COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING BIOLOGICAL REACTIONS

Abstract: The present invention relates to an apparatus for performing biological reactions. Specifically, the invention relates to an apparatus for performing nucleic acid hybridization reactions on a substrate layer having a multiplicity of oligonucleotide binding sites disposed thereon, using substrates with flexible covers.

Description: COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING BIOLOGICAL REACTIONS This application is a continuing application of U S S N 09/492,013, filed January 26, 2000 FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an apparatus for performing biological reactions In particular, the invention relates to an apparatus for performing nucleic acid hybridization reactions on a substrate layer having a multiplicity of oligonucleotide binding sites disposed thereon, using substrates with flexible covers, and a method for removing gas bubbles from the apparatus Specifically, the invention relates to an apparatus having a flexible, gas permeable layer affixed to a substrate layer with an adhesive, wherein the flexible, gas permeable layer, the adhesive and the substrate layer enclose a reaction chamber, and a means for facilitating diffusion across the flexible, gas permeable layer The diffusion-facilitating means creates a pressure gradient or concentration gradient across the flexible, gas permeable layer, thereby increasing the rate of diffusion of gas molecules from the reaction chamber across the flexible, gas permeable layer BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Recent advances in molecular biology have provided the opportunity to identify pathogens, diagnose disease states, and perform forensic determinations using gene sequences specific for the desired purpose. This explosion of genetic information has created a need for high-capacity assays and equipment for performing molecular biological assays, particularly nucleic acid hybridization assays Most urgently, there is a need to miniaturize, automate, standardize and simplify such assays This need stems from the fact that while these hybridization assays were originally developed in research laboratories working with purified products and performed by highly skilled individuals, adapting these procedures to clinical uses, such as diagnostics, forensics and other applications, has produced the need for equipment and methods that allow less-skilled operators to effectively perform the assays under higher capacity, less stringent assay conditions Existing technology utilizes the binding of molecules contained within a biologically reactive sample fluid, hereinafter referred to as target molecules, onto molecules contained within biologically reactive sites, hereinafter referred to as probe molecules The primary enabler of this technology is an apparatus commonly referred to as a biochip, which comprises one or more ordered microscopic arrays ("microarrays") of biologically reactive sites immobilized on the surface of a substrate A biologically reactive site can be created by dispensing a small volume of a fluid containing a biological reagent onto a discrete location on the surface of a substrate, also commonly referred to as spotting To enhance immobilization of probe molecules, biochips can include a 2-dιmensιonal array of 3- dimensional polymeric anchoring structures (for example, polyacrylamide gel pads) attached to the surface of the substrate Probe molecules such as oligonucleotides are covalently attached to polyacrylamide-anchoπng structures by forming amide, ester or disulfide bonds between the biomolecule and a denvatized polymer comprising the cognate chemical group Covalent attachment of probe molecules to such polymeric anchoring structures is usually performed after polymerization and chemical cross-linking of the polymer to the substrate is completed Biochips are advantageously used to perform biological reactions on the surface thereof Existing apparatus for performing biological reactions on a substrate surface, however, are deficient in that they either require unacceptably large volumes of sample fluid to operate properly, cannot accommodate substrates as large as or larger than a conventional microscope slide, cannot independently accommodate a plurality of independent reactions, or cannot accommodate a substrate containing hydrogel-based microarrays Most existing apparatus also do not allow introduction of fluids in addition to the sample fluid (such as wash buffers, fluorescent dyes, etc ) into the reaction chamber Disposable apparatus must be disassembled and reassembled around the biochip every time a new fluid must be introduced Other existing apparatus are difficult to use in a laboratory environment because they cannot be loaded with standard pipet tips and associated pipettor apparatus Many existing apparatus also exhibit unacceptable reaction reproducibihty, efficiency, and duration Reaction reproducibihty may be adversely affected by bubble formation in the reaction chamber or by the use of biologically incompatible materials for the reaction chamber Reaction duration and efficiency may be adversely affected by the presence of concentration gradients in the reaction chamber Bubbles can form upon introduction of sample fluid to the reaction chamber or by outgassing of the reaction chamber materials When gas bubbles extend over the substrate surface in an area containing biologically reactive sites, the intended reaction may intermittently fail or yield erroneous results because the intended concentration of the sample fluid mixture has been compromised by the presence of gas bubbles Biologically incompatible reaction chamber materials may cause unacceptable reaction reproducibihty, by interacting with the sample fluid, thus causing the intended reaction to intermittently fail or yield erroneous results. Incomplete mixing of the sample fluid can introduce concentration gradients within the sample fluid that adversely impact reaction efficiency and duration. This effect is most pronounced when there is a depletion of target molecules in the local volume surrounding a biologically reactive site. During a biological reaction, the probability that a particular target molecule will bind to a complementary (immobilized) probe molecule is determined by the given concentration of target molecules present within the sample fluid volume, the diffusion rate of the target molecule through the reaction chamber, and the statistics of interaction between the target molecule and the complementary probe molecule. For diagnostic assays, target DNA molecules are often obtained in minute (< picomol) quantities. In practice, it can take tens of hours for a hybridization reaction to be substantially complete at the low target nucleic acid molecule levels available for biological samples. Concentration gradients in the hybridization chamber can further exacerbate this problem. U.S. Patent 5,948,673 to Cottingham discloses a self-contained multi-chamber reactor for performing both DNA amplification and DNA probe assays in a sealed unit wherein some reactants are provided by coating the walls of the chambers and other reactants are introduced into the chambers prior to starting the reaction in order to eliminate flow into and out of the chamber. No provisions are made for eliminating gas bubbles from the chambers. There remains a need in the art for methods and apparatus for performing biological reactions on a substrate surface that use a low volume of sample fluid, that accommodate substrates as large as or larger than a conventional microscope slide, that accommodate a plurality of independent reactions, and that accommodate a substrate surface having one or more hydrogel-based microarrays attached thereto. There also remains a need in the art for an apparatus that allows introduction of fluids in addition to sample fluid into each reaction chamber via standard pipet tips and associated pipettor apparatus. There also remains a need in the art for such an apparatus that increases reaction reproducibihty, increases reaction efficiency, and reduces reaction duration. There also remains a need in this art for a simple method for removing gas bubbles from such an apparatus. These needs are particularly striking in view of the tremendous interest in biochip technology, the investment and substantial financial rewards generated by research into biochip technology, and the variety of products generated by such research. Nucleic acid hybridization assays are advantageously performed using probe array technology, which utilizes binding of target single-stranded DNA onto immobilized DNA (usually, oligonucleotide) probes. The detection limit of a nucleic acid hybridization assay is determined by the sensitivity of the detection device, and also by the amount of target nucleic acid available to be bound to probes, typically oligonucleotide probes, during hybridization. Nucleic acid hybridization chambers are known in the prior art U S Patent No 5,100,755 to Smyczek et al discloses a hybridization chamber U S Patent No 5,545,531 to Rava et al discloses a hybridization plate comprising a multiplicity of oligonucleotide arrays U S Patent No 5,360 741 to Hunnell discloses a gas heated hybridization chamber U S Patent No 5,922,591 to Anderson et al discloses a miniaturized hybridization chamber for use with oligonucleotide arrays U S Patent No 5,945,334 to Besemer discloses oligonucleotide array packaging As currently employed, oligonucleotide array technology does not provide maximum hybridization efficiency Existing nucleic acid hybridization assay equipment includes numerous components, each of which is a source of inefficiency and inaccuracy Hybridization using oligonucleotide arrays must be performed in a volume in which a small amount of target DNA or other nucleic acid can be efficiently annealed to the immobilized probes For diagnostic assays, target DNA molecules are often obtained in minute (< picomol) quantities In practice, it can take several (tens of) hours for hybridization to be substantially complete at the low target nucleic acid levels available for biological samples In addition, array hybridization is conventionally performed in a stationary hybridization chamber where active mixing is absent Under these conditions, the probability that a particular target molecule will hybridize to a complementary oligonucleotide probe immobilized on a surface is determined by the concentration of the target, the diffusion rate of the target molecule and the statistics of interaction between the target and the complementary oligonucleotide Consequently, a larger number of samples must be tested to obtain useful information, and this in turn leads to increased hybridization times and inefficiencies In addition, efficiency is increased when the amount of user manipulation is kept to a minimum As currently performed, oligonucleotide array hybridization requires a great deal of operator attentiveness and manipulation, and the degree of skill required to perform the analysis is high For example, hybridization is typically performed in an assay chamber, and then data collection and analysis are performed in a separate apparatus (such as a laser scanner or fluorescence microscope) This arrangement requires a substantial amount of handling by the user, and makes the assays both time- consuming and subject to user error It is also a limitation of current practice that array hybridizations are performed one array at a time, thereby forgoing the economies of parallel processing and data analysis Additional limitations, inefficiencies, and expenses arise from the structural characteristics of existing apparatus Many existing apparatus are limited in the size of the substrate they can accommodate Other apparatus are not disposable and therefore require extensive cleaning between runs in order to -A- prevent sample contamination Yet other apparatus are high mass and therefore not susceptible of the rapid heating and cooling necessary for efficient hybridization Other apparatus require the use of expensive optics for analysis of the reaction products There remains a need in this art for an easy-to-use apparatus for performing biological reactions, particularly nucleic acid hybridization, that comprises a small reaction volume, where the fluid components can be actively mixed, that can be performed in parallel and that minimizes user intervention There also remains a need for such an apparatus that is easy to manufacture in various sizes, that is disposable to minimize sample contamination, that allows for the use of low cost optical analytical equipment, and that is low mass to allow for rapid heating and cooling of the sample fluid There also remains a need for methods for using such apparatus to increase hybridization efficiency, particularly relating to biochip arrays as understood in the art This need is particularly striking, in view of the tremendous interest in biochip technology, the investment and substantial financial rewards generated by research into biochip technology, and the variety of products generated by such research SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the objects outlined above, the present invention provides apparatus for performing biological reactions, comprising a substrate that has a first and a second surface (usually opposite to each other, in the case of planar substrates) An array of biomolecules are positioned on the first surface, and a flexible layer affixed to the first surface of the substrate by an adhesive layer, wherein the adhesive layer is deposited on the first surface and forms a reaction volume The substrate comprises at least a first port extending through the substrate from the first to the second surface, and the port has a first opening and a second opening The first opening of the port is provided within the area bounded by the adhesive and covered by the flexible layer (e g the reaction volume) and the second opening of the port is provided on the second surface of the substrate Alternatively, the port(s) may be in the flexible layer into the reaction volume Optionally, there may be a removable cover positioned over the second opening of the port such as a foil tape, as well as a layer of a water-soluble compound that is a solid at a first temperature and a liquid at a second, higher