AFFINITY MACROLIGANDS

Abstract: Affinity macroligands (AML) comprising a reversibly water soluble poly-N-alkylacrylamide linked to a ligand, and their use in the separation of a target substance from a mixture comprising the target substance and other materials are disclosed. Preferred AMLs have number average molar masses of less than 7,000 g/mol (chain length n typically about 25), mass distributions of less than 1.2 and narrow precipitation-solubility temperature (NPST) interval, typically in the range of 1-2 DEG C. Methods of producing polymers for use as AMLs in water are also disclosed.

Description: Affinity Macroliσands Field of the Invention The present invention relates to affinity macroligands (AML) , and in particular to AMLs comprising a reversibly water soluble polymer linked to a ligand, and their use in the separation of a target substance from a mixture comprising the target substance and other materials. The invention further relates to the polymers used to make AMLs and to processes for making the polymers and the AMLs, in particular to polymers synthesized in water. Background of the Invention The purification and separation of the products of biotechnological processes from the impurities and contaminants present from their production is a challenging problem in the art. Firstly, the target substances are often fragile and easily denatured biopolymers, preventing the use of conventional separation techniques employing harsh non-physiological conditions such as elevated temperatures, organic solvents or extreme pH. Further, the scale of such processes is often smaller than the conventional pharmaceutical industry, throughput and speed is often important in view of need to maintain biological activity, and the impurities and contaminants typically need to be reduced to very low levels prior to the product's intended use. Affinity separation is based on some form of interaction between members of a specific binding pair and makes use of one of these specific interactions to force a target substance into a second phase not easily accessible to the majority of the contaminants and impurities present in the reaction mixture. Probably the best known of these techniques is affinity chromatography in which one member of a specific binding pair is immobilised on a solid phase column. When the reaction mixture is passed through the column, only the target substance binds to the immobilised ligand, while contaminants and impurities are flushed through the column unretained. Affinity chromatography combines specificity and high enrichment factors and has been used successfully in a number of biotech downstream processes. However, it suffers from limited scale-up potential, high equipment and material costs and incompatibility with many raw feeds due to the problem of the column clogging, particularly in the early stages of product isolation. A number of alternatives to affinity chromatography have been proposed including affinity precipitation, a term used to describe two different types of separation procedures. In so-called primary effect affinity precipitation, the affinity reaction is the direct cause for the ensuing precipitation. This method calls for at least bivalent reagents. As the affinity interaction takes place, larger and larger associates are formed which precipitate once a certain size has been surpassed which is no longer compatible with dissolution. However, the limits of this type of process are also immediately apparent. The application range is restricted to target substances having at least two binding sites and the concentration of the target substance in a given feed must be fairly well known beforehand, since both too high or too low a concentration will result in the formation of only small associates which tend to stay in solution. In addition, there have been problems in recovering the target substance from the complexes and it can be difficult to recycle the reagents used in the process . In secondary effect affinity precipitation, the second phase required for the separation is created by a precipitation event which is independent of the affinity interaction. This affinity interaction simply ensures the preferential transfer of the target substance into the second phase. This requires the use of bifunctional reagents, so-called affinity macroligands or AMLs comprising a reversibly soluble polymer coupled to a ligand which is a specific binding partner of the target substance. These polymers are carefully chosen for their peculiar solubility. After the target substance has bound by affinity interaction to the AML via the ligand, the entire affinity complex can be precipitated by changing a critical solution parameter such as temperature, pH, salt concentration or combinations thereof. For thermoprecipitation from aqueous solution, the LCST (lower critical solution temperature) is usually exploited, increasing the temperature of the solution to cause precipitation of the AML [1] . Previously, Freitag et al [2-5] have reported that low molar mass poly-N, N ' -diethylacrylamide with molar mass distributions of less than 2 can be synthesized employing living anionic, group transfer or radical polymerization reactions in the presence of a chain transfer agent. However, when living anionic polymerization using butyl-lithium as initiator is employed, the final polymer sequences contain no reactive site for affinity ligand coupling. However, the alternative synthesis of poly-N, N' -diethylacrylamide with a carboxylic acid end group by group transfer polymerization suffers from the disadvantages that the reaction is laborious, expensive and has a very low conversion rate. Freitag et al [4,5] have also reported that pivalyl-m-aminophenylboric acid attached via carbodiimide coupling to the carboxylic acid groups of poly-N, N ' -diethylacrylamide synthesized by group transfer polymerization reaction followed by ester hydrolysis is an affinity macroligand for "Substilisin Carlsberg" . In this case, the specific binding between the neutral form of phenylboric acid and the serine residue of the active enzyme centre was involved. However, it was only shown that after affinity precipitation the enzyme activity in the supernatant was reduced by 30%. Hoffman et al [6,7] and Sakurai et al [8] have reported on the synthesis of poly-N-isopropylacrylamide with a carboxylic acid end group using 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) as chain transfer agent. • ' In Hoffman et al [6], a poly-N-isopropylacrylamide (Mn=4,000; n=34) is disclosed which is used to make enzyme conjugates, rather than AMLs. Further, the paper indicates that this polymer would not be suitable for use in an AML as the authors observed significant loss of the conjugate after 7 cycles of precipitation-dissolution. In the case of Hoffmann et al [7] , the polymers disclosed have number molecular masses Mn greater than 4,900 (n=42) . Sakurai et al [8] have described the production of 7 poly-N-isopropylacrylamides with Mw between 1,400 and 12,300 (n=12-108) and D between 1.20 and 1.94. There is no discussion about making AMLs with these polymers and the data in the paper for polymers with low Mn (e.g. Mn=2,150; n=18; D=1.26) shows that these polymers were incompletely recovered from aqueous solution even with centrifugation, indicating that they would not be useful in the production of AMLs. Sasakura et al [9] reported the synthesis of seven polymers with Mn between 814 and 11,480 (corresponding to n=6-91) and polydispersities between 1.18 and 2.09. In this paper, a single AML with maltose was made with one of the higher molecular mass polymers (MW=12, 800; Mn=7,442, n=59) and tested in the separation of Con A. This AML had an LCST of 4°C and a NPST of 4°C. The paper further discloses that it was not possible to completely recover by centrifugation polymers with lower molecular masses, e.g. showing incomplete recovery of a polymer having Mn=5, 43/n=43, indicating that such polymers would not be useful in the production of AMLs. The ideal AML comprises a reversibly precipitable polymer and a ligand capable of specific interaction with the target substance as compared to other components of the reaction mixture. Typically, as the binding of the polymer to the ligand is covalent, the base polymer needs to carry activated sites which can be reacted with the ligand. Terminal end group polymers are favoured because in this case the affinity ligand is freely accessible, and maximum activity is retained. Further, the binding sites of the ligand need to have a high degree of uniformity so that there is little variance in the interaction energy of the AML and the target substance, helping to ensure that the precipitation of both the pure AML and AML target substance complex is uniform and well defined (quantitative precipitation within a narrow temperature window) without occurrence of fractionation. Low molecular mass of the polymer may result in high ligand density. In addition to these properties, the polymer also needs to be inert with respect to ligand, target substance and impurities interaction (low nonspecific interaction) . For industrial use, the precipitation and resolubilization cycles should be reproducible through multiple cycles within a narrow temperature range, be substantially independent of environmental conditions and provide a high level of recovery of the AML and the target substance. However, to date, the AMLs in the art have failed to deliver the required properties, particularly for use in the context of a robust industrial process. This means that affinity precipitation using prior art AMLs needs to be performed under highly standardized conditions, making the technique inflexible and difficult to use. Snimnarv of the Invention Broadly, the present invention relates to poly-N- acrylamides having properties which make them well suited for use as an affinity macroligands (AMLs). The present invention further relates to AMLs including these polymers and to methods for making the polymers, especially using chain transfer polymerization, and the AMLs. In still further aspects, the present invention relates to the use of the AMLs in separating a target substance from a mixture including it. In one particular embodiment, the present invention relates to poly-N- acrylamides formed in water by chain transfer telomerisation. These polymers are new and have advantageous properties, as compared to similar polymers prepared in organic solvents, which make them particularly useful as AMLs. Accordingly, in a first aspect, the present invention provides an affinity macroligand (AML) comprising a water soluble poly-N-acrylamide linked by a terminal group to a ligand capable of binding to a target substance, the polymer having: (a) a number average molar mass of less than 11, 