METHODS FOR ANALYSIS AND IDENTIFICATION OF TRANSCRIBED GENES, AND FINGERPRINTING

Abstract: A method for identifying mRNA molecules present in a sample, and also for quantifying the expression levels of the mRNA molecules. A profile of gene identities and/or expression levels is produced by generating two independent patterns characteristic of the population of mRNA molecules expressed in the sample and analysing these patterns using a combinatorial algorithm. Gene expression by different cell types or of the same cell types under different conditions may be compared. In this way, genes may be identified which play a role in determining various cellular processes and states, including susceptibility to external factors, development, and disease.

Description: METHODS FOR ANALYSIS AND IDENTIFICATION OF TRANSCRIBED GENES, AND FINGERPRINTING The present invention relates to methods for identifying genes and patterns of genes that are expressed. Specifically the present invention allows for analysis of genes that are transcribed, and for comparison of patterns of transcription in different cells or the same cells under different conditions or stages of development, and further allows for quantitation of the level of expression in a pool of RNA from many different genes . In a few years the sequence to the human and rodent genomes will be complete. However, defining the role of each of the estimated tens of thousands of genes will be a major task. An even greater task will be to understand how expression of the genome functions as a whole in a living organism. Only a fraction of the total number of genes present in the genome is expressed in any give cell. The relatively small fraction of the total number of genes that is expressed in a cell determine its life processes, e.g. intrinsic and extrinsic properties of the cell including development and differentiation, homeostasis,- its response to insults, cell cycle regulation, aging, apoptosis, and the like. Alterations in gene expression decide the course of normal cell development and the appearance of diseased states, such as cancer. Because the profile of gene expression in any given cell has direct consequences to its nature, methods for analyzing gene expression on a global scale are of critical import. Identification of gene-expression profiles will not only further understanding of normal biological processes in organisms but provide a key to prognosis and treatment of a variety of diseases or condition states in humans, animals and plants associated with alterations in gene expression. In addition, since differential gene expression is associated with predisposition to diseases, infectious agents and responsiveness to external treatments (Alizadeh et al . , 2000; Cho et al . , 1998; Der et al . , 1998; Iyer et al . , 1999; McCormick, 1999; Szallasi, 1998) , identification of such gene-expression profiles can provide a powerful diagnostic tool for diseases, and as a tool to identify new drugs for treating or preventing such diseases. This technology will also be immensely powerful for gene- discovery. The only means of achieving this is to measure all genes expressed in particular tissues/cells at a particular time on a large scale, preferentially in one experiment. Less than a decade ago the concept of being able to simultaneously measure the concentration of every transcript in a cell in a single experiment would have been deemed undoable. However, use of DNA microarrays and other technological advances in the past few years have stimulated an extraordinary surge of interest in this field (Bowtell, 1999; Brown and Botstein, 1999; Duggan et al . , 1999; Lander, 1999; Southern et al . , 1999). DNA microarrays are based on solid support. Pieces of known identified DNA sequences (cDNA or synthetic oligonucleotides) are attached to the solid support in high-density grids and a pool of labelled RNA or cDNA from cell(s) or tissue (s) are hybridised (Duggan et al . , 1999; Lipshutz et al . , 1999). The intensity of the hybridisation signal at each grid is measured and give an estimate of the expression This procedure requires prior knowledge of the genes under study. DNA microarrays based on oligonucleotides attached to a glass surface covering around 30,000 unique gene sequences ordered in high density on small slides (i.e. approximately one third to one fourth of all genes) are now available from Affymetrix (Lipshutz et al . , 1999). Thus, microarrays are based on a high capacity system to monitor the expression of many genes in parallel with high sensitivity. cDNA microarrays are prepared by high speed robotic printing of cDNAs on glass providing quantitative expression measurements of the corresponding genes following hybridisation of the query pool of RNA (Brown and Botstein, 1999; Duggan et al . , 1999; Schena et al., 1995; Schena et al . , 1996). Differential expression measurements of genes are made by means of simultaneous hybridization of different pools of RNA. Oligonucleotide arrays are based on a high-density synthesis in arrays of oligonucleotides corresponding to cDNA or expressed sequence tag sequences on a solid support to which a query pool of RNA is hybridized (Lipshutz et al . , 1999). Although very powerful, like any technology it has drawbacks: (i) It requires prior knowledge of the genes whose expression is studied, (ii) it is indirect as it relies on hybridisation of RNA or equivalents to the attached templates, (iii) the most reproducible method available, the synthetic oligonucleotide arrays, are very expensive (approximately 4000 USD/for each determination of 30,000 genes), (iv) manufacturing the arrays in-house requires individual amplification and arraying of each gene to be studied, a major if not impossible task for each lab interested in the technology. A number of alternative methods for detecting and quantification of gene expression are available. These include for instance Northern blot analysis (Alwine et al., 1977), SI nuclease protection assay (Berk and Sharp, 1977) , serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) (Velculescu et al . , 1995) and sequencing of cDNA libraries (Okubo et al . , 1992). However, all these are low- throughput approaches not suitable for global gene expression analysis. Differential display (Liang and Pardee, 1992) and related technologies contrast to microarray technology by not being based on solid support. The advantage of these technologies to microarrays is that no prior sequence information is required to execute the experiment. However, differential display and related technologies have two shortcomings that make them unsuitable for large-scale gene expression analysis; (i) the identity of the genes which are under study in each experiment can only be determined following cloning and sequence analysis of each of the cDNA in every experiment and (ii) the mRNAs are identified multiple times in every experiment. A method for large scale restriction fragment length polymorphism of genomic DNA (KeyGene EP0969102) involves enzymatic cleavage of genomic DNA with one or two restriction enzymes and ligating specific adapters to the fragments. When using two different restriction enzymes- two adapters are used, one for each enzyme. One of these two adapters is biotinylated. Solid phase support is then used to isolate the fragments that contains at least one restriction site to which the biotinylated adaptor is complementary. This procedure leads to an enrichment which improves resolution and reduces background in the PCR. Multiplex PCR is performed using primers directed against the adapters with nucleotides unique to each primer. The Celera GeneTag technology is for quantitatively measuring the expression levels of virtually all RNA transcripts in a cell or tissue, whether previously known or unknown. This allows simultaneous monitoring of known genes and discovery of novel genes, saving significant time and costs relative to sequencing or chip-based strategies. GeneTag technology provides this information within a biological context, so the genes you discover are specific to the biological pathway, disease model, or drug response being investigated. The GeneTag process is based on the principle that unique PCR fragments are generated for each cDNA. The fragments are separated by fluorescent capillary electrophoresis, then size- called and quantitated using Celera' s proprietary algorithms. The amount of a specific mRNA is then determined by the fluorescent intensity of its cognate PCR fragment. Using Celera 's proprietary GeneTag database, the cDNA fragment peaks are matched with their corresponding gene names. In this methodology, total RNA is isolated from the cell line(s) or tissues of interest. The GeneTag™ process requires at least 200 μg of total RNA. Complementary DNA is prepared from the total RNA samples then restricted twice in a stepwise fashion. 