temperature, the layer being positioned between the first surface of the substrate and the flexible layer Optionally, the flexible layer is a translucent plastic or gas permeable membrane In a further aspect, the invention provides an apparatus for performing biological reactions on a substrate surface and a method for removing gas bubbles from the apparatus to prevent interference with biological reactions such as hybridization at reaction sites on the substrate surface Specifically, the method of the invention is directed to an apparatus comprising a flexible, gas permeable layer affixed to a biochip with an adhesive, wherein the flexible, gas permeable layer, the adhesive, and the biochip enclose a reaction chamber, and a means for facilitating diffusion of gas molecules out of the reaction chamber across the flexible, gas permeable layer. The diffusion-facilitating means, referred to herein as a gas diffusion accelerator, creates a pressure gradient or concentration gradient across the flexible, gas permeable layer, thereby increasing the rate of diffusion of gas molecules from the reaction chamber through the flexible, gas permeable layer. The port can be in the shape of a truncated cone having a small-diameter end and a large diameter end, and wherein the small diameter end is provided in the area on the first substrate surface bounded by the adhesive layer (the reaction volume) and the large diameter end is provided on the second substrate surface. The walls of a port in some embodiments form an angle of less than 90 ° with the second substrate surface. Optionally, the port contains a sample fluid having a contact angle, and the angle formed between the second substrate surface and the port walls is less than or equal to the contact angle of the sample fluid. A second port can be included; in this embodiment, the second port extends through the substrate from the first surface to the second surface thereof and having a first opening and a second opening, wherein the first opening of the outlet port is provided on the first substrate surface within the area bounded by the adhesive and covered by the flexible layer, and the second opening of the outlet port is provided on the second substrate surface and is covered by a removable cover. Alternatively, the second port is in the flexible layer as above. Optionally, the apparatus of the invention can comprise a reflective layer positioned between the array and the first substrate surface, and/or a resistive heater; the latter can be a reflective layer positioned between the array and the first substrate surface. Additionally, the apparatus can comprise a passivation layer such as parylene, or a scanner, wherein the scanner is in contact with the flexible layer at a position over the array. The scanner can be a light pipe and cover the entirety of the reaction volume. In a further aspect, the apparatus further comprises a sample preparation chip in contact with the second substrate surface wherein the sample preparation chip has a port that is aligned with the first port of the apparatus. In an additional aspect, the apparatus further comprises a roller, wherein the roller is in contact with the flexible layer at a position over the array; for example, it can move longitudinally across the reaction volume. In a further aspect, the apparatus can include a case having a lid and a base with a cavity, and a carriage comprising a scanner and a roller, wherein the carriage is provided in the cavity, wherein the substrate is removably positioned above the carriage such that the first substrate surface is in operative contact with the carriage In an additional aspect, the invention provides apparatus for performing biological reactions, comprising a glass microscope slide having a first surface and a second surface opposite thereto, an array of biomolecules positioned on the first surface of the slide, wherein each biomolecule within the array is anchored to the first surface by a polyacrylamide gel pad, a layer of polyviny dene chloride affixed to the first surface of the slide by a layer of double-sided adhesive, wherein the adhesive layer is deposited on the first surface of the slide and encloses an area thereupon, a first and second port extending through the slide from the first surface to the second surface thereof each having a first opening and a second opening, wherein the first opening of each port is provided within the area on the first surface of the slide bounded by the adhesive and covered by the flexible layer and the second opening of each port is provided on the second surface of the slide, and wherein each port is in the shape of a truncated cone having a small-diameter end and a large diameter end, and wherein the small diameter end is the first opening and the large diameter end is the second opening, a layer of foil tape positioned over the second opening of each port, a layer of a polyethylene glycol positioned between the first surface of the slide and the layer of polyvinyhdene chloride, a reflective layer positioned between the array and the first substrate surface, a layer of parylene positioned between the reflective layer and the and the layer of polyvinyhdene chloride, and a resistive heater In a further aspect, the invention provides an apparatus for performing biological reactions, comprising a substrate having a first surface and a second surface, a multiplicity of biomolecules positioned on the first surface of the substrate, a flexible layer affixed to the first surface of the substrate by an adhesive layer, wherein the adhesive layer is deposited on the first surface of the substrate and encloses an area thereupon, and wherein a reaction volume is enclosed between the flexible layer and the first substrate surface in the area defined by the adhesive layer There are first and second ports extending through the flexible layer and the adhesive layer into the volume enclosed between the flexible layer and the first substrate surface in the area defined by the adhesive layer In an additional aspect, each of the multiplicity of biomolecules is attached to an anchoring structure such as a gel pad of a polymeric material such as polyacrylamide, either as discrete sites or as a continuous layer In a further aspect, the apparatus comprises a label layer affixed to the flexible layer, wherein the first and second ports extend through the label layer and the flexible layer The label layer can comprise an adhesive surface and a non-adhesive surface, and wherein the label layer is affixed to the flexible layer using the adhesive surface The label layer can comprise a window corresponding in size and position to the area bounded by the adhesive layer, and wherein the window allows visual inspection of the flexible layer and the volume enclosed between the flexible layer and the first substrate surface in the area defined by the adhesive layer Optionally, a reflective layer positioned between the array and the first substrate surface is provided, and/or a resistive heater In an additional aspect, the invention provides methods of using the apparatus to detect target analytes BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Presently preferred embodiments of the invention are described with reference to the following drawings FIGS 1A-1 D are views of a preferred embodiment of the present invention illustrating the preparation of a chamber for reaction FIG 1 A is a cross-sectional view of the apparatus illustrating a reaction chamber prefilled with a water-soluble compound in thermal contact with a heating element FIG 1 B is a cross sectional view of the apparatus illustrating the mixing of the water-soluble compound and the biological sample fluid FIG 1C is a cross sectional view of the apparatus illustrating a chamber filled with the sample fluid/water-soluble compound mixture, wherein the first and second ports are covered with a seal FIG 1 D is a top plan view of the apparatus illustrating the pattern of adhesive defining the individual areas containing the arrays of oligonucleotide probes FIG 2 is an exploded cross-sectional view of a chamber showing the array of gel pads of a preferred embodiment of the invention FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view of the array of biomolecular probes showing the positioning of the gel pads on the substrate of a preferred embodiment of the invention FIG. 4 is an exploded cross-sectional view of a port illustrating the conical shape of the port of a preferred embodiment of the invention FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the label layer, the flexible layer and the adhesive layer of a preferred embodiment of the invention FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of a stack of chambers according to a preferred embodiment FIGS. 7A-7E are top views of the layers of an alternate preferred embodiment of the invention having inlet and outlet ports extending through the flexible layer FIG 7A is a view of the first adhesive layer, FIG. 7B is a view of the flexible layer, FIG 7C is a view of the second adhesive layer, FIG 7D is a view of the label layer, and FIG 7E is a view of the layers of 7A to 7D as assembled FIGS 8A-8B are detail views of the notches cut into the first adhesive layer and the label layer of a preferred embodiment of the invention having inlet and outlet ports extending through the flexible layer FIGS 9A-9C are cross-sectional views of a preferred embodiment of the present invention illustrating the process of analyzing the array after completion of the reaction FIG 9A shows the apparatus upon completion of the reaction FIG 9B illustrates removal of the sample fluid from the chamber such that the flexible layer contacts the array FIG 9C illustrates use of a laser scanner to analyze the array FIGS 10A-10C illustrate a handheld embodiment of the present invention FIG 10A is a side view of the hand held scanning system FIG 10B is a perspective view of a preferred embodiment comprising a hand-held scanning device illustrating the contact of the flexible layer with the carriage FIG 10C is a view of the handheld system illustrating the lid containing the display unit FIG 11A-11 E are cross-sectional views of the direct contact fiber optic scanner as shown in FIG 10 FIG 12A-12C are alternate embodiments illustrating the apparatus coupled to a sample preparation chip FIG 12A illustrates an embodiment wherein the sample preparation chip is removably positioned against the second surface of the substrate FIG 12B illustrates an embodiment wherein the sample preparation chip is affixed to the second surface of the substrate FIG 12C illustrates an embodiment wherein the sample preparation chip is incorporated into the substrate FIG 13 illustrates the assembly and use of a preferred embodiment of the present invention Figure 14 depicts a cross sectional view of a preferred embodiment of the present invention illustrating the application of vacuum to a reaction chamber or volume DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to methods and compositions for performing high capacity biological reactions on a biochip comprising a substrate having an array of biological binding sites The invention provides a reaction chamber, such as a reaction chamber in the case where the biochip comprises nucleic acids The reaction chamber is formed with a substrate, a layer of adhesive and a flexible cover The system utilizes ports, either in the substrate or in the flexible cover, to allow sample and/or reagent loading In addition, the invention provides methods for removing gas bubbles from the apparatus using a gas diffusion accelerator, that will facilitate and accelerate the rate of diffusion through the gas permeable, flexible membrane Accordingly, the present invention provides devices of the invention are used to detect target analytes in samples By "target analyte" or "analyte" or grammatical equivalents herein is meant any molecule, compound or particle to be detected As outlined below, target analytes preferably bind to binding Iigands, as is more fully described above As will be appreciated by those in the art, a large number of analytes may be detected using the present methods, basically, any target analyte for which a binding hgand, described herein, may be made may be detected using the methods of the invention Suitable analytes include organic and inorganic molecules, including biomolecules In a preferred embodiment, the analyte may be an environmental pollutant (including pesticides, insecticides, toxins, etc ), a chemical (including solvents, polymers, organic materials, etc ), therapeutic molecules (including therapeutic and abused drugs, antibiotics, etc ), biomolecules (including hormones, cytokines, proteins, pids, carbohydrates, cellular membrane antigens and receptors (neural, hormonal, nutrient, and cell surface receptors) or their Iigands, etc), whole cells (including procaryotic (such as pathogenic bacteria) and eukaryotic cells, including mammalian tumor cells), viruses (including retroviruses, herpesviruses, adenoviruses, lentiviruses, etc ), and spores, etc Particularly preferred analytes are environmental pollutants, nucleic acids, proteins (including enzymes, antibodies, antigens, growth factors, cytokines, etc), therapeutic and abused drugs, cells, and viruses In a preferred embodiment, the target analyte is a nucleic acid By "nucleic acid" or "oligonucleotide" or grammatical equivalents herein means at least two nucleotides covalently linked together A nucleic acid of the present invention will generally contain phosphodiester bonds, although in some cases, as outlined below, nucleic acid analogs are included that may have alternate backbones, comprising, for example, phosphoramide (Beaucage et al , Tetrahedron 49(10) 1925 (1993) and references therein, Letsmger, J Org Chem 35 3800 (1970), Spπnzl et al , Eur J Biochem 81 579 (1977), Letsinger et al , Nucl Acids Res 14 3487 (1986), Sawai et al, Chem Lett 805 (1984), Letsmger et al , J Am Chem Soc 110 4470 (1988), and Pauwels et al , Chemica Scπpta 26 141 91986)), phosphorothioate (Mag et al , Nucleic Acids Res 19 1437 (1991 ), and U S Patent No 5,644,048), phosphorodithioate (Bπu et al , J Am Chem Soc 11 1 2321 (1989), O- methylphophoroamidite linkages (see Eckstein, O gonucleotides and Analogues A Practical Approach, Oxford University Press), and peptide nucleic acid backbones