300g/mol; and, (b) a mass distribution of less than 2.0; wherein the polymer is as obtainable by chain transfer polymerisation of a corresponding monomer in water in the presence of an initiator of radical polymerisation and a chain transfer agent. Preferably, the polymer also has a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) as determined in pure water of between about 35°C and 45°C, i.e. about 5-15°C higher than a corresponding polymer synthesized in organic solvent. Preferably, the narrow precipitation-solubility temperature interval (NPST) of the polymers is less of 3°C. In a further aspect, the present invention provides reversibly water soluble poly-N-acrylamide having a homopolymeric chain of repeating units represented by the one of the following formulae: wherein: X is a reactive group; R- and R 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, -CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , -CH(CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH(CH 2 CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 2 CH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH(CH 3 ) 2 , -C (CH 3 ) 2 CONHR 4 where R 4 = -CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 3 , -CH(CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 3 , -CH 2 CH(OCH 3 ) 2 , and -CH 2 CH (OCH 2 CH 3 ) 2 ; R 3 is selected from the group consisting of -N(CH 2 ) 4 (pyrrolidinyl) , -N(CH 2 ) 5 (piperidinyl) , and -0(CH 2 ) 3 OH. wherein n is an integer between 5 and 40 and the polymer has: (a) a number average molar mass (Mn) of less than ll,300g/mol; (b) a mass distribution (D) of less than 2.0; and, (c) a narrow precipitation-solubility temperature (NPST) interval of less than 3°C. These polymers may be produced in water or in organic solvents as discussed further below. Conveniently, X is a group which is capable of reaction with a ligand to form an affinity macroligand (AML) by covalent bonding. Examples of reactive groups include carboxylic acids, aldehydes, esters, amines, alcohols and thiols. Preferred X groups are selected from the group consisting of: -S- (CH 2 ) y -COOH, -S- (CH 2 ) y -CH0, -S- (CH 2 ) y -NH 2 , -S-(CH 2 ) y -OH, -S-(CH 2 ) y -SH, -S- (CH 2 ) y -CH 3 , and their isomers, where y is an integer between 1 and 4. Still more preferably, X is selected from the group consisting of -S-(CH 2 ) 2 -COOH, -S-(CH 2 ) 2 -NH 2 , -S- (CH 2 ) 2 -OH, -S- (CH 2 ) 2 -SH, and -S-(CH 2 ) 2 -CH 3 . As will be understood by those skilled in the art, there are two possible positions for the H and L or X groups with respect to the polymer chain, depending on the orientation of the ethylene functional group in the corresponding monomer when polymerisation takes place. The use of square brackets in the formula provided herein are intended to cover both of these possibilities, i.e. the position of the H and L or X can be reversed so that, e.g. the X or L group is linked to a CH 2 group of the polymer, and the formulae shown herein should be construed accordingly. In preferred embodiments, the polymer is substantially homogeneous and is linear with the reactive group present at a terminal end of the polymer chain. These features help to ensure easy accessibility and high activity for ligand coupling, and helps to ensure that when the reactive group is linked to a ligand, the environment of the ligand on different polymer molecules is substantially the same, with the result that the reaction energy with the target substance is closely defined, providing a NPST of less than 5°C, and more preferably less than 2°C. Preferably, the base poly-N-acrylamide polymers of the invention may have one or more of the following properties : (a) a number average molar mass of between 500g/mol and 8,600g/mol (n is about 30), more preferably with a molar mass of less than 5, 900g/mol (n is about 20), more preferably less than 5,000g/mol, more preferably less than 2,900g/mol (n is about 10). (b) a number of monomer units in the polymer of preferably less than n=35, more preferably less than n=30, more preferably less than n=20 and most preferably less than n=10. (c) a preferred mass distributions of r≤l.5, and more preferably _<1.4, more preferably -<1.3, more preferably -<1.2, and most preferably between about 1.0 and 1.18. (d) a preferred NPST in water of less than 2°C and more preferably less than 1°C. (e) a preferred LSCT in water between 4 and 80°C, more preferably between 20 and 60°C, and still more preferably between 25 and 40°C. (f) recovery of the base polymer or AML comprising the polymer of greater than 70%, and more preferably greater than 80%, and more preferably greater than 90%, from aqueous solution after 5 or more precipitation- dissolution cycles at 1 wt% polymer and a centrifugal force of 10,000g. Surprisingly, the present inventors have found that by synthesizing polymers in water, different materials resulted as compared to the synthesis carried out in organic solvents. Preferred examples of these polymers have number average molar masses of between about 2,900 and 8,600 g/mol, more preferably between about 4,000 and 6,000 g/mol and most preferably between 4,300 and 5200 g/mol. In some embodiments where the polymers of the invention are formed in water, they preferably have LCSTs in water between 35°C and 45°C, more preferably between 37°C and 42°C and most preferably about 40°C. These LCST values are markedly higher (e.g. more than 5, 10, 15°C) than the values of around 32-3 °C for polymers synthesized in organic solvents. While this result is surprising, it is highly useful when one considers that salt and other impurities present in the aqueous systems in which AMLs are employed typically depress the LCST, e.g. a IM solution of NaCl will depress the LCST by about 15°C. Thus, AMLs made using polymers synthesised in organic solvents often have LCST transitions in the systems in which they are used which are below 20°C. This in turn means that refrigeration of the apparatus used for such separations is needed to use the AMLs, with consequent economic cost and practical inconvenience. However, for polymers as obtainable by synthesis in water, e.g. by chain transfer polymerisation, the increase in LCST as compared to polymers made in organic solvent is advantageous as it means that this transition occurs closer to room temperature. The oligomers synthesized in water also showed very narrow precipitation intervals in solution. Preferably, the NPST is less than 2°C, more preferably less than 1.0°C and more preferably less than 0.5°C. In addition to these differences, a process for synthesizing the polymers in water has the advantage of avoiding the use of organic solvents, which are comparatively expensive, difficult to handle and can be environmentally damaging. Further examples of polymers of the invention are given in the examples below. These include poly-N- isopropylacrylamide (LCST at 32.5°C) and poly-N, N- diethylacrylamide (LCST at 33.3°C) both of which have a number average molar mass of less than 5000g/mol and can be synthesized by chain transfer polymerization using 3- mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) in organic solvent. These polymers show a molar mass distribution of less or equal than 1.3 (determined by MALDI-MS) , a very narrow precipitation temperature interval (<2°C) , and a reproducible narrow precipitation-solubility temperature interval (<2°C) . Preferably, the polymers of the invention have similar precipitation and solubility temperature intervals and do not show hysteresis (<4°C) in solubility-precipitation cycles. By way of example, in embodiments using the polymer poly- acryloylpyrrolidine, the chain length n correlates with the number average molecular mass Mn as follows: n=40, Mn=5,200g/mol; n=35, Mn=4, 510g/mol; n=30, Mn=3, 890g/mol; n=25, Mn=3,260g/mol. In some embodiments, the NPST behaviour of the polymers is substantially independent of the environmental parameters such as the presence of salt or cosolutes in the solution, i.e the presence of impurities or other chemicals does not substantially broaden the NPST range. This is a further advantage of these polymers as compared to prior art polymers whose NPST behaviour is dependent on such factors. Preferably, the polymers are linear and highly homogeneous and have a heterotactic structure (determined by NMR) , one reactive end group per polymer, and a pH independent, predictable and cosolute concentration depending LCST. Preferably, the polymers have on average one functional group X per molecule present at the end of the polymer chain. In a further aspect, the present invention provides a process for producing a reversibly water soluble polymer poly-N-acrylamide from monomer units, the process comprising: (a) dissolving a corresponding monomer A, an initiator for the radical polymerization B, and a chain transfer agent C, in water or an organic solvent in a molar mass ratio A: B: C of 100: 0.01-4 :l-20; (b) polymerizing the monomer under an oxygen free atmosphere at a temperature between 25°C and the temperature of the boiling point at normal pressure of the solvent for 3 to 24 hours; and, (c) separating the polymer from unpolymerized monomer in a purification method comprising precipitation with organic solvents and/or ultra/diafiltration. This process employing chain transfer polymerization allows the polymers to be synthesized in yields of more than 60-80%. The preferred initiators for the radical polymerization are 2, 2' -azoisobutyronitrile (AIBN) , potassium-peroxodisulfate (KPS) , and dibenzoylperoxide (BPO) . The preferred organic solvents are methanol, tert-butanol, dimethylformamide, and tetrahydrofuran. The preferred chain transfer agent is selected from the list: HS-(CH 2 ) 2 -E, where E represents a group of the list: COOH, NH 2 , NH 2 .HC1, OH, SH, CH 3 . When organic solvents are used as the reaction medium for the polymerization step, preferably, they are moisture free in addition to being oxygen free. Preferably, the separation is carried out as a sequence of steps including soluble-insoluble precipitation followed by filtration and drying under vacuum and/or by ultra/diafiltration followed by lyophilisation. Preferably, the precipitation steps use hexane or diethylether as the organic solvents. The inventors found that this procedure provided polymers that were not prone to the problem reported in the art of incomplete precipitation-solubility recycling of polymers. The present inventors realised that polymers used to produce many prior art AMLs resulted from classical radical polymerization methods and so had average molar masses of up to 100,000g/mol or higher and broad molar mass distributions, typically greater than 2. The prior art polymers were also highly heterogeneous in size and structure and the reactive site for ligand coupling was introduced