3 ' -end capture is used after each digest to isolate the fragment of interest. Using their method, adapters are ligated to both ends of the fragment to serve as PCR primer sites. Thus, multiple fragments are potentially prepared for each gene. The adapter-ligated cDNA samples are amplified using a set of primers, which have two selective bases on each end (+2/+2) . Combinations of these four bases yield a total of 128 unique PCR primer pairs. The 128 PCR reactions from each sample are analyzed individually by capillary electrophoresis, one reaction per capillary plus an internal lane standard. Each gene presents one unique fragment that can be "binned" based on its size (bp) and the specific primer pair used to generate it. This binning process enables rapid data analysis and gene identification. Celera 's proprietary software assigns sizing and quantitation measures to each peak in the electropherogram. Internal size standards allow direct comparison of electropherograms from treated samples and controls. All 128 electropherograms from both the treated samples and the control samples are analyzed and compared automatically. Peaks (cDNA fragments) exhibiting a statistically significant difference between sample and control are flagged and quantitated. The two steps of purification leads to a requirement for large amounts of starting material (i.e. >200μg) . The small number of sub-reactions or subdivisions (128) leads to difficulties assigning known sequences to fragments (since many genes will run as doublets with other genes, i.e. will appear as fragments with the same size) . Increasing the number of frames would at the same time increase the required amount of starting material even more. Another method described in US patent 6010850 and 5712126 uses a Y-shaped adaptor to suppress non-3 ' fragments in the PCR. Thus, this cDNA is digested with a restriction enzyme and ligated to a Y-shaped adapter. The Y-shaped adapter enables selective amplification of 3 ' -fragments . However, since the entire pool of cDNA is present, there are numerous opportunities for primers to hybridize non-specificall . Digital Gene Technologies (http://www.dgt.com/) provide display of unique 3 ' -fragments . The method (US patent 5459037) involves isolating and subcloning 3 ' -fragments, growing the subcloned fragments as a library in E. coli, extracting the plasmids, converting the inserts to cRNA and then back to DNA and then PCR amplifying. Both the above and this method is based on the use of a multiplex PCR (i.e. specific primers each protruding a few bases into unknown sequence; those bases varied across multiple reactions; each such reaction analyzed separately on a gel or capillary) to split the reaction in enough parts to be able to separate most bands from each other. This protocol achieves the objective of requiring relatively small amount of starting material while still purifying 3' fragments, allowing a more stringent PCR. However, this is at the expense of a very elaborate and time-consuming protocol requiring subcloning, library production and re-purification of cDNA fragments from bacteria. A further method (WO 97/29211) describes profiling complementary DNA prepared from the total RNA sample, by digesting with a single restriction enzyme. Adaptors are hybridised to both ends of the fragments, after which the fragments are amplified using primer DNA sequences having one, two or three nucleotides hybridising specifically to a subset of the complementary DNA molecules. Increasing the number of specific nucleotides increases the number of subdivisions. However, mismatching of primers can occur, decreasing the accuracy of fragment identification. W097/29211 describes a specific process which can be used to reduce mismatching. In the early stages of amplification a primer is used which comprises a single specific base; subsequently, in later cycles, primers with two specific bases are introduced, so as to progressively increase selectivity. WO99/42610 discloses an approach in which some degree of subdivision is achieved by the adaptors themselves. The initial restriction digestion is carried out with an enzyme which cuts at a site distinct from its recognition site (a Type IIS enzyme) , and which thus leaves variable a overhang depending on the sequence of the target cDNA. Adaptors with variable sequences can then be ligated to these overhangs, thus subdividing the reaction. Various other techniques have been used in so-called DNA fingerprinting . It is clear that PCR-based methods give superior quantitative data with sensitivity and reproducibility that far exceed those of hybridisation-based methods, especially for samples amplified with a single primer pair. Previously this has come at the expense of not being able to identify the quantified genes with high confidence. Differential display (Liang and Pardee, 1992) relies on physical identification by excising fragments and sequencing them. Recent improvements (e.g. Digital Gene Technology) have introduced simple database lookup to attempt identification. One of the main difficulties with simple database look-up, as discussed above, is that multiple genes can give rise to identical fragments. Attempts have been made to overcome this problem by increasing the number of subreactions. However, there are a number of further difficulties of simple database look-up which are not adequately addressed by increasing the number of subdivisions. Firstly, size calling of fragments in capillary or gel electrophoresis is imperfect, introducing an uncertainty about fragment lengths on the order of +/- 3 basepairs. Secondly, there can be uncertainty about the exact position of the 3' -end of database sequences. The degree of this uncertainty often exceeds 10 basepairs, and is sometimes as much as several hundred bases. The profiles of gene expression in any given cell determine its life processes and thereby directly reflect the properties and functions of the cell alone or in a multicellular organism. A large scale analysis of the global expression pattern during development and in the adult in different tissues and cells provides expression atlases of all genes expressed in that cell/tissue. Such atlases provide important information on gene function and further our understanding of normal biological processes in organisms. They also provide information on what is necessary for driving cells to a particular fate (i.e., for example, the identification of all genes exclusively expressed during dopaminergic neuron specification and differentiation) . They also provide a powerful tool for gene discovery. It is generally believed that much disease behaviour is dictated by the altered expression of hundreds to thousands of genes and that global gene expression profiling will provide a powerful tool to characterise the disease behaviour and clinical consequences, responsiveness to different drugs, and predicted disease outcome. This has so far been proven correct for cancer (Alizadeh et al . , 2000; Golub et al . , 1999; Perou et al., 1999). A fast and cheap global gene expression profiling technique would provide the means to rapidly identify the critical diagnostic genes. Such information may thereafter be used for diagnosis using a small scale analysis using for instance the real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) . Drugs are often identified in high throughput screens by selection of a single/few properties. Thus, a primary molecular target is identified but the full pathway as well as secondary targets of the drug is unknown. The other actions and consequences of the drug may be beneficial or harmful. The identification of the full biological pathway of action of drugs or drug candidates is therefore a problem of commercial and human importance. Global gene expression profiling would provide a fast and inexpensive approach to characterising drug activities and cellular pathways affected by drugs. In the present invention, double-stranded cDNA is generated from mRNA in a sample. This double-stranded cDNA is subject to restriction enzyme digestion to provide digested double-stranded cDNA molecules, each having a cohesive end provided by the restriction enzyme digestion. A population of adaptors is ligated to the cohesive ends of each of the digested double-stranded cDNA molecules, thereby providing double-stranded template cDNA molecules each comprising a first strand and a second strand, wherein the first strand of the double-stranded template cDNA molecules each comprise a 3' terminal adaptor oligonucleotide and the second strand of the double-stranded template cDNA molecules each comprise a 3' terminal polyA sequence. These double-stranded template cDNA molecules are then purified. There is thus provided a substantially pure population of cDNA fragments having a sequence complementary to a 3' end of an mRNA. Purification of the double-stranded template cDNA molecules may be achieved by any suitable means available to the skilled person. For example, the polyA or polyT sequence at one end of the cDNA molecule may be tagged with biotin, allowing purification of these double-stranded template cDNA molecules by binding to streptavadin-coated beads. Alternatively, • isolation of these double-stranded template cDNA molecules may be achieved by hybridisation selection, dependent on binding to an oligoT and/or oligoA probe, prior to PCR. Preferably, the method also comprises purifying digested double- stranded cDNA comprising a strand having a 3' terminal polyA sequence, prior to ligating the adaptor oligonucleotides. This has the advantage of preventing non-specific ligation of adaptors. Again, this may employ any of the methods available to the skilled person, including purification by biotin tagging, as described above. