowledge of the relevant facts is dispersed among many people, prices can act to coordinate the separate actions of different people in the same way as subjective values help the individual to coordinate the parts of his plan."}, {"id": 315578, "title": "Information processing (psychology)", "abstract": "In cognitive psychology, information processing is an approach to the goal of understanding human thinking that treats cognition as essentially computational in nature, with the mind being the software and the brain being the hardware (Shannon & Weaver, 1963). It arose in the 1940s and 1950s, after World War II (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). The information processing approach in psychology is closely allied to the computational theory of mind in philosophy; it is also related to cognitivism in psychology and functionalism in philosophy (Horst, 2011)."}, {"id": 6895400, "title": "Raw data", "abstract": "Raw data, also known as primary data, are data (e.g., numbers, instrument readings, figures, etc.) collected from a source. In the context of examinations, the raw data might be described as a raw score (after test scores).\nIf a scientist sets up a computerized thermometer which records the temperature of a chemical mixture in a test tube every minute, the list of temperature readings for every minute, as printed out on a spreadsheet or viewed on a computer screen are \"raw data\".  Raw data have not been subjected to processing, \"cleaning\" by researchers to remove outliers, obvious instrument reading errors or data entry errors, or any analysis (e.g., determining central tendency aspects such as the average or median result). As well, raw data have not been subject to any other manipulation by a software program or a human researcher, analyst or technician. They are also referred to as primary data. Raw data is a relative term (see data), because even once raw data have been \"cleaned\" and processed by one team of researchers, another team may consider these processed data to be \"raw data\" for another stage of research.  Raw data can be inputted to a computer program or used in manual procedures such as analyzing statistics from a survey. The term \"raw data\" can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices, such as hard disk drives (also referred to as \"low-level data\")."}, {"id": 26685, "title": "Statistics", "abstract": "Statistics (from German: Statistik, orig. \"description of a state, a country\") is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. In applying statistics to a scientific, industrial, or social problem, it is conventional to begin with a statistical population or a statistical model to be studied. Populations can be diverse groups of people or objects such as \"all people living in a country\" or \"every atom composing a crystal\". Statistics deals with every aspect of data, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.When census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect data by developing specific experiment designs and survey samples. Representative sampling assures that inferences and conclusions can reasonably extend from the sample to the population as a whole. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve experimental manipulation.\nTwo main statistical methods are used in data analysis: descriptive statistics, which summarize data from a sample using indexes such as the mean or standard deviation, and inferential statistics, which draw conclusions from data that are subject to random variation (e.g., observational errors, sampling variation). Descriptive statistics are most often concerned with two sets of properties of a distribution (sample or population): central tendency (or location) seeks to characterize the distribution's central or typical value, while dispersion (or variability) characterizes the extent to which members of the distribution depart from its center and each other. Inferences on mathematical statistics are made under the framework of probability theory, which deals with the analysis of random phenomena.\nA standard statistical procedure involves the collection of data leading to a test of the relationship between two statistical data sets, or a data set and synthetic data drawn from an idealized model. A hypothesis is proposed for the statistical relationship between the two data sets, and this is compared as an alternative to an idealized null hypothesis of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the null can be proven false, given the data that are used in the test. Working from a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized: Type I errors (null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact true, giving a \"false positive\") and Type II errors (null hypothesis fails to be rejected when an it is in fact false, giving a \"false negative\"). Multiple problems have come to be associated with this framework, ranging from obtaining a sufficient sample size to specifying an adequate null hypothesis.Statistical measurement processes are also prone to error in regards to the data that they generate. Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic (bias), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also occur. The presence of missing data or censoring may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems."}, {"id": 20034448, "title": "Tele-information services", "abstract": "Tele-information services are based on an alliance of digital telecommunication and computer technology that play an important role in inter-human communications. It is a classification of information flows broken down so that the presentation and information content are not confused with the character of the information flow. Tele-information services consist of four definable information traffic patterns being allocution, conversation, consultation and registration. These information traffic patterns can be combined to form more complex multi-pattern services and networks made up of any number of information traffic patterns."}], "id": 1009209}, {"title": "Education", "pages": [{"id": 9252, "title": "Education", "abstract": "Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits and comes in many forms. Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework, like public schools. Non-formal education is also structured but takes place outside the formal schooling system, while informal education is unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are divided into levels that include early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Other classifications focus on the teaching method, like teacher-centered and student-centered education, and on the subject, like science education, language education, and physical education. The term \"education\" can also refer to the mental states and qualities of educated people and the academic field studying educational phenomena.\nThe precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about what the aims of education are and to what extent education is different from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking. These disagreements affect how to identify, measure, and improve forms of education. Fundamentally, education socializes children into society by teaching cultural values and norms. It equips them with the skills needed to become productive members of society. This way, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems. Organized institutions affect many aspects of education. For example, governments set education policies to determine when school classes happen, what is taught, and who can or must attend. International organizations, like UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education for all children.\nMany factors influence whether education is successful. Psychological factors include  motivation, intelligence, and personality. Social factors, like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender, are often linked to discrimination. Further factors include access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement.\nThe main academic field investigating education is called education studies. It examines what education is, what aims and effects it has, and how to improve it. Education studies has many subfields, like philosophy, psychology, sociology, and economics of education. It also discusses comparative education, pedagogy, and the history of education.\nIn prehistory, education happened informally through oral communication and imitation. With the rise of ancient civilizations, writing was invented, and the amount of knowledge grew. This caused a shift from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was mainly available to elites and religious groups. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century made books more widely available. This increased general literacy. Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries, public education became more important. This development led to the worldwide process of making primary education available to all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a certain age. Today, over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school."}, {"id": 75723480, "title": "Antipedagogy", "abstract": "Antipedagogy (German: Antip\u00e4dagogik; Ancient Greek: anti-against + pais-child, boy + agein- lead; UK: ) sometimes spelled anti-pedagogy with the hyphen, is a critical theory that examines traditional pedagogical dynamics, particularly scrutinizing the exercise of parental or educational authority as a violation of human rights. The anti-pedagogical enlightenment brings attention to the detrimental effects of conventional pedagogy and advocates for intergenerational equality. In 1975, Ekkehard von Braunm\u00fchl laid the foundation for this theory with his publication, \"Antipedagogy \u2013 Studies on the Abolition of Education\"."}, {"id": 71011425, "title": "Campus climate", "abstract": "Campus climate refers to current dimensions of climate in the campus community in higher education institutions. According to the author, the dimensions of climate could refer to views, attitudes, psychology, behaviors, standards, perceptions and expectations. Campus community could refer to employees such as faculty, staff, administrators, and students, individually or as a group. Campus climate is often contrasted with 'campus culture'. While climate and culture are sometimes used interchangeably, some authors mention overlaps, while others define clear boundaries between the two."}, {"id": 75153120, "title": "Culture circle", "abstract": "Culture circles were a classroom methodology developed by Brazilian educator Paulo Freire for adult literacy, especially for agricultural laborers. Freire took part in these classrooms during the 1960s, prior to the military coup, and later in Chile while in exile. He chose this name for his classrooms for the following reasons:\n\nTo avoid using the term \"literacy classrooms,\" a term that may be deemed derogatory and more related to what Freire described as a banking educational model.\nBeyond learning to read and write, culture circles seek to develop critical consciousness through cooperative research."}, {"id": 70765513, "title": "Definitions of education", "abstract": "Definitions of education aim to describe the essential features of education. A great variety of definitions has been proposed. There is wide agreement that education involves, among other things, the transmission of knowledge. But there are deep disagreements about its exact nature and characteristics. Some definitions see education as a process exemplified in events like schooling, teaching, and learning. Others understand it not as a process but as the product of such processes, i.e. as what characterizes educated persons. Various attempts have been made to give precise definitions listing its necessary and sufficient conditions. The failure of such attempts, often in the form of being unable to account for various counter examples, has led many theorists to adopt less precise conceptions based on family resemblance. On this view, different forms of education are similar by having overlapping features but there is no set of features shared by all forms. Clarity about the nature of education is central for various issues, for example, to coherently talk about the subject and to determine how to achieve and measure it.\nAn important discussion in the academic literature is about whether evaluative aspects are already part of the definition of education and, if so, what roles they play. Thin definitions are value-neutral while thick definitions include evaluative and normative components, for example, by holding that education implies that the person educated has changed for the better. Descriptive conceptions try to capture how the term \"education\" is actually used by competent speakers. Prescriptive conceptions, on the other hand, stipulate what education should be like or what constitutes good education.\nThick and prescriptive conceptions often characterize education in relation to the goals it aims to realize. These goals are sometimes divided into epistemic goods, like knowledge and understanding, skills, like rationality and critical thinking, and character traits, like kindness and honesty. Some theorists define education in relation to an overarching purpose, like socialization or helping the learner lead a good life. The more specific aims can then be understood as means to achieve this overarching purpose. Various researchers emphasize the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination.\nTraditional accounts of education characterize it mainly from the teacher's perspective, usually by describing it as a process in which they transmit knowledge and skills to their students. Student-centered definitions, on the other hand, emphasize the student's experience, for example, based on how education transforms and enriches their subsequent experience. Some conceptions take both the teacher's and the student's point of view into account by focusing on their shared experience of a common world."}, {"id": 75395621, "title": "Ecological empathy", "abstract": "Ecological empathy, or eco-empathy, is empathy directed towards the natural world. It encompasses empathy directed towards animals, plants, ecosystems, and the earth as a whole.Kim-Pong Tam developed a method of measuring individuals' dispositional empathy with nature (DEN), and has demonstrated its robust connection to conservation behavior.Numerous strategies can be implemented to cultivate ecological empathy\u2014in both children and adults\u2014including environmental education, ecopedagogy, arts, literature, film, future scenarios, ecological storytelling, Indigenous approaches, and parenting practices.Empathy for animals is a central component of eco-empathy, and effective programs have been developed to promote empathy towards animals in the home, in zoos and aquariums, on the farm, and in the wild."}, {"id": 69899850, "title": "Education of Generation Z", "abstract": "Generation Z (or Gen Z for short), colloquially also known as zoomers, is the demographic cohort succeeding Millennials and preceding Generation Alpha. Researchers and popular media use the mid-to-late 1990s as starting birth years and the early 2010s as ending birth years. This article focuses specifically on the education of Generation Z.\nAcross the globe, Gen Z has generally high enrollment in primary schools in both developed and developing countries.The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has supported research on educational spending and achievement in its 36 member states, and found that while spending increased in the early 2000s, academic performance has largely stagnated. Students from China and Singapore, both outside of the OECD, continued to outperform their peers. The OECD attributes socioeconomic background as a key factor in academic success, however, some countries demonstrate a weak link between background and performance, meaning these countries have the most equitable education systems.The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the education of around one and a half billion students, as schools in 165 countries closed their doors and 60 million teachers were sent home, according to UNESCO. Schools were partially or fully closed for nearly 80% of instruction time during the first year of the pandemic. Some countries expanded access to the internet in remote areas or broadcast more educational materials on national television. This wasn't an option in all contexts as internet access varied significantly and about two-thirds of people under the age of 25 around the world didn't have access to the internet at home.In the early 2000s, the number of students from emerging economies going abroad for higher education rose significantly. This was a golden age of growth for many Western universities admitting international students. However, COVID-19 ended this golden age.This article expands on the education of Gen Z, including global trends and additional information for Asia, Europe, North America, and Oceania."}, {"id": 4005551, "title": "Educational consultant", "abstract": "An educational consultant (EC), sometimes referred to as an independent educational consultant (IEC), is an advisor who helps parents and either traditional students or non-traditional students with educational planning for college and graduate school. Some also work with independent school students."}, {"id": 74695014, "title": "Doris Entwisle", "abstract": "Doris R. Entwisle (1924\u20132013) was an educational sociologist known for her research on the impact of sociological factors on academic achievement, notably the longitudinal Beginning School Studies conducted in Baltimore, MD. She held the position of professor of sociology and engineering studies at Johns Hopkins University.Entwisle was awarded the Senior Distinguished Contributions Award by Society for Research in Child Development in 1997. She was named a Fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation in 1976 and the American Educational Research Association in 2008.\nIn 2015, \"The Long Shadow: Family Background, Disadvantaged Urban Youth, and the Transition to Adulthood \", co-authored by Entwisle, Karl Alexander and Linda Olson, received the Grawemeyer Award in Education from the University of Louisville. The book detailed how socioeconomic factors shape the life outcomes of 800 Baltimore youths. One major finding is that white youths hold an advantage over black youths when it comes to employment, despite having similar educational background."}, {"id": 4245410, "title": "Exformation", "abstract": "Exformation (originally spelled eksformation in Danish) is a term originally coined by Danish science writer Tor N\u00f8rretranders in his book The User Illusion published in English 1998. It is meant to mean explicitly discarded information.In 2017, the concept was redefined by Kenya Hara (\u539f \u7814\u54c9, Hara Ken'ya, born 1958), a Japanese graphic designer who teaches Communication Design and Design Theory at the Design Faculty of Musashino Art University (\u6b66\u8535\u91ce\u7f8e\u8853\u5927\u5b66, Musashino Bijutsu Daigaku) in Tokyo. Hara first proposed the concept to his students, postulating the co-development of a novel method of communication through design, a communication method by making things unknown.In 2020, exformation was again reformulated by the Belgian educationist and learner experience designer Francis Laleman, who positioned the concept as exformative learning, a particular type of cooperative learning based on collectivized intuition, systemic exploration, and making things unknown."}, {"id": 75599964, "title": "Fundo de Financiamento ao Estudante do Ensino Superior", "abstract": "The Fundo de Financiamento ao Estudante do Ensino Superior (English: Higher Education Student Financing Fund), also known as FIES, is a Brazilian Ministry of Education program created in 1999 with the aim of financing higher education degrees for students enrolled in private institutions. It allows students to start paying their tuition fees only after graduation."}, {"id": 75686702, "title": "Gunoutsav Assam", "abstract": "Gunoutsav Assam  is an initiative of Government of Assam in Elementary education and Secondary school education, by Samagra Shiksha Assam  ,to uplift the quality of education in schools for students, infrastructure of schools and teachers to students ratio. It is method of assessment and rating of schools, for Education in Assam so that  inferior one can go for improvement by External Evaluator. The External Evaluator are all Gazetted Officer (India) of Government of Assam , may or may not be from Education department in 2017 for first time and is held every year."}, {"id": 71070068, "title": "Honours Diploma", "abstract": "Honours Diploma (Chinese: \u69ae\u8b7d\u6587\u6191) is an undergraduate qualification in Hong Kong, but it does not officially recognize by the government and public universities. It was awarded by some post-secondary institutions, that were not with university status or officially facilitating quality assurance of all programmes at the levels of sub-degree and first degree."}, {"id": 63308682, "title": "Newcomer education", "abstract": "Newcomer education is the specialized teaching of refugees, migrants, asylees, runaways and immigrants who have resettled in a host country, with the goal of providing the knowledge and skills necessary to integrate into their country of refuge. Education is the primary way by which newcomers can adjust to the linguistic, social, and cultural environments of their new communities. Newcomer education aims to empower newcomers with a sense of self-efficacy and social integration, as well as giving them the skills to pursue employment or higher education. Newcomer education also aims to help address trauma, culture shock, and other negative effects of forced displacement. Education for newcomers can provide long-term prospects for stability of individuals, communities, countries and global society."}, {"id": 1605961, "title": "Prison education", "abstract": "Prison education is any educational activity that occurs inside prison. Courses can include basic literacy programmes, secondary school equivalency programmes, vocational education, and tertiary education. Other activities such as rehabilitation programs, physical education, and arts and crafts programmes may also be considered a form of prison education. Programmes are typically provided, managed, and funded by the prison system, though inmates may be required to pay for distance education programmes. The history of and current practices in prison education vary greatly among countries.\nThose entering prison systems worldwide have, on average, lower levels of education than the general population. Prison education often aims to make the inmate more employable after release. Administrating and attending educational programmes in prisons can be difficult. Staff and budget shortages, a lack of educational resources and computers, and the transfer of prisoners between facilities are common barriers. Prisoners may be reluctant to participate, often due to past educational failures or a lack of motivation.\nStudies consistently show that education in prison is an effective way of reducing the rates of recidivism, which saves the expense of future prison sentences. In the United Kingdom, it is estimated that every pound spent on prison education saves taxpayers more than two pounds, and in the United States, the rate is four to five dollars saved for every dollar spent. Despite the benefits of prison education programmes, rates of education within prisons remain low in many countries, and attempts to increase funding for prison education have been opposed. Opponents argue that prison education is a waste of money and that prisoners are not deserving of the benefit."}, {"id": 75594348, "title": "Programa Universidade para Todos", "abstract": "The Programa Universidade para Todos (English: University for All Program), also known as ProUni, was created by the Brazilian Federal Government and developed by Fernando Haddad, Minister of Education at the time, with the purpose of providing full and partial scholarships in undergraduate and sequential courses of specific training in private higher education institutions. It was instituted by Law No. 11,096 of January 13, 2005 during Lula's administration.By 2013, Prouni had provided access to higher education for 1.2 million young people at 1,116 private higher education institutions involved in the program, with an average equivalent of one scholarship for every 10.7 paying students."}, {"id": 70907268, "title": "Science theatre (genre)", "abstract": "Science theatre is a form of theatre or set of performances in which science is central. It aims to give insight into the essence or impact of science by stimulating thinking about science or the societal impact of science.Within science theatre, several approaches exist. Roughly speaking, a distinction can be made between\n\nthe genres in which science or technology is more or less a subject and theatrical goals are central\nthe genres in which science or technology is central and theatre is a more or less accidental means of stimulating the understanding of the artefacts, methodology, concepts and functioning of science and technology\nthe genres in which science or technology is central and theatre is a more or less accidental means of stimulating the understanding of and discussion on societal functioning, meaning and impact of science and technologyA famous representative of the first genre is the piece Copenhagen by Michael Frayn. Examples of the second genre are pieces by chemist and Nobel Prize winner Carl Djerassi, while pieces by the English science theater group Y-touring fits into the third genre. The latter has been visiting successful secondary schools for years with pieces about, for example, xenotransplantation to bring influential developments in science into contact. The use of role plays and simulations about science and society in secondary and higher education also falls under the second genre.There are also many intermediate forms, such as Lehrst\u00fccke, by Bertolt Brecht, who wanted to combine art and education."}, {"id": 68255880, "title": "Social work management", "abstract": "Social work management is the management of organisations or enterprises in the social economy and non-profit sector, e.g., public service providers, charities, youth welfare offices, associations, etc. \nSocial work management has been traditionally pursued by social workers, social pedagogues, pedagogues, psychologists without additional management skills and knowledge or legal practitioners and business economists \u2013 often without reference to the social economy. Furthermore, Social work management is a field of education & practice established since 1980s in Europe & North America that focuses on person-centred leadership, motivation & strategic issues. It manages organizations in social economy & non-profit sector.\nMost scholars and practitioners agree that social work managers need to have a high degree of leadership skills to make considered managerial decisions, to empower social workers, to develop staff within and collaborate with partners outside the social and human service organisation. Social work management as a field of social work education and practice was established in many universities in Europe and North America  since the 1980s. Established qualifications in higher education first included diplomas in social economy. It originally focused on person-centred leadership, motivation and strategic issues. It combines management with social pedagogical, psychological, and sociological knowledge and skills."}, {"id": 66942495, "title": "Social\u2013emotional learning", "abstract": "Social\u2013emotional learning (SEL) is an educational method that aims to foster social and emotional skills within school curricula. SEL is also referred to as \"socio-emotional learning\", \"social and emotional learning\", or \"social\u2013emotional literacy\". In common practice, SEL emphasizes social and emotional skills to the same degree as other subjects, such as math, science, and reading. Furthermore, SEL emphasizes an importance upon preparing students to become knowledgeable, responsible, and caring members of society when they reach adulthood.The application of SEL (and similar educational theories) within public schools has become increasingly controversial since 2020, especially within the United States."}, {"id": 73767855, "title": "Wellbeing Literacy", "abstract": "Wellbeing literacy is defined as the intentional use of wellbeing relevant vocabulary, knowledge and language skills to maintain or improve the wellbeing of oneself, others and the world.  The term was originally coined and published by Prof. Lindsay Oades and colleagues in 2017, who described wellbeing literacy as the potential \"missing link\" or \"missing ingredient\" in positive education, and now supports systems-informed approaches to education (2020).More broadly, wellbeing literacy relates to how people communicate about and for wellbeing (2021).Wellbeing literacy is a construct that reflects the intersection between the words that people use to describe wellbeing and the understanding they have of  wellbeing, according to Waters and Higgins (2022)."}], "id": 696763}, {"title": "Mathematics", "pages": [{"id": 18831, "title": "Mathematics", "abstract": "Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics with the major subdisciplines of number theory, algebra, geometry, and analysis, respectively. There is no general consensus among mathematicians about a common definition for their academic discipline.\nMost mathematical activity involves the discovery of properties of abstract objects and the use of pure reason to prove them. These objects consist of either abstractions from nature or\u2014in modern mathematics\u2014entities that are stipulated to have certain properties, called axioms. A proof consists of a succession of applications of deductive rules to already established results. These results include previously proved theorems, axioms, and\u2014in case of abstraction from nature\u2014some basic properties that are considered true starting points of the theory under consideration.Mathematics is essential in the natural sciences, engineering, medicine, finance, computer science and the social sciences. Although mathematics is extensively used for modeling phenomena, the fundamental truths of mathematics are independent from any scientific experimentation. Some areas of mathematics, such as statistics and game theory, are developed in close correlation with their applications and are often grouped under applied mathematics. Other areas are developed independently from any application (and are therefore called pure mathematics), but often later find practical applications. The problem of integer factorization, for example, which goes back to Euclid in 300 BC, had no practical application before its use in the RSA cryptosystem, now widely used for the security of computer networks.Historically, the concept of a proof and its associated mathematical rigour first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements. Since its beginning, mathematics was primarily divided into geometry and arithmetic (the manipulation of natural numbers and fractions), until the 16th and 17th centuries, when algebra and infinitesimal calculus were introduced as new fields. Since then, the interaction between mathematical innovations and scientific discoveries has led to a correlated increase in the development of both. At the end of the 19th century, the foundational crisis of mathematics led to the systematization of the axiomatic method, which heralded a dramatic increase in the number of mathematical areas and their fields of application. The contemporary Mathematics Subject Classification lists more than 60 first-level areas of mathematics."}, {"id": 33543938, "title": "Outline of mathematics", "abstract": "Mathematics is a field of study that investigates topics such as number, space, structure, and change."}, {"id": 75850137, "title": "Aboodh transform", "abstract": "Aboodh transform is a type of Integral transform formulated in 2013 by Khalid Suliman Aboodh.  It is defined as a set\nA = { f(t) : there exists M , a , B > 0 ,|f(t) | < M e^-vt }\n\n  \n    \n      \n        a\n        \u2264\n        v\n        \u2264\n        b\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle a\\leq v\\leq b}\n  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        [\n        f\n        (\n        t\n        )\n        ]\n        =\n        \n          \n            1\n            v\n          \n        \n        \n          \u222b\n          \n            0\n          \n          \n            \u221e\n          \n        \n        f\n        (\n        t\n        )\n        \n          e\n          \n            \u2212\n            v\n            t\n          \n        \n        d\n        t\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A[f(t)]={\\frac {1}{v}}\\int _{0}^{\\infty }f(t)e^{-vt}dt}"}, {"id": 373299, "title": "Language of mathematics", "abstract": "The language of mathematics or mathematical language is an extension of the natural language (for example English) that is used in mathematics and in science for expressing results (scientific laws, theorems, proofs, logical deductions, etc) with concision, precision and unambiguity."}], "id": 690747}, {"title": "People", "pages": [{"id": 3488351, "title": "People", "abstract": "A people is any plurality of persons considered as a whole. Used in politics and law, the term \"a people\" refers to the collective or community of an ethnic group or nation. The term \"the people\" refers to the public or common mass of people of a polity. As such it is a concept of human rights law, international law as well as constitutional law, particularly used for claims of popular sovereignty."}, {"id": 219599, "title": "Person", "abstract": "A person (pl.: people or persons, depending on context) is a being who has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations such as kinship, ownership of property, or legal responsibility. The defining features of personhood and, consequently, what makes a person count as a person, differ widely among cultures and contexts.In addition to the question of personhood, of what makes a being count as a person to begin with, there are further questions about personal identity and self: both about what makes any particular person that particular person instead of another, and about what makes a person at one time the same person as they were or will be at another time despite any intervening changes.\nThe plural form \"people\" is often used to refer to an entire nation or ethnic group (as in \"a people\"), and this was the original meaning of the word; it subsequently acquired its use as a plural form of person. The plural form \"persons\" is often used in philosophical and legal writing."}, {"id": 75748409, "title": "William Bindia", "abstract": "William Bindia, aussi connu sous le nom de Kalash Wallim ou @walloprod sur Instagram, est un humoriste, ing\u00e9nieur sonore, mannequin, chanteur et producteur reconnu de la sc\u00e8ne montr\u00e9alaise au XXIe si\u00e8cle. Il fait de l'humour de type pince-sans-rire et crowd-work, mais est surtout reconnu pour ses stand-ups et premi\u00e8res apparitions au Gong Show et \u00e0 sa soir\u00e9e d'humour le TurboDr\u00f4le."}], "id": 691008}, {"title": "Technology", "pages": [{"id": 29816, "title": "Technology", "abstract": "Technology is the application of conceptual knowledge for achieving practical goals, especially in a reproducible way. The word technology can also mean the products resulting from such efforts,:\u200a117\u200a including both tangible tools such as utensils or machines, and intangible ones such as software. Technology plays a critical role in science, engineering, and everyday life.\nTechnological advancements have led to significant changes in society. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used during prehistoric times, followed by the control of fire, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language during the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age allowed greater travel and the creation of more complex machines. More recent technological inventions, including the printing press, telephone, and the Internet, have lowered barriers to communication and ushered in the knowledge economy.\nWhile technology contributes to economic development and improves human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution and resource depletion, and can cause social harms like technological unemployment resulting from automation. As a result, there are ongoing philosophical and political debates about the role and use of technology, the ethics of technology, and ways to mitigate its downsides."}, {"id": 6504692, "title": "Outline of technology", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to technology:\nTechnology \u2013 collection of tools, including machinery, modifications, arrangements and procedures used by humans. Engineering is the discipline that seeks to study and design new technology. Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species' ability to control and adapt to their natural environments."}, {"id": 72668373, "title": "Broadly Applicable Tracking System", "abstract": "The Broadly Applicable Tracking System, or BATS, is a small, lightweight tool that scientists use to track animal movements. It is shaped like a backpack and glued onto the back of a bat or other small animal. It contains GPS and wireless internet equipment that allow the scientists track the animal's movements.The scientists who invented BATS differentiate it from other systemss because it is lighter, requires less power, and can track animals even inside caves or hollow trees. BATS can be made on a 3D printer, and it is so light that it does not slow down small bats when they fly.\nBATS falls off the animal's back after about fourteen days.  Scientists then collect fallen BATS to reuse the parts.\nScientists have used BATS to show that vampire bats form social bonds when being kept by humans that they remember after being released."}, {"id": 73204286, "title": "Digital ecology", "abstract": "Digital ecology is a science about the interdependence of digital systems and the natural environment. This field of study looks at the methods in which digital technologies are changing the way how people interact with the environment, as well as how these technologies affects the environment itself. It is a branch of ecology that promotes green practices to fight digital pollution. Currently the total carbon footprint of the internet, our electronic devices, and supporting elements accounts for about 3.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions (including about 1.4 per cent of overall global carbon dioxide emissions).Digital ecology is a complex and multifaceted field that requires a holistic approach to understanding the relationship between digital technologies and the natural world. With the increasing reliance on digital technologies, it is important to consider the environmental consequences of these technologies and work towards more sustainable solutions."}, {"id": 74816094, "title": "Flyover (Apple Maps)", "abstract": "Flyover is a feature on Apple Maps that allows users to view certain areas in a 3D setting. Flyover also allows users to take \"tours\" of these locations through the City Tours feature, showcasing various landmarks in the area. Imagery is provided through the use of drones, which collect fine data on buildings.\n\nInitially founded in 2012, along with Apple Maps itself, Flyover now covers over 300 cities, landmarks, and parks across five of the six inhabited continents through a series of several expansions, notably in 2014, 2015 and 2019. Despite earlier issues, Flyover has been praised for its detail and uniqueness."}, {"id": 43245070, "title": "Future technology", "abstract": "Future technology-related topics include:\n\nEmerging technologies, technologies that are perceived as capable of changing the status quo\nHypothetical technology, technology that does not exist yet, but that could exist in the future\nFutures studies (also called futurology), the study of postulating possible, probable, and preferable futures and the worldviews and myths that underlie them\nTechnology forecasting, attempts to predict the future characteristics of useful technological machines, procedures or techniques"}, {"id": 6079418, "title": "Gerontechnology", "abstract": "Gerontechnology, also called gerotechnology, is an inter- and multidisciplinary academic and professional field combining gerontology and technology. Sustainability of an aging society depends upon our effectiveness in creating technological environments, including assistive technology and inclusive design, for innovative and independent living and social participation of older adults in any state of health, comfort and safety. In short, gerontechnology concerns matching technological environments to health, housing, mobility, communication, leisure and work of older people. Gerontechnology is most frequently identified as a subset of HealthTech and is more commonly referred to as AgeTech in Europe and the United States. Research outcomes form the basis for designers, builders, engineers, manufacturers, and those in the health professions (nursing, medicine, gerontology, geriatrics, environmental psychology, developmental psychology, etc.), to provide an optimum living environment for the widest range of ages."}, {"id": 73114823, "title": "Gigabit Multimedia Serial Link", "abstract": "Gigabit Multimedia Serial Link, commonly referred to as GMSL, is a serial link technology that is used for video distribution in cars. It was developed by Maxim Integrated. Maxim Integrated was acquired by Analog Devices in 2021.  \nGMSL is an asymmetric, full duplex SerDes technology - which means that it transports data at a high rate in the downlink (or forward) direction, while simultaneously transporting a lower data rate in the uplink (or reverse) direction. It transports power, bidirectional control data, Ethernet, bidirectional audio and multiple streams of unidirectional video simultaneously over a single coaxial cable or shielded twisted pair cable. A GMSL serializer receives video from a standard digital video interface such as HDMI, DisplayPort, Camera Serial Interface (CSI-2) or Display Serial Interface (DSI) over a cable up to 15 meter in length. The data is received by a deserializer that outputs it on another standard digital video interface. GMSL video transport may be unprotected or encrypted using HDCP."}, {"id": 74388553, "title": "Hack-for-hire operation", "abstract": "Hack-for-hire operations are services that provide clients with illicit access to information by infiltrating digital systems or networks, typically for a fee. This form of hacking on demand has seen a surge in popularity over recent years, with the trend being attributed to advancements in technology, growing digital connectivity, and increasing demand for corporate espionage and personal data breaches."}, {"id": 14285, "title": "History of science and technology", "abstract": "The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of history that examines the understanding of the natural world (science) and the ability to manipulate it (technology) at different points in time. This academic discipline also studies the cultural, economic, and political impacts of and contexts for scientific practices."}, {"id": 71621594, "title": "List of grid computing projects", "abstract": "This is a comprehensive list of Grid computing infrastructure projects."}, {"id": 8174234, "title": "List of science and technology awards for women", "abstract": "This list of science and technology awards for women is an index to articles about notable awards made to women for work in science and the STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields generally. It includes awards for astronomy, space and atmospheric science; biology and medicine; chemistry; engineering; mathematics; neuroscience; physics; technology; and general or multiple fields."}, {"id": 75026019, "title": "Moral outsourcing", "abstract": "Moral outsourcing refers to placing responsibility for ethical decision-making on to external entities, often algorithms. The term is often used in discussions of computer science and algorithmic fairness, but it can apply to any situation in which one appeals to outside agents in order to absolve themselves of responsibility for their actions. In this context, moral outsourcing specifically refers to the tendency of society to blame technology, rather than its creators or users, for any harm it may cause."}, {"id": 75517860, "title": "Motograph News Bulletin", "abstract": "The Motograph News Bulletin, also known as the Zipper, was a 380 feet long electromechanical news ticker display that wrapped around One Times Square."}, {"id": 75211976, "title": "Nessum Alliance", "abstract": "Nessum Alliance is a voluntary organization, established in 2007 as  HD-PLC Alliance, originally with the purpose of promoting the widespread adoption, ensuring communication compatibility, and international standardization activities of the high-speed power-line communication technology HD-PLC. In October 2023, the Alliance changed its name to the Nessum Alliance. The organization now focuses on Nessum, a power-line standard based on HD-PLC."}, {"id": 74467860, "title": "Neutrik XLR/P10", "abstract": "The Combo XLR/TRS socket or Neutrik NCJ6FI-S, is a type of female socket connector capable of supporting two types of jack connectors: the XLR connector, known as the \"Canon Plug\", used to connect microphones and mixers, and the TRS plug for stereo (TRS:Tip-ring-sleeve) or TS plug for mono (TS:Tip-Sleeve), also known as: Banana Plug, or P10 plug, which are used in musical instruments like guitars, keyboards, bass, and other instruments."}, {"id": 75680063, "title": "Free Network Foundation", "abstract": "The Free Network Foundation was an American non-governmental organization active in the early 2010s. Its work focused on research and advocacy for wireless community networks. Its efforts to provide the Occupy movement with internet connectivity were the subject of the Motherboard documentary Free The Network."}, {"id": 74925213, "title": "Representational harm", "abstract": "Systems cause representational harm when they misrepresent a group of people in a negative manner. Representational harms include perpetuating harmful stereotypes about or minimizing the existence of a social group, such as a racial, ethnic, gender, or religious group. Machine learning algorithms often commit representational harm when they learn patterns from data that have built-in biases. While preventing representational harm in models is essential to prevent harmful biases, researchers often lack precise definitions of representational harm and conflate it with allocative harm, an unequal distribution of resources among social groups, which is more widely studied and easier to measure. However, recognition of representational harms is growing and preventing them has become an active research area. Researchers have recently developed methods to effectively quantify representational harm in algorithms, making progress on preventing this harm in the future."}, {"id": 1500967, "title": "Seamless branching", "abstract": "Seamless branching is a mechanism used on DVDs and Blu-ray Discs to allow the player to jump to a different scene after finishing one. The most common purpose is to have several versions of a scene within one film, without having to store the entire film on the disc several times.A popular example is the Platinum Edition DVD of The Lion King, where the user can select between the original theatrical version and an extended version. The two versions differ only in one scene (the \"morning report\"). The DVD player is instructed to play the film normally up to this scene, then jump to the appropriate scene as selected by the user before the commencement of the film, and then jump back to play the rest of the film. The user normally does not notice this jump, hence the word seamless. Larger scale examples of the same technique are seen in the 2000 Ultimate Edition DVD of Terminator 2: Judgment Day, the 2007 DVD rerelease of Blade Runner and the Platinum, Diamond Edition DVDs of Beauty and the Beast  and in the 4 K version of Conan in  which three different cuts of the films are playable from the same discs.\nAnother possible use of seamless branching is for the localisation (translation) of on-screen visible text. The Star Wars DVDs with their opening crawl are a prime example. Normally, only the audio track of films is translated into other languages, but when text central to the plot is visible on-screen, the scene may be created once for every language, and the DVD player can be instructed to select the appropriate version of the scene depending on the user's language preference. However, for this purpose a technique called multi-angle is used more often."}, {"id": 40626873, "title": "Technological determinism", "abstract": "Technological determinism is a reductionist theory that assumes that a society's technology progresses by following its own internal logic of efficiency, while determining the development of the social structure and cultural values. The term is believed to have originated from Thorstein Veblen (1857\u20131929), an American sociologist and economist. The most radical technological determinist in the United States in the 20th century was most likely Clarence Ayres who was a follower of Thorstein Veblen and John Dewey. William Ogburn was also known for his radical technological determinism and his theory on cultural lag."}, {"id": 30862857, "title": "Technology and society", "abstract": "Technology, society and life or technology and culture refers to the inter-dependency, co-dependence, co-influence, and co-production of technology and society upon one another. Evidence for this synergy has been found since humanity first started using simple tools. The inter-relationship has continued as modern technologies such as the printing press and computers have helped shape society. The first scientific approach to this relationship occurred with the development of tektology, the \"science of organization\", in early twentieth century Imperial Russia. In modern academia, the interdisciplinary study of the mutual impacts of science, technology, and society, is called science and technology studies.\nThe simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic tools. The prehistoric discovery of how to control fire and the later Neolithic Revolution increased the available sources of food, and the invention of the wheel helped humans to travel in and control their environment. Developments in historic times have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale, such as the printing press, telephone, and Internet.\nTechnology has developed advanced economies, such as the modern  global economy, and has led to the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce by-products known as pollution, and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earth's environment. Innovations influence the values of society and raise new questions in the ethics of technology. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics.\nPhilosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar reactionary movements criticize the pervasiveness of technology, arguing that it harms the environment and alienates people. However, proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition."}, {"id": 39919360, "title": "Technosignature", "abstract": "Technosignature or technomarker is any measurable property or effect that provides scientific evidence of past or present technology. Technosignatures are analogous to biosignatures, which signal the presence of life, whether intelligent or not. Some authors prefer to exclude radio transmissions from the definition, but such restrictive usage is not widespread. Jill Tarter has proposed that the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) be renamed \"the search for technosignatures\". Various types of technosignatures, such as radiation leakage from megascale astroengineering installations such as Dyson spheres, the light from an extraterrestrial ecumenopolis, or Shkadov thrusters with the power to alter the orbits of stars around the Galactic Center, may be detectable with hypertelescopes.  Some examples of technosignatures are described in Paul Davies's 2010 book The Eerie Silence, although the terms \"technosignature\" and \"technomarker\" do not appear in the book.\nIn February 2023, astronomers reported, after scanning 820 stars, the detection of 8 possible technosignatures for follow-up studies."}, {"id": 28516912, "title": "Virtual environment software", "abstract": "Virtual environment software refers to any software, program or system that implements, manages and controls multiple virtual environment instances (self definition). The software is installed within an organization's existing IT infrastructure and controlled from within the organization itself. From a central interface, the software creates an interactive and immersive experience for administrators and users."}, {"id": 72263662, "title": "X-ray Reconstruction of Moving Morphology", "abstract": "X-ray Reconstruction of Moving Morphology or XROMM is a scientific research technique. Scientists use it to create 3D images and videos of moving skeletal systems in living organisms.In XROMM, radio-opaque bone markers are implanted inside a living organism, which allows the X-ray video system to calculate accurate bone marker coordinates as the organism moves.\nXROMM was invented at Brown University.XROMM can be used to model such movements as birds in flight, humans running, frogs jumping, and a toad swallowing its prey."}], "id": 696648}, {"title": "Food and drink", "pages": [{"id": 7984, "title": "Drink", "abstract": "A drink or beverage is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their basic function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain drinking water, milk, juice, smoothies and soft drinks. Traditionally warm beverages include coffee, tea, and hot chocolate. Caffeinated drinks that contain the stimulant caffeine have a long history.\nIn addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture for more than 8,000 years. Non-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer, wine and cocktails, but are made with a sufficiently low concentration of alcohol by volume. The category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines."}, {"id": 10646, "title": "Food", "abstract": "Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that satisfy the needs of their metabolisms and have evolved to fill a specific ecological niche within specific geographical contexts.\nOmnivorous humans are highly adaptable and have adapted to obtain food in many different ecosystems. Humans generally use cooking to prepare food for consumption. The majority of the food energy required is supplied by the industrial food industry, which produces food through intensive agriculture and distributes it through complex food processing and food distribution systems. This system of conventional agriculture relies heavily on fossil fuels, which means that the food and agricultural systems are one of the major contributors to climate change, accounting for as much as 37% of total greenhouse gas emissions.The food system has significant impacts on a wide range of other social and political issues, including sustainability, biological diversity, economics, population growth, water supply, and food security. Food safety and security are monitored by international agencies like the International Association for Food Protection, the World Resources Institute, the World Food Programme, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the International Food Information Council."}, {"id": 66254, "title": "Drinking", "abstract": "Drinking is the act of ingesting water or other liquids into the body through the mouth, proboscis, or elsewhere. Humans drink by swallowing, completed by peristalsis in the esophagus. The physiological processes of drinking vary widely among other animals.\nMost animals drink water to maintain bodily hydration, although many can survive on the water gained from their food. Water is required for many physiological processes. Both inadequate and (less commonly) excessive water intake are associated with health problems."}, {"id": 212818, "title": "Eating", "abstract": "Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food. In the natural biological world, this is typically to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and nutrients and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive \u2014 carnivores eat other animals, herbivores eat plants, omnivores consume a mixture of both plant and animal matter, and detritivores eat detritus. Fungi digest organic matter outside their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies.\nFor humans, eating is more complex, but is typically an activity of daily living. Physicians and dieticians consider a healthful diet essential for maintaining peak physical condition. Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake. This may be a result of a lifestyle choice: as part of a diet or as religious fasting. Limited consumption may be due to hunger or famine. Overconsumption of calories may lead to obesity and the reasons behind it are myriad but its prevalence has led some to declare an \"obesity epidemic\"."}, {"id": 2077038, "title": "Edible", "abstract": "An edible item is any item that is safe for humans to eat. \"Edible\" is differentiated from \"eatable\" because it does not indicate how an item tastes, only whether it is fit to be eaten. Nonpoisonous items found in nature \u2013 such as some mushrooms, insects, seaweed, and so forth \u2013 are referred to as edible. Processed items that normally are not ingested but are specially manufactured to be so, like edible underwear or edible packaging, are also labeled as edible."}, {"id": 72931373, "title": "Feed a cold, starve a fever", "abstract": "\"Feed a cold, starve a fever\" is an adage or a wives' tale which attempts to instruct people how to deal with illness. The adage dates to the time of Hippocrates when fever was not well understood. His idea was the fever was the disease, and starving the sick person would starve the disease.\nIn 1574, John Withals published \"Fasting is a great remedie of feuer\" in a dictionary. The adage states that eating will help cure a cold; not eating will help cure a fever. In 2002 a small-scale study testing the accuracy of the adage concluded that different foods can provoke an immune system response in patients."}, {"id": 67319231, "title": "Food art", "abstract": "Food art is a type of art that depicts food, drink, or edible objects as the medium or subject matter of an artistic work to create an attractive visual display or provide social critique. It can be presented in two-dimensional or three-dimensional format, like painting or sculpture. Food art can also incorporate food as a medium.\nContemporary food artists have experimented using different method and techniques like photography to change its purpose and use it as a source of story telling, humour and highlighting current world issues, such as racism and political activism. Some food art works use materials, like stone, to replicate food."}, {"id": 5111481, "title": "Food biodiversity", "abstract": "Food biodiversity is defined as \"the diversity of plants, animals and other organisms used for food, covering the genetic resources within species, between species and provided by ecosystems.\"Food biodiversity can be considered from two main perspectives: production and consumption. From a consumption perspective, food biodiversity describes the diversity of foods in human diets and their contribution to dietary diversity, cultural identity and good nutrition. Production of food biodiversity looks at the thousands of food products, such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, meat and condiments sourced from agriculture and from the wild (e.g. forests, uncultivated fields, water bodies). Food biodiversity covers the diversity between species, for example different animal and crop species, including those considered neglected and underutilized species. Food biodiversity also comprises the diversity within species, for example different varieties of fruit and vegetables, or different breeds of animals.\nFood diversity, diet diversity nutritional diversity, are also terms used in the new diet culture spawned by Brandon Eisler, in the study known as Nutritional Diversity."}, {"id": 70827748, "title": "Food psychology", "abstract": "Food psychology is the psychological study of how people choose the food they eat (food choice), along with food and eating behaviors. Food psychology is an applied psychology, using existing psychological methods and findings to understand food choice and eating behaviors. Factors studied by food psychology include food cravings, sensory experiences of food, perceptions of food security and food safety, price, available product information such as nutrition labeling and the purchasing environment (which may be physical or online). Food psychology also encompasses broader sociocultural factors such as cultural perspectives on food, public awareness of \"what constitutes a sustainable diet\", and food marketing including \"food fraud\" where ingredients are intentionally motivated for economic gain as opposed to nutritional value. These factors are considered to interact with each other along with an individual's history of food choices to form new food choices and eating behaviors.The development of food choice is considered to fall into three main categories: properties of the food, individual differences and sociocultural influences. Food psychology studies psychological aspects of individual differences, although due to the interaction between factors and the variance in definitions, food psychology is often studied alongside other aspects of food choice including nutrition psychology.As of 2022, there are no specific journals for food psychology, with research being published in both nutrition and psychology journals.Eating behaviors which are analysed by food psychology include disordered eating, behavior associated with food neophobia, and the public broadcasting/streaming of eating (mukbang). Food psychology has been studied extensively using theories of cognitive dissonance and fallacious reasoning."}, {"id": 68554701, "title": "Gastronationalism", "abstract": "Gastronationalism or culinary nationalism is the use of food and its history, production, control, preparation and consumption as a way of promoting nationalism and national identity. It may involve arguments between two or more regions or countries about whether a particular dish or preparation is claimed by one of those regions or countries and has been appropriated or co-opted by the others."}, {"id": 34375483, "title": "Human food", "abstract": "Human food is that food which is fit for human consumption, and which humans willingly eat. Not all things that are edible constitute human food. Food is a basic necessity of life, and humans typically seek food out as an instinctual response to hunger.Humans eat various substances for energy, enjoyment and nutritional support. These are usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin, and contain essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Humans are highly adaptable omnivores, and have adapted to obtain food in many different ecosystems. Historically, humans secured food through two main methods: hunting and gathering and agriculture. As agricultural technologies improved, humans settled into agriculture lifestyles with diets shaped by the agriculture opportunities in their region of the world. Geographic and cultural differences have led to the creation of numerous cuisines and culinary arts, including a wide array of ingredients, herbs, spices, techniques, and dishes. As cultures have mixed through forces like international trade and globalization, ingredients have become more widely available beyond their geographic and cultural origins, creating a cosmopolitan exchange of different food traditions and practices.\nToday, the majority of the food energy required by the ever-increasing population of the world is supplied by the industrial food industry, which produces food with intensive agriculture and distributes it through complex food processing and food distribution systems. This system of conventional agriculture relies heavily on fossil fuels, which means that the food and agricultural system is one of the major contributors to climate change, accountable for as much as 37% of the total greenhouse gas emissions. Addressing the carbon intensity of the food system and food waste are important mitigation measures in the global response to climate change.The food system has significant impacts on a wide range of other social and political issues, including: sustainability, biological diversity, economics, population growth, water supply, and access to food. The right to food is a \"human right\" derived from the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), recognizing the \"right to an adequate standard of living, including adequate food\", as well as the \"fundamental right to be free from hunger\". Because of these fundamental rights, food security is often a priority international policy activity; for example Sustainable Development Goal 2 \"Zero hunger\" is meant to eliminate hunger by 2030. Food safety and food security are monitored by international agencies like the International Association for Food Protection, World Resources Institute, World Food Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization, and International Food Information Council, and are often subject to national regulation by institutions, such as the Food and Drug Administration in the United States."}, {"id": 97845, "title": "Recipe", "abstract": "A recipe is a set of instructions that describes how to prepare or make something, especially a dish of prepared food. A sub-recipe or subrecipe is a recipe for an ingredient that will be called for in the instructions for the main recipe."}, {"id": 32961, "title": "Wine", "abstract": "Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented fruit. Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruits and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Though wine can be made from a variety of fruit crops such as plum, cherry, pomegranate, blueberry, currant and elderberry, it is most often made from grapes, and the term \"wine\" generally refers to grape wine when used without a qualifier. \nDifferent varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are major factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from the complex interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the grape's growing environment (terroir), and the wine production process. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine. These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. \nWine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine is from the present-day Georgia (6000 BCE), Persia (5000 BCE), Italy and Armenia (4000 BCE). New World wine has some connection to alcoholic beverages made by the indigenous peoples of the Americas, but is mainly connected to later Spanish traditions in New Spain. Later, as Old World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largest wine-producing regions. Today, the five countries with the largest wine-producing regions are in Italy, Spain, France, the United States, and China.Wine has long played an important role in religion. Red wine was associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians and was used by both the Greek cult of Dionysus and the Romans in their Bacchanalia; Judaism also incorporates it in the Kiddush, and Christianity in the Eucharist. Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Israeli wine cultures are still connected to these ancient roots. Similarly the largest wine regions in Italy, Spain, and France have heritages in connection to sacramental wine, likewise, viticulture traditions in the Southwestern United States started within New Spain as Catholic friars and monks first produced wines in New Mexico and California."}, {"id": 48166093, "title": "Winiary (company)", "abstract": "Winiary Nestl\u00e9 Polska S.A. Oddzia\u0142 w Kaliszu, known more commonly as Winiary, is a Polish food processing company based in the Kalisz borough of Winiary.Currently, the company is part of the Nestl\u00e9 corporation, specialising in convenience food as well as quick to prepare food (mostly pulverised) Instant ready-cooked meals, sauces, soups (mostly instant noodles), jelly, kissel and blancmange. Winiary also produces sets of seasoning, which are pulverised and in liquid form (from concentrate)."}, {"id": 28869950, "title": "Zve\u010devo", "abstract": "Zve\u010devo is a Croatian food company, specializing in confectionery products and spirits. The company was founded as Stock Cognac Medicinal in 1921 in Po\u017eega and produced strong alcoholic drinks. The company was rented to Nestl\u00e9 from 1936 until 1946, when it also started producing chocolate and candy products. The company changed its name to Zve\u010devo d.d. Po\u017eega in 1951. In the 1960s, all efforts were aimed towards production of cocoa products, strong alcoholic drinks and milk powder, as the unprofitable and outdated production of fruit juices and flour was abandoned. A cooperation with Nestl\u00e9 was established again in 1970 that lasted until 1995, when it became a joint-stock company. Zve\u010devo has designed the first rice chocolate in the world in 1964 and named it Mikado."}], "id": 694860}, {"title": "Culture", "pages": [{"id": 19159508, "title": "Culture", "abstract": "Culture ( KUL-ch\u0259r) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups. Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region or location.\nHumans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.\nA cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.\nAccepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.\nThus in military culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group.\nCultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies.\nOrganizations like UNESCO attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage."}, {"id": 24723521, "title": "Outline of culture", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to culture:\nCulture \u2013 a set of patterns of human activity within a community or social group and the symbolic structures that give significance to such activity. Customs, laws, dress, architectural style, social standards, and traditions are all examples of cultural elements.  Since 2010, Culture is considered the Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development by UNESCO. More: Agenda 21 for Culture or in short Culture 21."}, {"id": 72135653, "title": "Algorithmic culture", "abstract": "In the digital humanities, \"algorithmic culture\" is part of an emerging synthesis of  rigorous software algorithm driven design that couples software, highly structured data driven design with   human oriented sociocultural attributes. An early occurrence of the term is found in Alexander R. Galloway  classic Gaming: Essays on Algorithmic CultureOther definitions include Ted Striphas' where AC refers to the ways in which the logic of big data and large scale computation (including algorithms) alters they culture is practiced, experienced and understood.\". \nA starting point for modern discussion of culture is attributed to Edward Burnett Tylor in his 1871 works on primitive culture.The emergence and continuing development and convergence of computers, software, algorithms, human psychology, digital marketing and other computational technologies resulted in numerous AC variants including recommendation algorithms, AI generated stories and characters, digital assets (including creative NFTs, all of which can and should be considered as algorithmic culture artifacts. A similar process is occurring in strictly sociological interactions."}, {"id": 74649989, "title": "Also a Poet", "abstract": "Also a Poet: Frank O'Hara, My Father, and Me is a 2022 memoir by Ada Calhoun. It explores Calhoun's relationship with her father, the art critic Peter Schjeldahl, as well as their shared interest in the poet Frank O'Hara. The book was published on June 14, 2022, by Grove Press."}, {"id": 18290472, "title": "Artificiality", "abstract": "Artificiality (the state of being artificial or anthropogenic) is the state of being the product of intentional human manufacture, rather than occurring naturally through processes not involving or requiring human activity."}, {"id": 29560452, "title": "The arts", "abstract": "The arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression, storytelling, and cultural participation. They encompass multiple diverse and plural modes of thinking, doing, and being, in an extremely broad range of media. Both dynamic and a characteristically constant feature of human life, they have developed into innovative, stylized, and sometimes intricate forms. This is often achieved through sustained and deliberate study, training, and/or theorizing within a particular tradition, across generations, and even between civilizations. The arts are a vehicle through which human beings cultivate distinct social, cultural, and individual identities while transmitting values, impressions, judgements, ideas, visions, spiritual meanings, patterns of life, and experiences across time and space.\nProminent examples of the arts include:\n\nvisual arts (including architecture, ceramics, drawing, filmmaking, painting, photography, and sculpting)\nliterary arts (including fiction, drama, poetry, and prose)\nperforming arts (including dance, music, and theatre)They can employ skill and imagination to produce objects and performances, convey insights and experiences, and construct new environments and spaces.\nThe arts can refer to common, popular, or everyday practices as well as more sophisticated, systematic, or institutionalized ones. They can be discrete and self-contained or combine and interweave with other art forms, such as the combination of artwork with the written word in comics. They can also develop or contribute to some particular aspect of a more complex art form, as in cinematography. By definition, the arts themselves are open to being continually redefined. The practice of modern art, for example, is a testament to the shifting boundaries, improvisation and experimentation, reflexive nature, and self-criticism or questioning that art and its conditions of production, reception, and possibility can undergo.\nAs both a means of developing capacities of attention and sensitivity and as ends in themselves, the arts can simultaneously be a form of response to the world and a way that our responses and what we deem worthwhile goals or pursuits are transformed. From prehistoric cave paintings to ancient and contemporary forms of ritual to modern-day films, art has served to register, embody, and preserve our ever-shifting relationships to each other and to the world."}, {"id": 53169305, "title": "Assessment culture", "abstract": "Assessment culture is a subset of organizational culture in higher education characterized by trusting relationships, data-informed decision-making, a respect for the profession of teaching, and an internally-driven thirst for discovery about student learning. Positive assessment culture generally connotes the existence of conditions for collaboration among practitioners, reward structures, professional development opportunities for faculty and staff, student involvement, and a shared commitment among leaders to making institutional improvements that are sustainable.Assessment culture may be revealed behaviorally through factors such as: celebration of successes, comprehensive program review, shared use of common terminology and language, provision of technical support, and use of affirmative messaging to effectively convey meaning. The culture of assessment has been measured by scholars of perceptions among faculty to determine motivations, sense of support, and levels of fear related to assessment."}, {"id": 505730, "title": "Cultural assimilation", "abstract": "Cultural assimilation is the process in which a minority group or culture comes to resemble a society's majority group or assimilate the values, behaviors, and beliefs of another group whether fully or partially.The different types of cultural assimilation include full assimilation and forced assimilation. Full assimilation is the more prevalent of the two, as it occurs spontaneously. When used as a political ideology, assimilationism refers to governmental policies of deliberately assimilating ethnic groups into the national culture.During cultural assimilation, minority groups are expected to adapt to the everyday practices of the dominant culture through language and appearance as well as via more significant socioeconomic factors such as absorption into the local cultural and employment community.Some types of cultural assimilation resemble acculturation in which a minority group or culture completely assimilates into the dominant culture in which defining characteristics of the minority culture are less obverse or outright disappear; while in other types of cultural assimilation such as cultural integration mostly found in multicultural communities, a minority group within a given society adopts aspects of the dominant culture through either cultural diffusion or for practical reason like adapting to another society's social norms while retaining their original culture. A conceptualization describes cultural assimilation as similar to acculturation while another merely considers the former as one of the latter's phases. Throughout history there have been different forms of cultural assimilation examples of types of acculturation include voluntary and involuntary assimilation.Assimilation could also involve the so-called additive acculturation wherein, instead of replacing the ancestral culture, an individual expands their existing cultural repertoire."}, {"id": 43569192, "title": "Aversion to happiness", "abstract": "Aversion to happiness, also called fear of happiness, is an attitude towards happiness in which individuals may deliberately avoid experiences that invoke positive emotions or happiness. Aversion to happiness is not a recognized mental health disorder on its own, but it can contribute to and/or exacerbate existing mental health issues.\nMohsen Joshanloo and Dan Weijers identify four reasons for an aversion to happiness:\n\na belief that happiness will cause bad things to happen\nthat happiness will cause you to become a bad person\nthat expressing happiness is somehow bad for you and others\nthat pursuing happiness is bad for you and others.For example, \"some people\u2014in Western and Eastern cultures\u2014are wary of happiness because they believe that bad things, such as unhappiness, suffering, and death, tend to happen to happy people.\" Empirical studies show that fear of happiness is associated with fragility of happiness beliefs, suggesting that one of the causes of aversion to happiness may be the belief that happiness is unstable and fragile. Research shows that fear of happiness is associated with avoidant and anxious attachment styles. A study found that perfectionistic tendencies, loneliness, a childhood perceived as unhappy, belief in paranormal phenomena, and holding a collectivistic understanding of happiness are positively associated with aversion to happiness."}, {"id": 6258, "title": "Civilization", "abstract": "A civilization (British English: civilisation) is any complex society characterized by the development of the state, social stratification, urbanization, and symbolic systems of communication beyond natural spoken language (namely, a writing system).Civilizations are often characterized by additional features as well, including agriculture, architecture, infrastructure, technological advancement, a currency, taxation, regulation, and specialization of labour.Historically, a civilization has often been understood as a larger and \"more advanced\" culture, in implied contrast to smaller, supposedly less advanced cultures. In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of nomadic pastoralists, Neolithic societies, or hunter-gatherers; however, sometimes it also contrasts with the cultures found within civilizations themselves. Civilizations are organized densely-populated settlements divided into hierarchical social classes with a ruling elite and subordinate urban and rural populations, which engage in intensive agriculture, mining, small-scale manufacture and trade. Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human beings.The word civilization relates to the Latin civitas or 'city'. As the National Geographic Society has explained it: \"This is why the most basic definition of the word civilization is 'a society made up of cities.'\"\nThe earliest emergence of civilizations is generally connected with the final stages of the Neolithic Revolution in West Asia, culminating in the relatively rapid process of urban revolution and state formation, a political development associated with the appearance of a governing elite."}, {"id": 590768, "title": "Classic", "abstract": "A classic is an outstanding example of a particular style; something of lasting worth or with a timeless quality; of the first or highest quality, class, or rank \u2013 something that exemplifies its class. The word can be an adjective (a classic car) or a noun (a classic of English literature). It denotes a particular quality in art, architecture, literature, design, technology, or other cultural artifacts. In commerce, products are named 'classic' to denote a long-standing popular version or model, to distinguish it from a newer variety. Classic is used to describe many major, long-standing sporting events. Colloquially, an everyday occurrence (e.g. a joke or mishap) may be described in some dialects of English as 'an absolute classic'.\n\"Classic\" should not be confused with classical, which refers specifically to certain cultural styles, especially in music and architecture: styles generally taking inspiration from the Classical tradition, hence classicism."}, {"id": 25147220, "title": "Coloured hat", "abstract": "Coloured hats or color-coded hats are used in psychology, religions, societies, workplaces, and learning environments, both literally and figuratively. Examples of this can be found on construction sites, in classrooms, and in the Catholic Church. It is also a present theme throughout history."}, {"id": 18964621, "title": "Cultural competency training", "abstract": "Cultural competency training is an instruction to achieve cultural competence and the ability to appreciate and interpret accurately other cultures. In an increasingly globalised world, training in cultural sensitivity to others' cultural identities (which may include race, sexuality, religion and other factors) and how to achieve cultural competence is being practised in the workplace, particularly in healthcare, schools and in other settings."}, {"id": 30963584, "title": "Cultural consensus theory", "abstract": "Cultural consensus theory is an approach to information pooling (aggregation, data fusion) which supports a framework for the measurement and evaluation of beliefs as cultural; shared to some extent by a group of individuals.  Cultural consensus models guide the aggregation of responses from individuals to estimate (1) the culturally appropriate answers to a series of related questions (when the answers are unknown) and (2) individual competence (cultural competence) in answering those questions.  The theory is applicable when there is sufficient agreement across people to assume that a single set of answers exists.  The agreement between pairs of individuals is used to estimate individual cultural competence.  Answers are estimated by weighting responses of individuals by their competence and then combining responses."}, {"id": 54004404, "title": "Criminal tradition", "abstract": "Criminal tradition - of the cultural transmission of criminal values. Criminal traditions are transmitted from the older generation to the younger generation, such as social customs are in other forms of society.\nStudies of the criminal tradition involved  Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay. They put forward a theory of \u201ccultural transmission\u201d, focuses on the development in some urban neighborhoods of a criminal tradition that persists from one generation to another despite constant changes in population. This theory stresses the value systems of different areas\nAlso worth noting theory of \u201cdifferential association,\u201d in which  Edwin H. Sutherland described the processes by which criminal values are taken over by the individual. Edwin H. Sutherland asserted that criminal behavior is learned and that it is learned in interaction with others who have already incorporated criminal values.Research by Shaw and McKay on the concept of cultural transmission indicates that a criminal tradition or subculture does exist in areas of  larger cities.  According to their studies Criminal tradition arises and is maintained in areas of instability, and the values, norms, and behaviors of the participants in the criminal tradition are viewed as normal by these people."}, {"id": 50693529, "title": "Critical consumerism", "abstract": "Critical consumption is the conscious choice to buy or not buy a product because of ethical and political beliefs. The critical consumer considers characteristics of the product and its realization, such as environmental sustainability and respect of workers\u2019 rights. Critical consumers take responsibility for the environmental, social, and political effects of their choices. The critical consumer sympathizes with certain social movement goals and contributes towards them by modifying their consumption behavior.\nAnalysis of critical consumption uses different terms to refer to boycotting and buycotting actions. These include ethical consumption and political consumerism, and sustainable consumption, which is more linked with policy.Often consumer and citizen are considered as different because consumers only show self-interest, whereas citizens denote expanded self-interest. The general idea is that, consumers buy what they want\u2014or what they have been persuaded to want\u2014within the limits of what they can get. Citizenship, on the other hand, carries duties or responsibilities along with various rights. Since consumers are seen also as citizens they have to behave in a community-oriented, moral and political way, rather than as a self-interested one."}, {"id": 67233436, "title": "Cultural amalgamation", "abstract": "Cultural amalgamation refers to the process of mixing two cultures to create a new culture. It is often described as a more balanced type of cultural interaction than the process of cultural assimilation. Cultural amalgamation does not involve one group's culture changing another group's culture (acculturation) or one group adopting another group's culture (assimilation). Instead, a new culture results. This is the origin of cultural amalgamation. It is the equivalent to the melting pot theory.The term cultural amalgamation is often used in studies on post\u2013civil rights era in the United States and contemporary multiculturalism and multiracialism. For instance, the cultural amalgamation process happened with the fall of the Roman empire when the Middle Ages started and Roman Jewish/Christian culture and Germanic tribal cultures mixed with each other in the European continent. In present day, cultural amalgamation occurs with immigration."}, {"id": 164660, "title": "Cultural diversity", "abstract": "Cultural diversity is the quality of diverse or different cultures, as opposed to monoculture. It has a variety of meanings in different contexts, sometimes applying to cultural products like art works in museums or entertainment available online, and sometimes applying to the variety of human cultures or traditions in a specific region, or in the world as a whole. It can also refer to the inclusion of different cultural perspectives in an organization or society.\nCultural diversity can be affected by political factors such as censorship or the protection of the rights of artists, and by economic factors such as free trade or protectionism in the market for cultural goods. Since the middle of the 20th century, there has been a concerted international effort to protect cultural diversity, involving the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and its member states. This involves action at international, national, and local levels. Cultural diversity can also be promoted by individual citizens in the ways they choose to express or experience culture."}, {"id": 69411572, "title": "Cultural expressions", "abstract": "Cultural expressions are creative manifestations of the cultural identities of their authors. They are treated in the international legal system in terms of cultural rights, intellectual property law and international trade."}, {"id": 4543340, "title": "Cultural intelligence", "abstract": "Cultural intelligence or cultural quotient (CQ), refers to an individual's capability to function effectively in culturally diverse settings. The concept was introduced by London Business School professor P. Christopher Earley and Nanyang Business School professor Soon Ang in 2003. While cultural intelligence is comparable to emotional intelligence (EQ), individuals with a high EQ can grasp \"what makes us human and, at the same time, what makes each of us different from one another.\" In contrast, individuals with a high CQ can discern universal, individual, and non-idiosyncratic features within the behavior of a person or group. The authors cited behavioral, motivational, and metacognitive aspects of cultural intelligence."}, {"id": 2036118, "title": "Cultural lag", "abstract": "The difference between material culture and non-material culture is known as cultural lag. The term cultural lag refers to the notion that culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, and the resulting social problems that are caused by this lag. In other words, cultural lag occurs whenever there is an unequal rate of change between different parts of culture causing a gap between material and non-material culture. Subsequently, cultural lag does not only apply to this idea only, but also relates to theory and explanation. It helps by identifying and explaining social problems to predict future problems in society. The term was first coined in William F. Ogburn's 1922 work Social Change with Respect to Culture and Original Nature.