either during polymerization through copolymerization of a suitable second monomer or afterwards by a statistical process called polymer analogous reactions. Both of these factors lead to increased heterogeneity of the polymer, the reactive site, and hence AMLs made by coupling ligands to the reactive sites of the polymer. As a result the behaviour of AMLs under process conditions becomes difficult to predict and affinity precipitation needs to be performed under highly standardized conditions. Furthermore, the ligands loses average activity, i.e. the affinity constant increases. In a further aspect, the present invention provides an affinity macroligand (AML) comprising one of the above polymers coupled to a ligand. As indicated above, this provides AMLs useful for the separation of target substances which are specific binding partners of the ligand. The affinity macroligands can be represented by one of the following formulae, where L is a ligand and X 1 is the end group through which the ligand is attached to the polymer: In affinity precipitation, the separation, enrichment or purification of the target substance is accomplished on the basis of the biospecific interaction or individual chemical structures of the target molecule. Affinity ligands represent complementary binding structures to the target substances. The selection of ligands is therefore determined by the specific and reversible binding affinity to the substance of interest. In order to create a suitable affinity macroligand, AML, a ligand must be coupled, typically covalently, via a functional group to the above mentioned polymer end group X without destroying the specific ligand binding activity and without strongly influencing the polymer solubility. Conveniently, the ligand is selected from molecules such as an antibody or antigen, a receptor or polypeptide, an enzyme or coenzyme, substrate, or inhibitor, a carbohydrate, biotin and avidin, or nucleic acid (single or double stranded) . In a further respect, the present invention relates to the synthesis of affinity macroligands of sufficiently high affinity by coupling the above mentioned affinity macroligand precursor to an affinity ligand. Preferably, the affinity constant for the interaction of the AML and target substance is less than or equal to 10 "7 M. Suitable ligands for use as part of AMLs are preferably chosen from: (a) Antibodies or antigens, and fragments thereof such as Fc and Fab fragments. (b) Enzymes or their coenzymes, substrates or inhibitors . (c) Group specific ligands such as Protein A, Protein G, Protein L, (strept) avidin, lectins, or biomimetic dyes. (d) Polypeptides, oligopeptides or amino acids. (e) Hormones, receptors, inhibitors, effectors or cofactors . (f) Sugars, polysaccharides or lipids. (g) Vitamins and biotin, including its derivatives. (h) Cells or cell surface receptors, (i) Chelating agents such as iminodiacetic acid (IDA), TED, and EDTA and (Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, Ca, Cd, Hg, Fe, Mn) 2+ . (j) Nucleic acid molecules, either single or double stranded, and including DNA, cDNA, RNA, oligonucleotides and oligonucleosides, and derivatives of these species. (k) Ligands capable of interacting in a similar manner with nucleic acids such as peptide nucleic acids (PNA) . In a further aspect, the present invention provides a process for preparing an affinity macroligand (AML) , the process comprising reacting a ligand with the X group of a reversibly water soluble poly-N-acrylamide as defined above. Preferably, the coupling is covalent, although other coupling methods such as the use of a non-covalent but high affinity interaction such as the (strept) avidin/biotin interaction may be employed to link the ligand to the polymer. Techniques for linking the polymers of the invention to ligands, and especially biological ligands, are described in references such as Immobilized Affinity Ligand Techniques, Academic Press 1992, from Greg T. Hermanson, A. Krishna Mallia, and Paul K. Smith. Examples of useful techniques include: (a) Esterification using N,N' -disuccinimidylcarbonate (DSC), N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) /1,3-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) , N, N ' -carbonyl diimidazole (CDI), l-ethyl-3 (3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC) , azlactone, iodo/bromo acetic acid, or succinimidyl-4- (N-maleimidomethyl) cyclohexane-1-carboxylate (SMCC) . (b) Substitution reactions using 2-fluoro-l-methylpyridinium toluene-4-sulfonate (FMP) , tosyl chloride, tresyl chloride, or cyanuric chloride (c) Addition reactions using cyanogen bromide, divinyl sulfone (DVS) or epoxides. (d) Reductive amination. (d) Condensation reactions using hydrazones or hydrazides, or Mannich reaction. (e) Azo linkage using diazonium. (f) Exchange reactions using Traut' s/Ellman' s reagents. (g) Disulfide formation via 2,2' -dipyridyldisulfide. In some embodiments, the process for preparing the AML may comprise the additional step reacting the group X to produce a further group for coupling to the ligand. In a further aspect, the present invention provides the use of an affinity macroligand as defined above for the purification of a substance which is capable of binding to the ligand. The AMLs can be used for the isolation, enrichment, or removal of target substances, which can be either products or impurities whose specific removal is desired. In a further aspect, the present invention provides a process for purifying a target substance from a liquid containing a mixture of the target substance and other materials, the process employing an affinity macroligand comprising a reversibly water soluble polymer poly-N- acrylamide as defined above which is linked to a ligand, wherein the ligand is capable of specifically binding to the target substance as compared to other materials in the mixture, the process comprising: (a) contacting the AML with a liquid mixture under conditions in which the AML is soluble and the ligand can bind to the target substance; (b) changing the temperature of the liquid to within the NPST range so that the AML precipitates, and/or adding a salt or cosolute; and, (c) separating the precipitated AML from the mixture . In some cases where the amount of AML used is very low, it may be difficult to precipitate the AML bound to the target substance using changes in temperature or the addition of a salt or cosolute. In this situation, precipitation can be promoted by adding polymer or AML to the system to elevate the polymer concentration and so promote precipitation. Optionally, and particularly where the target substance is a product rather than an impurity, the process comprises the further step of: (d) recovering the target substance from the AML. In some embodiments, having recovered the target substance from the AML, the process comprises the additional step of formulating the target substance in a composition. Preferably, the target substances can be a bioproduct the separation of which is required from the matrix in which it has been produced, expressed or secreted, such as a cell culture, media or lysate. However, as mentioned above, the method is applicable to the removal of impurities from the mixture. Examples of applications of this type include the removal of endotoxin from DNA or RNA preparations using endotoxin binding proteins or the removal of protein A in the production of antibodies using protein A binding protein, antibodies or antibody fragments. Other applications of the invention in the removal of impurities or the isolation or enrichment of a useful target substance will be apparent to the skilled person following the teachings described herein. After the target molecule has bound by affinity interaction to the AML via the affinity ligand, the entire affinity complex can be precipitated by changing a critical solution parameter, such as the temperature, the salt concentration, and combinations thereof. For thermoprecipitation from aqueous solution, the LCST (lower critical solution temperature) is usually exploited, i.e. the precipitation is achieved by increasing the temperature, optionally, in combination with other changes . Embodiments of the invention will now be described in ore detail by way of example and not limitation with reference to the accompanying drawings. Brief Description of the Figures Figure 1: Precipitation hysteresis of Polymer Rl synthesized by radical polymerization in the presence of the chain transfer agent MPA. Figure 2: Precipitation temperature of aqueous solutions of polymer R100 as a function of the solution's respective NaCl and (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 content. Figure 3: Precipitation temperature of aqueous solutions of poly-NIPA Nl as a function of the solution's respective NaCl and (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 content. Figure 4: Microcalorimetric endotherms of 1% (w/w) solutions of poly-NIPA N200 containing varied amounts of an additive: (a) CaCl 2 and (b) Na 2 S0 4 . Detailed Description The work described herein summarizes investigations of the solubility of a number of poly-N-isopropylacrylamides (poly-NIPA) and poly-N, N-diethylacrylamides (poly-DEA) using microcalorimetric and optical measurements. The use of the polymers as AMLs is also investigated. The investigations concerned polymers synthesized in organic solvent and in water. Material and Methods Chemicals: Chemicals were from Sigma, Fluka or Aldrich. The highest available quality was used. 2,2'- azoisobutyronitrile (AIBN) was from Merck and N- isopropylacrylamide (NIPA) from Polysciences or Aldrich. AIBN was recrystallized twice from ethylether prior to use. NIPA was recrystallized twice prior to use. The chain transfer agent 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA, Fluka) was purified by distillation under reduced pressure. Unless indicated otherwise, all other substances were used as obtained from the supplier. Solvents such as ethylether, THF, and toluene were dried by boiling over Na-wire, kept under argon atmosphere afterwards and were freshly distilled whenever needed. Dry acetonitrile was obtained from Aldrich. For the work describing the use of AMLs to purify nucleic acid and analogues thereof, the following purified oligonucleotides of a given sequence were purchased from Eurogentec (Seraing, Belgium) . Single stranded (ss) PNA 5'-(GAA) 5 -3' subsequently referred to as (CTT) 5 -PNA. Single stranded (ss) DNA 5'-(CTT) 7 -3' modified at the 5' -end with an amino group and a (CH 2 ) 6 linker and subsequently referred to as (CTT) 7 -DNA. Double stranded (ds) DNA 5'-{GAA) 7 -3' 3'-(CTT) 7 -5' subsequently referred to as Sp-duplex (Sp to indicate the ability of a specific interaction with the affinity ligand) . Double stranded (ds) DNA 5'- GATCTATTGGCTTCAATCCAAAA-3' 3'- ATAACCGAAGTTAGGTTTTGTAG-5' also named Up-duplex (Up for unspecific to indicate the lack of groups capable of specific interaction with the affinity ligand in this oligonucleotide) . Molecular Mass Determinations: The molecular mass distribution was determined by high molecular weight MS (MALDI-MS, matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry) using a Vision 2000 (Finnigan MAT) or a LaserTec BT II (Vestec) respectively. 