and linkages (see Egholm, J Am Chem Soc 114 1895 (1992), Meier et al , Chem Int Ed Engl 31 1008 (1992), Nielsen, Nature, 365.566 (1993), Carlsson et al , Nature 380 207 (1996), all of which are incorporated by reference) Other analog nucleic acids include those with positive backbones (Denpcy et al , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92 6097 (1995), non-ionic backbones (U S Patent Nos 5,386,023, 5,637,684, 5,602,240, 5,216,141 and 4,469,863, Kiedrowshi et al , Angew Chem Intl Ed English 30 423 (1991 ), Letsinger et al . J Am Chem Soc 1 10 4470 (1988), Letsinger et al , Nucleoside & Nucleotide 13 1597 (1994), Chapters 2 and 3, ASC Symposium Series 580, "Carbohydrate Modifications in Antisense Research", Ed Y S Sanghui and P Dan Cook, Mesmaeker et al , Bioorganic & Medicinal Chem Lett 4 395 (1994), Jeffs et al , J Biomolecular NMR 34 17 (1994), Tetrahedron Lett 37 743 (1996)) and non- nbose backbones, including those described in U S Patent Nos 5,235,033 and 5,034,506, and Chapters 6 and 7, ASC Symposium Series 580, "Carbohydrate Modifications in Antisense Research' , Ed Y S Sanghui and P Dan Cook Nucleic acids containing one or more carbocychc sugars are also included within the definition of nucleic acids (see Jenkins et al , Chem Soc Rev (1995) pp169- 176) Several nucleic acid analogs are described in Rawls, C & E News June 2, 1997 page 35 Nucleic acid analogs also include "locked nucleic acids" All of these references are hereby expressly incorporated by reference These modifications of the πbose-phosphate backbone may be done to facilitate the addition of electron transfer moieties, or to increase the stability and half-life of such molecules in physiological environments As will be appreciated by those in the art, all of these nucleic acid analogs may find use in the present invention In addition, mixtures of naturally occurring nucleic acids and analogs can be made, for example, at the site of conductive oligomer or electron transfer moiety attachment, an analog structure may be used Alternatively, mixtures of different nucleic acid analogs, and mixtures of naturally occurring nucleic acids and analogs may be made As outlined herein, the nucleic acids may be single stranded or double stranded, as specified, or contain portions of both double stranded or single stranded sequence The nucleic acid may be DNA, both genomic and cDNA, RNA or a hybrid, where the nucleic acid contains any combination of deoxyπbo- and πbo-nucleotides, and any combination of bases, including uracil, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, inosine, xathanine hypoxathanine, isocytosine, isoguanine, etc As used herein, the term "nucleoside" includes nucleotides and nucleoside and nucleotide analogs, and modified nucleosides such as ammo modified nucleosides In addition, "nucleoside" includes non-naturally occuπng analog structures Thus for example the individual units of a peptide nucleic acid, each containing a base, are referred to herein as nucleosides In a preferred embodiment, the present invention provides methods of detecting target nucleic acids By "target nucleic acid" or "target sequence" or grammatical equivalents herein means a nucleic acid sequence on a single strand of nucleic acid The target sequence may be a portion of a gene, a regulatory sequence, genomic DNA, cDNA, RNA including mRNA and rRNA, or others It may be any length, with the understanding that longer sequences are more specific In some embodiments, it may be desirable to fragment or cleave the sample nucleic acid into fragments of 100 to 10,000 basepairs, with fragments of roughly 500 basepairs being preferred in some embodiments As will be appreciated by those in the art, the complementary target sequence may take many forms For example, it may be contained within a larger nucleic acid sequence, i e all or part of a gene or mRNA, a restriction fragment of a plasmid or genomic DNA, among others As is outlined more fully below, probes (including primers) are made to hybridize to target sequences to determine the presence or absence of the target sequence in a sample Generally speaking, this term will be understood by those skilled in the art The target sequence may also be comprised of different target domains, which may be adjacent (i e contiguous) or separated For example when hgation chain reaction (LCR) techniques are used, a first primer may hybridize to a first target domain and a second primer may hybridize to a second target domain, either the domains are adjacent, or they may be separated by one or more nucleotides, coupled with the use of a polymerase and dNTPs, as is more fully outlined below The terms "first" and "second" are not meant to confer an orientation of the sequences with respect to the 5'-3' orientation of the target sequence For example, assuming a 5'-3' orientation of the complementary target sequence, the first target domain may be located either 5' to the second domain, or 3' to the second domain In a preferred embodiment, the target analyte is a protein As will be appreciated by those in the art, there are a large number of possible proteinaceous target analytes that may be detected using the present invention By "proteins" or grammatical equivalents herein is meant proteins, ohgopeptides and peptides, derivatives and analogs, including proteins containing non-naturally occurring am o acids and ammo acid analogs, and peptidomimetic structures The side chains may be in either the (R) or the (S) configuration In a preferred embodiment, the ammo acids are in the (S) or L-configuration As discussed below, when the protein is used as a binding hgand it may be desirable to utilize protein analogs to retard degradation by sample contaminants Suitable protein target analytes include, but are not limited to, (1) immunoglobuiins, particularly IgEs, IgGs and IgMs, and particularly therapeutically or diagnostically relevant antibodies, including but not limited to, for example, antibodies to human albumin, apolipoprotems (including apo poprotein E), human choπonic gonadotropm, cortisol, α-fetoprotein, thyroxin, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), antithrombin, antibodies to pharmaceuticals (including antieptileptic drugs (phenyto , pπmidone, carbaπezepin, ethosuximide, valproic acid, and phenobarbitol), cardioactive drugs (digoxm, docaine, procainamide, and disopyramide), bronchodilators ( theophylhne), antibiotics (chloramphenicol, sulfonamides), antidepressants, immunosuppresants, abused drugs (amphetamine, methamphetamme, cannabmoids, cocaine and opiates) and antibodies to any number of viruses (including orthomyxoviruses, (e g influenza virus), paramyxoviruses (e g respiratory syncytial virus, mumps virus, measles virus), adenoviruses, rhmoviruses, coronaviruses, reoviruses, togaviruses (e g rubella virus), parvoviruses, poxviruses (e g variola virus, vaccinia virus), enteroviruses (e g po ovirus, coxsackievirus), hepatitis viruses (including A, B and C), herpesviruses (e g Herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus, cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus), rotaviruses, Norwalk viruses, hantavirus, arenavirus, rhabdovirus (e g rabies virus), retroviruses (including HIV, HTLV-I and -II), papovaviruses (e g papillomavirus), polyomaviruses, and picornaviruses, and the like), and bacteria (including a wide variety of pathogenic and non-pathogenic prokaryotes of interest including Bacillus, Vibrio, e g V cholerae, Eschenchia, e g Enterotoxigenic E coll, Shigella, e g S dysentenae, Salmonella, e g S typhi, Mycobacteπum e g M tuberculosis, M leprae, Clostπdium, e g C. botulinum, C tetani, C difficile, C perfπngens, Cornyebacteπum, e g C diphthenae, Streptococcus, S pyogenes S pneumoniae, Staphylococcus, e g S aureus, Haemophilus, e g H influenzae, Neisseπa, e g N meningitidis, N gonorrhoeae, Yersmia, e g G lambliaY pestis, Pseudomonas, e g P aeruginosa, P putida, Chlamydia, e g C trachomatis, Bordetella, e g 6 pertussis, Treponema, e g ! palladium, and the like), (2) enzymes (and other proteins), including but not limited to, enzymes used as indicators of or treatment for heart disease, including creatme kmase, lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate ammo transferase, troponin T, myoglobin, fibπnogen, cholesterol, tπglyceπdes, thrombin, tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), pancreatic disease indicators including amylase, hpase, chymotrypsin and trypsm, liver function enzymes and proteins including chohnesterase, bi rubin, and alkaline phosphotase, aldolase, prostatic acid phosphatase, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase, and bacterial and viral enzymes such as HIV protease, (3) hormones and cytokines (many of which serve as Iigands for cellular receptors) such as erythropoietin (EPO), thrombopoietm (TPO), the interleukins (including IL-1 through IL-17), insulin, insuhn-hke growth factors (including IGF-1 and -2), epidermal growth factor (EGF), transforming growth factors (including TGF-α and TGF-β), human growth hormone, transferπn, epidermal growth factor (EGF), low density hpoprotein, high density hpoprotein, leptin, VEGF, PDGF, ciliary neurotrophic factor, prolactm, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), calciton , human choπonic gonadotropin, cotπsol, estradiol, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), leutmzing hormone (LH), progeterone and testosterone, and (4) other proteins (including α-fetoprotem, carcinoembryonic antigen CEA, cancer markers, etc ) In addition, any of the biomolecules for which antibodies may be detected may be detected directly as well, that is, detection of virus or bacterial cells, therapeutic and abused drugs, etc , may be done directly Suitable target analytes include carbohydrates, including but not limited to, markers for breast cancer (CA15-3, CA 549, CA 27 29), mucin-like carcinoma associated antigen (MCA), ovarian cancer (CA125), pancreatic cancer (DE-PAN-2), prostate cancer (PSA), CEA, and colorectal and pancreatic cancer (CA 19, CA 50, CA242) Suitable target analytes include metal ions, particularly heavy and/or toxic metals, including but not limited to, aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, selenium, cobalt, copper, chromium, lead, silver and nickel These target analytes may be present in any number of different sample types, including, but not limited to, bodily fluids including blood, lymph, saliva, vaginal and anal secretions, urine, feces, perspiration and tears, and solid tissues, including liver, spleen, bone marrow, lung, muscle, brain, etc Accordingly, the present invention provides devices for the detection of target analytes comprising a solid substrate The solid substrate can be made of a wide variety of materials and can be configured in a large number of ways, as is discussed herein and will be apparent to one of skill in the art. In addition, a single device may be comprises of more than one substrate; for example, there may be a "sample treatment" cassette that interfaces with a separate "detection" cassette; a raw sample is added to the sample treatment cassette and is manipulated to prepare the sample for detection, which is removed from the sample treatment cassette and added to the detection cassette. There may be an additional functional cassette into which the device fits; for example, a heating element which is placed in contact with the sample cassette to effect reactions such as PCR. In some cases, a portion of the substrate may be removable; for example, the sample cassette may have a detachable detection cassette, such that the entire sample cassette is not contacted with the detection apparatus. See for example U.S. Patent No. 5,603,351 , PCT US96/171 16, and "MULTILAYERED MICROFLUIDIC DEVICES FOR ANALYTE REACTIONS" filed in the PCT December 11 , 2000, Serial No. PCT/US00/33499, hereby incorporated by reference. The composition of the solid substrate will depend on a variety of factors, including the techniques used to create the device, the use of the device, the composition of the sample, the analyte to be detected, the size of the wells and microchannels, the presence or absence of electronic components, etc. Generally, the devices of the invention should be easily steriiizable as well. In a preferred embodiment, the solid substrate can be made from a wide variety of materials including, but not limited to, silicon such as silicon wafers, silcon dioxide, silicon nitride, glass and fused silica, gallium arsenide, indium phosphide, aluminum, ceramics, polyimide, quartz, plastics, resins and polymers including polymethylmethacrylate, acrylics, polyethylene, polyethylene terepthalate, polycarbonate, polystyrene and other styrene copolymers, polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, superalloys, zircaloy, steel, gold, silver, copper, tungsten, molybdeumn, tantalum, KOVAR, KEVLAR, KAPTON, MYLAR, brass, sapphire, etc. High quality glasses such as high melting borosilicate or fused silicas may be preferred for their UV transmission properties when any of the sample manipulation steps require light based technologies. In addition, as outlined herein, portions of the internal surfaces of the device may be coated with a variety of coatings as needed, to reduce nonspecific binding, to allow the attachment of binding Iigands, for biocompatibility, for flow resistance, etc. In a preferred embodiment, the solid support comprises ceramic materials, such as are outlined in U.S.S.N.s 09/235,081 ; 09/337,086; 09/464,490; 09/492,013; 09/466,325; 09/460,281 ; 09/460,283; 09/387,691 ; 09/438,600; 09/506,178; and 09/458,534; all of which are expressly incorporated by reference in their entirety. In this embodiment, the devices are made from layers of green-sheet that have been laminated and sintered together to form a substantially monolithic structure. Green-sheet is a composite material that includes inorganic particles of glass, glass-ceramic, ceramic, or mixtures thereof, dispersed in a polymer binder, and may also include additives such as plasticizers and dispersants. The green-sheet is preferably in the form of sheets that are 50 to 250 microns thick. The ceramic particles are typically metal oxides, such as aluminum oxide or zirconium oxide An example of such a green-sheet that includes glass-ceramic particles is "AX951" that is sold by E I Du Pont de Nemours and Company An example