\nAs explained by James W. Woodward, when the material conditions change, changes are occasioned in the adaptive culture, but these changes in the adaptive culture do not synchronize exactly with the change in the material culture, this delay is the culture lag. If people fail to adjust to the rapid environmental and technological changes it will cause a lag or a gap between the cultures. This resonates with ideas of technological determinism, which means that technology determines the development of its cultural values and social structure. That is, it can presuppose that technology has independent effects on society at large. However it does not necessarily assign causality to technology. Rather cultural lag focuses examination on the period of adjustment to new technologies. According to sociologists William F. Ogburn, cultural lag is a common societal phenomenon due to the tendency of material culture to evolve and change rapidly and voluminously while non-material culture tends to resist change and remain fixed for a far longer period of time. This is due to the fact that ideals and values are much harder to change than physical things are. Due to the opposing nature of these two aspects of culture, adaptation of new technology becomes rather difficult. This can cause a disconnect between people and their society or culture. This distinction between material and non-material culture is also a contribution of Ogburn's 1922 work on social change. Ogburn's classic example of cultural lag was the period of adaptation when automobiles became faster and more efficient. It took some time for society to start building infrastructure that would tailor mainly to the new, more efficient, vehicles. This is because people are not comfortable with change and it takes them a little time to adapt. Hence, the term cultural lag."}, {"id": 57165694, "title": "Cultural manager", "abstract": "A cultural manager (Spanish: gestor/gestora cultural) is a person who is motivated by the improvement of art, works independently and professionally with knowledge of the subject, and develops work as a mediator between governmental and/or private cultural institutions with artists from different areas to articulate their work in the market with promotion and national and international dissemination.The cultural manager works by looking for specific measures of success, always intending to improve the level of culture, seeking active cohesion between society, the governmental sector, the private sector, and the artists. The work of culture management poses learning challenges in diverse areas such as the administration of economic resources, training, and artistic communication.Cultural management is a new profession. A person who is dedicated to this work is characterized by having abilities to visualize and interpret talent, knowing how to establish a dialogue with artists to link them to cultural projects to develop.Universities that offer degree programs in cultural management include the University of Antioquia, the Latin American Social Sciences Institute, the University of Chile, the University of C\u00f3rdoba, the National University of Colombia, the University of Barcelona, the Open University of Catalonia, and the University of Piura."}, {"id": 9057549, "title": "Cultural mediation", "abstract": "Cultural mediation describes a profession that studies the cultural differences between people, using the data in problem solving.\nIt is one of the fundamental mechanisms of distinctly human development according to cultural\u2013historical psychological theory introduced by Lev Vygotsky and developed in the work of his numerous followers worldwide."}, {"id": 5903, "title": "Cultural movement", "abstract": "A cultural movement is a change in the way a number of different disciplines approach their work. This embodies all art forms, the sciences, and philosophies. Historically, different nations or regions of the world have gone through their own independent sequence of movements in culture, but as world communications have accelerated this geographical distinction has become less distinct. When cultural movements go through revolutions from one to the next, genres tend to get attacked and mixed up, and often new genres are generated and old ones fade.: These changes are often reactions against the prior cultural form, which typically has grown stale and repetitive. An obsession emerges among the mainstream with the new movement, and the old one falls into neglect \u2013 sometimes it dies out entirely, but often it chugs along favored in a few disciplines and occasionally making reappearances (sometimes prefixed with \"neo-\").\nThere is continual argument over the precise definition of each of these periods, and one historian might group them differently, or choose different names or descriptions. As well, even though in many cases the popular change from one to the next can be swift and sudden, the beginning and end of movements are somewhat subjective, as the movements did not spring fresh into existence out of the blue and did not come to an abrupt end and lose total support, as would be suggested by a date range. Thus use of the term \"period\" is somewhat deceptive. \"Period\" also suggests a linearity of development, whereas it has not been uncommon for two or more distinctive cultural approaches to be active at the same time. Historians will be able to find distinctive traces of a cultural movement before its accepted beginning, and there will always be new creations in old forms. So it can be more useful to think in terms of broad \"movements\" that have rough beginnings and endings. Yet for historical perspective, some rough date ranges will be provided for each to indicate the \"height\" or accepted time span of the movement.\nThis current article covers Western, notably European and American cultural movements. They have, however, been paralleled by cultural movements in East Asia and elsewhere. In the late 20th and early 21st century in Thailand, for example, there has been a cultural shift away from Western social and political values more toward Japanese and Chinese. As well, That culture has reinvigorated monarchical concepts to accommodate state shifts away from Western ideology regarding democracy and monarchies."}, {"id": 14690776, "title": "Cultural nationalism", "abstract": "Cultural nationalism is a term used by scholars of nationalism to describe efforts among the intelligentsia to promote the formation of national communities through emphasis on a common culture. It is contrasted with \"political\" nationalism, which refers to specific movements for national self-determination through the establishment of a nation-state."}, {"id": 9020225, "title": "Cultural policy", "abstract": "Cultural policy is the government actions, laws and programs that regulate, protect, encourage and financially (or otherwise) support activities related to the arts and creative sectors, such as painting, sculpture, music, dance, literature, and filmmaking, among others and culture, which may involve activities related to language, heritage and diversity. The idea of cultural policy was developed at UNESCO in the 1960s.  Generally, this involves governments setting in place processes, legal classifications, regulations, legislation and institutions (e.g., galleries, museums, libraries, opera houses, etc.) which promote and facilitate cultural diversity and creative expressions in a range of art forms and creative activities. Cultural policies vary from one country to another, but generally they aim to improve the accessibility of arts and creative activities to citizens and promote the artistic, musical, ethnic, sociolinguistic, literary and other expressions of all people in a country. In some countries, especially since the 1970s, there is an emphasis on supporting the culture of Indigenous peoples and marginalized communities and ensuring that cultural industries (e.g., filmmaking or TV production) are representative of a country's diverse cultural heritage and ethnic and linguistic demographics.\nCultural policy can be done at a nation-state level, at a sub-national  level (e.g., U.S. states or Canadian provinces), at a regional level or at a municipal level (e.g., a city government creating a museum or arts centre). Examples of cultural policy-making at the nation-state level could include anything from funding music education or theatre programs at little to no cost, to hosting corporate-sponsored art exhibitions in a government museum, to establishing legal codes (such as the U.S. Internal Revenue Service's 501(c)(3) tax designation for not-for-profit enterprises) and creating political institutions (such as the various ministries of culture and departments of culture and the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts in the United States), arts granting councils, and cultural institutions such as galleries and museums. Similar significant organisations in the United Kingdom include the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), and Arts Council England.\nThroughout much of the twentieth century, many of the activities that compose cultural policy in the 2010s were governed under the title of \"arts policy\". Arts policy includes direct funding to artists, creators and art institutions and indirect funding to artists and arts institutions through the tax system (e.g., by making donations to arts charities tax-deductible). However, as Kevin Mulcahy has observed, \"cultural policy encompasses a much broader array of activities than were addressed under arts policy. Whereas arts policy was effectively limited to addressing aesthetic concerns (e.g., funding art galleries and opera houses), the significance of the transformation to cultural policy can be observed in its demonstrable emphases on cultural identity, valorization of indigineity [Indigenous people's culture] and analyses of historical dynamics (such as hegemony and colonialism).\" A general trend in Western industrialized nations is a shift, since the 1970s and 1980s, away from solely supporting a small number of relatively elite, professionalized art forms and institutions (e.g., Classical music, painting, sculpture, art galleries) to also supporting amateur and community cultural and creative activities (e.g., community theatre) and cultural  forms which were not considered part of the Western canon by previous generations (e.g., traditional music such as blues, World music, and so on)."}, {"id": 13144407, "title": "Cultural practice", "abstract": "Cultural practice is the manifestation of a culture or sub-culture, especially in regard to the traditional and customary practices of a particular ethnic or other cultural groups. \nThe term is gaining in importance due to the increased controversy over \"rights of cultural practice\", which are protected in many jurisdictions for indigenous peoples and sometimes ethnic minorities. It is also a major component of the field of cultural studies, and is a primary focus of international works such as the United Nations declaration of the rights of indigenous Peoples.Cultural practice is also a subject of discussion in questions of cultural survival. If an ethnic group retains its formal ethnic identity but loses its core cultural practices or the knowledge, resources, or ability to continue them, questions arise as to whether the culture is able to actually survive at all. International bodies such as the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues continually work on these issues, which are increasingly at the forefront of globalization questions."}, {"id": 33301100, "title": "Cultural radicalism", "abstract": "Cultural radicalism (Danish: Kulturradikalisme) was a movement in first Danish, but later also Nordic culture in general. It was particularly strong in the Interwar Period, but its philosophy has its origin in the 1870s and a great deal of modern social commentary still refer to it.\nAt the time of the height of the cultural radical movement it was referred to as modern. The words cultural radical and cultural radicalism was first used in an essay by Elias Bredsdorff in the broadsheet newspaper, Politiken, in 1956. Bredsdorff described cultural radicals as people who are socially responsible with an international outlook.\nCultural radicalism has usually been described as the heritage of Georg Brandes's Modern Breakthrough, the foundation and early editorials of the newspaper Politiken, the foundation of the political party Radikale Venstre, to the magazine Kritisk Revy by Poul Henningsen (PH).\nThe values most commonly associated with cultural radicalism are among others: criticism of religion, opposition to social norms, criticism of Victorian sexual morality, anti-militarism and an openness to new cultural input other than the classic western (e.g. jazz, modern architecture, art, literature and theater)."}, {"id": 9216811, "title": "Cultural retention", "abstract": "Cultural retention is the act of retaining the culture of a specific ethnic group of people, especially when there is reason to believe that the culture, through inaction, may be lost. Many African-American, European and Asian organizations have cultural retention programs in place."}, {"id": 7745490, "title": "Cultural universal", "abstract": "A cultural universal (also called an anthropological universal or human universal) is an element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all known human cultures worldwide. Taken together, the whole body of cultural universals is known as the human condition. Evolutionary psychologists hold that behaviors or traits that occur universally in all cultures are good candidates for evolutionary adaptations. Some anthropological and sociological theorists that take a cultural relativist perspective may deny the existence of cultural universals: the extent to which these universals are \"cultural\" in the narrow sense, or in fact biologically inherited behavior is an issue of \"nature versus nurture\". Prominent scholars on the topic include Emile Durkheim, George Murdock, Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss, and Donald Brown."}, {"id": 12593785, "title": "Culture change", "abstract": "Culture change is a term used in public policy making that emphasizes the influence of cultural capital on individual and community behavior. It has been sometimes called repositioning of culture, which means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society. It places stress on the social and cultural capital determinants of decision making and the manner in which these interact with other factors like the availability of information or the financial incentives facing individuals to drive behavior.\n\nThese cultural capital influences include the role of parenting, families and close associates; organizations such as schools and workplaces; communities and neighborhoods; and wider social influences such as the media. It is argued that this cultural capital manifests into specific values, attitudes or social norms which in turn guide the behavioral intentions that individuals adopt in regard to particular decisions or courses of action. These behavioral intentions interact with other factors driving behavior such as financial incentives, regulation and legislation, or levels of information, to drive actual behavior and ultimately feed back into underlying cultural capital.\nIn general, cultural stereotypes present great resistance to change and to their own redefinition. Culture, often appears fixed to the observer at any one point in time because cultural mutations occur incrementally. Cultural change is a long-term process. Policymakers need to make a great effort to improve some basics aspects of a society\u2019s cultural traits."}, {"id": 143364, "title": "Culture hero", "abstract": "A culture hero is a mythological hero specific to some group (cultural, ethnic, religious, etc.) who changes the world through invention or discovery. Although many culture heroes help with the creation of the world, most culture heroes are important because of their effect on the world after creation. A typical culture hero might be credited as the discoverer of fire, agriculture, songs, tradition, law, or religion, and is usually the most important legendary figure of a people, sometimes as the founder of its ruling dynasty."}, {"id": 1654632, "title": "Culture of life", "abstract": "A culture of life describes a way of life based on the belief that human life at all stages from conception through natural death is sacred.  It opposes the destruction of human life at any stage, including abortion, euthanasia, capital punishment (also known as the death penalty), studies and medicines involving embryonic stem cells, and contraception. It also promotes policies that \"lift up the human spirit with compassion and love.\" The term originated in moral theology, especially that of the Catholic Church, and was popularly championed by Pope John Paul II; it has been widely used by religious leaders in evangelical Christianity as well. The philosophy of such a culture is a consistent life ethic.In the United States, secular politicians such as George W. Bush and Kanye West have also used the phrase. In 2004, the Republican Party included a plank in their platform for \"Promoting a Culture of Life\"."}, {"id": 42730418, "title": "Depression and culture", "abstract": "Culture defines how people view the world and certain phenomena. Culture also appears to influence the way people experience depression. An individual's experience with depression can vary from country to country. For example, a qualitative study revealed that some countries did not recognize post-natal depression as an illness; rather, it was viewed as a state of unhappiness that did not require any health interventions."}, {"id": 32962014, "title": "Cultural deprivation", "abstract": "Cultural deprivation is a theory in sociology where a person has inferior norms, values, skills and knowledge. The theory states that people of lower social classes experience cultural deprivation compared with those above and that this disadvantages them, as a result of which the gap between classes increases. \nFor example, in education, lower-class students can suffer from cultural deprivation as their parents do not know the best school for their child, but middle-class parents \"know the system\", and so can send their children to the best school for them. This puts the lower-class students at a disadvantage, thus increasing inequality and the gap between middle-class and lower-class students. \nProponents of this theory argue that working class culture (regardless of race, gender, ethnicity or other factors) inherently differs from that of people in the middle class. This difference in culture means that while middle-class children can easily acquire cultural capital by observing their parents, working-class children cannot, and this deprivation is self-perpetuating.\nThe theory claims that the middle class gains cultural capital as the result of primary socialization, while the working class does not. Cultural capital helps the middle class succeed in society because their norms and values facilitate educational achievement and subsequent employability. Working-class members of society that lack cultural capital do not pass it on to their children, perpetuating the class system. Middle-class children's cultural capital allows them to communicate with their middle-class teachers more effectively than working-class children and this contributes to social inequality.Bourdieu claimed that state schools are set up to make everybody middle-class, although only the middle class and some high-achieving working class have the cultural capital to achieve this. From a Marxist perspective, cultural deprivation observes that the resources available to the working class are limited and that working-class children enter school less well-prepared than others."}, {"id": 60852572, "title": "Design culture", "abstract": "Design culture is an organizational culture focused on approaches that improve customer experiences through design. In every firm, the design culture is of significance as it allows the company to understand users and their needs. Integration of design culture in any organisation aims at creating experiences that add value to their respective users. In general, design culture entails undertaking design as the forefront of every operation in the organisation, from strategy formulation to execution. Every organisation is responsible for ensuring a healthy design culture through the application of numerous strategies. For instance, an organisation should provide a platform that allows every stakeholder to engage in design recesses. Consequently, employees across the board need to incorporate design thinking, which is associated with innovation and critical thinking.\nMoreover, design culture has many characteristics that create a conducive integration within the work environment. It offers freedom  for design experimentation through course corrections.  Therefore, individuals involving in design processes learn from their mistakes and eventually develop innovative solutions. Proactivity in design culture has a positive impact on the organisation, specifically on decision making and problem-solving. Design culture allows designers to engage in constructive tasks. In the process, designers can solve problems in an organisation and make crucial decisions towards innovations of the organisation. Design culture is concerned with the human side of the respective organisation. In the recent past, organisations adopted a data-driven mentality with the success of the organisation measured through the level of efficiency in the operations. In contrast, design culture is interested in the participation of human in determining the success of the organisation through the level of innovation facilitated by their involvement. In return, design culture concerned with improving an organisation's culture into a pleasant and change have driven culture."}, {"id": 12401182, "title": "Design theory", "abstract": "Design theory is a subfield of design research concerned with various theoretical approaches towards understanding and delineating design principles, design knowledge, and design practice."}, {"id": 62379378, "title": "Duocentric social network", "abstract": "A duocentric social network is a type of social network composed of the combined network members of a dyad. The network consists of mutual, overlapping ties between members of the dyad as well as non-mutual ties. While an explicit conceptualization of duocentric social networks appeared for the first time in an academic publication in 2008, the history of the analysis dates back to at least the 1950s and has spanned the fields of psychology, sociology, and health."}, {"id": 323912, "title": "Cultural ecology", "abstract": "Cultural ecology is the study of human adaptations to social and physical environments. Human adaptation refers to both biological and cultural processes that enable a population to survive and reproduce within a given or changing environment. This may be carried out diachronically (examining entities that existed in different epochs), or synchronically (examining a present system and its components). The central argument is that the natural environment, in small scale or subsistence societies dependent in part upon it, is a major contributor to social organization and other human institutions. In the academic realm, when combined with study of political economy, the study of economies as polities, it becomes political ecology, another academic subfield. It also helps interrogate historical events like the Easter Island Syndrome."}, {"id": 13775689, "title": "Cultural emphasis", "abstract": "Cultural emphasis is an important aspect of a culture which is often reflected though language and, more specifically, vocabulary. This means that the vocabulary people use in a culture indicates what is important to that group of people. If there are many words to describe a certain topic in a specific culture, then there is a good chance that that topic is considered important to that culture."}, {"id": 167703, "title": "Empowerment", "abstract": "Empowerment is the degree of autonomy and self-determination in people and in communities. This enables them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-determined way, acting on their own authority. It is the process of becoming stronger and more confident, especially in controlling one's life and claiming one's rights. Empowerment as action refers both to the process of self-empowerment and to professional support of people, which enables them to overcome their sense of powerlessness and lack of influence, and to recognize and use their resources.\nAs a term, empowerment originates from American community psychology and is associated with the social scientist Julian Rappaport (1981). However, the roots of empowerment theory extend further into history and are linked to Marxist sociological theory. These sociological ideas have continued to be developed and refined through Neo-Marxist Theory (also known as Critical Theory).In social work, empowerment forms a practical approach of resource-oriented intervention. In the field of citizenship education and democratic education, empowerment is seen as a tool to increase the responsibility of the citizen. Empowerment is a key concept in the discourse on promoting civic engagement. Empowerment as a concept, which is characterized by a move away from a deficit-oriented towards a more strength-oriented perception, can increasingly be found in management concepts, as well as in the areas of continuing education and self-help."}, {"id": 25907070, "title": "Ethnoscience", "abstract": "Ethnoscience has been defined as an attempt \"to reconstitute what serves as science for others, their practices of looking after themselves and their bodies, their botanical knowledge, but also their forms of classification, of making connections, etc.\" (Aug\u00e9, 1999: 118)."}, {"id": 8135793, "title": "Cultural framework", "abstract": "Cultural framework is a term used in social science to explain traditions, value systems, myths and symbols that are common in a given society. A given society may have multiple cultural frameworks (for example, United States society has different cultural frameworks for its white and African American populations). Usually cultural frameworks are mixed; as certain individuals or entire groups can be familiar with many cultural frameworks.\nThere is an important relation between cultural frameworks and ideologies, as most successful ideologies are closely connected to cultural frameworks of societies they spread in. Cultural framework should not, however, be confused with ideology, as those concepts are separate. For example, in Nazi Germany, Nazism was an ideology, while religious beliefs, patriotism and traditions dating back to Germanic and Frankish tribes were part of the German cultural framework."}, {"id": 36791036, "title": "Genre-busting", "abstract": "\"Genre-busting\" is a term used occasionally in reviews of written work, music and visual art and refers to the author or artist's ability to cross over two or more established styles. For instance, in writing, to combine the horror genre with a western or hard-boiled detective story with science fiction. In music, the term may refer to a song combining styles or defying classification.\nThe sound of the term calls to mind other uses of \"buster\" such as \"crime buster\", \"Gangbusters\", \"Ghostbusters\", \"Dambusters\", etc.\nCreative people don't always feel comfortable working within an established category. So genre-busting within the publishing world has become a type of literary fiction. The publisher Atticus Books has gone so far as to declare, on their website: \"We specialize in genre-busting literary fiction\u2014i.e., titles that fall between the cracks of genre fiction and compelling narratives that feature memorable main characters.\"The Video Movie Guide 1998 stated in its foreword, \"In past years, reviews in VMG have been broken down into genre categories. Now, by popular demand, we are listing all movies together in alphabetical order.... So many movies today mix genres... and there are no clear-cut categories anymore.\"Interviewed in Mustard comedy magazine in 2005, writer Alan Moore said: \"I mean, this is probably a bad thing to say to someone from a comedy magazine, but I don't like genre. I think that genre was made up by some spotty clerk in WH Smiths in the 1920s to make his worthless fucking job a little easier for him: \"it'd be easier if these books said what they were about on the spine. Going on to say: \"In the novel, I'm writing, Jerusalem, there's an awful lot of funny stuff, and there's supernatural stuff; there's stuff in the prologue that's as good as Stephen King and it's just a description of my brother walking through a block of flats. It's horror. And there's social history, there's political stuff. Why not mix it all together? Because that's what life is actually like. We laugh, we cry, you know, we buy the t-shirt.\""}, {"id": 1396834, "title": "High culture", "abstract": "In a society, high culture encompasses cultural objects of aesthetic value, which a society collectively esteem as being exemplary works of art, and the intellectual works of literature and music, history and philosophy, which a society consider representative of their culture.In popular usage, the term high culture identifies the culture either of the upper class (an aristocracy) or of a status class (the intelligentsia); high culture also identifies a society\u2019s common repository of broad-range knowledge and tradition (folk culture) that transcends the social-class system of the society. Sociologically, the term high culture is contrasted with the term low culture, which comprises the forms of popular culture characteristic of the less-educated social classes, such as the barbarians, the Philistines, and hoi polloi (the masses), though very often also enjoyed by the upper classes.\n\nMatthew Arnold introduced the term high culture in the book Culture and Anarchy (1869). The Preface defines culture as \"the disinterested endeavour after man\u2019s perfection\" pursued, obtained, and achieved by effort to \"know the best that has been said and thought in the world\". Such a literary definition of high culture also includes philosophy. Moreover, the philosophy of aesthetics proposed in high culture is a force for moral and political good. Critically, the term \"high culture\" is contrasted with the terms \"popular culture\" and \"mass culture\".In Notes Towards the Definition of Culture (1948), T. S. Eliot said that high culture and popular culture are necessary and complementary parts of the culture of a society. In The Uses of Literacy (1957), Richard Hoggart presents the sociologic experience of the working-class man and woman in acquiring the cultural literacy, at university, which facilitates social upward mobility. In the U.S., Harold Bloom and F. R. Leavis pursued the definition of high culture, by way of the Western canon of literature.\nMedia theorist Steven Johnson writes that, unlike popular culture, \"the classics\u2014and soon to be classics\u2014are in their own right descriptions and explanations of the cultural systems that produced them.\" He says that \"a crucial way in which mass culture differs from high art\" is that individual works of mass culture are less interesting than the broader cultural trends which produced them."}, {"id": 3039067, "title": "High-context and low-context cultures", "abstract": "In anthropology, high-context culture and low-context culture are ends of a continuum of how explicit the messages exchanged in a culture are and how important the context is in communication. The continuum pictures how people communicate with others through their range of communication abilities: utilizing gestures, relations, body language, verbal messages, or non-verbal messages. \"High-\" and \"low-\" context cultures typically refer to language groups, nationalities, or regional communities. However, the concept may also apply to corporations, professions, and other cultural groups, as well as to settings such as online and offline communication. High-context cultures often exhibit less-direct verbal and nonverbal communication, utilizing small communication gestures and reading more meaning into these less-direct messages. Low-context cultures do the opposite; direct verbal communication is needed to properly understand a message being communicated and relies heavily on explicit verbal skills. The model of high-context and low-context cultures offers a popular framework in intercultural-communication studies but has been criticized as lacking empirical validation."}, {"id": 1525258, "title": "Highbrow", "abstract": "Used colloquially as a noun or adjective, \"highbrow\" is synonymous with intellectual; as an adjective, it also means elite, and generally carries a connotation of high culture. The term, first recorded in 1875, draws its metonymy from the pseudoscience of phrenology, which teaches that people with large foreheads are more intelligent. The term is deeply connected to hierarchical racial theories from the 19th century. The German physician, physiologist, and anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752\u20131840) argued \"for human diversity alonglines of racial differences as evidenced by skulls shapes and measurements. [...] One metric of Blumenbachs classification was the line of theforehead, said to be higher among 'Caucasians' and lower among 'Mongolians' and 'Ethiopeans' and this is the origin of the still common usage of 'highbrow' and 'low brow' \"."}, {"id": 69491097, "title": "Historical culture", "abstract": "Historical culture is a relatively new concept that encompasses \"both material and immaterial culture as well as academic and popular articulations\" of history."}, {"id": 73512780, "title": "Historical Documents Centre", "abstract": "The Historical Documents Centre is located in the Al-Shindagha neighbourhood in Dubai, United Arab Emirates that opened in December 2016. The centre aims to record the Emirate's historical achievements in the areas of culture, economy, and urban development as well as Dubai's relationships with other UAE emirates, Gulf states, and nations throughout the world."}, {"id": 677443, "title": "Homo faber", "abstract": "Homo faber (Latin for 'Man the Maker') is the concept that human beings are able to control their fate and their environment as a result of the use of tools."}, {"id": 563299, "title": "Human behavior", "abstract": "Human behavior is the potential and expressed capacity (mentally, physically, and socially) of human individuals or groups to respond to internal and external stimuli throughout their life. Behavior is driven by genetic and environmental factors that affect an individual. Behavior is also driven, in part, by thoughts and feelings, which provide insight into individual psyche, revealing such things as attitudes and values. Human behavior is shaped by psychological traits, as personality types vary from person to person, producing different actions and behavior.\nSocial behavior accounts for actions directed at others. It is concerned with the considerable influence of social interaction and culture, as well as ethics, interpersonal relationships, politics, and conflict. Some behaviors are common while others are unusual. The acceptability of behavior depends upon social norms and is regulated by various means of social control. Social norms also condition behavior, whereby humans are pressured into following certain rules and displaying certain behaviors that are deemed acceptable or unacceptable depending on the given society or culture.\nCognitive behavior accounts for actions of obtaining and using knowledge. It is concerned with how information is learned and passed on, as well as creative application of knowledge and personal beliefs such as religion. Physiological behavior accounts for actions to maintain the body. It is concerned with basic bodily functions as well as measures taken to maintain health. Economic behavior accounts for actions regarding the development, organization, and use of materials as well as other forms of work. Ecological behavior accounts for actions involving the ecosystem. It is concerned with how humans interact with other organisms and how the environment shapes human behavior."}, {"id": 50951733, "title": "Human interactions with microbes", "abstract": "Human interactions with microbes include both practical and symbolic uses of microbes, and negative interactions in the form of human, domestic animal, and crop diseases.\nPractical use of microbes began in ancient times with fermentation in food processing; bread, beer and wine have been produced by yeasts from the dawn of civilisation, such as in ancient Egypt. More recently, microbes have been used in activities from biological warfare to the production of chemicals by fermentation, as industrial chemists discover how to manufacture a widening variety of organic chemicals including enzymes and bioactive molecules such as hormones and competitive inhibitors for use as medicines. Fermentation is used, too, to produce substitutes for fossil fuels in forms such as ethanol and methane; fuels may also be produced by algae. Anaerobic microorganisms are important in sewage treatment. In scientific research, yeasts and the bacterium Escherichia coli serve as model organisms especially in genetics and related fields.\nOn the symbolic side, an early poem about brewing is the Sumerian \"Hymn to Ninkasi\", from 1800 BC. In the Middle Ages, Giovanni Boccaccio's The Decameron and Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales: addressed people's fear of deadly contagion and the moral decline that could result. Novelists have exploited the apocalyptic possibilities of pandemics from Mary Shelley's 1826 The Last Man and Jack London's 1912 The Scarlet Plague onwards. Hilaire Belloc wrote a humorous poem to \"The Microbe\" in 1912. Dramatic plagues and mass infection have formed the story lines of many Hollywood films, starting with Nosferatu in 1922. In 1971, The Andromeda Strain told the tale of an extraterrestrial microbe threatening life on Earth. Microbiologists since Alexander Fleming have used coloured or fluorescing colonies of bacteria to create miniature artworks.\nMicroorganisms such as bacteria and viruses are important as pathogens, causing disease to humans, crop plants, and domestic animals."}, {"id": 13831, "title": "Human rights", "abstract": "Human rights are moral principles or norms for certain standards of human behaviour and are regularly protected in municipal and international law. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights \"to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being\" and which are \"inherent in all human beings\", regardless of their age, ethnic origin, location, language, religion, ethnicity, or any other status. They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. They are regarded as requiring empathy and the rule of law and imposing an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others, and it is generally considered that they should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances.The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international law and global and regional institutions. Actions by states and non-governmental organisations form a basis of public policy worldwide. The idea of human rights suggests that \"if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights\". The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable scepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day. The precise meaning of the term right is controversial and is the subject of continued philosophical debate; while there is consensus that human rights encompass a wide variety of rights such as the right to a fair trial, protection against enslavement, prohibition of genocide, free speech or a right to education, there is disagreement about which of these particular rights should be included within the general framework of human rights; some thinkers suggest that human rights should be a minimum requirement to avoid the worst-case abuses, while others see it as a higher standard. It has also been argued that human rights are \"God-given\", although this notion has been criticized.Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the events of the Holocaust, culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition that became prominent during the European Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui and which featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century, possibly as a reaction to slavery, torture, genocide and war crimes, as a realization of inherent human vulnerability and as being a precondition for the possibility of a just society. Human rights advocacy has continued into the early 21st century, centered around achieving greater economic and political freedom."}, {"id": 13598464, "title": "Hypermobility (travel)", "abstract": "Hypermobile travelers are \"highly mobile individuals\" who take \"frequent trips, often over great distances.\" They \"account for a large share of the overall kilometres travelled, especially by air.\" These people contribute significantly to the overall amount of airmiles flown within a given society.  Although concerns over hypermobility apply to several modes of transport, the environmental impact of aviation and especially its greenhouse gas emissions have brought particular focus on flying. Among the reasons for this focus is that these emissions, because they are made at high altitude, have a climate impact that is commonly estimated to be 2.7 higher, than the same emissions if made at ground-level.Although the amount of time people have spent in motion has remained constant since 1950, the shift from feet and bicycles to cars and planes has increased the speed of travel fivefold.  This results in the twin effects of wider, and shallower regions of social activity around each person (further exacerbated by electronic communication which can be seen as a form of virtual mobility), and a degradation of the social and physical environment brought about by the high speed traffic (as theorised by urban designer Donald Appleyard).\nThe changes are brought about locally due to the use of cars and motorways, and internationally by aeroplanes.  Some of the social threats of hypermobility include:\nmore polarisation between rich and poor\nreduced health and fitnessCompulsive travel has been proposed as a model of addiction in one paper.Widespread Internet use is seen as a contributory factor towards hypermobility due to the increased ease which it enables travel to be desired and organized. On the other hand, the proliferation of online communication tools as an alternative to in-person meetings has been linked to a 25% decrease in business travel by UK residents from 2000 to 2010.The term hypermobility arose around 1980 concerning the flow of capital, and since the early 1990s has also referred to excessive travel. [See: Hepworth and Ducatel (1992); Whitelegg (1993); Lowe (1994); van der Stoep (1995); Shields (1996); Cox (1997); Adams (1999); Khisty and Zeitler (2001); G\u00f6ssling et al. (2009); Mander & Randles (2009); and (Higham 2014).] The term is widely credited as having been coined by Adams (1999), but apart from the title of the work it says nothing explicit about it except that \"[t]he term hypermobility is used in this essay to suggest that it may be possible to have too much of a good thing.\""}, {"id": 477975, "title": "Cultural identity", "abstract": "Cultural identity is a part of a person's identity, or their self-conception and self-perception, and is related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class, generation, locality or any kind of social group that has its own distinct culture. In this way, cultural identity is both characteristic of the individual but also of the culturally identical group of members sharing the same cultural identity or upbringing. Cultural identity is a fluid process that is changed by different social, cultural, and historical experiences. Some people undergo more cultural identity changes as opposed to others, those who change less often have a clear cultural identity. This means that they have a dynamic yet stable integration of their culture.There are three pieces that make up a person's cultural identity: cultural knowledge, category label, and social connections. Cultural knowledge refers to a person's connection to their identity through understanding their culture's core characteristics. Category label refers to a person's connection to their identity through indirect membership of said culture. Social connections refers to a person's connection to their identity through their social relationships. Cultural identity is developed through a series of steps. First, a person comes to understand a culture through being immersed in those values, beliefs, and practices. Second, the person then identifies as a member of that culture dependent on their rank within that community. Third, they develop relationships such as immediate family, close friends, coworkers, and neighbors.Culture is a term that is highly complex and often contested with academics recording about 160 variations in meaning. Underpinning the notion of culture is that it is dynamic and changes over time and in different contexts resulting in many people today identifying with one or more cultures and many different ways.\nIt is a defining feature of a person's identity, contributing to how they see themselves and the groups with which they identify. A person's understanding of their own and other's identities develops from birth and is shaped by the values and attitudes prevalent at home and in the surrounding community."}, {"id": 6267, "title": "Cultural imperialism", "abstract": "Cultural imperialism (also cultural colonialism) comprises the cultural dimensions of imperialism. The word \"imperialism\" describes practices in which a country engages culture (language, tradition, and ritual, politics, economics) to create and maintain unequal social and economic relationships among social groups. Cultural imperialism often uses wealth, media power and violence to implement the system of cultural hegemony that legitimizes imperialism.\nCultural imperialism may take various forms, such as an attitude, a formal policy, or military action\u2014insofar as each of these reinforces the empire's cultural hegemony. Research on the topic occurs in scholarly disciplines, and is especially prevalent in communication and media studies, education, foreign policy, history, international relations, linguistics, literature, post-colonialism, science, sociology, social theory, environmentalism, and sports.Cultural imperialism may be distinguished from the natural process of cultural diffusion. The spread of culture around the world is referred to as cultural globalization."}, {"id": 33596709, "title": "Individualistic culture", "abstract": "Individualistic cultures are characterized by individualism, which is the prioritization or emphasis of the individual over the entire group. In individualistic cultures people are motivated by their own preference and viewpoints. Individualistic cultures focus on abstract thinking, privacy, self-dependence, uniqueness, and personal goals. The term individualistic culture was first used in the 1980s by Dutch social psychologist Geert Hofstede to describe countries and cultures that are not collectivist, Hofstede created the term individualistic culture when he created a measurement for the five dimensions of cultural values.People in individualistic cultures see each other as loosely connected and have a diverse population of different races, ethnicities, languages, and cultures. Individuals gain the most happiness from three key factors: personal satisfaction, internal happiness, and family satisfaction. People living in individualistic cultures use direct communication, low-power distance communication, self-expression of emotions, and a variety of conflict resolution strategies.\nThere has been a global increase in individualism in the recent years and individualistic culture is on the rise in many countries around the world due to wealth and urbanization. Highly individualistic countries are often Western countries, like Australia, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States."}, {"id": 861492, "title": "Intercultural communication", "abstract": "Intercultural communication is a discipline that studies communication across different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication. It describes the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. In this sense, it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate, and perceive the world around them. Intercultural communication focuses on the recognition and respect of those with cultural differences. The goal is mutual adaptation between two or more distinct cultures which leads to biculturalism/multiculturalism rather than complete assimilation. It promotes the development of cultural sensitivity and allows for empathic understanding across different cultures."}, {"id": 782895, "title": "Interculturalism", "abstract": "Interculturalism is a political movement that supports cross-cultural dialogue and challenging self-segregation tendencies within cultures. Interculturalism involves moving beyond mere passive acceptance of multiple cultures existing in a society and instead promotes dialogue and interaction between cultures. Interculturalism is often used to describe the set of relations between indigenous and western ideals, grounded in values of mutual respect."}, {"id": 32017750, "title": "Languaculture", "abstract": "Languaculture means that a language includes elements such as grammar and vocabulary, past knowledge, local and cultural information, habits, and behaviors. The American anthropologist Michael Agar created the term."}, {"id": 12870646, "title": "Legal culture", "abstract": "Legal cultures are described as being temporary outcomes of interactions and occur pursuant to a challenge and response paradigm. Analyses of core legal paradigms shape the characteristics of individual and distinctive legal cultures.\n\"Comparative legal cultures are examined by a field of scholarship, which is situated at the line bordering comparative law and historical jurisprudence.\"Lawrence M. Friedman's definition of legal culture is that it is \"the network of values and attitudes relating to law, which determines when and why and where people turn to  law or government, or turn away.\"Legal cultures can be examined by reference to fundamentally different legal systems. However, such cultures can also be differentiated between systems with a shared history and basis which are now otherwise influenced by factors that encourage cultural change. Students learn about legal culture in order to better understand how the law works in society. This can be seen as the study of Law and Society. These studies are available at schools such as Drake University in Des Moines, Iowa."}, {"id": 190041, "title": "Lifestyle (social sciences)", "abstract": "Lifestyle is the interests, opinions, behaviours, and behavioural orientations of an individual, group, or culture. The term was introduced by Austrian psychologist Alfred Adler in his 1929 book, The Case of Miss R., with the meaning of \"a person's basic character as established early in childhood\". The broader sense of lifestyle as a \"way or style of living\" has been documented since 1961. Lifestyle is a combination of determining intangible or tangible factors. Tangible factors relate specifically to demographic variables, i.e. an individual's demographic profile, whereas intangible factors concern the psychological aspects of an individual such as personal values, preferences, and outlooks.\nA rural environment has different lifestyles compared to an urban metropolis. Location is important even within an urban scope. The nature of the neighborhood in which a person resides affects the set of lifestyles available to that person due to differences between various neighborhoods' degrees of affluence and proximity to natural and cultural environments. For example, in areas near the sea, a surf culture or lifestyle can often be present."}, {"id": 1123773, "title": "Literary fiction", "abstract": "Literary fiction, mainstream fiction, non-genre fiction, serious fiction, high literature, artistic literature, and sometimes just literature are labels that, in the book trade, refer to market novels that do not fit neatly into an established genre (see genre fiction); or, otherwise, refer to novels that are character-driven rather than plot-driven, examine the human condition, use language in an experimental or poetic fashion, or are simply considered serious art.:\u200a115, 131\u200aLiterary fiction is often used as a synonym for literature, in the exclusive sense of writings specifically considered to have considerable artistic merit. While literary fiction is commonly regarded as artistically superior to genre fiction, the two are not mutually exclusive, and major literary figures have employed the genres of science fiction, crime fiction, romance, etc., to create works of literature. Furthermore, the study of genre fiction has developed within academia in recent decades.:\u200a115, 131\u200aSlipstream genre is sometimes located in between the genre and non-genre fictions."}, {"id": 2490371, "title": "Low culture", "abstract": "In society, the term low culture identifies the forms of popular culture that have mass appeal, often broadly appealing to the middle or lower cultures of any given society. This is in contrast to the forms of high culture that appeal to a smaller, often upper-class proportion of the populace. Culture theory proposes that both high culture and low culture are subcultures within a society, because the culture industry mass-produces each type of popular culture for every socio-economic class. Despite being viewed as characteristic of less-educated social classes, low culture is still often enjoyed by upper classes as well. This makes the content that falls under this categorization the most broadly consumed kind of media in a culture overall. Various forms of low culture can be found across a variety of cultures, with the physical objects composing these mediums often being constructed from less expensive, perishable materials. The phrase low culture has come to be viewed by some as a derogatory idea in and of itself, existing to put down elements of pop or tribal culture that others may deem to be \"inferior.\""}, {"id": 8950930, "title": "Cultural memory", "abstract": "Cultural memory is a concept that draws heavily on European social anthropology, especially German and French. It is not well established in the English-speaking world. It posits that memory is not just an individual, private experience but also part of the collective domain, which both shapes the future and our understanding of the past. It has become a topic in both historiography (Pierre Nora, Richard Terdiman) and cultural studies (e.g., Susan Stewart). These emphasize cultural memory\u2019s process (historiography) and its implications and objects (cultural studies), respectively. \nTwo schools of thought have emerged: one articulates that the present shapes our understanding of the past, while the other assumes that the past has an influence on our present behavior. It has, however, been pointed out (most notably by Guy Beiner) that these two approaches are not necessarily mutually exclusive."}, {"id": 1525262, "title": "Middlebrow", "abstract": "The term middlebrow describes middlebrow art, which is easily accessible art, usually popular literature, and middlebrow people who use the arts to acquire the social capital of \"culture and class\" and thus a good reputation. First used in the British satire magazine Punch in 1925, the term middlebrow is the intellectual, intermediary brow between the highbrow and the lowbrow forms of culture; the terms highbrow and lowbrow are borrowed from the pseudoscience of phrenology."}, {"id": 18841893, "title": "Nudity", "abstract": "Nudity is the state of being in which a human is without clothing. While estimates vary, for the first 90,000 years of pre-history, anatomically modern humans were naked, having lost their body hair and living in hospitable climates. As humans became behaviorally modern, body adornments such as jewelry, tattoos, body paint and scarification became part of non-verbal communications, indicating a person's social and individual characteristics. Indigenous peoples in warm climates used clothing for decorative, symbolic or ceremonial purposes but were often nude, having neither the need to protect the body from the elements nor any conception of nakedness being shameful. In many societies, both ancient and contemporary, children might be naked until the beginning of puberty. Women may not cover their breasts, being associated with nursing babies more than with sexuality.\nIn the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean, from Mesopotamia to the Roman Empire, proper attire was required to maintain social standing. The lower classes might possess a single piece of cloth that was wrapped or tied to cover the lower body; the lowest classes including slaves might be naked. However, through much of Western history until the late modern period, people of any status were also unclothed by necessity or convenience when engaged in labor and athletics; or when bathing or swimming. Such functional nudity occurred in groups that were usually but not always segregated by sex. Although improper dress might be socially embarrassing, the association of nudity with sin regarding sexuality began with Judeo-Christian societies, spreading through Europe in the post-classical period. Traditional clothing in temperate regions worldwide also reflect concerns for maintaining social status and order, as well as by necessity due to the colder climate. However, societies such as Japan and Finland maintain traditions of communal nudity based upon the use of baths and saunas that provided alternatives to sexualization. \nThe spread of Western concepts of modest dress is part of colonialism, and continues today with globalization. Contemporary social norms regarding nudity reflect cultural ambiguity towards the body and sexuality, and differing conceptions of what constitutes public versus private spaces. Norms relating to nudity are different for men than they are for women. Individuals may intentionally violate norms relating to nudity; those without power may use nudity as a form of protest, and those with power may impose nakedness on others as a form of punishment.\nWhile the majority of contemporary societies require clothing in public, some recognize non-sexual nudity as being appropriate for some recreational, social or celebratory activities, and appreciate nudity in the arts as representing positive values. A minority within many countries assert the benefits of social nudity, while other groups continue to disapprove of nudity not only in public but also in private based upon religious beliefs. Norms are codified to varying degrees by laws defining proper dress and indecent exposure."}, {"id": 22810417, "title": "Official culture", "abstract": "Official culture is the culture that receives social legitimation or institutional support in a given society. Official culture is usually identified with bourgeoisie culture. For revolutionary Guy Debord, official culture is a \"rigged game\", where conservative powers forbid subversive ideas to have direct access to the public discourse, and where such ideas are integrated only after being trivialized, and sterilized.\nA widespread observation is that a great talent has a free spirit. For instance Pushkin, regarded by some scholars as Russia's first great writer, infuriated Russian officialdom and particularly the Tsar, since  instead of being a good servant of the state in the rank and file of the administration and extolling conventional virtues in his vocational writings (if write he must), composed extremely arrogant and extremely independent and extremely wicked verse in which a dangerous freedom of thought was evident in the novelty of his versification, in the audacity of his sensual fancy, and in his propensity for making fun of major and minor tyrants."}, {"id": 70094520, "title": "Paulistania (region)", "abstract": "Paulistania (Portuguese: Paulist\u00e2nia; lit, \"land of the Paulists\") was a proposal by Joaquim Ribeiro, in his work Folklore dos Bandeirantes, from 1946, to describe what he would call \"the living space of the old paulists\". It was made up of the states of S\u00e3o Paulo, parts of Paran\u00e1, parts of the Tri\u00e2ngulo Mineiro, the south of Minas Gerais and Goi\u00e1s, the states of Mato Grosso do Sul and parts of Mato Grosso, a field of influence and exploration by the bandeirantes."}, {"id": 63690634, "title": "Pet culture", "abstract": "Pet culture refers to the culture revolving around the interaction of humans and pets."}, {"id": 34454406, "title": "Philosophy of culture", "abstract": "Philosophy of culture is a branch of philosophy that examines the essence and meaning of culture."}, {"id": 70565448, "title": "Prehistory of nakedness and clothing", "abstract": "Of the many characteristics of humans, nakedness and clothing are highly related. The loss of body hair distinguishes humans from other primates. The current evidence indicates that anatomically modern humans were naked in prehistory for at least 90,000 years before the invention of clothing. Today, isolated Indigenous peoples in tropical climates continue to be without clothing in many everyday activities."}, {"id": 1713306, "title": "Primitive Culture (book)", "abstract": "Primitive Culture is an 1871 book by Edward Burnett Tylor. In his book, Tylor debates the relationship between \"primitive\" societies, and \"civilized\" societies, a key theme in 19th century anthropological literature."}, {"id": 25414, "title": "Religion", "abstract": "Religion is a range of social-cultural systems, including designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relate humanity to supernatural, transcendental, and spiritual elements\u2014although there is no scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion. Different religions may or may not contain various elements ranging from the divine, sacredness, faith, and a supernatural being or beings.Religious practices may include rituals, sermons, commemoration or veneration (of deities or saints), sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances, initiations, matrimonial and funerary services, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, or public service. Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred texts, symbols, and holy places, that primarily aim to give life meaning. Religions may contain symbolic tales that may attempt to explain the origin of life, the universe, and other phenomena; some followers believe these to be true stories; others regard them as myth. Traditionally, both faith and reason have been considered sources of religious beliefs.There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, though nearly all of them have regionally based, relatively small followings. Four religions\u2014Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism\u2014account for over 77% of the world's population, and 92% of the world either follows one of those four religions or identifies as nonreligious, meaning that the remaining 9,000+ faiths account for only 8% of the population combined. The religiously unaffiliated demographic includes those who do not identify with any particular religion, atheists, and agnostics, although many in the demographic still have various religious beliefs.Many world religions are also organized religions, most definitively including the Abrahamic religions Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, while others are arguably less so, in particular folk religions, indigenous religions, and some Eastern religions. A portion of the world's population are members of new religious movements. Scholars have indicated that global religiosity may be increasing due to religious countries having generally higher birth rates.The study of religion comprises a wide variety of academic disciplines, including theology, philosophy of religion, comparative religion, and social scientific studies. Theories of religion offer various explanations for its origins and workings, including the ontological foundations of religious being and belief."}, {"id": 41748961, "title": "Resistance through culture", "abstract": "Resistance through culture (also called cultural resistance, resistance through the aesthetic, or intellectual resistance) is a form of nonconformism. It is not open dissent, but a discreet stance.A revolt \"so well hidden that it seems nonexistent\", it is a quest \"to extend the boundaries of official tolerance, either by adopting a line considered by authorities to be ideologically suspect, or by highlighting certain contemporary social problems, or both.\" Criticized for being \"utopian, and thus inadequate to the realities of that age\", during the time of the Communist regimes in Europe, it was also a surviving formula, a modality for writers and artists to cheat Communist censorship without going the whole way into open political opposition."}, {"id": 35291011, "title": "Semiotics of culture", "abstract": "Semiotics of culture is a research field within semiotics that attempts to define culture from semiotic perspective and as a type of human symbolic activity, creation of signs and a way of giving meaning to everything around. Therefore, here culture is understood as a system of symbols or meaningful signs. Because the main sign system is the linguistic system, the field is usually referred to as semiotics of culture and language. Under this field of study symbols are analyzed and categorized in certain class within the hierarchal system. With postmodernity, metanarratives are no longer as pervasive and thus categorizing these symbols in this postmodern age is more difficult and rather critical.\nThe research field was of particular interest for the Tartu\u2013Moscow Semiotic School (USSR). Linguists and semioticians by the Tartu School viewed culture as a hierarchical semiotic system consisting of a set of functions correlated to it, and linguistic codes that are used by social groups to maintain coherence. These codes are viewed as superstructures based on natural language, and here the ability of humans to symbolize is central.\nThe study received a research ground also in Japan where the idea that culture and nature should not be contrasted and contradicted but rather harmonized was developed."}, {"id": 37886950, "title": "Culture and social cognition", "abstract": "Culture and social cognition is the relationship between human culture and human cognitive capabilities.  Cultural cognitive evolution proposes that humans\u2019 unique cognitive capacities are not solely due to biological inheritance, but are in fact due in large part to cultural transmission and evolution (Tomasello, 1999). Modern humans and great apes are separated evolutionarily by about six million years. Proponents of cultural evolution argue that this would not have been enough time for humans to develop the advanced cognitive capabilities required to create tools, language, and build societies through biological evolution. Biological evolution could not have individually produced each of these cognitive capabilities within that period of time. Instead, humans must have evolved the capacity to learn through cultural transmission (Tomasello, 1999). This provides a more plausible explanation that would fit within the given time frame. Instead of having to biologically account for each cognitive mechanism that distinguishes modern humans from previous relatives, one would only have to account for one significant biological adaptation for cultural learning. According to this view, the ability to learn through cultural transmission is what distinguishes humans from other primates (Tomasello, 1999). Cultural learning allows humans to build on existing knowledge and make collective advancements, also known as the \u201cratchet effect\u201d. The ratchet effect simply refers to the way in which humans continuously add on to existing knowledge through modifications and improvements.  This unique ability distinguishes humans from related primates, who do not seem to build collaborative knowledge over time. Instead, primates seem to build individual knowledge, in which the expertise of one animal is not built on by others, and does not progress across time."}, {"id": 26642577, "title": "Sophistication", "abstract": "Sophistication has come to mean a few things, but its original uses were a pejorative, derived from sophist, and included the idea of admixture or adulteration. Today, as researched by Faye Hammill, it is common as a measure of refinement\u2014displaying good taste, wisdom and subtlety rather than crudeness, stupidity and vulgarity. In the perception of social class, sophistication can be linked with concepts such as status, privilege and superiority."}, {"id": 25778403, "title": "Sport", "abstract": "Sport pertains to any form of physical activity or game, often competitive and organized, that aims to use, maintain, or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants and, in some cases, entertainment to spectators. Sports can, through casual or organized participation, improve participants' physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously or consecutively, with one winner; in others, the contest (a match) is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a \"tie\" or \"draw\", in which there is no single winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs.\nSport is generally recognised as system of activities based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity, with major competitions such as the Olympic Games admitting only sports meeting this definition. Other organisations, such as the Council of Europe, preclude activities without a physical element from classification as sports. However, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition as mind sports. The International Olympic Committee (through ARISF) recognises both chess and bridge as bona fide sports, and SportAccord, the international sports federation association, recognises five non-physical sports: bridge, chess, draughts (checkers), Go and xiangqi, and limits the number of mind games which can be admitted as sports.Sport is usually governed by a set of rules or customs, which serve to ensure fair competition, and allow consistent adjudication of the winner. Winning can be determined by physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring elements of the sporting performance, including objective or subjective measures such as technical performance or artistic impression.\nRecords of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced or reported in sport news. Sport is also a major source of entertainment for non-participants, with spectator sport drawing large crowds to sport venues, and reaching wider audiences through broadcasting. Sport betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in some cases is central to the sport.\nAccording to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013. The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."}, {"id": 73999006, "title": "Successor culture", "abstract": "A successor culture is a culture that succeeds another previous culture or civilization. It refers to a culture or civilization that arises after the decline or collapse of an earlier society and often builds upon or inherits aspects of the preceding culture. The successor culture may incorporate elements of the previous culture while also introducing new ideas, practices, or institutions. The concept of a successor culture is commonly employed in archaeology and anthropology to study cultural evolution and societal changes over time."}, {"id": 32839108, "title": "Superficiality", "abstract": "What social psychologists call \"the principle of superficiality versus depth\" has pervaded Western culture since at least the time of Plato."}, {"id": 42534554, "title": "Theology of culture", "abstract": "Theology of culture is a branch of theology that studies culture and cultural phenomenas. It lies close to philosophy of culture, but has focus more on existentialism and spiritualism.\nPaul Tillich was the first theologian who wrote about the theology of culture. He discussed about making difference between the sacred and the secular. Nowadays, the theology of culture also deals with cultural differences between religions and thus shares many features with the theology of religions."}, {"id": 75700571, "title": "Tlangpi", "abstract": "Tlangpi also known as Klangpi is a mountainous village of Chin people in Thantlang Township,  Chin State, Myanmar. It is located in the west of Chin State, 13 km away from the south of Camp Victoria, Headquarters of Chin National Front in India-Myanmar border. In the 2014 Myanmar Census, the population in Tlangpi was 1,648 (females: 823 and males: 825)."}, {"id": 38566488, "title": "Trademark look", "abstract": "Trademark look or signature look is the characteristic clothes or other distinguishing signs used by a certain character or performer, making the person more recognizable by the audience. Politicians may also have trademark signs, such as the suit of American President Barack Obama or the Merkel-Raute hand gesture of German Chancellor Angela Merkel. It can also refer to the clothes of a certain subculture.Some trademark signatures may have started as in-jokes, but have then come to have been recognized by a wider audience. \nPopular personalities like Steve Jobs and Mark Zuckerberg are known for their signature look. The reason shared is to save the sheer amount of time spent on deciding what to wear daily. As fashion trends gets influenced by renowned people like them, more and more people have started to find their personal signature style. Sometimes, when a celebrity stops using a trademark look, people might even find it hard to recognize them.The term \"trademark look\" (or anything similar) is not used in trademark law, and a trademark look is not necessarily trademark-protected in itself."}, {"id": 30049818, "title": "Welfare culture", "abstract": "Welfare culture refers to the behavioral consequences of providing poverty relief (i.e., welfare) to low-income individuals. Welfare is considered a type of social protection, which may come in the form of remittances, such as 'welfare checks', or subsidized services, such as free/reduced healthcare, affordable housing, and more.  Pierson (2006) has acknowledged that, like poverty, welfare creates behavioral ramifications, and that studies differ regarding whether welfare empowers individuals or breeds dependence on government aid. Pierson also acknowledges that the evidence of the behavioral effects of welfare varies across countries (such as Norway, France, Denmark, and Germany), because different countries implement different systems of welfare."}, {"id": 4016688, "title": "Word wall", "abstract": "A word wall is a literacy tool composed of an organized (typically in alphabetical order) collection of words which are displayed in large visible letters on a wall, bulletin board, or other display surface in a classroom. The word wall is designed to be an interactive tool for students or others to use, and contains an array of words that can be used during writing and/or reading.\nAlthough typically associated with reading/writing instruction, word walls are becoming commonplace in classrooms for all subject areas due to their ability to foster phonemic awareness, display connections throughout word \"families\" (such as \"-ick\" words), serve as a support/reference for students, as well as create meaningful/understandable/memorable experiences with new vocabulary words, it can help you create work better for school, work and personal.\nDue to their flexible nature and ability to \"grow\" alongside the students, word walls can be used in classrooms ranging from pre-school through high school.\nWord walls are considered to be interactive and collaborative tools, as they are a student-created and student-centered artifact. Many variations of the word wall are currently in existence, including those featuring illustrations of the words and color-coded lists."}], "id": 694861}, {"title": "Humanities", "pages": [{"id": 53132, "title": "Humanities", "abstract": "Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture, including the fundamental questions asked by humans. During the Renaissance, the term 'humanities' referred to the study of classical literature and language, as opposed to the study of religion or 'divinity.' The study of the humanities was a key part of the secular curriculum in universities at the time. Today, the humanities are more frequently defined as any fields of study outside of natural sciences, social sciences, formal sciences (like mathematics), and applied sciences (or professional training). They use methods that are primarily critical, speculative, or interpretative and have a significant historical element\u2014as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of science.The humanities include the studies of philosophy, religion, linguistics, foreign languages, history, language arts (literature, writing, oratory, rhetoric, poetry, etc.), performing arts (theater, music, dance, etc.), and visual arts (painting, sculpture, photography, filmmaking, etc.).Some definitions of the humanities encompass law and religion due to their shared characteristics, such as the study of language and culture.However, these definitions are not universally accepted, as law and religion are often considered professional subjects rather than humanities subjects. Professional subjects, like some social sciences, are sometimes classified as being part of both the liberal arts and professional development education, whereas humanities subjects are generally confined to the traditional liberal arts education. Although sociology, anthropology, archaeology, linguistics and psychology share some similarities with the humanities, these are often considered social sciences. Similarly, disciplines such as finance, business administration, political science, economics, and global studies have closer ties to the social sciences rather than the humanities.\nScholars in the humanities are called humanities scholars or sometimes humanists. The term humanist also describes the philosophical position of humanism, which antihumanist scholars in the humanities reject. Renaissance scholars and artists are also known as humanists. Some secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting of literature, history, foreign language, and art.\nHuman disciplines like history and language mainly use the comparative method and comparative research. Other methods used in the humanities include hermeneutics, source criticism, esthetic interpretation, and speculative reason."}, {"id": 40138324, "title": "Humanities Indicators", "abstract": "The Humanities Indicators is a project of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences that provides statistical tools for answering questions about humanities education in the United States. Researchers use the Indicators analyze primary and secondary humanities education, undergraduate and graduate education in the humanities, the humanities workforce, levels and sources of program funding, public understanding and impact of the humanities, and other areas of concern.Data from the Humanities Indicators has been used in discussions about the US decline in the number of humanities college majors. To address questions about the workforce outcomes of humanities graduates, the Indicators issued reports on the State of the Humanities 2021: Workforce & Beyond.\nThe Humanities Indicators report examined not only graduates' employment and earnings relative to other fields, but also their satisfaction with their work after graduation and their lives more generally. The data reveal that despite disparities in median earnings, humanities majors are quite similar to graduates from other fields with respect to their perceived well-being. The report was widely cited in the media as an important intervention in the discussion.In 2019, the Humanities Indicators also administered the first national survey on public attitudes about the humanities, finding wide engagement with the field (though often under different names) and substantial support for the field."}, {"id": 35036752, "title": "Outline of the humanities", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the humanities:\nHumanities \u2013 academic disciplines that study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytical, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences."}, {"id": 2130, "title": "Aesthetics", "abstract": "Aesthetics (also spelled esthetics) is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty and the nature of taste; and functions as the philosophy of art. Aesthetics examines the philosophy of aesthetic value, which is determined by critical judgements of artistic taste; thus, the function of aesthetics is the \"critical reflection on art, culture and nature\".Aesthetics studies natural and artificial sources of experiences and how people form a judgement about those sources of experience. It considers what happens in our minds when we engage with objects or environments such as viewing visual art, listening to music, reading poetry, experiencing a play, watching a fashion show, movie, sports or exploring various aspects of nature. \nThe philosophy of art specifically studies how artists imagine, create, and perform works of art, as well as how people use, enjoy, and criticize art. Aesthetics considers why people like some works of art and not others, as well as how art can affect our moods and our beliefs. Both aesthetics and the philosophy of art try to find answers to what exactly is art and what makes good art."}, {"id": 489094, "title": "Area studies", "abstract": "Area studies (also known as regional studies) are interdisciplinary fields of research and scholarship pertaining to particular geographical, national/federal, or cultural regions.  The term exists primarily as a general description for what are, in the practice of scholarship, many heterogeneous fields of research, encompassing both the social sciences and the humanities. Typical area study programs involve international relations, strategic studies, history, political science, political economy, cultural studies, languages, geography, literature, and other related disciplines. In contrast to cultural studies, area studies often include diaspora and emigration from the area."}, {"id": 21207536, "title": "Art history", "abstract": "Art history is the study of aesthetic objects and visual expression in historical and stylistic context. Traditionally, the discipline of art history emphasized painting, drawing, sculpture, architecture, ceramics and decorative arts; yet today, art history examines broader aspects of visual culture, including the various visual and conceptual outcomes related to an ever-evolving definition of art. Art history encompasses the study of objects created by different cultures around the world and throughout history that convey meaning, importance or serve usefulness primarily through visual representations.\nAs a discipline, art history is distinguished from art criticism, which is concerned with establishing a relative artistic value for individual works with respect to others of comparable style or sanctioning an entire style or movement; and art theory or \"philosophy of art\", which is concerned with the fundamental nature of art. One branch of this area of study is aesthetics, which includes investigating the enigma of the sublime and determining the essence of beauty. Technically, art history is not these things, because the art historian uses historical method to answer the questions: How did the artist come to create the work?, Who were the patrons?, Who were their teachers?, Who was the audience?, Who were their disciples?, What historical forces shaped the artist's oeuvre and how did he or she and the creation, in turn, affect the course of artistic, political and social events? It is, however, questionable whether many questions of this kind can be answered satisfactorily without also considering basic questions about the nature of art. The current disciplinary gap between art history and the philosophy of art (aesthetics) often hinders this inquiry."}, {"id": 29560452, "title": "The arts", "abstract": "The arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression, storytelling, and cultural participation. They encompass multiple diverse and plural modes of thinking, doing, and being, in an extremely broad range of media. Both dynamic and a characteristically constant feature of human life, they have developed into innovative, stylized, and sometimes intricate forms. This is often achieved through sustained and deliberate study, training, and/or theorizing within a particular tradition, across generations, and even between civilizations. The arts are a vehicle through which human beings cultivate distinct social, cultural, and individual identities while transmitting values, impressions, judgements, ideas, visions, spiritual meanings, patterns of life, and experiences across time and space.\nProminent examples of the arts include:\n\nvisual arts (including architecture, ceramics, drawing, filmmaking, painting, photography, and sculpting)\nliterary arts (including fiction, drama, poetry, and prose)\nperforming arts (including dance, music, and theatre)They can employ skill and imagination to produce objects and performances, convey insights and experiences, and construct new environments and spaces.\nThe arts can refer to common, popular, or everyday practices as well as more sophisticated, systematic, or institutionalized ones. They can be discrete and self-contained or combine and interweave with other art forms, such as the combination of artwork with the written word in comics. They can also develop or contribute to some particular aspect of a more complex art form, as in cinematography. By definition, the arts themselves are open to being continually redefined. The practice of modern art, for example, is a testament to the shifting boundaries, improvisation and experimentation, reflexive nature, and self-criticism or questioning that art and its conditions of production, reception, and possibility can undergo.\nAs both a means of developing capacities of attention and sensitivity and as ends in themselves, the arts can simultaneously be a form of response to the world and a way that our responses and what we deem worthwhile goals or pursuits are transformed. From prehistoric cave paintings to ancient and contemporary forms of ritual to modern-day films, art has served to register, embody, and preserve our ever-shifting relationships to each other and to the world."}, {"id": 71000521, "title": "Belarusian studies", "abstract": "Belarusian studies (Belarusian: \u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u045e\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430) is a field of research dedicated to Belarusian language, literature and culture."}, {"id": 22101040, "title": "Caucasology", "abstract": "Caucasology, or Caucasiology refers to the historical and geopolitical studies of the Caucasus region. The branch has more than 150 years history. In 1972, the Caucasiological Center (renamed to International Caucasiological Center in 2000) was founded under the auspices of the Israel President Zalman Shazar."}, {"id": 60162699, "title": "Change and continuity", "abstract": "Change and continuity is a classic dichotomy within the fields of history, historical sociology, and the social sciences more broadly. The question of change and continuity is considered a classic discussion in the study of historical developments. The dichotomy is used to discuss and evaluate the extent to which a historical development or event represents a decisive historical change or whether a situation remains largely unchanged. A good example of this discussion is the question of how much the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 represents an important change in European history. In a similar vein, historian Richard Kirkendall once questioned whether FDR's New Deal represented \"a radical innovation or a continuation of earlier themes in American life?\" and posed the question of whether \"historical interpretations of the New Deal [should] stress change or emphasize continuity?\" The issue here is if the New Deal marks something radically new (change) in US history or if the New Deal can be understood as a continuation (continuity) of tendencies in American history that were in place well before the 1930s.\nThe dichotomy is important in relation to constructing, discussing, and evaluating historical periodizations. In terms of creating and discussing periodizations (e.g. the Enlightenment or the Victorian Era,) the dichotomy can be used to assess when a period can be said to start and end, thus making the dichotomy important in relation to understanding historical chronology. Economic historian Alexander Gerschenkron has taken issue with the dichotomy, arguing that continuity \"appears to mean no more than absence of change, i.e. stability.\" German historian Reinhart Koselleck, however, has been said to challenge this dichotomy."}, {"id": 4254743, "title": "Chorography", "abstract": "Chorography (from \u03c7\u1ff6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 kh\u014dros, \"place\" and \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd graphein, \"to write\") is the art of describing or mapping a region or district, and by extension such a description or map. This term derives from the writings of the ancient geographer Pomponius Mela and  Ptolemy, where it meant the geographical description of regions. However, its resonances of meaning have varied at different times. Richard Helgerson states that \"chorography defines itself by opposition to chronicle. It is the genre devoted to place, and chronicle is the genre devoted to time\". Darrell Rohl prefers a broad definition of \"the representation of space or place\"."