2,5- dihydroxybenzoic acid, α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid, and 4-hydroxy-3, 5-methoxycinnamic acid were used as matrices with 6-desoxy-L-galactose as comatrix in the two latter cases. The positive ion mode was used throughout. The apparent weight average of the molecular mass, Mw, and the apparent number average of the molecular mass, Mn, were calculated from the mass spectra using the following formulae: Mw = ∑ tt,M. 2 / N.M. and Mn = £ N,M, / ∑ M. with j_: mass of a given unimolecular oligomer species in a given sample and N A : number of molecules of that mass in the preparation. The degree of polydispersity, D, was calculated as D = Mw/Mn. The average degree of polymerization, Pn, was calculated from Mn. Turbidity curves: The transmission of an aqueous solution of a given polymer as a function of the temperature was measured at 500 nm on an Lambda 5 spectral photometer (Perkin Elmer) equipped with a PTP 1 thermostat (Perkin Elmer). Readings were taken every 6 seconds. Readings were taken for a temperature interval of 10°C around the expected transition temperature. Heating rates were 0.5°C/min. The point of inflection of the S-shaped transmission curves (usually approximated as half-height or 50% transmission) was taken as cloud point. Differential scanning calorimetr : The DSC measurements were carried out using a high sensitivity differential scanning calorimeter (Polymer laboratories) . Unless indicated otherwise, heating rates of 10°C/min and polymer concentrations of 1 % (w/w) were used. The sample size was approximately 10 μl . The instrument calculates the heat of transition, Q tr , per mg of polymer directly from the endotherms . From this, the calorimetric enthalpy, ΔH cal , can be calculated by a multiplication with the molecular mass. The number average of the molecular weight was used for this when known. In all other cases just the measured heat of transition is used. Monomer synthesis: For the preparation of the monomer N,N-diethylacrylamide, 112.5 g diethylamine were dissolved in 500 ml ethylether and placed under argon in a dry two-necked 1 L flask. The solution was cooled to around -2°C and 55.7 g acryloylchloride were added drop- wise over the next 2 hours. A temperature below 3°C was maintained. The final product was distilled in vacuum (1 mbar, 40°C) from CaH 2 . The yield was 74% and the purity was 100% (determined by GC) . The pure and dry monomer was stored in a septum-sealed flask at -20°C. Polymerization: Details concerning the polymerization of both poly-N, N-diethylacrylamide (Poly-DEA, Rl and R2) and poly-N-isopropylacrylamide (Poly-NIPA, Nl and N2) in the presence of the chain transfer agent 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) are compiled in Table 1. The radical starter (AIBN) was dissolved in methanol and placed in a two necked flask at 70°C. Afterwards the monomer and MPA were added. The mixture was refluxed for 21 hours and cooled to room temperature. After removal of the solvent by distillation the residue was dissolved in acetone, precipitated twice from petrolether and dried at ambient temperature in vacuum (10 ~3 mbar) until constant weight. For comparison the monomers were polymerized in the absence of the chain transfer agent (R100, N100, N200) . In this case, the monomer was dissolved in dioxane (1 M) and the radical starter was added (1% mol in :mol mon ) . The mixture was heated to 50°C and the reaction allowed to proceed for 45 min. Afterwards the product was recovered as described above. Preparation and activation of oligomer (N w ) : Poly(NIPAAm) terminated with carboxyl group at one end was prepared by telomerization in water using MPA as chain transfer agent based on a method adapted from Durand and Hourdet [10]. 5 g of monomer were placed in flask and diluted with 50 ml of purified water. The resulting solution was deaerated during 1 hour by nitrogen bubbling and sealed with a rubber septum. 0.12 g of potassium persulfate (KPS) initiator (0.01 eq. ) was separately dissolved in water and deaerated for 1 hour by nitrogen bubbling 154 μl of MPA (chain transfer agent, 0.04 eq) and the initiator solution were successively rapidly added with a syringe to the NIPAAm solution. Polymerization was carried out at 28°C overnight. Afterwards, the solution was purified by dialysis (molecular weight cut-off lOOODa) against water at 4°C for 3 days 3 g of polymer were recovered after freeze-drying. The yield of the reaction was 60%. The activated AML-precursor was prepared from the oligomer by the reaction of the terminal carboxyl group with NHS using DCC as an activating reagent in methylene chloride at room temperature. 1.4 g of the oligomer (N was dissolved in 20 ml of anhydrous methylene chloride and cooled to 0°C. NHS (2eq. ) and DCC (2eq. ) were added under constant stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred for another 4 h and subsequently allowed to warm to room temperature. Afterwards, the formed insoluble dicyclohexylurea was removed from the solution by filtration and the polymer was collected and purified by precipitation from anhydrous diethyl ether (twice) . The degree of NHS esterification was evaluated spectophotometrically by the release of N-hydroxysuccinimide in alkaline solution as suggested previously. AML synthesis: Single stranded oligonucleotides (CTT) 7 -DNA and (CTT) 5 -PNA were used as affinity tags and coupled by carbodiimide coupling to oligomer N w for the preparation of a suitable AML as follows. Up to 405 μg (63 nmol) of (CTT) 7 -DNA (or 2.4 mg (47 nmol) of (CTT) 5 -PNA respectively) were dissolved in 800 μl of 0.15 M of a sodium phosphate or borate buffer of the indicated pH. 50 mg of the NHS-activated poly(NIPAAm) oligomers were dissolved in 200 μl of dried dimethylformamide (DMF) and added incrementally at 4°C to the gently stirred solution of the oligonucleotide in question. After the addition, the solution was stirred for 2 h at 4°C and allowed to warm to room temperature over night. The remaining insoluble NHS degradation product was isolated from the AML solution by centrifugation at lOOOOg (4°C) for 15 min. The AML solution was then diluted to 2 ml with 0.15 M sodium borate buffer. To this solution 0.4 ml of a saturated aqueous ammonium sulphate solution was added to reduce the LCST below room temperature. The AML was then separated from the unconjugated oligonucleotides and other water-soluble chemicals by thermoprecipitation of the solution at 30 °C and recovered by centrifugation at lOOOOg (30°C) for 8 min. The recovered precipitate was dissolved in 1.2 ml of ethanolamine (0.5 M) in order to quench all unreacted succinimide groups. The mixture was stirred for an additional 2 h. Afterwards, the AML was again thermoprecipitated from solution and recovered by centrifugation followed by dissolution in 0.2 M acetate buffer (pH 4.5). The procedure was repeated 3 to 4 times until the free oligonucleotide had been removed completely. This was demonstrated by the fact that the final supernatant of the AML precipitate showed no residual absorbance was at 260 nm, i.e. the wavelength where the oligonucleotides are expected to absorb most strongly. The DNA or PNA content in the AML was determined spectrophotometrically by UV absorption at 260 nm. Previously it had been established by spectroscopic measurements of the unconjugated polymer in water indicate that the contribution of the base polymer to the absorption at 260 nm is insignificant. For a suitable differentiation, AML synthesis obtained from DNA and PNA will from hereon by called AML D and AML P respectively. Triple Helix Affinity Precipitation (THAP) : Unless mentioned otherwise, the binding buffer for triple helix formation was a 0.2 M acetate buffer (pH 4.5) containing an additional 2 M NaCl. For a typical THAP, the indicated amount of the Sp-duplex target molecules was incubated with 50 mg of the AML in 0.2 M acetate buffer (pH 4.5) for 12 h at 4°C under gentle stirring. Afterwards the formed triple helix affinity complex was thermoprecipitated at room temperature and isolated from the supernatant (binding step, B) by centrifugation (lOOOOg, 25°C, 8 min) . The recovered triplex was suspended in a fresh binding buffer and gently stirred at 1°C. After complete redissolution, the complex was again precipitated ("washing step", W) . The complex was then dissolved in a 0.3 M borate buffer (pH 9) containing 0.5 mM EDTA in order to liberate target molecule from the AML. The AML was subsequently removed by precipitation (release step, R) and centrifugation (lOOOOg, 40°C, 10 min) . After each centrifugation, the respective supernatants obtained after steps B, S and R were neutralized to pH 7 (IM NaOH in case of the binding buffer and IM HCl in case of dissociation buffer) and the volume between samples, precisely adjusted to the same volume. Analytical methods: For cloud point measurements, the optical density of PNIPAAm and AML solutions was monitored as a function of the temperature using a spectrophotometer as described above. The amount of Sp-duplex present in the different supernatant solutions was evaluated spectrophotometrically by measuring the UV absorption at 260 nm. The same spectroscopic method was applied for the specificity experiment performed with a mixture of Sp (lnmol) and Up (1.2nmol) duplexes. In order to evaluate the Sp-duplex concentration content in the respective supernatants, an affinity precipitation process was done in parallel with a solution containing only the Up duplex under otherwise identical conditions. This allowed subtracting the contribution of the Up from the total absorption values and thus to determine the Sp concentration in the mixture. The oligonucleotide containing supernatants were also analysed by acrylamide gel electrophoresis. Results and Discussion 1. Polymers prepared in organic solvent Both poly-N, N-diethylacrylamide (poly-DEA) and poly-N- isopropylacrylamide (poly-NIPA) were investigated. Both polymers were produced by radical polymerization, controlling the molecular mass as well as the polydispersity using a chain transfer agent (3- mercaptopropionic acid, MPA) . As a result of the chain transfer reaction, a carboxylic acid terminal reactive group is found on average in each of these polymers. Characterization of the polymers : Poly-NIPA is among the best investigated reversibly water-soluble