of a green-sheet that includes aluminum oxide particles is "Ferro Alumina" that is sold by Ferro Corp The composition of the green-sheet may also be custom formulated to meet particular applications The green-sheet layers are laminated together and then fired to form a substantially monolithic multilayered structure The manufacturing, processing, and applications of ceramic green-sheets are described generally in Richard E Mistier, "Tape Casting The Basic Process for Meeting the Needs of the Electronics Industry," Ceramic Bulletin, vol 69, no 6, pp 1022-26 (1990), and in U S Patent No 3,991 ,029, which are incorporated herein by reference The method for fabricating devices (such as those depicted in Figures 27-30 as devices 100 and 200) begins with providing sheets of green-sheet that are preferably 50 to 250 microns thick The sheets of green-sheet are cut to the desired size, typically 6 inches by 6 inches for conventional processing, although smaller or larger devices may be used as needed Each green-sheet layer may then be textured using various techniques to form desired structures, such as vias, channels, or cavities, in the finished multilayered structure Various techniques may be used to texture a green-sheet layer For example, portions of a green- sheet layer may be punched out to form vias or channels This operation may be accomplished using conventional multilayer ceramic punches, such as the Pacific Tπnetics Corp Model APS-8718 Automated Punch System Instead of punching out part of the material, features, such as channels and wells may be embossed into the surface of the green-sheet by pressing the green-sheet against an embossing plate that has a negative image of the desired structure Texturing may also be accomplished by laser tooling with a laser via system, such as the Pacific Tπnetics LVS-3012 Next, a wide variety of materials may be applied, preferably in the form of thick-film pastes, to each textured green-sheet layer For example, electrically conductive pathways may be provided by depositing metal-containing thick-film pastes onto the green-sheet layers Thick-film pastes typically include the desired material, which may be either a metal or a dielectric, in the form of a powder dispersed in an organic vehicle, and the pastes are designed to have the viscosity appropriate for the desired deposition technique, such as screen-printing The organic vehicle may include resins, solvents, surfactants, and flow-control agents The thick-film paste may also include a small amount of a flux, such as a glass frit, to facilitate sintering Thick-film technology is further described in J D Provance, "Performance Review of Thick Film Materials," Insulation/Circuits (April, 1977) and in Morton L Topfer, Thick Film Microelectronics, Fabrication, Design, and Applications (1977), pp 41-59 which are incorporated herein by reference The porosity of the resulting thick-film can be adjusted by adjusting the amount of organic vehicle present in the thick-film paste Specifically, the porosity of the thick-film can be increased by increased the percentage of organic vehicle in the thick-film paste Similarly, the porosity of a green- sheet layer can be increased by increasing the proportion of organic binder Another way of increasing porosity in thick-films and green-sheet layers is to disperse within the organic vehicle, or the organic binder, another organic phase that is not soluble in the organic vehicle Polymer microspheres can be used advantageously for this purpose To add electrically conductive pathways, the thick film pastes typically include metal particles, such as silver, platinum, palladium, gold, copper, tungsten, nickel, tin, or alloys thereof Silver pastes are preferred Examples of suitable silver pastes are silver conductor composition numbers 7025 and 7713 sold by E I Du Pont de Nemours and Company The thick-film pastes are preferably applied to a green-sheet layer by screen-printing In the screen- printing process, the thick-film paste is forced through a patterned silk screen so as to be deposited onto the green-sheet layer in a corresponding pattern Typically, the silk screen pattern is created photographically by exposure to a mask In this way, conductive traces may be applied to a surface of a green-sheet layer Vias present in the green-sheet layer may also be filled with thick-film pastes If filled with thick-filled pastes containing electrically conductive materials, the vias can serve to provide electrical connections between layers After the desired structures are formed in each layer of green-sheet, preferably a layer of adhesive is applied to either surface of the green-sheet Preferably, the adhesive is a room-temperature adhesive Such room-temperature adhesives have glass transition temperatures below room temperature, ; e , below about 20° C, so that they can bind substrates together at room temperature Moreover, rather than undergoing a chemical change or chemically reacting with or dissolving components of the substrates, such room-temperature adhesives bind substrates together by penetrating into the surfaces of the substrates Sometimes such room-temperature adhesives are referred to as "pressure-sensitive adhesives " Suitable room-temperature adhesives are typically supplied as water-based emulsions and are available from Rohm and Haas, Inc and from Air Products, Inc For example, a material sold by Air Products, Inc as "Flexcryl 1653" has been found to work well The room-temperature adhesive may be applied to the green-sheet by conventional coating techniques To facilitate coating, it is often desirable to dilute the supplied pressure-sensitive adhesive in water, depending on the coating technique used and on the viscosity and solids loading of the starting material After coating, the room-temperature adhesive is allowed to dry The dried thickness of the film of room-temperature adhesive is preferably in the range of 1 to 10 microns, and the thickness should be uniform over the entire surface of the green-sheet Film thicknesses that exceed 15 microns are undesirable With such thick films of adhesive voiding or delamination can occur during firing, due to the large quantity of organic material that must be removed Films that are less than about 0 5 microns thick when dried are too thin because they provide insufficient adhesion between the layers From among conventional coating techniques, spin-coating and spraying are the preferred methods If spin-coating is used, it is preferable to add 1 gram of deionized water for every 10 grams of "Flexcryl 1653 " If spraying is used, a higher dilution level is preferred to facilitate ease of spraying Additionally, when room-temperature adhesive is sprayed on, it is preferable to hold the green-sheet at an elevated temperature, e g , about 60 to 70° C, so that the material dries nearly instantaneously as it is deposited onto the green-sheet The instantaneous drying results in a more uniform and homogeneous film of adhesive After the room-temperature adhesive has been applied to the green-sheet layers, the layers are stacked together to form a multilayered green-sheet structure Preferably, the layers are stacked in an alignment die, so as to maintain the desired registration between the structures of each layer When an alignment die is used, alignment holes must be added to each green-sheet layer Typically, the stacking process alone is sufficient to bind the green-sheet layers together when a room- temperature adhesive is used In other words, little or no pressure is required to bind the layers together However, in order to effect a more secure binding of the layers, the layers are preferably laminated together after they are stacked The lamination process involves the application of pressure to the stacked layers For example, in the conventional lamination process, a uniaxial pressure of about 1000 to 1500 psi is applied to the stacked green-sheet layers that is then followed by an application of an isostatic pressure of about 3000 to 5000 psi for about 10 to 15 minutes at an elevated temperature, such as 70° C Adhesives do not need to be applied to bind the green-sheet layers together when the conventional lamination process is used However, pressures less than 2500 psi are preferable in order to achieve good control over the dimensions of such structures as internal or external cavities and channels Even lower pressures are more desirable to allow the formation of larger structures, such as cavities and channels For example, if a lamination pressure of 2500 psi is used, the size of well-formed internal cavities and channels is typically limited to no larger than roughly 20 microns Accordingly, pressures less than 1000 psi are more preferred, as such pressures generally enable structures having sizes greater than about 100 microns to be formed with some measure of dimensional control Pressures of less than 300 psi are even more preferred, as such pressures typically allow structures with sizes greater than 250 microns to be formed with some degree of dimensional control Pressures less than 100 psi, which are referred to herein as "near-zero pressures," are most preferred, because at such pressures few limits exist on the size of internal and external cavities and channels that can be formed in the multilayered structure The pressure is preferably applied in the lamination process by means of a uniaxial press Alternatively, pressures less than about 100 psi may be applied by hand As with semiconductor device fabrication, many devices may be present on each sheet Accordingly, after lamination the multilayered structure may be diced using conventional green-sheet dicing or sawing apparatus to separate the individual devices The high level of peel and shear resistance provided by the room-temperature adhesive results in the occurrence of very little edge delamination during the dicing process If some layers become separated around the edges after dicing, the layers may be easily re-laminated by applying pressure to the affected edges by hand, without adversely affecting the rest of the device The final processing step is firing to convert the laminated multilayered green-sheet structure from its "green" state to form the finished, substantially monolithic, multilayered structure The firing process occurs in two important stages as the temperature is raised The first important stage is the binder burnout stage that occurs in the temperature range of about 250 to 500° C, during which the other organic materials, such as the binder in the green-sheet layers and the organic components in any applied thick-film pastes, are removed from the structure In the next important stage, the sintering stage, which occurs at a higher temperature, the inorganic particles sinter together so that the multilayered structure is densified and becomes substantially monolithic The sintering temperature used depends on the nature of the inorganic particles present in the green-sheet For many types of ceramics, appropriate sintering temperatures range from about 950 to about 1600° C, depending on the material For example, for green-sheet containing aluminum oxide, sintering temperatures between 1400 and 1600° C are typical Other ceramic materials, such as silicon nitride, aluminum nitride, and silicon carbide, require higher sintering temperatures, namely 1700 to 2200° C For green-sheet with glass-ceramic particles, a sintering temperature in the range of 750 to 950° C is typical Glass particles generally require sintering temperatures in the range of only about 350 to 700° C Finally, metal particles may require sintering temperatures anywhere from 550 to 1700° C, depending on the metal Typically, the devices are fired for a period of about 4 hours to about 12 hours or more, depending on the material used Generally, the firing should be of a sufficient duration so as to remove the organic materials from the structure and to completely sinter the inorganic particles In particular, polymers are present as a binder in the green-sheet and in the room-temperature adhesive The firing should be of sufficient temperature and duration to decompose these polymers and to allow for their removal from the multilayered structure Typically, the multilayered structure undergoes a reduction in volume during the firing process During the binder burnout phase, a small volume reduction of about 0 5 to 1 5% is normally observed At higher temperatures, during the sintering stage, a further volume reduction of about 14 to 17% is typically observed The volume change due to firing, on the other hand, can be controlled In particular, to match volume changes in two materials, such as green-sheet and thick-film paste, one should match (1 ) the particle sizes, and (2) the percentage of organic components, such as binders, which are removed during the firing process Additionally, volume changes need not be matched exactly, but any mismatch will typically result in internal stresses in the device But symmetrical processing, placing the identical material or structure on opposite sides of the device can, to some extent, compensate for shrinkage mismatched materials Too great a mismatch in either sintering temperatures or volume changes may result in defects in or failure of some or all of the device For example, the device may separate into its individual layers, or it may become warped or distorted As noted above, preferably any dissimilar materials added to the green-sheet layers are co-fired with them Such dissimilar materials could be added as thick-film pastes or as other green-sheet layers, or added later in the fabrication process, after sintering The benefit of co-firing is that the added materials are sintered to the green-sheet layers and become integral to the substantially monolithic microfluidic device However, to be co-fireable, the added materials should have sintering temperatures and volume changes due to firing that are matched with those of the green-sheet layers Sintering temperatures are largely material-dependent, so that matching sintering temperatures simply requires proper selection of materials For example, although silver is the preferred metal for providing electrically conductive pathways, if the green-sheet layers contain alumina particles, which require a sintering temperature in the range of 1400 to 1600° C, some other metal, such as platinum, must be used due to the