}, {"id": 5178, "title": "Classics", "abstract": "Classics or classical studies is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, classics traditionally refers to the study of Classical Greek and Roman literature and their related original languages, Ancient Greek and Latin. Classics also includes Greco-Roman philosophy, history, archaeology, anthropology, art, mythology and society as secondary subjects.\nIn Western civilization, the study of the Greek and Roman classics was traditionally considered to be the foundation of the humanities and has traditionally been the cornerstone of a typical elite European education."}, {"id": 42736966, "title": "Critical theory", "abstract": "A critical theory is any approach to humanities and social philosophy that focuses on society and culture to attempt to reveal, critique, and challenge power structures. With roots in sociology and literary criticism, it argues that social problems stem more from social structures and cultural assumptions rather than from individuals. Some hold it to be an ideology, others argue that ideology is the principal obstacle to human liberation. Critical theory finds applications in various fields of study, including psychoanalysis, film theory, literary theory, cultural studies, history, communication theory, philosophy, and feminist theory.Critical Theory (capitalized) is a school of thought practiced by the Frankfurt School theoreticians Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Erich Fromm, and Max Horkheimer on the one hand, and on the other any philosophical approach that seeks to liberate people from all forms of oppression and actively works to create a world in accordance with human needs (usually called \"critical theory\", without capitalization). Philosophical approaches within this broader definition include feminism, critical race theory, post-structuralism, queer theory  and forms of postcolonialism.Horkheimer described a theory as critical insofar as it seeks \"to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them\". Although a product of modernism, and although many of the progenitors of Critical Theory were skeptical of postmodernism, Critical Theory is one of the major components of both modern and postmodern thought, and is widely applied in the humanities and social sciences today.In addition to its roots in the first-generation Frankfurt School, critical theory has also been influenced by Gy\u00f6rgy Luk\u00e1cs and Antonio Gramsci. Additionally, second-generation Frankfurt School scholars have been influential, notably J\u00fcrgen Habermas. In Habermas's work, critical theory transcended its theoretical roots in German idealism and progressed closer to American pragmatism. Concern for social \"base and superstructure\" is one of the remaining Marxist philosophical concepts in much contemporary critical theory.:\u200a5\u20138"}, {"id": 2318626, "title": "German studies", "abstract": "German studies is the field of humanities that researches, documents and disseminates German language and literature in both its historic and present forms. Academic departments of German studies often include classes on German culture, German history, and German politics in addition to the language and literature component. Common German names for the field are Germanistik, Deutsche Philologie, and Deutsche Sprachwissenschaft und Literaturwissenschaft. In English, the terms Germanistics or Germanics are sometimes used (mostly by Germans), but the subject is more often referred to as German studies, German language and literature, or German philology.\nModern German studies is usually seen as a combination of two sub-disciplines:  German linguistics and Germanophone literature studies."}, {"id": 27900272, "title": "Health humanities", "abstract": "Health humanities is an interdisciplinary field of study that draws on aspects of the arts and humanities in its approach to health care, health and well-being. It involves the application of the creative or fine arts (including visual arts, music, performing arts) and humanities disciplines (including literary studies, languages, law, history, philosophy, religion, etc.) to questions of human health and well-being. This applied capacity of the humanities is not itself a novel idea; however, the construct of the health humanities only began to emerge in the first decade of the 21st century."}, {"id": 10772350, "title": "History", "abstract": "History (derived from Ancient Greek  \u1f31\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 (histor\u00eda) 'inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation') is the systematic study and documentation of the human past.The period of events before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. \"History\" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers. History is incomplete and still has debatable mysteries.\nHistory is an academic discipline which uses a narrative to describe, examine, question, and analyze past events, and investigate their patterns of cause and effect. Historians debate which narrative best explains an event, as well as the significance of different causes and effects. Historians debate the nature of history as an end in itself, and its usefulness in giving perspective on the problems of the present.Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the tales surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends. History differs from myth in that it is supported by verifiable evidence. However, ancient cultural influences have helped create variant interpretations of the nature of history, which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and certain topical or thematic elements of historical investigation. History is taught as a part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in universities.\nHerodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the \"father of history\", as one of the first historians in the Western tradition, though he has been criticized as the \"father of lies\". Along with his contemporary Thucydides, he helped form the foundations for the modern study of past events and societies. Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In East Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals, was reputed to date from as early as 722 BC, though only 2nd-century BC texts have survived."}, {"id": 16799902, "title": "Hprints", "abstract": "hprints (pronounced in English as aitch prints) is an archive for electronic preprints of academic papers in the fields of arts and humanities. It can be accessed freely via the Internet since it is an open access repository aiming at making scholarly documents publicly available to the widest possible audience."}, {"id": 12769389, "title": "Humanities in the United States", "abstract": "The study of the humanities in the United States includes the study of humanities disciplines such as literature, history, language, performing and visual arts or philosophy.\nMany American colleges and universities seek to provide a broad \"liberal arts education\", in which all college students study the humanities in addition to their specific area of study. Prominent proponents of liberal arts in the United States have included Mortimer J. Adler and E.D. Hirsch."}, {"id": 18856114, "title": "Integrated human studies", "abstract": "Integrated human studies is an emerging educational field that equips people with knowledge and competencies across a range of disciplines to enable them to address the challenges facing human beings this century. It differs from other interdisciplinary educational initiatives in that its curriculum is purpose designed rather than simply an amalgamation of existing disciplines.\nKyoto University in Japan has offered a formal course in integrated human studies since 1992 when it reorganized its College of Liberal Arts and Sciences and renamed it the Faculty of Integrated Human Studies. This was subsequently (in 2003) integrated with the Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies to create the new Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies.The University of Western Australia established the Center for Integrated Human Studies in early 2008. This centre brings together the sciences, social sciences, arts and humanities to focus on the nature and future of humankind. Its fundamental concern is to promote human well-being at an individual, local and global level within a sustainable environment.Integration of disciplinary fields has arisen as a response to the \"increasing specialization of [university] courses to meet the demands of technological progress, economic growth and vocational training\" resulting in the development of ever narrower fields of study at tertiary level. Proponents of integrated human studies believe that a broader, interdisciplinary approach is needed to enable future decision-makers to grasp the complexities of the issues facing humankind in the 21st century and craft workable solutions."}, {"id": 17956828, "title": "List of people considered a founder in a humanities field", "abstract": "Those known as the father, mother, or considered a founder in a humanities field are those who have made important contributions to that field. In some fields several people are considered the founders, while in others the title of being the \"father\" is debatable."}, {"id": 4633449, "title": "Literary nonsense", "abstract": "Literary nonsense (or nonsense literature) is a broad categorization of literature that balances elements that make sense with some that do not, with the effect of subverting language conventions or logical reasoning. Even though the most well-known form of literary nonsense is nonsense verse, the genre is present in many forms of literature.\nThe effect of nonsense is often caused by an excess of meaning, rather than a lack of it. Its humor is derived from its nonsensical nature, rather than wit or the \"joke\" of a punch line."}, {"id": 19552, "title": "Media studies", "abstract": "Media studies is a discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history, and effects of various media; in particular, the mass media. Media Studies may draw on traditions from both the social sciences and the humanities, but mostly from its core disciplines of mass communication, communication, communication sciences, and communication studies.Researchers may also develop and employ theories and methods from disciplines including cultural studies, rhetoric (including digital rhetoric), philosophy, literary theory, psychology, political science, political economy, economics, sociology, anthropology, social theory, art history and criticism, film theory, and information theory."}, {"id": 10079442, "title": "National Postdoctoral Association", "abstract": "The National Postdoctoral Association (NPA) is a nonprofit, 501(c)3 educational organization in the United States that is dedicated to enhancing the quality of the postdoctoral experience for all participants. Since its founding in 2003, more than 200 institutions have adopted portions of the NPA's Recommended Postdoctoral Policies and Practices. Today, the NPA has 240 organizational members, whose research efforts are supported by 70,000 postdocs.\nNPA activities are coordinated by professional staff members responsible for the day-to-day operations of the organization and strategic implementation of resources. Headquartered in Rockville, MD, the NPA is supported by members, volunteers, key partners, and grants from government agencies and private foundations."}, {"id": 1749418, "title": "Naturalization of value systems", "abstract": "The naturalization of value systems in the human sciences is the process by which other frameworks were sought to replace spiritual, \"other-worldly\", religious explanations of nature, life and humanity with respect to fundamental values."}, {"id": 61233314, "title": "Parergon", "abstract": "In semiotics, a parergon (pa\u02c8r\u0259r\u02ccg\u00e4n; plural: parerga) is a supplementary issue  or embellishment."}, {"id": 13692155, "title": "Philosophy", "abstract": "Philosophy (love of wisdom in ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.\nHistorically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic\u2013Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic\u2013Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.\nMajor branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and properties. Other subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, and political philosophy. Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote different principles, theories, or methods.\nPhilosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications."}, {"id": 11023939, "title": "Public humanities", "abstract": "Public humanities is the work of engaging diverse publics in reflecting on heritage, traditions, and history, and the relevance of the humanities to the current conditions of civic and cultural life. Public humanities is often practiced within federal, state, nonprofit and community-based cultural organizations that engage people in conversations, facilitate and present lectures, exhibitions, performances and other programs for the general public on topics such as history, philosophy, popular culture and the arts. Public Humanities also exists within universities, as a collaborative enterprise between communities and faculty, staff, and students.Public humanities projects include exhibitions and programming related to historic preservation, oral history, archives, material culture, public art, cultural heritage, and cultural policy. The National Endowment for the Humanities notes that public humanities projects it has supported in the past include \"interpretation at historic sites, television and radio productions, museum exhibitions, podcasts, short videos, digital games, websites, mobile apps, and other digital media.\" Many practitioners of public humanities are invested in ensuring the accessibility and relevance of the humanities to the general public or community groups.\nThe American Council of Learned Societies' National Task Force on Scholarship and the Public Humanities suggests that the nature of public humanities work is to teach the public the findings of academic scholarship: it sees \"scholarship and the public humanities not as two distinct spheres but as parts of a single process, the process of taking private insight, testing it, and turning it into public knowledge.\" Others, such as former museum director Nina Simon and Harvard professor Doris Sommer, suggest a more balanced understanding of the ways in which history, heritage, and culture are shared between the academy and the public. These approaches draw on the notion of shared historical authority.Subfields of the public humanities include public history, public sociology, public folklore, public anthropology, public philosophy, historic preservation, museum studies, museum education, cultural heritage management, community archaeology, public art, and public science."}, {"id": 1495838, "title": "Romance studies", "abstract": "Romance studies or Romance philology (Aragonese: filoloch\u00eda romanica; Catalan: filologia rom\u00e0nica; French: romanistique; Esperanto: latinida filologio; Italian: filologia romanza; Portuguese: filologia rom\u00e2nica; Romanian: romanistic\u0103; Spanish: filolog\u00eda rom\u00e1nica) is an academic discipline that covers the study of the languages, literatures, and cultures of areas that speak a Romance language.  Romance studies departments usually include the study of Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese. Additional areas of study include Romanian and Catalan, on one hand, and culture, history, and politics on the other hand.\nBecause most places in Latin America speak a Romance language, Latin America is also studied in Romance studies departments.  As a result, non-Romance languages in use in Latin America, such as Quechua and Guarani, are sometimes also taught in Romance studies departments.\nRomance studies departments differ from single- or two-language departments in that they attempt to break down the barriers in scholarship among the various languages, through interdisciplinary or comparative work.  These departments differ from Romance language departments in that they place a heavier emphasis on connections between language and literature, among others."}, {"id": 26791, "title": "Satire", "abstract": "Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of exposing or shaming the perceived flaws of individuals, corporations, government, or society itself into improvement. Although satire is usually meant to be humorous, its greater purpose is often constructive social criticism, using wit to draw attention to both particular and wider issues in society.\nA feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm \u2014\"in satire, irony is militant\", according to literary critic Northrop Frye\u2014 but parody, burlesque, exaggeration, juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This \"militant\" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to question.\nSatire is found in many artistic forms of expression, including internet memes, literature, plays, commentary, music, film and television shows, and media such as lyrics."}, {"id": 26711608, "title": "School of Letters", "abstract": "The School of Letters was a summer institute and degree-granting (M.A. and Ph.D. minor) program at  Indiana University, Bloomington. The school moved from Kenyon College in 1951 following the withdrawal of funding of the School of English by the Rockefeller Foundation. I.U. President Herman B. Wells obtained funding from the university and located the school under the administration of Dean John W. Ashton of the College of Arts and Sciences. The school opened under the direction of Prof. Richard B. Hudson and then transitioned to Prof. Newton P. 'Stalky' Stallknecht until his retirement and the school's dissolution in 1972."}, {"id": 35885810, "title": "Somatic theory", "abstract": "Somatic theory is a theory of human social behavior based on the somatic marker hypothesis of Ant\u00f3nio Dam\u00e1sio. The theory proposes a mechanism by which emotional processes can guide (or bias) behavior: in particular, decision-making, the attachment theory of John Bowlby, and the self-psychology of Heinz Kohut (especially as consolidated by Allan Schore).\nIt draws on various philosophical models: On the Genealogy of Morals of Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger on das Man, Maurice Merleau-Ponty practiced on the lived body as a center of experience, Ludwig Wittgenstein on social practices, Michel Foucault on discipline, as well as theories of performativity emerging out of the speech act theory by J. L. Austin, in point of fact was developed by Judith Butler and Shoshana Felman. Some somatic theorists have also put into somatic theory to performance in the schools of acting, the training was developed by Konstantin Stanislavski and Bertolt Brecht."}, {"id": 44183472, "title": "Spatial turn", "abstract": "Spatial turn is an Intellectual Movement that places emphasis on place and space in social science and the humanities. It is closely linked with quantitative studies of history, literature, cartography, and other studies of society. The movement has been influential in providing mass amounts of data for study of cultures, regions, and specific locations."}, {"id": 57993, "title": "Tragedy", "abstract": "Tragedy (from the Greek: \u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u1ff3\u03b4\u03af\u03b1, trag\u014didia) is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character. Traditionally, the intention of tragedy is to invoke an accompanying catharsis, or a \"pain [that] awakens pleasure,\u201d for the audience. While many cultures have developed forms that provoke this paradoxical response, the term tragedy often refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of Western civilization. That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and historical continuity\u2014\"the Greeks and the Elizabethans, in one cultural form; Hellenes and Christians, in a common activity,\" as Raymond Williams puts it.From its origins in the theatre of ancient Greece 2500 years ago, from which there survives only a fraction of the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, as well as many fragments from other poets, and the later Roman tragedies of Seneca; through its singular articulations in the works of Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Jean Racine, and Friedrich Schiller to the more recent naturalistic tragedy of Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg; Samuel Beckett's modernist meditations on death, loss and suffering; Heiner M\u00fcller postmodernist reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change. A long line of philosophers\u2014which includes Plato, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Voltaire, Hume, Diderot, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Freud, Benjamin, Camus, Lacan, and Deleuze\u2014have analysed, speculated upon, and criticised the genre.In the wake of Aristotle's Poetics (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general (where the tragic divides against epic and lyric) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to comedy). In the modern era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, melodrama, the tragicomic, and epic theatre. Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-generic deterritorialisation from the mid-19th century onwards. Both Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal define their epic theatre projects (non-Aristotelian drama and Theatre of the Oppressed, respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation."}, {"id": 104952, "title": "Tragicomedy", "abstract": "Tragicomedy is a literary genre that blends aspects of both tragic and comic forms. Most often seen in dramatic literature, the term can describe either a tragic play which contains enough comic elements to lighten the overall mood or a serious play with a happy ending. Tragicomedy, as its name implies, invokes the intended response of both the tragedy and the comedy in the audience, the former being a genre based on human suffering that invokes an accompanying catharsis and the latter being a genre intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter."}, {"id": 351227, "title": "Transparency (behavior)", "abstract": "As an ethic that spans science, engineering, business, and the humanities, transparency is operating in such a way that it is easy for others to see what actions are performed. Transparency implies openness, communication, and accountability.\nTransparency is practiced in companies, organizations, administrations, and communities. For example, in a business relation, fees are clarified at the outset by a transparent agent, so there are no surprises later. This is opposed to keeping this information hidden which is \"non-transparent\". A practical example of transparency is also when a cashier makes changes after a point of sale; they offer a transaction record of the items purchased (e.g., a receipt) as well as counting out the customer's change.\nIn information security, transparency means keeping the arcane, underlying mechanisms hidden so as not to obstruct intended function\u2014an almost opposite sense. It principally refers to security mechanisms that are intentionally undetectable or hidden from view.  Examples include hiding utilities and tools which the user does not need to know in order to do their job, like keeping the remote re-authentication operations of Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol hidden from the user."}, {"id": 34375832, "title": "Vorlage", "abstract": "A Vorlage (German pronunciation: [\u02c8fo\u02d0\u0250\u032fla\u02d0\u0261\u0259]; from the German for prototype or template) is a prior version or manifestation of a text under consideration.  It may refer to such a version of a text itself, a particular manuscript of the text, or a more complex manifestation of the text (e.g., a group of copies, or a group of excerpts).  Thus, the original-language version of a text which a translator then works into a translation is called the Vorlage of that translation. For example, the Luther Bible is a translation of the Textus Receptus, so the Textus Receptus is the Vorlage of the Luther Bible.  \nSometimes, the Vorlage of a translation may be lost to history.  In some of these cases, the Vorlage may be reconstructed from the translation.  Such a reconstructed Vorlage may be called a retroversion, and it invariably is made with some amount of uncertainty.  Nevertheless, the Vorlage may still be reconstructed in some parts at such a level of confidence that the translation and its retroversion can be used as a witness for the purposes of textual criticism.  This reconstructed Vorlage may stand on its own as the sole witness of the original-language text, or it may be compared and used along with other witnesses.  Thus, for example, scholars use the reconstructed Vorlage of the Greek Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible at parts to correct the Hebrew Masoretic version when trying to determine oldest version of the Hebrew Bible that they can infer.  Or, as another example, the Coptic fragments of Plato's Republic included among the Nag Hammadi library are used to help attest to the original Greek text which Plato himself wrote.  For the bulk of the Gospel of Thomas, the Vorlage exists only as a retroversion of the Coptic translation, as no other witness to the original Greek text for most of the sayings recorded therein is known."}, {"id": 49733801, "title": "Women in musicology", "abstract": "Women in musicology describes the role of women professors, scholars and researchers in postsecondary education musicology departments at postsecondary education institutions, including universities, colleges and music conservatories. Traditionally, the vast majority of major musicologists and music historians have been men. Nevertheless, some women musicologists have reached the top ranks of the profession. Carolyn Abbate (born 1956) is an American musicologist who did her PhD at Princeton University. She has been described by the Harvard Gazette as \"one of the world's most accomplished and admired music historians\".Susan McClary (born 1946) is a musicologist associated with the \"New Musicology\" who incorporates feminist music criticism in her work. McClary holds a PhD from Harvard University. One of her best known works is Feminine Endings (1991), which covers musical constructions of gender and sexuality, gendered aspects of traditional music theory, gendered sexuality in musical narrative, music as a gendered discourse and issues affecting women musicians. In the book, McClary suggests that the sonata form (used in symphonies and string quartets) may be a sexist or misogynistic procedure that constructs of gender and sexual identity. McClary's Conventional Wisdom (2000) argues that the traditional musicological assumption of the existence of \"purely musical\" elements, divorced from culture and meaning, the social and the body, is a conceit used to veil the social and political imperatives of the worldview that produces the classical canon most prized by supposedly objective musicologists.\nAmerican musicologist Marcia Citron has asked \"[w]hy is music composed by women so marginal to the standard 'classical' repertoire?\" Citron \"examines the practices and attitudes that have led to the exclusion of women composers from the received 'canon' of performed musical works.\" She argues that in the 1800s, women composers typically wrote art songs for performance in small recitals rather than symphonies intended for performance with an orchestra in a large hall, with the latter works being seen as the most important genre for composers; since women composers did not write many symphonies, they were deemed to be not notable as composers.Other notable women scholars include:\n\nEva Badura-Skoda\nIta Beausang\nMargaret Bent\nSuzanne Cusick\nTina Fr\u00fchauf\nUrsula G\u00fcnther\nMaud Cuney Hare\nBarbara L. Kelly\nLiudmila Kovnatskaya\nElizabeth Eva Leach\nKendra Preston Leonard\nCarol Oja\nNancy Reich\nRosetta Reitz\nJoan Rimmer\nElaine Sisman\nHedi Stadlen\nRose Rosengard Subotnik\nJudith Tick\nAnahit Tsitsikian\nReba Wissner\nEileen Southern\nJosephine Wright"}, {"id": 8074243, "title": "The Word and the World", "abstract": "The Word and the World Project of the Stanford University's Learning Lab developed a large lecture, Introduction to Humanities (IHUM) course adopting pedagogical strategies and technologies designed to enhance learning. The course was given in 1997 and 1998.  The goal of the curriculum innovations was to transform a large lecture course into a learning community.  Professors: Larry Friedlander (English), Haun Saussy (East Asian Studies), and Tim Lenior (History); teaching fellows: Carlos Seligo and Margo Denman and lab staff: Charles Kerns and George Toye worked together to develop a holistic curriculum mediated through a website center for the course."}, {"id": 1072404, "title": "World community", "abstract": "The term world community is used primarily in political and humanitarian contexts to describe an international aggregate of nation states of widely varying types. In most connotations, the term is used to convey meanings attached to consensus or inclusion of all people in all lands and their governments."}], "id": 1004110}, {"title": "Sports", "pages": [{"id": 25778403, "title": "Sport", "abstract": "Sport pertains to any form of physical activity or game, often competitive and organized, that aims to use, maintain, or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants and, in some cases, entertainment to spectators. Sports can, through casual or organized participation, improve participants' physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously or consecutively, with one winner; in others, the contest (a match) is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a \"tie\" or \"draw\", in which there is no single winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs.\nSport is generally recognised as system of activities based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity, with major competitions such as the Olympic Games admitting only sports meeting this definition. Other organisations, such as the Council of Europe, preclude activities without a physical element from classification as sports. However, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition as mind sports. The International Olympic Committee (through ARISF) recognises both chess and bridge as bona fide sports, and SportAccord, the international sports federation association, recognises five non-physical sports: bridge, chess, draughts (checkers), Go and xiangqi, and limits the number of mind games which can be admitted as sports.Sport is usually governed by a set of rules or customs, which serve to ensure fair competition, and allow consistent adjudication of the winner. Winning can be determined by physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring elements of the sporting performance, including objective or subjective measures such as technical performance or artistic impression.\nRecords of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced or reported in sport news. Sport is also a major source of entertainment for non-participants, with spectator sport drawing large crowds to sport venues, and reaching wider audiences through broadcasting. Sport betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in some cases is central to the sport.\nAccording to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013. The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport."}, {"id": 75538326, "title": "2023 Liga 3 Southeast Sulawesi", "abstract": "The 2023 Liga 3 Southeast Sulawesi is the fifth edition of Liga 3 Southeast Sulawesi organized by Asprov PSSI Southeast Sulawesi.\nThis competition was attended by 11 clubs. The winner of this competition will advance to the national phase.\nGasko is the defending champion after winning it in the 2021 season."}, {"id": 73255935, "title": "2024 Besta deild karla", "abstract": "The 2024 Besta deild karla is the 113th season of top-flight Icelandic Football. It is the third season following the league's rebrand as Besta deild karla."}, {"id": 75541854, "title": "2024 Los Angeles FC season", "abstract": "The 2024 Los Angeles FC season will be the club's seventh season in Major League Soccer, the top tier of the American soccer pyramid. LAFC plays its home matches at BMO Stadium in the Exposition Park neighborhood of Los Angeles, California."}, {"id": 74885971, "title": "French Equestrian Federation", "abstract": "The French Equestrian Federation (FFE) (French: F\u00e9d\u00e9ration fran\u00e7aise d'\u00e9quitation) is a non-profit organization responsible for the management, promotion and development of equestrian disciplines in France. It also contributes to the selection of sport and leisure horses.\nThe FFE is a member of the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI by its acronym in French) and the French National Olympic and Sports Committee (CNOSF by its acronym in French).\nIn 2017, the FFE had 644,800 members. It is France's third-largest (single-sport) sports federation in terms of the number of members, the fourth-largest in terms of the total number of federation memberships, and the second-largest equestrian federation in the world. Women account for 83% of the FFE's membership, and 27% are under ten years of age. One of the federation's challenges is to encourage young people growing up to continue riding. Between 1984 and 2011, the number of FFE members rose by 374%."}, {"id": 75509120, "title": "Gazi Tyres Cricket Academy", "abstract": "Gazi Tyres Cricket Academy is a Bangladeshi cricket team that will play List A cricket in the Dhaka Premier Division Cricket League (DPL) in the 2023\u201324 season. In 2022\u201323 it won the Dhaka First Division Cricket League for first time, earning promotion for the 2023-24 DPL Season. The team is owned by the Gazi group of industrial companies, which also owns the DPL teams Gazi Group Cricketers and Rupganj Tigers Cricket Club."}, {"id": 9719987, "title": "History of ice hockey", "abstract": "Ice hockey is believed to have evolved from simple stick and ball games played in the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain, Ireland, and elsewhere, primarily bandy, hurling, and shinty. The North American sport of lacrosse was also influential. These games were brought to North America and several similar winter games using informal rules developed, such as shinny and ice polo, but were later absorbed into a new organized game with codified rules which today is ice hockey.\n\nThe origin of ice hockey was bandy, a game that has its roots in the Middle Ages. Just as for practically all other sports, the game of bandy achieved its modern form during the 19th century in England, more exactly in the Fen district on the East coast. From the Fen district the game was spread to London and from London to the Continent during the second half of the 19th century.\nBritish soldiers stationed in eastern Canada brought the game to the North American continent in the 1850s and '60s. You could find similar games there, played by immigrants (chiefly Dutch) and by Indians. Thus there were a number of different games played on skates with a stick and ball and with varying rules in America before ice hockey was invented."}, {"id": 75483315, "title": "Iowa Corn 350", "abstract": "The Iowa Corn 350 is an upcoming NASCAR Cup Series stock car race at Iowa Speedway in Newton, Iowa. It will be NASCAR Cup Series' first race at Iowa Speedway and second race in Iowa."}, {"id": 75515965, "title": "Jinqiang International Event Center", "abstract": "The Jinqiang International Event Center is a 15,000-seat multi-purpose arena in Chengdu, Sichuan, China. It is the new home of the Sichuan Blue Whales of the Chinese Basketball Association. The arena opened in 2023 and is considered one of China's most modern and well-equipped arenas.The total construction area of the Jinqiang International Event Center is approximately 200,000 square meters. It consists of a large first-class stadium that can accommodate 15,000 people, a commercial center, and supporting facilities.The Jinqiang International Event Center is designed to resemble a swimming blue whale, which is the mascot of the Sichuan Blue Whales. The exterior of the arena is modern and sleek, featuring a unique blue whale design inspired by the Yuyu civilization of Wenjiang, the birthplace of the ancient Shu Kingdom. The texture on the outside of the venue symbolizes the civilization's rich history and cultural heritage."}, {"id": 25806331, "title": "List of professional sports", "abstract": "This is a list of professional sports \u2013 that is, sports (and, more broadly, non-sport games subject to organized competition) that support one or more systems of professional sports players, sportspeople by occupation.  Such sports also have a vibrant community of amateur players, from whom the best rise to become professionals."}, {"id": 356978, "title": "List of sports", "abstract": "The following is a list of sports/games, divided by category.\nAccording to the World Sports Encyclopaedia (2003), there are 8,000 indigenous sports and sporting games."}, {"id": 71515446, "title": "MI Emirates", "abstract": "The MI Emirates is a professional Twenty20 franchise cricket team that competes in the International League T20.The franchise is owned by Reliance Industries."}, {"id": 75632507, "title": "Miami football", "abstract": "Miami football may refer to:\n\nMiami Hurricanes football, college football team in Miami, Florida\nMiami Redhawks football, college football team in Oxford, Ohio\nMiami Dolphins, National Football League team in Miami, Florida\nInter Miami CF, professional association football club in Miami, Florida"}, {"id": 75705558, "title": "Torneo International Manuel Suarez In Memoriam", "abstract": "The Torneo International \"Manuel Su\u00e1rez in Memoriam\" Is an annual Olympic Weightlifting competition held in Havana, Cuba. In 2022, the 40th iteration hosted 19 countries and more than 130 competitors."}], "id": 693708}, {"title": "Business", "pages": [{"id": 39206, "title": "Business", "abstract": "Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services). It is also \"any activity or enterprise entered into for profit.\"Having a business name does not separate the business entity from the owner, which means that the owner of the business is responsible and liable for debts incurred by the business. If the business acquires debts, the creditors can go after the owner's personal possessions. The taxation system for businesses is different from that of the corporates. A business structure does not allow for corporate tax rates. The proprietor is personally taxed on all income from the business.\nThe term is also often used colloquially (but not by lawyers or public officials) to refer to a company, such as a corporation or cooperative.\nCorporations, in contrast with sole proprietors and partnerships, are separate legal entities and provide limited liability for their owners/members, as well as being subject to corporate tax rates. A corporation is more complicated and expensive to set up, but offers more protection and benefits for the owners/members."}, {"id": 62670490, "title": "Real estate business", "abstract": "Real estate business is the profession of buying, selling, or renting real estate (land, buildings, or housing)."}, {"id": 73367780, "title": "3D billboard", "abstract": "A 3D billboard is a modern way of advertising that utilizes 'Naked eye' 3D image technology to create an optical illusion for the viewer. The subject on the billboard projects out and the viewer feels that the subject is coming out of the screen. This can seize the attention of pedestrians as it can also make them engage and interact with the subject on the billboard.\nCompanies have already initiated the use of 3D billboards to bring out their brands from conventional flat screens to the visual real world. Since this mode of advertising is interactive, it also encourages the viewers to google and search more for the company's brand."}, {"id": 1356031, "title": "Agribusiness", "abstract": "Agribusiness is the industry, enterprises, and the field of study of value chains in agriculture and in the bio-economy,\nin which case it is also called bio-business or bio-enterprise. \nThe primary goal of agribusiness is to maximize profit while satisfying the needs of consumers for products related to natural resources such as biotechnology, farms, food, forestry, fisheries, fuel, and fiber.\nStudies of business growth and performance in farming have found successful agricultural businesses are cost-efficient internally and operate in favorable economic, political, and physical-organic environments.  They are able to expand and make profits, improve the productivity of land, labor, and capital, and keep their costs down to ensure market price competitiveness.Agribusiness is not limited to farming. It encompasses a broader spectrum through the agribusiness system which includes input supplies, value-addition, marketing, entrepreneurship, microfinancing, and agricultural extension.\nIn some countries like the Philippines, creation and management of agribusiness enterprises require consultation with registered agriculturists above a certain level of operations, capitalization, land area, or number of animals in the farm."}, {"id": 1725756, "title": "Business directory", "abstract": "A business directory is a website or printed listing of information which lists businesses within niche based categories. Businesses can be categorized by niche, location, activity, or size. Business may be compiled either manually or through an automated online search software. Online yellow pages are a type of business directory, as is the traditional phone book.The details provided in a business directory may vary. They may include the business name, addresses, telephone numbers, location, contact information, type of service or products the business provides, the number of employees, the served region and any professional associations.Some directories include a section for user reviews, comments, and feedback. Business directories in the past would take a printed format but have recently been upgraded to websites due to the advent of the internet.Many business directories offer complimentary listings in addition to the premium options. There are many business directories and some of these have moved over to the internet and away from printed format. Whilst not being search engines, business directories often have a search function, enabling users to search businesses by Zip Code, country, state, area or city."}, {"id": 70882289, "title": "Business golf", "abstract": "Business golf is the use of golf in business.  Typically,  the sport is used as a forum for networking and promotional activity."}, {"id": 26085407, "title": "Business interaction networks", "abstract": "Business interaction networks are networks that allow businesses and their communities of interest to collaborate and do business online securely via the Internet.Mary Johnston Turner first discussed the concept in a Network World opinion piece in August 1995 and attributed the first advocacy for the concept to the now-defunct BBN Planet, the ISP division of BBN Technologies."}, {"id": 11580952, "title": "Business partnering", "abstract": "Business partnering is the development of successful, long term, strategic relationships between customers and suppliers, based on achieving best practice and sustainable competitive advantage. The term also refers to a business partnering support service model, where professionals such as HR staff work closely with business leaders and line managers to achieve shared organisational objectives. In practice, the business partner model can be broadened to include members of any business function, for example, Finance, IT, HR, Legal, External Relations, who act as a connector, linking their function with business units to ensure that the technical, or functional, expertise they have to offer is placed within the real and current concerns of the business to create value."}, {"id": 22697384, "title": "Business sector", "abstract": "In economics, the business sector or corporate sector - sometimes popularly called simply \"business\" - is \"the part of the economy made up by companies\". It is a subset of the domestic economy, excluding the economic activities of general government, private households, and non-profit organizations serving individuals. The business sector is part of the private sector, but it differs in that the private sector includes all non-government activity, including non-profit organizations, while the business sector only includes business that operate for profit.\nIn the United States the business sector accounted for about 78 percent of the value of gross domestic product (GDP) as of 2000. Kuwait and Tuvalu each had business sectors accounting for less than 40% of GDP as of 2015.In systems of state capitalism, much of the business sector forms part of the public sector.\nIn mixed economies, state-owned enterprises may straddle any divide between public and business sectors, allowing analysts to use the concept of a \"state-owned enterprise sector\".The Oxford English Dictionary records the phrase \"business sector\" in the general sense from 1934.\nWord usage suggests that the concept of a \"business sector\" came into wider use after 1940.\nRelated terms in previous times included \"merchant class\" and \"merchant caste\"."}, {"id": 5416, "title": "Capitalism", "abstract": "Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price systems, private property, property rights recognition, voluntary exchange, and wage labor. In a market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by owners of wealth, property, or ability to maneuver capital or production ability in capital and financial markets\u2014whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets.Economists, historians, political economists, and sociologists have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free-market capitalism, anarcho-capitalism, state capitalism, and welfare capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition, and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets and the role of intervention and regulation, as well as the scope of state ownership, vary across different models of capitalism. The extent to which different markets are free and the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy. Most of the existing capitalist economies are mixed economies that combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning.Capitalism in its modern form emerged from agrarianism in 16th century England and mercantilist practices by European countries in the 16th to 18th centuries. The Industrial Revolution of the 18th century established capitalism as a dominant mode of production, characterized by factory work and a complex division of labor. Through the process of globalization, capitalism spread across the world in the 19th and 20th centuries, especially before World War I and after the end of the Cold War. During the 19th century, capitalism was largely unregulated by the state, but became more regulated in the post\u2013World War II period through Keynesianism, followed by a return of more unregulated capitalism starting in the 1980s through neoliberalism.\nMarket economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern industrial capitalist societies developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution. Capitalist economies promote economic growth through accumulation of capital, however a business cycle of economic growth followed by recession is a common characteristic of such economies."}, {"id": 68483249, "title": "Client (business)", "abstract": "In business, commerce, and economics, a client is a person who receives advice or services from a professional, such as a lawyer or a health care provider. Clients differ from customers in that customers are thought of as \"one-time buyers\" while clients can be seen as \"long-term recipients\", and customers buy goods as well as services."}, {"id": 18958074, "title": "Closure (business)", "abstract": "Closure is the term used to refer to the actions necessary when it is no longer necessary or possible for a business or other organization to continue to operate.  Closure may be the result of a bankruptcy, where the organization lacks sufficient funds to continue operations, as a result of the proprietor of the business dying, as a result of a business being purchased by another organization (or a competitor) and shut down as superfluous, or because it is the non-surviving entity in a corporate merger.  A closure may occur because the purpose for which the organization was created is no longer necessary.\nWhile a closure is typically of a business or a non-profit organization, any entity which is created by human beings can be subject to a closure, from a single church to a whole religion, up to and including an entire country if, for some reason, it ceases to exist.\nClosures are of two types, voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary closures of organizations are much rarer than involuntary ones, as, in the absence of some change making operations impossible or unnecessary, most operations will continue until something happens that causes a change requiring this situation.\nThe most common form of voluntary closure would be when those involved in an organization such as a social club, a band, or other non-profit organization decide to cease operating. Once the organization has paid any outstanding debts and completed any pending operations, closure may simply mean that the organization ceases to exist.\nIf an organization has debts that cannot be paid, it may be necessary to perform a liquidation of its assets. If there is anything left after the assets are converted to cash, in the case of a for-profit organization, the remainder is distributed to the stockholders; in the case of a non-profit, by law any remaining assets must be distributed to another non-profit.\nIf an organization has more debts than assets, it may have to declare bankruptcy. If the organization is viable, it may reorganizes itself as a result of the bankruptcy and continue operations. If it is not viable for the business to continue operating, then a closure occurs through a bankruptcy liquidation: its assets are liquidated, the creditors are paid from whatever assets could be liquidated, and the business ceases operations.\nPossibly the largest \"closure\" in history (but more closely analogous to a demerger) was the split of the Soviet Union into its constituent countries. In comparison, the end of East Germany can be considered a merger rather than a closure as West Germany assumed all of the assets and liabilities of East Germany. The end of the Soviet Union was the equivalent of a closure through a bankruptcy liquidation, because while Russia assumed most of the assets and responsibilities of the former Soviet Union, it did not assume all of them. There have been issues over who is responsible for unpaid parking tickets accumulated by motor vehicles operated on behalf of diplomatic missions operated by the former Soviet Union in other countries, as Russia claims it is not responsible for them.\nSeveral major business closures include the bankruptcy of the Penn Central railroad, the Enron scandals, and MCI Worldcom's bankruptcy and eventual merger into Verizon."}, {"id": 1363580, "title": "Commoditization", "abstract": "In business literature, commoditization is defined as the process by which goods that have economic value and are distinguishable in terms of attributes (uniqueness or brand) end up becoming simple commodities in the eyes of the market or consumers. It is the movement of a market from differentiated to undifferentiated price competition and from monopolistic competition to perfect competition. Hence, the key effect of commoditization is that the pricing power of the manufacturer or brand owner is weakened: when products become more similar from a buyer's point of view, they will tend to buy the cheapest.\nThis is not to be confused with commodification, which is the concept of objects or services being assigned an exchange value which they did not previously possess by their being produced and presented for sale, as opposed to personal use. One way to summarize the difference is that commoditization is about proprietary things becoming generic, whereas commodification is about nonsaleable things becoming saleable. In social sciences, particularly anthropology, the term is used interchangeably with commodification to describe the process of making commodities out of anything that was not available for trade previously.Commoditization can be the desired outcome of an entity in the market, or it can be an unintentional outcome that no party actively sought to achieve. (For example, see Xerox#Trademark.)\nAccording to Neo-classical economic theory, consumers can benefit from commoditization, since perfect competition usually leads to lower prices. Branded producers often suffer under commoditization, since the value of the brand (and ability to command price premiums) can be weakened.\nHowever, false commoditization can create substantial risk when premier products do have substantial value to offer, particularly in health, safety and security."}, {"id": 52954662, "title": "Company code of conduct", "abstract": "A company code of conduct is a document written up voluntarily by a company in which it sets out a set of principles that it commits itself to follow, or requires its employees to follow. In some cases, codes of conduct reach suppliers, subcontractors, and third parties. It is a type of code of conduct."}, {"id": 2886264, "title": "Core business", "abstract": "The core business of an organization is an idealized construct intended to express that organization's \"main\" or \"essential\" activity.\nCore business process means that a business's success depends not only on how well each department performs its work, but also on how well the company manages to coordinate departmental activities to conduct the core business process, which is;\n1. The market-sensing process\nMeaning all activities in gathering marketing intelligence and acting on the information.\n2. The new-offering realization process\nCovering all activities in research, development and launching new quality offerings quickly and within budget.\n3. The customer acquisition process\nall the activities defining the target market and prospecting for new customers\n4. The customer relationship management process\nall the activities covering building deeper understanding, relationships and offerings to individual customers.\n5. The fulfillment management process\nall the activities in receiving and approving orders, shipping out on time and collecting payment.\nIn business, a core item is defined as an item that is immediately responsible for the revenues and cash flows of that particular business, whereas a non-core item is of a more strategic view, intended to benefit the revenue model and cash flows of the core items.Therefor, one way to identify a core business function is to look at whether the primary cash flows of the business revenue model runs directly through it, or not. Core business functions are by standard immediately involved in the primary cash flows of the revenue model or models of the business, whereas non-core business functions typically are not, which means that the business can hypothetically operate without non-core business functions without impacting primary cash flows, whereas the core business functions are essential to the continuance of its primary cash flows.\nTo be successful, a business needs to look for competitive advantages beyond its own operations. The business needs to look at the competitiveness value chain of suppliers, distributors and customers. Many companies today have partnered with specific suppliers and distributors to create a superior value delivery network."}, {"id": 65277144, "title": "Portfolio career", "abstract": "A portfolio career comprises a variety of roles rather than one job at a single organisation. It can be a career that combines multiple paid and/or voluntary roles.\nThe philosopher and organisational behaviourist Charles Handy popularised the \"portfolio\" concept\nin works like his 1994 book The Empty Raincoat.\nHandy's recognition of the portfolio career-path came about when he realised that individuals would be required to develop portable skillsets to meet the needs of a fast-moving future workplace. His prediction foresaw what is now known as the gig economy.In 2006 journalist Penelope Trunk wrote on her blog that the rise of portfolio careers came \"as members of Generation X entered the workforce. Two-thirds of them were looking for an alternative to full-time employment as a more efficient path to self-discovery and finding the right career.\"Portfolio careers are often found in the creative industries where freelancing is the norm.\nEconomic conditions mean many are now actively choosing to pursue portfolio careers to make the most of their earning potential."}, {"id": 2633364, "title": "Registered office", "abstract": "A registered office is the official address of an incorporated company, association or any other legal entity. Generally it will form part of the public record and is required in most countries where the registered organization or legal entity is incorporated. A registered physical office address is required for incorporated organizations to receive official correspondence and formal notices from government departments, investors, banks, shareholders and the general public.:\u200a209"}, {"id": 30781093, "title": "Religion and business", "abstract": "Religion and business have throughout history interacted in ways that relate to and affected one another, as well as influenced sociocultural evolution, political geographies, and labour laws. As businesses expand globally they seek new markets which leads to expanding their corporation's norms and rules to encompass the new locations norms which most often involve religious rules and terms."}, {"id": 70862707, "title": "Tax Receivable Agreement", "abstract": "A Tax Receivable Agreement (TRA) is a legal contract where a company agrees to share the economic benefits from certain tax savings with another party. These tax savings may relate to deductions for depreciation, goodwill amortization and net operating losses. \nThe first TRAs originated in the early 1990s, and TRAs have become increasingly prevalent in since then. Prior to 2005, TRAs were used in less than 1% of initial public offerings (\u201cIPOs\u201d) but as of 2018, that number had increased to 8% of IPOs. This growth has created an ecosystem of leading accounting and law firms with specialized expertise in TRAs.TRAs are now a common feature of IPOs structured as an Up-C.   Up-C IPOs are designed to generate basis step-ups that allow a company to benefit from substantial tax deductions.   TRAs are typically drafted to require that the newly public company share 85% of the tax benefits it receives from these basis step-ups with its pre-IPO owners.  \nTRAs often allow holders to transfer their rights under the TRA to outside investors, resulting in a growing market for secondary TRA investments. In the past, TRA holders may not have been able to easily monetize their TRA asset due to a lack of liquidity providers. However, a number of investment firms, like Parallaxes Capital, have since emerged to provide liquidity to TRA holders."}], "id": 771152}, {"title": "Mass media", "pages": [{"id": 19641, "title": "Mass media", "abstract": "Mass media includes the diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication.\nBroadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films, radio, recorded music, or television. Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email, social media sites, websites, and Internet-based radio and television. Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on the web, by such means as linking to or running TV ads online, or distributing QR codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website. In this way, they can use the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords, as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently. Outdoor media transmit information via such media as AR advertising; billboards; blimps; flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes); placards or kiosks placed inside and outside buses, commercial buildings, shops, sports stadiums, subway cars, or trains; signs; or skywriting. Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, or pamphlets. Event organising and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media.\nThe organisations that control these technologies, such as movie studios, publishing companies, and radio and television stations, are also known as the mass media."}, {"id": 6169246, "title": "Advertising-free media", "abstract": "Advertising-free media refers to media outlets whose output is not funded or subsidised by the sale of advertising space.  It includes in its scope mass media entities such as websites, television and radio networks, and magazines.\nThe public broadcasters of a number of countries air without commercials.  Perhaps the best known example of this is the United Kingdom's public broadcaster, the BBC, whose domestic networks do not carry commercials.  Instead, the BBC, in common with most other public broadcasters in Europe, is funded by a television licence fee levied on the owners of all television sets.\nA 2006 report by the Senate of Canada suggested that the country's public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, be funded sufficiently by the federal government so that it could air without any advertising."}, {"id": 48315392, "title": "Article structure", "abstract": "Article structures in journalism encompass various formats to present information in news stories and feature articles. These structures reflect not only a writer's deliberate choice but also a response to editorial guidelines or the inherent demands of the story itself. While some writers may not consciously adhere to these structures, they often find them retrospectively aligned with their writing process. Conversely, others might consciously adopt a style as their story develops or adhere to predefined structures based on publisher guidelines."}, {"id": 67442840, "title": "Audience fragmentation", "abstract": "Audience fragmentation describes the extent to which audiences are distributed across media offerings. Traditional outlets, such as broadcast networks, have long feared that technological and regulatory changes would increase competition and erode their audiences. Social scientists have been concerned about the loss of a common cultural forum and rise of extremist media. Hence, many representations of fragmentation have focused on media outlets as the unit of analysis and reported the status of their audiences. But fragmentation can also be conceptualized at the level of individuals and audiences, revealing different features of the phenomenon.  Webster and Ksiazek have argued there are three types of fragmentation: media-centric, user-centric, and audience-centric"}, {"id": 7861415, "title": "Election surprise", "abstract": "An election surprise (also a pre-election surprise, or, in the U.S., October surprise, where elections are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday of November) is an event which occurs preceding an election which has enough shock value that it may be able to sway voters in close elections. When planned, an election surprise may be an act of propaganda. Election surprises typically fall into categories such as terrorism, political scandals, etc.\nThere may be disagreement as to what constitutes an election surprise for several reasons:\n\nThere may be general disagreement as to whether the event in question affected, or was intended to affect the outcome of the election, especially as the event and the election may occur in different countries.\nThere may be a lack of consensus as to which party the election surprise may have helped, or was intended to help.\nThe relative weight of a declaration, and the ability to catch on, help to distinguish true election surprises from minor events.\nWhat was a surprise for some of the population may have been obvious for another part (such as the total deaths accumulated in a military activity).\nThe role a speech act, such as an expression of opinion/research could play. The documentary Hacking Democracy may not constitute an election surprise, whereas a statement issued by Osama bin Laden might.Rumours of potential election surprises may also abound preceding an election.\nThe term \"election surprise\" may also be used to denote an election with a surprising outcome."}, {"id": 1957258, "title": "Electronic media", "abstract": "Electronic media are media that use electronics or electromechanical means for the audience to access the content. This is in contrast to static media (mainly print media), which today are most often created digitally, but do not require electronics to be accessed by the end user in the printed form. The primary electronic media sources familiar to the general public are video recordings, audio recordings, multimedia presentations, slide presentations, CD-ROM and online content. Most new media are in the form of digital media. However, electronic media may be in either analogue electronics data or digital electronic data format.\nAlthough the term is usually associated with content recorded on a storage medium, recordings are not required for live broadcasting and online networking.\nAny equipment used in the electronic communication process (e.g. television, radio, telephone, game console, handheld device) may also be considered electronic media."}, {"id": 216003, "title": "Entertainment law", "abstract": "Entertainment law, also referred to as media law, is legal services provided to the entertainment industry. These services in entertainment law overlap with intellectual property law. Intellectual property has many moving parts that include trademarks, copyright, and the \"right of publicity\". However, the practice of entertainment law often involves questions of employment law, contract law, torts, labor law, bankruptcy law, immigration, securities law, security interests, agency, right of privacy, defamation, advertising, criminal law, tax law, International law (especially private international law), and insurance law.\nMuch of the work of an entertainment law practice is transaction based, i.e., drafting contracts, negotiation and mediation. Some situations may lead to litigation or arbitration."}, {"id": 29995239, "title": "Ethnic media", "abstract": "Ethnic media is media fashioned with a particular ethnic minority group or ethnic minority community in mind."}, {"id": 17046772, "title": "Fictional portrayals of psychopaths", "abstract": "Fictional portrayals of psychopaths, or sociopaths, are some of the most notorious in film and literature but may only vaguely or partly relate to the concept of psychopathy, which is itself used with varying definitions by mental health professionals, criminologists and others. The character may be identified as a diagnosed/assessed psychopath or sociopath within the fictional work itself, or by its creator when discussing their intentions with the work, which might be distinguished from opinions of audiences or critics based only on a character appearing to show traits or behaviors associated with an undefined popular stereotype of psychopathy.\nSuch characters are often portrayed in an exaggerated fashion and typically in the role of a villain or antihero, where the general characteristics of a psychopath are useful to facilitate conflict and danger. Because the definitions and criteria in the history of psychopathy have varied over the years and continue to change even now, many characters in notable films may have been designed to fall under the category of a psychopath at the time of the film's production or release, but not necessarily in subsequent years. There are several stereotypical images of psychopathy in both lay and professional accounts which only partly overlap and can involve contradictory traits: the charming con artist, the deranged serial killer, the successful corporate psychopath, or the chronic low-level offender with juvenile delinquency. The public concept reflects some combination of fear of the mythical bogeyman, fascination with human evil, and sometimes perhaps envy of people who might appear to go through life unencumbered by the same levels of guilt, anguish or insecurity."}, {"id": 55966147, "title": "Fishing expedition", "abstract": "A fishing expedition is an informal, pejorative term for a non-specific search for information, especially incriminating information. It is most frequently organized by policing authorities."}, {"id": 36791036, "title": "Genre-busting", "abstract": "\"Genre-busting\" is a term used occasionally in reviews of written work, music and visual art and refers to the author or artist's ability to cross over two or more established styles. For instance, in writing, to combine the horror genre with a western or hard-boiled detective story with science fiction. In music, the term may refer to a song combining styles or defying classification.\nThe sound of the term calls to mind other uses of \"buster\" such as \"crime buster\", \"Gangbusters\", \"Ghostbusters\", \"Dambusters\", etc.\nCreative people don't always feel comfortable working within an established category. So genre-busting within the publishing world has become a type of literary fiction. The publisher Atticus Books has gone so far as to declare, on their website: \"We specialize in genre-busting literary fiction\u2014i.e., titles that fall between the cracks of genre fiction and compelling narratives that feature memorable main characters.\"The Video Movie Guide 1998 stated in its foreword, \"In past years, reviews in VMG have been broken down into genre categories. Now, by popular demand, we are listing all movies together in alphabetical order.... So many movies today mix genres... and there are no clear-cut categories anymore.\"Interviewed in Mustard comedy magazine in 2005, writer Alan Moore said: \"I mean, this is probably a bad thing to say to someone from a comedy magazine, but I don't like genre. I think that genre was made up by some spotty clerk in WH Smiths in the 1920s to make his worthless fucking job a little easier for him: \"it'd be easier if these books said what they were about on the spine. Going on to say: \"In the novel, I'm writing, Jerusalem, there's an awful lot of funny stuff, and there's supernatural stuff; there's stuff in the prologue that's as good as Stephen King and it's just a description of my brother walking through a block of flats. It's horror. And there's social history, there's political stuff. Why not mix it all together? Because that's what life is actually like. We laugh, we cry, you know, we buy the t-shirt.\""}, {"id": 54681275, "title": "Geography of media and communication", "abstract": "Geography of media and communication (also known as communication geography, media geography and geographies of media) is an interdisciplinary research area bringing together human geography with media studies and communication theory. Research addressing the geography of media and communication seeks to understand how acts of communication and the systems they depend on both shape and are shaped by geographical patterns and processes. This topic addresses the prominence of certain types of communication in differing geographical areas, including how new technology allows for new types of communication for a multitude of global locations."}, {"id": 75816630, "title": "HRAX-FM", "abstract": "HRAX-FM (93.3 FM) is a commercial radio station in San Pedro Sula, Honduras with a ranchera and regional mexicana radio format. HRAX-FM is branded as \"Musiquera\" and it is owned by Asesores Gerenciales Multimedia."}, {"id": 75820296, "title": "HRVV-FM", "abstract": "HRVV-FM (99.7 FM)  is a commercial radio station in San Pedro Sula, Honduras with a Latin and urbano radio format. HRVV-FM is branded as \"Radioactiva\" and it is owned by Asesores Gerenciales Multimedia."}, {"id": 3313367, "title": "Independent media", "abstract": "Independent media refers to any media, such as  television, newspapers, or Internet-based publications, that is free of influence by government or corporate interests. The term has varied applications. Within the United States and other developed countries, it is often used synonymously with alternative media to refer to media that specifically distinguish themselves from the mainstream media. In international development, the term independent media is used for the development of new media outlets, particularly in areas where there is little to no existing media presence. \nResearch has found that independent media plays an important role in improving government accountability and reducing corruption."}, {"id": 26943774, "title": "Interactive transcripts", "abstract": "Interactive transcripts are a new tool for media consumption. Similar to subtitles in many ways, an interactive transcript is displayed beside the audio or video source. As the user hears the words being spoken, the matching words in the transcript are underlined or highlighted. Interactive transcripts allows users to interact with video in an entirely new way. Users can search the transcript of the video and navigate to an exact point by clicking on any word. Doing so greatly increases the retention of the material."}, {"id": 35226408, "title": "Lifestyle trends and media", "abstract": "Lifestyle changes have been increasing slowly since the introduction of media. Media \u2013 films, television shows, magazines, and more recently, the Internet (i.e. self-written blogs and popular websites) are the main sources of lifestyle influence around the world. Lifestyle changes include how people eat, dress, and communicate. Lifestyle trends have always been influenced by the wealthy and famous, whether they are spotted at leisure or in a paid advertisement.  At the dawn of the media age, the newspaper, popular magazines like Life, and TV allowed the general public glimpse lifestyles that before were only available to the imagination.  After its creation, the Internet became arguably the most powerful medium for spotting and influencing trends, not just by celebrities but by the average person. The computer era has changed the way people obtain their news, perspectives and communication. Magazines are still popular, but advertisers now often supply a web address where consumers can visit for more information than a print ad can provide. The average American household has two personal computers, making the Internet easily accessible. The rise of user-generated content is exemplified by the fact that anyone with Internet access can create a blog or an online journal, whether personal or commercial, which might detail someone's experience in a new restaurant, a purchased item of clothing or knickknack, or a review to a film.  With the advent of the Android phone and its relative ease of uploading photos to social media sites such as Facebook, one can get an idea of how quickly an idea, pub review, or coveted object can be shared. Advertisers have always been privy to the strength of word-of-mouth and have tapped into social media, including Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr to make their wares known. Douglas Kellner writes, \"Radio, television, film, and the other products of media culture provide materials out of which we forge our very identities; our sense of selfhood; our notion of what it means to be male or female; our sense of class, of ethnicity and race, of nationality, of sexuality; and of \"us\" and \"them.\"\""}, {"id": 2490371, "title": "Low culture", "abstract": "In society, the term low culture identifies the forms of popular culture that have mass appeal, often broadly appealing to the middle or lower cultures of any given society. This is in contrast to the forms of high culture that appeal to a smaller, often upper-class proportion of the populace. Culture theory proposes that both high culture and low culture are subcultures within a society, because the culture industry mass-produces each type of popular culture for every socio-economic class. Despite being viewed as characteristic of less-educated social classes, low culture is still often enjoyed by upper classes as well. This makes the content that falls under this categorization the most broadly consumed kind of media in a culture overall. Various forms of low culture can be found across a variety of cultures, with the physical objects composing these mediums often being constructed from less expensive, perishable materials. The phrase low culture has come to be viewed by some as a derogatory idea in and of itself, existing to put down elements of pop or tribal culture that others may deem to be \"inferior.\""}, {"id": 3538425, "title": "Media blackout", "abstract": "Media blackout is the censorship of news related to a certain topic, particularly in mass media, for any reason. A media blackout may be voluntary, or may in some countries be enforced by the government or state. The latter case is controversial in peacetime, as some regard it as a human rights violation and repression of free speech. Press blackout is a similar phrase, but refers specifically to printed media.\nMedia blackouts are used, in particular, in times of declared war, to keep useful intelligence from the enemy. In some cases formal censorship is used, in others the news media may cooperate, as in the UK D- (later DA-)Notice system in the Second World War."}, {"id": 35369684, "title": "Media consumption", "abstract": "Media consumption or media diet is the sum of information and entertainment media taken in by an individual or group. It includes activities such as interacting with new media, reading books and magazines, watching television and film, and listening to radio. An active media consumer must have the capacity for skepticism, judgement, free thinking, questioning, and understanding. Media consumption is to maximize the interests of consumers."}, {"id": 24270095, "title": "Media contacts database", "abstract": "In public relations (PR) and marketing, a media contacts database is a resource which catalogs the names, contact information, and other details about people who work in various media professions. These include journalists, reporters, editors, publishers, contributors, freelance journalists, opinion writers, social media personalities/ influencers, TV show anchors, radio show hosts, DJs, and others.\nA media contacts database usually contains the following information:\n\nFull name of the media contact,\nThe publication or channel they work for\nDesignations (past and present)\nTopics they cover, or their beat\nContact information found in public domains\nOnline presence like blogs and other social networking sites\nEducation Information"}, {"id": 34768888, "title": "Media depictions of body shape", "abstract": "Body shape refers to the many physical attributes of the human body that make up its appearance, including size and countenance. Body shape has come to imply not only sexual/reproductive ability, but wellness and fitness. In the West, slenderness is associated with happiness, success, youth, and social acceptability. Being overweight is associated with laziness. The media promote a weight-conscious standard for women more often than for men.   Deviance from these norms result in social consequences. The media perpetuate this ideal in various ways, particularly glorifying and focusing on thin actors and actresses, models, and other public figures while avoiding the use or image of overweight individuals. This thin ideal represents less than 15% of the American population."}, {"id": 68833730, "title": "Media fatigue", "abstract": "Media fatigue is psychological exhaustion due to information overload from any form of media, though it is generally from news media and social media. The advent of the internet has contributed widely to media fatigue with vast amounts of information easily accessible and easily disseminated. Psychological exhaustion caused by media fatigue can lead to several negative outcomes, including emotional instability, increased stress, feeling overwhelmed, or experiencing sensory overload. Media fatigue can then lead to media avoidance, or intentional selectivity in the type and amount of media that is consumed."}, {"id": 28783280, "title": "Media feeding frenzy", "abstract": "A media feeding frenzy is intense media coverage of a story of great interest to the public.\nThe 1998 Clinton\u2013Lewinsky scandal in the U.S. was a well-noted example of this.\nThe metaphor, drawing an analogy with feeding frenzies of groups of animals, was popularized by Larry Sabato's book Feeding Frenzy: Attack Journalism and American Politics.\nOther examples include media coverage of \"crime waves\" that often drive changes in criminal law to address problems that do not appear in the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), the most reliable indicator of actual crime in the U.S.;  unlike the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), the NCVS is not affected by changes in people's willingness to report crimes to law enforcement and in the willingness of law enforcement to forward UCRs to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for inclusion in national summaries.Sacco claimed that media outlets try to organize their reporting as much as possible around themes to help them amortize over several reports the work required to educate a journalist to the point where they can discuss a subject intelligently.  These themes become \"feeding frenzies\". The availability cascade helps explain the human psychology behind a media feeding frenzy.\nA commercial media organization could lose advertising if they had a media feeding frenzy that affected an advertiser's business: Advertisers don't want to feed the mouths that bite them, and have been known to modify where they spend their advertising budget accordingly. Commercial media disseminate negative information about advertisers only to the extent required to keep customers."}, {"id": 240072, "title": "Media literacy", "abstract": "Media literacy is an expanded conceptualization of literacy that includes the ability to access and analyze media messages as well as create, reflect and take action, using the power of information and communication to make a difference in the world. Media literacy is not restricted to one medium and is understood as a set of competencies that are essential for work, life, and citizenship. Media literacy education is the process used to advance media literacy competencies, and it is intended to promote awareness of media influence and create an active stance towards both consuming and creating media. Media literacy education is part of the curriculum in the United States and some European Union countries, and an interdisciplinary global community of media scholars and educators engages in knowledge and scholarly and professional journals and national membership associations."}, {"id": 16637103, "title": "Media monitoring", "abstract": "Media monitoring is the activity of monitoring the output of the print, online and broadcast media. It is based on analyzing a diverse range of media platforms in order to identify trends that can be used for a variety of reasons such as political, commercial and scientific purposes.\nIt can be conducted in a systematic way by comparing the content presented in the media with external sources, in an attempt of fact-checking, or in a less formal and time demanding manner by independent groups and media critics that aim to check the quality of what is available on the media, especially related to press freedom and focusing on the concept of responsibilizing the media organizations. In general, media monitoring focuses on developing insights, in various fields, of what is actually occurring while finding the balance to not overanalyze certain factors."}, {"id": 59676043, "title": "Media policy", "abstract": "Media policy / M. politics is a term describing choices involving legislation and political action organizing, supporting or  regulating the media, especially mass media, and the media industry.  Those actions will usually be prompted by pressures from public opinion, non-governmental organization, or from industry interest groups. They may also result from demands of political leaders.\nTraditionally, separate policies were applied to print media, radio, television, public broadcasting, mobile and communications. These have converged in the digital infrastructure. This digitalisation produces markets that still lack consistent and rigorous regulation. In instances where regulations exist, technical innovations outpace and overtake existing rules and give rise to copyright violations, dissemination of misinformation and disinformation, online bullying and harassment, and distribution of hate speech.  This has to be dealt with to defend intellectual property rights (see e.g. Digital Economy Act 2010) but artificial intelligence is eroding those protections. Efforts to address uses of digital media that create social harm are appearing across the globe.\nMedia policy take place at local, national, regional, and international levels and choices are influenced by political philosophies, governmental structures and processes, degrees of industry influence, and policy trajectories establish for previous forms of media and other industries.\nMedia politics is the subject of studies in media research and cultural studies."}, {"id": 31967388, "title": "Media reform", "abstract": "Media reform refers to proposed attempts to reform mass media towards an agenda which is more in tune with public needs and away from a perceived bias toward corporate, government or political biases. Media reform advocates also place a strong emphasis upon enabling those who are marginalized or semi-marginalized by their individual incomes, immutable characteristics or desperate conditions to possess access to means of publication and dissemination of information. They do not come from a concern with policy, or with a desire to democratize federal bureaucracies and regulations.A related concept, media justice, refers to an analytical framework and a regional, grassroots movement led by historically disenfranchised communities to transform media and cultural production, rights and policy in the service of social justice. The Media Justice Framework offers a new way to understand and redistribute media power to achieve a fair and accessible information and cultural apparatus that fulfils its promise to inform the public, watchdog power, and serve all segments of the public equally. The Movement for Media Justice believes that media production and distribution must be under the control of communities, not companies; and that achieving social justice victories requires a secondary strategy for media policy change."}, {"id": 52412294, "title": "Media Revenue Generation", "abstract": "Revenue generation is complete amount of money that is generated during a specific time period. The money is used to calculate business profits. Media houses make their money through direct payment and indirect payment. Direct payment is the money a consumer pays the media house in exchange for a good or service. This would be the payment from the consumer for a newspaper, paying to call into a radio station or paying to receive cable. Subscriptions are also another form of direct payment. In this instance the customer would pay the company, normally a magazine or a comic book a set fee of money under a contracted time and receive weekly or monthly issues. Indirect payment is money companies earn outside of what the consumer pays for. Companies use their platforms to place advertisements and direct payment by politicians for advertise amongst their content for consumers."}, {"id": 53294594, "title": "Media Standard Print", "abstract": "Media Standard Print is a publication of the Bundesverband Druck und Medien (BVDM) (German Printing and Media Industries Federation, Berlin), available on its website. The publication contains instructions on how to produce data and proofs that are to be sent to a printer. It is based on ProcessStandard Offset and therefore on the ISO standards 12647 and 15930. As such, it serves as the foundation for smooth cooperation between customer, prepress service provider and printer during media production, covering data formats, colour spaces, printing conditions, workflows, means of proofing, standards, black composition and much more.\nOnly those printing conditions adopted in ISO 12647-2 to -6 are permitted. In terms of data formats, only PDF files (ideally PDF/X-4 or PDF/X-1a) and TIFFs should be used for the delivery of individual images. Open files should be avoided. ICC profiles and the reference printing condition must be embedded with media neutral data or made available to the recipient.\nA Media Standard Print conforming contract proof must contain the FOGRA media wedge, the measurement record, the colour profiles used, the time and date of the proof. The print of the media wedge should be measured. Colour measurement should be carried out in accordance with ISO 13655:2009 in measurement mode M1 on a white backing and the visual evaluation of the proof including its comparison with printed copies should be under a standard illuminant in accordance with ISO 3664:2009 (confirmed 2015).\nMedia Standard Print proposes three possible workflows: a 'media neutral' one, a 'media specific' one and a 'classic media specific' one. The media neutral workflow (RGB colours, Lab colours and so on; PDF/X-4) offers advantages if it has not yet been decided what press will be used for printing, allowing the black composition to be adjusted. The disadvantage of the \u2018media neutral\u2019 workflow is a degree of rendering uncertainty, since the gamut mapping should be carried out using the unstandardized perceptual rendering intent."}, {"id": 1101552, "title": "Media strategy", "abstract": "Media strategy, as used in the advertising or content delivery (online broadcasting) industries, is concerned with how messages will be delivered to consumers or niche markets. It involves identifying the characteristics of the target audience or market as well as who should receive messages and defining the characteristics of the media that will be used for the delivery of the messages, with the intent being to influence the behavior of the target audience or market pertinent to the initial brief. Examples of such strategies today have revolved around an Integrated Marketing Communications approach whereby multiple channels of media are used i.e. advertising, public relations, events, direct response media, etc.