polymers, with an LCST generally given between 29 and 3 °C. Poly-DEA has been reported to have an LCST between 25 and 32°C. Most previous work has only considered radical polymers with high average molecular masses, and in the majority of the cases, the polymers are unfractionated preparations with high polydispersities . The determination of the molecular mass and the mass distribution of the synthesized polymers in (aqueous) solution was made using high molecular weight mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) . Since the distance between individual peaks corresponds to the mass of the respective repetitive units (127 g/mol for poly-DEA, 113 g/mol for Poly-NIPA) , the MALDI-MS demonstrates that few if any side reactions occurred in the chain transfer polymerization used to make the polymers of the present invention. MALDI-MS is most reliable for molecules below 100,000 g/mol and we were not able to record relevant mass data for the large radical polymers of both types, i.e. polymers RlOO, NlOO and N200 synthesized for comparison with the polymers produced using chain transfer polymerization. Table 2 summarizes the mass data for the low molecular weight polymer preparations. Low polydispersities (<1.3) were calculated in all cases including the radical polymers prepared in the presence of the chain transfer agent MPA. The presence of a carboxylic acid end group in these molecules correlated well with the mass-to- charge ratios measured for the individual peaks. The presence of a carboxylic acid function in these molecules was in addition verified by titration and FT-IR measurements. The tacticity of polymers can be studied by high resolution --H-NMR. An analysis of the tacticity of the polyacrylamides prepared in investigation by 600 MHz X H-NMR showed a heterotactic structure for the chain transfer polymers. Turbidity curves : Most authors investigating high molecular weight, reversibly water-soluble polymers report only small changes of the precipitation temperature with increasing polymer concentration. A similar behaviour was observed for the low molecular mass polymers of the invention. Within the investigated range of 0.01% to 1.0% (w/w), the change of the precipitation temperature with the polymer concentration was negligible, i.e. less than 1°C. A 0.1% (w/w) solution of poly-DEA already sufficed to reduce the transmission to zero, while in the case of Poly-NIPA, the same result required at least a concentration of 1% (w/w). For comparison's sake, the optically determined precipitation temperatures summarized in Table 2 were measured for 1% solutions. For (high molecular mass) poly-DEA an LCST of 32°C has been published. The precipitation temperature of 31.4°C measured for the high molecular weight sample RlOO corresponds well to this value. Poly-DEA samples prepared by radical polymerization in the presence of the chain transfer agent, Rl and R2, have somewhat higher precipitation temperatures, i.e. 32.5 and 32.7°C respectively. This inverse dependency of the critical temperature on the molecular mass has never been described for such small substances with a comparable extremely narrow mass distribution. The slightly higher precipitation temperature observed for Rl and R2 may conceivably be related to the fact that a carboxylic end group is present in these molecules but not in RlOO. However, in previous research such end group effects were ruled out for poly-DEA and certain derivatives thereof. In addition, no end group effect was observed for polymers Nl, N2, and NlOO respectively, see below. Literature values for the LCST of Poly-NIPA vary between 32.0 and 34.3°C, although slightly higher values have been observed in isolated cases. The 33.2 and 34.0°C measured in our investigations fall within that range, although poly-NIPA Nl and N2 were synthesized in the presence of the chain transfer agent, i.e. have small size and carry a carboxylic acid group. It has previously been shown that the presence and the charge status of such a carboxylic group have no influence on the precipitation temperature. Effect of solution additives on the LCST: From the point of view of a possible application of thermoprecipitable polymers as affinity macroligands, the cosolute effect is of major importance, since few reactions are carried out in pure water. The majority of putative biotechnological application will, for example, involve at least a buffered aqueous solution, most of these solutions will contain more than one active agent. For our investigations we chose NaCl as a fairly weak and (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 as one of the strongest salting out agents known. Both salts are typical components of biotechnical product matrices. Two polymers were chosen for the investigation of the cosolute effect, radical poly-DEA RlOO, and radical poly-NIPA Nl. Both NaCl and (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 lowered the precipitation temperature for both of the investigated polymers. As expected, the effect is much more pronounced for (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 than for NaCl, Figure 2. To exclude all temperature effects, salt concentrations are given in mol/kg of solution rather than mol/L. For the large radical poly- DEA RlOO, the presence of either 1.0 mol/kg NaCl or 0.2 mol/kg (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 lowered the precipitation temperature of a 0.1 % (w/w) solution by approximately 10°C. In addition, the critical temperature drops almost linearly as a function of the salt content. In the case of a 1% (w/w) solution of poly-NIPA Nl the precipitation temperature is lowered by 15°C in the presence of 1.0 mol/kg NaCl, while a 0.2 mol/kg concentration of (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 results in a lowering of the LCST by 8°C. In spite of the difference in chemical structure, the salt effect is apparently similar in heterotactic poly-NIPA and poly-DEA. Again, the drop in temperature depends almost linearly on the solution' s salt content, Figure 3. Microcalorimetric investigation of the effect of molecular parameters on the LCST: Modern high sensitivity differential calorimetry (HS-DSC) allows to investigate the thermodynamics of the phase transition process. In accordance with previous authors, a two state transition process was assumed for the coil globule transition of all investigated polymers. In order to investigate the thermodynamics of the phase transition only, all further reactions, which also might have a characteristic ΔH need to be avoided, theoretically including the association and precipitation leading to the macroscopically observed precipitation (cloud point) . For example, it has been suggested that small amounts (>300 mg/L) of the surfactant SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) can be added to the solution, in order to prevent association/precipitation. We found that an addition of 200 mg/L of SDS did indeed prevent precipitation. However, the HS-DSC results differed only within the uncertainty of the instrument when the ΔH was measured in the presence and the absence of the detergent. This led us to assume, that the ΔH of the association/precipitation is so small as to be negligible compared to the enthalpy of the phase transition. SDS concentrations above 300 mg/L did already exert an influence on the precipitation temperature. In order to avoid biasing the measurements by an SDS influence we chose to carry out the HS-DSC experiments described below without adding SDS to the samples. In a second set of preliminary experiments it was verified (for RlOO and Rl) that neither the heating rate (l°C/min to 20°C/min) nor the polymer concentration (0.1% w/w to 5.0 % w/w) influenced the DSC results (T max , T onset , calorimetric enthalpy) . Contrary to prior art results, we also observed no influence of the heating rate on the van't Hoff enthalpy. We can thus assume the phase transition to be very close to equilibrium under these circumstances. Further experiments were carried out with a heating rate of 10°C/min and a polymer concentration of 1% w/w. With the exception of the radical poly-DEA Rl and R2, the T max of the microcalorimetric endotherms is slightly below the turning point of the turbidity curve and corresponds more to the onset rather than the turning point of the macroscopically observed precipitation curve. This is hardly surprising, since we assume the calorimeter to record the actual phase transition, while the turbidity curves recorded with the photometer represent a secondary phenomenon, i.e. the final aggregation of the globules. In spite of dramatic differences in the molecular mass, the transition widths tend to be similar and approximately 2.3°C for most poly-DEA. The width of the endotherms is thus larger than that of the turbidity curves, which lay within a fraction of a degree, see above. In case of the poly-NIPA, the transition width for the low molecular mass substances Nl and N2 is significantly higher than for the high molecular mass polymers NlOO and N200. It should also be noted that both the calorimetric and the van't Hoff enthalpies increase significantly with molecular mass in case of radical poly-NIPA, while they stay in the same order of magnitude in case of low and high molecular weight radical poly-DEA. The measured calorimetric transition enthalpies are below the values found in the literature for similar polymers (i.e. 6.3 cal/g for poly-DEA and between 0.86 and 1.5 kcal/mol per repeating unit for poly-NIPA) . The addition of simple salt to poly-NIPA N200 had the expected (diminishing) effect on T max . In order to explore the effect of a non-ionic but highly water- soluble substance, which in addition is found quite frequently in biotechnical matrices, glucose was added in a similar manner to aqueous solutions of the polymers. The effect on the precipitation temperature and on the phase separation thermodynamics was investigated. Low glucose concentrations resulted in an increase of the phase transition temperature, while this trend was reversed at higher concentrations. No clear trend could be observed for the transition widths at half height. While T 1/2 stays roughly the same in case of NaCl, (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 , CaCl 2 , and glucose addition, the endotherms measured for the highest Na 2 S0 4 and NaN0 3 concentrations are almost twice as wide as those determined for the pure polymer solution, Figures 4a and b. The calorimetric heat of transition was not influenced by the salt/glucose addition. The size of the cooperative unit decreases with increasing additive concentration, as evidenced by the change in ΔH eff . Due to the above- mentioned problems with the determination of the molecular weight of polymer N200, no ΔH cal could be