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the 3' ends of the cDNA sequence are immobilised prior to restriction digestion. In this embodiment, one end of the cDNA generated from the mRNA is anchored to a solid support (such as beads, e.g. magnetic or plastic, or any other solid support that can be retained while washing, for instance by centrifugation or magnetism, or a microfabricated reaction chamber with sub-chambers for the subdivision procedure, where chemicals are washed through the chambers) by means of oligoT at the 5' end - complementary to polyA originally at the 3' end of the mRNA molecules. The other end of the cDNA sequence is subject to restriction enzyme digestion, and an adaptor is ligated to the free (digested) end. Purification of the above described digested double-stranded cDNA molecules or double-stranded template cDNA molecules may thus be achieved by washing away excess materials, while retaining the desired molecules on the solid support. PCR is performed using primers that anneal at the ends of the cDNA - one designed to anneal to the adaptor at the 3' end of one strand of the cDNA, the other containing oligodT to anneal to polyA at the 3 ' end of the other strand of the cDNA (corresponding to the original polyA in the mRNA) . For use with a Type II enzyme, each primer includes a variable nucleotide or sequence of nucleotides that will amplify a subset of cDNA' s with complementary sequence - either adjacent to the adaptor for one strand or adjacent to the polyA for the other strand. For a Type IIS enzyme, adaptors are employed that will ligate with the possible different cohesive ends generated when the enzyme cuts the double-stranded DNA. Thus a population of adaptors may be employed to be complementary to all possible cohesive ends within the population of DNA after cutting/digestion by the Type IIS enzyme. Primers are used in the PCR that anneal with the adaptors . Primers may be labelled, and the labels may correspond to the relevant A, T, C or G nucleotide at a corresponding position in the relevant primer variable region. This means that double- stranded DNA produced in the PCR is labelled, and that the combination of the label and the length of the product DNA provides a characteristic signal. Otherwise, the combination of length of the product and (i) PCR primer used for a Type II enzyme digest or (ii) adaptor used for a Type IIS digest, provides a characteristic signal. From this, it should be understood that each gene gives rise to a single fragment and each complete pattern thus shows each gene once. The pattern may be characteristic of the sample. A pattern of signals generated for a sample, or one or more individual signals identified as differing between samples, may be compared with a pattern generated from a database of known sequences to identify sequences of interest. Patterns generated from different cells or the same cells under different conditions or stages of differentiation or cell cycle, or transformed (tumorigenic) cells and normal cells, can be compared and differences in the pattern identified. This allows for identification of sequences whose expression is involved in cellular processes that differ between cells or in the same cells under different conditions or stages of differentiation or cell cycle or between normal and tumorigenic cells. However, each fragment in a pattern may correspond to multiple genes that happen to give rise to fragments of the same length occurring in the same sub-reaction. These multiple genes, which will appear as doublets during analysis, cannot be distinguished by a simple database look-up. In order to increase the number of genes which can be unambiguously identified by the procedure, a second, independent pattern may be obtained using a different restriction enzyme. This allows the patterns to be compared to a database of signals determined or predicted for known mRNAs using a combinatorial identification algorithm. This greatly increases the number of genes which can be unambiguously identified, for reasons discussed under the section "fragment identification". The combinatorial algorithm can be performed by a computer as follows : 1. All the genes in the database which correspond to a fragment in each experiment are listed. This forms a list of possibly expressed genes for each experiment. 2. Then for each experiment, the genes which definitely do not correspond to a fragment are listed (i.e. those which should give a fragment of a length which was not found in the experiment) . This forms a list of definitely unexpressed genes for each experiment. 3. The unexpressed genes in each experiment are then removed from the list of possibly expressed genes in each other experiment . 4. The result is a list for each experiment where in most cases each fragment retains a single candidate gene identification. A preferred algorithm allows both identification and quantification of the fragments. This embodiment may be especially suitable when all or most genes in an organism have been identified, and can be performed as follows: 1. All the genes in the database which correspond to a fragment in each experiment are listed. This forms a list of possibly expressed genes for each experiment. For each fragment in each experiment an equation is written of the form Fi = mi + m 2 + m 3 , where 1, 2, 3 etc are the id's of the genes and Fi is the intensity of the signal from the fragment. Each gene which may correspond to a fragment peak in the electrophoresis appears as a term on the right-hand side. For example, if a peak at 162 bp corresponds to genes 234, 647 and 78 in the database, and it has intensity 2546, then the corresponding equation is written: 2546 = m 234 + m. 64 + m s 2. Then for each experiment, the genes which definitely do not correspond to a fragment are listed (i.e. those which should give a fragment of a length which was not found in the experiment) . This forms a list of definitely unexpressed genes for each experiment. For each gene on that list, an equation is written of the form: 0 = m 657 Where 657 is the gene id, as above. 3. A system of simultaneous equations is thus obtained with m (= the number of genes in the organism) unknowns and n < km equations (where k is the number of experiments) . If all genes run as singlets in all experiments then n = km because each gene will appear in its own equation. The more they run as doublets or multiplets the smaller n will be. As long as n > m, however, the system is over-determined and can thus be solved using standard numerical methods to find a least-squares solution. For example, the backslash operator in MATLAB can be used. 4. The solution of the system gives for each gene the best approximation of its expression level. The solution may be the least-squares solution. The more experiments that are performed, the better the approximation will be. Errors can be estimated by computing residuals (that is, by inserting the estimated gene activities in the equations to obtain calculated peak intensities and comparing those to the measured intensities) . Simulations show that a system of 100 000 equations in 50 000 unknowns can be solved in 16 hours on a regular PC. The algorithm will produce a profile of the mRNAs present in a sample. The profiles for two different cell types or the same cells type under different conditions or different stages of the cell cycle may be compared. This allows identification of the sequences which are differentially expressed in the two cell types. Furthermore, quantitative as well as qualitative differences in expression may be identified. In a method of the invention as disclosed herein, a restriction enzyme is generally selected such that one obtains a size distribution which can be readily separated and length- determined with the fragment analysis method employed. The distribution of isolated 3' end fragments obtained by cutting with a restriction enzyme is proportional to 1/x where x is the length. The scale of the distribution depends on the probability of cutting. If an enzyme cuts once in 4096 (six base pair recognition sequence) , the distribution will extend too far for current capillary electrophoresis methods. 1/1024 or 1/512 is preferred. Haell cuts 1/1024 because of its degenerate recognition motif. Fokl cuts 1/512 because it recognizes five base pairs in either forward or reverse directions. A 4bp-cutter cuts 1/256, which creates a too compressed distribution where doublets are more likely to occur. Thus enzymes like Haell and Fokl are preferred. Thus a restriction enzyme employed in preferred embodiments may cut double-stranded DNA with a frequency of cutting of 1/256 - 1/4096 bp, preferably 1/512 or 1/1024 bp. Where the restriction enzyme is a Type II restriction enzyme, it is preferred to use Haell, Apol, XhoII or Hsp 921. Where the restriction enzyme is a Type IIS restriction enzyme, it is preferred to use Fokl, Bbvl or Alw261. Other suitable enzymes are identified by REBASE (rebase.neb.com). Preferably, the restriction enzyme digests double-stranded DNA to provide a cohesive end of 2-4 nucleotides. For a Type IIS restriction enzyme a cohesive end of 4 nucleotides is preferred. As discussed, more information can be obtained by generating an additional pattern for the sample using a second, or second and third, different Type II or Type IIS restriction enzyme or enzymes. In each first primer used for PCR following digestion with a Type II enzyme, there may be a single variable nucleotide, or a variable nucleotide sequence of more than one nucleotide, e.g. two or three. At each position in a variable sequence, first primers may be provided such that each of A, C, G and T is represented in the population. In each second primer (comprising oligo dT) , n may be 0, 1 or 2. No variable nucleotide is need in the primers used for PCR where a Type IIS restriction enzyme is employed because variability in the adaptor sequence is provided by the cohesive end. Generally, where a Type IIS restriction enzyme is employed a population of adaptors is provided such that all possible cohesive ends for the restriction enzyme are represented in the population, and each adaptor may be ligated to a fraction of the sample in a separate reaction vessel. The adaptor used in each reaction vessel will then be known and combination of this information with the length of double-stranded product DNA molecules provides the desired characteristic pattern. In a preferred embodiment, when ligating adaptors, the adaptors may be blocked on one strand, e.g., chemically. This may be achieved using a blocking group such as a 3' deoxy oligonucleotide, or a 5' oligonucleotide in which the phosphate group has been replace by nitrogen, hydroxyl or another blocking moiety. This allows ligation at the other, unblocked strand and can be used to improve specificity. A specificity greater than 250:1 can be obtained. PCR can proceed from the single ligated strand. In addition, ligation conditions have been identified which improve ligation specificity and/or efficiency, as described in the materials and methods. It has been found that these conditions are advantageous in achieving specificity in the ligation of adaptors with up to four variable base pairs. For convenience, multiple adaptors may be combined in a single reaction vessel, in which case each different adaptor in a given vessel (with a different end sequence complementary to a cohesive end within the population of possible cohesive ends provided by the Type IIS restriction enzyme digestion) comprises a different primer annealing sequence. For