\nThis concept has been used among proponents of entertainment-education programming where pro-social messages are embedded into dramatic episodic programs to change the audiences attitudes and behaviors in such areas as family planning, literacy, nutrition, smoking, etc."}, {"id": 33375023, "title": "Misogyny and mass media", "abstract": "Examples of misogyny exist in many published forms, within multiple cultures and well-observed works. Technological advances in the modern era have contributed proficient means to media and marketing to the resultant mass media in the 21st century. The merging of misogyny and mass media has made numerous examples where studies have concluded correlations between misogynous messages, both obvious and subliminal. Corresponding physical appearance of violence and hateful conduct may be seen relative to exposure."}, {"id": 32380102, "title": "Multi-step flow theory", "abstract": "The multi-step flow theory assumes ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders before being disseminated to a wider population. This theory was first introduced by sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld et al. in 1944 and elaborated by Elihu Katz and Lazarsfeld in 1955.The multi-step flow theory offers a larger range of interaction between opinion leaders, information  sources and audiences than the two-step model, which argues that information flows from mass media directly to influencers who then directly share it with their audience. This theory accounts more for the social nature of sharing information than the one-step or two-step flow theories. The two-step theory was popular when it was first introduced, but when it became difficult to actually measure opinion leaders' influence on the public's behavior and their opinions, the multi-step theory was developed. The multi-step theory argues that opinion leaders are influenced by multiple sources.The multi-step flow theory also states opinion leaders are affected more by \u201celite media\u201d than run-of-the-mill, mass media.  This is evident by political opinion leaders receiving their information from unconventional sources such as The Huffington Post, instead of Fox News or MSNBC.\nAccording to the multi-step flow theory, opinion leaders intervene between the \u201cmedia\u2019s direct message and the audience\u2019s reaction to that message.\u201d Opinion leaders tend to have the great effect on those they are most similar to\u2014based on personality, interests, demographics, or socio-economic factors. These leaders tend to influence others to change their attitudes and behaviors more quickly than conventional media because the audience is able to better identify or relate to an opinion leader than an article in a newspaper or a news program. This was confirmed in Lazarsfeld's 1940 study, The People's Choice, where Lazarsfeld studied Americans' opinions during presidential elections. He found that the mass media did not change people's behaviors much. However, personal attempts did achieve behavioral change. Lasarsfeld did work on another study with Katz published in 1955. This study, \u201cPersonal Influence,\u201d proved that opinion leaders look to mass media in their general area of interest, and then share them with their communities.This media influence theory shows that information dissemination is a social occurrence, which may explain why certain media campaigns do not alter audiences\u2019 attitudes.\nAn important factor of the multi-step flow theory is how the social influence is modified.  Information is affected by the social norms of each new community group that it enters.  It is also shaped by conflicting views surrounding it."}, {"id": 59091880, "title": "Multimodal anthropology", "abstract": "Multimodal anthropology is an emerging subfield of social cultural anthropology that encompasses anthropological research and knowledge production across multiple traditional and new media platforms and practices including film, video, photography, theatre, design, podcast, mobile apps, interactive games, web-based social networking, immersive 360 video and augmented reality. As characterized in American Anthropologist, multimodal anthropology is an \"anthropology that works across multiple media, but one that also engages in public anthropology and collaborative anthropology through a field of differentially linked media platforms\" (Collins, Durington & Gill). A multimodal approach also encourages anthropologists to reconsider the ways in which they conduct their research, to pay close attention to the role various media technologies and digital devices plays in the lives of their interlocutors, and how they these technologies redefine what fieldwork looks like."}, {"id": 39124817, "title": "Multimodality", "abstract": "Multimodality is the application of multiple literacies within one medium. Multiple literacies or \"modes\" contribute to an audience's understanding of a composition. Everything from the placement of images to the organization of the content to the method of delivery creates meaning. This is the result of a shift from isolated text being relied on as the primary source of communication, to the image being utilized more frequently in the digital age.  Multimodality describes communication practices in terms of the textual, aural, linguistic, spatial, and visual resources used to compose messages.While all communication, literacy, and composing practices are and always have been multimodal, academic and scientific attention to the phenomenon only started gaining momentum in the 1960s. Work by Roland Barthes and others has led to a broad range of disciplinarily distinct approaches. More recently, rhetoric and composition instructors have included multimodality in their coursework. In their position statement on Understanding and Teaching Writing: Guiding Principles, the National Council of Teachers of English state that \"'writing' ranges broadly from written language (such as that used in this statement), to graphics, to mathematical notation.\""}, {"id": 50217872, "title": "Non-linear media", "abstract": "Non-linear media is a form of audiovisual media that can be interacted with by the viewer, such as by selecting television shows to watch through a video on demand type service, by playing a video game, by clicking through a website, or by interacting through social media. Non-linear media is a move away from traditional linear media, in which content is selected by the publisher to be consumed and is then done so passively. There is no single specific form of non-linear media; rather, what might be considered non-linear changes as technology changes. Following the development and rise of digital non-linear media, the retronym linear (used in linear television, linear channels, etc.) was introduced to refer to programmed broadcasting."}, {"id": 6076115, "title": "Old media", "abstract": "Old media, or legacy media, are the mass media institutions that dominated prior to the Information Age; particularly print media, film studios, music studios, advertising agencies, radio broadcasting, and television.Old media institutions are centralized and communicate with one-way technologies to a generally anonymous mass audience. By definition, it is often dichotomized with New media, more often computer technologies that are interactive and comparatively decentralized; they enable people to telecommunicate with one another, due to their mass use and availability, namely through internet.Old Media companies have diminished in the last decade with the changing media landscape, namely the modern reliance on streaming and digitization of what was once analog, and the advent of simple worldwide connection and mass conversation. Old media, or \"legacy media\" conglomerates include Disney, Warner Media, ViacomCBS, Bertelsmann Publishers, and NewsCorp., owners of Fox news and entertainment, and span from books to audio to visual media. These conglomerates are often owned and inherited between families, such as the Murdochs of NewsCorp. Due to traditional media's heavy use in economics and political structures, it remains current regardless of New Media's emergence."}, {"id": 698374, "title": "Phone-in", "abstract": "In broadcasting, a phone-in or call-in is a programme format in which viewers or listeners are invited to air their live comments by telephone, usually in respect of a specific topic selected for discussion on the day of the broadcast. On radio (especially talk radio), it is common for an entire programme to be dedicated to a phone-in session. On television, phone-in's are often part of a wider discussion programme: a current example in the UK is the \"Jeremy Vine\" TV show.\nThe concept dates to the early radio era: a December 1924 BBC 5NG Nottingham phone-in programme is described in a 1925 Radio Times article: \"listeners ... enjoyed the novelty of hearing their own voices taking part\". A prior attempted phone-in to a BBC 2LO London programme \"led to such a rush on the telephones that the Post Office had to intervene\".Speech based Talk Radio UK was launched in 1995, with much of its programming featuring phone-ins. It also introduced the notion of the shock jock to the UK, with presenters like Caesar the Geezer and Tommy Boyd constructing heated discussions.\nIan Hutchby has researched power relations in phone ins, looking at arguments and confrontations.  Using conversation analysis, he describes how the host retains power through devices such as \"The Second Position\" \u2013 the concept of going second in a discussion, giving the host time to formulate a response.\nSimilarly, the last word is always the broadcast word. The public can choose to end the conversation, but they are doing so by withdrawing from the interactional arena (Hutchby, 1996: 94-5; Talbot et al.).\nIn 2007, the BBC suspended all phone-in competitions (but not voting) due to an internal inquiry into corruption in the production of these games in shows such as charity telethons after a nationwide inquiry into the whole process leading to the cancellation of ITV Play.\nIn Ireland Liveline is a popular afternoon phone in show broadcast by RT\u00c9 Radio 1 that is hosted by Joe Duffy. The phone in program usually focuses on consumer issues, current affairs and complaints from members of the public regarding various issues. The program and its presenter are frequently lampooned by numerous Irish comedians, one being David McSavage, who play on the popular perception that the program is merely an outlet for the angst of serial complainers and housewives while providing entertainment for those who revel in listening to despair and tales of misery delivered the callers. A quality of the show that is frequently satirized is Duffy's seemingly exasperated expressions of despair upon hearing of the plight of a caller."}, {"id": 53069992, "title": "Political economy of communications", "abstract": "The Political Economy of Communications is a branch of communication studies or media studies which studies the power relations that shape the communication of information from the mass media to its public. PEC (Political Economy of Communications) analyzes the power relations between the mass media system, information and communications technologies (ICTs) and the wider socioeconomic structure in which these operate, with a focus on understanding the historical and current state of technological developments. PEC has proliferated in the 2000s with the modernization of technology. The advancement of media has created conversation about the effects of colonialism and PEC."}, {"id": 7580342, "title": "Politico-media complex", "abstract": "The politico-media complex (PMC, also referred to as the political-media complex) is a name given to the network of relationships between a state's political and ruling classes and its media industry. It may also encompass other interest groups, such as law (and its enforcement), corporations and multinationals. The term PMC is used as a pejorative, to refer to the collusion between governments, individual politicians, and the media industry."}, {"id": 24297671, "title": "Popular music", "abstract": "Popular music is music with wide appeal that is typically distributed to large audiences through the music industry. These forms and styles can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no musical training.  It stands in contrast to both art music and traditional or \"folk\" music. Art music was historically disseminated through the performances of written music, although since the beginning of the recording industry, it is also disseminated through recordings. Traditional music forms such as early blues songs or hymns were passed along orally, or to smaller, local audiences.The original application of the term is to music of the 1880s Tin Pan Alley period in the United States. Although popular music sometimes is known as \"pop music\", the two terms are not interchangeable. Popular music is a generic term for a wide variety of genres of music that appeal to the tastes of a large segment of the population, whereas pop music usually refers to a specific musical genre within popular music. Popular music songs and pieces typically have easily singable melodies. The song structure of popular music commonly involves repetition of sections, with the verse and chorus or refrain repeating throughout the song and the bridge providing a contrasting and transitional section within a piece. From the 1960s through the mid-2000s, albums collecting songs were the dominant form for recording and consuming English-language popular music, in a period known as the album era.In the 2000s, with songs and pieces available as digital sound files, it has become easier for music to spread from one country or region to another. Some popular music forms have become global, while others have a wide appeal within the culture of their origin. Through the mixture of musical genres, new popular music forms are created to reflect the ideals of a global culture. The examples of Africa, Indonesia, and the Middle East show how Western pop music styles can blend with local musical traditions to create new hybrid styles."}, {"id": 7670949, "title": "Popular print", "abstract": "Popular prints is a term for printed images of generally low artistic quality which were sold cheaply in Europe and later the New World from the 15th to 18th centuries, often with text as well as images. They were some of the earliest examples of mass media. After about 1800, the types and quantity of images greatly increased, but other terms are usually used to categorise them."}, {"id": 74560589, "title": "PragerU Kids", "abstract": "PragerU Kids is the children's division of the conservative media organisation PragerU, created by Dennis Prager and kickstarted with venture capital from fossil fuel billionaires Dan and Farris Wilks. PragerU Kids came to wider media attention in the United States following the state of Florida's decision to allow PragerU Kids videos to be shown in the state's schools.Much of the content of PragerU Kids has come under scrutiny of media experts and educators, with examples being given of PragerU Kids videos which downplay the harm of slavery in the United States, distort the history of the American Civil War, demonize the Black Lives Matter movement, and attempt to analogize open climate change denial with the Warsaw Uprising. Other messages within PragerU Kids videos include attempts to morally justify the British colonisation of India under the pretext of spreading Christianity, attack Canada's national healthcare service, and defend Israel against allegations of human rights abuses. In one PragerU Kids video, George Floyd, an American man who was murdered by a police officer who knelt on his neck, was described by PragerU Kids primarily as a \"Black man who resisted arrest.\" Some of the episodes are narrated by conservative media personalities Tucker Carlson and Candace Owens."}, {"id": 1700192, "title": "Pundit", "abstract": "A pundit is a person who offers mass media opinion or commentary on a particular subject area (most typically politics, the social sciences, technology or sport)."}, {"id": 41792410, "title": "Radical media", "abstract": "Radical media are communication outlets that disperse action-oriented political agendas utilizing existing communication infrastructures and its supportive users. These types of media are differentiated from conventional mass communications through its progressive content, reformist culture, and democratic process of production and distribution. Advocates support its alternative and oppositional view of mass media,  arguing that conventional outlets are politically biased through their production and distribution. However, there are some critics that exist in terms of validating the authenticity of the content, its political ideology, long-term perishability, and the social actions led by the media.The term \"radical media\" was introduced by John D. H. Downing in his 1984 study of rebellious communication and social movements emphasizing alternative media's political and goal-oriented activism. Radical media manifests new social movements' individualistic, and humanistic socio-political model of disintermediation.  While the coverage of this term coincides with other branches of alternative media, namely tactical and activist media, it differs from conventional mass media in terms of its ideological and behavioural practices, making radical media significant in terms of its amplification of social movements. Downing describes Radical Media as being \"generally small-scale and in many different forms, that express an alternative vision to hegemonic policies, and perspectives.\" Hence, the term categorizes various forms of alternative media that are progressive, reformist and post-materialistic. Some media that are categorized by radical media include, but are not restricted to, community media, student media, tactical media, subcultural media, social movement media, citizen media, and alternative journalism. Groups that fall under radical media emphasize egalitarian channels characterized by inclusive, action-driven, prefigurative, and marginal practices that challenge conventional media."}, {"id": 31614392, "title": "Reallocation (media)", "abstract": "Reallocation is a term in the media industry used to describe the practice of relocating an unsuccessful series that was originally developed for a broadcast network onto a cable network in hopes of gaining the attention and interest of a niche audience as well as  growing a larger audience.\nReasons for reallocation are not always due to cancellation. Reallocation is  also used to regain expenses lost due to production fees on under performing content. In some cases reallocation is used in order to promote an unsuccessful series.\nAlthough not a common practice,"}, {"id": 41118442, "title": "Residual media", "abstract": "Residual media refers to media that are not new media, but are nonetheless still prevalent in society. The term is offered as an alternative to the term old media. Residual media attempts to act as a corrective to the idea that when media become old, they absolutely become obsolete, or \u201cdead media.\u201d Residual media \u201creveals that, ultimately, new cultural phenomena rely on encounters with the old\u201d. While old media can, and often does, become obsolete, they do not die. Instead, old media persist in our culture\u2014either in storage units or landfills, or as cultural capital for niche groups\u2014or they can be moved to other parts of the world and other cultures. Regardless of where they end up, the media is not dead, they are still very much living, changing, and evolving. Residual media helps show that the transition between old and new media is not simplistic, well-defined, or sweeping. Examples of residual media include film cameras and film, record players and LP records, radio, letters, and postcards, etc."}, {"id": 50493521, "title": "Slow media", "abstract": "Slow media is a movement focusing on the pace of media production and consumption in the digital age. It advocates for alternative ways of making and using media that are more intentional, more enjoyable, longer lasting, better researched/written/designed, more ethical, and of higher quality overall.Slow Media developed in response to complex media formats and instant communication methods characteristic of digital culture, in which \"high volumes of information are updated in real-time and are perpetually at your fingertips.\" Supporters of Slow Media criticize the spheres in which media is produced, shared, and consumed for valuing immediacy and dramatic presentation, in order to attract attention and maximize audiences, over the substance and credibility of a work."}, {"id": 59035422, "title": "Social media as a news source", "abstract": "Social media as a news source is the use of online social media platforms rather than moreover traditional media platforms to obtain news. Just as television turned a nation of people who listened to media content into watchers of media content in the 1950s to the 1980s, the emergence of social media has created a nation of media content creators. Almost half of Americans use social media as a news source, according to the Pew Research Center.As a participatory platform that allows for user-generated content and sharing content within one's own virtual network, using social media as a news source allows users to engage with news in a variety of ways, including:\n\nConsume news\nDiscover news\nShare or repost news\nPost their own photos, videos, or reports of news (i.e., engage in citizen or participatory journalism)\nComment on newsUsing social media as a news source has become an increasingly more popular way for old and young adults alike to obtain information. There are ways that social media positively affects the world of news and journalism but it is important to acknowledge that there are also ways in which social media has a negative affect on the news that people consume such as false news, biased news, and disturbing content."}, {"id": 26318952, "title": "Soft media", "abstract": "Soft media comprises media organizations that primarily deal with commentary, entertainment, arts and lifestyle.  Soft media can take the form of television programs, magazines or print articles. The communication from soft media sources has been referred to as soft news as a way of distinguishing it from serious journalism, called hard news.Soft news is defined as information that is primarily entertaining or personally useful. Soft news is often contrasted with hard news, which Harvard political scientist Thomas Patterson defines as the \"coverage of breaking events involving top leaders, major issues, or significant disruptions in the routines of daily life\". While the purposes of both hard and soft news include informing the public, the two differ from one another in both the information contained within them and the methods that are used to present that information. Communicated through forms of soft media, soft news is usually contained in outlets that primarily serve as sources of entertainment, such as television programs, magazines, or print articles."}, {"id": 72554, "title": "Sound bite", "abstract": "A sound bite or soundbite is a short clip of speech or music extracted from a longer piece of audio, often used to promote or exemplify the full length piece. In the context of journalism, a sound bite is characterized by a short phrase or sentence that captures the essence of what the speaker was trying to say, and is used to summarize information and entice the reader or viewer. The term was coined by the U.S. media in the 1970s. Since then, politicians have increasingly employed sound bites to summarize their positions.\nDue to its brevity, the sound bite often overshadows the broader context in which it was spoken, and can be misleading or inaccurate. The insertion of sound bites into news broadcasts or documentaries is open to manipulation, leading to conflict over journalistic ethics."}, {"id": 542704, "title": "Spoiler (media)", "abstract": "A spoiler is an element of a disseminated summary or description of a media narrative that reveals significant plot elements, with the implication that the experience of discovering the plot naturally, as the creator intended it, has been robbed of its full effect. Typically, the conclusion of a plot, including the climax and ending, is regarded as highly susceptible to spoilers. Plot twists are also prone to spoilers. Any narrative medium can produce spoilers, although they are usually associated with movies and television shows. Some people attempt to avoid being \"spoiled\" while others seek out spoilers to learn as much as possible about a narrative before experiencing it. Spoilers have become more common in the present day with the rise of social media, which provides an outlet for people to spread spoilers.\nThere are three types of spoilers: short spoilers, long spoilers, and thematic spoilers. Short spoilers reveal the plot ending in a very brief and less detailed manner, without any summary or explanation of themes in the story, typically spanning one to three sentences. Long spoilers usually provide more context and range between two and five sentences. They provide a summary and reveal the ending of a story. Lastly, thematic spoilers reveal a story's unifying theme as well as providing a synopsis of the plot and revealing the ending. They range from three to six sentences in length. The general consensus is that there are only negative effects of spoilers. However, research shows that it is short and long spoilers that can cause negative effects, while thematic spoilers generally have a positive effect."}, {"id": 51594410, "title": "Spreadability", "abstract": "In media studies and marketing, spreadability is the wide distribution and circulation of information on media platforms.\nSpreadability contrasts with the \"stickiness\" of aggregating media in centralized places.\nThe original copy of the (textual, visual, audio) information does not need to be replicated perfectly in order to display the characteristics of spreadability, rather the original can be manipulated or maintained in its original form and still be a product of this process. Simply, this concept refers to the capability of media being spread."}, {"id": 62008969, "title": "Synthetic media", "abstract": "Synthetic media (also known as AI-generated media, media produced by generative AI, personalized media, personalized content, and colloquially as deepfakes) is a catch-all term for the artificial production, manipulation, and modification of data and media by automated means, especially through the use of artificial intelligence algorithms, such as for the purpose of misleading people or changing an original meaning. Synthetic media as a field has grown rapidly since the creation of generative adversarial networks, primarily through the rise of deepfakes as well as music synthesis, text generation, human image synthesis, speech synthesis, and more. Though experts use the term \"synthetic media,\" individual methods such as deepfakes and text synthesis are sometimes not referred to as such by the media but instead by their respective terminology (and often use \"deepfakes\" as a euphemism, e.g. \"deepfakes for text\" for natural-language generation; \"deepfakes for voices\" for neural voice cloning, etc.) Significant attention arose towards the field of synthetic media starting in 2017 when Motherboard reported on the emergence of AI altered pornographic videos to insert the faces of famous actresses. Potential hazards of synthetic media include the spread of misinformation, further loss of trust in institutions such as media and government, the mass automation of creative and journalistic jobs and a retreat into AI-generated fantasy worlds. Synthetic media is an applied form of artificial imagination."}, {"id": 4463773, "title": "Tactical media", "abstract": "Tactical media is a term coined in 1996, to denote a form of media activism that privileges temporary interventions in the media sphere over the creation of permanent and alternative media outlets."}, {"id": 27156802, "title": "War of ideas", "abstract": "In the political field, a war of ideas is a confrontation among the ideologies that nations and political groups use to promote their domestic and foreign interests. In a war of ideas, the battle space is the public mind: the belief of the people who compose the population. This ideological conflict is about winning the hearts and minds of the people. Waging a war of ideas can involve think tanks, television programs, journalistic articles (newspaper, magazine, weblogs), government policies, and public diplomacy. In the monograph: 'Wars of Ideas and The War of Ideas' (2008), Antulio J. Echevarria defined the war of ideas as: A clash of visions, concepts, and images, and \u2014 especially \u2014 the interpretation of them. They are, indeed, genuine wars, even though the physical violence might be minimal, because they serve a political, socio-cultural, or economic purpose, and they involve hostile intentions or hostile acts. . . . Four general categories [include] . . .  (i) intellectual debates, (ii) ideological wars, (iii) wars over religious dogma, and (iv) advertising campaigns. All of [the categories] are essentially about power and influence, just as with wars over territory and material resources, and their stakes can run very high indeed."}, {"id": 37767093, "title": "Whitewashing (beauty)", "abstract": "Whitewashing in beauty is a phenomenon in the intersection of the fashion industry, digital photography, mass media, marketing and advertising. It describes a situation in which the skin tone of non-white people \u2013 when depicted in magazine covers, advertisements, commercials, music videos, etc. \u2013 is digitally retouched or physically modified to appear whiter. Whitewashing can also present itself in the alteration of hair texture to resemble Eurocentric beauty ideals of straight hairPassage(s) to be sourced. Whitewashing can be seen in the form of skin whitening, either digitally or with harmful skin bleaching products, or by chemically relaxing textured hair to make it conform to Eurocentric beauty standardsPassage(s) to be sourced. Additionally, plastic surgery can be used to alter features to make them appear more European, such as double eyelid surgery.\nWhitewashing has been seen for years in the media, through film, photography, advertising, etc. Whitewashing in Hollywood is a prevalent issue, often attributed to the lack of racial diversity in the industry itself. Advertising companies often will airbrush their models to make them appear to have lighter skin, as seen in the L'Or\u00e9al campaign with Beyonc\u00e9 in 2008.Whitewashing can also be seen when a film or television series based on a book or other precedent decides to rewrite a non-white role as white and use a white actor to portray the role. This is not to be confused with blackface, which is when a person who is not Black attempts to portray a darker skin tone with makeup or digital editing. This type of whitewashing is most common in the film industry and has been an issue since the beginning of Hollywood. More people of color are being represented in the industry as of late, but whitewashing remains a prevalent issue that can affect self-image of young children whose races have been marginalized in film.\nCultural whitewashing is also common in the media, in which a culture's traditions are tweaked to satisfy Western stereotypes, such as in the popular film Step Up."}, {"id": 1585777, "title": "Youth-led media", "abstract": "Youth-led media is any effort created, planned, implemented, and reflected upon by young people in the form of media, including websites, newspapers, television shows and publications."}], "id": 696790}, {"title": "Religion", "pages": [{"id": 25414, "title": "Religion", "abstract": "Religion is a range of social-cultural systems, including designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relate humanity to supernatural, transcendental, and spiritual elements\u2014although there is no scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion. Different religions may or may not contain various elements ranging from the divine, sacredness, faith, and a supernatural being or beings.Religious practices may include rituals, sermons, commemoration or veneration (of deities or saints), sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances, initiations, matrimonial and funerary services, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, or public service. Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred texts, symbols, and holy places, that primarily aim to give life meaning. Religions may contain symbolic tales that may attempt to explain the origin of life, the universe, and other phenomena; some followers believe these to be true stories; others regard them as myth. Traditionally, both faith and reason have been considered sources of religious beliefs.There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, though nearly all of them have regionally based, relatively small followings. Four religions\u2014Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism\u2014account for over 77% of the world's population, and 92% of the world either follows one of those four religions or identifies as nonreligious, meaning that the remaining 9,000+ faiths account for only 8% of the population combined. The religiously unaffiliated demographic includes those who do not identify with any particular religion, atheists, and agnostics, although many in the demographic still have various religious beliefs.Many world religions are also organized religions, most definitively including the Abrahamic religions Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, while others are arguably less so, in particular folk religions, indigenous religions, and some Eastern religions. A portion of the world's population are members of new religious movements. Scholars have indicated that global religiosity may be increasing due to religious countries having generally higher birth rates.The study of religion comprises a wide variety of academic disciplines, including theology, philosophy of religion, comparative religion, and social scientific studies. Theories of religion offer various explanations for its origins and workings, including the ontological foundations of religious being and belief."}, {"id": 29343636, "title": "Bantu religion", "abstract": "Bantu religion is the system of beliefs and legends of the Bantu people of Africa. Although Bantu peoples account for several hundred different ethnic groups, there is a high degree of homogeneity in Bantu cultures and customs, just as in Bantu languages. Many Bantu cultures traditionally believed in a supreme god whose name is a variation of Nyambe/Nzambe.The phrase \"Bantu tradition\" usually refers to the common, recurring themes that are found in all, or most, Bantu cultures across Africa."}, {"id": 64504593, "title": "Colloquium on Violence & Religion", "abstract": "The Colloquium on Violence and Religion (COV&R) is an international organization dedicated to \u201cexploring, critiquing, and developing\u201d the mimetic theory proposed by the French historian, literary critic, and anthropological philosopher Ren\u00e9 Girard. Membership includes scholars of theology, religious studies, literary studies, philosophy, psychology, and other academic fields as well as clergy and other practitioners.\nGirard's work focused on the sources of human violence in mimetic (unconsciously imitative) desire and the centrality of religion in the formation of culture through the management of violence (the single-victim mechanism or scapegoat effect), but the scope of the Colloquium on Violence & Religion's interest has expanded beyond violence to mimetic desire's positive potential and beyond religion to other disciplines.\nThe Colloquium on Violence & Religion is affiliated with regional organizations around the world devoted to Girard's work, mimetic theory, and peacemaking."}, {"id": 44264111, "title": "Detraditionalization", "abstract": "In social theory, detraditionalization refers to the erosion of tradition in religion (secularization, agnosticism, religious disaffiliation) and society in postmodernism.\nSubscribing individuals in traditional societies believe in established, timeless, authoritative orders and values, above the individual, and timeless attainable goals. Such beliefs may manifest as specific behavior.\nFactors that contribute to loss of tradition are endorsement of individual choice and responsibility or the \"sacred\" (in \u00c9mile Durkheim's sense of the term) individual itself in democratic societies, and the revolution in communications. Among the theorists who believe that society is moving from a modernity that has been largely traditional to a post-traditional time is Anthony Giddens, Baron Giddens."}, {"id": 75728487, "title": "Divinity of winds (Shang dynasty)", "abstract": "Winds (Old Chinese: *pr\u0259m, modern Chinese: f\u0113ng) were deified and widely worshipped by the Chinese Shang dynasty (c.\u20091600 \u2013 1046 BC). The Shang identified various types of winds, each associated with a wind deity, as well as the phoenix. The winds, organized into four directions, were perceived as representatives of the Shang high god Di, carrying his cosmic will. In the Shang dynasty's perception, the winds possessed divine authority and were able to affect various royal affairs. Examples yielded from Shang oracle bone script reveal a large number of texts concerning rituals dedicated to the winds, especially to appease the wind gods to avoid calamities.The Shang differentiated winds as natural phenomena from deities perceived as able to control them. Studying linguistic elements of Shang characters referring to those notions, scholars have discovered the separation of wind and their deities in different contexts. Oracle bone inscriptions already illustrate that the supreme deity Di possessed the utmost authorities over nature, having the power to send winds along with rain and clouds. The phoenix, identified as a controller of winds, was called \"Messenger of Di\" (\u53f2\u98a8) and received its own sacrifices. The deities received animal offerings, of which the majority were canine species, indicated in the oracle bones."}, {"id": 32116915, "title": "Faith literate", "abstract": "Faith literate describes the ability of an individual to become knowledgeable of  other religions and faith other than the one a person believes in."}, {"id": 57701128, "title": "Kongo religion", "abstract": "Kongo religion (Kikongo: Bukongo) encompasses the traditional beliefs of the Bakongo people. Due to the highly centralized position of the Kingdom of Kongo, its leaders were able to influence much of the traditional religious practices across the Congo Basin. As a result, many other ethnic groups and kingdoms in West-Central Africa, like the Chokwe and Mbundu, adopted elements of Bakongo spirituality.The spirituality is based on a complex animistic system and a pantheon of spirits. The principle Creator God of the world is Nzambi Mpungu, the sovereign master, and his female counterpart, Nzambici. While Nzambi Mpungu, who gave birth to the universe and the spirits who inhabit it, is vital to the spirituality, ancestor veneration is the core principle.The Bakongo cosmos is split between two worlds: the top half representing the physical world, or ku nseke and the bottom half representing the spiritual world, or ku mp\u00e8mba. Expert healers, known as Banganga, undergo extensive training to commune with the ancestors in the spiritual realms and seek guidance from them."}, {"id": 72327819, "title": "Medieval ecclesiastic historiography", "abstract": "Medieval ecclesiastic historiography encompasses the historiographic production by the Clergymen of the European Middle Ages, who created their own style of developing history and passing it on to posterity. It originated with Eusebius of Caesarea, who molded a new way of writing. He gathered several followers who began copying him and propagating his model, even if indirectly.It was generally characterized by the proposal of exposing the goals and methods of the Historians in their work. They sought to clarify their purpose and how they had managed to gather the necessary information for each of their texts. The dominant method was narration and their main goal was to pass on the information to future times. There were serious problems in making the works, the principal one being the search for documents (rare) and the various inconsistencies among the works, resulting from forgeries in many cases.Despite its problems, the ecclesiastic historiography of the Middle Ages had its importance in the development of History as an academic discipline, according to the French historian Bernard Guen\u00e9e. It also left a legacy that includes the development of auxiliary sciences such as bibliography, epigraphy, archeology, and genealogy."}, {"id": 28193343, "title": "Nontheistic religion", "abstract": "Nontheistic religions (not to be confused with atheism) are traditions of thought within a religious context\u2014some otherwise aligned with theism, others not\u2014in which nontheism informs religious beliefs or practices. Nontheism has been applied and plays significant roles in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. While many approaches to religion exclude nontheism by definition, some inclusive definitions of religion show how religious practice and belief do not depend on the presence of a god or gods. For example, Paul James and Peter Mandaville distinguish between religion and spirituality, but provide a definition of the term that avoids the usual reduction to \"religions of the book\":\n\nReligion can be defined as a relatively-bounded system of beliefs, symbols and practices that addresses the nature of existence, and in which communion with others and Otherness is lived as if it both takes in and spiritually transcends socially-grounded ontologies of time, space, embodiment and knowing."}, {"id": 98929, "title": "Odinala", "abstract": "Odinani or Odinala (Igbo: \u1eccd\u1ecbnan\u1ecb/\u1ecc\u0300d\u1ecb\u0300n\u00e0l\u00e0), is the traditional cultural belief and practice of the Igbo people of south east Nigeria. These terms, as used here in the Igbo language, are synonymous with the traditional Igbo \"religious system\" which was not considered separate from the social norms of ancient or traditional Igbo societies. Theocratic in nature, spirituality played a huge role in their everyday lives. Although it has largely been supplanted by Christianity, the indigenous belief system remains in strong effect among the rural and village populations of the Igbo, where it has at times influenced the colonial religions. Odinani is a pantheistic and polytheistic faith, having a strong central deity at its head. All things spring from this deity. Although a pantheon of other gods and spirits, these being Ala, Amadi\u1ecdha, Anyanw\u1ee5, Ekwensu, Ikenga, exists in the belief system, as it does in many other Traditional African religions, the lesser deities prevalent in Odinani serve as helpers or elements of Chukwu, the central deity.Lesser spirits known as \u00e1gb\u00e0r\u00e0 or \u00e1r\u00fas\u00ed operate below the other gods and higher spirits. These lesser spirits represent natural forces; agbara as a divine force manifests as separate ar\u1ee5s\u1ecb in the Igbo pantheon. A concept of 'the eye of sun or God' (Anyanwu, Igbo: \u00e1ny\u00e1 \u00e1nw\u1ee5\u0301) exists as a masculine and feminine solar deity which forms a part of the solar veneration among the Nri-Igbo in northern Igboland. Ar\u1ee5s\u1ecb are mediated by Dibia and other priests who do not contact the high god directly. Through \u00e1f\u00e0, 'divination', the laws and demands of the ar\u1ee5s\u1ecb are communicated to the living. Ar\u1ee5s\u1ecb are venerated in community shrines around roadsides and forests while smaller shrines are located in the household for ancestor veneration. Deceased ancestors live in the spirit world where they can be contacted. Below the ar\u1ee5s\u1ecb are minor and more general spirits known as mm\u00fa\u1ecd loosely defined by their perceived malevolent or benign natures. These minor spirits are not venerated and are sometimes considered the lost souls of the dead. Ancestor worship and the worship of various gods and spirits, form the main component of the traditional Igbo religion, standing in contrast with Abrahamic religions.The number of people practicing Igbo religion decreased drastically in the 20th century with the influx of Christian missionaries under the auspices of the British colonial government in Nigeria. In some cases, Igbo traditional religion practice was syncretised with Christianity, but in many cases indigenous rites were demonised by Christian missionaries who pointed out the practice of human sacrifice and some other cultural practices that were illegal under the colonial government. Earlier missionaries referred to many indigenous religious practices as juju. Igbo religion is most present today in harvest ceremonies such as new yam festival (\u1ecb\u0301w\u00e1 j\u00ed) and masquerading traditions such as mmanw\u1ee5 and Ekpe.\nRemnants of Igbo religious rites spread among African descendants in the Caribbean and North America in era of the Atlantic slave trade. Igbo \u1ecd\u0301b\u1ecb\u0300\u00e0 was transferred to the British West Indies and Guyana as obeah and aspects of Igbo masquerading traditions can be found among the festivals of the Garifuna people and jonkonnu in the West Indies and North Carolina."}, {"id": 23003, "title": "Philosophy of religion", "abstract": "Philosophy of religion is \"the philosophical examination of the central themes and concepts involved in religious traditions\". Philosophical discussions on such topics date from ancient times, and appear in the earliest known texts concerning philosophy. The field is related to many other branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epistemology, logic and ethics.The philosophy of religion differs from religious philosophy in that it seeks to discuss questions regarding the nature of religion as a whole, rather than examining the problems brought forth by a particular belief-system. It can be carried out dispassionately by those who identify as believers or non-believers."}, {"id": 45118930, "title": "Recovering from Religion", "abstract": "Recovering from Religion (RfR) is an international non-profit organization that helps people who have left religion, are in process of leaving, or are dealing with problems arising out of theistic doubt or non-belief. RfR provides support groups, telephone and chat helplines, an online peer support community, and online meetings for \"people in their most urgent time of need\". It is headquartered in Kansas City, Kansas."}, {"id": 51428864, "title": "Reform (religion)", "abstract": "A religious reform (from Latin re-: \"back, again\", and formare: \"to form\"; i.e. put together: \"to restore, reconstruct, rebuild\") aims at the reform of religious teachings. It is not to be confused with an organizational reform of a religious community, though mostly this is a consequence of a reform of religious teachings."}, {"id": 35018021, "title": "Religion and peacebuilding", "abstract": "Religion and peacebuilding refer to the study of religion's role in the development of peace. \nNathan C. Funk and Christina J. Woolner categorize these approaches into three models. The first is \u201cpeace through religion alone\u201d. This proposes to attain world peace through devotion to a given religion. Opponents claim that advocates generally want to attain peace through their particular religion only and have little tolerance of other ideologies. \nThe second model, a response to the first, is \u201cpeace without religion\u201d. Critics claim that it is overly simplistic and fails to address other causes of conflict as well as the peace potential of religion. It is also said that this model excludes the many contributions of religious people in the development of peace. Another critique claims that both approaches require bringing everyone into their own ideology.\nThe third and final approach is known as \u201cpeace with religion\u201d. This approach focuses on the importance of coexistence and interfaith dialogue. Gerrie ter Haar suggests that religion is neither inherently good nor bad for peace, and that its influence is undeniable. Peace with religion, then, emphasises promoting the common principles present in every major religion.\nA major component of religion and peacebuilding is faith-based non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Douglas Johnston points out that faith-based NGOs offer two distinct advantages. The first is that since faith-based NGOs are very often locally based, they have immediate influence within that community. He argues that \u201cit is important to promote indigenous ownership of conflict prevention and peacebuilding initiatives as early in the process as possible.\u201d The second advantage Johnston presents is that faith-based NGOs carry moral authority that contributes to the receptivity of negotiations and policies for peace."}, {"id": 75435802, "title": "Religion of the Shang dynasty", "abstract": "The religion of the Shang dynasty, practiced in ancient China from c.\u20091600 BC to c.\u20091046 BC, involved practitioners communicating with deified beings, including deceased ancestors and supernatural gods. The primary methods of spiritual veneration were divinations, carried out on oracle bones, and sacrifices of living beings. The Shang dynasty also had large-scale constructions of tombs, which reflects their belief in the afterlife, along with sacred places. Numerous Shang vessels, as well as oracle bones, have been excavated in the kingdom's capital Yin. They reveal a large number of honored deities, most of which came from the Shang's extensive observations of the surrounding world. Headed by the god Shangdi, the deities form a diversified pantheon.\nThe Shang religion, accounting for a large portion of court life, played an important role for its adherents. The deities worshipped received various honorary ceremonies. The Shang astronomers created a sophisticated calendar system based on astronomical observations. Complying with the calendar, diviners and sacrificial practitioners conducted large-scale rituals aimed at the gods. Regional practice became existent, as personal estates maintained independent practitioners. Generally, they all worshipped the same deities for common purposes. Mass offerings to gods, formalized over time, were held for divine support and welfare of the state.\nThe Shang religion originated in the Yellow River valley, heartland of the Huaxia civilization from 1600 to 1046 BC. Although it had been practiced much earlier, the first inscribed oracle bones of this religion only date back to the mid-13th century BC, during the reign of Wu Ding. Throughout over two centuries, the dynasty increased its cultural influence and experienced cultural exchanges by means of war. After 1046 BC, the Zhou dynasty that replaced the Shang gradually assimilated elements of Shangdi into its governing beliefs. Throughout millennia of royal and imperial eras, many elements of this religion were integrated and became parts of Chinese religious beliefs. In the modern period, Shangdi remains a cultural figure, and the dynasty's calendar originally used for religion is now important in traditional events of China and influenced countries."}, {"id": 66097413, "title": "Religionym and confessionym", "abstract": "Religionym (from Latin: religio / religion, and Greek: \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 / name) and confessionym (from Latin: confessio / confession, and Greek: \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 / name) are polysemic terms, and neologisms, that have several distinctive meanings, generally related (from the semantic point of view) to religious (confessional) terminology, but are (in their specific meanings) defined and used differently among scholars. As a consequence of a wide variety of uses, specific meanings of those terms can be mutually distinctive, but also overlapping. Some scholars have used one or the other term as designations for a particular onomastic class that encompasses the proper names of religions and cults (like: Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam), while others have used the same terms (one or the other) as names for a particular anthroponymic class, encompassing the proper names that designate religious adherents (like: Hindus, Buddhists, Christians, Muslims). In scholarly literature, both terms (religionym and confessionym) are sometimes also used in much broader meaning, as designations for all terms that are semantically related to religious (confessional) terminology.In the English-speaking world, lexical corpus that encompasses various words, terms and expressions that are related to the religious sphere of life is most commonly referred to as religious lexis, or religious lexicon. Those linguistic terms cover all of those widest meanings that were occasionally assigned (by some authors) to the terms religionym and confessionym, thus relieving them of such general uses, and consequently allowing the standardization of more specific uses for both of those terms.\nIn recent years, several scholarly attempts were made in order to differentiate between the existing uses, and thus define the preferred meanings of those terms, but no general agreement has been reached among scholars, and the use of both terms continues to depend on the context given to them by individual authors, in accordance with their preferred terminological traditions.The problem of linguistic standardization of various neologisms (like religionym and confessionym) is generally related to the wider question of proper formation and use of onomastic terms. Such issues have gained importance in scholarly circles, since international surveys among experts revealed the existence of similar challenging issues, related to the process of terminological standardization within the field."}, {"id": 1854919, "title": "Religious naturalism", "abstract": "Religious naturalism is a framework for religious orientation in which a naturalist worldview is used to respond to types of questions and aspirations that are parts of many religions. It has been described as \"a perspective that finds religious meaning in the natural world.\"Religious naturalism can be considered intellectually, as a philosophy, and it can be embraced as a part of, or as the focus of, a personal religious orientation. Advocates have stated that it can be a significant option for people who are unable to embrace religious traditions in which supernatural presences or events play prominent roles, and that it provides \u201ca deeply spiritual and inspiring religious vision\u201d that is particularly relevant in a time of ecological crisis."}, {"id": 70238954, "title": "Samnite religion", "abstract": "The Samnites were an ancient Italic people who lived in modern south-central Italy, placing them between the Latins to the north and the Greek settlements to the south. Consequently, the Samnites had anthropomorphic deities shared with both Rome and Greece, especially after their conquest of Campania at the end of the fourth century BCE.   There is additional evidence that suggests the Samnites also believed in spirits called numina. Numina are believed to have been kinless, animistic spirits that could take human form to walk amongst the living. To the Samnites, having good relations with these spirits was of the utmost importance. To honor these deities, the Samnites would sacrifice either living things or make votive offerings.\nThe Samnites practiced a type of sacrifice called the ver sacrum. In this kind of sacrifice, infants were offered to the god Mamers in hopes of more cattle and offspring. Once they reached adulthood they would be exiled from their community. Superstition was very important in Samnite religion, and they believed that magic and talismans could influence reality. Warriors are said to have been vowed to the gods that they would not retreat in battle under any circumstance, and betraying these vows were forbidden. Sanctuaries were a pillar of Samnite religion and they served many functions, such as marking transhumance routes and establishing borders. From the third century onwards, Samnite sanctuaries slowly became abandoned due to increasing Roman influence in the area that would ultimately result in the extinction of Samnite civilization and language."}, {"id": 30875, "title": "Theocracy", "abstract": "Theocracy is a form of government in which one or more deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries who manage the government's daily affairs."}, {"id": 21846129, "title": "Theology of religions", "abstract": "The theology of religions is the branch of theology (mostly represented by Christian, Hindu, Islamic and Jewish theology) and religious studies that attempts to theologically evaluate the phenomena of religions. Three important schools within Christian theology of religions are pluralism, inclusivism, and exclusivism, which describe the relation of other religious traditions to Christianity and attempt to answer questions about the nature of God and salvation."}, {"id": 682534, "title": "Yoruba religion", "abstract": "The Yoruba religion (Yoruba: \u00cc\u1e63\u1eb9\u0300\u1e63e), West African Orisa (\u00d2r\u00ec\u1e63\u00e0), or Isese (\u00cc\u1e63\u1eb9\u0300\u1e63e), comprises the traditional religious and spiritual concepts and practice of the Yoruba people. Its homeland is in present-day Southwestern Nigeria, which comprises the majority of Oyo, Ogun, Osun, Ondo, Ekiti, Kwara and Lagos States, as well as parts of Kogi state and the adjoining parts of Benin and Togo, commonly known as Yorubaland (Yoruba: Il\u1eb9\u0300 K\u00e1\u00e0\u00e1r\u1ecd\u0300-O\u00f2j\u00edire). \nIt shares some parallels with the Vodun practiced by the neighboring Fon and Ewe peoples to the west and with the religion of the Edo people to the east. Yoruba religion is the basis for a number of religions in the New World, notably Santer\u00eda, Umbanda, Trinidad Orisha, and Candombl\u00e9. Yoruba religious beliefs are part of It\u00e0n (history), the total complex of songs, histories, stories, and other cultural concepts which make up the Yoruba society."}], "id": 692694}, {"title": "Law", "pages": [{"id": 16366, "title": "Jurisprudence", "abstract": "Jurisprudence is the philosophy and theory of law. It is concerned primarily with what the law is and what it ought to be. That includes questions of how persons and social relations are understood in legal terms, and of the values in and of law. Work that is counted as jurisprudence is mostly philosophical, but it includes work that also belongs to other disciplines, such as sociology, history, politics and economics.\nModern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was based on the first principles of natural law, civil law, and the law of nations. General jurisprudence can be divided into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered. \nContemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems internal to law and legal systems and problems of law as a social institution that relates to the larger political and social context in which it exists. Ancient natural law is the idea that there are rational objective limits to the power of legislative rulers. The foundations of law are accessible through reason, and it is from these laws of nature that human laws gain whatever force they have. Analytic jurisprudence rejects natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be. It espouses the use of a neutral point of view and descriptive language when referring to aspects of legal systems. It encompasses such theories of jurisprudence as legal positivism, holds that there is no necessary connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from basic social facts; and \"legal realism\", which argues that the real-world practice of law determines what law is, the law having the force that it does because of what legislators, lawyers, and judges do with it. Unlike experimental jurisprudence, which seeks to investigate the content of folk legal concepts using the methods of social science, the traditional method of both natural law and analytic jurisprudence is philosophical analysis. Normative jurisprudence is concerned with \"evaluative\" theories of law. It deals with what the goal or purpose of law is, or what moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law. It not only addresses the question \"What is law?\", but also tries to determine what the proper function of law should be, or what sorts of acts should be subject to legal sanctions, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted."}, {"id": 18949668, "title": "Law", "abstract": "Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the art of justice. State-enforced laws can be made by a group legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes; by the executive through decrees and regulations; or established by judges through precedent, usually in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that adopt alternative ways of resolving disputes to standard court litigation. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and also serves as a mediator of relations between people.\nLegal systems vary between jurisdictions, with their differences analysed in comparative law. In civil law jurisdictions, a legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates the law. In common law systems, judges may make binding case law through precedent, although on occasion this may be overturned by a higher court or the legislature. Historically, religious law has influenced secular matters and is, as of the 21st century, still in use in some religious communities. Sharia law based on Islamic principles is used as the primary legal system in several countries, including Iran and Saudi Arabia.The scope of law can be divided into two domains: public law concerns government and society, including constitutional law, administrative law, and criminal law; while private law deals with legal disputes between parties in areas such as contracts, property, torts, delicts and commercial law. This distinction is stronger in civil law countries, particularly those with a separate system of administrative courts; by contrast, the public-private law divide is less pronounced in common law jurisdictions.Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis and sociology. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, and justice."}, {"id": 25389252, "title": "Index of law articles", "abstract": "This collection of lists of law topics collects the names of topics related to law. Everything related to law, even quite remotely, should be included on the alphabetical list, and on the appropriate topic lists.  All links on topical lists should also appear in the main alphabetical listing. The process of creating lists is ongoing \u2013 these lists are neither complete nor up-to-date \u2013 if you see an article that should be listed but is not (or one that shouldn't be listed as legal but is), please update the lists accordingly. You may also want to include Wikiproject Law talk page banners on the relevant pages."}, {"id": 18342, "title": "Outline of law", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and introduction to law:\nLaw is the set of rules and principles (laws) by which a society is governed, through enforcement by governmental authorities.  Law is also the field that concerns the creation and administration of laws, and includes any and all legal systems."}, {"id": 4161867, "title": "Adequate remedy", "abstract": "An adequate remedy or adequate remedy at law is part of a legal remedy (either court-ordered or negotiated between the litigants) which the court deems satisfactory, without recourse to an equitable remedy This consideration expresses to the court whether money should be awarded or a court order should be decreed.. Adequate remedy at law refers to the sufficient compensation for the loss or damages caused by the defendant with a proper monetary award. The court must grant the adequacy of remedy that will lead to a \"meaningful hearing\". Whether legal damages or equitable relief are requested depends largely on,whether or not the remedy can be valued. Both two elements, compensation and the meaningfulness of hearing, provide a proper way to have an adequate remedy. The word \"meaningfulness\" of hearing in the law process is the assumption that the defendant compensated must be meaningful for the injured party where the defendant made a fully covered compensation for all the losses. Hence, the hearing in which cannot give any right amount of compensation award or settlement is not \"meaningful\", and the unavailability of the compensation will lead to an inadequate remedy. The adequate remedy at law is the legal remedies by meaning it is satisfactory compensation by way of monetary damages without granting equitable remedies.As an operation of law, an attorney often must present to the court whether there is an adequate remedy. This would be a basic principle of equity. When a monetary award is not an adequate or appropriate remedy, equity can order a \"specific performance\", an order of the court requiring a party to perform the obligations that he or she undertook to perform under the contract. The \"specific performance\" exists when there is an exchange under a contract that can not be found easily elsewhere or at all, such as antiques, parcels of land. Damages are often bifurcated or determined in a separate trial or as a part in parcel of different determination from whether a certain tort or contract has occurred."}, {"id": 75337467, "title": "Adolfo Gordo Law", "abstract": "The Adolfo Gordo Law (Decree No. 1641/1907) was a measure to repress labor movements in S\u00e3o Paulo at the beginning of the 20th century. Among other provisions, it proposed the expulsion of foreigners involved in strikes with the objective of repressing anarchist and anarcho-syndicalist militants. It was suggested by Adolfo Gordo, a federal deputy from S\u00e3o Paulo, and approved in 1907. According to historian Claudio Batalha in his book O Movimento Oper\u00e1rio na Primeira Rep\u00fablica, under this law, 132 foreigners were expelled in the first year, a high number compared to the 556 expulsions between 1908 and 1921. Later, in 1919, came the Law on Accidents at Work, which guaranteed compensation for workers, laborers or apprentices in the event of injuries in services using machinery.In 1923, now as a senator, Gordo created another bill, also nicknamed the Adolfo Gordo Law, but with the aim of censoring the press; as a result, it earned the nickname \"infamous law\" in journalistic circles. To some extent, it also had contributions from Azevedo Marques, who was Minister of Foreign Affairs at the time. Three traits unite all the projects that carried the politician's name: defense of economic interests, governability and maintaining social peace."}, {"id": 64079772, "title": "Analogia iuris", "abstract": "Analogia iuris is the concept that legal consequences can derive from the spirit of the law as is often the case in continental European law. It can be contrasted with analogia legis, whereby legal consequences arise from the wording of statutes."}, {"id": 64079802, "title": "Analogia legis", "abstract": "Analogia legis is the concept that legal consequences arise from the wording and comparison of statutes. When that is not possible then analogia iuris may be applicable, whereby legal consequences derive from Constitutional law."}, {"id": 20949522, "title": "Bureaucracy", "abstract": "Bureaucracy (; bure-OK-r\u0259-see) is a body of non-elected governing officials or an administrative policy-making group. Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials. Today, bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution, whether publicly owned or privately owned. The public administration in many jurisdictions and sub-jurisdictions exemplifies bureaucracy, but so does any centralized hierarchical structure of an institution, e.g. hospitals, academic entities, business firms, professional societies, social clubs, etc.\nThere are two key dilemmas in bureaucracy. The first dilemma revolves around whether bureaucrats should be autonomous or directly accountable to their political masters. The second dilemma revolves around bureaucrats' responsibility to follow preset rules, and what degree of latitude they may have to determine appropriate solutions for circumstances that are unaccounted for in advance.Various commentators have argued for the necessity of bureaucracies in modern society. The German sociologist Max Weber (1864\u20131920) argued that bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and rational way in which human activity can be organized and that systematic processes and organized hierarchies are necessary to maintain order, to maximize efficiency, and to eliminate favoritism. On the other hand, Weber also saw unfettered bureaucracy as a threat to individual freedom, with the potential of trapping individuals in an impersonal \"iron cage\" of rule-based, rational control."}, {"id": 521384, "title": "By-law", "abstract": "A by-law (bye-law, by(e)law, by(e) law),  or as it is most commonly known in the United States bylaws, is a set of rules or law established by an organization or community so as to regulate itself, as allowed or provided for by some higher authority. The higher authority, generally a legislature or some other government body, establishes the degree of control that the by-laws may exercise. By-laws may be established by entities such as a business corporation, a neighbourhood association, or depending on the jurisdiction, a municipality.\nIn the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries, the local laws established by municipalities are referred to as by(e)-laws because their scope is regulated by the central governments of those nations. Accordingly, a bylaw enforcement officer is the Canadian equivalent of the American Code Enforcement Officer or Municipal Regulations Enforcement Officer. In the United States, the federal government and most state governments have no direct ability to regulate the single provisions of municipal law. As a result, terms such as code, ordinance, or regulation, if not simply law, are more common."}, {"id": 75326764, "title": "Comparative constitutional law", "abstract": "Comparative constitutional law is a branch of constitutional law that focuses on the study and analysis of the constitutions of different countries to identify similarities, differences, and trends in the organization and functioning of constitutional systems. This comparative approach enables legal professionals, academics, and practitioners to gain a better understanding of the various ways in which fundamental rights are structured and protected, as well as the diverse methods by which state powers are organized."}, {"id": 65614630, "title": "Comparative legal history", "abstract": "Comparative legal history is the study of law in two or more different places or at different times. As a discipline, it emerged between 1930 and 1960 in response to legal formalism, and builds on scattered uses of legal-historical comparison since antiquity. It uses the techniques of legal history and comparative law."}, {"id": 2812669, "title": "Consignment", "abstract": "Consignment is a process whereby a person gives permission to another party to take care of their property and retains full ownership of the property until the item is sold to the final buyer. It is generally done during auctions, shipping, goods transfer, or putting something up for sale in a consignment store. The owner of the goods pays the third-party a portion of the sale for facilitating the sale. Consignors maintain the rights to their property until the item is sold or abandoned. Many consignment shops and online consignment platforms have a set time limit (usually 60\u201390 days) at which an item's availability for sale expires. Within the time of contract, reductions of the price are common to promote the sale of the item, but vary by the type of item sold (depending largely on the price point, or whether or not the item can be considered a luxury item).\nConsignment stock is stock legally owned by one party but held by another, meaning that the risk and rewards regarding the said stock remain with the first party while the second party is responsible for distribution or retail operations.The verb consign means \"to send\", and therefore the noun consignment means \"sending goods to another person\". In the case of retail consignment or sales consignment (often just referred to as a \"consignment\"), goods are sent to an agent for the purpose of sale. Legal ownership of these goods remains with the sender. The agent sells the goods on behalf of the sender according to instructions. The sender of goods is known as the consignor, and the agent entrusted with the custody and care of the goods is known as the consignee."}, {"id": 69946234, "title": "Employment bond", "abstract": "An employment bond is a contract requiring that an employee continue to work for their employer for a specified period, under penalty of a monetary forfeiture to the employer.  Such contracts and associated surety bonds are similar to indentured servitude or serfdom, in that although employees are compensated, they are not permitted to leave their employment except under specified conditions.  However, in general, the only penalty for breaching the contract is payment of the bond amount."}, {"id": 71666103, "title": "Experimental jurisprudence", "abstract": "Experimental jurisprudence (X-Jur) is an emerging field of legal scholarship that explores the nature of legal phenomena through psychological investigations of legal concepts. The field departs from traditional analytic legal philosophy in its ambition to elucidate common intuitions in a systematic fashion employing the methods of social science. Equally, unlike research in legal psychology, X-Jur emphasises the philosophical implications of its findings, such as whether, how, and in what respects the law's content is a matter of moral perspective. Whereas some legal theorists have welcomed X-Jur's emergence, others have expressed reservations about the contributions it seeks to make."}, {"id": 69855344, "title": "Expressive function of law", "abstract": "The expressive function of law is the effect of law to create or validate social norms beyond the fear of punishment. For example, the criminalization of homosexuality may be maintained in order to express disapproval of homosexuality, even if it is not regularly enforced."}, {"id": 34248904, "title": "Legal bibliography", "abstract": "Legal bibliography is the bibliography of law. The term has been applied to \"the kinds and functions of legal materials\" and to \"lists of law books and related materials\".Percy Winfield said that a \"perfect legal bibliography\" would be \"a critical and historical account of every known source of the law of the state with which it assumes to deal\"."}, {"id": 4644691, "title": "Legal issues in airsoft", "abstract": "Airsoft is a sport in which players use airsoft guns to fire plastic projectiles at other players in order to eliminate them. Due to the often-realistic appearance of airsoft guns and their ability to fire projectiles at relatively high speeds, laws have been put in place in many countries to regulate both the sport of airsoft and the guns themselves. Safety regulations in many areas require an orange or red tip on the end of the barrel in order to distinguish the airsoft gun from a working firearm. They are officially classed as \"soft air devices\" or \"air compressed toys\", depending on the jurisdiction. A handful of countries including Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore have laws that are deemed to be airsoft-unfriendly."}, {"id": 65288867, "title": "Legal relationship", "abstract": "A legal relationship or legal relation is a legal connection between two persons or other entities. It may also be known, particularly in the law of India, as a jural relationship. A legal relationship may exist, for example, between two individuals or between an individual and a government. Legal relationships often imply rights and obligations. Examples of legal relationships include contracts, marriage, and citizenship. As with other fundamental legal concepts, many different ways of defining and classifying legal relationships have been put forward.Being able to enter into legal relations is a defining characteristic of legal personhood. For example, prior to the abolition of coverture in the United States and United Kingdom, married women lacked the ability to enter into legal relations. The same was true of enslaved people under various forms of slavery, including in ancient Rome and the United States before 1865. The connection between legal personhood and the ability to enter into legal relations, or particularly the ability to have legal rights, first emerged in Renaissance humanism and was later developed by civil law scholars such as Carl von Savigny.In the civil law tradition, the concept of a legal bond (iuris vinculum) was used in the Institutes of Justinian to define an obligation as \"a legal bond, with which we are bound by a necessity of performing some act according to the laws of our state.\" The metaphor of the \"legal bond\", also translated as \"legal shackle\" or \"legal chain\", remains fundamental to the law of obligations.In common law jurisdictions, to create a contractual relationship, three elements are necessary: offer and acceptance, consideration and the intention to create legal relations. Because of this third requirement, an agreement may be unenforceable if a court believes that reasonable people would not have intended it to be legally binding, such as is often the case in social arrangements and domestic arrangements."}, {"id": 1946773, "title": "Legal research", "abstract": "Legal research is \"the process of identifying and retrieving information necessary to support legal decision-making.  In its broadest sense, legal research includes each step of a course of action that begins with an analysis of the facts of a problem and concludes with the application and communication of the results of the investigation.\"The processes of legal research vary according to the country and the legal system involved. Legal research involves tasks such as:\nFinding primary sources of law, or primary authority, in a given jurisdiction. The main primary sources of law include constitutions, case law, statutes, and regulations.\nSearching secondary authority for background information about legal topics.  Secondary authorities can come in many forms, such as law reviews, legal dictionaries, legal treatises, and legal encyclopedias such as American Jurisprudence and Corpus Juris Secundum.\nSearching non-legal sources for investigative or supporting factual information.Legal research is performed by anyone with a need for legal information, including lawyers, law librarians, and paralegals. Sources of legal information can include printed books, free legal research websites (like Cornell Law School's Legal Information Institute, Findlaw.com, Martindale Hubbell, or CanLII), and websites or software providing paid access to legal research databases such as Wolters Kluwer, LexisNexis, Westlaw, Lex Intell, VLex, and Bloomberg Law. Law libraries around the world provide research services to help their patrons in law schools, law firms, and other research environments find the legal information they need. Many law libraries and institutions provide free access to legal information on the web, either individually or via collective action, such as with the Free Access to Law Movement."}, {"id": 10929239, "title": "Legal treatise", "abstract": "A legal treatise is a scholarly legal publication containing all the law relating to a particular area, such as criminal law or trusts and estates. There is no fixed usage on what books qualify as a \"legal treatise\", with the term being used broadly to define books written for practicing attorneys and judges, textbooks for law students, and explanatory texts for laypersons.  The treatise may generally be loose leaf bound with rings or posts so that updates to laws covered by the treatise and annotated by the editor may be added by the subscriber to the legal treatise. \nLegal treatises are secondary authority, and can serve as a useful starting point for legal research, particularly when the researcher lacks familiarity with a particular area of law.  Lawyers commonly use legal treatises in order to review the law and update their knowledge of pertinent primary authority namely,  case law,  statutes, and administrative regulations.   \nIn law schools, treatises are sometimes used as additional study materials, as  treatises often cover legal subjects at a higher level of detail than most casebooks do. Certain treatises, called hornbooks, are used by American law students as supplements to casebooks.  Hornbooks are usually one volume \u2013 sometimes a briefer version of a longer, multi-volume treatise written by a recognized legal scholar."}, {"id": 205818, "title": "Legalization", "abstract": "Legalization is the process of removing a legal prohibition against something which is currently not legal.\nLegalization is a process often applied to what are regarded, by those working towards legalization, as victimless crimes, of which one example is the consumption of illegal drugs (see drug legalization).\nLegalization should be contrasted with decriminalization, which removes criminal charges from an action, whereas legalization also adds in regulation, such as a minimum age to legally purchase, poses and use a drug like cannabis.\nProponents of libertarianism support legalization of what they regard as victimless crimes, such as recreational drug and alcohol use, gun ownership, and prostitution.\nIn U. S. immigration context, the term \"legalization\" is colloquially used to refer to a process whereby a person illegally present in the country can obtain lawful permanent residence. Since 1929, the US law has provided the legalization procedure known as registry, which simply requires the applicant to prove that he has continuously resided in the country since before a certain specified \"registry date\" (originally, 1921; presently, 1972), and is not inadmissible on other grounds (criminal history, etc.). One legalization proposal that was widely discussed recently was the DREAM Act."}, {"id": 2216647, "title": "Misrepresentation", "abstract": "In common law jurisdictions, a misrepresentation is a false or misleading  statement of fact made during negotiations by one party to another, the statement then inducing that other party to enter into a contract. The misled party may normally rescind the contract, and sometimes may be awarded damages as well (or instead of rescission).\nThe law of misrepresentation is an amalgam of contract and tort; and its sources are common law, equity and statute. In England and Wales, the common law was amended by the Misrepresentation Act 1967. The general principle of misrepresentation has been adopted by the United States and other former British colonies, e.g. India."}, {"id": 22063, "title": "Natural law", "abstract": "Natural law (Latin: ius naturale, lex naturalis) is a system of law based on a close observation of human nature, and based on values intrinsic to human nature that can be deduced and applied independently of positive law (the express enacted laws of a state or society). According to the theory of law called jusnaturalism, all people have inherent rights, conferred not by act of legislation but by \"God, nature, or reason.\" Natural law theory can also refer to \"theories of ethics, theories of politics, theories of civil law, and theories of religious morality.\"In Western tradition, it was anticipated by the pre-Socratics, for example in their search for principles that governed the cosmos and human beings. The concept of natural law was documented in ancient Greek philosophy, including Aristotle, and was referred to in ancient Roman philosophy by Cicero. References to it are also to be found in the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, and were later expounded upon in the Middle Ages by Christian philosophers such as Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. The School of Salamanca made notable contributions during the Renaissance.\nAlthough the central ideas of natural law had been part of Christian thought since the Roman Empire, the foundation for natural law as a consistent system was laid by Aquinas, as he synthesised ideas from his predecessors and condensed them into his \"Lex Naturalis\" (lit.\u2009'Natural law'). Aquinas argues that because human beings have reason, and because reason is a spark of the divine (see: image of God), all human lives are sacred and of infinite value compared to any other created object, meaning all humans are fundamentally equal and bestowed with an intrinsic basic set of rights that no human can remove.\nModern natural law theories took shape in the Age of Enlightenment, combining inspiration from Roman law, Christian scholastic philosophy, and contemporary concepts such as social contract theory. It was used in challenging the theory of the divine right of kings, and became an alternative justification for the establishment of a social contract, positive law, and government\u2014and thus legal rights\u2014in the form of classical republicanism. In the early decades of the 21st century, the concept of natural law is closely related to the concept of natural rights. Indeed, many philosophers, jurists and scholars use natural law synonymously with natural rights (Latin: ius naturale), or natural justice, though others distinguish between natural law and natural right.Because of the intersection between natural law and natural rights, natural law has been claimed or attributed as a key component in the Act of Abjuration (1581) of the Netherlands, the Declaration of Independence (1776) of the United States, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) of France, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) of the United Nations, and the European Convention on Human Rights (1953) of the Council of Europe."}, {"id": 66010050, "title": "Non-retroactivity", "abstract": "Non-retroactivity is the legal principle that laws do not apply retroactively, whether international laws such as treaties or in criminal law (opposing ex post facto law)."}, {"id": 601627, "title": "Party (law)", "abstract": "A party is an individual or group of individuals that compose a single entity which can be identified as one for the purposes of the law. \nParties include: \n\nplaintiff (person filing suit),\ndefendant (person sued or charged with a crime),\npetitioner (files a petition asking for a court ruling),\nrespondent (usually in opposition to a petition or an appeal),\ncross-complainant (a defendant who sues someone else in the same lawsuit), or\ncross-defendant (a person sued by a cross-complainant).A person who only appears in the case as a witness is not considered a party.\nCourts use various terms to identify the role of a particular party in civil litigation, usually identifying the party that brings a lawsuit as the plaintiff, or, in older American cases, the party of the first part; and the party against whom the case was brought as the defendant, or, in older American cases, the party of the second part. In a criminal case in Nigeria and some other countries the parties are called prosecutor and defendant."}, {"id": 75274225, "title": "Ploof v. Putnam", "abstract": "Ploof v. Putnam, 81 Vt. 471 (1908), was a case decided by the Vermont Supreme Court in 1908. The case touched on the defense of necessity in tort law and is studied throughout law schools in the United States."}, {"id": 35391721, "title": "Public interest law", "abstract": "Public interest law refers to legal practices undertaken to help poor, marginalized, or under-represented people, or to effect change in social policies in the public interest, on 'not for profit' terms (pro bono publico), often in the fields of civil rights, civil liberties, religious liberty, human rights, women's rights, consumer rights, environmental protection, and so on.In a celebrated 1905 speech, Louis Brandeis decried the legal profession, complaining that \"able lawyers have to a large extent allowed themselves to become adjuncts of great corporations and have neglected their obligation to use their powers for the protection of the people.\"In the tradition thus exemplified, a common ethic for public-interest lawyers in a growing number of countries remains \"fighting for the little guy\"."}, {"id": 28648059, "title": "Rule according to higher law", "abstract": "The rule according to a higher law is a statement which expresses that no law may be enforced by the government unless it conforms with certain universal principles (written or unwritten) of fairness, morality, and justice. Thus, the rule according to a higher law may serve as a practical legal criterion to qualify the instances of political or economical decision-making, when a government, even though acting in conformity with clearly defined and properly enacted law, still produces results which many observers find unfair or unjust."}, {"id": 75683738, "title": "SAD Scheme", "abstract": "SAD  (Schedule \"A\" Defendant) Scheme is an abusive frivolous lawsuit which exploits logistical technicialities of federal copyright law regarding counterfeit goods, and in particular the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, such that the putative defendants have their funds frozen without ever having been notified of service of process. The victims are typically small on-line businesses, enough of whom settle for the racket to be profitable; the scam has been described as having \"weaponized the legal system\".The acronym is something of a misnomer inasmuch as the (typically numerous) businesses in each case are not listed as Defendants, but rather as \"Exhibit 1\", \"Exhibit 2\", and so on. \"Schedule A\" refers to this list, which the putative rights-owner plaintiffs file not only separately from the complaint, but have sealed, and with a different docket number. The plaintiffs then request an ex parte temporary restraining order (TRO) against the defendants\u2019 allegedly infringing behavior, which is procedurally granted and which on-line marketplaces typically automatically obey. Thus the merchant may only learn of the (spurious) litigation once their on-line marketplace account has been frozen. Enough settle, or simply lose by default, for the sophisticated scheme to be profitable. It admits of several variations.Whilst at least one plaintiff has been charged with perpetuating fraud on the court, the racket is so novel, and relies so much on the automatic machinery of the courts, that institutional knowledge of it is not widespread. The victims are most often on-line merchants based in China, and most of the \"litigation\" has to date  taken place in the Northern District of Illinois, with most of the remainder in the Southern District of Florida (a species of forum shopping).The racket has attracted scholary legal analysis."