REFERENCE ELECTRODE HAVING A MICROFLUIDIC FLOWING LIQUID JUNCTION

Abstract: A flowing junction reference electrode exhibiting heretofore unattainable potentiometric characteristics is described, comprising a microfluidic liquid junction member that is situated between a reference electrolyte solution and a sample solution. This microfluidic liquid junction member has an array of nanochannels spanning the member and physically connecting the reference electrolyte solution and a sample solution, but while the electrolyte solution flows through the array of nanochannels and into the sample solution at a linear velocity, the sample solution does not substantially enter the array of nanochannels via the mechanisms of diffusion, migration, convection or other known mechanisms. The number of nanochannels in the array is preferably between approximately 10<8> and approximately (100). Also preferably, the nanochannels are substantially straight and are substantially parallel to one another; such an array of nanochannels is herein described as anisotropic. The nanochannels are also preferably coated. The widths of any nanochannels in the array of nanochannels are preferably uniform, in that the width of any nanochannel is substantially equal to the width of any other nanochannels in the array. The nanochannels preferably have widths of greater than approximately 1 nanometer and less than approximately 500 nanometers, and most preferably of 70 nanometers. The electrode may be constructed out of any suitable material, and is preferably constructed of a polymer, most preferably a polymer selected from the group consisting of polycarbonate and polyimide, and may also preferably be constructed of silicon, glass, or ceramic.

Description: REFERENCE ELECTRODE HAVING A MICROFLUIDIC FLOWING LIQUID JUNCTION Background of the Invention Field of the Invention The invention relates to potentiometric and electrochemical reference electrodes and, in particular, to liquid junction structures such as to be used in electrochemical reference electrodes for electrochemical measurements of solutions. The invention more particularly relates to reference electrodes for use where measurement or control of potential is desired such as with pH or ISE potentiometric sensors in the laboratory, in in-line processing, in the field, or in any environment where the improved precision or extended useful life of the sensor is desirable. Description of the Related Art The invention is broadly concerned with reference electrodes, such as the reference electrode portion of combination electrodes, and the reference portion of all potentiometric devices that employ a reference electrode to provide the relatively stable reference potential required in various measurements such as electroanalytical measurements, controlled potential coulometry, and polarographγ, and the like. Potentiometric measurements are used widely for the determination of pH and the detection of other specific ions in a variety of settings, including chemical processes, environmental monitoring, health care and bio-processes. The accuracy of these measurements depends on the ability to measure the potential difference between a sensing electrode, whose potential varies with the analγte concentration in the measured sample solution, and a reference electrode, which ideally would maintain a constant potential. The physical interface between the reference electrode (typically the electrolyte of the reference electrode) and the sample solution is referred to as the liquid junction. The stability of the reference electrode, and consequently the accuracy of potentiometric measurements, are dependent on the constancy of the liquid junction and more particularly, the constancy of the potential across the liquid junction. However, the liquid junction and more particularly, the potential across the liquid junction are difficult to control and maintain at a constant level. Typically, it is the change in the liquid-junction potential that introduces error into the electrochemical measurement and causes the need for frequent sensor calibration. The errors observed in currently commercially available reference electrodes include (1) kinetic or transient error; such error refers to relatively slow response between measurements, and slow ability to reach equilibrium, typically of five, ten, or fifteen minutes after exposure to extreme solutions. This response is primarily caused by entrapment of sample solution within the physical junction. Kinetic errors are typically a function of the time required to disperse this entrapped layer of sample solution and obtain a direct interface. The kinetics of this error are determined by the duration of prior immersion. The errors observed in currently commercially available reference electrodes also include (2) static error; such error typically refers to persistent offset after equilibrium is reached. Large static errors are typically caused by irreversible entrapment of sample solution deep within the physical junction structure. The errors observed in currently commercially available reference electrodes include (3) stirring error; such error refers to the shift in potential due to or associated with agitation of the sample solution. Stirring error is typically observed where there is a rate of agitation or flow of the sample. These errors exist in measuring sample solutions, but tend to be suppressed in standard buffers where accuracy is being checked Therefore, users may see no reason to disbelieve the erroneous readings obtained in non-standard environments. See D.P. Brezinski, "Kinetic, Static, and Stirring Errors of Liquid Junction Reference Electrodes", Analyst 108 (1983) 425-442; see also U.S. Patent 4,495,052. These errors are large enough to be of practical consequence. These errors often correspond to relatively large difference in hydrogen ion (H + ) concentration or activity. These errors, including those errors described above, tend to bias the measurements observed on pH meters by as much as 0.5 pH unit. In typical, currently commercially available electroanalytical measurement systems, the interface between the reference electrolyte and the sample solution is the liquid junction. The junction potential at this sample-reference interface is related to a number of factors; it is an object of every reference electrode design to minimize the effect of the factors that would cause the liquid junction potential to drift or to vary in any way over time. Various materials have been utilized in forming a liquid junction, including porous ceramic rods, porous polymer disks, wood dowls, ground glass sleeves, capillary tubes, agar gels, asbestos fiber bundle, and other porous materials or devices, and the like. These junction structures are, in general, referred to as restriction devices because their function is to restrict the outward flow or diffusion of electroyte from the reference electrode. However, one important factor that limits the useful lifetime of a reference electrode is that junction structures typically allow the sample solution to enter the junction structure. This transport of sample solution into the junction, whether by diffusion, migration, convection or other mechanism, results in the contamination of the junction structure and a resultant undesirable variation in the liquid junction potential. Such variation typically necessitates re-calibration of the electroanalytical measurement system. If this type of the contamination of the junction continues over time, the junction structure may become fouled or clogged and develop even larger offset potentials and/or potentials that chronically drift despite repeated attempts at re-calibration. In addition, sample solution will often transport past the junction structure and reach the reference half-cell itself, potentially