instance three different adaptors may be combined in one reaction vessel. Corresponding first primers are then employed, and these may be labelled to distinguish between products arising from the respective different adaptor oligonucleotides. Where a Type II enzyme is used, the first primers may be labelled, although where individual polymerase chain reaction amplifications are performed in separate reaction vessels there is already knowledge of which first primer is used. Otherwise, labelling provides convenient information on which first primer sequence is providing which double-stranded DNA product molecule. Conveniently, three different first primer PCR amplifications can be performed in each reaction vessel, with each first primer being labelled appropriately (optionally with employment of a labelled size marker) . Separation may employ capillary or gel electrophoresis. A single label may be employed per reaction, with four dyes per capillary or lane, one of which may carry a size marker. Thus, a pattern characteristic of a population of mRNAs in a first sample is obtained. As discussed elsewhere, a first pattern characteristic of a population of mRNA molecules present in a first sample may be compared with a second pattern characteristic of a population of mRNA molecules present in a second sample. A difference may be identified between said first pattern and said second pattern, and a nucleic acid whose expression leads to the difference between said first pattern and said second pattern may be identified and/or obtained. As a supplement or alternative, a signal provided for a double- stranded product DNA by combination of its length and first primer or adaptor oligonucleotide used may be compared with a database of signals for known expressed mRNA' s . A known expressed mRNA in the sample may be identified. The protocol can then repeated using a different restriction enzyme, so as to obtain a second, independent pattern for the first sample. The patterns generated by at least two different Type II or Type IIS restriction enzymes in different experiments are compared with a database of signals determined or predicted for known mRNAs, by means of the algorithm described above, thus providing more powerful fragment identification. The resultant profile can then be compared to the profile of a sample from a different cell type or from the same cell type under different conditions or at a different stage of differentiation, so as to identify quantitative or qualitative differences in the sequences expressed by the two cell populations. Precautions and optimising steps can be taken by the ordinary skilled person in accordance with common practice. Labels may conveniently be fluorescent dyes, allowing for the relevant signals (e.g. on a gel) following electrophoresis to separate double-stranded product DNA molecules on the basis of their length to be read using a normal sequencing machine. A library of 3' end cDNA fragments can be prepared on a solid support, where each transcript is represented by a unique fragment. The library can be displayed on a capillary electrophoresis machine after PCR amplification with fluorescent primers . In order to reduce the number of bands in each electropherogram, the initial library may be subdivided, e.g. using one of the following two methods. For libraries generated with an ordinary Type II enzyme, an adapter is ligated to the cohesive end of each fragment. The adaptor comprises a portion complementary to the cohesive end generated by the restriction enzyme and a portion to which a primer anneals. One primer annealing sequence may be used, or a small number, e.g. 2 or 3, of different sequences showing minimal cross-hybridisation, to allow that small number of independent reactions to proceed in a single reaction vessel. The library is then split into a number of different reaction vessels and a subset of the fragments in each vessel is PCR amplified using primers compatible with the 3' (oligo-T) and 5' (universal adapter) ends carrying a few extra bases protruding into unknown sequence. Thus in each reaction a different combination of protruding bases causes selective amplification of a subset of the fragments . For libraries generated by Type IIS enzymes - which cleave outside their recognition sequence giving a gene-specific cohesive end - the library is split into a number of different reaction vessels. A set of adapters is designed containing a universal invariant part and a variable cohesive end such that all possible cohesive ends are represented in the set. In each reaction vessel a single such adapter is ligated. The subset of fragments in each vessel carrying adapters is then amplified with universal high-stringency primers. In both methods, the resulting reactions may be run separately on a capillary electrophoresis machine which quantifies the fragment length and abundance, indicating the relative abundances of the corresponding mRNAs in the original sample. For each fragment, the following are known: - the restriction enzyme site used to generate (e.g. 4-8 bases); - its length; - sub-reaction (given by the subdivision method, but generally corresponding to an additional 4-6 bases) . If the subdivision is done judiciously, enough information is generated to identify each fragment with known sequences from a database This may be performed by selecting a combination of fragment length distribution (given by the enzyme) and subdivision (given by the protruding bases and/or by the cohesive end (Type IIS) ) . As few as two bases (16 sub-reactions) or as many as 8 (65536 sub- reactions) can be used; if a small genome is being analyzed, a small number of sub-reactions may be enough; if a high- throughput analysis method is available a large number of sub- reaction allows the separation of very large numbers of genes. In practice, between four and six bases are usually used. Brief Description of the Figures Figure 1 outlines an approach to production of a single pattern characteristic of a sample, employing a Type II restriction enzyme (Haell) . Figure 2 outlines an alternative approach to production of a single pattern characteristic of a sample, employing a Type IIS restriction enzyme (Fokl) . Figure 3 shows the results of an experiment assessing specificity of ligation for an adaptor blocked on one strand. A single template oligonucleotide was used, having a four base pair single-stranded overhang, and adaptors were designed having a single stranded region exactly complementary to this, or with 1, 2 or 3 mismatches. Adaptors were ligated to the template oligonucleotide, and the products were amplified using PCR. Figure 4 outlines an embodiment of the method for generating a full profile for the mRNA molecules present in a sample, using a combinatorial algorithm of the invention. Steps I to VII are shown . In step I, mRNA is captured on magnetic beads carrying an oligodT tail. In step II, a complementary DNA strand is synthesized, still attached to the beads . In step III, the mRNA is removed, and a second cDNA strand is synthesized. The double-stranded cDNA remains covalently attached to the beads. In step IV, the double-stranded cDNA is split into two separate pools . Each pool is digested with a different restriction enzyme. The sequence of cDNA corresponding to the 3' end of the mRNA remains attached to the beads . In step V, adaptors are ligated to the digested end of the cDNA. In this embodiment of the invention, 256 different adaptors are ligated in 256 separate reactions. Also in this embodiment of the invention, the adaptors are blocked on one strand, so that PCR proceeds only from the other strand. In step VI, each of the fractions is amplified with a single PCR primer pair. In step VII, the PCR products are subject to capillary electrophoresis. This produces a independent pattern for each of the pools, digested by each of the restriction enzymes. These patterns can then be compared using a combinatorial algorithm of the invention, to identify the genes expressed in the sample. EXAMPLE 1 Method I, using PCR primers wi th one or more bases protruding into unknown sequence to generate subsets (frames) RNA was purified according to standard techniques. The RNA was denatured at 65°C for 10 minutes and added to Oligotex beads (Qiagen) and annealed to the oligo dT template covalently bound to the beads. A first strand cDNA synthesis was carried out using the mRNA attached to the Oligotex beads as template. This first strand cDNA therefore becomes covalently attached to the^ Oligotex beads (Hara et al . (1991) Nucleic Acids Res . 