}, {"id": 52169327, "title": "Social law", "abstract": "Social law is an unified concept of law, which replaces the classical division of public law and private law. The term has both been used to mean fields of law that fall between \"core\" private and public subjects, such as corporate law, competition law, labour law and social security, or as a unified concept for the whole of the law based on associations.In reaction to classical jurisprudence in the 19th century, legal scholars questioned a rigid divide between private law and public law. The German legal philosopher, Otto von Gierke worked to develop a comprehensive history and theory of \"social law\" (Soziales Recht). Key tenets of Gierke's work were adopted and brought into English jurisprudence by Frederick W. Maitland. In France, L\u00e9on Duguit developed the concept of social law in his 1911 book, Le droit social, le droit individuel et la transformation de l\u2019\u00e9tat. A common thread has been an attachment to social justice in a democratic society. This became central to the thinking of American legal realists during the Lochner era of the early 20th century."}, {"id": 2497707, "title": "Summary jurisdiction", "abstract": "Summary jurisdiction, in the widest sense of the phrase, in English law includes the power asserted by courts of record to deal brevi manu with contempts of court without the intervention of a jury. Probably the power was originally exercisable only when the fact was notorious, i.e. done in presence of the court. But it has long been exercised as to extra curial contempts.\nThe term is also applied to the special powers given by statute or rules to the High Court of Justice and to county courts for dealing with certain classes of causes or matters by methods more simple and expeditious than the ordinary procedure of an action. But the phrase in modern times is applied almost exclusively forms of jurisdiction exercised by justices of the peace out of general or quarter sessions, and without the assistance."}, {"id": 72248675, "title": "Trauma-informed care", "abstract": "Trauma-informed care (TIC) or Trauma-and violence-informed care (TVIC), is a framework for relating to and helping people who have experienced negative consequences after exposure to dangerous experiences. There is no one single TIC framework, or model, and some go by slightly different names, including Trauma- and violence-Informed Care (TVIC). They incorporate a number of perspectives, principles and skills. TIC frameworks can be applied in many contexts including medicine, mental health, law, education, architecture, addiction, gender, culture, and interpersonal relationships. They can be applied by individuals and organizations.\nTIC principles emphasize the need to understand the scope of what constitutes danger and how resulting trauma impacts human health, thoughts, feelings, behaviors, communications, and relationships. People who have been exposed to life-altering danger need safety, choice, and support in healing relationships. Client-centered and capacity-building approaches are emphasized. Most frameworks incorporate a biopsychosocial perspective, attending to the integrated effects on biology (body and brain), psychology (mind), and sociology (relationship).A basic view of trauma-informed care (TIC) involves developing a holistic appreciation of the potential effects of trauma with the goal of expanding the care-provider's empathy while creating a feeling of safety. Under this view, it is often stated that a trauma-informed approach asks not \"What is wrong with you?\" but rather \"What happened to you?\" A more expansive view includes developing an understanding of danger-response. In this view, danger is understood to be broad, include relationship dangers, and can be subjectively experienced. Danger exposure is understood to impact someone's past and present adaptive responses and information processing patterns."}, {"id": 261873, "title": "Virtue ethics", "abstract": "Virtue ethics (also aretaic ethics, from Greek \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03ae [aret\u1e17]) is an approach that treats virtue and character as the primary subjects of ethics, in contrast to other ethical systems that put consequences of voluntary acts, principles or rules of conduct, or obedience to divine authority in the primary role.Virtue ethics is usually contrasted with two other major approaches in ethics, consequentialism and deontology, which make the goodness of outcomes of an action (consequentialism) and the concept of moral duty (deontology) central. While virtue ethics does not necessarily deny the importance to ethics of goodness of states of affairs or of moral duties, it emphasizes virtue, and sometimes other concepts, like eudaimonia, to an extent that other ethics theories do not."}], "id": 691928}, {"title": "Ethics", "pages": [{"id": 9258, "title": "Ethics", "abstract": "Ethics or moral philosophy is the philosophical study of moral phenomena. It investigates normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. It is usually divided into three major fields: normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics.\nNormative ethics tries to discover and justify universal principles that govern how people should act in any situation. According to consequentialists, an act is right if it leads to the best consequences. Deontologists hold that morality consists in fulfilling duties, like telling the truth and keeping promises. Virtue theorists see the manifestation of virtues, like courage and compassion, as the fundamental principle of morality. Applied ethics examines concrete ethical problems in real-life situations, for example, by exploring the moral implications of the universal principles discovered in normative ethics within a specific domain. Bioethics studies moral issues associated with living organisms including humans, animals, and plants. Business ethics investigates how ethical principles apply to corporations, while professional ethics focuses on what is morally required of members of different professions. Metaethics is a metatheory that examines the underlying assumptions and concepts of ethics. It asks whether moral facts have mind-independent existence, whether moral statements can be true, how it is possible to acquire moral knowledge, and how moral judgments motivate people.\nEthics is closely connected to value theory, which studies what value is and what types of value there are. Two related empirical fields are moral psychology, which investigates psychological moral processes, and descriptive ethics, which provides value-neutral descriptions of the dominant moral codes and beliefs in different societies.\nThe history of ethics started in the ancient period with the development of ethical principles and theories in ancient Egypt, India, China, and Greece. During the medieval period, ethical thought was strongly influenced by religious teachings. In the modern period, this focus shifted to a more secular approach concerned with moral experience, practical reason, and the consequences of actions. An influential development in the 20th century was the emergence of metaethics."}, {"id": 14434409, "title": "Outline of ethics", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to ethics.\nEthics (aka moral philosophy) \u2013 branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concern matters of value, and thus comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology."}, {"id": 74519337, "title": "Accountability for reasonableness", "abstract": "Accountability for reasonableness is an ethical framework that describes the conditions of a fair decision-making process. It focuses on how decisions should be made and why these decisions are ethical. It was developed by Norman Daniels and James Sabin and is often applied in health policy and bioethics.The concept of accountability for reasonableness emphasises that decision-making processes should be fair, transparent, and inclusive  when making decisions about the allocation of limited healthcare resources, such as funding for medical treatments, medical services, or health programs. \nAccountability for reasonableness enables the education of all stakeholders regarding fair decision-making under resource constraints. This approach navigates a middle path between proponents of \"explicit\" and \"implicit\" rationing. It fosters social learning about limitations and establishes a link between healthcare institutional decisions and broader democratic deliberative processes. As it does not mandate pre-established rationing principles like implicit approaches, it requires transparent reasoning that all parties will eventually be able to acknowledge as relevant."}, {"id": 988, "title": "Applied ethics", "abstract": "Applied ethics is the practical aspect of moral considerations. It is ethics with respect to real-world actions and their moral considerations in private and public life, the professions, health, technology, law, and leadership. For example, bioethics is concerned with identifying the best approach to moral issues in the life sciences, such as euthanasia, the allocation of scarce health resources, or the use of human embryos in research. Environmental ethics is concerned with ecological issues such as the responsibility of government and corporations to clean up pollution. Business ethics includes the duties of whistleblowers to the public and to their employers."}, {"id": 315067, "title": "Ethical relationship", "abstract": "An ethical relationship, in most theories of ethics that employ the term, is a basic and trustworthy relationship that one individual may have with another, that cannot necessarily be characterized in terms of any abstraction other than trust and common protection of each other's body. Honesty is very often a major focus."}, {"id": 27020037, "title": "History of ethics", "abstract": "Ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines right and wrong moral behavior, moral concepts (such as justice, virtue, duty) and moral language. Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that \"involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior\". The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value, and thus comprises the branch of philosophy called axiology.\nVarious ethical theories pose various answers to the question \"What is the greatest good?\" and elaborate a complete set of proper behaviors for individuals and groups. Ethical theories are closely related to forms of life in various social orders."}, {"id": 70071563, "title": "Inamori Ethics Prize", "abstract": "The Inamori Ethics Prize is an annual award presented by the Inamori International Center for Ethics and Excellence at Case Western Reserve University. The prize honors exemplary ethical international leaders \"whose actions and influence have greatly improved the condition of humankind\". The prize was first awarded in 2008 to Dr. Francis Collins, an American physician who is credited with discovering a number of genes associated with human diseases.\nThe Inamori Ethics prize is also awarded with a monetary award, which is to be used in the recipients' ongoing projects. Each year, the honoree of the prize delivers a public lecture about their ongoing work at Case Western Reserve University.\nIn years in which the Inamori Ethics Prize is not awarded, the Inamori Center's Conversations on JUSTICE series is held."}, {"id": 74337801, "title": "Jena Declaration", "abstract": "The Jena Declaration is a scientific statement that questions and refutes the concept of human \"races in a biological sense\". It was published in September 2019 at the 112th Annual Meeting of the German Zoological Society (Deutsche Zoologische Gesellschaft) in Jena. The statement was written by leading scientists from the fields of evolutionary research, genetics and zoology, and was instrumental in influencing the legislative amendment to remove the term \"Rasse\" (roughly \"race in a biological sense\") from the German constitution. With this statement, the Institute for Zoology and Evolutionary Research at Friedrich Schiller University Jena explicitly distances itself from its 20th century predecessors, especially from the controversial scholar and evolutionary biologist Ernst Haeckel, who was closely associated with the University of Jena and whose ideas of racism and eugenics are today considered scientifically untenable and morally reprehensible."}, {"id": 75458065, "title": "Moral patienthood", "abstract": "Moral patienthood is the state of being eligible for moral consideration by a moral agent.  In other words, the morality of an action can depend on how it affects or relates to moral patients."}, {"id": 22081, "title": "Normative ethics", "abstract": "Normative ethics is the study of ethical behaviour and is the branch of philosophical ethics that investigates questions regarding how one ought to act, in a moral sense.\nNormative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics in that the former examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, whereas the latter studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts. Likewise, normative ethics is distinct from applied ethics in that the former is more concerned with 'who ought one be' rather than the ethics of a specific issue (e.g. if, or when, abortion is acceptable). Normative ethics is also distinct from descriptive ethics, as the latter is an empirical investigation of people's moral beliefs. In this context normative ethics is sometimes called prescriptive, as opposed to descriptive ethics. However, on certain versions of the meta-ethical view of moral realism, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time.\nAn adequate justification for a group of principles needs an explanation of those principles. It must be an explanation of why precisely these goals, prohibitions, and so on, should be given weight, and not others. Unless a coherent explanation of the principles (or demonstrate that they require no additional justification) can be given, they cannot be considered justified, and there may be reason to reject them. Therefore, there is a requirement for explanation in moral theory.Most traditional moral theories rest on principles that determine whether an action is right or wrong. Classical theories in this vein include utilitarianism, Kantianism, and some forms of contractarianism. These theories mainly offered the use of overarching moral principles to resolve difficult moral decisions."}, {"id": 25524, "title": "Research", "abstract": "Research is \"creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge\". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion of past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.\nThe primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research.\nA researcher is a person engaged in conducting research, possibly recognized as an occupation by a formal job title. In order to be a social researcher or a social scientist, one should have enormous knowledge of subjects related to social science that they are specialized in. Similarly, in order to be a natural science researcher, the person should have knowledge of fields related to natural science (physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, zoology and so on). Professional associations provide one pathway to mature in the research profession."}, {"id": 3609425, "title": "Research ethics", "abstract": "Research ethics is a discipline within the study of applied ethics. It is concerned with the moral issues that arise or as part of scientific research, as well as the conduct of individual researchers. It has implications for research communities.Ethical issues may arise in the design and implementation of research involving human or animal experimentation. Consequences for the environment, for society and for future generations must be considered."}, {"id": 261873, "title": "Virtue ethics", "abstract": "Virtue ethics (also aretaic ethics, from Greek \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03ae [aret\u1e17]) is an approach that treats virtue and character as the primary subjects of ethics, in contrast to other ethical systems that put consequences of voluntary acts, principles or rules of conduct, or obedience to divine authority in the primary role.Virtue ethics is usually contrasted with two other major approaches in ethics, consequentialism and deontology, which make the goodness of outcomes of an action (consequentialism) and the concept of moral duty (deontology) central. While virtue ethics does not necessarily deny the importance to ethics of goodness of states of affairs or of moral duties, it emphasizes virtue, and sometimes other concepts, like eudaimonia, to an extent that other ethics theories do not."}], "id": 691802}, {"title": "Internet", "pages": [{"id": 14539, "title": "Internet", "abstract": "The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the interlinked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing.\nThe origins of the Internet date back to research to enable time-sharing of computer resources and the development of packet switching in the 1960s. The set of rules (communication protocols) to enable internetworking on the Internet arose from research and development commissioned in the 1970s by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the United States Department of Defense in collaboration with universities and researchers across the United States and in the United Kingdom and France. The ARPANET initially served as a backbone for the interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the United States to enable resource sharing. The funding of the National Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial extensions, encouraged worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies and the merger of many networks using DARPA's Internet protocol suite. The linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s, as well as the advent of the World Wide Web, marked the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet, and generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to the network. Although the Internet was widely used by academia in the 1980s, subsequent commercialization is what incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life.\nMost traditional communication media, including telephone, radio, television, paper mail, and newspapers, are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as email, Internet telephone, Internet television, online music, digital newspapers, and video streaming websites. Newspaper, book, and other print publishing have adapted to website technology or have been reshaped into blogging, web feeds, and online news aggregators. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interaction through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking services. Online shopping has grown exponentially for major retailers, small businesses, and entrepreneurs, as it enables firms to extend their \"brick and mortar\" presence to serve a larger market or even sell goods and services entirely online. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.\nThe Internet has no single centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies. The overarching definitions of the two principal name spaces on the Internet, the Internet Protocol address (IP address) space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise. In November 2006, the Internet was included on USA Today's list of the New Seven Wonders."}, {"id": 8736036, "title": "Outline of the Internet", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the Internet.\nInternet \u2013 worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a \"network of networks\" that consists of millions of interconnected smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web."}, {"id": 75427242, "title": "Black Friday (hoax)", "abstract": "The Black Friday hoax is historical claim about the origin of the term \"Black Friday.\" The term denotes the Friday after Thanksgiving in the United States, a day that traditionally marks the start of the Christmas shopping season."}, {"id": 6210127, "title": "Communication software", "abstract": "Communication software is used to provide remote access to systems and exchange files and messages in text, audio and/or video formats between different computers or users. This includes terminal emulators, file transfer programs, chat and instant messaging programs, as well as similar functionality integrated within MUDs. The term is also applied to software operating a bulletin board system, but seldom to that operating a computer network or Stored Program Control exchange."}, {"id": 57832661, "title": "Digital inclusion", "abstract": "Digital inclusion involves the activities necessary to ensure equitable access to and use of information and communication technologies for participation in social and economic life including for education, social services, health, social and community participation. Digital inclusion includes access to affordable broadband Internet services, Internet-enabled devices, access to digital literacy training, quality technical support, and applications and online content designed to enable and encourage self-sufficiency, participation, and collaboration. Related concepts include digital divide, digital exclusion and digital inequality however digital inclusion focuses more on the strategies, policies and programs required to address the digital divide.As many services have moved online and with the increasing use of telehealth to deliver primary care, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, digital inclusion, including digital literacy and internet access is increasingly regarded as a social determinant of health."}, {"id": 72076618, "title": "Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams", "abstract": "The Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST) is a global forum of incident response and security teams. They aim to improve cooperation between security teams on handling major cybersecurity incidents. FIRST is an association of incident response teams with global coverage.The 2018 Report of the United Nations Secretary-General's High-Level Panel on Digital Cooperation noted FIRST as a neutral third party which can help build trust and exchange best practices and tools during cybersecurity incidents."}, {"id": 35306935, "title": "Global Internet usage", "abstract": "Global Internet Usage is the number of people who use the Internet worldwide."}, {"id": 3152502, "title": "Internet governance", "abstract": "Internet governance consists of a system of laws, rules, policies and practices that dictate how its board members manage and oversee the affairs of any internet related-regulatory body. This article describes how the Internet was and is currently governed, some inherent controversies, and ongoing debates regarding how and why the Internet should or should not be governed in future. (Internet governance should not be confused with e-governance, which refers to governmental use of technology in its governing duties.)"}, {"id": 4811962, "title": "Internet age", "abstract": "The Internet age refers to the time period since the Internet became widely available to the public for general use, and the resulting impacts on and fundamental changes in the nature of global communication and access to information. The beginning of the modern notion of and current form of the Internet is considered by some to have occurred in late 1990 (though the internet was officially created a few years prior) when Tim Berners-Lee created what is now referred to as HTML code, and created what is generally considered to be the first genuine web page, which marks the origin of the World Wide Web."}, {"id": 72671161, "title": "Internet in the European Union", "abstract": "The internet in the European Union is built through the infrastructure of member states, and regulated by EU law for data privacy, and a free and open media."}, {"id": 72257559, "title": "Internet intervention", "abstract": "Internet intervention, in medical context, refers to the delivery of health care-related treatments through Internet."}, {"id": 15323, "title": "Internet Protocol", "abstract": "The Internet Protocol (IP) is the network layer communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying datagrams across network boundaries. Its routing function enables internetworking, and essentially establishes the Internet.\nIP has the task of delivering packets from the source host to the destination host solely based on the IP addresses in the packet headers. For this purpose, IP defines packet structures that encapsulate the data to be delivered. It also defines addressing methods that are used to label the datagram with source and destination information.\nIP was the connectionless datagram service in the original Transmission Control Program introduced by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974, which was complemented by a connection-oriented service that became the basis for the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The Internet protocol suite is therefore often referred to as TCP/IP.\nThe first major version of IP, Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), is the dominant protocol of the Internet. Its successor is Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), which has been in increasing deployment on the public Internet since  around 2006."}, {"id": 248723, "title": "Online encyclopedia", "abstract": "An online encyclopedia, also called an Internet encyclopedia, is a digital encyclopedia accessible through the Internet. Examples include Wikipedia since 2001, the Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica since 2016, and Encyclopedia.com since 1998."}, {"id": 46821647, "title": "Internet science", "abstract": "Internet science is an interdisciplinary science that examines all aspects of the co-evolution in Internet networks and society. It works in the intersection of and in the gaps among a wide range of disciplines that have had to respond to the impact of the Internet on their 'home turf' and/or offer specific conceptual or methodological contributions. These include many natural sciences (e.g., complexity science, computer science, engineering, life sciences, mathematics, physics, psychology, statistics, systems and evolutionary biology), social sciences (e.g. anthropology, economics, philosophy, sociology, and political science), humanities  (e.g., art, history, linguistics, literature and history) and some existing interdisciplines that cross traditional Faculty boundaries (e.g., technology, medicine, law). Professor Noshir Contractor and others have located it at the intersection of computational social science, network science, network engineering and Web science. By understanding the role of society in shaping Internet networks and being shaped by them Internet science aims to take care of the Internet in a way similar to that in which Web science aims to take care of the Web. The lingua franca in this interdisciplinary area include Internet standards and associated implementation, social processes, Internet infrastructure and policy.\nMany disciplines support Internet science with different analysis tools, designs, and languages. To have a productive and effective dialogue between disciplines requires incentives for cooperation. The three main elements of Internet science are: multidisciplinary convergence, observability and constructive experimentation.The European Commission funded a Network of Excellence on Internet Science (project acronym EINS) over the period December 2011-May 2015 under the FP7 funding programme. The Network in May 2015 had 48 member universities and research organisations and 180 individual affiliate researchers. Two major international Internet science conferences were held in April 2013 and May 2015 together with an unconference at the University of Bologna in May 2014 and official workshops at international academic conferences such as Human Behavior and the Evolution of Society and international inter-governmental and multistakeholder conferences such as the 2013  United Nations Internet Governance Forum."}, {"id": 12851391, "title": "Sideblog", "abstract": "A sideblog is a feature on a website, particularly a blog, that allows one to communicate smaller snippets of information than an actual blog post. The reasoning is that a blog post will require thought, argument and some semantic structuring of the post, while a sideblog typically displays \"brief asides\". A sideblog is meant to illustrate your immediate thoughts, movements or status update, and is usually less than 200 characters. Where a blog post may be compared to a newspaper opinion piece, a sideblog would be akin to the \"news in brief\" column.\nSideblogging is wedded to the concept of micro-blogging, where one posts brief snippets to interested observers via text messaging, instant messaging, email or the web. Using the same tools, one can post to one's micro-blog and to one's sideblog simultaneously. Most sideblogs are actually embedded micro-blogs that appear in a small sidebar box next to the main blog posts and use feeds or plugins to display the content.\nFrequently updating one's status and frame of mind in an online platform to be viewed by friends gained widespread adoption through social networking tools like Facebook and MySpace. While those tools are still largely desktop-bound, micro-blogs (and, by extension, sideblogs) are designed to be updated from mobile devices as well as desktop computers. Therefore, it is more convenient to post one's status with a simple text message, and interested parties can note your status by browsing your sideblog or receiving a text or instant messaging alert.\nThis meaning came to change with the advent of blogrolls, blog engine plugins, and widgets and third-party lists of social media, like tag clouds and social bookmarks."}, {"id": 17669599, "title": "Sociology of the Internet", "abstract": "The sociology of the Internet (or the social psychology of the internet) involves the application of sociological or social psychological theory and method to the Internet as a source of information and communication. The overlapping field of digital sociology focuses on understanding the use of digital media as part of everyday life, and how these various technologies contribute to patterns of human behavior, social relationships, and concepts of the self. Sociologists are concerned with the social implications of the technology; new social networks, virtual communities and ways of interaction that have arisen, as well as issues related to cyber crime.\nThe Internet\u2014the newest in a series of major information breakthroughs\u2014is of interest for sociologists in various ways: as a tool for research, for example, in using online questionnaires instead of paper ones, as a discussion platform, and as a research topic. The sociology of the Internet in the stricter sense concerns the analysis of online communities (e.g. as found in newsgroups), virtual communities and virtual worlds, organizational change catalyzed through new media such as the Internet, and social change at-large in the transformation from industrial to informational society (or to information society). Online communities can be studied statistically through network analysis and at the same time interpreted qualitatively, such as through virtual ethnography. Social change can be studied through statistical demographics or through the interpretation of changing messages and symbols in online media studies."}, {"id": 1831624, "title": "Internet studies", "abstract": "Internet studies is an interdisciplinary field studying the social, psychological, political, technical, cultural and other dimensions of the Internet and associated information and communication technologies. The human aspects of the Internet are a subject of focus in this field. While that may be facilitated by the underlying technology of the Internet, the focus of study is often less on the technology itself than on the social circumstances that technology creates or influences.While studies of the Internet are now widespread across academic disciplines, there is a growing collaboration among these investigations. In recent years, Internet studies have become institutionalized as courses of study at several institutions of higher learning. Cognates are found in departments of a number of other names, including departments of \"Internet and Society\", \"virtual society\", \"digital culture\", \"new media\" or \"convergent media\", various \"iSchools\", or programs like \"Media in Transition\" at MIT. On the research side, Internet studies intersects with studies of cyberculture, human\u2013computer interaction, and science and technology studies.\nInternet and society is a research field that addresses the interrelationship of Internet and society, i.e. how society has changed the Internet and how the Internet has changed society.The topic of social issues relating to Internet has become notable since the rise of the World Wide Web, which can be observed from the fact that journals and newspapers run many stories on topics such as cyberlove, cyberhate, Web 2.0, cybercrime, cyberpolitics, Internet economy, etc.\nAs most of the scientific monographs that have considered Internet and society in their book titles are social theoretical in nature, Internet and society can be considered as a primarily social theoretical research approach of Internet studies."}], "id": 700895}, {"title": "Philosophy", "pages": [{"id": 13692155, "title": "Philosophy", "abstract": "Philosophy (love of wisdom in ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.\nHistorically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic\u2013Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic\u2013Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.\nMajor branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and properties. Other subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, and political philosophy. Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote different principles, theories, or methods.\nPhilosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications."}, {"id": 70572130, "title": "Authority of the bootmaker", "abstract": "Authority of the bootmaker, sometimes called epistemic authority, is a concept in anarchist philosophy describing a type of temporary, fully voluntary authority that an individual allows another to have over them in order to gain knowledge or experience. The term comes from Mikhail Bakunin's unpublished manuscript God and the State, in which Bakunin uses the example of an understudy to a bootmaker accepting the bootmaker's authority in order to improve their skills."}, {"id": 11632490, "title": "Hatata", "abstract": "Hatata (; Ge'ez: \u1210\u1270\u1273 \u1e25\u00e4t\u00e4ta \"inquiry\") is a Ge'ez term describing an investigation/inquiry. The hatatas are two 17th century ethical and rational philosophical treatises from present-day Ethiopia: One hatata is written by the Abyssinian philosopher Zara Yaqob (Z\u00e4r'a Ya'eqob/Zera Yacob, in his text also named W\u00e4rqe, 1600\u20131693), supposedly in 1668. The other hatata is written by his patron's son, Walda Heywat (W\u00e4ld\u00e4 Hewat) some years later, in 1693 or later. Especially Zera Yacob's inquiry has been compared by scholars to Descartes'. But while Zera Yacob was critical towards all religions, including his \"own\" Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Descartes followed a more traditional religious perspective: \"A major philosophical difference is that the Catholic Descartes explicitly denounced \u2018infidels\u2019 and atheists, whom he called 'more arrogant than learned' in his Meditations on First Philosophy (1641).\"In late 2023, De Gruyter published the first English translation outside of Ethiopia, \"The Hatata Inquiries: Two Texts of Seventeenth-Century African Philosophy from Ethiopia about Reason, the Creator, and Our Ethical Responsibilities\". The translation is a team-work by the leading Ge'ez scholars  Ralph Lee (Oxford Centre for Mission Studies/SOAS), Mehari Worku (Catholic University of America, years of training from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church), Jeremy R. Brown (Hill Museum of Manuscripts), and Wendy L. Belcher (Professor, Princeton University). In the Introduction, Belcher writes: \"Despite their importance, the texts lacked rigorous, accurate, and fluid translations into English, ones that took advantage of recent scholarship on the texts and their digitization. Our book now provides that as well as information useful for different audiences. Undergraduates and the public now have many footnotes that explain the texts\u2019 cultural and religious context. Scholars now have a more comprehensive translation, one that uses the two editions of the one text. They also have a sophisticated scholarly apparatus that explains philological issues and notes the texts\u2019 many intertexts. Finally, we corrected some errors in earlier editions and translations, including that of one author's birth and residence. As a result, we have put the study of these texts on firmer footing.\""}, {"id": 73133410, "title": "Meitei philosophy", "abstract": "The Meitei philosophy (or Kanglei philosophy, Meetei philosophy, Manipuri philosophy, Sanamahist philosophy, Sanamahi's philosophy) refers to the philosophical traditions of the Meitei culture of Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur). In 15th century BC, the Wakoklon Heelel Thilel Salai Amailon Pukok Puya, one of the foremost and the oldest Meitei scriptures based on the antique philosophical traditions, was written in Ancient Manipur. It is the basis of the ideology of Sanamahism, the precursor to Meitei religion.\nIn early notions, the ideology of the creation myth has strong connection with the shapes and figures of the Meitei numerals and Meitei script letters.\nThe philosophical norms are inscribed in the massive materials of many ancient Meitei chronicles."}], "id": 691810}, {"title": "Science", "pages": [{"id": 26700, "title": "Science", "abstract": "Science is a rigorous, systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world. Modern science is typically divided into three major branches: the natural sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, and biology), which study the physical world; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study formal systems, governed by axioms and rules. There is disagreement whether the formal sciences are science disciplines, because they do not rely on empirical evidence. Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in engineering and medicine.The history of science spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to Bronze Age Egypt and Mesopotamia from around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes, while further advancements, including the introduction of the Hindu\u2013Arabic numeral system, were made during the Golden Age of India.:\u200a12\u200a Scientific research deteriorated in these regions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire during the early middle ages (400 to 1000 CE), but in the Medieval renaissances (Carolingian Renaissance, Ottonian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century) scholarship flourished again. Some Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded upon in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age and later by the efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe in the Renaissance.\nThe recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived \"natural philosophy\", which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape, along with the changing of \"natural philosophy\" to \"natural science\".New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems. Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and research institutions, government agencies, and companies. The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the ethical and moral development of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental protection."}, {"id": 9145213, "title": "Outline of science", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science; the discipline of science is defined as both the systematic effort of acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation and reasoning, and the body of knowledge thus acquired, the word \"science\" derives from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge. A practitioner of science is called a \"scientist\". Modern science respects objective logical reasoning, and follows a set of core procedures or rules to determine the nature and underlying natural laws of all things, with a scope encompassing the entire universe. These procedures, or rules, are known as the scientific method."}, {"id": 74174558, "title": "Fanzor", "abstract": "The Fanzor (Fz) protein is an eukaryotic, RNA-guided DNA endonuclease, which means it is a type of DNA cutting enzyme that uses RNA to target genes of interest. It has been recently discovered and explored in a number of studies. In bacteria, RNA-guided DNA endonuclease systems, such as the CRISPR/Cas system, serve as an immune system to prevent infection by cutting viral genetic material. Currently, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated\u2019s DNA cleavage has extensive application in biological research, and wide-reaching medical potential in human gene editing.Fanzor belongs to the OMEGA system. Evolutionarily, it shares a common ancestor, OMEGA TnpB, with the CRISPR/Cas12 system. Due to the shared ancestry between the OMEGA system and the CRISPR system, the protein structure and  DNA cleavage function of Fanzor and Cas12 remain largely conserved. Combined with the widespread presence of Fanzor across the diverse genomes of different eukaryotic species, this raises the possibility of OMEGA Fanzor being an alternative to CRISPR/Cas system with better efficiency and compatibility in other complex eukaryotic organisms, such as mammals."}, {"id": 74472838, "title": "IdeaSquare", "abstract": "IdeaSquare is the innovation space at CERN. Its specific focus is on offering a platform for early-stage collaboration between students, scientists, other CERN personnel and relevant organisations across disciplines. IdeaSquare's activities intervene at the early stage of the innovation chain \u2014what is known as the Fuzzy Front End of the R&D&I process. The activities carried out at IdeaSquare tie science innovation to the United Nations\u2019 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and work towards laying out a better future for society. It does this by coordinating selected EU projects, hosting R&D&I projects and events, co-designing prototyping and design thinking workshops, running international educational programmes, and harvesting innovation knowledge."}, {"id": 75489550, "title": "Methoxyacetic acid", "abstract": "Methoxyacetic acid is a derivative of acetic acid in which a hydrogen atom of the methyl group is replaced by a methoxy group. As indicated by the synonym methyl glycolic acid, and as the simplest ether carboxylic acid, methoxyacetic acid can be understood as a methyl ether of glycolic acid.\nDue to its considerable reprotoxic potential, methoxyacetic acid has been adopted into the list of SVHC substances (substances of very high concern) and is only registered as an intermediate product for industrial purposes under strictly controlled conditions.\nFor consumer applications, such as for the cleaning and decalcification of surfaces, the substance must be substituted by safe alternatives."}, {"id": 75575899, "title": "Photochemical action plots", "abstract": "Photochemical action plots are a scientific tool used to understand the effects of different wavelengths of light on photochemical reactions. The methodology involves exposing a reaction solution to the same number of photons at varying monochromatic wavelengths, monitoring the conversion or reaction yield of starting materials and/or reaction products. Such global high-resolution analysis of wavelength-dependent chemical reactivity has revealed that maxima in absorbance and reactivity often do not align. Photochemical action plots are historically connected to (biological) action spectra."}, {"id": 75136892, "title": "Potassic-magnesio-fluoro-arfvedsonite", "abstract": "Potassic-magnesio-fluoro-arfvedsonite is an amphibole mineral first discovered in Quebec, Canada, in an area which is part of the Canadian Shield which is where some of the oldest exposed rocks are that can date back to over 4 billion years ago. Potassic-magnesio-fluoro-arfvedsonite is also the mineral with the longest name of any mineral with 34 letters and 37 characters."}, {"id": 75821283, "title": "Safety Science", "abstract": "Safety Science is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Elsevier covering research on all aspects of human and industrial safety. The editor-in-chief is Georgios Boustras (European University Cyprus),.The journal was established in 1976 as the Journal of Occupational Accidents, with Herbert Eisner as founding editor-in-chief. In 1990, the aims and scope of the journal were expanded, and the journal obtained its current name."}], "id": 691182}, {"title": "Knowledge", "pages": [{"id": 243391, "title": "Knowledge", "abstract": "Knowledge is an awareness of facts, a familiarity with individuals and situations, or a practical skill. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often characterized as true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of justification. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies focus on justification. This includes questions like how to understand justification, whether it is needed at all, and whether something else besides it is needed. These controversies intensified in the latter half of the 20th century due to a series of thought experiments that provoked alternative definitions.\nKnowledge can be produced in many ways. The main source of empirical knowledge is perception, which involves the usage of the senses to learn about the external world. Introspection allows people to learn about their internal mental states and processes. Other sources of knowledge include memory, rational intuition, inference, and testimony. According to foundationalism, some of these sources are basic in that they can justify beliefs, without depending on other mental states. Coherentists reject this claim and contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge. According to infinitism, an infinite chain of beliefs is needed.\nThe main discipline investigating knowledge is epistemology, which studies what people know, how they come to know it, and what it means to know something. It discusses the value of knowledge and the thesis of philosophical skepticism, which questions the possibility of knowledge. Knowledge is relevant to many fields like the sciences, which aim to acquire knowledge using the scientific method based on repeatable experimentation, observation, and measurement. Various religions hold that humans should seek knowledge and that God or the divine is the source of knowledge. The anthropology of knowledge studies how knowledge is acquired, stored, retrieved, and communicated in different cultures. The sociology of knowledge examines under what sociohistorical circumstances knowledge arises, and what sociological consequences it has. The history of knowledge investigates how knowledge in different fields has developed, and evolved, in the course of history."}, {"id": 33570327, "title": "History of knowledge", "abstract": "Within academia, the history of knowledge is the field covering the accumulated and known human knowledge created or discovered during human history and its historic forms, focus, accumulation, bearers, impacts, mediations, distribution, applications, societal contexts, conditions and methods of production. It is related to, yet separate from, the history of science, the history of scholarship and the history of philosophy. The scope of the history of knowledge encompass all the discovered and created fields of human-derived knowledge such as logic, philosophy, mathematics, science, sociology, psychology and data mining.The history of knowledge is an academic discipline that studies forms of knowledge in the recorded past. The discipline emerged in the 2000 as a response to the digital age and was formally recognised with the introduction of academic institutions such as Geschichte des Wissens. Academics within the field aim to research the forms, dissemination and production of knowledge with a focus on both \u2018high\u2019 and \u2018low\u2019 everyday knowledge. Research approaches are based on the theories of Michel Foucault with concepts like \u2018orders of knowledge\u2019 and are similar to other fields with the use of social, cultural and political frameworks.The formation of the discipline has roots in the 1950s history of science field and contemporary concepts can be identified in works that go back to the 15th century. The extent studied within the field is dynamic as seen from the research of confessional knowledge to the digital revolution. Concepts applied in this specialty such as \u2018scientification\u2019 explain the transformation of information to knowledge. \u2018Scientification\u2019 is related to the description of \u2018raw\u2019 information given by Peter Burke. Peter Burke is listed among some of the canon authors in the field alongside Martin Mulsow, Pierre Bourdieu and Michel Foucault."}, {"id": 22500921, "title": "Outline of knowledge", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to knowledge:\nKnowledge \u2013 familiarity with someone or something, which can include facts, information, descriptions,  and/or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); and it can be more or less formal or systematic."}, {"id": 1106205, "title": "Cognitive closure (philosophy)", "abstract": "In philosophy of science and philosophy of mind, cognitive closure is the proposition that human minds are constitutionally incapable of solving certain perennial philosophical problems. Owen Flanagan calls this position anti-constructive naturalism or the \"new mysterianism\" and the primary advocate of the hypothesis, Colin McGinn, calls it transcendental naturalism acknowledging the possibility that solutions may be knowable to an intelligent non-human of some kind. According to McGinn, such philosophical questions include the mind-body problem, identity of the self, foundations of meaning, free will, and knowledge, both a priori and empirical."}, {"id": 30384825, "title": "Cognitive justice", "abstract": "The concept of cognitive justice is based on the recognition of the plurality of knowledge and expresses the right of the different forms of knowledge to co-exist.Indian scholar Shiv Visvanathan coined the term cognitive justice in his 1997 book \"A Carnival for Science: Essays on science, technology and development\". Commenting on the destructive impact of hegemonic Western science on developing countries and non-Western cultures, Visvanathan calls for the recognition of alternative sciences or non-Western forms of knowledge. He argues that different knowledges are connected with different livelihoods and lifestyles and should therefore be treated equally.\nCognitive justice is a critique on the dominant paradigm of modern science and promotes the recognition of alternative paradigms or alternative sciences by facilitating and enabling dialogue between, often incommensurable, knowledges. These dialogues of knowledge are perceived as contributing to a more sustainable, equitable, and democratic world. \nThe call for cognitive justice is found in a growing variety of fields, such as ethnobiology, technology and database design, and in information and communication technology for development (ICT4D).South-African scholar and UNESCO education expert Catherine Odora Hoppers wrote about cognitive justice in the field of education. She argued that indigenous knowledges have to be included in the dialogues of knowledge without having to fit in the structures and standards of Western knowledge. When Indigenous knowledges are treated equally, they can play their role in making a more democratic and dialogical science, which remains connected to the livelihoods and survival of all cultures."}, {"id": 221284, "title": "Dispersed knowledge", "abstract": "Dispersed knowledge in economics is the notion that no single agent has information as to all of the factors which influence prices and production throughout the system. The term has been both expanded upon and popularized by American economist Thomas Sowell."}, {"id": 39380347, "title": "Encyclopedic knowledge", "abstract": "To have encyclopedic knowledge is to have \"vast and complete\" knowledge about a large number of diverse subjects. A person having such knowledge might, sometimes humorously be referred as \"a human encyclopedia\" or \"a walking encyclopedia\".The concept of encyclopedic knowledge was once attributed to exceptionally well-read or knowledgeable persons such as Plato, Aristotle, Hildegard von Bingen, Leonardo da Vinci, Immanuel Kant, or G. W. F. Hegel. Tom Rockmore described Hegel, for example, as a polymath and \"a modern Aristotle, perhaps the last person to know everything of value that was known during his lifetime.\" Such persons are generally described as such based on their deep cognitive grasp of multiple and diverse fields of inquiry\u2014an intellectually exceptional subset of philosophers who might also be differentiated from the multi-talented, the genius, or the \"Renaissance man.\""}, {"id": 639511, "title": "Episteme", "abstract": "In philosophy, episteme (Ancient Greek: \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03bc\u03b7, romanized: epist\u0113m\u0113, lit.\u2009'science, knowledge'; French: \u00e9pist\u00e8me) is knowledge or understanding. The term epistemology (the branch of philosophy concerning knowledge) is derived from episteme."}, {"id": 18311131, "title": "Epistemic privilege", "abstract": "Epistemic privilege or privileged access is the philosophical concept that certain knowledge, such as knowledge of one's own thoughts, can be apprehended directly by a given person and not by others. This implies one has access to, and direct self-knowledge of, their own thoughts in such a way that others do not. The concept can also refer to the notion of having privileged, non-perspectival access to knowledge of things about reality or things beyond one's own mind. Epistemic privilege can be characterized in two ways:\n\nPositive characterization: privileged access comes through introspection.\nNegative characterization: knowledge derived from privileged access is not based upon evidences."}, {"id": 434103, "title": "Experiential knowledge", "abstract": "Experiential knowledge is knowledge gained through experience, as opposed to a priori (before experience) knowledge: it can also be contrasted both with propositional (textbook) knowledge, and with practical knowledge.Experiential knowledge is cognate to Michael Polanyi's personal knowledge, as well as to Bertrand Russell's contrast of Knowledge by Acquaintance and by Description."}, {"id": 9892, "title": "Expert", "abstract": "An expert is somebody who has a broad and deep understanding and competence in terms of knowledge, skill and experience through practice and education in a particular field or area of study. Informally, an expert is someone widely recognized as a reliable source of technique or skill whose faculty for judging or deciding rightly, justly, or wisely is accorded authority and status by peers or the public in a specific well-distinguished domain. An expert, more generally, is a person with extensive knowledge or ability based on research, experience, or occupation and in a particular area of study. Experts are called in for advice on their respective subject, but they do not always agree on the particulars of a field of study. An expert can be believed, by virtue of credentials, training, education, profession, publication or experience, to have special knowledge of a subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially (and legally) rely upon the individual's opinion on that topic. Historically, an expert was referred to as a sage. The individual was usually a profound thinker distinguished for wisdom and sound judgment.\nIn specific fields, the definition of expert is well established by consensus and therefore it is not always necessary for individuals to have a professional or academic qualification for them to be accepted as an expert. In this respect, a shepherd with fifty years of experience tending flocks would be widely recognized as having complete expertise in the use and training of sheep dogs and the care of sheep. Another example from computer science is that an expert system may be taught by a human and thereafter considered an expert, often outperforming human beings at particular tasks. In law, an expert witness must be recognized by argument and authority.Research in this area attempts to understand the relation between expert knowledge, skills and personal characteristics and exceptional performance. Some researchers have investigated the cognitive structures and processes of experts. The fundamental aim of this research is to describe what it is that experts know and how they use their knowledge to achieve performance that most people assume requires extreme or extraordinary ability. Studies have investigated the factors that enable experts to be fast and accurate."}, {"id": 2231743, "title": "Explicit knowledge", "abstract": "Explicit knowledge (also expressive knowledge) is knowledge that can be readily articulated, conceptualized, codified, formalized, stored and accessed. It can be expressed in formal and systematical language and shared in the form of data, scientific formulae, specifications, manuals and such like. It is easily codifiable and thus transmittable without loss of integrity once the syntactical rules required for deciphering it are known.  Most forms of explicit knowledge can be stored in certain media. Explicit knowledge is often seen as complementary to tacit knowledge.Explicit knowledge is often seen as easier to formalize compared to tacit knowledge, but both are necessary for knowledge creation. Nonaka and Takeuchi introduce the SECI model as a way for knowledge creation. The SECI model involves four stages where explicit and tacit knowledge interact with each other in a spiral manner. The four stages are:\n\nSocialization, from tacit to tacit knowledge\nExternalization, from tacit to explicit knowledge\nCombination, from explicit to explicit knowledge\nInternalization, from explicit to tacit knowledge."}, {"id": 32116915, "title": "Faith literate", "abstract": "Faith literate describes the ability of an individual to become knowledgeable of  other religions and faith other than the one a person believes in."}, {"id": 859096, "title": "Forbidden knowledge", "abstract": "Forbidden knowledge, which is different from secret knowledge, is used to describe forbidden books or other information to which access is restricted or deprecated for political or religious reasons. Forbidden knowledge is commonly not secret, rather a society or various institutions will use repressive mechanisms to either completely prevent the publication of information they find objectionable or dangerous (censorship), or failing that, to try to reduce the public's trust in such information (propaganda). Public repression can create paradoxical situations where the proscribed information is generally common knowledge but publicly citing it is disallowed.\nA rich set of examples exist through history. \n\nThe Roman Catholic church forbids publication of books to which it has not granted Imprimatur.\nThroughout the years of isolation in Japan and China all Western literature was forbidden.\nCertain 20th century governments (e.g. communist nations in Eastern Europe and China) placed strong restrictions on foreign publications.\nIn the United States, conservative groups including Jerry Falwell's Moral Majority made several attempts to censor pro civil-rights and feminist works such as Our Bodies, Ourselves.In many cases this resulted in people defending themselves by creating political jokes. Jokes throughout history have been a powerful instrument to undermine state authority and the public truth associated with it."}, {"id": 1255319, "title": "Functional illiteracy", "abstract": "Functional illiteracy consists of reading and writing skills that are inadequate \"to manage daily living and employment tasks that require reading skills beyond a basic level\". Those who read and write only in a language other than the predominant language of their environs may also be considered functionally illiterate. Functional illiteracy is contrasted with illiteracy in the strict sense, meaning the inability to read or write simple sentences in any language. \nThe characteristics of functional illiteracy vary from one culture to another, as some cultures require more advanced reading and writing skills than do others. In languages with phonemic spelling, functional illiteracy might be defined simply as reading too slowly for practical use, an inability to effectively use dictionaries and written manuals, and other factors. Sociological research has demonstrated that countries with lower levels of functional illiteracy among their adult populations tend to be those with the highest levels of scientific literacy among the lower stratum of young people nearing the end of their formal academic studies. This correspondence suggests that the capacity of schools to ensure students attain the functional literacy required to comprehend the basic texts and documents associated with competent citizenship contributes to a society's level of civic literacy.A reading level that might be sufficient to make a farmer functionally literate in a rural area of a developing country might qualify as functional illiteracy in an urban area of a technologically advanced country. In developed countries, the level of functional literacy of an individual is proportional to income level and inversely proportional to the risk of committing certain kinds of crime. In Russia, where more than 99% percent of the population is technically literate, only one-third of high school graduates can comprehend the content of scientific and literary texts, according to a 2015 study. The UK government's Department for Education reported in 2006 that 47% of school children left school at age 16 without having achieved a basic level in functional mathematics, and 42% fail to achieve a basic level of functional English. Every year, 100,000 pupils leave school functionally illiterate in the UK. In the United States, according to Business magazine, an estimated 15 million functionally illiterate adults held jobs at the beginning of the 21st century. According to the National Center for Educational Statistics in the United States:\nAbout 70% of adults in the U.S. prison system read at or below the fourth-grade level, according to the 2003 National Adult Literacy Survey, noting that a \"link between academic failure and delinquency, violence and crime is welded to reading failure.\"\n85% of US juvenile inmates are functionally illiterate\n43% of adults at the lowest level of literacy lived below the poverty line, as opposed to 4% of those with the highest levels of literacy.The National Center for Education Statistics provides more detail. Literacy is broken down into three parameters: prose, document, and quantitative literacy. Each parameter has four levels: below basic, basic, intermediate, and proficient. For prose literacy, for example, a below basic level of literacy means that a person can look at a short piece of text to get a small piece of uncomplicated information, while a person who is below basic in quantitative literacy would be able to do simple addition. In the US, 14% of the adult population is at the \"below basic\" level for prose literacy; 12% are at the \"below basic\" level for document literacy, and 22% are at that level for quantitative literacy. Only 13% of the population is proficient in each of these three areas\u2014able to compare viewpoints in two editorials; interpret a table about blood pressure, age, and physical activity; or compute and compare the cost per ounce of food items.\nA Literacy at Work study, published by the Northeast Institute in 2001, found that business losses attributed to basic skill deficiencies run into billions of dollars a year due to low productivity, errors, and accidents attributed to functional illiteracy. The American Council of Life Insurers reported that 75% of the Fortune 500 companies provide some level of remedial training for their workers. As of 2003, 30 million (14% of adults) were unable to perform simple and everyday literacy activities."}, {"id": 3947034, "title": "General knowledge", "abstract": "General knowledge is information that has been accumulated over time through various media and sources. It excludes specialized learning that can only be obtained with extensive training and information confined to a single medium. General knowledge is an essential component of crystallized intelligence. It is strongly associated with general intelligence and with openness to experience.Studies have found that people who are highly knowledgeable in a particular domain tend to be knowledgeable in many. General knowledge is thought to be supported by long-term semantic memory ability. General knowledge also supports schemata for textual understanding."}, {"id": 12922, "title": "Gnosis", "abstract": "Gnosis is the common Greek noun for knowledge (\u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, gn\u014dsis, f.). The term was used among various Hellenistic religions and philosophies in the Greco-Roman world. It is best known for its implication within Gnosticism, where it signifies a spiritual knowledge or insight into humanity's real nature as divine, leading to the deliverance of the divine spark within humanity from the constraints of earthly existence."}, {"id": 6727454, "title": "Growth of knowledge", "abstract": "In Karl Popper's philosophy, the main problem of methodology and philosophy of science is to explain and promote the growth of knowledge. To this purpose, Popper advocated his theory of falsifiability, testability and testing. He wrote in The Logic of Scientific Discovery: \"The central problem of epistemology has always been and still is the problem of the growth of knowledge. And the growth of knowledge can be studied best by studying the growth of scientific knowledge.\""}, {"id": 3467849, "title": "Half-life of knowledge", "abstract": "The half-life of knowledge or half-life of facts is the amount of time that has to elapse before half of the knowledge or facts in a particular area is superseded or shown to be untrue. These coined terms belong to the field of quantitative analysis of science known as scientometrics.\nThese ideas of half-life applied to different fields differ from the concept of half-life in physics in that there is no guarantee that the knowledge or facts in areas of study are declining exponentially. It is unclear that there is any way to establish what constitutes \"knowledge\" in a particular area, as opposed to mere opinion or theory.\nAn engineering degree went from having a half life of 35 years in ca. 1930 to about 10 years in 1960.A Delphi Poll showed that the half life of psychology as measured in 2016 ranged from 3.3 to 19 years depending on the specialty, with an average of a little over 7 years.It has also been used in Christian missiology to increase the effectiveness of their teachings."}, {"id": 9511103, "title": "Inert knowledge", "abstract": "Inert knowledge is information which one can express but not use. The process of understanding by learners does not happen to that extent where the knowledge can be used for effective problem-solving in realistic situations.The phenomenon of inert knowledge was first described in 1929 by Alfred North Whitehead:\n\"[T]heoretical ideas should always find important applications within the pupil\u2019s curriculum. This is not an easy doctrine to apply, but a very hard one. It contains within itself the problem of keeping knowledge alive, of preventing it from becoming inert, which is the central problem of all education.\"\nAn example for inert knowledge is vocabulary of a foreign language which is available during an exam but not in a real situation of communication.\nAn explanation for the problem of inert knowledge is that people often encode knowledge to a specific situation, so that later remindings occur only for highly similar situations.In contrast so called conditionalized knowledge is knowledge about something which includes also knowledge as to the contexts in which that certain knowledge will be useful."}, {"id": 5493220, "title": "Interactional expertise", "abstract": "Interactional expertise is part of a more complex classification of expertise developed by Harry Collins and Robert Evans (both based at Cardiff University). In this initial formulation interactional expertise was part of a threefold classification of substantive expertise that also included \u2018no expertise\u2019 and \u2018contributory expertise\u2019, by which they meant the expertise needed to contribute fully to all aspects of a domain of activity."}, {"id": 15201, "title": "Interdisciplinarity", "abstract": "Interdisciplinarity or interdisciplinary studies involves the combination of multiple academic disciplines into one activity (e.g., a research project). It draws knowledge from several other fields like sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, etc.  It is about creating something by thinking across boundaries. It is related to an interdiscipline or an interdisciplinary field, which is an organizational unit that crosses traditional boundaries between academic disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions emerge. Large engineering teams are usually interdisciplinary, as a power station or mobile phone or other project requires the melding of several specialties. However, the term \"interdisciplinary\" is sometimes confined to academic settings.\nThe term interdisciplinary is applied within education and training pedagogies to describe studies that use methods and insights of several established disciplines or traditional fields of study. Interdisciplinarity involves researchers, students, and teachers in the goals of connecting and integrating several academic schools of thought, professions, or technologies\u2014along with their specific perspectives\u2014in the pursuit of a common task. The epidemiology of HIV/AIDS or global warming requires understanding of diverse disciplines to solve complex problems. Interdisciplinary may be applied where the subject is felt to have been neglected or even misrepresented in the traditional disciplinary structure of research institutions, for example, women's studies or ethnic area studies. Interdisciplinarity can likewise be applied to complex subjects that can only be understood by combining the perspectives of two or more fields.\nThe adjective interdisciplinary is most often used in educational circles when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand, including the case of the team-taught course where students are required to understand a given subject in terms of multiple traditional disciplines.  For example, the subject of land use may appear differently when examined by different disciplines, for instance, biology, chemistry, economics, geography, and politics."}, {"id": 46821647, "title": "Internet science", "abstract": "Internet science is an interdisciplinary science that examines all aspects of the co-evolution in Internet networks and society. It works in the intersection of and in the gaps among a wide range of disciplines that have had to respond to the impact of the Internet on their 'home turf' and/or offer specific conceptual or methodological contributions. These include many natural sciences (e.g., complexity science, computer science, engineering, life sciences, mathematics, physics, psychology, statistics, systems and evolutionary biology), social sciences (e.g. anthropology, economics, philosophy, sociology, and political science), humanities  (e.g., art, history, linguistics, literature and history) and some existing interdisciplines that cross traditional Faculty boundaries (e.g., technology, medicine, law). Professor Noshir Contractor and others have located it at the intersection of computational social science, network science, network engineering and Web science. By understanding the role of society in shaping Internet networks and being shaped by them Internet science aims to take care of the Internet in a way similar to that in which Web science aims to take care of the Web. The lingua franca in this interdisciplinary area include Internet standards and associated implementation, social processes, Internet infrastructure and policy.\nMany disciplines support Internet science with different analysis tools, designs, and languages. To have a productive and effective dialogue between disciplines requires incentives for cooperation. The three main elements of Internet science are: multidisciplinary convergence, observability and constructive experimentation.The European Commission funded a Network of Excellence on Internet Science (project acronym EINS) over the period December 2011-May 2015 under the FP7 funding programme. The Network in May 2015 had 48 member universities and research organisations and 180 individual affiliate researchers. Two major international Internet science conferences were held in April 2013 and May 2015 together with an unconference at the University of Bologna in May 2014 and official workshops at international academic conferences such as Human Behavior and the Evolution of Society and international inter-governmental and multistakeholder conferences such as the 2013  United Nations Internet Governance Forum."}, {"id": 310864, "title": "Intertwingularity", "abstract": "Intertwingularity is a term coined by Ted Nelson to express the complexity of interrelations in human knowledge.\nNelson wrote in Computer Lib/Dream Machines (Nelson 1974, p. DM45): \"EVERYTHING IS DEEPLY INTERTWINGLED. In an important sense there are no \"subjects\" at all; there is only all knowledge, since the cross-connections among the myriad topics of this world simply cannot be divided up neatly.\"He added the following comment in the revised edition  (Nelson 1987, p. DM31): \"Hierarchical and sequential structures, especially popular since Gutenberg, are usually forced and artificial. Intertwingularity is not generally acknowledged\u2014people keep pretending they can make things hierarchical, categorizable and sequential when they can't.\"Intertwingularity is related to Nelson's coined term hypertext, partially inspired by \"As We May Think\" (1945) by Vannevar Bush."}, {"id": 582687, "title": "J\u00f1\u0101na", "abstract": "In Indian philosophy and religions, j\u00f1\u0101na (Sanskrit: \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, [\u02c8d\u0291\u0272a\u02d0n\u0250]) is \"knowledge\".\nThe idea of j\u00f1\u0101na centers on a cognitive event which is recognized when experienced. It is knowledge inseparable from the total experience of reality, especially the total or divine reality (Brahman).The root \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e- j\u00f1\u0101- is cognate to Slavic znati, English know, as well as to the Greek \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce- (as in \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 gnosis) and Lithuanian \u017einoti. Its antonym is \u0905\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 aj\u00f1\u0101na \"ignorance\"."}, {"id": 1628055, "title": "Know thyself", "abstract": "\"Know thyself\" (Greek: \u0393\u03bd\u1ff6\u03b8\u03b9 \u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd, gn\u014dthi sauton) is a philosophical maxim which was inscribed upon the Temple of Apollo in the ancient Greek precinct of Delphi. The most well-known of the Delphic maxims, it has been quoted and analyzed by numerous authors throughout history, and has been given many different applications. Although traditionally attributed to the Seven Sages of Greece, or to the god Apollo himself, the inscription likely had its origin in a popular proverb.\nIon of Chios makes the earliest explicit allusion to the maxim in a fragment dating to the 5th century BC, though the philosopher Heraclitus, active towards the end of the previous century, may also have made reference to the maxim in his works. The principal meaning of the phrase in its original application was \"know your limits\" \u2013 either in the sense of knowing the extent of one's abilities, knowing one's place in the social scale, or knowing oneself to be mortal. In the 4th century BC, however, the maxim was drastically re-interpreted by Plato, who understood it to mean, broadly speaking, \"know your soul\".\nIn later writings on the subject, one common theme was that one could acquire knowledge of the self by studying the universe, or knowledge of the universe by studying the self. This was often explained in terms of the microcosm\u2013macrocosm analogy, the idea that a human being is structurally similar to the cosmos. Another theme, which can be traced back to the Platonic Alcibiades I, is that one can only know oneself by observing other people.\nChristian, Jewish and Islamic authors found various scriptural equivalents for the maxim, allowing them to discuss the topic of self-knowledge without reference to the pagan inscription. By the time of the Protestant Reformation, Christian theologians generally understood the maxim to enjoin, firstly, knowledge of the soul's origin in God, and secondly, knowledge of the sinfulness of human nature. In secular writings of the period, several new meanings emerged; among them, that \"know thyself\" was a command to study the physical properties of the human body.\nDuring the 19th and 20th centuries, the maxim acquired several new associations. It was frequently quoted in German philosophy and literature, by authors such as Kant, Hegel and Goethe; it was cited as an analogue of \"tat tvam asi\" (\"that thou art\"), one of the \"Great Sayings\" of Hinduism; and it took on an important role in the developing discipline of psychoanalysis, where it was interpreted as an injunction to understand the unconscious mind."}, {"id": 5702463, "title": "Knowledge environment", "abstract": "Knowledge environments are social practices, technological and physical arrangements intended to facilitate collaborative knowledge building, decision making, inference or discovery, depending on the epistemological premises and goals."}, {"id": 14063657, "title": "Manda (Mandaeism)", "abstract": "In Mandaeism, manda (Classical Mandaic: \u084b\u0840\u0845\u0850\u0840) is the concept of gnosis or spiritual knowledge. Mandaeans stress salvation of the soul through secret knowledge (gnosis) of its divine origin. Mandaeism \"provides knowledge of whence we have come and whither we are going.\":\u200a531"}, {"id": 38724482, "title": "Meta-functional expertise", "abstract": "Meta-functional expertise is the breadth of one\u2019s strategically important knowledge. It differs from the traditional conceptualization of expertise, which is generally considered to be a great depth of knowledge in a defined area, and where thus experts are people who are distinguished as knowing a lot about a particular subject. Comparatively, a meta-functional expert is considered to be somewhat knowledgeable in many different areas but not necessarily an expert in any single domain."}, {"id": 3013461, "title": "Metaknowledge", "abstract": "Metaknowledge or meta-knowledge is knowledge about knowledge.Some authors divide meta-knowledge into orders:\n\nzero order meta-knowledge is knowledge whose domain is not knowledge (and hence zero order meta-knowledge is not meta-knowledge per se)\nfirst order meta-knowledge is knowledge whose domain is zero order meta-knowledge\nsecond order meta-knowledge is knowledge whose domain is first order meta-knowledge\nmost generally, \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        +\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n+1}\n   order meta-knowledge is knowledge whose domain is \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n   order meta-knowledge.Other authors call zero order meta-knowledge first order knowledge, and call first order meta-knowledge second order knowledge; meta-knowledge is also known as higher order knowledge.Meta-knowledge is a fundamental conceptual instrument in such research and scientific domains as, knowledge engineering, knowledge management, and others dealing with study and operations on knowledge, seen as a unified object/entities, abstracted from local conceptualizations and terminologies.\nExamples of the first-level individual meta-knowledge are methods of planning, modeling, tagging, learning and every modification of a domain knowledge. \nIndeed, universal meta-knowledge frameworks have to be valid for the organization of meta-levels of individual meta-knowledge.\nMeta-Knowledge may be automatically harvested from electronic publication archives, to reveal patterns in research, relationships between researchers and institutions  and to identify contradictory results."}, {"id": 3002191, "title": "Network of practice", "abstract": "Network of practice (often abbreviated as NoP) is a concept originated by John Seely Brown and Paul Duguid. This concept, related to the work on communities of practice by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger, refers to the overall set of various types of informal, emergent social networks that facilitate information exchange between individuals with practice-related goals. In other words, networks of practice range from communities of practice, where learning occurs, to electronic networks of practice (often referred to as virtual or electronic communities)."}, {"id": 57147939, "title": "Non-science", "abstract": "A non-science is an area of study that is not scientific, especially one that is not a natural science or a social science that is an object of scientific inquiry.  In this model, history, art, and religion are all examples of non-sciences."}, {"id": 10044813, "title": "Noogony", "abstract": "Noogony is a general term for any theory of knowledge that attempts to explain the origin of concepts in the human mind by considering sense or a posteriori data as solely relevant."}, {"id": 397245, "title": "Numeracy", "abstract": "Numeracy is the ability to understand, reason with, and to apply simple numerical concepts. The charity National Numeracy states: \"Numeracy means understanding how mathematics is used in the real world and being able to apply it to make the best possible decisions...It\u2019s as much about thinking and reasoning as about 'doing sums'\". Basic numeracy skills consist of comprehending fundamental arithmetical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. For example, if one can understand simple mathematical equations such as 2 + 2 = 4, then one would be considered to possess at least basic numeric knowledge. Substantial aspects of numeracy also include number sense, operation sense, computation, measurement, geometry, probability and statistics. A numerically literate person can manage and respond to the mathematical demands of life.By contrast, innumeracy (the lack of numeracy) can have a negative impact. Numeracy has an influence on healthy behaviors, financial literacy, and career decisions. Therefore, innumeracy may negatively affect economic choices, financial outcomes, health outcomes, and life satisfaction. It also may distort risk perception in health decisions. Greater numeracy has been associated with reduced susceptibility to framing effects, less influence of nonnumerical information such as mood states, and greater sensitivity to different levels of numerical risk. Ellen Peters and her colleagues argue that  achieving the benefits of numeric literacy, however, may depend on one's numeric self-efficacy or confidence in one's skills."}, {"id": 851927, "title": "Obscurantism", "abstract": "In the fields of philosophy, the terms obscurantism and obscurationism identify and describe the anti-intellectual practices of deliberately presenting information in an abstruse and imprecise manner that limits further inquiry and understanding of a subject. The two historical and intellectual denotations of obscurantism are: (1) the deliberate restriction of knowledge \u2014 opposition to the dissemination of knowledge; and (2) deliberate obscurity \u2014 a recondite style of writing characterized by deliberate vagueness.In the 18th century, Enlightenment philosophers applied the term obscurantist to any enemy of intellectual enlightenment and the liberal diffusion of knowledge. In the 19th century, in distinguishing the varieties of obscurantism found in metaphysics and theology, from the \"more subtle\" obscurantism of the critical philosophy of Immanuel Kant and of modern philosophical skepticism, Friedrich Nietzsche said that: \"The essential element in the black art of obscurantism is not that it wants to darken individual understanding, but that it wants to blacken our picture of the world, and darken our idea of existence.\""}, {"id": 22649, "title": "Observation", "abstract": "Observation in the natural sciences is an act or instance of noticing or perceiving  and the acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings, observation employs the senses. In science, observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific instruments. The term may also refer to any data collected during the scientific activity. Observations can be qualitative, that is, only the absence or presence of a property is noted, or quantitative if a numerical value is attached to the observed phenomenon by counting or measuring."}, {"id": 22781, "title": "Omniscience", "abstract": "Omniscience () is the capacity to know everything. In Hinduism, Sikhism and the Abrahamic religions, this is an attribute of God. In Jainism, omniscience is an attribute that any individual can eventually attain. In Buddhism, there are differing beliefs about omniscience among different schools."}, {"id": 9106784, "title": "Open knowledge", "abstract": "Open knowledge (or free knowledge) is knowledge that is free to use, reuse, and redistribute without legal, social, or technological restriction. Open knowledge organizations and activists have proposed principles and methodologies related to the production and distribution of knowledge in an open manner.\nThe concept is related to open source and the Open Definition, whose first versions bore the title \"Open Knowledge Definition\", is derived from the Open Source Definition."}, {"id": 7030491, "title": "Pantomath", "abstract": "A pantomath is a person who wants to know or knows everything. The word itself is not to be found in common  online English dictionaries, the OED, dictionaries of obscure words, or dictionaries of neologisms."}, {"id": 42446, "title": "Reason", "abstract": "Reason is the capacity of applying logic consciously by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. It is associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, religion, science, language, mathematics, and art, and is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans. Reason is sometimes referred to as rationality.Reasoning involves using more-or-less rational processes of thinking and cognition to extrapolate from one's existing knowledge to generate new knowledge, and involves the use of one's intellect. The field of logic studies the ways in which humans can use formal reasoning to produce logically valid arguments and true conclusions. Reasoning may be subdivided into forms of logical reasoning, such as deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, and abductive reasoning.\nAristotle drew a distinction between logical discursive reasoning (reason proper), and intuitive reasoning,:\u200aVI.7\u200a in which the reasoning process through intuition\u2014however valid\u2014may tend toward the personal and the subjectively opaque. In some social and political settings logical and intuitive modes of reasoning may clash, while in other contexts intuition and formal reason are seen as complementary rather than adversarial. For example, in mathematics, intuition is often necessary for the creative processes involved with arriving at a formal proof, arguably the most difficult of formal reasoning tasks.\nReasoning, like habit or intuition, is one of the ways by which thinking moves from one idea to a related idea. For example, reasoning is the means by which rational individuals understand the significance of sensory information from their environments, or conceptualize abstract dichotomies such as cause and effect, truth and falsehood, or good and evil. Reasoning, as a part of executive decision making, is also closely identified with the ability to self-consciously change, in terms of goals, beliefs, attitudes, traditions, and institutions, and therefore with the capacity for freedom and self-determination.In contrast to the use of \"reason\" as an abstract noun, a reason is a consideration that either explains or justifies events, phenomena, or behavior. Reasons justify decisions, reasons support explanations of natural phenomena, and reasons can be given to explain the actions (conduct) of individuals.\nThe words are connected in this way: Using reason, or reasoning, means providing good reasons. For example, when evaluating a moral decision, \"morality is, at the very least, the effort to guide one's conduct by reason\u2014that is, doing what there are the best reasons for doing\u2014while giving equal [and impartial] weight to the interests of all those affected by what one does.