causing additional adverse reactions. Currently commercially available reference electrodes, especially those used for potentiometric measurements, are typically constructed based on one of two distinct designs. Each of these designs is meant to address one principle limitation encountered when using reference electrodes for making potentiometric measurements. However, each of these designs fails to address a distinct principle limitation encountered when using reference electrodes for making potentiometric measurements. One design category is often referred to as a flowing junction reference electrode. This design provides a stream of reference electrolyte flowing through a porous junction structure or member, in an attempt to provide a relatively uniform liquid junction potential. While this design is typically effective in providing a liquid junction potential that is more uniform over time than those of the alternate design, flowing junction reference electrodes uniformly require the use of large amounts of electrolyte over relatively short periods of time. Thus, currently commercially available flowing junction reference electrodes require frequent maintenance to replenish the supply of this electrolyte solution. Furthermore, while flowing junctions are often designed to minimize this use of electrolyte by restricting the flow of electrolyte, in such flowing junctions designs the flow velocity is reduced to a velocity that is sufficiently low that the sample solution enters the liquid junction structure, typically via mass transport (diffusion, migration, or convection). The presence of this sample solution in the junction structure causes variable junction potentials, loss of calibration, clogging of the junction structure, and, over time, failure of the reference electrode. See U.S. Patent 5,360,529. The alternative design category is referred to as a non-flowing, diffusion junction reference electrode. This design depends on the substantially constant diffusion of electrolyte solution through a minimally porous junction structure to provide a steady liquid junction potential. While this design is highly susceptible to mass transport of the sample stream into the porous structure, the resulting drift in liquid junction potential may be slow enough to be tolerable in certain industrial applications. While such electrodes require frequent re-calibration, they do not require replenishment of electrolyte to the extent that flowing liquid junction electrodes do. Furthermore, such electrodes do not require systems and associated equipment to feed the reference electrolyte to the flowing junction reference electrode, as is the case for typical liquid flowing junction electrodes. Both reference electrode designs are in wide use but, based on their respective limitations, are typically used in different areas of application. Where precision measurements are more often needed, the flowing liquid junction reference electrode is typically used. Thus the flowing junction design is most commonly used for laboratory reference electrodes and clinical analyzers. In the laboratory environment the reference electrolyte may be relatively easily refilled as needed, even on a relatively frequent basis. Where it is desirable to minimize maintenance and where precision may be sacrificed to certain degrees, the diffusion junction reference electrode is more often utilized. Thus the diffusion junction reference electrode is typically used in industrial potentiometric sensor designs. An industrial sensor that uses a non-flowing, diffusion junction reference will typically require re-calibration on a more regular basis because of the relatively large amount of transport of the sample stream into the liquid junction structure. It is therefore not unusual for the industrial operator to install a new sensor every three months instead of re-calibrating the old sensor. For this reason, the industrial pH sensor with a built-in diffusion reference electrode is now a disposable item in most industrial applications. In summary, two principal problems with currently commercially available reference electrodes are the frequent maintenance requirement of the flowing junction design electrodes and the frequent re-calibration requirements of the diffusion junction design electrodes. More specifically, nearly all flowing junction designs consume large amounts of electrolyte and this electrolyte needs to be replenished on a regular basis. While there are a few flowing junction designs that require small amounts of electrolyte, these designs have achieved this by reducing the electrolyte flow to the point that the level of transport of the sample solution into the liquid junction structure becomes a limitation. A slow flowing junction reference electrode performs little better than a non-flowing, diffusion junction reference electrode. On the other hand, the non-flowing, diffusion junction electrode requires no electrolyte replenishment but will be subject to slow drift errors due to transport of the sample stream into the liquid junction structure. This drift typically prevents such reference electrodes from being used for precision measurements. Frequently, such transport will cause an irreversible instability to develop in the reference electrode that will render it incapable of being re-calibrated. Because of these inherent shortcomings, sensors employing such reference electrodes are often designed to be thrown away and replaced instead of re-calibrated. As a group, all non-flowing, diffusion junction reference electrodes have a very short operational life measured in weeks and months and in the best of circumstances seldom over one to two years Accordingly, there is a need in the art for an electrode design that exhibits both the relatively stable potential of currently commercially available flowing junction designs and the relative lack of the need to replenish reference electrolyte solution of currently commercially available non-flowing junction designs. Such a needed design would exhibit a relative stable junction potential over prolonged periods of time, while not exhibiting the various limitations and drawbacks of currently commercially available flowing junction and on-flowing designs. Summary of the Invention A microfluidic flowing liquid junction ( LJ) member, for use in a variety of potentiometric devices such as reference electrodes or combination electrodes, is described. This microfluidic flowing liquid junction comprises nanochannels in a microfluidic structure that creates a substantially invariant liquid junction potential. The microfluidic flowing liquid junctions comprising nanochannels in a microfluidic structure also preferably exhibit resistances across the junction member that are less than approximately 1 megohm. Low volume of flow through the array of nanochannels, and high velocities of electrolyte may be employed to prevent back diffusion of sample solution into the junction structure. Prevention of such back diffusion increases the precision and useful life of a reference electrode having the described junction member. The microfluidic liquid flowing junction member is useful to construct highly stable, low maintenance, precision electrochemical sensors, including reference electrodes. A flowing junction reference electrode exhibiting such heretofore unattainable characteristics is described structurally as comprising a microfluidic liquid junction member that is situated between a reference electrolyte solution and a sample solution. This microfluidic liquid junction member has an array of nanochannels spanning the member and physically connecting the reference electrolyte solution and a sample solution. The reference electrolyte solution flows through the array of nanochannels and into the sample solution at a linear velocity, and