relatively low melting point of silver (961 ° C) Alternatively, the addition of other substrates or joining of two post-sintered pieces can be done using any variety of adhesive techniques, including those outlined herein For example, two "halves" of a device can be glued or fused together For example, a particular detection platform, reagent mixture such as a hydrogel or biological components that are not stable at high temperature can be sandwiched in between the two halves Alternatively, ceramic devices comprising open channels or wells can be made, additional substrates or materials placed into the devices, and then they may be sealed with other materials A particularly preferred substrate is glass, such as a microscope slide In a preferred embodiment, the solid substrate is configured for handling a single sample that may contain a plurality of target analytes That is, a single sample is added to the device and the sample may either be a quoted for parallel processing for detection of the analytes or the sample may be processed serially, with individual targets being detected in a serial fashion In addition, samples may be removed periodically or from different locations for in line sampling In a preferred embodiment, the solid substrate is configured for handling multiple samples, each of which may contain one or more target analytes In general, in this embodiment, each sample is handled individually, that is, the manipulations and analyses are done in parallel with preferably no contact or contamination between them Alternatively, there may be some steps in common, for example, it may be desirable to process different samples separately but detect all of the target analytes on a single detection platform Furthermore, in some embodiments, the substrate comprises a multiplicity of arrays, particularly nucleic acid arrays, which are contained in one or a plurality of reaction volumes (e g bounded by the adhesive and covered by the flexible layer) In addition, it should be understood that while most of the discussion herein is directed to the use of generally planar substrates with microchannels and wells, other geometries can be used as well For example, two or more planar substrates can be stacked to produce a three dimensional device, that can contain microchannels flowing within one plane or between planes, similarly, wells may span two or more substrates to allow for larger sample volumes Thus for example, both sides of a substrate can be etched to contain microchannels, see for example U S Patent Nos 5,603,351 and 5,681 ,484, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference The biochip substrates of the invention have capture binding Iigands attached in array formats By "array" or "biochip" herein is meant a plurality of capture binding iigands, preferably nucleic acids, in an array format, the size of the array will depend on the composition and end use of the array Most of the discussion herein is directed to the use of nucleic acid arrays with attached capture probes, but this is not meant to limit the scope of the invention, as other types of capture binding Iigands (proteins, etc ), can be used "Array" in this context generally refers to an ordered spatial arrangement, particularly an arrangement of immobilized biomolecules or polymeric anchoring structures "Addressble array" refers to an array wherein the individual elements have precisely defined X and Y coordinates, so that a given element at a particular position in the array can be identified Nucleic acids arrays are known in the art, and can be classified in a number of ways, both ordered arrays (e g the ability to resolve chemistries at discrete sites), and random arrays are included Ordered arrays include, but are not limited to, those made using photolithography techniques (Affymetπx GeneChip™), spotting techniques (Synteni and others), printing techniques (Hewlett Packard and Rosetta), three dimensional "gel pad" arrays, etc The size of the array can vary, with arrays containing from about 2 different capture probes to many millions can be made, with very large arrays being possible Generally, the array will comprise from two to as many as 100,000, with from about 400 to about 1000 being the most preferred, and about 10,000 being especially preferred Arrays can also be classifed as "addressable", which means that the individual elements of the array have precisely defined x and y coordinates, so that a given array element can be pinpointed The invention is advantageously used for performing assays using biochips 18 Biochips, as used in the art, encompass substrates containing arrays or microarrays, preferably ordered arrays and most preferably ordered, addressable arrays, of biological molecules that comprise one member of a biological binding pair Typically, such arrays are oligonucleotide arrays comprising a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to at least one sequence expected to be present in a biological sample Alternatively, peptides or other small molecules can be arrayed in such biochips for performing immunological analysis (wherein the arrayed molecules are antigens) or assaying biological receptors (wherein the arrayed molecules are Iigands, agonists or antagonists of said receptors) Thus, while "probes" generally refer to nucleic acids that are substantially complementary to target nucleic acids, "probe" and "biomolecular probe" can also refer to a biomolecule used to detect another biomolecule, e g its binding partner One useful feature of biochips is the manner in which the arrayed biomolecules are attached to the surface of the biochip Conventionally such procedures involve multiple reaction steps, often requiring chemical modification of the solid support itself Even in embodiments comprising absorption matrices, such as hydrogels, present on a solid support, chemical modification of the gel polymer is necessary to provide a chemical functionality capable forming a covalent bond with the biomolecule The efficiency of the attachment chemistry and strength of the chemical bonds formed are critical to the fabrication and ultimate performance of the microarray Polymeric hydrogels and gel pads are used as binding layers to adhere to surfaces biological molecules including, but not limited to, proteins, peptides, oligonucleotides, polynucleotides, and larger nucleic acid fragments The oligonucleotide probes may be bound to the surface of a continuous layer of the hydrogel, or to an array of gel pads The gel pads comprising biochips for use with the apparatus of the present invention are conveniently produced as thin sheets or slabs, typically by depositing a solution of acrylamide monomer, a cross nker such methylene bisacrylamide, and a catalyst such as N, N, N', N' - tetramethylethylendiamme (TEMED) and an initiator such as ammonium persulfate for chemical polymerization, or 2,2-dιmethoxy-2-phenyl-acetophone (DMPAP) for photopolymenzation, in between two glass surfaces (e g , glass plates or microscope slides) using a spacer to obtain the desired thickness of the polymeric gel Generally, the acrylamide monomer and crosshnker are prepared in one solution of about 4-5% acrylamide (having an acrylamide/ bisacrylamide ratio of 19/1 ) in water/glycerol, with a nominal amount of initiator added The solution is polymerized and cross nked either by ultraviolet (UV) radiation (e g , 254 nm for at least about 15 minutes, or other appropriate UV conditions, collectively termed "photopolymenzation"), or by thermal initiation at elevated temperature (e g , typically at about 40° C) Following polymerization and crosslink g, the top glass slide is removed from the surface to uncover the gel The pore size (and hence the "sieving properties") of the gel is controlled by changing the amount of crosshnker and the percent solids in the monomer solution The pore size also can be controlled by changing the polymerization temperature In the fabrication of polyacrylamide embodiments of the polymeric hydrogel arrays of the invention (i.e , patterned gels) used as binding layers for biological molecules, the acrylamide solution typically is imaged through a mask during the UV polymeπzation/crosshnking step The top glass slide is removed after polymerization, and the unpolymeπzed monomer is washed away (developed) with water, leaving a fine feature pattern of polyacrylamide hydrogel, which is used to produce the crosshnked polyacrylamide hydrogel pads Further, in an application of lithographic techniques known in the semiconductor industry, light can be applied to discrete locations on the surface of a polyacrylamide hydrogel to activate these specified regions for the attachment of an oligonucleotide, an antibody, an antigen, a hormone, hormone receptor, a hgand or a polysacchande on the surface (e g , a polyacrylamide hydrogel surface) of a solid support (see, for example, International Application, Publication No WO 91/07087, incorporated by reference) For hydrogel-based arrays using polyacrylamide, biomolecules (such as oligonucleotides) are covalently attached by forming an amide, ester or disulfide bond between the biomolecule and a denvatized polymer comprising the cognate chemical group Covalent attachment of the biomolecule to the polymer is usually performed after polymerization and chemical cross-linking of the polymer is completed. Alternatively, oligonucleotides bearing 5'-termιnal acrylamide modifications can be used that efficiently copolymeπze with acrylamide monomers to form DNA-containmg polyacrylamide copolymers (Rehman et al., 1999, Nucleic Acids Research 27 649-655) Using this approach, stable probe- containing layers can be fabricated on supports (e g , microtiter plates and silanized glass) having exposed acrylic groups This approach has made available the commercially marketed "Acrydite™" capture probes (available from Mosaic Technologies, Boston, MA) The Acrydite moiety is a phosporamidite that contains an ethylene group capable of free-radical copolymeπzation with acrylamide, and which can be used in standard DNA synthesizers to introduce copolymerizable groups at the 5' terminus of any oligonucleotide probe With reference to the illustration provided in Figure 1 , the invention provides a hybridization chamber 10 comprising a biochip, which comprises a substrate 11 having a first surface 12 and a second surface 13 opposite thereto, and a flexible layer 16 affixed to the first substrate surface 12 by an adhesive layer 15 On the first surface 12 is an area 14 bounded by adhesive layer 15 an completely covered by flexible layer 16 Flexible layer 16, adhesive layer 15, and first substrate surface 12 further define a reaction volume 25 (also sometimes referred to herein as a reaction chamber) The ratio of volume 25 to area 14 is preferably from about 0 025 mL/mm 2 to about 0 25 mL/mm 2 , more preferably from about 0 1 mL/mm 2 to about 0 25 mL/mm 2 , and most preferably from about 0 1 mL/mm 2 to about 0 2 mL/mm 2 While the present invention includes reaction volumes defined by the substrate, the adhesive and the flexible layer, as will be appreciated by those in the art, there are a variety of ways that the reaction volume can be formed For example, rather than have an adhesive (in form of a gasket, for example) serve to create the "walls" of the chamber, the substrate itself may be formed to form these walls As will be appreciated by those in the art, a wide variety of other configurations are also possible As shown in Figure 3, between flexible layer 16 and first substrate surface 12 in area 14 is positioned a multiplicity of biomolecules In a preferred embodiment, the multiplicity of biomolecules comprises an array 17 of biomolecules, which is preferably affixed to first substrate surface 12 Array 17 preferably further comprises gel pads 22 In an alternate preferred embodiment, array 17 is deposited on a continuous layer of polyacrylamide Figure 2 provides an exploded cross-sectional view of a portion of array 17 illustrating the gel pads 22 Each gel structure 22 is preferably cylindrical, most preferably having about a 1 13 micron diameter and about a 25 micron thickness The distance between each site within each array 17 is most preferably about 300 microns An optional layer of a water-soluble compound 28 is included that is either solid or highly viscous at a first temperature, e g room temperature or storage temperatures, and a liquid or more viscous at a second, higher temperature Preferred embodiments utilize compounds having a melting point of about 30 to about 60°C, more preferably of about 35 to about 50°C, and most preferably of about 35 to about 45°C is deposited in volume 25 bounded by first substrate surface 12, flexible layer 16, and adhesive layer 15 Preferably, the water-soluble compound is biocompatible, does not stick to flexible layer 16, and serves to prevent mechanical damage to gel pads 22 This compound can comprise any number of materials, with polymers such as glycol polymers, dextrans, sugars and other carbohydrates being preferred In a preferred embodiment, the compound is polyethylene glycol, most preferably polyethylene glycol 600 The compound 28 is deposited so that the entire volume 25, with the exception of that portion of volume 25 occupied by array 17, comprises compound 28 Array 17 can be positioned on surface 12 by providing markings, most preferably holes or pits in surface 12, that act as fiducials or reference points on surface 12 for accurate placement of array 17 The presence of said fiducials is particularly advantageous in embodiments comprising a multiplicity of arrays 17 in one or a multiplicity of areas 14 on surface 12, wherein accurate placement of said arrays is required for proper spacing and orientation of the arrays in the reaction chamber In preferred embodiments, a first and second port 19 and 20 extend through flexible layer 16, as shown in Figure 7, although in some embodiments there is only a single port that serves as both the inlet and outlet port The first port 19 serves as an input port and is positioned in flexible layer 16 so that the first opening 29 is provided within the area 14 (reaction chamber) bounded by adhesive layer 15 on first surface 12 Second port 20 serves as an outlet port and is positioned in flexible layer 16 so that the first opening 31 opens within area 14 bounded by the adhesive layer 15 on the first surface 12 Input and