\"Psychologists and cognitive scientists have attempted to study and explain how people reason, e.g. which cognitive and neural processes are engaged, and how cultural factors affect the inferences that people draw. The field of automated reasoning studies how reasoning may or may not be modeled computationally. Animal psychology considers the question of whether animals other than humans can reason."}, {"id": 21312310, "title": "Remember versus know judgements", "abstract": "There is evidence suggesting that different processes are involved in remembering something versus knowing whether it is familiar. It appears that \"remembering\" and \"knowing\" represent relatively different characteristics of memory as well as reflect different ways of using memory.\nTo remember is the conscious recollection of many vivid contextual details, such as \"when\" and \"how\" the information was learned. Remembering utilizes episodic memory and requires a deeper level of processing (e.g. undivided attention) than knowing. Errors in recollection may be due to source-monitoring errors that prevent an individual from remembering where exactly a piece of information was received. On the other hand, source monitoring may be very effective in aiding the retrieval of episodic memories. Remembering is a knowledge-based and conceptually-driven form of processing that can be influenced by many things. It is relevant to note that under this view both kinds of judgments are characteristics of individuals and thus any distinctions between the two are correlational, not causal, events.\nTo know is a feeling (unconscious) of familiarity. It is the sensation that the item has been seen before, but not being able to pin down the reason why. Knowing simply reflects the familiarity of an item without recollection. Knowing utilizes semantic memory that requires perceptually based, data-driven processing. Knowing is the result of shallow maintenance rehearsal that can be influenced by many of the same aspects as semantic memory.\nRemember and know responses are quite often differentiated by their functional correlates in specific areas in the brain. For instance, during \"remember\" situations it is found that there is greater EEG activity than \"knowing\", specifically, due to an interaction between frontal and posterior regions of the brain. It is also found that the hippocampus is differently activated during recall of \"remembered\" (vs. familiar) stimuli. On the other hand, items that are only \"known\", or seem familiar, are associated with activity in the rhinal cortex."}, {"id": 59301865, "title": "Scholar", "abstract": "A scholar is a person who is a researcher or has expertise in an academic discipline. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researcher at a university. An academic usually holds an advanced degree or a terminal degree, such as a master's degree or a doctorate (PhD). Independent scholars and public intellectuals work outside of the academy yet may publish in academic journals and participate in scholarly public discussion."}, {"id": 3067655, "title": "Scientia potentia est", "abstract": "The phrase \"scientia potentia est\" (or \"scientia est potentia\" or also \"scientia potestas est\") is a Latin aphorism meaning \"knowledge is power\", commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon. The expression \"ipsa scientia potestas est\" ('knowledge itself is power') occurs in Bacon's Meditationes Sacrae (1597). The exact phrase \"scientia potentia est\" (knowledge is power) was written for the first time in the 1668 version of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, who was a secretary to Bacon as a young man. The related phrase \"sapientia est potentia\" is often translated as \"wisdom is power\"."}, {"id": 1941913, "title": "Self-knowledge (psychology)", "abstract": "Self-knowledge is a term used in psychology to describe the information that an individual draws upon when finding answers to the questions \"What am I like?\" and \"Who am I?\".\nWhile seeking to develop the answer to this question, self-knowledge requires ongoing self-awareness and self-consciousness (which is not to be confused with consciousness). Young infants and chimpanzees display some of the traits of self-awareness and agency/contingency, yet they are not considered as also having self-consciousness. At some greater level of cognition, however, a self-conscious component emerges in addition to an increased self-awareness component, and then it becomes possible to ask \"What am I like?\", and to answer with self-knowledge, though self-knowledge has limits, as introspection has been said to be limited and complex.Self-knowledge is a component of the self or, more accurately, the self-concept. It is the knowledge of oneself and one's properties and the desire to seek such knowledge that guide the development of the self-concept, even if that concept is flawed. Self-knowledge informs us of our mental representations of ourselves, which contain attributes that we uniquely pair with ourselves, and theories on whether these attributes are stable or dynamic, to the best that we can evaluate ourselves.\nThe self-concept is thought to have three primary aspects:\n\nThe cognitive self\nThe affective self\nThe executive selfThe affective and executive selves are also known as the felt and active selves respectively, as they refer to the emotional and behavioral components of the self-concept.\nSelf-knowledge is linked to the cognitive self in that its motives guide our search to gain greater clarity and assurance that our own self-concept is an accurate representation of our true self; for this reason the cognitive self is also referred to as the known self. The cognitive self is made up of everything we know (or think we know) about ourselves. This implies physiological properties such as hair color, race, and height etc.; and psychological properties like beliefs, values, and dislikes to name but a few.\nSelf knowledge just simply means introspecting your behaviour and actions from a third persons view to the various situations faced in life and then trying to identify the causes of these issues in life."}, {"id": 355343, "title": "Skill", "abstract": "A skill is the learned ability to act with determined results with good execution often within a given amount of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills. For example, in the domain of work, some general skills would include time management, teamwork and leadership, self-motivation and others, whereas domain-specific skills would be used only for a certain job. Skill usually requires certain environmental stimuli and situations to assess the level of skill being shown and used.A skill may be called an art when it represents a body of knowledge or branch of learning, as in the art of medicine or the art of war.  Although the arts are also skills, there are many skills that form an art but have no connection to the fine arts.\nPeople need a broad range of skills to contribute to the modern economy. A joint ASTD and U.S. Department of Labor study showed that through technology, the workplace is changing, and identified 16 basic skills that employees must have to be able to change with it. Three broad categories of skills are suggested and these are technical, human, and conceptual. The first two can be substituted with hard and soft skills, respectively."}, {"id": 1958462, "title": "Subject-matter expert", "abstract": "A subject-matter expert (SME) is a person who has accumulated great knowledge in a particular field or topic and this level of knowledge is demonstrated by the person's degree, licensure, and/or through years of professional experience with the subject. For example, a PhD in chemistry could be easily declared as a SME in chemistry, or a person with a Second Class Radiotelegraph License or equivalent issued by the national licensing body (Federal Communications Commission in the United States, Ofcom in the UK, and National Telecommunications Commission in the Philippines, and other authorities around the world) could be considered a SME in radiotelegraphy.  A person with a master's degree in electronic engineering could be considered a subject-matter expert in electronics, or a person with many years of experience in machining could be considered a SME in machining.\nThe term is used when developing materials about a topic (a book, an examination, a manual, etc.), and expertise on the topic is needed by the personnel developing the material. For example, tests are often created by a team of psychometricians and a team of SMEs. The psychometricians understand how to engineer a test while the SMEs understand the actual content of the exam. Books, manuals, and technical documentation are developed by technical writers and instructional designers in conjunctions with SMEs. Technical communicators interview SMEs to extract information and convert it into a form suitable for the audience. SMEs are often required to sign off on the documents or training developed, checking it for technical accuracy. SMEs are also necessary for the development of training materials."}, {"id": 57429694, "title": "Surprisingly popular", "abstract": "The surprisingly popular answer is a wisdom of the crowd technique that taps into the expert minority opinion within a crowd. For a given question, a group is asked both \"What do you think the right answer is?\" and \"What do you think the popular answer will be?\" The answer that maximizes the average difference between the \"right\" answer and the \"popular\" answer is the \"surprisingly popular\" answer. The term \"surprisingly popular\" was coined in a 2017 paper published in Nature entitled \"A solution to the single-question crowd wisdom problem\", which outlined the technique."}, {"id": 216180, "title": "Understanding", "abstract": "Understanding is a cognitive process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation, or message whereby one is able to use concepts to model that object.\nUnderstanding is a relation between the knower and an object of understanding. Understanding implies abilities and dispositions with respect to an object of knowledge that are sufficient to support intelligent behavior.Understanding is often, though not always, related to learning concepts, and sometimes also the theory or theories associated with those concepts. However, a person may have a good ability to predict the behavior of an object, animal or system\u2014and therefore may, in some sense, understand it\u2014without necessarily being familiar with the concepts or theories associated with that object, animal, or system in their culture. They may have developed their own distinct concepts and theories, which may be equivalent, better or worse than the recognized standard concepts and theories of their culture. Thus, understanding is correlated with the ability to make inferences."}, {"id": 73751329, "title": "Unknowability", "abstract": "In philosophy, unknowability is the possibility of inherently unaccessible knowledge. It addresses the epistemology of that which we cannot know. Some related concepts include the halting problem, the limits of knowledge, the unknown unknowns, and chaos theory.  \nNicholas Rescher provides the most recent focused scholarship for this area in Unknowability: An Inquiry into the Limits of Knowledge, where he offered three high level categories, logical unknowability, conceptual unknowability, and in-principle unknowability."}, {"id": 43382131, "title": "Vidya (philosophy)", "abstract": "Vidya (Sanskrit: \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e, IAST: vidy\u0101) figures prominently in all texts pertaining to Indian philosophy \u2013 meaning science, learning, knowledge, and scholarship. Most importantly, it refers to valid knowledge, which cannot be contradicted, and true knowledge, which is the intuitively-gained knowledge of the self. Vidya is not mere intellectual knowledge, for the Vedas demand understanding."}], "id": 700914}, {"title": "Politics", "pages": [{"id": 22986, "title": "Politics", "abstract": "Politics (from Ancient Greek  \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac (politik\u00e1) 'affairs of the cities') is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies politics and government is referred to as political science.\nIt may be used positively in the context of a \"political solution\" which is compromising and nonviolent, or descriptively as \"the art or science of government\", but also often carries a negative connotation. The concept has been defined in various ways, and different approaches have fundamentally differing views on whether it should be used extensively or in a limited way, empirically or normatively, and on whether conflict or co-operation is more essential to it.\nA variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and exercising internal and external force, including warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states, to the international level.\nIn modern nation states, people often form political parties to represent their ideas. Members of a party often agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties.\nA political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society. The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Confucius's political manuscripts and Chanakya's Arthashastra."}, {"id": 38211935, "title": "Outline of political science", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to politics and political science:\n\nPolitics \u2013 the exercise of power; process by which groups of people make collective decisions. Politics is the art or science of running governmental or state affairs (including behavior within civil governments), institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the corporate, academic, and religious segments of society.\nPolitical science \u2013 the field concerning the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior."}, {"id": 1710895, "title": "Action alert", "abstract": "An action alert is a message that an organization sends to mobilize people, often members of the group and supporters of a specific point of view, calling on them to take action to influence public policy. Typically, action alerts are in reference to a timely issue, where prompt action is needed in order to affect upcoming decisions."}, {"id": 651934, "title": "Anti-incumbency", "abstract": "Anti-incumbency is sentiment in favor of voting out incumbent politicians, for the specific reason of being incumbent politicians. It is sometimes referred to as a \"throw the bums out\" sentiment. Periods of anti-incumbent sentiment are typically characterized by wave elections. This sentiment can also lead to support for term limits.\nIn a two-party system, anti-incumbent voters have only one party to vote for, when voting against the incumbent; in a multi-party system, public mood, i.e., the tendency of opinions held by voters over a set of related policy issues, can determine which parties receive the anti-incumbent vote."}, {"id": 45670539, "title": "Anti-politics", "abstract": "Anti-politics is a term used to describe opposition to, or distrust in, traditional politics. It is closely connected with anti-establishment sentiment and public disengagement from formal politics. Anti-politics can indicate practices and actors that seek to remove political contestation from the public arena, leading to political apathy among citizens; when used this way the term is similar to depoliticisation. Alternatively, if politics is understood as encompassing all social institutions and power relations, anti-politics can mean political activity stemming from a rejection of \"politics as usual\".Anti-politics tends to focus on negative assessments of politicians and political elites by civic organisations, the media and citizens, whereas political apathy may involve disaffection with other elements of a political system, such as the electoral system or party system. Since the 2000s, increasing dissatisfaction with democracy has been a theme of scholarship in both the Americas and Europe, with some political scientists describing high levels of political antipathy as a 'crisis' which risks democratic deconsolidation. Anti-politics become a key concept in accounts of political dysfunction in liberal democracies, typically dissatisfaction with politics and mistrust of politicians.Possible causes of anti-political sentiment include the processes associated with depoliticisation, especially an increase in technocratic forms of governance, as well as citizens' perceptions of incompetent governance and the poor performance of politicians. Political distrust can originate from, and increase support for, a range of different political ideologies, including both left-wing and right-wing positions and the extremes of these. Healthy levels of mistrust in politics are often seen as legitimate scepticism and considered beneficial for democratic functioning. High distrust can increase the divide between policy-makers (politicians, or the political establishment) and citizens, which provides opportunities for populist rhetoric. Anti-politics is often expressed through appeals to \"the people\" and is consequently linked with populism, particularly, but not exclusively, right-wing populism."}, {"id": 713877, "title": "Political argument", "abstract": "A political argument is an instance of a logical argument applied to politics. Political arguments are used by academics, media pundits, candidates for political office, and government officials. Political arguments are also used by citizens in ordinary interactions to comment on and understand political events. More often than not, political arguments tend to be circular, repeating the same facts as premises under perhaps slightly different guises. Much political argument concerns issues of taxation and government spending.The political argument should be distinguished from propaganda, in that propaganda has little or no structure or the rationale, if it exists, is egregiously fallacious.\nA classic example of political arguments is those contained in The Federalist Papers arguing in favor of ratification of the American constitution.\nThere are several ways of classifying political argument:\n\nBased on the logical structure of the argument.\nBased on the purpose of the argument.\nBased on the subject matter dealt with in the argument."}, {"id": 60912658, "title": "Political bias", "abstract": "Political bias is a bias or perceived bias involving the slanting or altering of information to make a political position or political candidate seem more attractive. With a distinct association with media bias, it commonly refers to how a reporter, news organisation, or TV show covers a political candidate or a policy issue.Bias emerges in a political context when individuals engage in an inability or an unwillingness to understand a politically opposing point of view. Such bias in individuals may have its roots in their traits and thinking styles; it is unclear whether individuals at particular positions along the political spectrum are more biased than any other individuals.Political bias exists beyond simple presentation and understanding of view-points favouring a particular political leader or party but transcends into the readings and interactions among individuals undertaken daily.  The prevalence of political bias has a lasting impact with proven effects on voter behaviour and consequent political outcomes.With an understanding of political bias comes the acknowledgment of its violation of expected political neutrality. A lack of political neutrality is the result of political bias."}, {"id": 24466231, "title": "Chancery (diplomacy)", "abstract": "A chancery is the principal office that houses a diplomatic mission or an embassy. This often includes the associated building and the site. The building can house one or several different nations' missions. The term derives from chancery or chancellery, the office of a chancellor. Some nations title the head of foreign affairs a chancellor, and 'chancery' eventually became a common referent to the main building of an embassy.\nThe building of a chancery is often erroneously referred to as an embassy. The term technically refers to the ambassador's residence and not their office. Among diplomats the terms \"embassy residence\" and \"embassy office\" is used to distinguish between the ambassador's residence and the chancery. In some cases, an ambassador's residence and the business office is located in the same building.There is evidence of the existence of chanceries throughout history, playing a key role in the facilitation of diplomacy and bilateralism. Chanceries have persisted into the modern age and still play a key role in the formation of foreign relations and maintenance of diplomacy. The function of a chancery includes facilitating communication between sovereign states, upholding foreign policy, opening cultural connections and exchange as well as many other functions. Chanceries also have other uses which include providing diplomatic asylum to those seeking it as seen in the cases of Julian Assange and Chen Guangcheng.Chanceries are said to be the interaction of diplomacy and architecture with the design of buildings heavily thought-upon. The characteristics of a chancery building, and its location is well-considered in order to achieve national interests. From the exterior appearance to interior design, each play a role in the diplomacy that takes place within its walls. The features of a chancery are also crucial in ensuring that it can withstand attacks and keep its occupants safe and secure. Many precautions are taken to keep the chancery secure.\nWhen countries do not have a diplomatic relationship, and no chancery is established, there is often a disguised embassy in another country instead. This is  also known as a de facto embassy.\nA large establishment of chanceries is the International Chancery Center (ICC) which is the first of its kind. This establishment is 47 acres of land in North-West Washington, D.C., US which is specifically allocated for chanceries."}, {"id": 29976943, "title": "Political climate", "abstract": "The political climate is the aggregate mood and opinions of a political society at a particular time. It is generally used to describe when the state of mood and opinion is changing or unstable. The phrase has origins from both ancient Greece and medieval-era France.\nWhile the concept of a political climate has been used historically to describe both politics and public reactions to political actions in various forms, the naming of the concept by the addition of the modifier \"political\" to the base \"climate\" has been fairly recent. Public opinion is also widely used incorrectly as a synonym for political climate.\nAs for judging what the climate is at any given time, there is no way to know an entire country's views on certain subjects. So, polls are used to estimate what the political climate \"feels\" like on a regular basis."}, {"id": 1414677, "title": "Comparative politics", "abstract": "Comparative politics is a field in political science characterized either by the use of the comparative method or other empirical methods to explore politics both within and between countries. Substantively, this can include questions relating to political institutions, political behavior, conflict, and the causes and consequences of economic development. When applied to specific fields of study, comparative politics may be referred to by other names, such as comparative government (the comparative study of forms of government)."}, {"id": 1997407, "title": "Criminalization", "abstract": "Criminalization or criminalisation, in criminology, is \"the process by which behaviors and individuals are transformed into crime and criminals\". Previously legal acts may be transformed into crimes by legislation or judicial decision. However, there is usually a formal presumption in the rules of statutory interpretation against the retrospective application of laws, and only the use of express words by the legislature may rebut this presumption. The power of judges to make new law and retrospectively criminalise behaviour is also discouraged. In a less overt way, where laws have not been strictly enforced, the acts prohibited by those laws may also undergo de facto criminalization through more effective or committed legal enforcement.  The process of criminalization takes place through societal institutions including schools, the family, and the criminal justice system."}, {"id": 64102083, "title": "Critical juncture theory", "abstract": "Critical juncture theory focuses on critical junctures, i.e., large, rapid, discontinuous changes, and the long-term causal effect or historical legacy of these changes.\nCritical junctures are turning points that alter the course of evolution of some entity (e.g., a species, a society). Critical juncture theory seeks to explain both (1) the historical origin and maintenance of social order, and (2) the occurrence of social change through sudden, big leaps.Critical juncture theory is not a general theory of social order and change. It emphasizes one kind of cause (involving a big, discontinuous change) and kind of effect (a persistent effect). Yet, it challenges some common assumptions in many approaches and theories in the social sciences. The idea that some changes are discontinuous sets it up as an alternative to (1) \"continuist\" or \"synechist\" theories that assume that change is always gradual or that natura non facit saltus \u2013 Latin for \"nature does not make jumps.\" The idea that such discontinuous changes have a long-term impact stands in counterposition to (2) \"presentist\" explanations that only consider the possible causal effect of temporally proximate factors.Theorizing about critical junctures began in the social sciences in the 1960s. Since then, it has been central to a body of research in the social sciences that is historically informed. Research on critical junctures in the social sciences is part of the broader tradition of comparative historical analysis and historical institutionalism. It is a tradition that spans political science, sociology and economics. Within economics, it shares an interest in historically oriented research with the new economic history or cliometrics. Research on critical junctures is also part of the broader \"historical turn\" in the social sciences."}, {"id": 362102, "title": "Crossing the floor", "abstract": "In some parliamentary systems (e.g., in Canada and the United Kingdom), politicians are said to cross the floor if they formally change their political affiliation to a political party different from the one they were initially elected under. In Australia though, this term simply refers to Members of Parliament (MPs) who dissent from the party line and vote against the express instructions of the party whip while retaining membership in their political party (at least for the time being).\nVoting against party lines may lead to consequences such as losing a position (e.g., as minister or a portfolio critic) or being ejected from the party caucus. While these practices are legally permissible in most countries, crossing the floor can lead to controversy and media attention. Some countries like Malaysia, India, the Maldives and Bangladesh have laws that remove a member from parliament due to floor-crossing."}, {"id": 59626904, "title": "Delaying tactic", "abstract": "A delaying tactic or delay tactic is a strategic device sometimes used during business, diplomatic or interpersonal negotiations, in which one party to the negotiation seeks to gain an advantage by postponing a decision.  Someone uses a delaying tactic when they expect to have a stronger negotiating position at a later time. They may also use a delaying tactic when they prefer the status quo to any of the potential resolutions, or to impose costs on the other party to compel them to accept a settlement or compromise. Delay tactics are also sometimes used as a form of indirect refusal wherein one party postpones a decision indefinitely rather than refusing a negotiation outright. To use a delaying tactic, the delaying party must have some form of control over the decision-making process."}, {"id": 53105040, "title": "Democratic intervention", "abstract": "A democratic intervention is a military intervention by external forces with the aim of assisting democratization of the country where the intervention takes place. Examples include intervention in Afghanistan and Iraq. Democratic intervention has occurred throughout the mid-twentieth century, as evidenced in Japan and Germany after World War II, where democracies were imposed by military intervention.Democratic intervention can be facilitated by the mechanisms of military aggression but can also involve non-aggressive methods. The legal grounds for democratic intervention remain disputed and surround the tension between narrow legislative interpretations and the weak binding nature of international law regimes.States engage in democratic intervention for a variety of reasons, ranging from national interests to international security. Proponents of democratic intervention acknowledge the superiority of democracies to autocratic regimes in facets of peace, economics and human rights. Criticisms of democratic intervention surround the infringement of state sovereignty of the country where the intervention takes place and the failure of democratic intervention to consider a nation's cultural complexities."}, {"id": 331299, "title": "Democratization", "abstract": "Democratization, or democratisation, is the democratic transition to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction.Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows.The opposite process is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization."}, {"id": 8970, "title": "Diplomatic mission", "abstract": "A diplomatic mission or foreign mission is a group of people from a state or organization present in another state to represent the sending state or organization officially in the receiving or host state. In practice, the phrase usually denotes an embassy or high commission, which is the main office of a country's diplomatic representatives to another country; it is usually, but not necessarily, based in the receiving state's capital city. Consulates, on the other hand, are smaller diplomatic missions that are normally located in major cities of the receiving state (but can be located in the capital, typically when the sending country has no embassy in the receiving state). As well as being a diplomatic mission to the country in which it is situated, an embassy may also be a nonresident permanent mission to one or more other countries.The term embassy is sometimes used interchangeably with chancery, the physical office or site of a diplomatic mission. Consequently, the terms \"embassy residence\" and \"embassy office\" are used to distinguish between the ambassador's residence and the chancery."}, {"id": 9457, "title": "Election", "abstract": "An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold public office.\nElections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17th century. Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive and judiciary, and for regional and local government. This process is also used in many other private and business organisations, from clubs to voluntary associations and corporations.\nThe global use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern representative democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype, ancient Athens, where the elections were considered an oligarchic institution and most political offices were filled using sortition, also known as allotment, by which officeholders were chosen by lot.Electoral reform describes the process of introducing fair electoral systems where they are not in place, or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems. Psephology is the study of results and other statistics relating to elections (especially with a view to predicting future results). Election is the fact of electing, or being elected.\nTo elect means \"to select or make a decision\", and so sometimes other forms of ballot such as referendums are referred to as elections, especially in the United States."}, {"id": 15039439, "title": "Extrajudicial killing", "abstract": "An extrajudicial killing (also known as an extrajudicial execution or an extralegal killing) is the deliberate killing of a person without the lawful authority granted by a judicial proceeding. It typically refers to government authorities, whether lawfully or unlawfully, targeting specific people for death, which in authoritarian regimes often involves political, trade union, dissident, religious and social figures. The term is typically used in situations that imply the human rights of the victims have been violated; deaths caused by legal police actions (such as self defense) or legal warfighting on a battlefield are generally not included, even though military and police forces are often used for killings seen by critics as illegitimate. The label \"extrajudicial killing\" has also been applied to organized, lethal enforcement of extralegal social norms by non-government actors, including lynchings and honor killings."}, {"id": 46536040, "title": "Fan activism", "abstract": "Fan activism is the efforts of a fan community to raise awareness of social concerns or otherwise support the ideals expressed by objects of the fandom. The rise of fan activism has been attributed to the emergence of new media. A 2012 quantitative study by Kahne, Feezell, and Lee suggests that there may be a statistically significant relationship between youths' participation in interest-driven activities online and their civic engagement later on in life.Fan activism has become more politically and societally focused, and fandoms take up collective action often for issues that are not inter-fandom. Scholars share that \"Fan and consumer activism are more visible than ever before, and the lines between these and traditional civic and political activities are blurring in today's increasingly \"participatory\" media and entertainment landscape\".Examples of fan activism include campaigns for social equality, representation of minorities in entertainment media, fundraising for organizations with common values, campaigning for the continuation of a television program or sporting team and defending fan works from commercial exploitation and allegations of copyright infringement. Fans may be mobilized to support such causes in response to celebrity endorsements; however, activists may also leverage content worlds and fan-like activities as resources to be reconfigured for political engagement, as in the cases where real-life rights groups have used imagery and tropes from Avatar (2009 film) to attract mainstream media attention in the West Bank village of Bil'in and Orissa, India.Notable groups that are historically associated with fan activism include Fandom Forward (formerly the Harry Potter Alliance), Fans4Writers, Nerdfighteria and the Organization for Transformative Works. More recently, K-pop fans have organized for a variety of political causes."}, {"id": 68554701, "title": "Gastronationalism", "abstract": "Gastronationalism or culinary nationalism is the use of food and its history, production, control, preparation and consumption as a way of promoting nationalism and national identity. It may involve arguments between two or more regions or countries about whether a particular dish or preparation is claimed by one of those regions or countries and has been appropriated or co-opted by the others."}, {"id": 73666297, "title": "Gender power gap", "abstract": "The gender power gap is defined as the proportional power held by women in leadership and management positions relative to men (such as the gap in top executive positions). This measurement distinguishes itself from gender diversity, which only measures the presence of women at the top table. Instead, gender power gap specifically focuses on the value and number of top executive women, who hold decision-making power and authority in the institutions they work for. Executive positions held by women, typically as chief human resources officer, tend to have a fraction of the authority of male executives. Similarly in politics, women tend to be assigned roles which deal with family and other social issues, whereas men are assigned to tackle economic and structural developmental challenges. According to UN secretary general, Antonio Guterres, who coined the term, the gender power gap that exists in societies, cultures and political systems is also present in economies and corporations.According to a 2015 UN report, women tend only to have leverage in a minority of decision-making roles in both the private and public sectors. A separate study in 2022, led by Professor Andreas Hoepner of the graduate business school at the University of Dublin, found while women accounted for a quarter of top executive decision-making positions at S&P 500 companies, they controlled only 1 percent of the value of shares held among their fellow corporate leaders. The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) and UN Women found in January 2023, when compiling the map \"Women in politics\", that at global level, gender parity in political decision making and leadership roles, in spite of improvements, is still a very distant goal."}, {"id": 55762700, "title": "Global policeman", "abstract": "Global policeman (or world police) is an informal term for a superpower which seeks or claims the right to intervene in other sovereign states. It has been used, firstly for the United Kingdom and, since 1945, for the United States, though it has been suggested that China has been seeking to take over the role in the 21st century.The two terms hegemon and global policeman are not identical in meaning. The former term defines capacity for dominant control anywhere on earth, whereas the latter may also include small or large areas outside control, along with monitoring and attempted enforcements, but does not define any level of effectiveness."}, {"id": 64666045, "title": "Health politics", "abstract": "Health politics or politics of health is an interdisciplinary field of study concerned with the analysis of social and political power over the health status of individuals.Health politics, incorporating broad perspectives from medical sociology to international relations, is interested not only in the understanding of politics as government/ governance, but also politics as civil society and as a process of power contestation. It views this wider understanding of politics to take place throughout levels of society - from the individual to the global. As such the politics of health is not constrained to a particular area of society, such as state government, but rather is a dynamic, ongoing social process that takes place ubiquitously throughout our levels of society."}, {"id": 63109943, "title": "Health security", "abstract": "Health security is a concept that encompasses activities and measures across sovereign boundaries that mitigates public health incidents to ensure the health of populations. It is an evolving paradigm within the fields of international relations and security studies. Proponents of health security posit that all states have a responsibility to protect the health and wellbeing of their populations. Opponents suggest health security impacts civil liberties and the equal distribution of resources.According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health security encompasses the \u201cactivities required to minimise the danger and impact of acute public health events that endanger the collective health of populations living across geographical regions and international boundaries\u201d. It is the responsibility of governments globally to protect the health of their populations.The advent of new security challenges, resulting from increasing global vulnerability to infectious diseases has created demand for greater global commitment and collaboration towards public health. Globalisation, and the advent of transnational concerns regarding the spread of infectious disease, have become integral to national and international security agendas. Disease, pandemics, and epidemics have become of increasing concern for global policymakers and governments, requiring mobilisation of essential resources for the implementation of rapid and effective health procedures. The WHO, and initiatives such as the Global Health Security Agenda are central to advocacy of health security - aiming to improve detection, prevention, and response to infectious disease through public health surveillance and partnerships between states.Health security is a concept or framework for public health issues which includes protection of national populations from external health threats such as pandemics.Four types of security may be considered in this context: biosecurity; global health security; human security; and national security."}, {"id": 13831, "title": "Human rights", "abstract": "Human rights are moral principles or norms for certain standards of human behaviour and are regularly protected in municipal and international law. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights \"to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being\" and which are \"inherent in all human beings\", regardless of their age, ethnic origin, location, language, religion, ethnicity, or any other status. They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. They are regarded as requiring empathy and the rule of law and imposing an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others, and it is generally considered that they should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances.The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international law and global and regional institutions. Actions by states and non-governmental organisations form a basis of public policy worldwide. The idea of human rights suggests that \"if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights\". The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable scepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day. The precise meaning of the term right is controversial and is the subject of continued philosophical debate; while there is consensus that human rights encompass a wide variety of rights such as the right to a fair trial, protection against enslavement, prohibition of genocide, free speech or a right to education, there is disagreement about which of these particular rights should be included within the general framework of human rights; some thinkers suggest that human rights should be a minimum requirement to avoid the worst-case abuses, while others see it as a higher standard. It has also been argued that human rights are \"God-given\", although this notion has been criticized.Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the events of the Holocaust, culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition that became prominent during the European Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui and which featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century, possibly as a reaction to slavery, torture, genocide and war crimes, as a realization of inherent human vulnerability and as being a precondition for the possibility of a just society. Human rights advocacy has continued into the early 21st century, centered around achieving greater economic and political freedom."}, {"id": 295248, "title": "Hypodermic needle model", "abstract": "The hypodermic needle model (known as the hypodermic-syringe model, transmission-belt model, or magic bullet theory) is claimed to have been a model of communication in which media consumers were \"uniformly controlled by their biologically based 'instincts' and that they react more or less uniformly to whatever 'stimuli' came along\"."}, {"id": 14507041, "title": "Index of politics articles", "abstract": "Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within civil governments, \npolitics is observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Politics consists of \"social relations involving authority or power. The definition of \"politics\" from \"The Free Dictionary\" is the study of political behavior and examines the acquisition and application of power. Politics study include political philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behavior, and public administration, which examines the practices of governance."}, {"id": 68169025, "title": "Institutionalization of politics", "abstract": "The institutionalization of politics (also spelled as institutionalisation of politics; Chinese: \u653f\u6cbb\u5236\u5ea6\u5316), commonly known as political institutionalization or political institutionalisation, refers to the founding, arrangement, and codification of the states' various institutions, generally via constitution-making or some other constitutional mechanisms. It is the process by which political structures and practices take root."}, {"id": 82533, "title": "International relations", "abstract": "International relations (IR) are the interactions among sovereign states. The scientific study of those interactions is also referred to as international studies, international politics, or international affairs. In a broader sense, the study of IR, in addition to multilateral relations, concerns all activities among states\u2014such as war, diplomacy, trade, and foreign policy\u2014as well as relations with and among other international actors, such as intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), international legal bodies, and multinational corporations (MNCs). There are several schools of thought within IR, of which the most prominent are realism, liberalism, and constructivism.\nInternational relations is widely classified as a major subdiscipline of political science, along with comparative politics, political theory, political methodology, and public administration. It also often draws heavily from other fields, including anthropology, economics, geography, law, philosophy, sociology, and history.While international politics has been analyzed since antiquity, international relations did not become a discrete field until 1919, when it was first offered as an undergraduate major by Aberystwyth University in the United Kingdom. After the Second World War, international relations burgeoned in both importance and scholarship\u2014particularly in North America and Western Europe\u2014partly in response to the geostrategic concerns of the Cold War. The collapse of the Soviet Union and subsequent rise of globalization in the late 20th century presaged new theories and evaluations of the rapidly changing international system."}, {"id": 51913, "title": "Legislation", "abstract": "Legislation is the process or result of enrolling, enacting, or promulgating laws by a legislature, parliament, or analogous governing body. Before an item of legislation becomes law it may be known as a bill, and may be broadly referred to as \"legislation\" while it remains under consideration to distinguish it from other business. Legislation can have many purposes: to regulate, to authorize, to outlaw, to provide (funds), to sanction, to grant, to declare, or to restrict. It may be contrasted with a non-legislative act by an executive or administrative body under the authority of a legislative act."}, {"id": 16102540, "title": "Libertarian anarchism", "abstract": "Libertarian anarchism may refer to:\n\nAnarchism, a political philosophy that advocates for a society without a state or hierarchy\nAutarchism, a political philosophy that upholds the principle of individual liberty, rejects compulsory government and supports its elimination in favor of \"ruling oneself and no other\"\nFree-market anarchism a branch of anarchism that believes in a free-market economic system based on voluntary interactions without the involvement of the state; a form of individualist anarchism, market socialism, and libertarian socialism\nAgorism, a revolutionary form of free-market anarchism that focuses on employing counter-economic activity to undermine the state\nMutualism, an economic theory advocates a socialist society based on free markets and usufructs, i.e. occupation and use property norms\nLibertarianism, an individualist political philosophy that upholds liberty as its primary focus and principal objective. It originated as a form of left-wing politics, however in the mid-20th century, right-libertarian proponents of anarcho-capitalism and minarchism co-opted the term to advocate laissez-faire capitalism.\nAnarcho-capitalism, a form of right-libertarianism that advocates the elimination of states in favor of a system of private property enforced by private agencies\nVoluntaryism, a political philosophy which holds that all forms of human association should be voluntary"}, {"id": 19012, "title": "Monarch", "abstract": "A monarch is a head of state for life or until abdication, and therefore the head of state of a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority and power in the state, or others may wield that power on behalf of the monarch. Usually a monarch either personally inherits the lawful right to exercise the state's sovereign rights (often referred to as the throne or the crown) or is selected by an established process from a family or cohort eligible to provide the nation's monarch. Alternatively, an individual may proclaim oneself monarch, which may be backed and legitimated through acclamation, right of conquest or a combination of means.\nIf a young child is crowned the monarch, then a regent is often appointed to govern until the monarch reaches the requisite adult age to rule. Monarchs' actual powers vary from one monarchy to another and in different eras; on one extreme, they may be autocrats (absolute monarchy) wielding genuine sovereignty; on the other they may be ceremonial heads of state who exercise little or no direct power or only reserve powers, with actual authority vested in a parliament or other body (constitutional monarchy).\nA monarch can reign in multiple monarchies simultaneously. For example, the 15 Commonwealth realms are all separate  sovereign states, but share the same monarch through personal union."}, {"id": 1906130, "title": "New Public Management", "abstract": "New Public Management (NPM) is an approach to running public service organizations that is used in government and public service institutions and agencies, at both sub-national and national levels. The term was first introduced by academics in the UK and Australia to describe approaches that were developed during the 1980s as part of an effort to make the public service more \"businesslike\" and to improve its efficiency by using private sector management models.\nAs with the private sector, which focuses on customer service, NPM reforms often focused on the \"centrality of citizens who were the recipient of the services or customers to the public sector\". NPM reformers experimented with using decentralized service delivery models, to give local agencies more freedom in how they delivered programs or services. In some cases, NPM reforms that used e-government consolidated a program or service to a central location to reduce costs. Some governments tried using quasi-market structures, so that the public sector would have to compete against the private sector (notably in the UK, in health care). Key themes in NPM were \"financial control, value for money, increasing efficiency ..., identifying and setting targets and continuance monitoring of performance, handing over ... power to the senior management\" executives. Performance was assessed with audits, benchmarks and performance evaluations. Some NPM reforms used private sector companies to deliver what were formerly public services.NPM advocates in some countries worked to remove \"collective agreements [in favour of] ... individual rewards packages at senior levels combined with short term contracts\" and introduce private sector-style corporate governance, including using a Board of Directors approach to strategic guidance for public organizations. While NPM approaches have been used in many countries around the world, NPM is particularly associated with the most industrialized OECD nations such as the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States of America. NPM advocates focus on using approaches from the private sector \u2013 the corporate or business world\u2013which can be successfully applied in the public sector and in a public administration context. NPM approaches have been used to reform the public sector, its policies and its programs. NPM advocates claim that it is a more efficient and effective means of attaining the same outcome.\nIn NPM, citizens are viewed as \"customers\" and public servants are viewed as public managers. NPM tries to realign the relationship between public service managers and their political superiors by making a parallel relationship between the two. Under NPM, public managers have incentive-based motivation such as pay-for-performance, and clear performance targets are often set, which are assessed by using performance evaluations. As well, managers in an NPM paradigm may have greater discretion and freedom as to how they go about achieving the goals set for them. This NPM approach is contrasted with the traditional public administration model, in which institutional decision-making, policy-making and public service delivery is guided by regulations, legislation and administrative procedures.\nNPM reforms use approaches such as disaggregation, customer satisfaction initiatives, customer service efforts, applying an entrepreneurial spirit to public service, and introducing innovations. The NPM system allows \"the expert manager to have a greater discretion\". \"Public Managers under the New Public Management reforms can provide a range of choices from which customers can choose, including the right to opt out of the service delivery system completely\"."}, {"id": 42601798, "title": "North Atlantic or liberal model of media and politics", "abstract": "The North Atlantic or liberal model of media and politics, as defined in Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini's Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics, is characterized by an early development of commercial press, information-oriented journalism, strong professionalization, and a market dominated media system."}, {"id": 67026535, "title": "Oral democracy", "abstract": "Oral democracy is a talk-based form of government and political system in which citizens of a determined community have the opportunity to deliberate, through direct oral engagement and mass participation, in the civic and political matters of their community. Additionally, oral democracy represents a form of direct democracy, which has the purpose of empowering citizens by creating open spaces that promote an organized process of discussion, debate, and dialogue that aims to reach consensus and to impact policy decision-making. Political institutions based on this idea of direct democracy seek to decrease the possibilities of state capture from elites by holding them accountable, to encourage civic participation and collective action, and to improve the efficiency and adaptability of development interventions and public policy implementation.Citizen's participation in this type of political system can be found in Indian village assemblies, which are ruled based on the principle of a democratic decentralized structure implemented by the political institute and cabinet of the village, also known as Gram Panchayat. The Gram Sabha is the most distinguished organ and general body of the Gram Panchayat, since it allows citizens to deliberate and decide on the implementation of public policies, local governance, development goals, accountability, and strategic planning of projects for the village.The term oral democracy was originally presented by  Vijayendra Rao and Paromita Sanyal in their 2019 book entitled Oral Democracy: Deliberation in Indian Village Assemblies. It is still considered a new and modern concept that requires further research and theoretical and practical analysis by the academic community."}, {"id": 8078743, "title": "Participation inequality", "abstract": "In social sciences, participation inequality consists of difference between levels of participation of various groups in certain activities. Common examples include:\n\ndiffering levels of participation in democratic, electoral politics, by social class, race, gender, etc.\ndiffering levels of participation in online communities as described by Jakob Nielsen.In politics, participation inequality typically affects \"the kinds of individuals, such as the young, the poor and those with little formal education\" who tend to not take the initiative to participate in electoral and related events. State enumeration, such as was done in Canada before the implementation of the National Register of Electors in 1996, \"worked to augment voter turnout among all segments of society and thus mitigated a natural tendency toward participation inequality in electoral politics\"."}, {"id": 52241092, "title": "Partisan sorting", "abstract": "Partisan sorting is an effect in politics in which voters sort themselves into parties that match their ideology. Partisan sorting is distinct from political polarization, which is where partisans subscribe to increasingly extreme positions.  As political scientist Nolan McCarty explains, \"party sorting can account for the increased differences across partisans even if the distribution of...attitudes in the population remains unchanged or moves uniformly in one direction or the other.\" As an example given by McCarty, the gap between the Democratic Party and Republican Party on views towards immigrants strengthening the country with hard work and talents has widened from a 2-point gap in 1994 to a 42-point gap in 2017. A reasonable explanation is that of partisan sorting: those who are pro-immigrant shifted into the Democratic party and immigration-restrictions have shifted towards the Republican party. According to McCarty, this explains the widening gap between the two parties, considering how pro-immigration viewpoints between the two surveys have increased by 35% since 1994."}, {"id": 3010656, "title": "Political pensioner", "abstract": "A political pensioner enjoys a pension awarded due to his or political career or significance."}, {"id": 65182265, "title": "Phantom border", "abstract": "A phantom border (German: Phantomgrenze) is an informal delineation following the approximate course of an abolished political border, associated with demographic differences on each side as a continuing legacy of historical division, despite official geopolitical union. Not all former political borders are today phantom borders. Factors that may increase the likelihood of a political border becoming a phantom border upon dissolution, include: short time elapsed since the border's dissolution, long existence of the former border, imporousity of the former border, and divergent characteristics of the political entity formerly governing one side of the border.\nPhantom borders have many different implications: in Ukraine they are associated with conflict, while in countries such as Romania they play an important part in relations with neighboring countries."}, {"id": 61937871, "title": "Political cognition", "abstract": "Political cognition refers to the study of how individuals come to understand the political world, and how this understanding leads to political behavior. Some of the processes studied under the umbrella of political cognition include attention, interpretation, judgment, and memory. Most of the advancements in the area have been made by scholars in the fields of social psychology, political science, and communication studies."}, {"id": 34245192, "title": "Political demography", "abstract": "Political demography is the study of the relationship between politics and population change. Population change is driven by classic demographic mechanisms \u2013 birth, death, age structure, and migration. \nHowever, in political demography, there is always scope for assimilation as well as boundary and identity change, which can redraw the boundaries of populations in a way that is not possible with biological populations. Typically, political-demographic projections can account for both demographic factors and transitions caused by social change. A notable leader in the area of sub-state population projection is the World Population Program of the International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Laxenburg, Austria. \nSome of the issues which are studied in the context of political demography are: surges of young people in the developing world, significantly increasing aging in the developed world, and the impact of increasing urbanization. Political demographers study issues like population growth in a political context. A population's growth is impacted by the relative balance of variables like mortality, fertility and immigration.Many of the present world's most powerful nations are aging quickly, largely as a result of major decreases in fertility rates and major increases in life expectancies. As the labor pools in these nations shrink, and spending on the elderly increases, their economies are likely to slow down. By 2050, the workforce in Japan and Russia is predicted to decrease by more than 30 percent, while the German workforce is expected to decline by 25 percent by that year. The governments of these countries have made financial commitments to the elderly in their populations which will consume huge percentages of their national GDP. For example, based on current numbers, more than 25% of the national GDPs of Japan, France and Germany will be consumed by these commitments by 2040."}, {"id": 40362512, "title": "Political faction", "abstract": "A political faction is a group of people with a common political purpose, especially a subgroup of a political party that has interests or opinions different from the rest of the political party. Intragroup conflict between factions can lead to schism of the political party into two political parties. The Ley de Lemas electoral system allows the voters to indicate on the ballot their preference for political factions within a political party. Political factions can represent voting blocs. Political factions require a weaker party discipline. Research indicates that factions can play an important role in moving their host party along the ideological spectrum"}, {"id": 28072640, "title": "Political globalization", "abstract": "Political globalization is the growth of the worldwide political system, both in size and complexity. That system includes national governments, their governmental and intergovernmental organizations as well as government-independent elements of global civil society such as international non-governmental organizations and social movement organizations. One of the key aspects of the political globalization is the declining importance of the nation-state and the rise of other actors on the political scene. The creation and existence of the United Nations is called one of the classic examples of political globalization.\nPolitical globalization is one of the three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature, with the two other being economic globalization and cultural globalization."}, {"id": 52102822, "title": "Political insult", "abstract": "Political insult refers to a statement from a politician about another one which contains disdainful purpose or notorious offense. They are not defined in any political protocol."}, {"id": 15525934, "title": "Political journalism", "abstract": "Political journalism is a broad branch of journalism that includes coverage of all aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power.\nPolitical journalism aims to provide voters with the information to formulate their own opinion and participate in community, local or national matters that will affect them. According to Edward Morrissey in an opinion article from theweek.com, political journalism frequently includes opinion journalism, as current political events can be biased in their reporting. The information provided includes facts, its perspective is subjective and leans towards one viewpoint.Brendan Nyhan and John M. Sides argue that \"Journalists who report on politics are frequently unfamiliar with political science research or question its relevance to their work\". Journalists covering politics who are unfamiliar with information that would provide context to their stories can enable the story to take a different spin on what is being reported.\nPolitical journalism is provided through different mediums, in print, broadcast, or online reporting. Digital media use has increased and it provides instant coverage of campaigns, politics, event news, and an accessible platform for the candidate. Media outlets known for their political journalism like The New York Times and the Washington Post, have increased their use of this medium as well. Printed, online, and broadcast political humor presented as entertainment has been used to provide updates on aspects of government status, political news, campaign, and election updates. According to Geoffrey Baym, the information provided may not be considered \"fake news\" but the lines between entertainment and factual news may seem blurred or biased while providing political updates. This type of journalism is analyzed, interpreted, and discussed by news media pundits and editorialists. It can lack objectivity which can prevent the accuracy of the presented information. The reporting of news with a bias viewpoint can also take away the audience's ability to form their own opinion or beliefs of what has been reported. This type of reporting is subjective with a possible social or political purpose."}, {"id": 68171627, "title": "Political modernization", "abstract": "Political modernization (also spelled as political modernisation; Chinese: \u653f\u6cbb\u73fe\u4ee3\u5316), refers to the process of development and evolution from a lower to a higher level, in which a country's constitutional system and political life moves from superstition of authority, autocracy and the rule of man to rationality, autonomy, democracy and the rule of law. It manifests itself in certain types of political change, like political integration, political differentiation, political secularisation, and so forth. The process of political modernisation has enhanced the capacity of a society's political system, i.e. the effectiveness and efficiency of its performance.Sustainability studies researcher George Francis argues that 'political modernisation' is the changes in the nation-state brought about by the neoliberal globalisation process since the 1970s. It primarily consists of processes of differentiation of political structure and secularisation of political culture. \nAccording Samuel Huntington, an American political scientist, political modernization consists of three basic elements, the rationalization of authority, the differentiation of structure and the expansion of political participation."}, {"id": 23040, "title": "Political philosophy", "abstract": "Political philosophy or political theory is the philosophical study of government, addressing questions about the nature, scope, and legitimacy of public agents and institutions and the relationships between them. Its topics include politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of laws by authority: what they are, if they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect, what form it should take, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever.\nPolitical theory also engages questions of a broader scope, tackling the political nature of phenomena and categories such as identity, culture, sexuality, race, wealth, human-nonhuman relations, ethics, religion, and more.\nPolitical science, the scientific study of politics, is generally used in the singular, but in French and Spanish the plural (sciences politiques and ciencias pol\u00edticas, respectively) is used, perhaps a reflection of the discipline's eclectic nature.Political philosophy is a branch of philosophy, but it has also played a major part in political science, within which a strong focus has historically been placed on both the history of political thought and contemporary political theory (from normative political theory to various critical approaches).\nIn the Oxford Handbook of Political Theory (2009), the field is described as: \"[...] an interdisciplinary endeavor whose center of gravity lies at the humanities end of the happily still undisciplined discipline of political science ... For a long time, the challenge for the identity of political theory has been how to position itself productively in three sorts of location: in relation to the academic disciplines of political science, history, and philosophy; between the world of politics and the more abstract, ruminative register of theory; between canonical political theory and the newer resources (such as feminist and critical theory, discourse analysis, film and film theory, popular and political culture, mass media studies, neuroscience, environmental studies, behavioral science, and economics) on which political theorists increasingly draw.\""}, {"id": 584318, "title": "Political polarization", "abstract": "Political polarization (spelled polarisation in British English, Australian English and New Zealand English) is the divergence of political attitudes away from the center, towards ideological extremes.Most discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in the context of political parties and democratic systems of government. In two-party systems, political polarization usually embodies the tension of its binary political ideologies and partisan identities. However, some political scientists assert that contemporary polarization depends less on policy differences on a left and right scale but increasingly on other divisions such as religious against secular, nationalist against globalist, traditional against modern, or rural against urban. Polarization is associated with the process of politicization.Scholars distinguish between ideological polarization (differences between the policy positions) and affective polarization (an emotional dislike and distrust of political out-groups)."}, {"id": 67484579, "title": "Political posturing", "abstract": "Political posturing, also known as political grandstanding (from the notion of performing to crowds in the grandstands), political theatre, or \"kabuki\", is the use of speech or actions to gain political support through emotional or affective appeals. It applies especially to appeals that are seen as hollow or lacking political or economic substance, or to superficial appeals that may not reflect a person's genuine ideology or political preferences."}, {"id": 67827964, "title": "Political will", "abstract": "Political will is defined as \"the extent of committed support among key decision makers for a particular policy solution to a particular problem.\" It is also considered by political scientist Linn Hammergren to be \"the slipperiest concept in the policy lexicon.\" Lack of political will is often blamed for unresolved political issues."}, {"id": 12957185, "title": "Politically exposed person", "abstract": "In financial regulation, a politically exposed person (PEP) is one who has been entrusted with a prominent public function. A PEP generally presents a higher risk for potential involvement in bribery and corruption by virtue of their position and the influence they may hold. The terms \"politically exposed person\" and senior foreign political figure are often used interchangeably, particularly in international forums."}, {"id": 63541112, "title": "Politicisation", "abstract": "Politicisation (also politicization; see English spelling differences) is a concept in political science and theory used to explain how ideas, entities or collections of facts are given a political tone or character, and are consequently assigned to the ideas and strategies of a particular group or party, thus becoming the subject of contestation. Politicisation has been described as compromising objectivity, and is linked with political polarisation. Conversely, it can have a democratising effect and enhance political choice, and has been shown to improve the responsiveness of supranational institutions such as the European Union. The politicisation of a group is more likely to occur when justifications for political violence are considered acceptable within a society, or in the absence of norms condemning violence.Depoliticisation, the reverse process, is when issues are no longer the subject of political contestation. It is characterised by governance through consensus-building and pragmatic compromise. It occurs when subjects are left to experts, such as technocratic or bureaucratic institutions, or left to individuals and free markets, through liberalisation or deregulation. It is often connected with multi-level governance. The concept has been used to explain the \"democratic gap\" between politicians and citizens who lack choice, agency and opportunities for deliberation. In the 21st century, depoliticisation has been linked to disillusionment with neoliberalism. Depoliticisation has negative consequences for regime legitimacy, and produces anti-political sentiment associated with populism, which can result in \"repoliticisation\" (politicisation following depoliticisation).Current studies of politicisation are separated into various subfields. It is primarily examined on three separate levels: within national political systems, within the European Union and within international institutions. Academic approaches vary greatly and are frequently disconnected. It has been studied from subdisciplines such as comparative politics, political sociology, European studies and legal theory.The politicisation of science occurs when actors stress the inherent uncertainty of scientific method to challenge scientific consensus, undermining the positive impact of science on political debate by causing citizens to dismiss scientific evidence."}, {"id": 41550219, "title": "Politics of the International Space Station", "abstract": "Politics of the International Space Station have been affected by superpower rivalries, international treaties and funding arrangements. The Cold War was an early factor, overtaken in recent years by the United States' distrust of China. The station has an international crew, with the use of their time, and that of equipment on the station, being governed by treaties between participant nations."}, {"id": 1306405, "title": "Postfeminism", "abstract": "Postfeminism (alternatively rendered as post-feminism) is a term popularized by the mass media to describe an alleged decrease in support for feminism from the 1990s onwards. It can be considered a critical way of understanding the changed relations between feminism, popular culture and femininity. The term is sometimes confused with subsequent feminisms such as fourth-wave feminism, postmodern feminism, and xenofeminism.\nResearch conducted at Kent State University in the 2000\u2019s narrowed postfeminism to four main claims: support for feminism declined; women began hating feminism and feminists; society had already attained social equality, thus making feminism outdated; and the label \"feminist\" was disliked due to negative stigma."}, {"id": 57093743, "title": "Pro-Truth Pledge", "abstract": "The Pro-Truth Pledge is an initiative promoting truth seeking and rational thinking, particularly in politics."}, {"id": 34354177, "title": "Proto-fascism", "abstract": "Proto-fascism refers to the direct predecessor ideologies and cultural movements that influenced and formed the basis of fascism. A prominent proto-fascist figure is Gabriele D'Annunzio, the Italian nationalist whose politics influenced Benito Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Proto-fascist political movements include the Italian Nationalist Association (Associazione Nazionalista Italiana, ANI), the German National Association of Commercial Employees (Deutschnationaler Handlungsgehilfen-Verband, DHV) and the German National People's Party (Deutschnationale Volkspartei, DNVP).Other people who have been labeled proto-fascist because they shared an ideological basis with fascism include:\n\nThomas Carlyle (1795\u20131881)\nGoldwin Smith (1823\u20131910)\nGeorges Ernest Boulanger (1837\u20131891)\nGeorge Fitzhugh (1806\u20131881)\nJohn Ruskin (1819\u20131900)\nCharles Maurras (1868\u20131952)\nIon Dragoumis (1878\u20131920)\nEdgar Julius Jung (1894\u20131934)\nD. H. Lawrence (1885\u20131930). The English philosopher Bertrand Russell characterized Lawrence as a \"proto-German fascist\". This characterization is useful as a demarcation point between Fascism and proto-fascism. The former has totalitarian uniformity as its paradigm, but Russell is referring to Lawrence as a \"nonconformist prophet\" struggling with individual alienation, looking to the shared identity of ancestral blood and soil for reconnection i.e. an evolution of the German 19th-century V\u00f6lkisch movement, an ideology that was adopted by the National Socialist movement.\nGiuseppe Mazzini (1805\u20131872). The famous Genoese patriot strongly influenced Italian fascism, especially in its early years. In particular, fascism inherited from Mazzini the fervent irredentism, the concept of class collaboration, the pedagogical vocation and the spirit of solidarity. Mussolini himself was a great Mazzini admirer, and many fascist exponents were Mazzinian such as Italo Balbo, Giovanni Gentile, Giuseppe Bottai and Dino Grandi.\nFrancesco Crispi (1818\u20131901). The known Sicilian statesman was admired by the dictator Mussolini and considered by many scholars as a precursor of Italian fascist regime, due to his authoritarian policies, the nationalist character, his strongman reputation and the aggressive colonial policy implemented during his government.\nRudolf Steiner (1861\u20131925)"}, {"id": 24493, "title": "Outline of public affairs", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to public affairs:\nPublic affairs \u2013 catch-all term that includes public policy as well as public administration, both of which are closely related to and draw upon the fields of political science and economics."}, {"id": 340401, "title": "Public interest", "abstract": "In social science and economics, public interest is \"the welfare  or well-being of the general public\" and society. While it has earlier philosophical roots and is considered to be at the core of democratic theories of government, often paired with two other concepts, convenience and necessity, it first became explicitly integrated into governance instruments in the early part of the 20th century. The public interest was rapidly adopted and popularised by human rights lawyers in the 1960s and has since been incorporated into other fields such as journalism and technology."}, {"id": 216170, "title": "Public opinion", "abstract": "Public opinion, or popular opinion, is the collective opinion on a specific topic or voting intention relevant to society. It is the people's views on matters affecting them. The term originates from France, and first appeared in the 17th century, though writers had identified the importance of the opinion of the people long before this. Prior to the advent of mass media, public fora such as coffee houses and gentlemen's clubs were used as exchanges of opinion and some reputable locations had great influence.\nIn the 21st century, public opinion is widely thought to be heavily influenced by the media; many studies have been undertaken which look at the different factors which influence public opinion. Politicians and other people concerned with public opinion often attempt to influence it using advertising or rhetoric. Opinion plays a vital role in uncovering some critical decisions. Sentiment analysis or opinion mining is a method used to mine the thoughts or feelings of the general population. One of the struggles of public opinion is how it can be influenced by misinformation."}, {"id": 25084, "title": "Public speaking", "abstract": "Public speaking, also called oratory, is the act or skill of delivering speeches on a subject before a live audience.Public speaking has played an important cultural role in human history. Confucius, an ancient Chinese philosopher and prominent public-speaking scholar, believed that a good speech should impact individual lives, regardless of whether they were in the audience. He believed that someone in power could influence the world through words and actions.Public speaking was also studied in Ancient Greece and Rome, where it was analyzed by prominent thinkers as a central part of rhetoric.\nThe Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle indicated 3 speech purposes: deliberative (political speech), forensic (courtroom speech), and epideictic (speech of praise or blame). Similarly, the Roman statesman and philosopher Cicero defined three purposes for public speaking: judicial (courtroom speech), deliberative (political speech), and demonstrative (a ceremonial form of speech, similar to Aristotle's epideictic).Today, public speaking has been transformed by digital technologies, such as video conferencing, multimedia presentations, and other non-traditional forms of presentation.\nA Speakers' Corner is an area where free speech open-air public speaking, debate, and discussion are allowed. The original and best known is in the northeast corner of Hyde Park in London, England."}, {"id": 13843720, "title": "Publics", "abstract": "Publics are small groups of people who follow one or more particular issue very closely. They are well informed about the issue(s) and also have a very strong opinion on it/them. They tend to know more about politics than the average person, and, therefore, exert more influence, because these people care so deeply about their cause(s) that they donate a lot of time and money. Therefore, politicians are unlikely be reelected by not pleasing the publics while in office."}, {"id": 1113966, "title": "Punk ideologies", "abstract": "Punk ideologies are a group of varied social and political beliefs associated with the punk subculture and punk rock. It is primarily concerned with concepts such as mutual aid, against selling out, hierarchy, white supremacy, authoritarianism, eugenics, class and classism, while supporting anti-consumerism, anti-corporatism, anti-war, anti-imperialism, leftism, anti-globalization, anti-gentrification, anti-racism, anti-sexism, gender equality, anti-homophobia, racial equality, animal rights, free-thought and non-conformity. One of its main tenets is a rejection of mainstream, corporate mass culture and its values. It continues to evolve its ideology as the movement spreads throughout North America from its origins in England and New York and embraces a range of anti-racist and anti-sexist belief systems. Punk does not necessarily lend itself to any particular political ideology as it is primarily anti-establishment although leftist punk is more common due to the prevalence of liberal and conservative ideologies in the status-quo.Punk ideologies are usually expressed through punk rock music and lyrics, punk literature such as amateur fanzines, spoken word performances or recordings, punk fashion, or punk visual art. Some punks have participated in direct action, such as protest or demonstration disruption, political violence, ecotage, street barricades, squatting, pirate radio, off-grid energy, graffiti, vandalism and public and business property destruction, and indirect action through counter-propaganda, protests or boycotts. They support and squat in urban and rural collective houses, with group funds held in common. Punk fashion was originally an expression of nonconformity, as well as opposition to both mainstream culture and the status quo. Punk fashion often displays aggression, rebellion, and individualism. Some punks wear accessories, clothing or have tattoos that express sociopolitical messages. They stage Punk Rock Food Drives, such as D.O.A's Unity for Freedom. Punk visual art also often includes political messages. Many punks wear secondhand clothing, partly as an anti-consumerist statement.\nAn attitude common in the punk subculture is the opposition to selling out, which refers to abandoning of one's values and/or a change in musical style toward pop (e.g. electropop) and embracing mainstream culture or more radio-friendly rock (e.g. pop rock) in exchange for wealth, status, or power. The issue of authenticity is important in the punk subculture\u2014the pejorative term poseur is applied to those who try to associate with punk and adopt its stylistic attributes but are deemed not to share or understand the underlying core values or philosophy.\nBecause anti-establishment attitudes are such an important part of the punk subculture, a network of independent record labels, venues and distributors has developed. Some punk bands have chosen to break from this independent system and work within the established system of major labels. The do it yourself (DIY) ideal is common in the punk scene, especially in terms of music recording and distribution, concert promotion, and photocopying magazines, posters and flyers. The expression DIY was coined by commentators after the fact."}, {"id": 416518, "title": "Puppet ruler", "abstract": "A puppet ruler is a person who has a title indicating possession of political power, but who, in reality, is either loyal to or controlled by outside individuals or forces.  Such outside power can be exercised by a foreign government, in which case the puppet ruler's domain is called a puppet state.  But the puppet ruler may also be controlled by internal forces, such as non-elected officials. A figurehead monarch, as source of legitimacy and possibly divine reign, has been the used form of government in several situations and places of history.\nThere are two basic forms of using puppets as monarchs (rulers, kings, emperors): a figurehead in which the monarch is a puppet of another person or a group in the country who rules instead of the nominal ruler; and a puppet government under a foreign power. Examples of the first type are the Emperors who were the puppets of the sh\u014dguns of Japan and the kings who were the puppets of the Mayor of Palace in the Frankish kingdom. Client kingdoms under the Roman Republic and Roman Empire and the British Empire's colonial relationship with King Farouk of Egypt in the 1950s are examples of the second type."}, {"id": 51582, "title": "Referendum", "abstract": "A referendum (pl.: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the  electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of a new policy or specific law, or  the referendum may be only advisory. In some countries, it is synonymous with and also known as plebiscite, votation, popular consultation, ballot question, ballot measure, or proposition.\nSome definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country. The word, 'referendum' is often a catchall, used for both legislative referrals and initiatives."}, {"id": 1212240, "title": "Regional autonomy", "abstract": "Regional autonomy is decentralization of governance to outlying regions. Recent examples of disputes over autonomy include:\n\nThe Basque region of Spain\nThe Catalan region of Spain\nThe Sicilia region of Italy\nThe disputes over autonomy of provinces in Indonesia.Current examples of autonomous regions include the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in China and the Cherokee Nation in the United States."}, {"id": 62473758, "title": "Religion in politics", "abstract": "Religion in politics covers various topics related to the effects of religion on politics. Religion has been claimed to be \"the source of some of the most remarkable political mobilizations of our times\"."}, {"id": 68172693, "title": "Service-oriented government", "abstract": "The service-oriented government (SOG; simplified Chinese: \u670d\u52a1\u578b\u653f\u5e9c; traditional Chinese: \u670d\u52d9\u578b\u653f\u5e9c), or service-type government,  refers to a government that is guided by the concept of citizen-centered and society-centered, and is formed through legal procedures and in accordance with the will of the citizens within the framework of the democratic order of the whole society, with the purpose of serving the citizens and assuming the responsibility of service. In short, it denotes a government that operates as a service provider. It is a fundamental transformation of the model of traditional regulation-oriented government. The idea behind this conception is consistent with the idea behind New Public Management.Developed by analogy with service-oriented enterprise (SOE),  the concept of \"service-oriented government\" was initially put forward in 1938 by German administrative law scholar Ernst Forsthoff. However, there is also a view that the term originated in the 1990s and was first introduced and put into practice by local governments and academics in Mainland China."}, {"id": 12833512, "title": "Socialist democracy", "abstract": "Socialist democracy is a political system that aligns with principles of both socialism and democracy. It includes ideologies such as council communism, democratic socialism, social democracy, and soviet democracy, as well as Marxist democracy like the dictatorship of the proletariat. It was embodied in the Soviet system (1922\u20131991). It can also denote a system of political party organization like democratic centralism, or a form of democracy espoused by Marxist\u2013Leninist political parties or groups that support one-party states. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1945\u20131992) styled itself a socialist democracy, as did the People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946\u20131990) and the Socialist Republic of Romania (1947\u20131989).Several parties or groups that tend to have a connection to the reunified Fourth International use this label. Parties include Socialist Democracy in Australia, Socialist Democracy in Brazil, Socialist Democracy in Ireland, the Socialist Democracy Group in England, Parti de la Democratie Socialiste in Canada, and the Socialist Democracy Party in Turkey.\nThe Chinese Communist Party (CCP) claims to maintain principles of socialist democracy. CCP Chairman Mao Zedong advocated the people's democratic dictatorship, which emphasizes the importance of dictatorship of the proletariat in the democratic process. In the reform and opening-up period, Deng Xiaoping said that that democracy is the essential element of socialism, as there will be no socialism and modernization without democracy. Under CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping, the CCP continues labeling itself a socialist democracy, under which the National People's Congress selects state leaders."