calculated. However, since the same polymer is used for all measurements, the ratio between Q tr and ΔH eff is still correlated to the size of the cooperative unit. With the exception of the two cases characterized by exceptionally wide transition isotherms (i.e. the highest Na 2 S0 4 and NaN0 3 concentrations) , a correlation exists between the size of the cooperative unit and the temperature of the enthalpy minimum, T max . Avidin isolation process : Poly-N-isopropylacrylamides were prepared as indicated above in methanol with AIBN and cysteamine (HS-CH 2 -CH 2 - NH 2 ) as chain transfer agent (A: B: C=100 : 0.6 : 6) at 60°C for 21 hours. The polymers were twice precipitated from methanol in diethylether and finally precipitated once from acetone in hexane. The polymers, e.g. poly-N-isopropylacrylamide with an amino end group (average molar mass: 1660 g/mol and molar mass distribution: 1.04), were covalently coupled to iminobiotin by esterification via NHS activation forming an affinity macroligand with an LCST at 32°C. The coupling between affinity macroligand precursor and iminobiotin was verified by a modified HABA-test, which is described in the book of N.M. Green, "Methods in Enzymology", Vol. 18A, p. 418 ff., Academic Press, 1970. Polymer in water (pH 7):LCST at 32°C, precipitation temperature interval 1.5°C. Polymer coupled with iminobiotin to from an AML in water 35 (pH 7) : LCST at 32°C, precipitation temperature interval 0.6°C. Polymer coupled with iminobiotin to form an AML in buffer (pH 10.8) and in the presence of 1 M NaCl: LCST at 18.2°C, precipitation temperature interval 0.6°C. Polymer coupled with iminobiotin to form an AML in buffer (pH 10.8) and in the presence of 1 M NaCl and avidin: LCST at 17.7°C, precipitation temperature interval 1.0°C. 20mg AML was dissolved in 1.3ml carbonate buffer (pH 10.8) and 0.25 mg/ml avidin. After incubation at 25°C, the AML-avidin complex was thermoprecipitated and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 13,000g. HABA-test of the supernatant revealed that 75% of the avidin was isolated. By adding 1 M NaCl to the avidin-AML mixture, the percentage of avidin isolation could be increased to 90%. In both cases 100% of the bound (coprecipitated) avidin could be recovered in pure form after dissociation of the AML-avidin complex in acetate buffer (pH 4) . The recovered avidin was 100% biologically active as determined in the following specificity test. After adding 0.3 mg/ml lysozy e, 5 mg/ml lysozyme, a crude CHO culture medium containing 5% FCS (fetal calf serum) to the AML-avidin-buffer-NaCl mixture, 77%, 93% and 91% of the avidin were recovered respectively. Again, in all three cases, the avidin recovered after dissociation of the AML-avidin complex in acetate buffer (pH 4) was 100% active. Table 1: Radical polymerization of N, N-diethylacrylamide (Rl, R2; and N-isopropylacrylamide (Nl, N2) in the presence of a chain transfer agent (MPA) 1: Molar ratio of monomer, radical starter, and chain transfer agent. Table 2: MALDI MS data for the polymers and precipitation temperatures measured for the respective 1 % (w/w) polymer solutions. 2. Polymers prepared in water Polymer synthesis : The NMR and MALDI mass spectra of the polymers synthesised in water showed that this group of polymers had low polydispersities and corresponded to one carboxylic acid end group per oligomer. Since the distance between individual peaks corresponded to the mass of the monomer units, few (if any) side reactions seem to have taken place. Moreover, the different appearance of the NMR and MALDI spectra for the polymer synthesised in water and those synthesised in organic solvent confirmed that the polymers were different materials . An exemplary polymer N w had the following properties. M n (g/mol) 4750 M w (g/mol) 5100 D 1.09 P n 41 where P n is the degree of the polymerisation. Molecular mass from end group titration was 4350 g/mol. The average number of COOH/chain was found to be 0.92 as given by M n (titration) /M n (MALDI) . The LCST curves for N w and corresponding polymers prepared living anionic polymerisation was compared by optically determining the cloud point at various temperature and pH values. These curves were almost superimposable indicating that the charge status of the single carboxylic acid end group present on the chain transfer produced polymers had no influence on the precipitation temperature. Importantly, for polymers prepared in water, considerably higher LCST values were found; for example polymer N w had a LCST of 40.3°C. This compares with values of around 32-3 °C for polymers reported in the literature synthesized in organic solvents. While this result is surprising, it is highly useful when one considers that salt and other impurities present in the aqueous systems in which AMLs are employed typically depress the LCST, e.g. by about 10°C for a IM solution of NaCl. Thus, AMLs made using polymers synthesised in organic solvent typically have LCST transitions lower than those synthesised in water. This in turn means that refrigeration of the apparatus used for such separations is needed to use the AMLs with consequent economic cost and practical inconvenience. However, for polymers as obtainable by synthesis, e.g. by chain transfer polymerisation, in water comparatively increased LCSTs mean that the depression caused in practical systems in the presence of salt and other impurities provides a transition which occurs closer to room temperature. The oligomers synthesized in water also showed very narrow precipitation intervals in solution. the sharpness of the transitions (typically to within a fraction of a degree centigrade) can be explained by the low polydispersities of the oligomers. AML synthesis : Reactive esters, especially N-hydrossuccinimide (NHS) esters, are among the most commonly used reagents for modification of biomolecules containing amine groups. These reagents have intermediate reactivity toward amines, with high selectivity toward aliphatic amines. Their reaction rate with aromatic amines, alcohols, and phenols is relatively low. Poly(NIPAAm) oligomers, N w , sporting a carboxyl group at one end of the chain were synthesized by telomerization in water as described above. Such molecules can be transformed in the desired NHS esters through activation by reaction with DCC and simultaneous coupling with an excess of NHS. The activation reaction is carried out in an organic solvent such as methylene chloride, where hydrolysis of the active NHS ester is largely avoided. After activation, the oligomer was recovered by precipitation (twice) into diethyl ether. The yield was 72% and 93% of the carboxyl groups were found to be converted into the NHS ester group. The NHS-activated oligomers are very stable when stored in a dessicator at -20°C. In fact, the activity of the NHS-activated oligomer was found unchanged after several months of storage under these conditions. When the N-hydrosuccinimide ester is to be employed for biomolecules conjugation, it is generally recommended to use a buffer with pH between 8 and 9. If the pH is too low, most of the primary amine groups of the biomolecule will be positively charged, since the pK a of a free amine terminus is about 7. Positively charged amino groups on the other hand show very low reactivity towards NHS esters, and therefore, a low conjugation yield is usually obtained under these conditions. If the pH is too high, on the other hand, the NHS ester is susceptible to hydrolysis. Experiments to conjugate PNIPAAm N w oligomer tp the oligonucleotide (CTT) 7 -DNA showed that a buffer pH between 7 and 8.75 resulted in a maximum fraction of conjugation (defined as the fraction of oligonucleotide in the conjugation reaction vessel, which is effectively conjugated to the oligomer N w ) . For the investigations discussed below, the AML synthesis was performed in a 0.15 M borate buffer (pH 8.1). Solution properties of the AMLs : The investigation of the thermoprecipitation of the AML D in comparison to that of the basic oligomer showed that the precipitation curves of the original PNIPAAm-COOH (N w ) and the AML D in water were superimposable. LCSTs of 41.1°C and 41.3°C are measured, respectively. The tendency to find similar thermoprecipitation of the final AML and the various precursors can be attributed to the fact that the affinity mediator is inserted into the AML as an end group. The abruptness of the phase transition in the AML D is explained by the low polydispersity of the basic oligomer N w . The addition of salt present in buffer solutions lower the transition temperature of the AML D , which are found to be 14 °C and 36°C for the binding and dissociating buffer, respectively. Principle of triple helix affinity precipitation (THAP) : The principle of THAP results from the formation of a triple-helix between a poly-CTT oligonucleotide covalently linked on the oligomer and a corresponding poly-GAA sequence in the target molecule. As a consequence of the protonation of the N3 position of the cytidine (pK = 4.8), CG-C + triplets are only stable at acidic pH. Consequently, binding between AML D and the Sp-duplex target may be achieved at moderately acidic pH (4.5). If the temperature of the binding buffer is kept below the LCST of the AML D , the conjugate is soluble. Above the LCST of the complex (14°C in this case), the target sequence is specifically co-precipitated with the AML, while the impurities remain dissolved in the supernatant. After one or several cleaning step (reprecipitation of the triple helix affinity complex from pure binding buffer) , the complex is dissolved in a gentle alkaline buffer (pH 9) in order to quantitatively release the target molecule from the AML D . The AML D is subsequently removed from the product by precipitation. Optimal condition for triple helix affinity precipitation NaCl effect on Sp-duplex recovery: Besides its pH-sensitivity, it is also well known that at least TA-T triple-helices are stabilized at high ionic strength. In order to investigate this effect in the context of the development of the THAP process, increasing amounts of NaCl were added to the binding buffer, and this effect on target Sp-duplex recovery by the AML D was investigated. Sp-duplex recovery, measured in the supernatant after the release step (R) of a typical THAP process, was found to rise with the increase of the NaCl concentration. Thus, high salt concentrations stabilize the binding of Sp-duplex to the AML and up to 66% of target can be recovered if a binding buffer containing 2 M NaCl is used. The salt-dependent behaviour of the triple helix stability can be quite complex, but the .effect is generally attributed to the small countercations shielding the columbic repulsion between the charged sugar phosphate backbones of the DNA molecules. A