the sample solution does not substantially enter the array of nanochannels. The sample solution does not substantially enter the array via any mass transfer mechanisms such as diffusion, migration, and convection. A sample solution that enters the array at a rate of less that approximately 2 x 10 9 moles, and preferably less that approximately 1 x 10 9 moles per day, should be considered as not substantially entering the array. The number of nanochannels in the array is preferably between approximately 10 8 and approximately 100, more preferably less than approximately 10 6 , less than approximately 10 5 , and less than approximately 10 4 , and most preferably between approximately 10" and approximately 10 3 . Also preferably, the nanochannels are substantially straight and are substantially parallel to one another; such an array of nanochannels is herein described as anisotropic. The nanochannels are aiso preferably coated, and may be coated with, for example, metals, alloys, hydrophilic materials, or hγdrophobic materials. The widths of any nanochannels in the array of nanochannels are preferably substantially uniform, in that the width of any nanochannel is substantially equal to the width of any other nanochannels in the array. The nanochannels preferably have widths of greater than approximately 1 nanometer and less than approximately 500 nanometers, more preferably greater than approximately 10 nanometers and less than approximately 100 nanometers, and most preferably 70 nanometers The electrode may be constructed out of any suitable material, and is preferably constructed of a polymer, most preferably the polymer is selected from the group consisting of polycarbonate and polyimide, and may also be constructed of other structurally strong polymers, silicon, glass, or ceramic. The electrode may also further comprise a pressurized collapsible bladder, an electro-osmotic pump, or other mechanical pump, or any other means for maintaining positive linear flow of the reference electrolyte solution through the array of nanochannels and into the sample solution. The disclosed reference electrode may be used as part of a combination electrode along with an appropriate sensing electrode such as an ion-selective electrode or a redox electrode or the like. A flowing junction reference electrode exhibiting such heretofore unattainable characteristics may also be described as comprising a reference electrolyte solution flowing through a junction member and into a sample solution; wherein substantially no sample solution enters into the junction member via mechanisms of mass transfer such as diffusion, migration, or convection mechanisms. The linear velocity of the reference electrolyte solution flowing into the sample solution is preferably greater than approximately 0.1 cm per second, more preferably greater than approximately 0.5, and more preferably greater than approximately 1.0 cm per second. The volumetric flow rate of the reference electrolyte solution into the sample solution is less than approximately 60 μL per hour, and more preferably less than approximately 10 μL per hour. The microfluidic flowing liquid junction reference electrode is capable of having a lifetime of greater than one year, and preferably greater than two, three, four, five, or ten years, during which variations of electrolytic potential are less than approximately 1 mV per year, and during which less than approximately 100 mL of electrolyte flows into the sample solution, and more preferably less than approximately 50 mL. The resistance across the junction member electrode is preferably less than approximately 1 megohm Brief Description of the Drawings The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, are included herein to illustrate certain preferred embodiments of the invention and, together with the remainder of the written description and claims provided herein, including the Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiments, serve to explain the principles of the invention The accompanying drawings are not intended to limit or otherwise define the invention. Fig 1 depicts a schematic cross sectional view of a reference electrode with means for holding the microfluidic flowing liquid junction in place at the end of the electrolyte reservoir. Fig. 2 depicts a detailed schematic cross sectional view of a means for holding the microfluidic liquid junction structure in place Fig. 3 depicts a schematic exploded diametric view of the means for holding the microfluidic liquid junction structure in place. Fig. 4 depicts a schematic cross-sectional view of certain elements of a preferred microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure and a preferred nanochannel array. Fig. 5 is an illustrative view representing a single planar, polymer microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure in which anisotropic nanochannels have been fabricated. Figs. 5 and 6 each depict schematic diametric views illustrating steps in the fabrication of a multiple planar layer polymer junction structure with anisotropic nanochannels and supporting microchannels. Fig. 7 depicts a detailed schematic cross-section view showing detail of the region in which the nanochannnels meet a microchannel in a preferred polymer structure. Fig. 8 depicts a diametric illustrative view of a microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure having nanochannels and supporting microchannels that has been fabricated from one planar element of silicone. Fig. 9 depicts a schematic cross-section view showing the detail of where the nanochannnel meets a microchannel in a silicon microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure. Fig. 10 depicts diametric views illustrating steps in the fabrication of a preferred glass microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure from multiple planar glass elements. Fig. 1 1 depicts a schematic cross-sectional view of a glass microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure. Fig. 12 is a plot of the flux (linear flow) through a nanochannel array and the average velocity (v) through a single nanochannel as a function of the effective radius of the nanochannel. Fig. 13 is a set of concentration profiles in a liquid junction, plotted as a function of velocity, and as described in Equation (7). Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiment A reference electrode is described that comprises a microfluidic flowing liquid junction having a well-defined junction region, said junction region containing a reference electrolyte, wherein said microfluidic liquid junction provides a linear rate of flow of said electrolyte that is adequate to suppress measurable changes in the electric potential of the junction for a period of at least one week, and preferably of longer periods including at least one month, at least three, six, and nine months, and at least one, one and one-half, two and as long ten years. An electrochemical or potentiometric sensor is also described comprising a ion-selective electrode or redox electrode, and a reference electrode. The reference electrode comprising means for maintaining a liquid junction potential that remains stable for a period of at least one week, and preferably for longer periods including periods of at least one, two, three, six, or nine months, and at least one, one-and-one half, and two and as long as ten years. By using a novel microfluidic junction structure consisting of an array of nanochannels, it has been unexpectedly found that heretofore unattainably stable potentials, low junction potentials, and low electrolyte consumption rates for reference electrodes may be produced. These results are preferably attained by using combinations of the number of nanochannels and the nanochannel cross-section widths and a positive linear flow velocity for