output ports 19 and 20 are preferably shaped to accept a plastic pipette tip, most preferably a 10μL pipette tip or a 200μL pipette tip In preferred embodiments, input and output ports 19 and 20 are generally in the shape of a truncated cone, as shown in Figure 4, wherein the end of the cone having the smaller diameter forms the first opening of each port 29 and 31 , respectively, and the end of the cone having the larger diameter forms the second opening of each port 30 and 32, respectively This shape creates a seal between the pipette tip and the port, enhances visibility of the port for operator accuracy and prevents protrusion of the pipette tip into volume 25, thereby preventing potential damage to components therein, particularly the flexible, gas permeable layer 16 In these embodiments, each port preferably has a diameter on second substrate surface 13 of from about 1 0 mm to about 2 0 mm, and a diameter on first substrate surface 12 of from about 0 3 mm to about 0 6 mm The conical walls of ports 19 and 20 form an angle 54 with the second substrate surface 13, which is preferably less than 90° Most preferably, angle 54 is less than or equal to the contact angle 55 of the biological sample fluid 26 Most preferably, angle 54 is equal to contact angle 55 such that the surface of the fluid in the port is flat For aqueous solutions, this angle is about 60 ° This geometric arrangement provides a port that tends not to leak, but instead wicks fluid into volume 25 so that the second substrate surface 13 is dry when replaceable cover 21 is applied The openings of ports 19 and 20 may be covered with a removable and replaceable cover 21 In preferred embodiments, replaceable cover 21 is a stopper, a gasket, or tape, most preferably a foil tape In some of these embodiments, one or more first notches 70 are cut into the first adhesive layer 15 such that the first notches 70 are in direct communication with the area 14 on first substrate surface 12 bounded by the first adhesive layer 15 Second notches 72 are cut into the flexible layer 16 in positions corresponding to the size and position of first notches 70 in adhesive layer 15, thus forming one or more ports In a particularly preferred embodiment, a ring of adhesive 74 is deposited around the perimeter of each second notch 72, such that the inner perimeter of adhesive ring 74 is coextensive with the outer perimeter of second notch 72 Preferably, first and second notches 70 and 72 are circular in shape, and have a diameter that is equal to the inner diameter of adhesive ring 74 Preferably the inner diameter and outer diameter of adhesive ring 74 are selected to form a tight seal with the tip end of a pipette In an alternate preferred embodiment, a second layer of adhesive 76 is deposited on the portions of flexible layer 16 not covering the area 14 on first substrate surface 12 and not defining first and second ports 19 and 20 In this embodiment the apparatus further comprises a label layer 57 that is die cut in the same manner as the first adhesive layer 15 to form windows 58 that correspond in location to areas 14 on first substrate surface 12, and which is applied to second adhesive layer 76 In this embodiment, one or more third notches 78 are cut into second adhesive layer 76, such that third notches 78 correspond in shape, size, and position to first and second notches 70 and 72 Fourth notches 80, having a shape and position corresponding to first, second and third notches 70, 72 and 78, are cut into label layer 57 The diameter of fourth notches 80 is preferably greater than the diameter of first, second and third notches 70, 72 and 78, such that after the apparatus is assembled a portion of second adhesive layer 76 is exposed by fourth notch 80 Preferably the exposed portion of second adhesive layer 76 corresponds to the shape and size of a pipette tip In alternative embodiments of the apparatus, first and second ports 19 and 20 extend through substrate 11 , rather than through flexible layer 16 Illustrative embodiments are described in co- owned and co-pending U S Application No 09/464,490, incorporated by reference herein In preferred embodiments of the apparatus, area 14 on first substrate surface 12 is square or rectangular with two rounded edges at diagonally opposite corners of are 14 and two 90 degree angles at the remaining two diagonally opposite corners of area 14 Preferably, when first and second ports 19 and 20 extend through flexible layer 16, first notches 70 in first adhesive layer 15 are cut at the sharp edges of area 14, as shown in Figure 7 These embodiments are particularly preferred as they comprise geometries that eliminate corners and therefore are useful in the prevention of bubble formation in area 14 Substrate 11 is fabricated from any solid supporting substance, including but not limited to plastics, metals, ceramics, and glasses Most preferably, substrate 11 is made from silicon or glass (for accuracy and stiffness), molded plastics (which reduce cost of manufacture and thermal inertia), or ceramics (for the incorporation of microfluidic elements including integrated heating elements) Most preferably, the substrate is glass Adhesive layer 15 is prepared using an adhesive suitable for forming a water-tight bond between substrate 11 and flexible layer 16, including, but not limited to, high temperature acrylics, rubber-based adhesives, and sihcone-based adhesives The shape of adhesive layer 15 is configured to contain array 17 Adhesive layer 15 can be deposited on first substrate surface 12 in a pattern to produce area 14 in any desired shape, and is most preferably deposited to define an ellipsoid area 14 Adhesive layer 15 can be deposited using Inkjet printing or offset printing methods, or by die cutting the desired shapes from a sheet of adhesive material In addition, a substantial portion of first surface 12 can be covered with adhesive and portions of the substrate that are not desired to retain adhesive properties can be hardened preferentially, for example, by ultraviolet curing In these embodiments, portions retaining adhesive properties can be defined using a mask and thereby retain adhesive properties necessary to affix flexible layer 16 to surface 12 In embodiments using the die cut adhesive material, the adhesive material is preferably a doublesided adhesive tape, and more preferably a double sided adhesive tape having no carrier Adhesive layer 15 is most preferably set down in a layer between 1 and 100 μm thick, more preferably between 25 and 50 μm thick, and most preferably about 50 μm thick Flexible layer 16 is made of any flexible solid substance, including but not limited to plastics, including polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyvinyhdene chloride (sold commercially as Saran ® wrap) plastics, rubbers, including silicone rubbers, high temperature polyesters, and porous Teflon ® Flexible layer 16 is preferably both deformable and biocompatible and preferably has low permeability to liquids in order to prevent evaporation of water from the volume contained between the flexible layer and the substrate That is, preferred embodiments utilized flexible layers that are selectively permeable to gas but impermeable or substantially impermeable to liquid Flexible layer 16 also preferably is optically clear and should be able to withstand temperatures of between 50 and 95 ° C for a period of between 8 and 12 hours without shrinkage Flexible layer 16 preferably covers an area of from about 5 mm 2 to about 1400 mm 2 , more preferably from about 5 mm 2 to about 600 mm 2 , and most preferably from about 100 mm 2 to about 600 mm 2 In a preferred embodiment, the flexible layer is a gas permeable membrane Most preferably, flexible, gas permeable layer 16 is selected to have physical, chemical and mechanical properties such that the surface tension of sample fluid 26 prevents passage of the sample fluid through the pores of the membrane, while allowing passage of gas molecules across the flexible, gas permeable layer Preferably, the pore size of flexible, gas permeable layer 16 is between 0 2 and 3 0 μm, more preferably between 0.2 and 1 μm, and most preferably about 0.2 μm Flexible, gas permeable layer 16 also preferably is translucent and should be able to withstand temperatures of between 50°C and 95°C for a period of between 8 and 12 hours without shrinkage In a preferred embodiment, the flexible, gas permeable layer is porous Teflon ® Membranes having these characteristics are available from Pall Specialty Materials In preferred embodiments, as shown in Figure 5, the invention further comprises a label layer 57 that is die cut in the same manner as the adhesive to form windows 58 that correspond in location to areas 14 on first substrate surface 12 The label layer is preferably a thick film having a layer of adhesive, and most preferably is an Avery laser label The label layer is applied to the outer surface of the flexible layer, preferably by vacuum lamination Areas 14 are preferably visible through windows 58 in label layer 57 In a preferred embodiment, the invention further provides a means for facilitating diffusion across the flexible, gas permeable layer; this is referred to herein as a "gas diffusion accelerator" The gas diffusion accelerator is used to increase the rate of diffusion of gas bubbles from the reaction chamber across the flexible layer, as compared to the diffusion rate in the absence of the accelerator The gas diffusion accelerator can take on a variety of configurations, but is preferably removably affixed to the flexible, gas permeable layer, or the label layer when present, in order to remove gas bubbles from the reaction chambers The gas diffusion accelerator creates a pressure gradient or concentration gradient across flexible, gas permeable layer 16, thereby increasing the rate of diffusion of gas molecules from the sample fluid 26 contained in volume 25 across flexible, gas permeable layer 26 A preferred embodiment of the gas diffusion accelerator , wherein the gas diffusion accelerator creates a pressure gradient across flexible, gas permeable layer 16, is shown in Figure 14 In this embodiment, a vacuum source 70 is removably affixed to flexible, gas permeable layer 16 In preferred embodiments, vacuum source 70 comprises a vacuum pump 71 , a chamber seal 72 that completely surrounds area 14 and is removably affixed to flexible, gas permeable layer 16, and a length of plastic tubing 73 connecting vacuum pump 71 to reducer 72 The chamber seal may be a suction cup, a reducer, or any other structure having similar chemical and mechanical properties Most preferably, the plastic tubing is polyurethane tubing Most preferably the chamber seal is made of polyvinyhdene fluoride (sold under the name Kynar® by Elf Atochem North America) Diffusion-facilitating means that create a concentration gradient across the membrane are also preferred Concentration gradients are created, for example, by providing a flow of inert gas across flexible, gas permeable layer 16, wherein the molecules of the inert gas are too large to pass through flexible, gas permeable layer 16, while the gas contained in volume 25 passes freely through flexible, gas permeable layer 16 Those skilled in the art will be able to select the characteristics of flexible, gas permeable layer 16 and gas diffusion accelerators that are appropriate for their selected sample fluid 26 Array 17 contained in area 14 on first substrate surface 12 is optionally covered with a water-soluble compound 28, which protects and seals the biochip prior to use and prevents degradation or other damage to the array Any water-soluble compound 28 having a melting point of about 30°C to about 60°C, more preferably of about 35°C to about 50°C, and most preferably of about 35°C to about 45°C is advantageously used in filling volume 25 between array 17 and flexible layer 16 Preferably, the compound is polyethylene glycol, most preferably polyethylene glycol 600 It is a particularly preferred feature of hybridization chamber 10 of the invention that water-soluble compound 28 fills the entirety of the volume 25 and more preferably also fills at least a portion of input port 19 This prevents formation of air bubbles in volume 25 because compound 28 is first melted, then carefully mixed with the sample fluid 26 within volume 25 using a roller 40 without producing air bubbles in hybridization fluid 26 The lack of air bubbles in reaction volume 25 enhances efficiency of the biological binding reaction by ensuring that interactions, such as hybridization, between the target analytes and the probes are capable of proceeding without interference from such air bubbles In addition, it minimizes artifactual signals detected by a scanner 36 or a light pipe 37 Ports and holes can be produced in substrate 11 by diamond drilling in glass embodiments of substrate 11 or by stamping or molding in plastic embodiments thereof, or using ceramics formulation technology outlined herein This facilitates standardization of the hybridization chamber dimensions, for example, by producing substrates where the first and second ports 19 and 20 are produced in a single operation Both the substrate 11 and the removable cover 21 can be set down as strips or large sheets, and can be rolled to avoid trapping air bubbles Flexible layer 16 can be applied by vacuum lamination to avoid trapping air, or can be deposited by spinning or flowing liquid plastic over substrate 11 after treatment with adhesive 15 and water-soluble compound 28, followed by curing the flexible layer in place Individual hybridization chambers 10 can be produced in stacks using, for example, a diamond saw as shown in Figure 6 Figure 6 illustrates a preferred arrangement for manufacturing hybridization chamber 10, wherein alternating layers of flexible layer 16, adhesive layer 15, uncut substrate 11 , and removable cover 21 are laid down, and hybridization chambers are produced by cutting the stacked layers, for example, with a diamond saw or any appropriate manufacturing tool The sealed volumes 25 protect the arrays 17 from debris produced during the cutting process Alternative embodiments of the hybridization chamber 10 of the invention encompass a multiplicity of arrays 17 confined in a multiplicity of areas 14 underneath flexible layer 16, each area comprising an array 17 and being supplied with first port 19 