19, 7097). Second strand synthesis was performed as described in Hara et al above. Briefly, the first strand was synthesized by reverse transcriptase (RT) from mRNA primed with oligo-dT. The second strand was produced by an RNase, which cleaves the mRNA, and a DNA Polymerase, which primes off small RNA fragments which are left by the RNase, displacing other RNA fragments as it goes along. The double-stranded cDNA attached to the Oligotex beads was purified and restriction digested with Haell. Haell was used. Alternative enzymes include Apol, XjoII and Hsp921 (Type II) and Fokl, Bbvl and Alw261 (Type IIS) . The cDNA was again purified retaining the fraction of cDNA attached to the Oligotex. An adaptor was ligated to the Haell site of the cDNA. The adaptor contained sequences complementary to the Haell site and extra nucleotides to provide a universal template for PCR of all cDNAs . The cDNA was then again purified to remove salt, protein and unligated adaptors . The cDNA was divided into 96 equal pools in a 96 well dish. In order to PCR amplify only a subset of the purified fragments in each well, a multiplex PCR was designed as follows. The 5' primers were complementary to the universal template but extended two bases into the unknown sequence. The first of these bases was either thymine or cytosine, corresponding to a wobbling base in the Haell site, while the second was any of guanine, cytosine, thymine or adenosine. Each 5' primer was fluorescently coupled by a carbon spacer to fluorochromes detectable by the ABI Prism capillary sequencer. The fluorochrome was matched to the second base. Each well received four primers with all four fluorochromes (and hence all four second bases) ; half of the wells received primers with a thymine first base, half with a cytosine first base. The 3' primers were oligo dT and therefore complementary to the polyadenylation sequence of the original mRNA. Each primer was designed with three bases extending into unknown sequence, the first of which was either guanine, adenosine or cytosine, while the other two was any of the four bases. Each well received a single 3' primer. Thus, the PCR reaction was multiplexed into 384 sub-reactions: 96 wells with four fluorochrome channels in each. A standard PCR reaction mix was added, including buffer, nucleotides, polymerase. The PCR was run on a Peltier thermal cycler (PTC-200) . Each primer pair used in this experiment recognises and amplifies only genes containing the unique 4 nucleotide combination of that primer pair. The size of the PCR fragment of each of these genes corresponds to the length between the polyadenylation and the closest Haell site. The resulting PCR products were isopropanol precipitated and loaded onto an ABI prism capillary sequencer. The PCR fragments representing the expressed genes were thus, separated according to size and the fluorescence of each fragment quantitated using the detector and software supplied with the ABI Prism. The combination of primers used lead to a theoretical mean of ~70 PCR products in each fluorescent channel and sample (based on 20% genes expressed in a given sample and a total of 140,000 genes). Analysis of statistical size distribution of 3 ' fragments including the polyadenylation generated from known genes following Haell restriction digestion, showed that an estimated 80% can be uniquely identified based on frame and length of fragment alone. The ABI prism has 0.5% resolution between 1- 2,000 nucleotides. Allowing for this uncertainty, ~60% of the expressed genes can be uniquely identified. Using an additional parallel experiment using the same protocol but replacing the Haell enzyme with another 5 base cutting restriction enzyme increases the theoretical limit to ~96% and the practical limit (given the resolution of the ABI Prism) to ~85% of all transcripts in the genome. The level of each mRNA in the sample corresponds to the signal strength in the ABI prism. Combining the information unique to each fragment in this analysis, i.e. 8.5 nucleotides (including the Haell recognition sequence) and the size from poly adenylation to the Haell restriction site, the identity (EST, gene or mRNA identity) of each mRNA can thus be established. A searchable database on all known genes and unigene EST clusters was constructed as follows. Unigene, a public database containing clusters of partially homologous fragments was downloaded (although the algorithm will work with any set of single or clustered fragments) . For each cluster, all fragments containing a polyA signal and a polyA sequence were scanned for an upstream Haell site. If no Haell site was found, then the fragments were extended towards 5' using sequences from the same cluster until a Haell site was found. Then, the frame was determined from the base pairs adjacent to the Haell and the polyA sequences and the length of a Haell digest was calculated. The frame and length were used as indexes in the database for quick retrieval. The output from the ABI Prism was run against the database, thus allowing the identification of expression level of all known genes and ESTs expressed in the RNA of this study. The identification in a cell or tissue of virtually all genes expressed as well as quantification of their expression levels was accomplished by a simple double-strand cDNA reaction and a 3 hour run on a 96 capillary sequencer. EXAMPLE 2 Liga tion of mul tiple adapters to cohesive ends generated by a Type IIS enzyme to generate subsets (frames) , followed by PCR wi th universal primers In another set of experiments the method was simplified and an increased resolution was achieved. cDNA was synthezised on solid support as described in Example 1, but this time using magnetic DynaBeads (as described in materials and methods) . The cDNA was then cleaved with a class—IIS endonuclease with a recognition sequence of 4 or 5 nucleotides . Class IIS restriction endonucleases cleave double-stranded DNA at precise distances from their recognition sequences (at 9 and 13 nucleotides from the recognition sequence in the example of the class IIS restriction endonuclease Fokl) . Other examples of class IIS restriction endonucleases include Bbvl, SfaNI and Alw26l and others described in Szybalski et al . (1991) Gene, 100, 13-26. The 3 'parts of the cDNA were then purified using the solid support as described above. The cDNA was then divided into 256 fractions and a different adaptor was ligated to the fragments in each fraction. For example, Fokl cleavage leads to four nucleotides 5 'overhang, with each overhang consisting of a gene-specific but arbitrary combination of bases. One adaptor carrying a single possible nucleotide combination in these four positions was used in each fraction i.e. a total of 256 adapters and fractions. Highly specific ligation of adaptors bearing a given nucleotide combination to the complementary nucleotide sequence in the fragment population was achieved by chemically blocking the adaptors on one strand, by using a deoxy oligonucleotide. As a result, ligation was forced to occur only on the other strand. The specificity of ligation was tested using a single template, bearing a four base pair overhang. Adaptors were designed which were either exactly complementary to this overhang, or which had 1, 2 or 3 mismatches. Adaptors were ligated to the template, PCR was performed, and the relative amount of product obtained from each of the adaptor sequences was assessed. It was found that high specificity was achieved for an adaptor blocked by including a deoxy nucleotide at the 3' end of the upper strand (and also at the 3' end of the lower strand in order to prevent interference at the PCR step) . The results are shown in Figure 3. The sequence GCCG is exactly complementary to the sequence of the template oligonucleotide. It can be seen that the amount of product bearing this sequence is approximately 250 times greater than the amount of product bearing sequences with one or more mismatches. Hence it can be seen that the ligation reaction proceeds with high specificity. Adaptors which were chemically blocked by introducing at the 5' end of the lower strand an oligonucleotide in which the phosphate group is replaced by a nitrogen group were also found to improve ligation specificity, although the degree of improvement was found to be less than with the adaptors described above. In addition, ligation conditions which conferred high reaction efficiency were used (as described in materials and methods) . Again taking advantage of the solid support, the cDNA was then purified to remove excess non-ligated adaptor. PCR was performed on the 256 fractions using one universal primer complementary to the constant part of the adapter sequence and one complementary to the poly-A tail. The 3' primers were oligo dT and therefore complementary to the polyadenylation sequence of the original mRNA. Each primer was designed with a base extending into unknown sequence, guanine, adenosine or cytosine. (A second or still further base may be included, being any of guanine, adenosine, thymine or cytosine.) Each well received a mixture of the three possible 3' primers. This ensured that the 3' primer would always direct the polymerase to the beginning of the poly-A tail, giving a defined and reproducible fragment length. The advantage of this second protocol is that the splitting into multiple frames occurs at the ligation step, not the PCR, allowing the use of high-stringency universal primers in the PCR. This leads to improved specificity and reproducibility. Another advantage is that a set of 256 adapters compatible with any 4-base overhang can be reused in multiple experiments with Type IIS enzymes which recognize different sequences but still give four base overhangs . Thus for each length of overhang, a single set of adapters will suffice. The resulting PCR products were purified and loaded onto an ABI prism capillary sequencer. The PCR fragments representing the expressed genes were thus separated according to size and the fluorescence of each fragment quantified using the detector and software supplied with the ABI Prism. Four separate frames may be run in each reaction vessel using different fluorophores because the ABI Prism has four detection channels. Four different universal forward primers (5' end) have been designed with no cross-hybridization between them. The use of these primers allowed the 256 reactions to be reduced to 64. In an alternative embodiment, three primers and three adaptors are employed, allowing for one channel in the ABI Prism to be used for a size reference. The total number of reactions is then 86. It is also desirable to increase the annealing temperature of the oligo-dT primer. This was enabled by adding a tail with an arbitrary sequence (not cross-hybridizing with any of the forward primers) and mixing the long primer containing oligo-dT with a short primer identical with the arbitrary sequence and having a high melting point. The first few cycles were then be performed at low temperature, at which only the oligo-dT primers anneal, after which all fragments had the tail added. This then allowed for subsequent cycles to be performed at higher temperature (at which only the short primer anneals) relying on the longer tail being present. This approach increases specificity of PCR and reduces background. The combination of primers used leads to a theoretical mean of ~80 PCR products in each fluorescent channel and sample (based on 20% genes expressed in a given sample and a total of 100 000 transcripts) . Analysis of statistical size distribution of 3 