the reference electrolyte through the junction. The junction structure of the invention may therefore be characterized by, among other characteristics, (1) high electrolyte velocities to suppress transient, static, and stirring errors; (2) substantially constant junction potentials; (3) substantially constant potential despite the existence of flow rate and flow velocity fluctuations within the junction; (4) small junction potential variation; (5) low junction resistance; and/or (6) extremely low consumption of electrolyte It is therefore one object of the invention to provide a reference electrode with a flowing liquid junction structure that will maintain a heretofore unavailable relatively constant, invariant, and fixed junction potential, such potential being available for extended periods of time, including periods of one month to up to one, two, three, and even ten years, without the need to replenish the reference electrolyte. Another object of the invention is to provide a flowing liquid junction that functions for relatively prolonged periods of time on a relatively small amount of electrolyte and provides a substantially constant liquid junction potential that is substantially free of transient errors, static errors, and stirring errors. It is another object of the invention to provide a reference electrode that will have minimal transient, static, or stirring errors in sample solutions of extreme pH, solutions having relatively high concentrations of highly charged ions, and/or solutions having low ionic strength. Another object of the invention is to provide a flowing liquid junction that is neither a "leak path" nor a "restricted diffusion" junction. In this flowing liquid junction of the invention, there is hydrodynamic transport across the junction structure or member into the sample solution This hydrodynamic transport is preferably at a velocity sufficiently high to effectively counter back diffusion of the sample solution into the nanochannels of the junction. Prevention of this back diffusion contributes to the junction potential remaining stable and free of transient, static, and stirring errors for prolonged periods of time of one month to up to one, two, three, and even ten years. Another object of the invention is to provide a flowing junction structure that provides a constant liquid junction potential over a broad range of electrolyte flow velocities The liquid junction structure provides a constant potential that is relatively and substantially free of fluctuations even as the electrolyte velocity varies within various velocity ranges. It is another object of the invention to provide a flowing junction reference electrode that functions for relatively long periods of time without the need for replenishment of the reference electrolyte or the associated maintenance. The reference electrode according to the invention may thus function for times of 1, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 or even 100 years while using less than 100 mL of electrolyte. It is another object of the invention to provide a flowing junction reference electrode that uses such small amounts of electrolyte that the electrode will consume as little as 1 mL of electrolyte per year. Certain preferred embodiments of the invention allow the reference electrode to function for as long as 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, or as long as 100 years on only 100 mL of electrolyte, or in other embodiments, less than a mL per week, a mL per month, or a mL per six months. It is another object of the invention to provide a junction structure that consists of an array of nanochannels that provide low electrolytic resistance. While each separate nanochannel is high in electrolytic resistance, the entire array of nanochannels provides a junction structure having an electrolytic resistance that is relatively low. It is another object of the invention to provide a pressurized array of nanochannels that achieves a linear velocity of electrolyte necessary to substantially and effectively counter back diffusion of the sample stream into the junction and thus avoid transient, static, and stirring errors. It is another object of the invention to provide a pressurized array of nanochannels that achieves a linear velocity of electrolyte necessary to substantially and effectively reduce fouling and blockage by gas bubbles or particulate matter. It is another object of the invention to provide a pressure gradient across the array of nanochannels, through which reference electrolyte flows. The volume of each typical nanochannel in the array is sufficiently small that high electrolyte velocity can be achieved for prolonged periods of time with the use of extremely small volumes of electrolyte. These prolonged periods of time can be as long as years and even decades. It is another object of the invention to provide a reference junction structure sufficiently robust to function in a process industrial environment and sufficiently small to be incorporated as a basic building block into portable microfluidic module-based analytical devices. It is another object of the invention to provide a liquid junction structure that can be miniaturized for compatibility and integration into microfluidic devices, such as for example hand-held analytic devices for use in remote locations, and portable analytic devices for use in field stations, battlefield hospitals, emergency stations or the like. Another object of the invention is to produce a reference junction structure with a nanochannel array that may be manufactured with planar fabrication techniques so that the reference junction structure may be batch produced as an integral component of the various microfluidic structures and devices. Another object of the invention is to provide an substantially invariant liquid junction structure that can be fully integrated into mesoscale and icroscale microfluidic devices. It is another object of this invention to provide a liquid junction structure that can be miniaturized for compatibility and integration into microfluidic devices. A further, related object of this invention is to provide a liquid junction structure, the manufacture of which may be achieved through the use of current microf abrication techniques. A device need not attain even one of these objectives to be within the scope of the invention. General Discussion of The Uses and Design of Reference Electrodes The microfluidic flowing liquid junctions and reference electrodes incorporating such microfluidic flowing liquid junctions, as disclosed herein, expand the use of electrochemical monitoring to remote and/or hazardous sites, and to in-line process conditions. Their use will result in lower cost and improved efficiency of such monitoring and the associated chemical and biological processes. An electrode that extends the useful lifetime of a sensor and maintains a calibration for prolonged periods dramatically reduces maintenance requirements, increases efficiency, and decreases costs. Reference electrodes are most typically used for example in the following way: In the measurements of ion concentration of solutions, a reference electrode is commonly employed in conjunction with a sensing electrode, such as a glass electrode, with both electrodes immersed in the test solution. The potential difference between the two electrodes is a function of the concentration of the specific ion in solution. A typical example is the conventional pH meter and electrode pair used for measuring hydrogen ion concentrations of solutions. Reference electrodes are also frequently used in conjunction with an ion-sensing electrode such as a pH electrode or a redox electrode, either separately or in combination, to measure the activity (which is a function of the concentration) of a given ion in a sample solution. The