and, optionally, second port 20 In these embodiments, adhesive layer 15 is deposited on first substrate surface 12 in a pattern that defines each of areas 14, and flexible layer 16 is applied to adhesive layer 15 to encompass areas 14 on said surface In certain embodiments of the invention, hybridization chamber 10 is produced containing array 17 or a multiplicity of arrays 17 as disclosed herein, wherein the chamber is provided ready-to-use by the addition of hybridization fluid 26 comprising one or a multiplicity of target molecules In alternative embodiments, hybridization chamber 10 is provided without array 17, and allows for insertion thereof by a user In these embodiments, at least one edge of flexible layer 16 is not adhered to first substrate surface 12 until array gas diffusion accelerator 17 is inserted In the use of the hybridization or reaction chamber 10 of the invention, an amount of a sample fluid 26, most preferably comprising a biological sample containing a target nucleic acid, is added to the reaction chamber through first port 19 Before application of the hybridization fluid 26 to the chamber, volume 25 is most preferably heated to a temperature greater than or equal to the melting temperature of water-soluble compound 28 When melted, hybridization fluid 26 can be added to the chamber and mixed with the water-soluble compound, as shown in Figure 1 B Preferably, water-soluble compound 28 does not affect hybridization in the chamber More preferably, the amount of compound 28 is chosen such that hybridization efficiency is improved when compound 28 is mixed with sample fluid 26 In embodiments of the chamber comprising first port 19 but not second port 20, the hybridization fluid is preferably introduced into the chamber after compound 28 is melted, and then the fluid is cycled into and out of the chamber using, most preferably, a pipette, until fluid 26 and compound 28 are fully mixed, and the hybridization fluid evenly distributed over the surface of array 17, or mixed into gel pads 22 comprising certain embodiments of said arrays Alternatively, hybridization fluid 26 is evenly distributed over the surface of array 17, or mixed into gel pads 22 by physically manipulating flexible layer 16, as more fully described below In these embodiments, hybridization fluid 26 is removed after hybridization is completed, as shown in Figure 9, and array 17 is washed by the cycling a sufficient volume of a wash solution 27 into and out of the chamber, most preferably using a pipette In embodiments of the chamber comprising both first port 19 and second port 20, the hybridization fluid is preferably introduced into the chamber after compound 28 is melted, and then the fluid is cycled into and out of the chamber using, most preferably, at least one pipette, until fluid 26 and compound 28 are fully mixed, and the hybridization fluid evenly distributed over the surface of array 17, or mixed into gel pads 22 comprising certain embodiments of said biochips Hybridization is then performed by incubating the chamber for a time and at a temperature sufficient for hybridization to be accomplished Hybridization fluid 26 is removed after hybridization has been completed using outlet port 20, and the biochip washed by the addition and cycling of a sufficient volume of a wash solution 27 into and out of the chamber, most preferably using a pipette In these embodiments, the wash solution can also be continuously provided by addition through the input port and removal through the output port In certain embodiments, the biochip containing the hybridized array is removed from the chamber for development or further manipulations as required In preferred embodiments, the biochip containing the hybridized array is analyzed in situ as described below Prior to commencing the reaction, the reaction apparatus 10 is degassed using vacuum source 70 Preferably a vacuum of between 13 and 27 kPa (100 to 200 torr), more preferably a vacuum of between 13 and 20 kPa (100 to 150 torr), and most preferably a vacuum of about 13 kPa (100 torr) is applied Preferably the vacuum is applied for between 10 seconds and 2 minutes, more preferably between 10 seconds and 1 minute, most preferably between 10 seconds and 30 seconds Vacuum source 70 is then detached from flexible, gas permeable layer 16, and volume 25 is visually inspected for the presence of gas bubbles Figure 1 B illustrates an advantageous embodiment of hybridization chamber 10 of the invention, further comprising a heating element 33 Most advantageously, heating element 33 has a heating surface 34 adapted to the shape of hybridization chamber 10 to substantially cover the area 14 under flexible layer 16 Heating element 33 is any suitable heating means, including but not limited to resistance heaters, thermoelectric heaters, or microwave absorbing heaters The hybridization chamber 10 of the invention also advantageously comprises a thermocouple 35 or other temperature-sensing or measuring element to measure the temperature of hybridization fluid 26 or chamber 10 These temperature-sensing elements advantageously are coupled with heating element 33 to control hybridization fluid 26 and wash solution 27 temperature, and can be used to calibrate other elements, such as scanning devices 36 as described below that may be sensitive to temperature In certain embodiments of the invention, positive hybridization is detected visually, / e , by the production of a dye or other material that reflects visible light at sites on biochip 18 where hybridization has occurred In these embodiments, the dye or other material is most preferably produced enzymatically, for example, using a hybridization-specific immunological reagent such as an antibody linked to an enzyme that catalyzes the production of the dye Visual inspection can be used to detect sites of positive hybridization More preferably, the biochip containing the hybridized array is scanned using scanner 36 as disclosed more fully below Positive hybridization on biochip 18 most preferably is detected by fluorescence using labeled target molecules in a biological sample, or by including intercalating dyes in the hybridization fluid 26 that fluoresce when bound by a hybridized DNA duplex and illuminated by light at a particular wavelength Suitable intercalating dyes include, but are not limited to, ethidium bromide, Hoechst DAPI, and Alexa Fluor dyes Suitable fluorescence labels include, but are not limited to, fluorescein, rhodamine, propidium iodide, and Cy3 and Cy5 (Amersham), that can be incorporated into target molecules, for example, in vitro amplified fragments using labeled oligonucleotide primers Figures 10A-10C illustrate an embodiment of the invention comprising a scanner 36, which is advantageously positioned over (or beneath) flexible layer 16 and moves from one end of area 14 to the opposite end, sequentially illuminating area 14 and array 17 positioned thereupon Prior to analysis of the hybridized array, all fluid is removed from volume 25 such that flexible layer 16 is in contact with array 17 Scanner 36 then excites the fluorescent dye, preferably with short wavelength light, most preferably light with a wavelength between 250 nm and 600 nm Scanner 36 then collects the emitted light from a specific area The amount of light emitted is then used to determine the amount of fluorescent dye present in the area, and hence the amount of labeled target Particular embodiments of scanners and scanning devices 36 are shown in Figures 11 A through 11 E It is a particularly advantageous feature of hybridization chamber 10 that flexible layer 16 is translucent to suitable wavelengths of light, including light in the ultraviolet and visible portion of the spectrum An additional advantageous feature of hybridization chamber 10 is that flexible layer 16, which is very thin, is immediately adjacent to and in contact with biochip 18 after hybridization fluid 26 or wash fluid 27 is removed from the chamber This combination of features reduces or eliminates free surface reflections, internal reflection of illumination from the scanner, and dispersion or scattering of illuminating light, thereby optimizing the amount of incident light that illuminates array 17 This arrangement is also more economical than in existing apparatus as it minimizes the need for highly polished, low scattering surfaces or complex or expensive lenses, and eliminates problems associated with focus and depth-of-field in more complex optical detectors In other embodiments, a light pipe 37 contacts the surface of flexible layer 16 that is immediately adjacent to and in contact with the surface of array 17, as shown in Figure 11 B In these embodiments, both illuminating and emitted light are conveyed and collected by light pipe 37 The pipe is designed to be slightly flexible so as to adapt to the contoured surface of flexible layer 16 Light pipe 37 contacts flexible layer 16 that contacts array 17, thereby permitting contacts free of surface reflections even under circumstances where array 17 or light pipe 37 has localized variations in height Advantageously, light pipe 37 has a larger surface area than array 17, so that the maximum amount of illuminating light is delivered to array 17, and the maximum amount of emitted light from array 17 is collected by light pipe 37 A further advantage of light pipe 37 is that it enables detection of bubbles formed in hybridization fluid 26 or wash buffer 27, which detection can be used as a signal for roller 40 to address flexible layer 16 to remove such bubbles Removing bubbles in hybridization fluid 26 or wash buffer 27 reduces the frequency of non-specific binding and artifactual signals detected by scanner 36 In additional embodiments of the invention, the area 14 defined by adhesive layer 15 further comprises a reflective layer 38 that substantially covers the entirety of the area 14 and is positioned between array 17 and the first substrate surface 12 In preferred embodiments, reflective layer 38 comprises aluminum, gold, silver, or platinum In these embodiments, the amount of the light signal reflected or transmitted to the light-detecting portion of scanner 36 is increased up to four-fold In further advantageous embodiments of the invention, reflective layer 38 is a metal film resistor or an RF induction heater In these embodiments, reflective 38 layer can heat the slide without requiring additional heating elements 33 This is a particularly desirable feature in hand-held embodiments of the hybridization chamber 10 of the invention If required, a passivation later 39 can be applied on top of reflective layer 38 Preferably, passivation layer 39 is a layer of parylene a few microns thick that is applied by evaporation The amount of illumination required, and hence the amount of power needed to operate scanner 36 is reduced in these embodiments, which are particularly suited to battery-operated embodiments such as hand-held devices to improve useful battery life Furthermore, passivation layer 39 reduces artifactual signals in the light emission data by obscuring objects that it covers Hybridization chamber 10 is preferably supplied with a roller 40 in removable contact with flexible layer 16 and that can be moved longitudinally across areas 14 on first substrate surface 12 In preferred embodiments, the surface of roller 40 comprises a textured pattern 41 , most preferably a spiral pattern, that permits the roller to efficiently mix hybridization fluid and wash solution across area 14 and array 17 The roller can move longitudinally across the surface of the chamber for mixing sample fluid and wash solutions as required One advantageous arrangement of roller 40 (again, preferably a patterned roller) and hybridization chamber 10 is shown in Figure 1 1 E As shown in the Figure, roller 40 can be advantageously connected to a movable arm 42 that can be positioned to place roller 40 in contact with flexible layer 16 when in a first position, and can be moved to a second position in which roller 40 is not in contact with flexible layer 16 Most preferably, movable arm 42 has a pivot point 44 and movement about said pivot point is preferably controlled by a solenoid In addition to movement of roller 40 in contact with and away from hybridization chamber 10, either roller 40 or hybridization chamber 10, or both, are movable in a longitudinal direction to enable roller 40 to mix hybridization fluid 26 or wash solution 27 inside volume 25 bounded by flexible layer 16, adhesive layer 15, and first substrate surface 12 in area 14 containing array 17 In embodiments comprising a multiplicity of areas 14 containing a multiplicity of arrays 17, roller 40 is positioned to move longitudinally across each of the multiplicity of areas 14 to mix hybridization fluid 26 or wash solution 27 in each of the volumes 25 containing arrays 17 In additional embodiments, a sample preparation chip 45, comprising a port 46, as shown in Figures 12A through 12C, can be attached to hybridization chamber 10 Most preferably, port 46 in sample preparation chip 45 is aligned with first port 19 in hybridization chamber 10 to permit efficient transfer of sample to volume 25 Additional fiducial references can be used to accurately align hybridization chamber 10 and sample preparation chip 45 Since access to first port 19 is through second substrate surface 13, the array can be scanned without interference from the attached sample preparation chip In alternative embodiments of the invention, sample preparation chip 45 may be bound to second substrate surface 13 (Figure 12B) or formed as an integral part of substrate 11 (Figure 12C) A preferred embodiment of hybridization chamber 10 of the invention is a hand-held embodiment as shown in Figures 10A-10C, further comprising a scanner 36 In these embodiments, hand-held device 47 comprises a base 48, a lid 49 and a carriage 50 embodying roller 40, scanner 36, heating element 33 and thermocouple 35 Carriage 50 is illustrated in Figure 11 A Device 47 comprises a compartment 51 for positioning hybridization chamber 10 in proximity to carriage 50 Carriage 50 is provided with moving means for moving roller 40, scanner 36 and heating element 33 relative to hybridization chamber 10 as required for operation as described above Carriage 50 and lid 49 are arranged to permit a user to introduce and remove hybridization fluid 26 and wash solution 27 into the chamber