'fragments including the polyadenylation generated from known genes following Fokl restriction digestion, provides that an estimated 67% can be uniquely identified based on frame and length of fragment alone. Using an additional parallel experiment using the same protocol but replacing the Fokl enzyme with another 5 base cutting class IIS restriction enzyme increases the theoretical limit to ~89%; a third experiment yields ~99% of all transcripts in the genome. These numbers are under-estimates since in practice a gene that runs as a doublet in two experiments can still be identified as unique if at least one of its doublet partners is not expressed (a 96% chance) using the combinatorial algorithms of this invention. This and similar effects have been disregarded in the above calculations . Combining the information unique to each fragment in this analysis, i.e. 9 nucleotides (including the Fokl recognition sequence and cleavage site) and the size from polyadenylation to the Fokl restriction site obtained from the capillary sequencer, the identity (EST, gene or mRNA identity) of each mRNA can thus be established. A searchable database on all known genes and unigene EST clusters was constructed as described above. Fragment identification Combinatorial algorithms of the invention, based on multiple independent patterns for a sample, offer a number of advantages for gene identification. Firstly, the more experiments are performed the likelier it is that a given gene runs as a singlet fragment in at least one of them and can thus be unambiguously identified. Even if a given gene runs as a doublet in all experiments, it can still be identified if one of its doublet partners in one of the experiments should run as a singlet in another experiment and is absent there. For example, if there is a fragment in experiment I at 162 bp corresponding to genes A and B, and one in experiment II at 367 bp corresponding to A and C, then one can look up C in experiment I (if it should run as a singlet there, say at 214 bp, and it is absent, i.e. there is no peak at 214 bp, then the peak at 162 bp in I can be identified as A) and B in experiment II. This simple procedure greatly increases the number of genes which can be unambiguously identified even when only two experiments have been performed. Computer simulations using estimated error rates from an ABI Prism capillary electrophoresis machine indicate that 85-99% of all genes can be correctly identified even in the presence of normal fragment length errors . Secondly, both of these combinatorial algorithms can be used to overcome uncertainties about fragment sizes or gene 3' -end lengths. This is because as long as the number of fragment peaks obtained from the sample plus the number of genes which can be eliminated as definitely not expressed is greater than the total number of candidate genes (i.e., the number of genes in the organism) , the algorithms will be successful in assigning a gene to each fragment . In terms of the mathematical form of the algorithm, the system can be solved if the number of equations is greater than the number of candidate genes . Thus, the number of candidate genes can be increased, up to a point, without losing the ability to successfully choose the correct candidate for each fragment. In cases where the length of the fragment is unknown, matches to fragments having each of the possible fragment lengths can be added to the list of genes which may be present. Similarly, when the position of the 3' end in the database is unknown, all genes which could have a 3' end in the position indicated by the fragment can be added to the list of genes which may be present. The false positives are subsequently eliminated automatically by the algorithm, provided the above condition is fulfilled. The power of the system to eliminate false positives can be increased by performing" greater numbers of independent profiles, as this will increase both the number of fragments and the number of genes which can be eliminated as definitely not present. The optimum number of subdivisions can be determined. The purpose of subdividing the reaction is to reduce the number of fragment peaks which correspond to multiple genes. Two factors determine the number of doublets : the number of sub- reactions and the size distribution of fragments. The optimal size distribution depends on the detection method. Capillary electrophoresis has single-basepair resolution up to 500 bp and about 0.15% resolution after that. Thus a distribution extending too far would not be useful. But a narrow distribution may present difficulties as well, because then genes will begin to run as true doublets (with the exact same length) which cannot be resolved no matter what the resolution. The probability of finding a fragment of length n if you cut with an enzyme which cuts with a probability 1/512 is Pι(n) = (511/512) n (l/512) If the reaction is divided in 192 sub-reactions, the probability of finding a fragment of length n in a given subreaction is P 2 (n) = (511/512) n (l/512) (1/192) The probability of this fragment corresponding to a single gene from M possible genes is Puniqu e (n) = P 2 (n) (l-P 2 (n)) (M"1) In other words, this is the probability that one gene gives a fragment of that length and all others do not. The total number of genes which can be uniquely identified in a single experiment can be obtained by summing over all detectable lengths . Taking instrument imprecision into account, P un ique becomes Puni q u e ( n ) = P 2 (n) ( ( 1~P 2 ( n ) ) m~l ) ) < 1 + 2En > where E is the magnitude of the imprecision. This states that a unique gene can be identified if no other gene has the same length +/- a factor E. For example, if there are 50 000 genes in the human, our instrument has an error of 0.2% and can detect fragments up to 1000 bp, and we cut with an enzyme which cuts 1/512 of all sequences, subdividing in 192 subreactions, then we can identify 56% of all genes uniquely in a single experiment, 80% in two and 96% in three. In Mathematica, the number of uniquely identifiable genes can be calcuated as follows : Prob [n_] : = (511/512 ) Λ n * 1/512 * 1/192 Sum [ 50000 * Prob [n] ( ( l - Prob [n] ) Λ 50000 ) Λ l + 0 . 002n) , { n, 1 , 1000 } ] * 192 By varying the parameters one can quickly see the effects on identification probabilities . As noted above, if more experiments are performed, more powerful combinatorial identification methods can be used, but they all benefit from an increased number of singleton genes . DISCUSSION Most microarrays (except Affymetrix) are based on hybridisation to spotted cDNAs on a glass or membrane surface. This requires cloning, amplification and spotting of the cDNA of each gene in the genome for a comparable analysis to what can be performed in under one day using embodiments of the present invention. All microarrays require the prior knowledge of each gene such as the cloning and sequencing of cDNAs or an expressed sequence tag. Embodiments of the present invention allow identification and quantification of all genes expressed in the genome without any prior information on their existence. The Affymetrix microarray which at present allows quantification of expression of the largest number of genes in mammals cover at most 32,000 genes. Embodiments of the present invention can be applied to all genes in the genome. All microarray-based technologies are limited to the species the array is generated from and depend on an availability of sequence information for the species of interest. Embodiments of the present invention can be applied to all species from plants to mammals without any prior cDNA or DNA sequence information. Microarrays are often unable to differentiate between splice variants, and are always unable to detect rare alleles. Embodiments of the present invention allow for detection of the actual transcripts present in the sample. All microarray-based technologies are based on indirect measurement of quantities following DNA hybridisation. Real copy numbers can be quantitated using the present invention. Hybridization-based technologies depend on the highly unpredictable and non-linear nature of hybridization kinetics; embodiments of the present invention employ the exponential, reproducible competitive polymerase chain reaction. Because embodiments of the present invention are based on a kind of competitive PCR, i.e. all fragments in a reaction are amplified by the same primer pair (or a small number of very similar primer pairs) , errors are minimized. The invention allows the skilled worker to reproducibly detect about 2-fold differences in gene expression across a wide dynamic range (about 2.5 orders of magnitude); very competitive with other technologies . Because embodiments of the present invention are PCR-based, sensitivity can be traded for starting material. In other words, it is possible to start with a smaller amount of RNA and run a few extra PCR cycles. Because PCR is exponential, an extra cycle will cut material requirement in half while adding only about 2- 3% to the experimental variation. Useful data can thus be produced from as little as a few or even single cells, while accuracy can be increased using larger samples. Microarray-technology allowing quantification of gene expression of a significant percent of the genes is very expensive. Affymetrix microarrays covering a claimed 32,000 unique ESTs cost 4000 USD/experiment. Aspects and embodiments of the present invention will now be illustrated with reference to the following experimentation. Further aspects and embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art. MATERIALS AND METHODS Section 1 - employing Type II restriction enzyme Isolating mRNA from total RNA Isolate mRNA from 20 ug total RNA according to Oligotex protocol until pure mRNA is bound to the beads and washed clean. Spin down and resuspend in 20 ul distilled water. The suspension should contain 0.5 mg Oligotex. Split the reaction in 2x 10 ul . Heat denature at 70°C for 10 min, then chill quickly on ice. Synthesize first strand cDNA using each of the protocols below: First strand cDNA synthesis using AMV Add first-strand buffer: 5 ul 5x AMV buffer, 2.5 ul 10 mM dNTP, 2.5 ul 40 mM NaPyrophosphate, 0.5 ul RNase inhibitor, 2 ul AMV RT, 2.5 ul 5 mg/ml BSA. Incubate at 42°C for 60 min. Total volume: 25 ul . [Note: it may be better to run in 100 ul, to get a more dilute Oligotex suspension] Second strand cDNA synthesis using AMV Add 12.5 ul lOx AMV second-strand buffer (500 mM Tris pH 7.2, 900 mM KC1, 30 mM MgC12, 30 mM DTT, 5 mg/ml BSA), 29 U E Coli DNA Polymerase I, 1 U RNase H to a final volume of 125 ul with dH20. Incubate at 14°C for 2 hours. Restriction enzyme cleavage and dephosphorylation Spin down Oligotex/cDNA complexes and resuspend in 1.8 ul lOx Fokl buffer, 16.2 ul H20, 2 ul Fokl, 1 u Calf Intestinal Phosphatase (included to dephosphorylate cohesive ends to prevent self-ligation in the next step) . Incubate at 37°C for 1 hour. Spin down and remove supernatant for quality-control . Phosphatase deactivation Add 70 ul TE. Heat to 70°C for 10 minutes. Cool down to room temperature and leave for 10 minutes. Ligation Resuspend in 2 ul lOx ligation buffer, 100X adaptor, 2 ul ligase, H 2 0 to 20 ul . Incubate at RT for 2 hours. Spin down and wash with lOmM Tris (pH 7.6). Primer and adaptor design The adaptor is as follows (shown 5' to 3'). It consists of a long and a short strand which are complementary. The long strand has four extra bases complementary to the GCGC cohesive end generated by the Haell enzyme cleavage. 