two electrodes, for example, the reference electrode and the ion-selective electrode or the reference electrode and the redox electrode, both of which are immersed in the sample solution, typically are connected to a means of measuring the potential difference between the two electrodes, for example, an electrometer. The reference electrode is expected to provide a constant electromotive force or potential against which the potential of the ion-selective electrode is compared. The latter potential consists of a constant component from the electrochemical half-cell of the ion-selective electrode and a variable component which is the potential across the sensing membrane and which is dependent upon the activity (concentration) of the ion being measured. The variable component, then, is readily correlated with ion activity (concentration) by known means. To give accurate results, the potential of the reference electrode should not change with the composition of the sample. When used in such applications, reference electrodes are meant to establish a relatively constant or stable potential, which in an ideal situation is independent of the composition of the liquid sample, but in practice varies with the liquid junction potential. The liquid junction potential is the potential difference, created across the interface between the sample solution and the reference electrolyte. This interface is typically present at the junction member. The junction potential will vary with varying dilution and varying ion composition between sample and electrolyte. These variations affect the measured results and they will become imprecise or misleading over time. A reference electrode is typically comprised of an internal half-cell supported in a tube containing a salt solution, the tube of salt solution being known as a salt bridge. The salt bridge solution is a strong equitraπsferent salt solution such as potassium chloride or potassium nitrate. Electrical connection between the salt solution and the sample or test solution is made by liquid flow through a suitably formed aperture or passage in a tube, generally referred to as the liquid junction structure or the leak structure. Sometimes the entire unit consisting of the internal half-cell structure, the tube, the salt solution, and the liquid junction structure is referred to as a half-cell; however, for the present specification, the entire unit will be referred to as a reference electrode. Definitions As used herein, the term "nanostructures" refers to assemblies that have dimensions in the range of approximately 1 to approximately 500 nm. Accordingly, "nanochannels" refer to channels having widths of approximately 1 to approximately 500 nm. As used herein, the terms "mass transfer" and "mass transport" each refer to mechanisms for the flow of mass including diffusion, migration, and convection. As used herein, the phrase "the sample solution does not substantially enter the array of nanochannels" refers to the substantial absence of back diffusion of the sample solution into the nanochannels of the junction where such back diffusion would measurably alter the potential of the reference electrode. As used herein, the term "microfluidic" refers to a structure or device having channels or chambers which are generally fabricated at the micron or submicron scale. Such structures and devices preferably have at least one cross- sectional dimension in the range of about 10 nm to about 500 microns. Techniques commonly associated with the semiconductor electronics industry, such as photolithography, wet chemical etching, etc, are typically used in the fabrication of microfluidic structures. Such structures may be batch fabricated in, for example, silicon, polymers (including plastics), glass, and quartz, using planar integrated circuit fabrication techniques. As used herein, "fluid mechanics" refers to the study of motion and control of fluids. Micromachiπed fluid components offer the potential of revolutionizing applications where precise control of fluid flow is a necessity. Microfluidic systems comprising nozzles, pumps, channels, reservoirs, mixers, oscillators, and valves have been used in a variety of applications including drug dispensation, ink-jet printing, and general transport of liquids, gasses, and liquid/gas mixtures. The advantages of these devices include lower cost, enhancement of analytical performance, and lower consumption of reagents. As used herein, the term "half-cell electrode" means the solid-phase, electron-conducting contact with the half-cell electrolyte, at which contact the half-cell oxidation-reduction reaction occurs which establishes the stable potential between the half-cell electrolyte and the contact. See, e.g., U.S. Patent 4,495,052. As used herein, the term "electrochemical" refers to any use and/or sensor that exploits electrochemistry; and includes within it the term "potentiometric." Manufacture of the Invention Microfabrication of electrochemical sensors using integrated circuit (IC) technology has been challenged by the failure to incorporate a true reference electrode into the structure. See Mark Madou, "Fundamentals of Microfabrication," 1977, CRC Press, pg. 469. There is great potential for developing simple devices that are inexpensive, easy to fabricate, disposable, and highly sensitive. These devices can prove to be simple miniaturized diagnostic tools for various state of-health indicators. Back diffusion of sample solution into the physical junction generates a junction potential that not only shifts the calibration (generating static error) but may also cause the sensor signal to drift at any measurement point (generating transient error). Such back diffusion greatly increases the frequency of calibration required to obtain precise data from the electrochemical sensor. This increases the cost of ownership and places limits on the amount of time that such a device can function unattended. This is especially a problem for remote sensing devices that monitor water chemistry in lakes and streams and have a need to operate for extended periods of time without maintenance or recalibration. Most attempts to minimize back diffusion require a flowing junction structure that needs large amounts of electrolyte and periodic refilling of the electrolyte reservoir and other associated maintenance. This adds to the operational complexity of the sensor device and increases the cost of ownership by requiring scheduled maintenance by a technician. This is especially a problem with remote environmental measuring devices that are deployed to monitor lake and stream water chemistry. Volumetric flow rate and electrolyte consumption are typically compromised one for the other; decreasing one parameter increases the other. As stated above, it is therefore an object of this invention to provide a reference structure that prevents back diffusion while significantly increasing the linear velocity of the electrolyte flowing through the nanochannel array and minimizing volumetric flow rate This velocity suppresses back diffusion of the sample into the reference structure and enables the reference electrode to be operated for extended periods of time without the need for recalibration. Embodiments of the invention provide a junction structure that employs an array of nanochannels in a microfluidic structure to achieve a high electrolyte velocity while at the same time utilizing very low volumetric flow rates and utilizing using only sparingly small amounts of electrolyte solution The microfluidic structure with its array of nanochannels can operate from 1 to 100 years on 100 mL of electrolyte Alternatively a single milliliter of electrolyte could enable a small, disposable measurement device to operate with laboratory precision from 2 weeks to a year in harsh environments such as