through first port 19 and second port 20 as required Alternatively, device 47 further comprises fluidic connections 52 to each of the first and second ports to provide for sample introduction and array washing after hybridization of the sample thereto Device 47 is most preferably operated by battery, although AC adapters are also advantageously encompassed by the description of the device herein In further preferred embodiments, lid 49 further comprises a display 56 for displaying the results of the analysis With respect to the methods of using the devices, there are a wide variety of methods that can be used If required, the target sequence is prepared using known techniques For example, the sample may be treated to lyse the cells, using known lysis buffers, sonication, electroporation, etc , with purification and amplification as outlined below occurring as needed, as will be appreciated by those in the art In addition, the reactions outlined herein may be accomplished in a variety of ways, as will be appreciated by those in the art Components of the reaction may be added simultaneously, or sequentially, in any order, with preferred embodiments outlined below In addition, the reaction may include a variety of other reagents which may be included in the assays These include reagents like salts, buffers, neutral proteins, e g albumin, detergents, etc , which may be used to facilitate optimal hybridization and detection, and/or reduce non-specific or background interactions Also reagents that otherwise improve the efficiency of the assay, such as protease inhibitors, nuclease inhibitors, antimicrobial agents, etc , may be used, depending on the sample preparation methods and purity of the target In addition, in most embodiments, double stranded target nucleic acids are denatured to render them single stranded so as to permit hybridization of the primers and other probes of the invention A preferred embodiment utilizes a thermal step, generally by raising the temperature of the reaction to about 95 ° C, although pH changes and other techniques may also be used As outlined herein, the invention provides a number of capture probes that will hybridize to some portion, i e a domain, of the target sequence Probes of the present invention are designed to be complementary to a target sequence (either the target sequence of the sample or to other probe sequences, for example for use in sandwich assays known in the art) such that hybridization of the target sequence and the probes of the present invention occurs As outlined below, this complementarity need not be perfect, there may be any number of base pair mismatches which will interfere with hybridization between the target sequence and the single stranded nucleic acids of the present invention However, if the number of mutations is so great that no hybridization can occur under even the least stringent of hybridization conditions, the sequence is not a complementary target sequence Thus, by "substantially complementary" herein is meant that the probes are sufficiently complementary to the target sequences to hybridize under normal reaction conditions A variety of hybridization conditions may be used in the present invention, including high, moderate and low stringency conditions, see for example Maniatis et al , Molecular Cloning A Laboratory Manual, 2d Edition, 1989, and Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, ed Ausubel, et al, hereby incorporated by reference Stringent conditions are sequence-dependent and will be different in different circumstances Longer sequences hybridize specifically at higher temperatures An extensive guide to the hybridization of nucleic acids is found in Tijssen, Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology-Hybridization with Nucleic Acid Probes, "Overview of principles of hybridization and the strategy of nucleic acid assays" (1993) Generally, stringent conditions are selected to be about 5-10 ° C lower than the thermal melting point (Tm) for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength and pH The Tm is the temperature (under defined ionic strength, pH and nucleic acid concentration) at which 50% of the probes complementary to the target hybridize to the target sequence at equilibrium (as the target sequences are present in excess, at Tm, 50% of the probes are occupied at equilibrium) Stringent conditions will be those in which the salt concentration is less than about 1 0 M sodium ion, typically about 0 01 to 1 0 M sodium ion concentration (or other salts) at pH 7 0 to 8 3 and the temperature is at least about 30°C for short probes (e g 10 to 50 nucleotides) and at least about 60 ° C for long probes (e g greater than 50 nucleotides) Stringent conditions may also be achieved with the addition of helix destabilizing agents such as formamide The hybridization conditions may also vary when a non-ionic backbone, i e PNA is used, as is known in the art In addition, cross-linking agents may be added after target binding to cross-link, i e covalently attach, the two strands of the hybridization complex Thus, the assays are generally run under stringency conditions which allows formation of the hybridization complex only in the presence of target Stringency can be controlled by altering a step parameter that is a thermodynamic variable, including, but not limited to, temperature, formamide concentration, salt concentration, chaotropic salt concentration, pH, organic solvent concentration, etc These parameters may also be used to control non-specific binding, as is generally outlined in U S Patent No 5,681 ,697 Thus it may be desirable to perform certain steps at higher stringency conditions to reduce non-specific binding As described herein, there are a number of possible detection techniques that can be utilized in the present invention In a preferred embodiment, as outlined herein, optical label techniques are used In these embodiments, a label such as an optical dye (e g a fluorochrome) is added to the assay complex comprising the target analyte and the capture binding hgand In some embodiments, for example in the case of nucleic acids, the label can be added to the target, for example by incorporation during an amplification reaction such as PCR For example, the fluorochromes or other labels such as biotin can be added to the PCR primers or to the dNTPs for enzymatic incorporation Alternatively, intercalators can be used as described above Alternatively, preferred embodiments allow the use of electrical detection methods such as those outlined in U S S N s 09/458,553, 09/458,501 , 09/572,187, 09/495,992, 09/344,217, WO00/31148, 09/439,889, 09/438,209, 09/344,620, 09/478,727, PCTUS00/17422, WO 98/20162, WO 98/12430, WO 98/57158, WO 99/57317, WO 99/67425, PCT 00/19889, and WO 99/57319, all of which are expressly incorporated by reference in their entirety These embodiments utilize arrays of microelectrodes on the substrate The Examples that follow are illustrative of specific embodiments of the invention and various uses thereof They are set forth for explanatory purposes only, and are not to be taken as limiting the invention All references cited herein are expressly incorporated by reference in their entirety EXAMPLE 1 ASSEMBLY OF A HYBRIDIZATION CHAMBER The process of assembling a chamber according to the present invention is illustrated in Figure 13 A die cutter was used to cut four ellipsoidal holes in a layer of 502FL ultra-clean laminating adhesive film (3M) A similar pattern was punched into an Avery laser label 5663 for use as a frame and label layer Meanwhile, a sheet of polyvinyhdene chloride film was stretched over a stainless steel frame and annealed for 30 minutes at 100 ° C The Avery label was applied to one side of the polyvinyhdine chloride film by vacuum laminating the label in a vacuum lamination press A vacuum of 15 psi was applied for 30 seconds, and mechanical pressure of 15 psi was maintained for 1 minute after release of the vacuum The adhesive was then applied to the opposite side of the polyvinyhdene chloride film using the same process as for the label The adhesive coated film was then applied to a glass slide that had previously been prepared The arrays of oligonucleotide probes and gel pads were positioned on the glass slide using standard methods Ports were drilled into the slide using a diamond dπll A vacuum lamination press was used to affix the polyvinyhdene chloride film to the slide A vacuum of 15 psi was maintained for 1 minute, and then mechanical pressure of 15 psi was maintained for an additional minute The individual chambers were then filled with polyethylene glycol 600 using a 10 mL pipette tip A layer of 3M 7350 polyester tape was then applied to the slide to seal off the ports EXAMPLE 2 ASSEMBLY OF A TOP-LOADING HYBRIDIZATION CHAMBER A die cutter was used to cut four ellipsoidal holes in a layer of 502FL ultra-clean laminating adhesive film (3M). A similar pattern was punched into an Avery laser label 5663 for use as a frame and label layer. Meanwhile, a sheet of polyvinyhdene chloride film was stretched over a stainless steel frame and annealed for 30 minutes at 100°C. The Avery label was applied to one side of the polyvinyhdine chloride film by vacuum laminating the label in a vacuum lamination press. A vacuum of 15 psi was applied for 30 seconds, and mechanical pressure of 15 psi was maintained for 1 minute after release of the vacuum. The adhesive was then applied to the opposite side of the polyvinyhdene chloride film using the same process as for the label. The adhesive coated film was then applied to a glass slide that had previously been prepared. The arrays of oligonucleotide probes and gel pads were positioned on the glass slide using standard methods. A vacuum lamination press was used to affix the polyvinyhdene chloride film to the slide. A vacuum of 15 psi was maintained for 1 minute, and then mechanical pressure of 15 psi was maintained for an additional minute. The individual chambers were then filled with polyethylene glycol 600 using a 10 mL pipette tip. A layer of 3M 7350 polyester tape was then applied to the slide to seal off the ports. EXAMPLE 3 REMOVING GAS BUBBLES FROM A REACTION CHAMBER The process of assembling a chamber according to the present invention is illustrated in Figure 14. A four reaction-chamber apparatus is manufactured using a layer of 0.2 μm porous Teflon unsupported membrane as the flexible, gas permeable layer, following the procedure provided in U.S. Application Serial No. 09/464,490, incorporated by reference herein. Each reaction chamber is filled with 75 μL of a sample fluid containing biological target molecules by injection through a 300 μL pipette tip (VWR Part No. 53510-084) using a 200 μL pipettor (Rainin P-200). Bubbles are visually detectable in the chambers after injection. A reaction chamber is isolated by applying a Cole-Parmer Kynar 1/4" x 5/8" barbed reducer (Part No. 31513-31 ) directly to the frame layer and forming a seal around the chamber. A "house" vacuum source is connected to the reducer by a length of polyurethane tubing. A vacuum of 200 torr is applied for two minutes. Visual inspection of the chamber following application of the vacuum shows no gas bubbles remaining in the chamber. The reaction apparatus is maintained at 25°C and atmospheric pressure for 8 hours until the reaction proceeds to completion No appreciable evaporation of water from the chamber is observed It should be understood that the foregoing disclosure emphasizes certain specific embodiments of the invention and that all modifications or alternatives equivalent thereto are within the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims

Claims: CLAIMS We claim: 1. An apparatus for performing biological reactions comprising: a) a substrate having a first surface and a second surface; b) an array of biomolecules positioned on said first surface; c) a porous flexible layer affixed to said first surface by an adhesive layer to create a reaction volume; d) a gas diffusion accelerator; and e) a first port extended from said second surface to said reaction volume of said first surface. 2. An apparatus according to claim 1 wherein said biomolecules are nucleic acids. 3. An apparatus according to claim 1 or 2 wherein said substrate is glass, silicon, ceramic or plastic. 4. An apparatus according to claim 1 , 2 or 3 wherein said biomolecules are nucleic acids. 5. An apparatus according to claim 1 , 2, 3 or 4 wherein said biomolecules are attached to said substrate using a gel pad. 6. An apparatus according to claim 1 , 2, 3, 4 or 5 wherein said reaction volume comprises a water- soluble compound that is a solid at a first temperature and a liquid at a second higher temperature. 7. An apparatus according to claim 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 wherein said porous flexible layer is porous Teflon™. 8. An apparatus according to claim 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 wherein said gas diffusion accelerator comprises a vacuum source affixed to said porous flexible layer. 9. An apparatus according to claim 8 wherein said vacuum source comprises: a) a vacuum pump; and b) a chamber seal affixed to said reaction volume. 10. A method of detecting the presence of a target analyte in a sample comprising: a) contacting said sample with an apparatus comprising: i) a substrate having a first surface and a second surface; ii) an array of biomolecules positioned on said first surface; iii) a porous flexible layer affixed to said first surface by an adhesive layer to create a reaction volume; iv) a gas diffusion accelerator; and v) a first port extended from said second surface to said reaction volume of said first surface; under conditions whereby said target analyte will bind to at least one of said biomolecules; b) utilizing said gas diffusion accelerator to remove gas bubbles; and c) detecting the presence of said target analyte. 11. A method according to claim 10 wherein said biomolecules are nucleic acids.

Inventors: HAWKINS GEORGE W, JOHNSON W TRAVIS, MCGARRY MARK W, HAWKINS, GEORGE, W., JOHNSON, W., TRAVIS, MCGARRY, MARK, W.
Applicants: HAWKINS GEORGE W, JOHNSON W TRAVIS, MCGARRY MARK W, MOTOROLA INC, HAWKINS, GEORGE, W., JOHNSON, W., TRAVIS, MCGARRY, MARK, W., MOTOROLA, INC.
Application year: 2001
Main classification: B01L3
IPC codes: B01L3, C12M1, C12N15, C12Q1, G01N21, G01N33, G01N35, G01N37