5' -GTCCTCGATGTGCGC-3' 5' -ACATCGAGGAC-3' The 5' primers are 5' -GTCCTCGATGTGCGCWN-3' , where W is A or T and N is A, C, G or T . There are 8 different 5' primers, labelled with a fluorochrome corresponding to the last base. The 3' primers are T 20 VNN, where V is A, G or C and N is A, G, C or T. That is, 25 thymines followed by three bases as shown. There are 48 different 3' primers. All combinations of 3' and 5' primers are used, or 384 in total. The 5' primers are pooled with respect to the last base (i.e. all four fluorochromes are run in the same reaction) , giving a total of 96 reactions. The primer combinations are predispensed into 96-well PCR plates . PCR amplification Resuspend in 768 ul PCR buffer (buffer, enzyme, dNTP), add 8 ul to each well of a premade primer-plate containing 2 ul primer- mix (four 5' primers and one 3' primer) per well. Using hot-start touchdown PCR, amplify each fraction as follows: Hot start Heat to 70°C Add Taq polymerase 10 cycles 94°C 30 s 60°C 30 s, reduced by 0.5°C each cycle 72°C 1 min 25 cycles 94°C 30 s 55°C 30 s 72°C 1 min Finally 72°C 5 min Cool down to 4°C The touchdown ramp annealing temperature may have to be adjusted up or down. The reaction should only proceed until the plateau phase has been reached; the 25 cycles may have to be adjusted. A rotating real-time PCR apparatus is preferred, to minimize temperature variation and to allow monitoring the plateau phase. With such a machine, Taq polymerase is loaded in the cap of each tube and the hot start is performed before the rotor is started, melting away the second strand from the Oligotex. When the rotor starts, the beads and the first strand are pelleted and Taq drops into the reaction mix at the same time. Quantification by capillary electrophoresis Load the 96-well plate on an ABI Prism 3700 setup for fragment analysis with a long capillary and long run time. The output is a table of fragment length (in base pairs) and peak height/area for each peak detected. Proceed to identification, e.g. as described above with reference to a database. Section 2 - employing Type IIS restriction enzyme Preparation of streptavidin Dynabeads (attaching the oligos to the beads) Wash 200 μl Dynabeads twice in 200 μl B&W buffer (Dynabeads) and then resuspend the beads in 400μl B&W buffer. Suspend 1250 pmol biotine T25 primer in 400 μl H 2 0 and mix with the beads. Incubate at RT for 15 min. Spin briefly, then remove 600 μl of the supernatent. Dispense the beads and place on a magnet for at least 30 seconds. Wash beads twice with 200 μl B&W, and then resuspend in 200μl B&W buffer. Binding the mRNA to the beads from total RNA Transfer 200μl of resuspended beads into a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube. Place on a magnet at least for 30 sec. Remove the supernatant and resuspend in lOOμl of binding buffer (20 M Tris- HC1, pH 7,5; 1,0 M LiCl; 2mM EDTA) . Repeat washing, and resuspend the beads in lOOμl of binding buffer. Adjust -75 μg of total RNA or 2.5 μg of mRNA to 100 μl with Rnase free water or 10 mM Tris-HCl. Heat to 65°C for 2 min. Mix the beads thoroughly with the preheated RNA solution. Anneal by rotating or otherwise mixing for 3-5 min at room temperature (rt) . Place on a magnet for at least 30 sec. Wash twice with 200 μl of washing buffer B (lOmM Tris-HCL pH7.5;0.15 MliCl; lmM EDTA) . First strand synthesis Wash the beads at least twice with 200 μl lx AMV buffer (Promega) using the magnet as described previously. Mix together 5 μl 5X AMV buffer; 2.5μl lOmM dNTP; 2.5 μl 40mM Na pyrophosphate; 0.5 μl RNase inhibitor; 2μl AMV RT (Promega) ; 1.25 μl lOmg/ l BSA; 11.25μl H 2 0 (Rnase free) (Total volume 25 μl) . Resuspend the beads in this mixture. Incubate at 42°C for 1 h, with mixing. Second strand synthesis Add 100 μl of second strand mixture (6.25μl IM Tris pH 7.5; 11.25 μl IM KC1; 15 μl MgCl 2 ; 3.75 μl DTT; 6.25 μl BSA; 1 μl Rnase H, 3μl DNA pol I; 53.5 μl H 2 0) (total volume lOOμl) directly to the 1 st strand reaction. Incubate at 14°C for 2 h, with mixing. Cleavage Wash the beads on magnet 2x with TE (lOmM TRIS, lmM EDTA, pH 7.5) and 2x with 100-200 μl NEB buffer. Resuspend in 30μl of NEB buffer Add 1 μl of the appropriate Type IIS enzyme and mix. Incubate at 37°C for 1-2 h, mixing frequently. Wash three times with TE in 1350 μl using the magnet as described above, and then twice with 1350 μl 2x ligation buffer. Resuspend in 1606 μl 2x ligase buffer with ligase enzyme. Adapter ligation (in 256 different vessels) Aliquot 6μl of cut template per well in 256 wells containing 30pmol adaptor in 4 μl for a total volume of 10 μl. Incubate lh at 37°C with mixing. Wash in TE 80μl 2x and dilute in 20μl H 2 0 Adaptor and primer design The adaptors in these embodiments are as follows (shown 5' to 3' ) . Each pair is composed of a short and a long strand, which are complementary. The long strands have four nucleotides complementary to the cohesive ends generated by the Fokl cleavage (a total of 4x4x4x4 = 256 possible adapters) . Labelled versions of the upper, shorter strands also serve as forward PCR primers . 5' -CCAAACCCGCTTATTCTCCGCAGTA-3' 5' -NNNNTACTGCGGAGAATAAGCGGGTTTGG-3' 5' -GTGCTCTGGTGCTACGCATTTACCG-3' 5' -NNNNCGGTAAATGCGTAGCACCAGAGCAC-3' 5' -CCGTGGCAATTAGTCGTCTAACGCT-3' 5' -NNNNAGCGTTAGACGACTAATTGCCACGG-3' Each of the adaptors is be blocked on one strand. This may be achieved by blocking the upper strand at the 3' end using a deoxy (dd) oligonucleotide, as shown below. 5' (OH) -CCAAACCCGCTTATTCTCCGCAGTddA-3' 5' (P) -NNNNTACTGCGGAGAATAAGCGGGTTTGG- (OH) 3' 5' (OH) -GTGCTCTGGTGCTACGCATTTACCddG-3' 5' (P)-NNNNCGGTAAATGCGTAGCACCAGAGCAC-(0H)3' 5' (OH) -CCGTGGCAATTAGTCGTCTAACGCddT-3' 5' (P) -NNNNAGCGTTAGACGACTAATTGCCACGG- (OH) 3' Alternatively, blocking may be achieved by replacing the phosphate group at the 5' end of the lower strand with a nitrogen, hydroxyl, or other blocking moiety. The reverse primers are as follows 5'-CTGGGTAGGTCCGATTTAGGCTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTV-3' 5' -CTGGGTAGGTCCGATTTAGGC-3' where V = A, C or G, for a total of three long reverse primers Universal PCR Add 18 ul PCR buffer (buffer, enzyme, dNTP, three universal adapter primers, anchored oligo-T primers) . Amplify each fraction as follows: Hot start Heat Add Taq at 70°C (or use heat-activated Taq) 2 cycles94°C 30 s50°C 30 s 72°C 1 min 25 cycles94°C 30 s61°C 30 s72°C 1 min Finallyl2°C 5 minCool down to 4°C A rotating real-time PCR apparatus is preferred, to minimize temperature variation and to allow monitoring the plateau phase. With such a machine, Taq polymerase is loaded in the cap of each tube and the hot start is performed before the rotor is started, melting away the second strand from the Oligotex. When the rotor starts, the beads and the first strand are pelleted and Taq drops into the reaction mix at the same time. Quantification by capillary electrophoresis Load the 96-well plate on an ABI Prism 3700 setup for fragment analysis with a long capillary and long run time. The output will be a table of fragment length (in base pairs) and peak height/area for each peak detected. REFERENCES Alizadeh et al. (2000) Nature 403, 503 - 511. Alwine et al . (1977) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 74, 5350-5354. Berk and Sharp (1977) Cell 12, 721-732. Bowtell (1999) [published erratum appears in Nat Genet 1999 Feb;21 (2) :241] . Nat Genet 21 , 25-32. Britton-Davidian et al . (2000) Nature 403, 158. Brown and Botstein (1999) Nat Genet 21 , 33-7. Cahill et al . (1999) Trends Cell Biol 9, M57-60. Cho et al. (1998) Mol Cell 2, 65-73. Collins et al . (1997) Science 278, 1580-1. Der et al. (1998) Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95, 15623-8. Duggan et al . (1999) Nat Genet 21 , 10-4. Golub et al . (1999) Science 286, 531-7. Iyer et al . (1999) Science 283, 83-7. Lander (1999) Nat Genet 21 , 3-4. Lengauer et al . (1998) Nature 396, 643-9. Liang and Pardee (1992) Science 257, 967-71. Lipshutz et al . (1999). High density synthetic oligonucleotide arrays. Nat Genet 21 , 20-4. McCormick (1999) Trends Cell Biol 9, M53-6. Okubo et al. (1992) Nat Genet 2, 173-9. Paabo (1999) Trends Cell Biol 9, M13-6. Perou et al . (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96, 9212-7. Schena et al . (1995) Science 270, 467-70. Schena et al. (1996) Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93, 10614-9. Southern et al . (1999) Nat Genet 21 , 5-9. Stoler et al . (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96, 15121-6. Szallasi (1998) Nat Biotechnol 16, 1292-3. Thomson and Esposito (1999) Trends Cell Biol 9, M17-20. Velculescu et al. (1995) Science 270, 484-7.