thermodynamic explanation of this effect is that the highly negatively charged state of the triple helix causes the small countercations to associate preferentially with the complex rather than the constituent single strands, or in this case, the single AML D . When the triple helix complex is disrupted, the net negative linear charge density on the oligonucleodides decreases. This leads to a release of cations into the solution, an effect, which is accompanied by an unfavourable entropy of mixing associated with the release of counterions. Hence, an increase in the bulk salt concentration results in a stabilization of the triple helix affinity complex. Effect of AMLp/Sp-duplex ratio on recovery: In contrast to the investigation performed before with the avidin-iminobiotin system (see above) , the ratio between the target molecules and the AML binding sites proved this time to be much more important. The recovery of Sp-duplex increased markedly for higher concentration of AML D binding sites. More than 70% of Sp-duplex could be recovered in an optimized THAP, i.e. under conditions where the AML D binding site/Sp-duplex ratio was superior to 6, while the binding buffer containing at least 2M NaCl. In affinity chromatography, the ligand efficiency is usually defined as working capacity/theoretical capacity. The theoretical capacity is equal to the immobilized ligand concentration times the number of binding sites per molecule of ligand. In practice, ligand efficiencies of 1% or less are common for small ligand with many chromatography techniques. When a similar investigation was made concerning the ligand efficiency of the (small) oligonucleotide ligands in the THAP process, a ligand efficiency of more than 16% was found. Affinity precipitation using the AMLs of the invention thus presents at least one major advantages over affinity chromatography, namely a superior ligand efficiency. Affinity interactions in free solution pose the minimal resistance to mass transfer, concomitantly, steric hindrance in the association is greatly diminished and hence the utilization of the available ligand capacity is used optimally. The accessibility of the affinity mediator located at the polymer end comes close to that of the free molecule. Recycling of the affinity macroligand AML-,: Recycling of the AML is an essential condition for potential scale-up and an economical process. The general possibility of doing this was clearly demonstrated above using the avidin-iminobiotin system. In that case, the precipitation/resolubilization-cycle was repeated many times with continued good recovery, and the AML could be recycled without impairing its efficiency. A similar recycling was also attempted with the THAP system. The residual Sp-duplex concentration in the original binding buffer after precipitation (B) , in the washing buffer (reprecipitation of the affinity complex from pure binding buffer, W) , and finally in the dissociation buffer (containing in solution the released Sp-duplex molecules, R) was compared. This THAP process is performed 3 times under identical conditions (same AML binding sites/target ratio and same procedure for the different steps of the process) using the same AML D . When the AML are used for the first time, the binding of the target molecule takes place as before and almost 70% of the Sp-duplex molecules are recovered after release in the dissociation buffer. The mass balance is quantitative, i.e. the missing 30% are accounted for by molecules in the original binding and the washing buffer. It is therefore highly unlikely that a major portion of the target molecules remains bound to the AML. In spite of this quantitative release of the target molecule during dissociation of the affinity complex, a steady decrease in binding capacity is observed when the AML are recycled several times. Only 40 % of the target oligonucleotides are recovered during the second cycle and the yield comes down to less than 25 % for the third one. In a parallel experiment it was established, that even after more than 10 repeats of the precipitation solubilization-cycle, the loss of oligomer in the supernatant is insignificant. Furthermore, the measurement of oligomer/ligand ratio clearly indicates that no loss of affinity mediator from the polymer occurred during the recycling process. It cannot be ruled out completely that some ligands were denatured when exposed to the alkaline dissociation buffer (pH 9) or during the thermal precipitation at 40°C. Non-specific binding of Sp-duplex with non-conjugated oligomer : The specificity of the affinity reagent and the target molecule are crucial to any affinity separation step. Hence the possibility of an unspecific binding either between the non-conjugated affinity precursor (oligomer N w ) and the target molecule or between the fully activated AML and possible contaminants (most importantly double stranded oligonucleotides, which did not contain the target sequence) were investigated in detail. The result of the evaluation of a putative non-specific interaction of the Sp-duplex with the AML-precursor are as follows. Two THAP processes were performed in parallel, one using the fully activated AML and the second using the non-conjugated oligomer N w containing no affinity mediator. Only 5% of the target molecules are found in the dissociation buffer supernatant when the THAP process is performed using the non-conjugated oligomer. In this case, one more "cleaning step" would be sufficient to reduce the concentration of the target molecule in the dissociation buffer below the detection limit. When the specific AML is used, on the other hand, 70% of the target molecules are found in the dissociation buffer. This clearly indicates that there is no significant non-specific co-precipitation of the target molecule by the non-conjugated oligomer. The affinity separation process required the presence of an affinity ligand at the end of the polymer backbone. Sequence specificity of the affinity ligand: To evaluate the specificity of the triple helix formation with the target molecule as opposed to an "impurity", the affinity macroligand AML D was added to a mixture containing both the Sp-duplex and a second double stranded oligonucleotides with a mismatch sequence (Up-duplex) at roughly equal concentration. The results of the ensuing THAP process found that 70% of the target molecule is recovered and released into the dissociating buffer (R) compared to less than 10% of the mismatched molecule. Concomitantly, more than 80% of the mismatched Up-duplex remains in the original supernatant ' (B) . This result indicates that the AML clearly distinguishes the target Sp-duplex from the mismatched Up-duplex, and hence is capable of recovering the target sequence efficiently from the contaminated solution. THAP process with the PNA-oligomer N„ conjugate (AML P ) : Homopyrimidine oligonucleotide analogs (PNA) are also known to bind to complementary double stranded DNA-sequences via the formation of triplexes (see introduction) . At the same time, the electrostatic repulsion within the triplex should be reduced, since PNA are non-charged. The effect of using PNA rather than DNA-based affinity mediators in the THAP-process was therefore investigated. The AML was in this case synthesized from oligomer N w and a suitable PNA and subsequently investigated. The coupling reaction was performed in a 0.15 M sodium borate buffer (pH 8.1 to 8.8). The coupling yield of conjugates was in the same order than the one obtained with DNA oligonucleotides, i.e. between 8 and 12%. The AML was used at two different binding sites to target molecule ratios (namely 4:1 and 3:1 ). An "empty process" using the non-activated AML-precursor is shown for comparison's sake. In each case, the residual target molecule concentrations in the original supernatant after affinity precipitation, the washing buffer and the dissociation buffer after release was determined. In this case the percentage of target molecular, which was not released from the AML in the dissociation buffer is also given. In this case, the dissociation of the complex in dissociation buffer (supernatant S 3 ) is impossible and 30% respectively 25% of the targets duplexes are still strongly bound to AML pl and AML p2 after the THAP process. The fact that in the case of PNA-activated AML it may be possible that a triple helix is formed between two AML P molecules and a single strand of the target molecule could explain, why more than 50% of the Sp-duplex target molecules remained in the supernatant S lr when PNA-AML were used, whereas only 30% of target remained there when the standard DNA-based AML were used. Because of the tendency for irreversible binding, the PNA-based AML also differed in recycling potential from the DNA-based ones. When the PNA-AML were "recycled", they behave essentially like the non-activated AML-precursor Nw, i.e. show no tendency for binding the target molecule. More then 70% of the target molecules stay in solution. The majority of the molecules that do make their way into the first precipitate, i.e. almost 20% of the originally present amount, are removed during the washing. Most likely these molecules were not bound to the AML at all but trapped into the wet precipitate. As mentioned previously, the exceptionally high stability of AMLp/DNA complex under the condition of the process induces the formation of permanent triple helical structure between the molecules. After a first THAP process, the availability of the binding sites into the AML decreases dramatically. Therefore majority of target remain in the initial supernatant when a second THAP process is performed and less than 10% of Sp-duplex binds "irreversibly" to the AML P1 In case of AML P2/ the binding is even insignificant and the process is equivalent to thus performed with polymer N w free of affinity ligand. References : The references mentioned herein are all expressly incorporated by reference. 1. R. Freitag, Current Trends in Polymer Science, 3, 63, (1998) . 2. M. Eggert, R. Freitag, J. Polymer Science: Part A: Polymer Chem., 32, 803 (1994). 3. R. Freitag, T. Baltes, M. Eggert, J. Polymer Science: Part A: Polymer Che ., 32, 3019 (1994). 4. R. Freitag, T. Baltes, M. Eggert, K. Schugerl, U. Bahr, Bioseparation 4, 353 (1994). 5. M. Eggert, T. Baltes, F, Garret-Flaudy, R. Freitag, J. Chromatography A, 827 (1998) 269 - 280. 6. G. Chen, A.S. Hoffman, Bioconjugate Chem., 4, 509 (1993) . 7. Z. Ding, G. Chen, A.S. Hoffman, Bioconjugate Chem., 7, 121 (1996) . 8. Y.G. Takei, T. Aoki, K. Sanui, N. Ogata, T. Okano, Y. Sakurai, Bioconjugate Chem., 4, 42 (1993). 9. K. Hoshino, M.Taniguish, T. Kitao, S. Morohashi, T. Sasakura, Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 60(5), 568 (1998). 10 . Durand and Hourdet , Polymer , 40 : 4 941-4 951 , 1999 .