}, {"id": 66252, "title": "Spin (propaganda)", "abstract": "In public relations and politics, spin is a form of propaganda, achieved through knowingly \nproviding a biased interpretation of an event or campaigning to influence public opinion about some organization or public figure. While traditional public relations and advertising may manage their presentation of facts, \"spin\" often implies the use of disingenuous, deceptive, and manipulative tactics.Because of the frequent association between spin and press conferences (especially government press conferences), the room in which these conferences take place is sometimes described as a \"spin room\". Public relations advisors, pollsters and media consultants who develop deceptive or misleading messages may be referred to as \"spin doctors\" or \"spinmeisters\".\nA standard tactic used in \"spinning\" is to reframe or modify the perception of an issue or event to reduce any negative impact it might have on public opinion. For example, a company whose top-selling product is found to have a significant safety problem may \"reframe\" the issue by criticizing the safety of its main competitor's products or by highlighting the risk associated with the entire product category. This might be done using a \"catchy\" slogan or sound bite that can help to persuade the public of the company's biased point of view. This tactic could enable the company to refocus the public's attention away from the negative aspects of its product.\nSpinning is typically a service provided by paid media advisors and media consultants. The largest and most powerful companies may have in-house employees and sophisticated units with expertise in spinning issues. While spin is often considered to be a private-sector tactic, in the 1990s and 2000s some politicians and political staff were accused of using deceptive \"spin\" tactics to manipulate or deceive the public. Spin may include \"burying\" potentially negative new information by releasing it at the end of the workday on the last day before a long weekend; selectively cherry-picking quotes from previous speeches made by their employer or an opposing politician to give the impression that they advocate a certain position; or purposely leaking misinformation about an opposing politician or candidate that casts them in a negative light."}, {"id": 804191, "title": "Spin room", "abstract": "A spin room, also known as spin row or spin alley, is an area in which reporters can speak with debate participants and/or their representatives after a debate. The name refers to the fact that the participants will attempt to \"spin\" or influence the perception of the debate among the assembled reporters. The benefit for reporters is that they quickly get in-person interviews with debaters or their representatives, complete with audio, video, and photos. For a U.S. presidential debate, the number of reporters in the spin room can number into the thousands."}, {"id": 59939132, "title": "Substitute (elections)", "abstract": "A substitute is a political candidate who is not directly elected, but who succeeds a politician holding an elected office after that person ceases to hold the office due to, for example, resignation or death. This system can be used to fill casual vacancies instead of holding by-elections or special elections to fill the vacant office. Substitutes are nominated, not at the time the vacancy arises but, rather, before the election for the information of voters. In voting systems which use electoral lists, the candidates on a given list who are not among those initially elected may become the substitutes for those who are. In other systems, individual candidates may have substitutes."}, {"id": 10826158, "title": "Term of office", "abstract": "A term of office, electoral term, or parliamentary term is the length of time a person serves in a particular elected office. In many jurisdictions there is a defined limit on how long terms of office may be before the officeholder must be subject to re-election. Some jurisdictions exercise term limits, setting a maximum number of terms an individual may hold in a particular office."}, {"id": 47139271, "title": "Testing the waters", "abstract": "In the United States, the phrase testing the waters is used to describe someone who is exploring the feasibility of becoming a candidate for political office. It can also be used more generally as an idiom meaning to estimate the success of something by trying it out a little bit.\"Testing the waters\" activities are to be paid for with candidate-permissible funds. Once an individual begins to campaign or decides to become a candidate, funds that were raised or spent to \"test the waters\" apply to the $5,000 threshold for qualifying as a candidate. This is because there is a federal law that once an individual raises or spends $5,000 for a campaign, they are required to register as a federal candidate.  Once that threshold is exceeded, the individual must register with the Federal Election Commission (FEC; for candidates for the United States House of Representatives) or the Secretary of the Senate (candidates for the United States Senate), and begin to file reports (including in the first report all activity that occurred prior to reaching the $5,000 threshold).Once an individual registers as a federal candidate, election restrictions apply, including $2,700 on contributions. Also, once registered as a candidate, individuals cannot coordinate with political action committees (PACs) or super PACs under campaign finance law."}, {"id": 41815078, "title": "Transparency report", "abstract": "A transparency report is a statement issued semesterly or annually by a company or government, which discloses a variety of statistics related to requests for user data, records, or content. Transparency reports generally disclose how frequently and under what authority governments have requested or demanded data or records over a certain period of time. This form of corporate transparency allows the public to discern how much user information governments have requested through search warrants, court orders, emergency requests, subpoenas, etc. Additionally, companies report data related to requests for user information regarding national security matters, including national security letters and FISA Requests. In 2010, Google was the first company to release a transparency report, with Twitter following in 2012. Additional companies began releasing transparency reports in light of the Edward Snowden leaks in 2013, and the number of companies issuing them has increased rapidly ever since. Additionally, the United States Intelligence Community began releasing their Annual Statistical Transparency Report in 2013, in an attempt to raise public opinion following the leaks.  Today, transparency reports are issued by a variety of technology and communications companies, including Google, Microsoft, Verizon, AT&T, Twitter, Apple, Dropbox, Facebook, Yahoo, Uber, Amazon, T-Mobile, Discord, Reddit, and CloudFlare. As of July 2021, 88 companies have provided transparency reports. Due to the optional nature of transparency reporting, some companies' transparency reports include information related to the government's involvement in copyright takedowns, while others do not. Critics claim that these descrepencies in various companies' reports results in confusion rather than clarification regarding government requesting and censorship practices, and many agree that systematic transparency reporting practices should be implemented across every company that receives requests for user information or takedown notices. Additionally, companies are required by the government to report the number of national security requests they received in bands of 500 or 1000 (0-499) (0-999). Several companies and advocacy groups have lobbied the U.S. government to change this policy and allow the exact number of national security requests to be released, and Twitter is raising this issue in the ongoing legal battle,Twitter v. Garland."}, {"id": 69865234, "title": "Treaty body", "abstract": "In international law, a treaty body (or treaty-based body) is an internationally established body of independent experts that monitor how States party to a particular international legal instrument are implementing their obligations under it."}, {"id": 3512364, "title": "Tribal chief", "abstract": "A tribal chief, chieftain, or headman is the leader of a tribal society or chiefdom."}, {"id": 300545, "title": "Two-step flow of communication", "abstract": "The two-step flow of communication model says that most people form their opinions under the influence of opinion leaders, who in turn are influenced by the mass media. In contrast to the one-step flow of the hypodermic needle model or magic bullet theory, which holds that people are directly influenced by mass media, according to the two-step flow model, ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders, and from them to a wider population. Opinion leaders pass on their own interpretation of information in addition to the actual media content."}, {"id": 69084631, "title": "Unseating", "abstract": "Unseating is a political term which refers to a legislator who loses their seat in an election. A legislator who is unseated loses the right to sit in a legislative chamber. A landslide victory results in many legislators being unseated."}, {"id": 41278664, "title": "World domination", "abstract": "World domination (also called    global domination or world conquest or cosmocracy) is a hypothetical power structure, either achieved or aspired to, in which a single political authority holds the power over all or virtually all the inhabitants of Earth. Various individuals or regimes have tried to achieve this goal throughout history, without ever attaining it.\nThe theme has been often used in works of fiction, particularly in political fiction, as well as in conspiracy theories (which may posit that some person or group has already secretly achieved this goal), particularly those fearing the development of a \"New World Order\" involving a world government of a totalitarian nature."}, {"id": 65321385, "title": "World Federalism", "abstract": "World federalism or global federalism is a political ideology advocating a democratic, federal world government. A world federation would have authority on issues of global reach, while the members of such a federation would retain authority over local and national issues. The overall sovereignty over the world population would largely reside in the federal government.World federalism is distinguished from unitary world government models by the principle of subsidiarity, where decisions are made as much as possible at the most immediate level, preserving national agency to a large degree. Proponents maintain that a world federation offers a more effective and accountable global governance structure than the existing United Nations organization, while simultaneously allowing wide autonomy for national, regional and local governments."}], "id": 695027}, {"title": "Communication", "pages": [{"id": 18934741, "title": "Outline of communication", "abstract": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to communication:\nCommunication \u2013 purposeful activity of exchanging information and meaning across space and time using various technical or natural means, whichever is available or preferred. Communication requires a sender, a message, a medium and a recipient, although the receiver does not have to be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space."}, {"id": 75551635, "title": "BBS Terefayina", "abstract": "BBS Terefayina, owned by Buganda Kingdom, is a Ugandan television station with its main offices at Masengere building in Mengo along Bulange road in Kampala District."}, {"id": 5177, "title": "Communication", "abstract": "Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not only transmits meaning but also creates it. Models of communication are simplified overviews of its main components and their interactions. Many models include the idea that a source uses a coding system to express information in the form of a message. The message is sent through a channel to a receiver who has to decode it to understand it. The main field of inquiry investigating communication is called communication studies.\nA common way to classify communication is by whether information is exchanged between humans, members of other species, or non-living entities such as computers. For human communication, a central contrast is between verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication involves the exchange of messages in linguistic form, including spoken and written messages as well as sign language. Non-verbal communication happens without the use of a linguistic system, for example, using body language, touch, and facial expressions. Another distinction is between interpersonal communication, which happens between distinct persons, and intrapersonal communication, which is communication with oneself. Communicative competence is the ability to communicate well and applies to the skills of formulating messages and understanding them.\nNon-human forms of communication include animal and plant communication. Researchers in this field often refine their definition of communicative behavior by including the criteria that observable responses are present and that the participants benefit from the exchange. Animal communication is used in areas like courtship and mating, parent\u2013offspring relations, navigation, and self-defense. Communication through chemicals is particularly important for the relatively immobile plants. For example, maple trees release so-called volatile organic compounds into the air to warn other plants of a herbivore attack. Most communication takes place between members of the same species. The reason is that its purpose is usually some form of cooperation, which is not as common between different species. Interspecies communication happens mainly in cases of symbiotic relationships. For instance, many flowers use symmetrical shapes and distinctive colors to signal to insects where nectar is located. Humans engage in interspecies communication when interacting with pets and working animals.\nHuman communication has a long history and how people exchange information has changed over time. These changes were usually triggered by the development of new communication technologies. Examples are the invention of writing systems, the development of mass printing, the use of radio and television, and the invention of the internet. The technological advances also led to new forms of communication, such as the exchange of data between computers."}, {"id": 25707018, "title": "Concision", "abstract": "In common usage and linguistics, concision (also called conciseness, succinctness, brevity, or laconicism) is a communication principle of eliminating redundancy, such as using as few words as possible in a sentence while preserving its meaning. More generally, it is achieved through the omission of parts that impart information that was already given, that is obvious or that is irrelevant. Outside of linguistics, a message may be similarly \"dense\" in other forms of communication.\nFor example, a sentence of \"It is a fact that most arguments must try to convince readers, that is the audience, that the arguments are true.\" may be expressed more concisely as \"Most arguments must demonstrate their truth to readers.\" \u2013  the observations that the statement is a fact and that readers are its audience are redundant, and it is unnecessary to repeat the word \"arguments\" in the sentence."}, {"id": 47761177, "title": "Dataveillance", "abstract": "Dataveillance is the practice of monitoring and collecting online data as well as metadata. The word is a portmanteau of data and surveillance. Dataveillance is concerned with the continuous monitoring of users' communications and actions across various platforms. For instance, dataveillance refers to the monitoring of data  resulting from credit card transactions, GPS coordinates, emails, social networks, etc. Using digital media often leaves traces of data and creates a digital footprint of our activity. Unlike sousveillance, this type of surveillance is not often known and happens discreetly. Dataveillance may involve the surveillance of groups of individuals. There exist three types of dataveillance: personal dataveillance, mass dataveillance, and facilitative mechanisms.Unlike computer and network surveillance, which collects data from computer networks and hard drives, dataveillance monitors and collects data (and metadata) through social networks and various other online platforms. Dataveillance is not to be confused with electronic surveillance. Electronic surveillance refers to the surveillance of oral and audio systems such as wire tapping. Additionally, electronic surveillance depends on having suspects already presumed before surveillance can occur. On the other hand, dataveillance can use data to identify an individual or a group. Oftentimes, these individuals and groups have sparked some form of suspicion with their activity.Dataveillance has significant impacts on advertising theory and practice. These impacts particularly stem from recent infrastructure and technological advancements that increase the extent to which advertisers can gain data information about consumers and their behaviours. For example, collecting data can be extended into collecting consumers\u2019 offline behaviors and to places that are considered private."}, {"id": 151604, "title": "Deception", "abstract": "Deception is an act or statement that misleads, hides the truth, or promotes a belief, concept, or idea that is not true. This occurs when a deceiver uses information against a person to make them believe an idea is true. Deception can be used with both verbal and nonverbal messages. The person creating the deception knows it to be false while the receiver of the message has a tendency to believe it (although it\u2019s not always the case). It is often done for personal gain or advantage. Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda and sleight of hand as well as distraction, camouflage or concealment. There is also self-deception, as in bad faith. It can also be called, with varying subjective implications, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, ruse, or subterfuge.\nDeception is a major relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal and distrust between relational partners. Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a negative violation of expectations. Most people expect friends, relational partners, and even strangers to be truthful most of the time. If people expected most conversations to be untruthful, talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information. A significant amount of deception occurs between some romantic and relational partners.Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort, or contract law (where it is known as misrepresentation or fraudulent misrepresentation if deliberate), or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud. It also forms a vital part of psychological warfare in denial and deception."}, {"id": 10180623, "title": "Decision downloading", "abstract": "Decision downloading refers to communicating a decision to those who have not been involved in the decision-making process. \nThe term \u201cdecision downloading\u201d is used to set apart those special situations in which\ndecision-makers communicate a decision that has already been made. It applies when the communicators cannot,\nfor whatever reason, keep everyone informed in real-time about the decision-making process."}, {"id": 59668157, "title": "Defensive communication", "abstract": "Defensive communication is a communicative behavior that occurs within relationships, work environments, and social groups when an individual reacts in a defensive manner in response to a self-perceived flaw or a threat from outsiders. Defensive responses can be triggered by external events and by feelings of anxiety, insecurity, and sensitivity, and often occurs in circumstances where people feel negatively evaluated, controlled, or persuaded by others. Sigmund Freud was one of the first scientists to research the subject of defensive communication in depth, during his development of psychodynamic theory. Defensiveness creates inefficient and damaging communication in social interactions when people deny their flaws, project their flaws on others, or use judgmental communication techniques."}, {"id": 168919, "title": "Deliberative democracy", "abstract": "Deliberative democracy or discursive democracy is a form of democracy in which deliberation is central to decision-making. Deliberative democracy seeks quality over quantity by limiting decision-makers to a smaller but more representative sample of the population that is given the time and resources to focus on one issue.It often adopts elements of both consensus decision-making and majority rule. Deliberative democracy differs from traditional democratic theory in that authentic deliberation, not mere voting, is the primary source of legitimacy for the law. Deliberative democracy is related to consultative democracy, in which public consultation with citizens is central to democratic processes. The distance between deliberative democracy and concepts like representative democracy or direct democracy is debated. While some practitioners and theorists use deliberative democracy to describe elected bodies whose members propose and enact legislation, H\u00e9l\u00e8ne Landemore and others increasingly use deliberative democracy to refer to decision-making by randomly-selected lay citizens with equal power.Deliberative democracy has a long history of practice and theory traced back to ancient times, with an increase in academic attention in the 1990s, and growing implementations since 2010.  Joseph M. Bessette has been credited with coining the term in his 1980 work Deliberative Democracy: The Majority Principle in Republican Government."}, {"id": 42935, "title": "Detection", "abstract": "In general, detection is the action of accessing information without specific cooperation from  with the sender.\nIn the history of radio communications, the term \"detector\" was first used for a device that detected the simple presence or absence of a radio signal, since all communications were in Morse code.  The term is still in use today to describe a component that extracts a particular signal from all of the electromagnetic waves present.  Detection is usually based on the frequency of the carrier signal, as in the familiar frequencies of radio broadcasting, but it may also involve filtering a faint signal from noise, as in radio astronomy, or reconstructing a hidden signal, as in steganography.\nIn optoelectronics, \"detection\" means converting a received optical input to an electrical output. For example, the light signal received through an optical fiber is converted to an electrical signal in a detector such as a photodiode.\nIn steganography, attempts to detect hidden signals in suspected carrier material is referred to as steganalysis.  Steganalysis has an interesting difference from most other types of detection, in that it can often only determine the probability that a hidden message exists; this is in contrast to the detection of signals which are simply encrypted, as the ciphertext can often be identified with certainty, even if it cannot be decoded. \nIn the military, detection refers to the special discipline of reconnaissance with the aim to recognize the presence of an object in a location or ambiance.\nFinally, the art of detection, also known as following clues, is the work of a detective in attempting to reconstruct a sequence of events by identifying the relevant information in a situation."}, {"id": 55670558, "title": "Discourse of renewal", "abstract": "Discourse of renewal is a theory in crisis communication that seeks to establish and emphasize \"learning from the crisis, ethical communication, communication that is prospective in nature, and effective organizational rhetoric.\u201dWith a prospective approach, Gordon Lippett established the organizational renewal theory that would lead organizations \u201cto higher stages progressively and to preclude a decline toward a lower stage\u201d of organizational recovery. With the application of discourse of renewal practices, organizations and communities \u201ccan consider developing a crisis plan and, more important, build their crisis communication skills over time\u201d."}, {"id": 41994398, "title": "Discussion moderator", "abstract": "A discussion moderator or debate moderator is a person whose role is to act as a neutral participant in a debate or discussion, holds participants to time limits and tries to keep them from straying off the topic of the questions being raised in the debate.  Sometimes moderators may ask questions intended to allow the debate participants to fully develop their argument in order to ensure the debate moves at pace.\nIn panel discussions commonly held at academic conferences, the moderator usually introduces the participants and solicits questions from the audience. On television and radio shows, a moderator will often take calls from people having differing views, and will use those calls as a starting point to ask questions of guests on the show. Perhaps the most prominent role of moderators is in political debates, which have become a common feature of election campaigns. The moderator may have complete control over which questions to ask, or may act as a filter by selecting questions from the audience."}, {"id": 19371086, "title": "Dissemination", "abstract": "To disseminate (from lat. disseminare \"scattering seeds\"), in the field of communication, is to broadcast a message to the public without direct feedback from the audience."}, {"id": 69229577, "title": "Double empathy problem", "abstract": "The theory of the double empathy problem is a psychological and sociological theory first coined in 2012 by Damian Milton, an autistic autism researcher. This theory proposes that many of the difficulties autistic individuals face when socializing with non-autistic individuals are due, in part, to a lack of mutual understanding between the two groups, meaning that most autistic people struggle to understand and empathize with non-autistic people, whereas most non-autistic people also struggle to understand and empathize with autistic people. This lack of understanding may stem from bidirectional differences in communication style, social-cognitive characteristics, and experiences between autistic and non-autistic individuals, but not necessarily an inherent deficiency. Recent studies have shown that most autistic individuals are able to socialize, communicate effectively, empathize well, and display social reciprocity with most other autistic individuals. This theory and subsequent findings challenge the commonly held belief that the social skills of autistic individuals are inherently impaired, as well as the theory of \"mind-blindness\" proposed by prominent autism researcher Simon Baron-Cohen in the mid-1980s, which suggested that empathy and theory of mind are universally impaired in autistic individuals.The double empathy concept has been consistently supported by a substantial number of studies in recent years and has the potential to radically shift goals of interventions and public psychoeducation regarding autism. In recognition of recent findings that support the theory, Baron-Cohen positively recognized the theory of the double empathy problem in two research articles in 2018 and 2022, as well as in multiple podcasts since 2020."}, {"id": 10672320, "title": "Dropout (communications)", "abstract": "A dropout is a momentary loss of signal in a communications system, usually caused by noise, propagation anomalies, or system malfunctions.  For analog signals, a dropout is frequently gradual and partial, depending on the cause.  For digital signals, dropouts are more pronounced, usually being sudden and complete, due to the cliff effect.  In mobile telephony, a dropout of more than a few seconds will result in a dropped call."}, {"id": 385241, "title": "Emotional intimacy", "abstract": "Emotional intimacy is an aspect of interpersonal relationships that varies in intensity from one relationship to another and varies from one time to another, much like physical intimacy. Emotional intimacy involves a perception of closeness to another, sharing of personal feelings, and personal validation."}, {"id": 733886, "title": "Emotional labor", "abstract": "Emotional labor is the process of managing feelings and expressions to fulfill the emotional requirements of a job. More specifically, workers are expected to regulate their personas during interactions with customers, co-workers, clients, and managers. This includes analysis and decision-making in terms of the expression of emotion, whether actually felt or not, as well as its opposite: the suppression of emotions that are felt but not expressed. This is done so as to produce a certain feeling in the customer or client that will allow the company or organization to succeed.Roles that have been identified as requiring emotional labor include those involved in education, public administration, law, childcare, health care, social work, hospitality, media, advocacy, and espionage. As particular economies move from a manufacturing to a service-based economy, more workers in a variety of occupational fields are expected to manage their emotions according to employer demands when compared to sixty years ago."}, {"id": 22711632, "title": "Employee silence", "abstract": "Employee silence refers to situations where employees withhold information that might be useful to the organization of which they are a part, whether intentionally or unintentionally.  This can happen if employees do not speak up to a supervisor or manager.\n\nWithin organizations people often have to make decisions about whether to speak up or remain silent - whether to share or withhold their ideas, opinions, and concerns ... [The problem is that] in many cases, they choose the safe response of silence, withholding input that could be valuable to others or thoughts that they wish they could express.\u2014 Frances J. Milliken and Elizabeth Wolfe Morrison, Shades of Silence: Emerging Themes and Future Directions for Research on Silence in Organizations\n\nThis means the situation is not going to change for the better anytime soon.  Employee silence does not only occur between management and employees, it also occurs during conflict among employees, and as a result of organizational decisions.  This silence keeps managers from receiving information that may help to improve the organization."}, {"id": 5022261, "title": "End of message", "abstract": "End of message or EOM (as in \"(EOM)\" or \"<EOM>\") signifies the end of a message, often an e-mail message."}, {"id": 2170113, "title": "Eprint", "abstract": "In academic publishing, an eprint or e-print is a digital version of a research document (usually a journal article, but could also be a thesis, conference paper, book chapter, or a book) that is accessible online, usually as green open access, whether from a local institutional or \na central digital repository.When applied to journal articles, the term \"eprints\" covers both preprints (before peer review) and postprints (after peer review).\nDigital versions of materials other than research documents are not usually called e-prints, but some other name, such as e-books."}, {"id": 49001515, "title": "Exegetical neutrality", "abstract": "In translation, the principle of exegetical neutrality is that \"if at any point in a text there is a passage that raises for the native speaker legitimate questions of exegesis, then, if at all possible, a translator should strive to confront the reader of his version with the same questions of exegesis and not produce a version which in his mind resolves those questions\"."}, {"id": 4245410, "title": "Exformation", "abstract": "Exformation (originally spelled eksformation in Danish) is a term originally coined by Danish science writer Tor N\u00f8rretranders in his book The User Illusion published in English 1998. It is meant to mean explicitly discarded information.In 2017, the concept was redefined by Kenya Hara (\u539f \u7814\u54c9, Hara Ken'ya, born 1958), a Japanese graphic designer who teaches Communication Design and Design Theory at the Design Faculty of Musashino Art University (\u6b66\u8535\u91ce\u7f8e\u8853\u5927\u5b66, Musashino Bijutsu Daigaku) in Tokyo. Hara first proposed the concept to his students, postulating the co-development of a novel method of communication through design, a communication method by making things unknown.In 2020, exformation was again reformulated by the Belgian educationist and learner experience designer Francis Laleman, who positioned the concept as exformative learning, a particular type of cooperative learning based on collectivized intuition, systemic exploration, and making things unknown."}, {"id": 29815796, "title": "Exhibition", "abstract": "An exhibition, in the most general sense, is an organized presentation and display of a selection of items. In practice, exhibitions usually occur within a cultural or educational setting such as a museum, art gallery, park, library, exhibition hall, or World's fairs.  Exhibitions can include many things such as art in both major museums and smaller galleries, interpretive exhibitions, natural history museums and history museums, and also varieties such as more commercially focused exhibitions and trade fairs. They can also foster community engagement, dialogue, and education, providing visitors with opportunities to explore diverse perspectives, historical contexts, and contemporary issues. Additionally, exhibitions frequently contribute to the promotion of artists, innovators, and industries, acting as a conduit for the exchange of ideas and the celebration of human creativity and achievement.\nIn British English the word \"exhibition\" is used for a collection of items placed on display and the event as a whole, which in American English is usually an \"exhibit\". In both varieties of English each object being shown within an exhibition is an \"exhibit\". In common usage, \"exhibitions\" are considered temporary and usually scheduled to open and close on specific dates. While many exhibitions are shown in just one venue, some exhibitions are shown in multiple locations and are called travelling exhibitions, and some are online exhibitions.  Exhibitions featuring especially fragile or valuable objects, or live animals\u2014may be shown only during a formal presentation, under the close supervision of attendant or educator. Temporary exhibits that are transported from institution to institution are traveling exhibits.\nThough exhibitions are common events, the concept of an exhibition is quite wide and encompasses many variables. Exhibitions range from an extraordinarily large event such as a World's fair exposition to small one-artist solo shows or a display of just one item. Often a team of specialists is required to assemble and execute an exhibition; these specialists vary depending on the type of said exhibit.  Curators are sometimes involved as the people who select the items in an exhibition. Writers and editors are sometimes needed to write text, labels and accompanying printed material such as catalogs and books. Architects, exhibition designers, graphic designers and other designers may be needed to shape the exhibition space and give form to the editorial content. Organizing and holding exhibitions also requires effective event planning, management, and logistics."}, {"id": 17241961, "title": "Face negotiation theory", "abstract": "Face negotiation theory is a theory conceived by Stella Ting-Toomey in 1985, to understand how people from different cultures manage rapport and disagreements. The theory posited \"face\", or self-image when communicating with others, as a universal phenomenon that pervades across cultures. In conflicts, one's face is threatened; and thus the person tends to save or restore his or her face. This set of communicative behaviors, according to the theory, is called \"facework\".  Since people frame the situated meaning of \"face\" and enact \"facework\" differently from one culture to the next, the theory poses a cross-cultural framework to examine facework negotiation. It is important to note that the definition of face varies depending on the people and their culture and the same can be said for the proficiency of facework. According to Ting-Toomey's theory, most cultural differences can be divided by Eastern and Western cultures, and her theory accounts for these differences."}, {"id": 273482, "title": "Facilitated communication", "abstract": "Facilitated communication (FC), or supported typing, is a scientifically discredited technique that claims to allow non-verbal people, such as those with autism, to communicate. The technique involves a facilitator guiding the disabled person's arm or hand in an attempt to help them type on a keyboard or other such device which they are unable to properly use if unfacilitated.There is widespread agreement within the scientific community and among disability advocacy organizations that FC is a pseudoscience.  Research indicates that the facilitator is the source of the messages obtained through FC, rather than the disabled person. The facilitator may believe they are not the source of the messages due to the ideomotor effect, which is the same effect that guides a Ouija board. Studies have consistently found that FC is unable to provide the correct response to even simple questions when the facilitator does not know the answers to the questions (e.g., showing the patient but not the facilitator an object). In addition, in numerous cases disabled persons have been assumed by facilitators to be typing a coherent message while the patient's eyes were closed or while they were looking away from or showing no particular interest in the letter board.Facilitated communication has been called \"the single most scientifically discredited intervention in all of developmental disabilities\". Some promoters of the technique have claimed that FC cannot be clearly disproven because a testing environment might cause the subject to lose confidence. However, there is a scientific consensus that facilitated communication is not a valid communication technique, and its use is strongly discouraged by most speech and language disability professional organizations. There have been a large number of false abuse allegations made through facilitated communication."}, {"id": 11655, "title": "Factoid", "abstract": "A factoid is either an invented or assumed statement presented as a fact, or a true but brief or trivial item of news or information.\nThe term was coined in 1973 by American writer Norman Mailer to mean a piece of information that becomes accepted as a fact even though it is not actually true, or an invented fact believed to be true because it appears in print. Since the term's invention in 1973, it has become used to describe a brief or trivial item of news or information."}, {"id": 24352448, "title": "Feedforward (management)", "abstract": "Feed forward in  management theory is an application of the cybernetic concept of feedforward first articulated by I. A. Richards in 1951. It reflects the impact of Management cybernetics in the general area of management studies.\nIt refers to the practice of giving a control impact in a downlink to a subordinate to a person or an organization from which you are expecting an output. A feed forward is not just a pre-feedback, as a feedback is always based on measuring an output and sending respective feedback. A pre-feedback given without measurement of output may be understood as a confirmation or just an acknowledgment of control command.\nHowever, a feed forward is generally imposed before any willful change in output may occur. All other changes of output determined with feedback may for example result from distortion, noise or attenuation. It usually involves giving a document for review and giving an ex post information on that document which you have not already given.\nHowever, social feedback is the response of the supreme hierarch to the subordinate as an acknowledgement of a subordinate's report on output, hence the subordinate's feedback to the supreme."}, {"id": 7975769, "title": "Fence insert", "abstract": "A fence insert is an object designed to fit or clip into standard chain link fencing. Current products on the market include privacy slats that weave through the fence, plastic-shaped cups designed to clip into open cells, and two-part interlocking units which attach together at the crossover of fence wires."}, {"id": 11104696, "title": "Figure and ground (media)", "abstract": "Figure and ground is a concept drawn from Gestalt psychology by media theorist Marshall McLuhan in the early 1970s. This concept underpins the meaning of his famous phrase, \"The medium is the message\". The concept was an approach to what was called \"perceptual organization.\" He began to use the terms figure and ground as a way \"to describe the parts of a situation\" and \"to help explain his ideas about media and human communication.\" The concept was later employed to explain how a communications technology, the medium or figure, necessarily operates through its context, or ground."}, {"id": 26157344, "title": "Figure rating scale", "abstract": "The figure rating scale (FRS), also known as the Stunkard scale, is a psychometric measurement originally developed in 1983 to communicate about the unknown weights of a research subject's absent relatives, and since adapted to assess body image.The scale presents nine male and nine female schematic silhouettes, ranging from extreme thinness to extreme obesity. For research purposes, each participant is asked to self-select the silhouette that best indicates his or her current body size and the silhouette that reflects his or her ideal body size (IBS)."}, {"id": 3509435, "title": "Forward-looking statement", "abstract": "In United States business law, a forward-looking statement or safe harbor statement is a statement that cannot sustain itself as merely a historical fact. A forward-looking statement predicts, projects, or uses future events as expectations or possibilities. These statements can often be misleading, as they can be mistaken for factual statements, while they are actually speculation. According to United States Code 15 Section 78u-5, a forward-looking statement may include future economic performance, such as revenues or income, plans for future operations, or use of a report written by an outside reviewer."}, {"id": 22000113, "title": "Four-sides model", "abstract": "The four-sides model (also known as communication square or four-ears model) is a communication model postulated in 1981 by German psychologist Friedemann Schulz von Thun. According to this model every message has four facets though not the same emphasis might be put on each. The four sides of the message are fact, self-disclosure, Social relationship between sender and receiver, and wish or want."}, {"id": 49769, "title": "Friendship book", "abstract": "Friendship books (also known as \"FBs\" in their abbreviated form) are small booklets made by stapling paper together, or are sometimes just sheets or strips of paper. They are usually decorated and the person who starts the book writes their name and address as the first person sending the book. People often include a list of interests as well. The FB is then passed around from penpal to penpal, and can often also become a way for one to meet new penpals. Most people hope to see the book again once it is full so they add their return address to the back cover of the book too, or inscribe \"Return to Sender\" on it. People also sometimes make FBs for someone else rather than themselves, in which case they write the name and address of the recipient on the front/at the top. Some people find friendship books fun because you can see where they have been in a trail back to the original sender/recipient.\nThe German friendship books (or poetry albums) serve a similar purpose but are kept, not sent away. Access is considered more intimate; sometimes the book even has a lock. The information given about oneself often includes quotations, poetry and worldly wisdom. Typically they are more like shared journals between two best friends or a couple and are kept at one of their houses.\nFriendship books that require entrants to make drawings, use stickers or magazine photographs are known as \"deco\" friendship books or just simply \"decos\".  Typically, each entrant in the \"deco\" must use one full page to express themselves.  Glitter, sequins, feathers and other scrapbooking supplies are frequently used in \"decos.\"  Despite the artistic expressions used in these types of friendship books, the basic rules of passing the friendship book to person to person is the same.\nWhen a 'friendship book' is only one page (no staples), it's called a 'friendship sheet.'  If the page is small, like the size of a postcard, or smaller, it's called a 'cram.'  Friendship books that have a musical theme, where you have to add lyrics to your entry, are called \"lyrix\" or \"lyrics sheets\"."}, {"id": 48510923, "title": "Frog pond effect", "abstract": "The frog pond effect is the theory that individuals evaluate themselves as worse than they actually are when in a group of higher-performing individuals. This effect is a part of the wider social comparison theory. It relates to how individuals evaluate themselves based on comparisons to other people around them, and is generally due to upward comparisons toward people who are better than themselves."}, {"id": 61009235, "title": "Gap-Hamming problem", "abstract": "In communication complexity, the gap-Hamming problem asks, if Alice and Bob are each given a (potentially different) string, what is the minimal number of bits that they need to exchange in order for Alice to approximately compute the Hamming distance between their strings. The solution to the problem roughly states that, if Alice and Bob are each given a string, then any communication protocol used to compute the Hamming distance between their strings does (asymptotically) no better than Bob sending his whole string to Alice. More specifically, if Alice and Bob are each given \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n  -bit strings, there exists no communication protocol that lets Alice compute the hamming distance between their strings to within \n  \n    \n      \n        \u00b1\n        \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\pm {\\sqrt {n}}}\n   using less than \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03a9\n        (\n        n\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Omega (n)}\n   bits.\nThe gap-Hamming problem has applications to proving lower bounds for many streaming algorithms, including moment frequency estimation and entropy estimation."}, {"id": 51041610, "title": "Gateway belief model", "abstract": "The gateway belief model (GBM) suggests that public perception of the degree of expert or scientific consensus on an issue functions as a so-called \"gateway\" cognition. Perception of scientific agreement is suggested to be a key step towards acceptance of related beliefs.  Increasing the perception that there is normative agreement within the scientific community can increase individual support for an issue. A perception of disagreement may decrease support for an issue.Public opinion research has shown a \"consensus gap\" between the beliefs of the general public and the scientific community on a number of issues including climate change, vaccines, evolution, gun control, and GMO's.  The general public is assumed to underestimate the degree of agreement among scientists on established facts relating to these issues.According to the gateway belief model, views can be influenced by presenting information about the scientific consensus on a subject. Communicating accurate information about the scientific consensus on a topic reduces perceptions that there is disagreement within the scientific community.  Some studies show a causal connection between changes in perceived consensus and subsequent attitudes on issues.\nIn the case of climate change, perceptions of expert agreement are considered a precursor to related beliefs about whether and why climate change is happening.:\u200a130\u200a\nIn the case of COVID-19, perception of scientific consensus predicted personal attitudes and support for mitigation policies.The gateway belief model also implies that organized disinformation campaigns may be able to deliberately undermine public support for an issue by suggesting a lack of scientific consensus or amplifying opinions that disagree with the scientific consensus. Undermining scientific consensus is therefore a frequent disinformation tactic."}, {"id": 33383624, "title": "Gender in advertising", "abstract": "Gender in advertising refers to the images and concepts in advertising that depict and reinforce stereotypical gender roles. Advertisements containing subliminal or direct messages about physical attractiveness and beauty have been of particular interest regarding their impact on men, women, and youth. Gendered advertisements have and continue to shape what is expected of a distinct gender, regarding physique and attitude. Not only are these types of stereotypes present in various forms of media, but they also hold significant weight in everyday life."}, {"id": 54681275, "title": "Geography of media and communication", "abstract": "Geography of media and communication (also known as communication geography, media geography and geographies of media) is an interdisciplinary research area bringing together human geography with media studies and communication theory. Research addressing the geography of media and communication seeks to understand how acts of communication and the systems they depend on both shape and are shaped by geographical patterns and processes. This topic addresses the prominence of certain types of communication in differing geographical areas, including how new technology allows for new types of communication for a multitude of global locations."}, {"id": 24860432, "title": "Global network", "abstract": "A global network is any communication network which spans the entire Earth. The term, as used in this article refers in a more restricted way to bidirectional communication networks, and to technology-based networks. Early networks such as international mail and unidirectional communication networks, such as radio and television, are described elsewhere.\nThe first global network was established using electrical telegraphy and global span was achieved in 1899. The telephony network was the second to achieve global status, in the 1950s. More recently, interconnected IP networks (principally the Internet, with estimated 2.5 billion users worldwide in 2014 ), and the GSM mobile communication network (with over 6 billion worldwide users in 2014) form the largest global networks of all.\nSetting up global networks requires immensely costly and lengthy efforts lasting for decades. Elaborate interconnections, switching and routing devices, laying out physical carriers of information, such as land and submarine cables and earth stations must be set in operation. In addition, international communication protocols, legislation and agreements are involved.\nGlobal networks might also refer to networks of individuals (such as scientists), communities (such as cities) and organizations (such as civil organizations) worldwide which, for instance, might have formed for the management, mitigation and resolval of global issues."}, {"id": 50406244, "title": "Global news flow", "abstract": "Global news flow (also referred to as international news flow) is a field of study that deals with the news coverage of events in foreign countries. It describes and explains the flow of news from one country to another.Studies on global news flow typically attempt to understand why certain countries are more newsworthy than others.. Along the years it has been found that the economic power of countries plays a particularly crucial role in their news prominence as well as the presence of international news agencies. Thus, the US has been found to be very prominent in news mentions around the world (18%), followed by China, Western European and Middle Eastern countries (about 3-5% each).The unequal representation of the world and the under-representation of developing countries have been already of a great concern at least since the 1950s, since they influence the way people perceive the world and the image of countries. This problem was later addressed in the MacBride report, and his set of recommendations for a New World Information and Communication Order. The unequal representation of the world has been also linked to the World System Theory, and the unequal economic structure of the world.A 2014 study, examining 35 popular news website in ten different languages over a two-year study period, found that \"the United States is by far the most prominent country in the news sites that we studied from around the world, except for the French and Arabic ones\" and the \"network structure of news links clearly exhibits [the U.S.'s] key position as the centerpiece of a global system.\"A 2015 study published in the journalism Journalism, examining \"validity and limits of the news flow theory,\" found that \"Over-represented regional centers in West Europe and Asia overshadow the under-represented regional peripheries in East Europe and the Middle East\" and that the United States and Africa \"serve as a global center and a periphery respectively.\""}, {"id": 28463236, "title": "Global Open Access Forum", "abstract": "The Global Open Access List (GOAL), until January 2012 the American Scientist Open Access Forum, is the longest-standing online discussion forum on Open Access (free online access to peer-reviewed research). It was created by the American Scientist, which is published by Sigma Xi, in September 1998, before the term \"Open Access\" (OA) was coined, and it was originally called the \"September98-Forum.\"  Its first focus was an article published in American Scientist in which Thomas J Walker of the University of Florida proposed that journals should furnish free online access out of the fees authors pay them to purchase reprints. Stevan Harnad, who had in 1994 made the Subversive Proposal that all researchers should self archive their peer-reviewed research, was invited to moderate the forum, which was not expected to last more than a few months. It continued to grow in size and influence across the years and is still the site where most of the main developments in OA are first mooted, including self-archiving, institutional repositories, citation impact, research performance metrics, publishing reform, copyright reform, open access journals, and open access mandates."}, {"id": 1894020, "title": "Heritage interpretation", "abstract": "Heritage interpretation refers to all the ways in which information is communicated to visitors to an educational, natural or recreational site, such as a museum, park or science centre. More specifically it is the communication of information about, or the explanation of, the nature, origin, and purpose of historical, natural, or cultural resources, objects, sites and phenomena using personal or non-personal methods.  Some international authorities in museology prefer the term mediation for the same concept, following usage in other European languages.\nHeritage interpretation may be performed at dedicated interpretation centres or at museums, historic sites, parks, art galleries, nature centres, zoos, aquaria, botanical gardens, nature reserves and a host of other heritage sites. Its modalities can be extremely varied and may include guided walks, talks, drama, staffed stations, displays, signs, labels, artwork, brochures, interactives, audio-guides and audio-visual media. The process of developing a structured approach to interpreting these stories, messages and information is called interpretive planning. The thematic approach to heritage interpretation advocated by University of Idaho professor Sam Ham, the National Association for Interpretation, the US National Park Service, and others, is considered best practice.Those who practice this form of interpretation may include rangers, guides, naturalists, actors (who may wear period dress and do reenactments), museum curators, natural and cultural interpretive specialists, interpretation officers, heritage communicators, docents, educators, visitor services staff, interpreters or a host of other titles. The interpretive process is often assisted by new technologies such as visualizing techniques."}, {"id": 3730275, "title": "How the World Was One", "abstract": "How the World Was One: Beyond the Global Village is Arthur C. Clarke's history and survey of the communications revolution, published in 1992. The title includes an intentional pun; in English How the World Was Won would sound exactly the same. \nThis work is based on an earlier work by Clarke entitled Voice Across the Sea, published in 1958."}, {"id": 61907348, "title": "Hurtful communication", "abstract": "Hurtful communication occurs when the receiver perceives a specific social interaction as upsetting or harmful emotionally. In the course of human interaction, one party will say or do something that results in unpleasant emotional feelings for another. Negative social interactions can be intentional, when one or both parties are involved in interpersonal conflict, or unintentional, such as when misunderstandings occur. Actions such as failure to recognize accomplishments or significant dates can cause hurtful outcomes within relationships.Hurtful communication more commonly occurs in intimate relationships where parties have disclosed more information to one another than stranger interaction. Hurtful communication has been studied in romantic relationship and parent-child relationships, with findings having potential applications in sibling relationships, in-law relationships, work relationships, educator-student relationships, and friendships. In relation to other negative emotions such as anger or guilt, hurt is more often linked to interpersonal interaction. Interactions are adversely affected by hurtful communication. Hurtful communication negatively affects trust within a relationship resulting in more defensive behavior by both parties. Hurtful communication topics can be found interpersonal communication and relational communication research."}, {"id": 21097678, "title": "Hybrid mail", "abstract": "Hybrid mail is mail that is delivered using a combination of electronic and physical delivery. Usually, it involves digital data being transformed into physical letter items at distributed print centres located as close as possible to the final delivery addresses. An e-mail letter (also L-mail and letter mail) is a letter which is sent as an email using a computer, then printed out and delivered as a traditional (physical) letter. It is a communication means between the cyber and the material world. The printer or mail transfer agent prints the electronic mail on paper, the mail transport agent packs it into an envelope and the mail delivery agent or postman delivers it to the receiver's mailbox. Generally there is a fee for this service; however very small amounts and single email letters may be free of charge depending on the service provider and generally fees are much lower than cost incurred in sending the mail directly or by using a franking machine. Research shows that in the UK, for a simple enclosed letter, posted 2nd class, the saving could be as much as much as 40% per letter.There are also reverse systems, where handwritten letters can be delivered as email. This mail scanning service, sometimes called letter email, is increasingly popular with businesses and individuals who wish to access their mail from another country. However, special care must be taken to inspect local laws and the service provider's scanning practices to ensure that they are not reading the mail or acting on behalf of the client from a legal standpoint."}, {"id": 51693407, "title": "Hybrid navigation", "abstract": "Hybrid navigation is the simultaneous use of more than one navigation system for location data determination, needed for navigation. By using multiple systems at once, the accuracy as a whole is improved. It also allows for a more reliable navigation system, as if one system fails, the other can kick in and provide accurate navigation for the user.  Especially for self-driving cars, the exact and continuous knowledge of the navigating object's location is essential."}, {"id": 75627882, "title": "Hypercommunication", "abstract": "Hypercommunication is a conceptual extension of French sociologist, philosopher, and cultural theorist Jean Baudrillard's theories on communication's rapid evolution in an increasingly digital and media-intensive environment. In simpler terms, hypercommunication is excess inbound or outbound communication, often precipitated by technology.Baudrillard discussed hypercommunication as the acceleration of every-day communication which eliminates all distance, mystery, and meaning. The term is also used to describe the accelerated communication patterns emerging from the widespread use of smartphones in the 21st century.Hypercommunication is characterized as a dramatic increase in electronic communicative events and exchanges, leading to a significant shift where omnipresence and constant availability, often perceived as an ethical obligation, has transformed every-day social behavior and psychological well-being potentially resulting in a form of self-enslavement to technology."}, {"id": 53747763, "title": "Informal technical report", "abstract": "Unlike formal reports, informal technical reports are used for daily communication within a corporation or workplace. The parts of an informal technical report generally include a heading, introduction, summary, discussion/feedback, and conclusion. A  recommendations section and or attachments section may be included if necessary."}, {"id": 18985062, "title": "Information", "abstract": "Information is an abstract concept that refers to that which has the power to inform.  At the most fundamental level, information pertains to the interpretation (perhaps formally) of that which may be sensed, or their abstractions.  Any natural process that is not completely random and any observable pattern in any medium can be said to convey some amount of information.  Whereas digital signals and other data use discrete signs to convey information, other phenomena and artifacts such as analogue signals, poems, pictures, music or other sounds, and currents convey information in a more continuous form.  Information is not knowledge itself, but the meaning that may be derived from a representation through interpretation.The concept of information is relevant or connected to various concepts, including constraint, communication, control, data, form, education, knowledge, meaning, understanding, mental stimuli, pattern, perception, proposition, representation, and entropy.\nInformation is often processed iteratively: Data available at one step are processed into information to be interpreted and processed at the next step.  For example, in written text each symbol or letter conveys information relevant to the word it is part of, each word conveys information relevant to the phrase it is part of, each phrase conveys information relevant to the sentence it is part of, and so on until at the final step information is interpreted and becomes knowledge in a given domain.  In a digital signal, bits may be interpreted into the symbols, letters, numbers, or structures that convey the information available at the next level up.  The key characteristic of information is that it is subject to interpretation and processing.\nThe derivation of information from a signal or message may be thought of as the resolution of ambiguity or uncertainty that arises during the interpretation of patterns within the signal or message.Information may be structured as data. Redundant data can be compressed up to an optimal size, which is the theoretical limit of compression.\nThe information available through a collection of data may be derived by analysis.  For example, a restaurant collects data from every customer order.  That information may be analyzed to produce knowledge that is put to use when the business subsequently wants to identify the most popular or least popular dish.Information can be transmitted in time, via data storage, and space, via communication and telecommunication. Information is expressed either as the content of a message or through direct or indirect observation. That which is perceived can be construed as a message in its own right, and in that sense, all information is always conveyed as the content of a message.\nInformation can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation (for example, information may be encoded into a sequence of signs, or transmitted via a signal). It can also be encrypted for safe storage and communication.\nThe uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence. Uncertainty is inversely proportional to the probability of occurrence. Information theory takes advantage of this by concluding that more uncertain events require more information to resolve their uncertainty. The bit is a typical unit of information. It is 'that which reduces uncertainty by half'. Other units such as the nat may be used. For example, the information encoded in one \"fair\" coin flip is log2(2/1) = 1 bit, and in two fair coin flips is log2(4/1) = 2 bits. A 2011 Science article estimates that 97% of technologically stored information was already in digital bits in 2007 and that the year 2002 was the beginning of the digital age for information storage (with digital storage capacity bypassing analogue for the first time)."}, {"id": 1512628, "title": "Institutional repository", "abstract": "An institutional repository (IR) is an archive for collecting, preserving, and disseminating digital copies of the intellectual output of an institution, particularly a research institution. Academics also utilize their IRs for archiving published works to increase their visibility and collaboration with other academics However, most of these outputs produced by universities are not effectively accessed and shared by researchers and other stakeholders As a result academics should be involved in the implementation and development of an IR project so that they can learn the benefits and purpose of building an IR.An institutional repository has been defined as \"a set of services that a university offers to members of its community for the management and dissemination of digital materials created by the institution and its community members.\" For a university, this includes materials such as monographs, eprints of academic journal articles\u2014both before (preprints) and after (postprints) undergoing peer review\u2014as well as electronic theses and dissertations (ETDs). An institutional repository might also include other digital assets generated by academics, such as datasets, administrative documents, course notes, learning objects, academic posters or conference proceedings. Deposit of material in an institutional repository is sometimes mandated by an institution.Some of the main objectives for having an institutional repository are to provide open access to institutional research output by self-archiving in an open access repository, to create global visibility for an institution's scholarly research, and to store and preserve other institutional digital assets, including less formally published grey literature such as theses, working papers or technical reports."}, {"id": 16934559, "title": "Integrative communication theory", "abstract": "Integrative communication theory is a theory of cross-cultural adaptation proposed by Young Yun Kim. The first widely published version of Kim's theory is found in the last three chapters of a textbook authored by William Gudykunst with Young Yun Kim as second author.  See acculturation and assimilation."}, {"id": 53747014, "title": "Interaction cost", "abstract": "Interaction cost can comprise work, costs, and other expenses, required to complete a task or interaction. This applies to several categories, including:\n\nEconomy: the interaction cost of purchase includes the requirements to complete it and differs in costs for customers and vendors. The method of payment offered may factor into both transaction cost and interaction cost. Reducing steps for customers can be a service offered by the vendor. Interaction costs should be considered when clients choose vendors. Customers prefer to have a  choice about their interaction cost. In self-checkout, work is moved to the customer.\nPolitics: Specific interaction costs can be increased by law for political gains.\nUser interface: In a computer menu with a graphical user interface, some designs require more clicks from the user in order to make a selection. With a dropdown menu, one click (or touch or hover) may reveal a hidden menu (sub-menu), with a second click required to select the menu option. If the entire menu were displayed all along, as in a navigation bar, only one click would be required, but the menu would occupy more screen space. Sub-menus require even more care from the user to make a desired selection."}, {"id": 31280678, "title": "Interface (communication studies)", "abstract": "In communication studies, the notion of an interface in the work environment is used for a point of interaction between a number of systems or work groups. In the manufacturing environment, the coordination and interaction between several work groups is used to communicate plans and control production activity. This interaction can be schedules, human interactions, computer systems, or any other medium of communication. A physical interface is the interconnection between two items of hardware or machinery."}, {"id": 1723083, "title": "Internal communications", "abstract": "Internal communications (IC) is the function responsible for effective communications among participants within an organization. The scope of the function varies by organization and practitioner, from producing and delivering messages and campaigns on behalf of management, to facilitating two-way dialogue and developing the communication skills of the organization's participants.\nInternal communication is meant by a group of processes that are responsible for effective\ninformation circulation and collaboration between the participants in an organization.\nModern understanding of internal communications is a field of its own and draws on the theory and practice of related professions, not least journalism, knowledge management, public relations (e.g., media relations), marketing and human resources, as well as wider organizational studies,  communication theory, social psychology, sociology and political science."}, {"id": 4561436, "title": "Internal mail", "abstract": "In a large organization with many employees, there is frequently an internal mail system. The post room or mail room sorts the incoming mail and the 'mailboy' or 'mail clerk' takes it around on a trolly to the various pigeon-holes and direct to the desks of other colleagues."}, {"id": 44527033, "title": "International Business Communication Standards", "abstract": "The International Business Communication Standards (IBCS) are practical proposals for the design of business communication published for free use under a Creative-Commons-Lizenz (CC BY-SA). In most cases, applying IBCS means the proper conceptual, perceptual and semantic design of charts and tables."}, {"id": 12889077, "title": "Interpersonal communication relationship dissolution", "abstract": "The interpersonal communication that occurs during a relationship deterioration/dissolution looks to explain the possible \"why\" behind the relationship breakup and the communication steps that a breakup seems to follow. Studies have researched on the predictors of breakups, the breakup process, the strategies employed, the impact of the breakups and finally the process to move on emotionally from the broken relationship."}, {"id": 9108856, "title": "Interpreting notes", "abstract": "Interpreting notes are used by some interpreters, who re-express oral communications (such as speeches) in whole or in part. Such notes may be used when the interpreter is working in \"consecutive mode.\"\nInterpreting notes are not part of any conventional graphic system, and practitioners are free to develop their own techniques. However, some basic rules facilitate the recording of details in order to aid the interpreter in coping with large amounts of information."}, {"id": 387790, "title": "Intimate media", "abstract": "Intimate media are media artifacts created and collected by individuals, friends, and families to capture and commemorate aspects of family and intimate relationships. Intimate media includes such things as personal and family photo collections, home videos and films, diaries and journals, and letters. Depending on the meaning and values attributed to an object, anything could be considered intimate media. Great value is placed on intimate media possessions due to its ability to serve as \"proof\" that an event or memory actually occurred."}, {"id": 30154210, "title": "Laboratory for the Analysis of Organisational Communication Systems", "abstract": "LASCO is the Laboratory for the Analysis of Organizational Communication Systems of the University of Louvain (UCLouvain), located in Louvain-la-Neuve and Mons in Belgium.\nThe LASCO was created in February 2000 as part of the Communication Department of UCLouvain. Its founders were Pierre de Saint-Georges, Axel Gryspeerdt and Vincent Defourny. LASCO has been chaired by Thierry Libaert and Fran\u00e7ois Lambotte; since 2015, it is chaired by Andrea Catellani.\nThe LASCO brings together researchers of different origins, united by the common aim of observing and analysing internal and external, strategic and spontaneous phenomena in the field of Organizational Communication, Public Relations, Corporate Communication and Strategic Communication. Such phenomena are to be considered as the origins and consequences of interactions occurred within organizations, or produced by them.\nThe LASCO originated from the consistent continuation of work done inside the Communication Department in the Public Relations sector (from 1961 onwards, via the CETEDI, Centre of Diffusion Techniques and Public Relations) and of Institutional Mediation (from 1994 on). Correlations between communication and organizations have always constituted a traditional research field at the Communication Department at UCLouvain. The University of Louvain is thereby a Europe-wide recognised pioneer in this area: Organisational Communication has been taught since 1958. Management of Organisational Communication and Public Relations currently represents a core training feature of the Graduate Degree in Communication at UCLouvain."}, {"id": 6479206, "title": "Lateral communication", "abstract": "Lateral communication is \"the exchange, imparting or sharing of information, ideas or feelings between people within a community, peer groups, departments or units of an organization who are at or about the same hierarchical level as each other for the purpose of coordinating activities, efforts or fulfilling a common purpose or goal"}, {"id": 1392681, "title": "Learning organization", "abstract": "In business management, a learning organization is a company that facilitates the learning of its members and continuously transforms itself. The concept was coined through the work and research of Peter Senge and his colleagues.Learning organizations may develop as a result of the pressures facing modern organizations; this enables them to remain competitive in the business environment."}, {"id": 19982167, "title": "Liaison officer", "abstract": "A liaison officer is a person who liaises between two or more organizations to communicate and coordinate their activities on a matter of mutual concern. Generally, liaison officers are used for achieving the best utilization of resources, or employment of services of one organization by another. Liaison officers often provide technical or subject matter expertise of their parent organization. Usually, an organization embeds or attaches a liaison officer into another organization to provide face-to-face coordination."}, {"id": 11026266, "title": "Litigation public relations", "abstract": "Litigation public relations, also known as litigation communications, is the management of the communication process during the course of any legal dispute or adjudicatory processing so as to affect the outcome or its impact on the client's overall reputation. The aims of litigation PR differ from general PR in that they are tied to supporting a legal dispute rather than general profile raising. Accordingly, there is a greater focus on the legal implications of any communications given the strategic aims and sensitive rules around disclosure during court proceedings. The New York Times reports that sophisticated litigation public relations efforts have included \"round-the-clock crisis P.R. response, efforts to shape internet search results, and a website with international reports and legal filings\" intended to support one side of the case. According to the international legal directory Chambers & Partners, as a result of the internet and social media, response must be faster and more strategic, since \"the reputational consequences of each legal move are magnified and amplified far beyond the courtroom walls. Planning, preparation and rapid response are all critical elements to ensure a litigation communications program that effectively supports high-profile, high-stakes legal matters.\""}, {"id": 61146406, "title": "Log-rank conjecture", "abstract": "In theoretical computer science, the log-rank conjecture states that the deterministic communication complexity of a two-party Boolean function is polynomially related to the logarithm of the rank of its input matrix.Let \n  \n    \n      \n        D\n        (\n        f\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D(f)}\n   denote the deterministic communication complexity of a function, and let \n  \n    \n      \n        rank\n        \u2061\n        (\n        f\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {rank} (f)}\n   denote the rank of its input matrix \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          M\n          \n            f\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M_{f}}\n   (over the reals). Since every protocol using up to \n  \n    \n      \n        c\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c}\n   bits partitions \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          M\n          \n            f\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M_{f}}\n   into at most \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          2\n          \n            c\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 2^{c}}\n   monochromatic rectangles, and each of these has rank at most 1,\n\n  \n    \n      \n        D\n        (\n        f\n        )\n        \u2265\n        \n          log\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \u2061\n        rank\n        \u2061\n        (\n        f\n        )\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D(f)\\geq \\log _{2}\\operatorname {rank} (f).}\n  The log-rank conjecture states that \n  \n    \n      \n        D\n        (\n        f\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D(f)}\n   is also upper-bounded by a polynomial in the log-rank: for some constant \n  \n    \n      \n        C\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle C}\n  ,\n\n  \n    \n      \n        D\n        (\n        f\n        )\n        =\n        O\n        (\n        (\n        log\n        \u2061\n        rank\n        \u2061\n        (\n        f\n        )\n        \n          )\n          \n            C\n          \n        \n        )\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D(f)=O((\\log \\operatorname {rank} (f))^{C}).}\n  Lovett\n\nproved the upper bound\n\n  \n    \n      \n        D\n        (\n        f\n        )\n        =\n        O\n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              \n                rank\n                \u2061\n                (\n                f\n                )\n              \n            \n            log\n            \u2061\n            rank\n            \u2061\n            (\n            f\n            )\n          \n          )\n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D(f)=O\\left({\\sqrt {\\operatorname {rank} (f)}}\\log \\operatorname {rank} (f)\\right).}\n  This was improved by Sudakov and Tomon, who removed the logarithmic factor, showing that\n\n  \n    \n      \n        D\n        (\n        f\n        )\n        =\n        O\n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              rank\n              \u2061\n              (\n              f\n              )\n            \n          \n          )\n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D(f)=O\\left({\\sqrt {\\operatorname {rank} (f)}}\\right).}\n  This is the best currently known upper bound.\nThe best known lower bound, due to G\u00f6\u00f6s, Pitassi and Watson, states that \n  \n    \n      \n        C\n        \u2265\n        2\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle C\\geq 2}\n  . In other words, there exists a sequence of functions \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          f\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f_{n}}\n  , whose log-rank goes to infinity, such that\n\n  \n    \n      \n        D\n        (\n        \n          f\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        )\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              \u03a9\n              ~\n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        (\n        log\n        \u2061\n        rank\n        \u2061\n        (\n        \n          f\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        )\n        \n          )\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        )\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D(f_{n})={\\tilde {\\Omega }}((\\log \\operatorname {rank} (f_{n}))^{2}).}\n  In 2019, an approximate version of the conjecture has been disproved."}, {"id": 3396954, "title": "Logosphere", "abstract": "Logosphere (Greek from logos / nous) (coined by Mikhail Bakhtin) is an adaptation of the concepts biosphere and noosphere: logosphere is derived from the interpretation of words' meanings, conceptualized through an abstract sphere."}, {"id": 27357307, "title": "Mailroom", "abstract": "A mailroom (US) or post room (UK) is a room in which incoming and outgoing mail is processed and sorted. Mailrooms are commonly found in schools, offices, apartment buildings, and the generic post office. A person who works in a mailroom is known as a mailroom clerk or mailboy and the head person (sometimes the only person) is called the postmaster. The mailroom is responsible for a company's incoming and outgoing mail. A mailroom clerk prepares outgoing mail and packages prior to their being sent out via the post office or other carrier. \nIn a large organization, the mailroom is the central hub of the internal mail system and the interface with external mail.  The postmaster manages the department, clerks assist them and mailboys deliver mail for other employees in different departments using a mail cart or a trolley doing regular rounds throughout the day.  Sometimes the mailboys will trolley sort using the departmental slots on the trolley to reduce work at the central hub and to speed internal mail.Working in the mailroom is a prototypical entry-level job in an organization, and working one's way up the corporate ladder \"from the mailroom\" is a common idiom. At a few companies the mailroom is the basis or metonym for a training program for highly promising early-career hires. U.S. talent agency mailrooms, starting with the William Morris Agency mailroom, became famous for alumni rising to the highest levels in the entertainment industry, documented in the book The Mailroom: Hollywood History from the Bottom Up."}, {"id": 2146970, "title": "Many-to-many", "abstract": "Many-to-many communication occurs when information is shared between groups. Members of a group receive information from multiple senders.Wikis are a type of many-to-many communication, where multiple editors collaborate to create content that is disseminated among a wide audience. Video conferencing, online gaming, chat rooms, and internet forums are also types of many-to-many communication."}, {"id": 19641, "title": "Mass media", "abstract": "Mass media includes the diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication.\nBroadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films, radio, recorded music, or television. Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email, social media sites, websites, and Internet-based radio and television. Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on the web, by such means as linking to or running TV ads online, or distributing QR codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website. In this way, they can use the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords, as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently. Outdoor media transmit information via such media as AR advertising; billboards; blimps; flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes); placards or kiosks placed inside and outside buses, commercial buildings, shops, sports stadiums, subway cars, or trains; signs; or skywriting. Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, or pamphlets. Event organising and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media.\nThe organisations that control these technologies, such as movie studios, publishing companies, and radio and television stations, are also known as the mass media."}, {"id": 46246817, "title": "Matrix (protocol)", "abstract": "Matrix (sometimes stylized as [matrix]) is an open standard and communication protocol for real-time communication. It aims to make real-time communication work seamlessly between different service providers, in the way that standard Simple Mail Transfer Protocol email currently does for store-and-forward email service, by allowing users with accounts at one communications service provider to communicate with users of a different service provider via online chat, voice over IP, and videotelephony. It therefore serves a similar purpose to protocols like XMPP, but is not based on any existing communication protocol.\nFrom a technical perspective, it is an application layer communication protocol for federated real-time communication. It provides HTTP APIs and open source reference implementations for securely distributing and persisting messages in JSON format over an open federation of servers. It can integrate with standard web services via WebRTC, facilitating browser-to-browser applications."}, {"id": 4101113, "title": "Meaning (non-linguistic)", "abstract": "Non-linguistic (or pre-linguistic) meaning is a type of meaning not mediated or perceived through linguistic signs.\nIn linguistics, the concept is used in discussions about whether such meaning is different from meaning expressed through language (i.e. semantics), should play a role in linguistic theory, or to which extent thought and conceptualization is affected by linguistic knowledge (as in the language of thought hypothesis or linguistic relativity)."}, {"id": 72381976, "title": "Means of communication", "abstract": "Means of communication are used by people to communicate and exchange information with each other as an information sender and an information recipient."}, {"id": 15926892, "title": "Media (communication)", "abstract": "In communication, media are the outlets or tools used to store and deliver content; semantic information or subject matter of which the media contains. The term generally refers to components of the mass media communications industry, such as print media, publishing, the news media, photography, cinema, broadcasting (radio and television), digital media, and advertising.The development of early writing and paper enabling longer-distance communication systems such as mail, including in the Persian Empire (Chapar Khaneh and Angarium) and Roman Empire, can be interpreted as early forms of media. Writers such as Howard Rheingold have framed early forms of human communication, such as the Lascaux cave paintings and early writing, as early forms of media. Another framing of the history of media starts with the Chauvet Cave paintings and continues with other ways to carry human communication beyond the short range of voice: smoke signals, trail markers, and sculpture.The term media in its modern application relating to communication channels was first used by Canadian communications theorist Marshall McLuhan, who stated in Counterblast (1954): \"The media are not toys; they should not be in the hands of Mother Goose and Peter Pan executives. They can be entrusted only to new artists because they are art forms.\" By the mid-1960s, the term had spread to general use in North America and the United Kingdom. The phrase mass media was, according to H.L. Mencken, used as early as 1923 in the United States.The term medium (the singular form of media) is defined as \"one of the means or channels of general communication, information, or entertainment in society, as newspapers, radio, or television.\""}, {"id": 49552930, "title": "Media ritual", "abstract": "Media ritual is a theoretical approach in the field of media and communication studies, which borrows thematically from the field of anthropology. The theory is based upon Carey's 'ritual view of communication' in which he asserts that \"news reading, and writing, is a ritual act and moreover a dramatic one\". This 'ritual' view of communication is in contrast to his 'transmission' view of communication. Media ritual theory has been elaborated in recent years, popularised in particular by Nick Couldry."