Claims: CLAIMS : 1. A method of providing a profile of mRNA molecules present in a sample, the method comprising: synthesizing a cDNA strand complementary to each mRNA using the mRNA as template, thereby providing a population of first cDNA strands; removing the mRNA; synthesizing a second cDNA strand complementary to each first strand, thereby providing a population of double-stranded cDNA molecules; digesting the double-stranded cDNA molecules with a Type II or Type IIS restriction enzyme to provide a population of digested double-stranded cDNA molecules, each digested double- stranded cDNA molecule having a cohesive end provided by the restriction enzyme digestion; ligating a population of adaptor oligonucleotides to the cohesive end of each of the digested double-stranded cDNA molecules, the adaptor oligonucleotides each comprising an end sequence complementary to a cohesive end and a primer annealing sequence, thereby providing double-stranded template cDNA molecules each comprising a first strand and a second strand wherein the first strand of the double-stranded template cDNA molecules each comprise a 3' terminal adaptor oligonucleotide and the second strand of the double-stranded template cDNA molecules each comprise a 3' terminal polyA sequence; purifying said double-stranded template cDNA molecules; performing polymerase chain reaction amplification on the double-stranded template cDNA molecules having a sequence complementary to a 3' end of an mRNA using a population of first primers and a population of second primers, wherein the first primers each comprise a sequence which anneals to a primer annealing sequence of an adaptor oligonucleotide; and where the restriction enzyme is a Type II enzyme the first primers each comprise at least one 3' terminal variable nucleotide and optionally more than one 3' terminal variable nucleotides wherein the variable nucleotide is, or at a corresponding position within the variable nucleotides each first primer has, a nucleotide selected from A, T, C and G, whereby the population of first primers primes synthesis in the polymerase chain reaction of first strand product DNA molecules each of which is complementary to the first strand of a template cDNA molecule that comprises adjacent to the primer annealing sequence within the first strand of the template cDNA molecule a nucleotide or sequence of nucleotides complementary to the variable nucleotide or nucleotides of a first primer within the population of first primers; or where the restriction enzyme is a Type IIS enzyme the first primers prime synthesis in the polymerase chain reaction of first strand product DNA molecules each of which is complementary to the first strand of a template cDNA molecule that comprises within the first strand of the template cDNA molecule a sequence of nucleotides complementary to an end sequence of an adaptor oligonucleotide in the population of adaptor oligonucleotides; the second primers comprise an oligoT sequence and a 3' variable portion conforming to the following formula: (G/C/A) (X)n wherein X is any nucleotide, n is zero, at least one or more than one; whereby the population of second primers primes synthesis in the polymerase chain reaction of second strand product DNA molecules each of which is complementary to the second strand of a template cDNA molecule that comprises adjacent to polyA within the second strand of the template cDNA molecule a nucleotide or nucleotides complementary to the variable portion of a second primer within the population of second primers; whereby the polymerase chain reaction amplification provides a population of double-stranded product DNA molecules each of which comprises a first strand product DNA molecule and a second strand product DNA molecule; separating double-stranded product DNA molecules on the basis of length; and detecting said double-stranded product DNA molecules; whereby a pattern for the population of mRNA molecules present in the sample is provided by combination of length of said double-stranded product DNA molecules and (i) first primer variable nucleotide or nucleotides, where a Type II restriction enzyme is employed, or (ii) adaptor oligonucleotide end sequence, where a Type IIS restriction enzyme is employed; generating an additional pattern for the sample using a second, different Type II or Type IIS restriction enzyme, and comparing the patterns generated using at least two different Type II or Type IIS restriction enzymes in separate experiments with a database of signals determined or predicted for known mRNA's, by: (i) listing all mRNA's in the database which may correspond to a double-stranded product DNA in each experiment, forming a list of mRNA molecules possibly present for each experiment, and (ii) for each experiment listing mRNA's which definitely do not correspond to a double-stranded product DNA molecule, forming a list of mRNA molecules definitely not present for each experiment, then (iϋ) removing the mRNA molecules definitely not present from the list of mRNA molecules possibly present for each experiment, and (iv) generating a list of mRNA molecules possibly present and mRNA molecules definitely not present by combining each list generated for each experiment in (iii) ; thereby providing a profile of mRNA molecules present in the sample. 2. A method according to claim 1 which comprises comparing the patterns generated using at least two different Type II or Type IIS restriction enzymes in separate experiments with a database of signals determined or predicted for known mRNA's, by: (i) listing all mRNA's in the database which may correspond to a double-stranded product DNA in each experiment, and forming a set of equations of the form Fi = mi + m 2 + m 3 , wherein Fi is the intensity of the signal from the fragment, the numerals are the mRNA identity and wherein each mRNA which may correspond to a double-stranded product DNA appears as a term on the right- hand side; (ii) for each experiment listing mRNA's which definitely do not correspond to double-stranded product DNA in each experiment, and writing for each gene which definitely does not correspond to a double-stranded product DNA in each experiment an equation of the form 0 = m 4 , wherein the numeral is the mRNA identity; (iii) combining the sets of equations to form a system of simultaneous equations wherein the number of equations is greater than the number of genes in the organism; (iv) determining an estimate of the expression level of each gene by solving the system of simultaneous' equations, thereby providing a profile of mRNA molecules present in the sample . 3. A method according to claim 1 or claim 2, comprising purifying digested double-stranded cDNA molecules which comprise a strand comprising a 3' terminal polyA sequence, prior to ligating the adaptor oligonucleotides. 4. A method according to claim 3, comprising: i) immobilising mRNA molecules in the sample on a solid support by annealing a polyA tail of each mRNA molecule to polyT oligonucleotides attached to a support, prior to synthesizing said first cDNA strand, removing the mRNA, and synthesizing said second cDNA strand, thereby providing a population of double- stranded cDNA molecules attached to the support; and ii) following digesting the double-stranded cDNA molecules to provide a population of digested double-stranded cDNA molecules attached to the support, purifying the digested double-stranded cDNA molecules attached to the support by washing away material not attached to the support, prior to ligating said population of adaptor oligonucleotides to the cohesive end of each of the digested double-stranded cDNA molecules; and iii) following ligating a population of adaptor oligonucleotides to the cohesive end of each of the digested double-stranded cDNA molecules to provide said double-stranded cDNA template molecules, purifying the double-stranded template cDNA molecules by washing away material not attached to the support, prior to performing said polymerase chain reaction amplification on the double-stranded cDNA molecules. 5. A method according to anyone of the proceeding claims wherein the restriction enzyme cuts double-stranded DNA with a frequency of cutting of 1/256 - 1/4096 bp. 6. A method according to claim 5 wherein the frequency of cutting is 1/512 or 1/1024 bp. 7. A method according to any one of the preceding claims wherein the restriction enzyme is a Type II restriction enzyme. 8. A method according to claim 7 wherein the restriction enzyme digests double-stranded DNA to provide a cohesive end of 2-4 nucleotides. 9. A method according to claim 8 wherein the restriction enzyme is selected from the group consisting of Haell, Apol, XhoII and Hsp 921. 10. A method according to any one claims 7 to 9 wherein the first primers each have one variable nucleotide. 11. A method according to any one of claims 7 to 9 wherein the first primers each have two variable nucleotides, each of which may be A, T, C or G. 12. A method according to any one of claims 7 to 9 wherein the first primers each have three variable nucleotides, each of which may be A, T, C or G. 13. A method according to any one of claims 7 to 12 wherein each first primer is labelled with a label to indicate which of A, T, C and G is said variable nucleotide or is present at said corresponding position within the variable nucleotides of the first primer. 14. A method according to any one of claims 1 to 6 wherein the restriction enzyme is a Type IIS restriction enzyme. 15. A method according to claim 14 wherein the restriction enzyme digests double-stranded DNA to provide a cohesive end of 2-4 nucleotides. 16. A method according to claim 15 wherein the restriction enzyme is selected from the group consisting of Fokl, Bbvl, SfaNI and Alw261. 17. A method according to any one of claims 14 to 16 wherein adaptor oligonucleotides in the population of adaptor oligonucleotides are ligated to cohesive ends of digested double-stranded cDNA molecules in separate reaction vessels from different adaptor oligonucleotides with different end sequences. 18. A method according to claim 17 wherein each reaction vessel contains a single adaptor oligonucleotide end sequence. 19. A method according to claim 17 wherein each reaction vessel contains multiple adaptor oligonucleotide end sequences, each adaptor oligonucleotide sequence in a reaction vessel comprising a different end sequence and primer annealing sequence from the end sequence and primer annealing sequence of other adaptor oligonucleotide sequences in the same reaction vessel, corresponding multiple first primers being employed in the polymerase chain reaction amplification in each reaction vessel. 20. A method according to any one of the preceding claims wherein n is 0. 21. A method according to any one of claims 1 to 19 wherein n is 1. 22. A method according to any one of claims 1 to 19 wherein n is 2. 23. A method according to any one of the preceding claims wherein first primers are labelled. 24. A method according to claim 23 wherein the labels are fluorescent dyes readable by a sequencing machine. 25. A method according to any one of claims 1 to 24 wherein double-stranded DNA molecules are separated on the basis of length by electrophoresis on a sequencing gel or capillary, and the pattern is generated as an electropherogram. 26. A method according to any one of the preceding claims wherein a first profile of the mRNA molecules present in a first sample is compared with a second profile of the mRNA molecules present in a second sample. 27. A method according to claim 26 wherein a difference is identified between said first profile and said second profile. 28. A method according to claim 27 wherein a nucleic acid whose expression leads to the difference between said first profile and said second profile is identified and/or obtained. 29. A method according to anyone of the preceding claims wherein the presence in the sample of a known mRNA is identified.

Inventors: BAUREN GORAN, ERNFORS PATRIK, LINNARSSON STEN, BAUREN, GORAN, ERNFORS, PATRIK, LINNARSSON, STEN
Applicants: BAUREN GORAN, ERNFORS PATRIK, GLOBAL GENOMICS AB, LINNARSSON STEN, BAUREN, GORAN, ERNFORS, PATRIK, LINNARSSON, STEN
Application year: 2001
Main classification: C12Q1
IPC codes: C12N15, C12Q1, G06F19