battlefield field hospitals. Embodiments of the present invention substantially mitigate these long standing problems of reference junction stability and electrolyte consumption. With the embodiments of the present invention, potentiometric sensors systems can function for extended periods of time without the need for recalibration or electrolyte replenishment. Embodiments of the present invention provide a microfluidic reference junction structure that enables precise potentiometric measurements to be made with devices and systems that operate remotely and without maintenance for long periods of time. This reference structure can be miniaturized for compatibility and integration into microfluidic devices. Such miniaturization can be subject to performance and stability trade off's with existing junction structures. The microfluidic flowing liquid junction described herein achieves its superior performance because of its nanoscale structure. It is already small enough to be included as a subcomponent in a microscale device such as a disposable microfluidic chip, disk, or block. Yet the same microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure is robust enough to be readily utilized as the liquid junction of a macroscale industrial in line sensor assembly or a mesoscale analytical handheld device A reference electrode with an substantially invariant liquid junction potential using an innovative combination of microfluidic and nanotechnology is described. The variability of the liquid junction potential is a significant factor in the accuracy of potentiometric measurements Removing this variable will result in potentiometric measurements with improved stability, precision and reproducibilitγ. A reference electrode with an substantially invariant liquid junction is capable of sustaining a single calibration for prolonged periods. Reducing the calibration and maintenance will dimmish the cost and enhance the ability to monitor remote and hazardous sites The reference electrode described herein preferably uses microfluidic concepts to incorporate a nanochannel array for the liquid junction structure. This microfluidic flowing liquid junction preferably maintains a constant potential reproducible to ± 0.5 mV ( " 0.01 pH unit) and preferably has a life in excess of one year. An important factor is the stability of the liquid junction. In an electroanalytical system the interface between the reference electrolyte and the sample solution constitutes the liquid junction. Unless these two solutions have the same initial composition, the system will not be at equilibrium. Though the liquid junction region is not at equilibrium, if it has a composition that is effectively constant, then the reversible transfer of charge through the region can be considered. See Bard, A. J.; Faulkner, L. R. Electrochemical Methods; John Wiley & Sons: New York, 1980; pp 61-64. Providing an adequate outward flow of junction electrolyte serves to suppress changes in the junction potential. See Brezinski, D. P. The Analyst 1983, 108, 425. Maintaining a constant composition, and narrow, well-defined liquid junction region, therefore protects the reference electrode surroundings. The system uses small volumes of electrolyte to make it a practical device for operation for one year or more with a reduced level or no maintenance. Factors that affect the liquid junction potential include temperature, ionic strength, and transport of ionic and molecular species across the reference structure. The most stable and reproducible reference electrodes use a flowing- liquid junction. The continuous flow of electrolyte maintains a constant rate of ion transport across the interface. In addition, the constant flow of electrolyte also prevents back diffusion of the sample into the reference electrolyte. However, a conventional flowing junction can use large quantities of electrolyte and require substantial maintenance, which is impractical in most industrial applications. The microfluidic flowing liquid junction may be comprised of nanochannel arrays in a structure that results from recent developments in microfluidic and nanotechnology. This technology makes it possible to generate sufficient electrolyte flow through the liquid junction to eliminate contamination of the junction structure, yet use only minimal quantities of electrolyte. The microfluidic flowing liquid junction preferably maintains a constant potential for an extended duration of time, and preferably limits the volume of electrolyte to a volume rate of flow of less than 50 mL per year (6 L per hour). This allows for reference electrodes, and consequently potentiometric or electrochemical sensors that require neither maintenance nor recalibration for periods of preferably at least one week, two weeks, one months, six months, or one year. The feasibility of using the microfluidic flowing liquid junction, may be demonstrated by: (i) determining the electrolytic resistance across the nanochannel arrays; (ii) characterizing the flow of electrolyte through nanochannels as a function of applied pressure, nanochannel material, and nanochannel dimension, (iii) determining the required electrolyte velocity through a nanochannel to eliminate back diffusion of the sample solution into the reference electrode, and (iv) building a laboratory reference electrode and demonstrate a stable reference potential using a microfluidic flowing liquid junction. Furthermore, the microfluidic flowing liquid junction may be further optimized as follows: (i) optimizing the electrolyte velocity, nanochannel materials and dimensions, (ii) developing appropriate pumping mechanisms and designs. The following description of the present invention is divided into two sections. The first section is a technical discussion of the microfluidic flowing liquid junction and its use in a reference electrode, including theoretical and conceptual discussions of the liquid junction and its potential, transport through microchannels, and the utility of nanochannel arrays. The second section lists and describes methods to achieve various tasks, including a discussion of the tests and experiments used to demonstrate the functionality of a microfluidic flowing liquid junction for a reference electrode. A Reference Electrode Having a Microfluidic Flowing Liquid Junction Prototypes with a microfluidic flowing liquid junction are assembled in the following manner. The preferred junction has a modular design for easy exchange of different nanochannel arrays. Six electrodes are constructed so that simultaneous measurements can be made. The nanochannel array is sandwiched between two silicon rubber gaskets (id approximately 1 mm). The gaskets can be compressed and sealed to the electrode body. The electrode electrode allows variable internal pressures. The reference electrolyte is forced to flow by applying a pneumatic pressure on the reference reservoir. The differential pressure is limited to 40 psi or to 100 psi. The reference reservoir contains approximately 50 mL of 4.0 M KCI, and uses a Ag/AgCI reference electrode. Determination of the Electrolytic Resistance of the Nanochannel Array The electrolytic resistance of the nanochannel arrays is measured by AC impedance. A Solartron AC impedance system is available. The nanochannel array is clamped between the two halves of a U-tube permeation cell. Both half-cells are filled with 4.0 M KCI. The working and reference electrodes are placed in one half-cell (on one side of the array); the counter electrode is placed in the other half-cell (on the other side of the array). The impedance at high frequencies (e.g., 50 kHz to 100 kHz) is real and corresponds to the solution resistance. In this configuration, the solution resistance has three components; the resistance in one half-cell, the resistance in the second half-cell, and