Claims: Claims : I. An affinity macroligand (AML) comprising a water soluble poly-N-acrylamide linked by a terminal group to a ligand capable of binding to a target substance, the polymer having: (a) a number average molar mass of less than II, 300g/mol; (b) a mass distribution of less than 2.0; wherein the polymer is as obtainable by chain transfer polymerisation of a corresponding monomer in water in the presence of an initiator of radical polymerisation and a chain transfer agent. 2. The AML of claim 1, wherein the polymer has a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) as determined in pure water of between about 35°C and 45°C; 3. The AML of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the corresponding monomer A, the initiator for the radical polymerization B, and the chain transfer agent C are employed in a molar mass ratio A:B:C of 100:0.01-4:1-20. 4. The AML of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the poly-N-acrylamide comprises a homopolymeric chain of repeating units represented by the formulae: wherein: R x and R 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, -CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , -CH(CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH(CH 2 CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 2 CH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH(CH 3 ) 2 , -C (CH 3 ) 2 CONHR 4 where R 4 = -CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 3 , -CH(CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 3 , -CH 2 CH(OCH 3 ) 2 , and -CH 2 CH (OCH 2 CH 3 ) 2 ; R 3 is selected from the group consisting of pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl and -0(CH 2 ) 3 OH; and, wherein n is an integer between 5 and 40. 5. An affinity macroligand (AML) comprising a ligand and reversibly water soluble poly-N-acrylamide having a homopolymeric chain of repeating units represented by the formulae: wherein: L is a ligand; R : and R 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, -CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , -CH(CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH(CH 2 CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 2 CH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH(CH 3 ) 2 , -C (CH 3 ) 2 CONHR 4 where R 4 = -CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 3 , -CH(CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 3 , -CH 2 CH(OCH 3 ) 2 , and -CH 2 CH (OCH 2 CH 3 ) 2 ; R 3 is selected from the group consisting of pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl and -0(CH 2 ) 3 OH; X' is the end group of the polymer through which the ligand is attached; and, wherein n is an integer between 5 and 40 and the polymer has: (a) A number average molar mass (Mn) of less than ll,300g/mol; (b) A mass distribution (D) of less than 2.0; and, (c) A narrow precipitation-solubility temperature (NPST) interval of less than 3°C. 6. The AML of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the ligand is selected from the group consisting of: (a) An antibody, an antigen, or fragments thereof; (b) An enzymes, a coenzymes, a substrate or an enzyme inhibitor; (c) A group specific ligand; (d) A polypeptide, an oligopeptide or an amino acid; (e) A hormone, a receptors, an inhibitor, an effector or a cofactor; (f) A sugar, a polysaccharide or a lipid; (g) A vitamin or biotin or derivatives thereof; (h) A cell or a cell surface receptor; (i) A chelating agent; (j) A nucleic acid molecule, oligonucleotide, or chemical analogs thereof. 7. The AML of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the affinity constant of dissociation of the interaction of the AML and the target substance is less than or equal to 10 '7 M. 8. The AML of any one of claims 4 to 7, wherein n is between 5 and 25. 9. The AML of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the number average molar mass of the polymer is between 500g/mol and 7,000g/mol. 10. The AML of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the mass distribution of the polymer is _<1.3. 11. The AML of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the NPST of the polymer is less than 2°C. 12. The AML of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the polymer is linear and has an average of about one reactive group per molecule. 13. The AML of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the polymer is selected from the group consisting of poly-N-isopropylacrylamide (R x /R 2 = hydrogen/isopropyl) poly-N, n-propylacrylamide (R x /R 2 = hydrogen/n-propyl) , or poly-acryloylpyrrolidine (R 3 = pyrollidinyl) . 1 . A process for the production of a water soluble poly-N-acrylamide having a homopolymeric chain of repeating units represented by the formulae: wherein: R. and R 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of: hydrogen, -CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 , -CH(CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH(CH 2 CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 2 CH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH(CH 3 ) 2 , -C (CH 3 ) 2 CONHR 4 where R 4 = -CH 3 , -CH 2 CH 3 , -CH(CH 3 ) 2 , -CH 2 CH 2 OCH 3 , -(CH 2 ) 3 OCH 3 , -CH 2 CH(OCH 3 ) 2 , and -CH 2 CH (OCH 2 CH 3 ) 2 ; R 3 is selected from the group consisting of pyrrolidinyl or piperidinyl and -0(CH 2 ) 3 OH; and, wherein n is an integer between 5 and 40 and the polymer has: (a) A number average molar mass (Mn) of less than ll,300g/mol; (b) A mass distribution (D) of less than 2.0; wherein X is a group which is capable of reaction with a ligand to form an affinity macroligand or can be further reacted to produce a group capable of reaction with the ligand; the process comprising: (1) polymerising a N-acrylamide monomer in water in the presence of an initiator of radical polymerisation and a chain transfer agent to form the poly-N-acrylamide; and, (2) separating the poly-N-acrylamide. 15. The process of claim 14, wherein the poly-N- acrylamide produced by the process has lower critical solution temperature (LCST) as determined in pure > water of between 35°C and 45°C. 16. The process of claim 14 wherein X is COOH. 17. The process of any one of claims 14 to 16, wherein the monomer A, the initiator for the radical polymerization B, and the chain transfer agent C are used in a molar mass ratio A:B:C of 100:0.01-4:1-20. 18. The process of any one of claims 14 to 17, wherein the radical initiator is potassium persulfate (KPS) , 2, 2' -azoisobutyronitrile (AIBN) or dibenzoylperoxide (BPO) . 19. The process of any one of claims 14 to 18, wherein the chain transfer agent is 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) . 20. The process of any one of claims 14 to 19, wherein the reactive group X is further reacted to provide a X group selected from the group consisting of: -S-(CH 2 ) y -COOH, -S-(CH 2 ) y -CHO, -S- (CH 2 ) y -NH 2 , -S- (CH 2 ) y -OH, -S- (CH 2 ) y -SH, -S- (CH 2 ) y -CH 3 , and their isomers, where y is an integer between 1 and 4. 21. A water soluble poly-N-acrylamide produced by the process of any one of claims 14 to 20. 22. A process which comprises having produced a water soluble poly-N-acrylamide polymer by the process of any one of claims 14 to 20, the further step of coupling the X group of the polymer to a ligand to form an affinity macroligand (AML) . 23. A process for preparing an affinity macroligand (AML), the process comprising: reacting a ligand L with a reversibly water soluble poly-N-acrylamide of any one of claims 14 to 20 to couple the ligand to the X group and form the AML. 24. A process for purifying a target substance from a liquid containing a mixture of the target substance and other materials, the process employing an affinity macroligand of any one of claims 1 to 13 and comprising the steps of: (a) contacting the AML with a liquid mixture under conditions in which the AML is soluble and the ligand can bind to the target substance; (b) changing the temperature of the liquid to within the above the range so that the AML precipitates and/or adding a salt or other cosolute; (c) separating the precipitated AML from the mixture; and, (d) recovering the target substance from the AML. 25. The process of claim 24 which further comprises adding polymer to the liquid mixture to promote precipitation of the AML. 26. The process of claim 24 or claim 25 which further comprises the step of formulating the target substance in a composition.

Inventors: FREITAG RUTH, GARRET-FLAUDY FREDERIC, FREITAG, RUTH, GARRET-FLAUDY, FREDERIC
Applicants: ECOLE POLYTECH, FREITAG RUTH, GARRET FLAUDY FREDERIC, KIDDLE SIMON, ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE FEDERALE DE LAUSANNE, FREITAG, RUTH, GARRET-FLAUDY, FREDERIC, KIDDLE, SIMON
Application year: 2000
Main classification: C08F2
IPC codes: C07K17, C08F2