}, {"id": 7587198, "title": "Media system dependency theory", "abstract": "Media system dependency theory (MSD), or simply media dependency, was developed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin Defleur in 1976. The theory is grounded in classical sociological literature positing that media and their audiences should be studied in the context of larger social systems.MSD ties together the interrelations of broad social systems, mass media, and the individual into a comprehensive explanation of media effects. At its core, the basic dependency hypothesis states that the more a person depends on media to meet needs, the more important media will be in a person's life, and therefore the more effects media will have on a person."}, {"id": 17777038, "title": "Mediated deliberation", "abstract": "Mediated deliberation is a form of deliberation that is achieved through the media which acts as a mediator between the mass public and elected officials.  The communication professionals of the media relay information, values, and diverse points of view to the public in order for effective public deliberation to occur.  Benjamin Page proposes mediated deliberation be a \"division of labor\" with the idea of using the media to deliver information between the elected officials and the public because modern problems make it impossible to rely on the elected officials to deliberate for the public.  The role of the media is to encourage discussion amongst the citizens to keep them engaged with their elected officials."}, {"id": 18761837, "title": "Mediology", "abstract": "Mediology (French: m\u00e9diologie) broadly indicates a wide-ranging method for the analysis of cultural transmission in society and across societies, a method which challenges the conventional idea that 'technology is not culture'. The mediological method pays specific attention to the role of organisations and technical innovations, and the ways in which these can ensure the potency of cultural transmission - and thus the transformation of ideas into a civilisational worldview capable of sustained action."}, {"id": 41367, "title": "Message", "abstract": "A message is a discrete unit of communication intended by the source for consumption by some recipient or group of recipients.  A message may be delivered by various means, including courier, telegraphy, carrier pigeon and electronic bus.\nA message can be the content of a broadcast.  An interactive\nexchange of messages forms a conversation.One example of a message is a press release, which may vary from a brief report or statement released by a public agency to commercial publicity material."}, {"id": 42772724, "title": "Mobile sales enablement", "abstract": "Mobile sales enablement is a systematic approach to helping sales representatives prepare for in-person and remote prospect interactions, engage effectively with their audience using mobile devices, and close deals faster. Mobile sales enablement is part of the larger sales enablement process.\nThere are many ways that organizations use mobile devices to functionally enhance the sales process. Behaviors completed on a mobile device may include but are not limited to the use of specialized applications, distribution of dynamic content, mobile email tactics or messaging such as push notifications, etc."}, {"id": 35044291, "title": "Multicommunicating", "abstract": "Multi-communicating is the act of managing many conversations at one time. The term was coined by Reinsch, Turner, and Tinsley (2008), who proposed that simultaneous conversations can be conducted using an ever-increasing array of media, including face-to-face, phone, and email tools for communication. This practice allows individuals to utilize two or more technologies to interact with each other.Multi-communication has evolved with the rapid development of information and communications technology (ICT), where behavior within new and emerging digital media applications like Slack and Skype thrive. With the emergence of portable devices like laptops, people can use multi-communication tools during meetings and non-meeting activities.Currently, most academic research focuses on its professional implications, outlining several key factors that shape the act of multi-communicating. For example, the flexibility of communication tempo, the compartmentalization of conversations, topics discussed, and the intensity of interactions all contribute to a person's choice to engage in multi-communication, as well as their ultimate success with the practice. Notably, many people engage in multiple conversations as a direct response to the requests of others. Employees frequently believe that multi-communication increases their productivity and work efficiency; however, in-depth interviews about the practice of multi-communication have often revealed mixed results. Research has also shown that the most common combinations used for multi-communicating are the telephone and email, followed by text-based messaging (text messaging, instant messaging, etc.)."}, {"id": 75211976, "title": "Nessum Alliance", "abstract": "Nessum Alliance is a voluntary organization, established in 2007 as  HD-PLC Alliance, originally with the purpose of promoting the widespread adoption, ensuring communication compatibility, and international standardization activities of the high-speed power-line communication technology HD-PLC. In October 2023, the Alliance changed its name to the Nessum Alliance. The organization now focuses on Nessum, a power-line standard based on HD-PLC."}, {"id": 387403, "title": "Nonsense", "abstract": "Nonsense is a communication, via speech, writing, or any other symbolic system, that lacks any coherent meaning. In ordinary usage, nonsense is sometimes synonymous with absurdity or the ridiculous. Many poets, novelists and songwriters have used nonsense in their works, often creating entire works using it for reasons ranging from pure comic amusement or satire, to illustrating a point about language or reasoning. In the philosophy of language and philosophy of science, nonsense is distinguished from sense or meaningfulness, and attempts have been made to come up with a coherent and consistent method of distinguishing sense from nonsense. It is also an important field of study in cryptography regarding separating a signal from noise."}, {"id": 65316794, "title": "Ontopoetics", "abstract": "Ontopoetics is a philosophical concept that involves the communicative engagement of self with the world and the world with the self. It is also described as a \"poetic order\" that unfolds alongside the \"causal order\" in the process of the communicative engagement with reality and participating in it. It includes the perception of cues or signals, or the expression of actors, as well as \"the construction of impressions on re-actors by the deliberate choice of attractive signifiers that communicate factual or illusory realities\".Ontopoetics is not considered a theory but a view of reality and an understanding of the world as a communicative presence."}, {"id": 33545180, "title": "Open-access repository", "abstract": "An open repository or open-access repository is a digital platform that holds research output and provides free, immediate and permanent access to research results for anyone to use, download and distribute. To facilitate open access such repositories must be interoperable according to the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH). Search engines harvest the content of open access repositories, constructing a database of worldwide, free of charge available research.Open-access repositories, such as an institutional repository or disciplinary repository, provide free access to research for users outside the institutional community and are one of the recommended ways to achieve the open access vision described in the Budapest Open Access Initiative definition of open access. This is sometimes referred to as the self-archiving or \"green\" route to open access."}, {"id": 13537337, "title": "Organizational dissent", "abstract": "Organizational dissent is the \"expression of disagreement or contradictory opinions about organizational practices and policies\". Since dissent involves disagreement it can lead to conflict, which if not resolved, can lead to violence and struggle. As a result, many organizations send the message \u2013 verbally or nonverbally \u2013 that dissent is discouraged. However, recent studies have shown that dissent serves as an important monitoring force within organizations. Dissent can be a warning sign for employee dissatisfaction or organizational decline. Redding (1985) found that receptiveness to dissent allows for corrective feedback to monitor unethical and immoral behavior, impractical and ineffectual organizational practices and policies, poor and unfavorable decision making, and insensitivity to employees' workplace needs and desires. Furthermore, Eilerman argues that the hidden costs of silencing dissent include: wasted and lost time, reduced decision quality, emotional and relationship costs, and decreased job motivation. Perlow (2003) found that employee resentment can lead to a decrease in productivity and creativity which can result in the organization losing money, time, and resources."}, {"id": 42842374, "title": "PACE (communication methodology)", "abstract": "Primary, alternate, contingency and emergency (PACE) is a methodology used to build a communication plan. The method requires the author to determine the different stakeholders or parties that need to communicate and then determine, if possible, the best four forms of communication between each of those parties. PACE also designates the order in which an element will move through available communications systems until contact can be established with the desired distant element(s).  Ideally, each method will be completely separate and independent of the other systems of communication.  For each method, the receiver must first sense which one the sender is using and then respond.\nAccording to the United States Army, a PACE communication plan \"designates the order in which an element will move through available communications systems until contact can be established with the desired distant element.\"A PACE-based communication plan exists for a specific mission or task, not a specific unit, because the plan must consider both intra- and inter-unit sharing of information.  An organization may have multiple plans for different situations, activities, and/or partners."}, {"id": 46433643, "title": "Panel discussion", "abstract": "A  panel discussion, or simply a panel, involves a group of people gathered to discuss a topic in front of an audience, typically at scientific, business, or academic conferences, fan conventions, and on television shows. Panels usually include a moderator who guides the discussion and sometimes elicits audience questions, with the goal of being informative and entertaining. Film panels at fan conventions have been credited with boosting box office returns by generating advance buzz."}, {"id": 23853148, "title": "People skills", "abstract": "People skills are patterns of behavior and behavioral interactions. Among people, it is an umbrella term for skills under three related set of abilities: personal effectiveness, interaction skills, and intercession skills. This is an area of exploration about how a person behaves and how they are perceived irrespective of their thinking and feeling. It is further elaborated as dynamics between personal ecology (cognitive, affective, physical and spiritual dimensions) and its function with other people's personality styles in numerous environments (life event's, institution's, life challenges...etc.). British dictionary definition is \"the ability to communicate effectively with people in a friendly way, especially in business\" or personal effectiveness skills. In business it is a connection among people in a humane level to achieve productivity.Portland Business Journal describes people skills as:\nAbility to effectively communicate, understand, and empathize.\nAbility to interact with others respectfully and develop productive working relationship to minimize conflict and maximize rapport.\nAbility to build sincerity and trust; moderate behaviors (less impulsive) and enhance agreeableness."}, {"id": 35777409, "title": "Personalized audio messaging", "abstract": "Personalized audio messaging is the compiled, personalized voice messages that individually address recipients by name.  These voice messages can be delivered through a myriad of channels, the most popular of which include phone transmission, email, web, and social media sites such as Facebook. Traditionally these messages are recorded by recognizable figures or people of notoriety to enhance the impact the message has on its audience. Because of demanding schedules, automated computer systems are generally used to help compile separate recordings by the recorder, to reduce recording times."}, {"id": 4560652, "title": "Pigeon-hole messagebox", "abstract": "A pigeon-hole messagebox (commonly referred to as a pigeon-hole or pidge, a cubbyhole (often shortened to \"cubby\") or simply as a mailbox in some academic or office settings) is an internal mail system commonly used for communication in organisations, workplaces and educational institutes in the United Kingdom and other countries. Documents and messages are placed in a person's pigeon-hole for them to collect; they can reply by putting a response inside the sender's pigeon-hole.\nIn medieval times pigeons were kept as domestic birds, not for racing but for their meat. Pigeon holes were the openings set in a wall or a purpose-built pigeon cote in which the birds nested. By 1789, the arrangement of compartments in writing cabinets and offices used to sort and file documents had come to be known as pigeon holes because of their resemblance to the pigeon cote. By the mid 19th century, pigeon hole was being used as a verb meaning either to put a matter to one side with the intention of coming back to it later, or to classify information. It is possible the name has stuck because of the simple word association with pigeon post.\nPigeon hole mail boxes are used by postal offices in the United Kingdom, as they allow for easy categorising of mail for later preparation of items ready for dispatch. Boxes are grouped in postcode areas with identification tabs usually fixed onto the top-left hand corner of the box allowing for easy entry and retrieval of items. Pigeon hole mail boxes can be mounted upon caster feet allowing for rearrangement of boxes to meet current processing demands.\nCubbies are also used in American preschools and kindergartens as places to store backpacks, lunchboxes, and jackets.\nPigeon-hole message boxes are also used in research institutions, libraries, and archives to provide researchers with secure access to archival records, rare books, and other unique material that cannot be removed from the premises.\nIn large organisations the mailboy delivers mail to departmental pigeon holes from the postroom (UK) or mailroom (US)."}, {"id": 53754650, "title": "Plant communication", "abstract": "Plants are exposed to many stress factors such as disease, temperature changes, herbivory, injury and more. Therefore, in order to respond or be ready for any kind of physiological state, they need to develop some sort of system for their survival in the moment and/or for the future. Plant communication encompasses communication using volatile organic compounds, electrical signaling, and common mycorrhizal networks between plants and a host of other organisms such as soil microbes, other plants (of the same or other species), animals, insects, and fungi. Plants communicate through a host of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that can be separated into four broad categories, each the product of distinct chemical pathways: fatty acid derivatives, phenylpropanoids/benzenoids, amino acid derivatives, and terpenoids. Due to the physical/chemical constraints most VOCs are of low molecular mass (< 300 Da), are hydrophobic, and have high vapor pressures. The responses of organisms to plant emitted VOCs varies from attracting the predator of a specific herbivore to reduce mechanical damage inflicted on the plant  to the induction of chemical defenses of a neighboring plant before it is being attacked. In addition, the host of VOCs emitted varies from plant to plant, where for example, the Venus Fly Trap can emit VOCs to specifically target and attract starved prey. While these VOCs typically lead to increased resistance to herbivory in neighboring plants, there is no clear benefit to the emitting plant in helping nearby plants. As such, whether neighboring plants have evolved the capability to \"eavesdrop\" or whether there is an unknown tradeoff occurring is subject to much scientific debate.\nAs related to the aspect of meaning-making, the field is also identified as phytosemiotics."}, {"id": 47678053, "title": "Point of view (philosophy)", "abstract": "In philosophy, a point of view is a specific attitude or manner through which a person thinks about something. This figurative usage of the expression dates back to 1730. \nIn this meaning, the usage is synonymous with one of the meanings of the term perspective (also epistemic perspective).The concept of the \"point of view\" is highly multifunctional and ambiguous. Many things may be judged from certain personal, traditional or moral points of view (as in \"beauty is in the eye of the beholder\"). Our knowledge about reality is often relative to a certain point of view.V\u00e1zquez Campos and Manuel Liz Gutierrez suggested to analyse the concept of \"point of view\" using two approaches: one based on the concept of \"propositional attitudes\", the other on the concepts of \"location\" and \"access\"."}, {"id": 10273999, "title": "Precision questioning", "abstract": "Precision questioning (PQ), an intellectual toolkit for critical thinking and for problem solving, grew out of a collaboration between Dennis Matthies (1946- ) and Dr. Monica Worline, while both taught/studied at Stanford University.\nPrecision questioning seeks to enable its practitioners with a highly structured, one-question/one-answer discussion format to help them:\n\nsolve complex problems\nconduct deep analysis\nmake difficult decisionsPQ focuses on clearly expressing gaps in thinking by coupling a taxonomy of analytical questions with a structured call-and-response model to enable PQ practitioners to uncover weaknesses in thinking and to raise the intellectual level of a conversation.\nThose who use precision questioning (also called \"PQers\") describe PQ conversations as those analytical opportunities motivated by an attempt to get to precise answers, or to identify where no answer is available.\nHowever, when \"drilling\" into a topic, practitioners endeavor to avoid the use of personalization (blame or shame). Precision questioning holds to the ideal of meeting one's own needs for information while also respecting the intellectual integrity of the conversation-partner.\nMatthies, who taught at Stanford University's Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) in the 1990s, developed several experimental courses that have subsequently become known to a wider public \u2014 including Precision Questioning, initially taught in the Stanford Philosophy Department.\nProselytizing for precision questioning on a commercial basis continues via the Vervago company,\nco-founded by Matthies and Worline.Tens of thousands of people in universities and companies throughout the world have studied different versions of precision questioning."}, {"id": 25013400, "title": "Predicted outcome value theory", "abstract": "Predicted outcome value theory introduced in 1996 by Michael Sunnafrank, posits that people seek information in initial interactions and relationships to determine the benefits of interpersonal relationships by predicting the value of future outcomes whether negative or positive.  If a person predicts a positive outcome in the relationship this can lead to increased attraction, however if a person predicts a negative outcome then he or she would pursue limited interaction or possibly relationship termination.  The processes of predicted outcome value directly link to continued relationship development and communication as well as stronger attraction and intimacy within the relationship.\nPredicted outcome value theory proposes that initial interaction behaviors serve two related functions in individuals' attempts to maximize future relational outcomes. First, communication is directed at reducing uncertainty (Berger & Calabrese, 1975) about new acquaintances to determine likely outcome-values for the relational future. Second, communication proceeds in a manner predicted to result in the most positive outcomes. In a broad sense, these outcome value predictions would lead to communicative attempts to terminate or curtail the conversation, to continue the entry-level conversation, or to escalate the conversation and relationship beyond this level. Attempts to continue or escalate would result from positive predicted outcome values, while attempts to terminate or curtail would result from negative predictions. Given this, predicted outcome value theory proposes that several specific behaviors associated with conversational termination-escalation should be related to predicted outcome value levels.\nAmong these, Sunnafrank (1986) posits that predicted outcome value is positively related to amount of verbal communication, intimacy level of communication content, nonverbal affiliative expressiveness, and liking."}, {"id": 11022357, "title": "Problematic integration theory", "abstract": "Problematic Integration Theory is a theory of communication that addresses the processes and dynamics of how people receive, evaluate, and respond to information and experiences. The premises of PI are based on the view that message processing, specifically the development of probabilistic and evaluative orientations (our perceptions of something's likelihood of occurring and its value, respectively), is a social and cultural construction. In situations where there is agreement between probabilistic orientation (a person's constructed belief about an object's likelihood, i.e., how likely something is to occur) and evaluative orientation (a person's constructed belief about an object's value), integration is in harmony, i.e., not problematic. However, when there is disagreement between these orientations about an object (i.e., an event, thing, person, idea, outcome, etc.), then integration becomes problematic. This disharmony leads to conflict and discomfort, which can manifest itself as cognitive, communicative, affective, and/or motivational."}, {"id": 2422084, "title": "Prooftext", "abstract": "A proof text is a passage of scripture presented as proof for a theological doctrine, belief, or principle. Prooftexting (sometimes \"proof-texting\" or \"proof texting\") is the practice of using quotations from a document, either for the purpose of exegesis, or to establish a proposition in eisegesis  (introducing one's own presuppositions, agendas, or biases). Such quotes may not accurately reflect the original intent of the author, and a document quoted in such a manner, when read as a whole, may not support the proposition for which it was cited. The term has currency primarily in theological and exegetical circles.\nThis is to be distinguished from quotations from a source deemed a hostile witness, which inadvertently substantiate a point beneficial to the quoter in the course of its own narrative. Even when lifted out of context, those facts still stand."}, {"id": 48010784, "title": "Pseudolistening", "abstract": "Pseudo-listening is a type of non-listening that consists of appearing attentive in conversation while actually ignoring or only partially listening to the other speaker. The intent of pseudo-listening is not to listen, but to cater to some other personal need of the listener. The word pseudo-listening is a compound word composed of the individual words pseudo (a Greek root meaning \"not real or genuine\"), and listening. An example of pseudo-listening is trying to multitask by talking on the phone while watching television or completing work. Pseudo-listening is the most ineffective way to communicate because after the conversation one will not have retained much of the information that was said."}, {"id": 4496818, "title": "Psychorama", "abstract": "Psychorama, also called the precon process, is the act of communicating subliminal information through film by flashing images on the screen so quickly that they cannot be perceived by the conscious mind. It is a subset of subliminal messaging that is applied only through non-verbal messages in film.  The name most commonly refers to a \"gimmick\" in commercial movie production (sometimes using the marketing phrase \"filmed in psychorama\" as a play on the more common \"filmed in Technicolor\")."}, {"id": 15368428, "title": "Radio", "abstract": "Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 3 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmitter connected to an antenna which radiates the waves, and received by another antenna connected to a radio receiver. Radio is widely used in modern technology, in radio communication, radar, radio navigation, remote control, remote sensing, and other applications.\nIn radio communication, used in radio and television broadcasting, cell phones, two-way radios, wireless networking, and satellite communication, among numerous other uses, radio waves are used to carry information across space from a transmitter to a receiver, by modulating the radio signal (impressing an information signal on the radio wave by varying some aspect of the wave) in the transmitter. In radar, used to locate and track objects like aircraft, ships, spacecraft and missiles, a beam of radio waves emitted by a radar transmitter reflects off the target object, and the reflected waves reveal the object's location. In radio navigation systems such as GPS and VOR, a mobile navigation instrument receives radio signals from navigational radio beacons whose position is known, and by precisely measuring the arrival time of the radio waves the receiver can calculate its position on Earth. In wireless radio remote control devices like drones, garage door openers, and keyless entry systems, radio signals transmitted from a controller device control the actions of a remote device.\nThe noun radio is also used to mean a broadcast radio receiver.\nThe existence of radio waves was first proven by German physicist Heinrich Hertz on 11 November 1886. In the mid 1890s, building on techniques physicists were using to study electromagnetic waves, Guglielmo Marconi developed the first apparatus for long-distance radio communication, sending a wireless Morse Code message to a recipient over a kilometer away in 1895, and the first transatlantic signal on 12 December 1901.  The first commercial radio broadcast was transmitted on 2 November 1920, when the live returns of the Harding-Cox presidential election were broadcast by Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company in Pittsburgh, under the call sign KDKA.The emission of radio waves is regulated by law, coordinated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which allocates frequency bands in the radio spectrum for various uses."}, {"id": 25714032, "title": "Realia (translation)", "abstract": "In translation, Realia  (plural noun) are words and expressions for culture-specific material elements. The word realia comes from medieval Latin, in which it originally meant \"the real things\", i.e. material things, as opposed to abstract ones. The Bulgarian translators Vlahov and Florin, who were the first to carry out an in-depth study of realia, coined the modern sense of the word. They indicate that since realia carry a very local overtone, they often pose a challenge for translation. Realia must not be confused with terminology: the latter is primarily used in the scientific literature to designate things that pertain to the scientific sphere, and usually only appears in other kinds of texts to serve a very specific stylistic purpose. Realia, on the other hand, are born in popular culture, and are increasingly found in very diverse kinds of texts. Fiction, in particular, is fond of realia for the exotic touch they bring."}, {"id": 21599910, "title": "Recognition signal", "abstract": "A recognition signal is a signal whereby a person, a ship, an airplane or something else is recognized. They can be used during war or can be used to help the police recognize each other during undercover operations. It can also be used in biology to signal that a molecule or chemical is to be bound to another molecule."}, {"id": 793548, "title": "Recording format", "abstract": "A recording format  is a format for encoding data for storage on a storage medium. The format can be container information such as sectors on a disk, or user/audience information (content) such as analog stereo audio.  Multiple levels of encoding may be achieved in one format. For example, a text encoded page may contain HTML and XML encoding, combined in a plain text file format, using either EBCDIC or ASCII character encoding, on a UDF digitally formatted disk.  \nIn electronic media, the primary format is the encoding that requires hardware to interpret (decode) data; while secondary encoding is interpreted by secondary signal processing methods, usually computer software."}, {"id": 2826368, "title": "Red flag (idiom)", "abstract": "A red flag could either be a literal red flag used for signaling or, as a metaphor, a sign of some particular problem requiring attention."}, {"id": 57785214, "title": "Refutational preemption", "abstract": "In inoculation theory, refutational preemption consists of \u201cspecific content that receivers can employ to strengthen attitudes against subsequent change.\u201d"}, {"id": 22351741, "title": "Regulatory focus theory", "abstract": "Regulatory focus theory (RFT) is a theory of goal pursuit:\u200a444\u200a formulated by Columbia University psychology professor and researcher E. Tory Higgins regarding people's motivations and perceptions in judgment and decision making processes. RFT examines the relationship between the motivation of a person and the way in which they go about achieving their goal. RFT posits two separate and independent self-regulatory orientations: prevention and promotion (Higgins, 1997).\nThis psychological theory, like many others, is applied in communication, specifically in the subfields of nonverbal communication and persuasion. Chronic regulatory focus is measured using the Regulatory Focus Questionnaire (Higgins et al., 2001) or the Regulatory Strength measure. Momentary regulatory focus can be primed or induced."}, {"id": 13127581, "title": "Risk communication", "abstract": "Risk communication is a complex cross-disciplinary academic field that is part of risk management and related to fields like crisis communication. The goal is to make sure that targeted audiences understand how risks effect to them or their communities by appealing to their values.Risk communication is particularly important in disaster preparedness, public health, and preparation for major global catastrophic risk. For example, the impacts of climate change and climate risk effect every part of society, so communicating that risk is an important climate communication practice, in order for societies to plan for climate adaptation. Similarly, in pandemic prevention, understanding of risk helps communities stop the spread of disease and improve responses.Risk communication deals with possible risks and aims to raise awareness of those risks to encourage or persuade changes in behavior to relieve threats in the long term. On the other hand, crisis communication is aimed at raising awareness of a specific type of threat, the magnitude, outcomes, and specific behaviors to adopt to reduce the threat.Risk communication in food safety is part of the risk analysis framework. Together with risk assessment and risk management, risk communication aims to reduce foodborne illnesses. Food safety risk communication is an obligatory activity for food safety authorities in countries, which adopted the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.\nRisk communication also exists on a smaller scale. For instance, the risks associated with personal medical decisions have to be communicated to that individual along with their family."}, {"id": 56869350, "title": "Safety sign", "abstract": "Safety signs are a type of sign designed to warn of hazards, indicate mandatory actions or required use of Personal protective equipment, prohibit actions or objects, identify the location of firefighting or safety equipment, or marking of exit routes.\nIn addition to being encountered in industrial facilities; safety signs are also found in public places and communities, at electrical pylons and Electrical substations, cliffs, beaches, bodies of water, on motorized equipment, such as lawn mowers, and areas closed for construction or demolition."}, {"id": 980971, "title": "Schismogenesis", "abstract": "Schismogenesis literally means \"creation of division\". The term derives from the Greek words \u03c3\u03c7\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 skhisma \"cleft\" (borrowed into English as schism, \"division into opposing factions\"), and \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 genesis \"generation, creation\" (deriving in turn from gignesthai \"be born or produced, creation, a coming into being\")."}, {"id": 31342356, "title": "Scientific communication", "abstract": "Scientific communication is a part of information science and the sociology of science which study researchers' use of formal and informal information channels, their communicative roles (e.g., \"gatekeepers\"), the utilization of the formal publication system and similar issues."}, {"id": 3205100, "title": "Self-archiving", "abstract": "Self-archiving is the act of (the author's) depositing a free copy of an electronic document online in order to provide open access to it. The term usually refers to the self-archiving of peer-reviewed research journal and conference articles, as well as theses and book chapters, deposited in the author's own institutional repository or open archive for the purpose of maximizing its accessibility, usage and citation impact. The term green open access has become common in recent years, distinguishing this approach from gold open access, where the journal itself makes the articles publicly available without charge to the reader."}, {"id": 3276445, "title": "Self-disclosure", "abstract": "Self-disclosure is a process of communication by which one person reveals information about themselves to another. The information can be descriptive or evaluative, and can include thoughts, feelings, aspirations, goals, failures, successes, fears, and dreams, as well as one's likes, dislikes, and favorites.Social penetration theory posits that there are two dimensions to self-disclosure: breadth and depth. Both are crucial in developing a fully intimate relationship. The range of topics discussed by two individuals is the breadth of disclosure. The degree to which the information revealed is private or personal is the depth of that disclosure. It is easier for breadth to be expanded first in a relationship because of its more accessible features; it consists of outer layers of personality and everyday lives, such as occupations and preferences. Depth is more difficult to reach, and includes painful memories and more unusual traits that we might hesitate to share with others.  One reveals itself most thoroughly and discusses the widest range of topics with our spouses and loved ones.Self-disclosure is an important building block for intimacy, which cannot be achieved without it. Reciprocal and appropriate self-disclosure is expected. Self-disclosure can be assessed by an analysis of cost and rewards which can be further explained by social exchange theory. Most self-disclosure occurs early in relational development, but more intimate self-disclosure occurs later."}, {"id": 74903675, "title": "Sending", "abstract": "Sending, or to send, is the action of conveying or directing something or someone to another physical, virtual, or conceptual location for a specific purpose. The initiator of the action of sending is the sender. With respect to humans, \"sending\" also encompasses instructing others to go to another physical location, whether voluntarily or by force."}, {"id": 14446336, "title": "Service-oriented communications", "abstract": "Service-oriented communications (SOC) technologies are designed to be easily used in the context of service-oriented architectures. These technologies are generally software based and are built more like a business application than a traditional PBX business communications system. Service-oriented communications systems allow their services to participate in business processes. They make their services available to other business applications within and SOA and allow for reuse of the services.\nThe goal of service-oriented communications is to enable business environments to build communications into their business processes, enabling more streamlined collaboration among people within the business. It typically assumes that certain services are provided in the context of an SOA service provider. This is often in the form of a suite of web services, but may also be attached to other means of sharing the services such as an enterprise system bus (ESB).\nThe communications part of SOC\nEnterprise communications have traditionally been provided by closed, stand-alone PBX systems. Installed in a separate phone room or wiring closet, operated over a different wiring infrastructure, known only by the telecom manager, these systems ran independently from every other aspect of the business.\nToday\u2019s business-savvy chief information officers (CIOs) are exploring ways in which information technology can be better leveraged to improve the efficiency and productivity of the enterprise. In practice, CIOs are embracing the concepts of service-oriented architectures and rethinking how the different business systems in use within the enterprise can be designed to allow each system to leverage the benefits of any other system.\nThe maturing of web service technology has provided a real framework for allowing one system to leverage the services of another according to the principles of a service-oriented architecture. Complex business systems can now work together to deliver solutions in highly customized ways to end users. Increasingly, applications are adapting to the specific needs of users rather than users being forced to adapt to the available functionality of applications."}, {"id": 4340898, "title": "Shannon\u2013Weaver model", "abstract": "The Shannon\u2013Weaver model is one of the first and most influential models of communication. It was initially published in the 1948 paper A Mathematical Theory of Communication and explains communication in terms of five basic components: a source, a transmitter, a channel, a receiver, and a destination. The source produces the original message. The transmitter translates the message into a signal, which is sent using a channel. The receiver translates the signal back into the original message and makes it available to the destination. For a landline phone call, the person calling is the source. They use the telephone as a transmitter, which produces an electric signal that is sent through the wire as a channel. The person receiving the call is the destination and their telephone is the receiver.\nShannon and Weaver distinguish three types of problems of communication: technical, semantic, and effectiveness problems. They focus on the technical level, which concerns the problem of how to use a signal to accurately reproduce a message from one location to another location. The difficulty in this regard is that noise may distort the signal. They discuss redundancy as a solution to this problem: if the original message is redundant then the distortions can be detected, which makes it possible to reconstruct the source's original intention.\nThe Shannon\u2013Weaver model of communication has been very influential in various fields, including communication theory and information theory. Many later theorists have built their own models on its insights. However, it is often criticized based on the claim that it oversimplifies communication. One common objection is that communication should not be understood as a one-way process but as a dynamic interaction of messages going back and forth between both participants. Another criticism rejects the idea that the message exists prior to the communication and argues instead that the encoding is itself a creative process that creates the content."}, {"id": 28130, "title": "Sign", "abstract": "A sign is an object, quality, event, or entity whose presence or occurrence indicates the probable presence or occurrence of something else. A natural sign bears a causal relation to its object\u2014for instance, thunder is a sign of storm, or medical symptoms a sign of disease. A conventional sign signifies by agreement, as a full stop signifies the end of a sentence; similarly the words and expressions of a language, as well as bodily gestures, can be regarded as signs, expressing particular meanings. The physical objects most commonly referred to as signs (notices, road signs, etc., collectively known as signage) generally inform or instruct using written text, symbols, pictures or a combination of these.\nThe philosophical study of signs and symbols is called semiotics; this includes the study of semiosis, which is the way in which signs (in the semiotic sense) operate."}, {"id": 1699889, "title": "Signifyin'", "abstract": "Signifyin' (sometimes written \"signifyin(g)\") is a practice in African-American culture involving a verbal strategy of indirection that exploits the gap between the denotative and figurative meanings of words. A simple example would be insulting someone to show them affection.  Other names for signifyin' include:  \"Dropping lugs, joaning, sounding, capping, snapping, dissing, busting, bagging, janking, ranking, toasting, woofing, roasting, putting on, or cracking.\"Signifyin' directs attention to the connotative, context-bound significance of words, which is accessible only to those who share the cultural values of a given speech community. The expression comes from stories about the signifying monkey, a trickster figure said to have originated during slavery in the United States.\nThe American literary critic Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote in The Signifying Monkey (1988) that signifyin' is \"a trope, in which are subsumed several other rhetorical tropes, including metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony (the master tropes), and also hyperbole, litotes, and metalepsis. To this list we could easily add aporia, chiasmus, and catachresis, all of which are used in the ritual of Signifyin(g).\""}, {"id": 53395676, "title": "Situational theory of problem solving", "abstract": "The situational theory of problem solving attempts to explain why and how an individual communicates during a problematic situation. The situational theory of problem solving (STOPS) was proposed by Jeong-Nam Kim and James E. Grunig in 2011 though their article \u201cproblem solving and communicative action: A situational theory of problem solving.\u201d The theory was developed from the situational theory of publics (STP) and claimed it is \u201can extended and generalized version\u201d of STP. This theory has an assumption that \u201cthe more one commits to problem resolution, the more one becomes acquisitive of information pertaining to the problem, selective in dealing with information, and transmissive in giving it to others.\u201d"}, {"id": 11025311, "title": "Situational theory of publics", "abstract": "The situational theory of publics theorizes that large groups of people can be divided into smaller groups based on the extent to which they are aware of a problem and the extent to which they do something about the problem. For example, some people may begin uninformed and uninvolved; communications to them may be intended to make them aware and engaged. Communications to those who are aware but disengaged may focus on informing them of ways in which they could act. Further classifications are made on the basis to which people are actively seeking or passively encountering (\"stumbling into\") information about the problem."}, {"id": 12824727, "title": "Sliding window protocol", "abstract": "A sliding window protocol is a feature of packet-based data transmission protocols. Sliding window protocols are used where reliable in-order delivery of packets is required, such as in the data link layer (OSI layer 2) as well as in the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). They are also used to improve efficiency when the channel may include high latency.\nPacket-based systems are based on the idea of sending a batch of data, the packet, along with additional data that allows the receiver to ensure it was received correctly, perhaps a checksum. The paradigm is similar to a window sliding sideways to allow entry of fresh packets and reject the ones that have already been acknowledged. When the receiver verifies the data, it sends an acknowledgment signal, or \"ACK\", back to the sender to indicate it can send the next packet. In a simple automatic repeat request protocol (ARQ), the sender stops after every packet and waits for the receiver to ACK. This ensures packets arrive in the correct order, as only one may be sent at a time.\nThe time that it takes for the ACK signal to be received may represent a significant amount of time compared to the time needed to send the packet. In this case, the overall throughput may be much lower than theoretically possible. To address this, sliding window protocols allow a selected number of packets, the window, to be sent without having to wait for an ACK. Each packet receives a sequence number, and the ACKs send back that number. The protocol keeps track of which packets have been ACKed, and when they are received, sends more packets. In this way, the window slides along the stream of packets making up the transfer.\nSliding windows are a key part of many protocols. It is a key part of the TCP protocol, which inherently allows packets to arrive out of order, and is also found in many file transfer protocols like UUCP-g and ZMODEM as a way of improving efficiency compared to non-windowed protocols like XMODEM.  See also SEAlink."}, {"id": 28207, "title": "SMS", "abstract": "Short Message/Messaging Service, commonly abbreviated as SMS, is a text messaging service component of most telephone, Internet and mobile device systems. It uses standardized communication protocols that let mobile devices exchange short text messages. An intermediary service can facilitate a text-to-voice conversion to be sent to landlines.SMS technology originated from radio telegraphy in radio memo pagers that used standardized phone protocols. These were defined in 1986 as part of the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) series of standards. The first SMS message was sent on 3 December 1992, when Neil Papworth, a test engineer for Sema Group, sent \"Merry Christmas\" to the Orbitel 901 phone of colleague Richard Jarvis. SMS rolled out commercially on many cellular networks that decade and became hugely popular worldwide as a method of text communication. By the end of 2010, SMS was the most widely used data application, with an estimated 3.5 billion active users, or about 80% of all mobile phone subscribers.\nThe service allows users to send and receive messages of up to 160 characters (when entirely alpha-numeric) to and from GSM mobiles. Although most SMS messages are sent from one mobile phone to another, support for the service has expanded to include other mobile technologies, such as CDMA networks and Digital AMPS.Mobile marketing, a type of direct marketing, uses SMS. The global SMS messaging business was estimated to be worth over US$240 billion in 2013, accounting for almost half of all revenue generated by mobile messaging."}, {"id": 26877546, "title": "Social and behavior change communication", "abstract": "Social and behavior change communication (SBCC), often also only \"BCC\" or \"Communication for Development (C4D)\" is an interactive process of any intervention with individuals, group or community (as integrated with an overall program) to develop communication strategies to promote positive behaviors which are appropriate to their settings and thereby solving the world's most pressing health problems. This in turn provides a supportive environment which will enable people to initiate, sustain and maintain positive and desirable behavior outcomes.SBCC is the strategic use of communication to promote positive health outcomes, based on proven theories and models of behavior change. SBCC employs a systematic process beginning with formative research and behavior analysis, followed by communication planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. Audiences are carefully segmented, messages and materials are pre-tested, and mass media (which include radio, television, billboards, print material, internet), interpersonal channels (such as client-provider interaction, group presentations) and community mobilisation are used to achieve defined behavioral objectives.BCC should not be confused with behavior modification, a term with specific meaning in a clinical psychiatry setting. SBCC differentiates itself from social impact entertainment primarily through its \"impact first\", rather than \"story first\", approach."}, {"id": 2212696, "title": "Social comparison theory", "abstract": "Social comparison theory, initially proposed by social psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954, centers on the belief that individuals drive to gain accurate self-evaluations. The theory explains how individuals evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparing themselves to others to reduce uncertainty in these domains and learn how to define the self. Comparing oneself to others socially is a form of measurement and self-assessment to identify where an individual stands according to their own set of standards and emotions about themselves.Following the initial theory, research began to focus on social comparison as a way of self-enhancement, introducing the concepts of downward and upward comparisons and expanding the motivations of social comparisons. Social comparison can be traced back to the pivotal paper by Herbert Hyman, back in 1942. Hyman revealed the assessment of one's own status is dependent on the group with whom one compares oneself. The social comparison theory is the belief that media influence, social status, and other forms of competitiveness can affect our self-esteem and mood. This can affect individuals' outlook on themselves and how they fit in with others."}, {"id": 16052446, "title": "Social identity model of deindividuation effects", "abstract": "The social identity model of deindividuation effects (or SIDE model) is a theory developed in social psychology and communication studies. SIDE explains the effects of anonymity and identifiability on group behavior. It has become one of several theories of technology that describe social effects of computer-mediated communication.\nThe SIDE model provides an alternative explanation for effects of anonymity and other \"deindividuating\" factors that classic deindividuation theory cannot adequately explain. The model suggests that anonymity changes the relative salience of personal vs. social identity, and thereby can have a profound effect on group behavior.\nWith the advance of technology, it is becoming increasingly researched how having the control of being incognito on the web and having profiles that represent one's person is affecting relationships and communication in our lives. The model of deindividuation is described by scholarly articles as \"the situation in which individuals act in groups and do not see themselves as individuals, thereby facilitating antinormative behavior\". Furthermore, research on the SIDE model investigates prosocial behavior, prevention of social disturbance, and prevention of child prejudice. It is said that conformity to group norms is a large part of deindividuation when understanding social identity within it. Other studies suggest that the identification of self through online groups lessens ones actual idea of personal identity outside of online spaces; concluding that even when personal identity is seemingly salient in online spaces it still further disassociates the person with themselves outside of online communities."}, {"id": 16052460, "title": "Social information processing (theory)", "abstract": "Social information processing theory, also known as SIP, is a psychological and sociological theory originally developed by Salancik and Pfeffer in 1978. This theory explores how individuals make decisions and form attitudes in a social context, often focusing on the workplace. It suggests that people rely heavily on the social information available to them in their environments, including input from colleagues and peers, to shape their attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions.\nJoseph Walther reintroduced the term into the field of interpersonal communication and media studies in 1992. In this work, he constructed a framework to explain online interpersonal communication without nonverbal cues and how people develop and manage relationships in a computer-mediated environment. Walther argued that online interpersonal relationships may demonstrate the same or even greater relational dimensions and qualities (intimacy) as traditional face-to-face (FtF) relationships. However, due to the limited channel and information, it may take longer to achieve than FtF relationships. These online relationships may help facilitate interactions that would not have occurred face-to-face due to factors such as geography and intergroup anxiety."}, {"id": 2148069, "title": "Social peer-to-peer processes", "abstract": "Social peer-to-peer processes are interactions with a peer-to-peer dynamic. These peers can be humans or computers. Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a term that originated from the popular concept of the P2P distributed computer application architecture which partitions tasks or workloads between peers. This application structure was popularized by file sharing systems like Napster, the first of its kind in the late 1990s.\nThe concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction. P2P human dynamic affords a critical look at current authoritarian and centralized social structures. Peer-to-peer is also a political and social program for those who believe that in many cases, peer-to-peer modes are a preferable option."}, {"id": 487748, "title": "Communication source", "abstract": "A source or sender is one of the basic concepts of communication and information processing. Sources  are objects which encode message data and transmit the information, via a channel, to one or more observers (or receivers).In the strictest sense of the word, particularly in information theory, a source is a process that generates message data that one would like to communicate, or reproduce as exactly as possible elsewhere in space or time.  A source may be modelled as memoryless, ergodic, stationary, or stochastic, in order of increasing generality.Communication Source combines Communication and Mass Media Complete and Communication Abstracts to provide full-text access to more than 700 journals, and indexing and abstracting for more than 1,000 core journals.  Coverage dating goes back to 1900. Content is derived from academic journals, conference papers, conference proceedings, trade publications, magazines and periodicals. A transmitter can be either a device, for example, an antenna, or a human transmitter, for example, a speaker. The word \"transmitter\" derives from an emitter, that is to say, that emits using the Hertzian waves.\nIn sending mail it also refers to the person or organization that sends a letter and whose address is written on the envelope of the letter.\nIn finance, an issuer can be, for example, the bank system of elements.\nIn education, an issuer is any person or thing that gives knowledge to the student, for example, the professor.\nFor communication to be effective, the sender and receiver must share the same code. In ordinary communication, the sender and receiver roles are usually interchangeable.\nDepending on the language's functions, the issuer fulfills the expressive or emotional function, in which feelings, emotions, and opinions are manifested, such as The way is dangerous."}, {"id": 22280378, "title": "Source credibility", "abstract": "Source credibility is \"a term commonly used to imply a communicator's positive characteristics that affect the receiver's acceptance of a message.\" Academic studies of this topic began in the 20th century and were given a special emphasis during World War II, when the US government sought to use propaganda to influence public opinion in support of the war effort. Psychologist Carl Hovland and his colleagues worked at the War Department upon this during the 1940s and then continued experimental studies at Yale University. They built upon the work of researchers in the first half of the 20th century who had developed a Source-Message-Channel-Receiver model of communication and, with Muzafer Sherif, (Muzaffer \u015eerif Ba\u015fo\u011flu) developed this as part of their theories of persuasion and social judgement."}, {"id": 53733087, "title": "Source\u2013message\u2013channel\u2013receiver model of communication", "abstract": "The source\u2013message\u2013channel\u2013receiver model is a linear transmission model of communication. It is also referred to as the sender\u2013message\u2013channel\u2013receiver model, the SMCR model, and Berlo's model. It was first published by David Berlo in his 1960 book The Process of Communication. It contains a detailed discussion of the four main components of communication: source, message, channel, and receiver. Source and receiver are usually distinct persons but can also be groups and, in some cases, the same entity acts both as source and receiver. Berlo discusses both verbal and non-verbal communication and sees all forms of communication as attempts by the source to influence the behavior of the receiver. The source tries to achieve this by formulating a communicative intention and encoding it in the form of a message. The message is sent to the receiver using a channel and has to be decoded so they can understand it and react to it. The efficiency or fidelity of communication is defined by the degree to which the reaction of the receiver matches the purpose motivating the source.\nEach of the four main components has several key attributes. Source and receiver share the same four attributes: communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social-cultural system. Communication skills determine how good the communicators are at encoding and decoding messages. Attitudes affect whether they like or dislike the topic and each other. Knowledge includes how well they understand the topic. The social-cultural system encompasses their social and cultural background.\nThe attributes of the message are code, content, and treatment as well as elements and structure. A code is a sign system like a language. The content is the information expressed in the message. The treatment consists of the source's choices on the level of code and content when formulating the message. Each of these attributes can be analyzed based on the elements it uses and based on how they are combined to form a structure.\nThe remaining main component is the channel. It is the medium and process of how the message is transmitted. Berlo discusses it primarily in terms of the five senses used to decode messages: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting. Depending on the message, some channels are more useful than others. It is often advantageous to use several channels simultaneously.\nThe SMCR model has been applied to various fields, such as mass communication, communication at the workplace, and psychology. It also influenced many subsequent communication theorists. It has been criticized for oversimplifying communication. For example, as a linear transmission model, it does not include the discussion of feedback loops found in many later models. Another common objection is that the SMCR model fails to take noise and other barriers to communication seriously and simply assumes that communication attempts are successful."}, {"id": 2430525, "title": "Speech transmission index", "abstract": "Speech Transmission Index (STI) is a measure of speech transmission quality. The absolute measurement of speech intelligibility is a complex science. The STI measures some physical characteristics of a transmission channel (a room, electro-acoustic equipment, telephone line, etc.), and expresses the ability of the channel to carry across the characteristics of a speech signal. STI is a well-established objective measurement predictor of how the characteristics of the transmission channel affect speech intelligibility.\nThe influence that a transmission channel has on speech intelligibility is dependent on:\n\nthe speech level\nfrequency response of the channel\nnon-linear distortions\nbackground noise level\nquality of the sound reproduction equipment\nechos (reflections with delay > 100ms)\nthe reverberation time\npsychoacoustic effects (masking effects)"}, {"id": 473321, "title": "Spiral of silence", "abstract": "The spiral of silence theory is a political science and mass communication theory which states that an individual's perception of the distribution of public opinion influences that individual's willingness to express their own opinions. Also known as the theory of public opinion, the spiral of silence theory claims individuals will be more confident and outward with their opinion when they notice that their personal opinion is shared throughout a group.  But if the individual notices that his opinion is unpopular with the group he will be more inclined to be reserved and remain silent. In other words, from the individual's perspective, \"not isolating himself is more important than his own judgement\", meaning his perception of how others in the group perceive him is more important to himself than the need for his opinion to be heard.According to Glynn (1995), \"the major components of the spiral of silence include (1) an issue of public interest; (2) divisiveness on the issue; (3) a quasi-statistical sense that helps an individual perceive the climate of opinion as well as estimate the majority and minority opinion; (4) 'fear of isolation' from social interaction \"(though, whether this is a causal factor in the willingness to speak out is contested)\"; (5) an individual's belief that a minority (or 'different') opinion isolates oneself from others; and (6) a 'hardcore' group of people whose opinions are unaffected by others' opinions.\"The theory is not without criticism, some arguing that its widely understood definition and parameters have not been updated to reflect the behavior of 21st century society. Others pointing out that there is no room within the theory to account for variables of influence other than social isolation."}, {"id": 33332641, "title": "Sport communication careers", "abstract": "Sports communication is a specialized field of communication studies that specializes in the elements and examination of communication in a sports setting. The management of communication in sports organizations has evolved towards greater professionalization and incorporating technological innovations.This field encompasses the study of interpersonal and organizational communication (both verbal and non-verbal) among participants within a sport (e.g. players, coaches, managers, referees, and trainers), fans, and the media. It also delves into the way that sports are represented and communicated in the media. There are various careers in the sports industry that are involved in the interpersonal and organizational communication process. These range from technological occupations, such as the media and marketing, to team psychologists who coach cohesion between players. Sports communication is not restricted to professionals only, it is something that happens at different levels of play, ranging from preschool to college level. Communication happens constantly in sports, and recent studies have identified ways in which a team and organization can be the most effective. There is also a cultural influence from sports, which creates opportunities for teams to interact with communities in unique ways."}, {"id": 5828847, "title": "Strategic communication", "abstract": "Strategic communication can mean either communicating a concept, a process, or data that satisfies a long-term strategic goal of an organization by allowing facilitation of advanced planning, or communicating over long distances usually using international telecommunications or dedicated global network assets to coordinate actions and activities of operationally significant commercial, non-commercial and military business or combat and logistic subunits. It can also mean the related function within an organization, which handles internal and external communication processes.  Strategic communication can also be used for political warfare."}, {"id": 31712073, "title": "Strategic talk", "abstract": "Strategic talk is how language can be used to maximize shared understanding by consciously and deliberalty to formulating talk, asking questions and giving answers, putting other's talk into our own words, using concrete example and telling stories to illustrate a meaning. This method of organizational or business communication was created by Richard E. Heymen Ed.D."}, {"id": 4996362, "title": "Structural pluralism", "abstract": "Structural pluralism is \"the potential for political competition in communities\".  The degree of structural pluralism is used to examine how societies are structured, and specifically is a way to explain coverage differences in media markets.  Structural pluralism is studied in philosophical, sociological and communication literature.\nStructural pluralism is what makes civic community a unique form of civil society (Morton, 2000). Structural pluralism represents the extent to which the community has an open and inclusive structure that permits minority voices and opinions to be heard when citizens and citizen groups are addressing community problems (Young, 1999).\nCommunities are discussed in terms of having common institutions, such as governing or other political bodies, religious, educational and economic institutions.  These bodies or institutions help to maintain the social order within the community.\nThis concept comes from the field of sociology, but prior to that, stems from writings by Hegel (1821) on civic society.  This comes also from the functionalist writings of \u00c9mile Durkheim and Herbert Spencer (Hindman, 1999).\nDurkheim writes that there are two organizating principle types of societies, that most like the premodern communities, called mechanical solidarity in which ethnic and extended families were central; and that called organic solidarity which examines the relationships of interdependence based on other components, such as work, and social organizations (Durkheim, 1933).  These are equated to today's rural and urban societies respectively."}, {"id": 34299098, "title": "Structured communication", "abstract": "Structured communication is a term used across a variety of disciplines to describe frameworks for interaction between individuals or machines. Although these frameworks are primarily designed to reduce ambiguity, increased efficiency is often cited as a secondary benefit. The concept has existed since at least 1971, when it was demonstrated to be an effective method of conflict resolution for married couples."}, {"id": 26692723, "title": "Study of global communication", "abstract": "The study of global communication is an interdisciplinary field focusing on global communication, or the ways that people connect, share, relate and mobilize across geographic, political, economic, social and cultural divides. Global communication implies a transfer of knowledge and ideas from centers of power to peripheries and the imposition of a new intercultural hegemony by means of the \"soft power\" of global news and entertainment."}, {"id": 5619479, "title": "Subversive Proposal", "abstract": "The \"Subversive Proposal\" was an Internet posting by Stevan Harnad on June 27, 1994 (presented at the 1994 Network Services Conference in London) calling on all authors of \"esoteric\" research writings to archive their articles for free for everyone online (in anonymous FTP archives or websites). It initiated a series of online exchanges, many of which were collected and published as a book in 1995: Scholarly Journals at the Crossroads: A Subversive Proposal for Electronic Publishing. This led to the creation in 1997 of Cogprints, an open access archive for self-archived articles in the cognitive sciences and in 1998 to the creation of the American Scientist Open Access Forum (initially called the \"September98 Forum\" until the founding of the Budapest Open Access Initiative which first coined the term \"open access\"). The Subversive Proposal also led to the development of the GNU EPrints software used for creating OAI-compliant open access institutional repositories, and inspired CiteSeer, a tool to locate and index the resulting eprints.\nThe proposal was updated gradually across the years, as summarized in the American Scientist Open Access Forum on its 10th anniversary.\nA retrospective was written by Richard Poynder.\nA self-critique\nwas posted on its 15th anniversary in 2009. An online interview of Stevan Harnad was conducted by Richard Poynder on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the subversive proposal."}, {"id": 33987436, "title": "Summit Series (conference)", "abstract": "Summit Series\u00a9 is an American organization that hosts conferences and events for young entrepreneurs, artists and activists. Events organized by the group include an annual invitation to a conference during which participants discuss topics including business practices, technological innovation, and philanthropy. Summit Series attendees have included Bill Clinton, Ted Turner and Richard Branson. Summit Series was founded in 2008 by Elliott Bisnow, Brett Leve, Jeff Rosenthal, Jeremy Schwartz, and Ryan Begelman.\nSince its foundation, the organization has raised more than $2 million for charitable and non-profit organizations."}, {"id": 10702240, "title": "Symbolic convergence theory", "abstract": "Symbolic convergence theory (SCT) is a communication theory developed by Ernest Bormann proposing that the holding of fantasies in common transforms collections of individuals into cohesive groups. SCT offers an explanation for the appearance of a group's cohesiveness, consisting of shared emotions, motives, and meanings. Through SCT, individuals can build a community or a group consciousness which grows stronger if they share a cluster of fantasy themes. Symbolic convergence theory provides a description of the dynamic tendencies within systems of social interaction that cause communicative practices and forms to evolve. This theory allows theorists and practitioners to anticipate or predict what will happen and explain what did happen. One thing SCT does not do is allow for control of human communication. It attempts to explain how communication can create and sustain group consciousness through the sharing of narratives or fantasies.To foster this cohesiveness, dramatizing or using fantasy stories are significant types of communication involved in SCT. SCT explains that meanings, emotions, values, and the motives for action are in the communication contexts by people trying to make sense out of a common experience.  It explores the human tendency of trying to understand events in terms of the people involved, who have certain personality traits and motivations, and have agency over how the events unfold. SCT was first proposed by Ernest Bormann in the Quarterly Journal of Speech in 1972.Bormann and his colleagues at the University of Minnesota introduced SCT as a framework for discovering, describing, and explaining the dynamic process by which humans come to share symbolic reality. Bormann defines the basic communicative dynamic of symbolic convergence theory as, \"the sharing of group fantasies which bring about symbolic convergence for the participants\" (p. 4). It is a process through which collectives create and share a consciousness and develop a common symbolic reality.Symbolic Convergence Theory is related to attribution theory in that it deals with the human tendency to attribute meaning to signs and objects in order to make sense of them. The process of symbolic convergence resembles empathic communication.SCT has a three-part structure:\n\nelucidation of the recurring forms of communication involved in a shared group consciousness\nillustration of why group consciousness begins, rises, and is maintained\nexplanation of the process of how an individual begins to share (or stops sharing) a common symbolic reality"}, {"id": 20004766, "title": "Tangible symbol systems", "abstract": "Tangible symbols are a type of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) that uses objects or pictures that share a perceptual relationship with the items they represent as symbols.  A tangible symbol's relation to the item it represents is perceptually obvious and concrete \u2013 the visual or tactile properties of the symbol resemble the intended item. Tangible Symbols can easily be manipulated and are most strongly associated with the sense of touch. These symbols can be used by individuals who are not able to communicate using speech or other abstract symbol systems, such as sign language. However, for those who have the ability to communicate using speech, learning to use tangible symbols  does not hinder further developing acquisition of natural speech and/or language development, and may even facilitate it."}, {"id": 9602807, "title": "Thematic interpretation", "abstract": "Thematic interpretation is an approach to heritage interpretation originally advocated by Professor William J. Lewis (University of Vermont) and subsequently developed by Professor Sam H. Ham (University of Idaho). In the thematic approach, an interpreter relies on a central theme (i.e., a major point or message) to guide development of a communication activity or device.  In presenting the activity or device, the thematic interpreter develops the theme in such a way that it will be highly relevant to an audience.  According to studies, presenting a strongly relevant theme greatly increases the likelihood an interpreter will succeed in provoking an audience to think about theme-related issues.\nBeginning in the early 2000s, the thematic approach has been adopted widely in persuasive communication campaigns aimed at impacting environmental behaviors, especially those related to energy and water consumption, and in occupational safety and risk communication programs. In the broader fields of sustainable development and risk communication, the term thematic communication (rather than thematic \"interpretation\") is often used. The two approaches, however, are identical, and both are linked largely to Ham's (1992) book, Environmental Interpretation."}, {"id": 43055550, "title": "Thumb tribe", "abstract": "The Thumb tribe (or sometimes thumb generation) is the younger generation with members who are more adept at texting using their thumbs than talking on the phone. In 2002, a trend was identified among young people who used mobile phones for many activities, such as texting, email, entertainment, and conversations, as opposed to using keyboards with traditional desktop computers. This marked a shift in the favorite digit such that activities typically done by the forefinger, such as pointing at things or ringing doorbells, were now being done with the thumb. The term thumb tribe has been used by marketers to identify younger consumers and in politics to identify persons who are not part of the younger generation, such as American politician Mitt Romney, who in 2010 was said to have owned a mobile phone but not been able to use it dexterously. Researchers reported in 2002 that this had led to the thumb being physically stronger and more flexible for many young people. There are medical implications as well; excessive use of thumbs can lead to muscle pain and possible occupational problems.\nThe term thumb tribe was first used in Japan to identify the \"younger generation of Japanese texters\". Japanese youth used their keitai or mobile phone to download music, access Japan's version of Myspace called mixi, surf the web, check train timetables and so forth. This group is identified as a common source of smart mobs that assemble seemingly spontaneously. The Japanese texting style relies heavily on the thumb, according to a report in NBC News.\nThey've grown up in a world that is dynamically different from the one we lived in. What kind of cars do they want? And what gadgets? They don't even use computers - computers now perceived as going the way of B&W television. At what point do their childhood toys and t'ween technology devices merge? And what future outcomes do they, and marketer-manufacturers expect?"}, {"id": 48496349, "title": "Tower music", "abstract": "Tower music is a musical performance from the top of a tower. It can also designate the music composed for or played in such a performance.\nIn the early European Middle Ages, musical instruments on towers were used to warn of danger and mark the passage of time. At first this was done by a tower watchman, later by ensembles of instrumentalists employed by the city. The music became more choral, and came to by played on specific days of the week, and to mark specific dates (feast days such as Christmas and Easter, for instance). The practice largely died out in the late 19th century, but was revived in the early twentieth, and continues to this day. Modern tower music is often played by volunteers.\nThe tower used would often be a church tower, but the tower or balcony of a civic building might also be used.The instruments had to be audible to someone not on the tower. This eliminated the quieter (basse) instruments, leaving the louder (haut) instruments. Apart from bells, natural trumpets, slide trumpets, trombones, shawms, bagpipes, and drums were used.\nMusic was written specifically to be played from towers, but other works could also be used. Alta capella musicians playing the tower music would generally also perform in processions and ground-level outdoor events, and in some cases would also perform (on different instruments) indoors."}, {"id": 3005810, "title": "Transderivational search", "abstract": "Transderivational search (often abbreviated to TDS) is a psychological and cybernetics term, meaning when a search is being conducted for a fuzzy match across a broad field. In computing the equivalent function can be performed using content-addressable memory.\nUnlike usual searches, which look for literal (i.e. exact, logical, or regular expression) matches, a transderivational search is a search for a possible meaning or possible  match as part of communication, and without which an incoming communication cannot be made any sense of whatsoever. It is thus an integral part of processing language, and of attaching meaning to communication.\nA psychological example of TDS is in Ericksonian hypnotherapy, where vague suggestions are used that the patient must process intensely in order to find their own meanings, thus ensuring that the practitioner does not intrude his own beliefs into the subject's inner world."}, {"id": 18630637, "title": "Translation", "abstract": "Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.\nA translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such \"spill-overs\" have sometimes imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator. More recently, the rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated \"language localisation\"."}, {"id": 350172, "title": "Two-way communication", "abstract": "Two-way communication is a form of transmission in which both parties involved transmit information. Two-way communication has also been referred to as interpersonal communication. Common forms of two-way communication are:\n\nAmateur radio, CB or FRS radio contacts.\nChatrooms and instant messaging.\nComputer networks. See backchannel.\nIn-person communication.\nTelephone conversations.A cycle of communication and two-way communication are actually two different things. If we examine closely the anatomy of communication \u2013 the actual structure and parts \u2013 we will discover that a cycle of communication is not a two-way communication in its entirety. Meaning, two way communication is not as simple as one may infer. One can improve two-way or interpersonal communication by focusing on the eyes of the person speaking, making eye contact, watching body language, responding appropriately with comments, questions, and paraphrasing, and summarizing to confirm main points and an accurate understanding.Two-way communication is different from one-way communication in that two-way communication occurs when the receiver provides feedback to the sender. One-way communication is when a message flows from sender to receiver only, thus providing no feedback. Some examples of one-way communication are radio or television programs and listening to policy statements from top executives. Two-way communication is especially significant in that it enables feedback to improve a situation.Two-way communication involves feedback from the receiver to the sender. This allows the sender to know the message was received accurately by the receiver. Communication is also negotiated which means that the sender and receiver listen to each other, the messages then gathers information to respond.  One person is the sender, which means they send a message to another person via face to face, email, telephone, etc. The other person is the receiver, which means they are the one getting the senders message. Once receiving the message, the receiver sends a response back. For example, Person A sends an email to Person B --> Person B responds with their own email back to Person A. The cycle then continues.\nThis chart demonstrates two-way communication and feedback.\n\n                       [Sender] \u2190-------\n                          |                 \\\n                     [Encoding]               \\\n                          |                    |\n                      [Channel]         [Feedback]\n                          |                    |\n                     [Decoding]               /\n                          |                 /\n                     [Receiver]---------->\n\nTwo-way communication may occur horizontally or vertically in the organization. When information is exchanged between superior and subordinate, it is known as vertical two-way communication. On the other hand, when communication takes place between persons holding the same rank or position, it is called horizontal two-way communication. Two-way communication is represented in the following diagrams:\n                    (Superior)---------------> (Subordinate)---------------> (Superior)\n                               (Information)                  (Feedback)\n\nThere are many different types of two-way communication systems, and choosing which is best to use depends on things like the intended use, the location, the number of users, the frequency band, and the cost of the system. \u201cRegardless of the type of system chosen, the one common feature is that all of the components must be compatible and work together to support a common purpose.\u201d"}, {"id": 23725157, "title": "Upward communication", "abstract": "Upward communication is the process of information flowing from the lower levels of a hierarchy to the upper levels.   This type of communication is becoming more popular in organizations as traditional forms of communication are becoming less popular. The more traditional organization types such as a hierarchy, places people into separate ranks. The ways in which low status members of such hierarchies communicate with higher status members has been a subject of study, and the term 'upward communication' has been used since at least the 1960s.Upward communication helps employees to express their requirements, ideas, and feelings. For the top management, upward communication is an important source of informations for business decisions. It helps in alerting top management about the requirement of changes in an organisations. Upward contribution is the core contributor of business process reengineering in many organisations.  \nUpward communication is widely used as part of whistleblowing policy in many large organisations. Under whistle blowing policy, each employee is permitted to directly communicate with top management about matters requiring examination on vigilance angle. Hence it is used as a fraud prevention tool as well.\nUpward communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs, policies and procedures, and the business in general. It consists of methods like Feedback from employees, helps in bringing mutual trust and helps the organization to determine, implement or decide upon new policies. It keeps the organization updated or prone to upcoming challenges.\nUpward communication is not free from disadvantages. It suffers from problems like information can be changed during transmission, unwillingness to participate, fear of inefficiency, bypassing and flattery. Sometimes top level executives discourage the upward flow of information and neglect the constructive suggestions and opinions about the work related issues of the organization. It is a time taking process and is comparatively slow.\nThe concept has also been applied to educational organisations, in the context of communication from teachers to school principals."}], "id": 709243}, {"title": "Lists", "pages": [{"id": 71429322, "title": "List (information)", "abstract": "A list is a set of discrete items of information collected and set forth in some format for utility, entertainment, or other purposes. A list may be memorised in any number of ways, including existing only in the mind of the list-maker, but lists are frequently written down on paper, or maintained electronically. Lists are \"most frequently a tool\", and \"one does not read but only uses a list: one looks up the relevant information in it, but usually does not need to deal with it as a whole\"."}, {"id": 75763418, "title": "Gallery of distinctive unit insignias", "abstract": "A distinctive unit insignia (DUI) is a metallic heraldic badge or device worn by soldiers in the United States Army. The DUI design is derived from the coat of arms authorized for a unit."}, {"id": 75837180, "title": "List of vehicles of the Israeli ground tech tree in War Thunder", "abstract": "This is a list of vehicles of the Israeli ground tech tree in War Thunder, a tech tree which was added into War Thunder with the release of the major update \"Winged Lions\". Note that no information within this list can be trusted to be factual in the real world, this information is all according to the vehicle characteristics within War Thunder."}], "id": 691070}], "links": [{"source": 693763, "target": 1004110}, {"source": 693763, "target": 691810}, {"source": 693763, "target": 691182}, {"source": 1633936, "target": 709243}, {"source": 1633936, "target": 694861}, {"source": 1633936, "target": 47397287}, {"source": 1633936, "target": 1004110}, {"source": 1633936, "target": 695027}, {"source": 693016, "target": 696790}, {"source": 693016, "target": 693708}, {"source": 48005914, "target": 865456}, {"source": 696603, "target": 865456}, {"source": 696603, "target": 2389032}, {"source": 696603, "target": 48005914}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 60661632}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 693763}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 771152}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 709243}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 24980271}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 694861}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 47397287}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 696763}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 865456}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 692903}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 693016}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 60023454}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 691802}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 694860}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 693800}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 697609}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 751381}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 693555}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 2524202}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 1004110}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 1009209}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 700895}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 700914}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 8017451}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 691928}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 2389032}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 691070}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 696790}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 690747}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 716572}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 696603}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 691008}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 691810}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 695027}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 692694}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 691182}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 1633936}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 693708}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 696648}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 744728}, {"source": 7345184, "target": 48005914}, {"source": 47397287, "target": 771152}, {"source": 692903, "target": 696648}, {"source": 1009209, "target": 690747}, {"source": 696648, "target": 692903}, {"source": 694861, "target": 694860}, {"source": 694861, "target": 692694}, {"source": 694861, "target": 693708}, {"source": 1004110, "target": 693555}, {"source": 1004110, "target": 691810}, {"source": 1004110, "target": 695027}, {"source": 709243, "target": 1009209}]}
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