the resistance of the nanochannel array. The resistances of the half-cells are negligibly small relative to the nanochannel array resistance. This may be verified by repeating the same experiment without the array. If necessary, the measured solution resistance from this experiment will be subtracted from the measured resistance when the nanochannel array is in place. The measured resistances may be compared to calculated values obtained using eq. (3) below. Characterizing the Electrolyte Volumetric Flow Rate and Linear Velocity The flow rate and velocity of the reference electrolyte through the nanochannel arrays are determined as a function of applied pressure, nanochannel dimension, and nanochannel material. The applied differential pressure may be varied from 0 (diffusion) to 40 psig. The flow rate may be measured by placing the junction in 50 mL of ultra-pure water and measuring its transient conductivity. The experimentally determined flow rates may be compared to the predicted flow rates, calculated using eq. (2) below. The linear velocity may be calculated based on the pore density and dimensions of the nanochannel array. The effect of charged nanochannel walls on the transport of the reference electrolyte may also be studied. Chloride ions readily adsorb on gold surfaces, thus, the Au nanochannels may have a net negative charge. In this situation, the nanochannels are cation permselective. However, if the nanochannels are pretreated with propanethiol they have an inert, neutral coating, and chloride ions do not adsorb. To determine what effect charged walls may have on the transport, flow rates through Au nanotubles with negatively charged and neutral walls may be compared. This comparison provides useful information on the transport mechanism of permselectivitγ with pressure driven flow through πano-sized pores. Measuring Back Diffusion as a Function of Linear Velocity of Electrolyte Solution Back diffusion as a function of velocity may be measured using a custom-designed pressure cell. Such a cell consists of feed and permeant half-cells. The feed half-cell will contain the 4.0 M KCI. The permeant half-cell may be a dilute aqueous solution of a strongly absorbing dye molecule (e.g., Rhodamine B). The back diffusion of the dye from the permeant into the feed may be measured spectrophotometncally as a function of applied pressure. The rate of back diffusion may be measured by following the time course of the dye appearance into the feed cell. The velocity of solution flow from the feed to the permeant may be measured by monitoring the conductivity of the permeant (due to transport of KCI from the feed) as a function of time. In this way, the minimum solution velocity (feed to permeant) required to eliminate back diffusion of dye (permeant to feed) into the reference electrode chamber will be determined. Comparing Microfluidic Flowing Liquid Junctions to Standard Reference Junctions A reference electrode having an microfluidic flowing liquid junction may be compared to traditional reference junctions to determine its relative potential and utility for reference electrodes. A reference electrode with a microfluidic flowing liquid junction may be used for pH measurements, and its response may be compared with different reference electrodes. The overall stability and performance of a reference electrode is determined from (i) transient error, (n) static errors, and (in) stirrer errors. First, when an electrode is transferred from one solution to another, if any of the first solution is retained within the liquid junction, the measured potential should have a contribution from the original solution This is referred to as memory effects, or transient errors. Notwithstanding any permanent contamination, the liquid junction can be renewed by the continuous outflow of reference electrolyte. Memory effects, transient errors, may be determined by measuring the time required to achieve a steady potential response. The response times of the microfluidic flowing liquid junction may be compared with typical flowing, and diffusion-style reference junctions. Second, stirring the sample solution can change the measured pH Stirring can effect the potential measurement in at least two ways Streaming potentials can build up from convection of the sample solution This becomes evident when the ionic concentration of the reference electrolyte differs from the sample, especially in low ionic strength sample solutions In addition, to streaming potentials, stirred sample solutions can increase contamination of the liquid junction The effect of pressure in the sample solution may be measured up to 40 psig, in or alternatively to 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100 psig. The potential dependence of the microfluidic flowing liquid junction on temperature may then be determined. Performance the Microfluidic Flowing Liquid Junction Over Extended Times The microfluidic flowing liquid junction references may be placed in standard pH buffers for extended periods. The long-term testing may also be conducted in different media, including wastewater and soils. The microfluidic flowing liquid junction preferably retains its calibration to within 0.5 mV over a 24-hour period in adverse test conditions. However, a microfluidic flowing liquid junction preferably sustains a single calibration for even greater prolonged periods of time. Certain Preferred Aspects of The Microfluidic Flowing Liquid Junction Certain preferred aspects of the invention, many of which are further elucidated through the specific examples described herein and many of may be observed in the various embodiments of the invention, are as follows: According to a preferred aspect of the invention, there is provided an array of electrolyte flow channels in the junction member. As shown herein, an array, as opposed to a single channel lowers the overall junction resistance while minimizing electrolyte consumption. Each channel can be very high in resistance while the sum resistance of all the channels of an array will be several orders of magnitude lower in resistance. Without an array, or plurality, of channels the junction structure resistance would typically be too high for practical use. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there is provided an array of nanochannels in the junction member. Channels having internal diameters in the lower end of the nanometer range (for example, less than approximately 100 nm or approximately 70 nm) permit achieving the preferred elevated electrolyte solution linear velocity and the substantially constant liquid junction potential while consuming only relative small amounts of electrolyte solution. The array of nanochannels may also comprise approximately 10 3 , 10 4 , 10 5 , or 10 7 nanochannels. The volume rate of flow is preferably less than approximately 50 mL per month, and may also be less than approximately 2 liters, 1 liter, 500 ml, 300 ml, 250 ml, 200 ml, 150 ml, or 100 mL per month, and more preferably less than approximately 50 L per year, and may also be less than approximately 2 liters, 1 liter, 500 ml, 300 ml, 250 ml, 200 ml, 150 ml, or 100 mL per year Also, the linear flow rate, dependent on the radii or effective width of the nanochannels employed, is preferably greater than approximately 0.1 cm per second, and, depending on the radii or effective width of the nanochannels, may be greater than 0.0001 cm, 0.001 cm, and 0.01 cm per second. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there are provided aniostropic channels in the junction member. Such channels are substantially straight and parallel to one another, and with uniform pore size provide substantially uniform distribution of flow through substantially all channels. Such channels may preferably be prepared according to the "template synthesis" method described herein and in Hulteen, J. C; Martin, C. R. J. Mater. Chem. 1997, 7, 1075. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there are provided channels having internal diameters of less than approximately 100 nanometers or approximately 70, 50, 40, or 30 nanometers. Channels of these dimensions enable obtaining the preferred combination of electrolyte flow velocity, minimum electrolyte consumption, and array resistance. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there are provided channel lengths greater than approximately 100 nanometers and less than approximately ten microns. Channels at this dimension range (or smaller) also enable obtaining the preferred combination of electrolyte flow velocity, minimum electrolyte consumption, and array resistance. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there is provided a number of channels less than approximately one-hundred million (10 8 ). Arrays with fewer than this number of channels enable a desirable combination of electrolyte flow velocity, minimum electrolyte consumption, and array resistance. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there is provided a driven flow with high electrolyte velocity less than approximately 0.1 cm/sec. Flow velocity is a factor in determining the preferred flow rate of electrolyte through the junction. Velocities at this rate or higher are necessary to achieve minimal penetration of each nanochannel by sample solution. Contrary to the commonly used technique of restricting the flow rate (volume and velocity) to minimize electrolyte consumption, preferred embodiments of the present invention greatly accelerate velocity in a nanochannel structure while using relatively small amounts of electrolyte. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there is provided reduced volumetric consumption of electrolyte. Flowing junction designs traditionally use relatively large quantities of electrolyte and need frequent replenishment and associated maintenance. The design parameters of the junction provide superior electrolyte velocity with vastly reduced flow volume of reference electrolyte. For example, as little as one mL per year, is consumed under standard operating conditions. Preferred embodiments of the invention provide junction designs that can function for prolonged periods of time without the need for electrolyte replenishment and minimal contamination of the sample. Certain embodiments of this invention can, for example, operate up to 90 years with only 100 mL of electrolyte. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there is provided a low junction resistance: having a resistance across junction of less than approximately 100 kiloohms (1 megohms). The microfluidic flowing liquid junction electrode is shown to achieve high velocity and low volume electrolyte use without sacrificing junction resistance. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there is provided a junction that maintains a stable junction potential over a wide range of junction flow rates and flow velocities. Unexpectedly, the novel junction does not generate a different internal potential at different flow rates or flow velocities. Such a result is contrary to prior teachings. This unexpected property alleviates the need for maintaining a constant flow rate or velocity. Importantly, in a pressurized driven device, the flow rate will decrease as the electrolyte is depleted. Contrary to teachings and expectations, the junction potential has remained constant over a wide range of pressures and flow rates. For this reason, the electrolyte solution may be held in a flexible, pressurized collapsible bladder. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there is provided a reference electrode that may readily be integrated with any known variety of sensing electrode to make combination sensor. According to another preferred aspect of the invention, there is provided a combination sensor that may employ a battery powered compensating circuit. The circuit is designed to substantially null the inherent offset in the sensor and maximizes the slope of the sensor response between two standards. According to another aspect of the invention, it becomes unnecessary to maintain a constant pressure across the junction. The pressure may vary from high as 40 psig to as low as 10 psig and maintain substantially no error. According to another aspect of the invention, various mechanisms may be used to maintain desired flow of electrolyte solution through the junction member. For example, a pneumatic driven flow or pump, such as a collapsible bladder, or electro osmotic flow or pump or electro-hydrodynamic flow or pump may also be used. Also, for example, a mechanical pump or flow such as a piston driven pump or flow may be used, or a spring driven piston pump or flow, or a piezo electric flow or pump or an electro-hydrodynamic flow or pumps may be used. Such pumps are well known in the art and are described by Marc Madou in "Fundamentals of Microfabrication", 1997, CRC Press, pg. 431-433. According to another aspect of the invention, the inner walls of the microfluidic flowing liquid junction may be physically or chemically modified to alter the flow of electrolyte. For example, the inside walls of the structure may be coated with substances to enhance flow of electrolyte. Also, for example, the inside walls of the structure may be plated with metals such as gold, platinum, or palladium or another non-reactive metals or alloys or combinations thereof to increase functionality and to effect additional functionality or performance gains Also, for example, the walls may be made hydrophihc by the addition of for example, a hydrophi c polymer such as a polythioi or polyvinγlpyrolidoπe (PVP) or a hydrophobie material. Also a surfactant may be added to the electrolyte to alter the flow of electrolyte through the nanochannels, especially of the smaller nanometer structures. EXAMPLES The microfluidic flowing liquid junction and associated electrodes of the invention are described in terms of several embodiments These embodiments are preferred and comprise microfluidic liquid junction structures with nanochannel arrays fabricated from a variety of specific materials Each preferred structure may be fabricated, according to techniques known in the art, into a thin wafer or membrane, preferably round, that can be mounted onto the end of a reference electrode structure. Each junction structure permits electrolyte flow through a nanochannel array from the internal electrolyte reservoir of the reference electrode into the sample solution. Fig. 1 depicts a representative diagram of an exemplary potentiometric reference electrode 100 with a microfluidic liquid junction structure 102 according to the present invention. The reference electrode 100 comprises of a chamber 114 that has a seal 120 on one end and a compression means 122 for sealing the junction structure 102 in place at the other end The reference electrode 100 includes an electrochemical half cell 108, an electrical conductor 118, and a reservoir of reference electrolyte solution 110 The electrolyte reservoir 110 is contained in a flexible elastomer reservoir bag 1 12 that separates the electrolyte reservoir 1 10 from the compressed gas 116 that fills the rest of the chamber 114 The compressed gas 116 compresses the reservoir bag and the electrolyte therein and by this means drives the electrolyte 110 through the aperture 130 and into and through the microfluidic flowing liquid junction member and out the orifice 132 and into the sample stream (not shown). In this manner the reference electrode 100 shown in Fig. 1 utilizes the microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 102 to make electrolytic contact between the internal electrochemical half-cell 108 and the sample solution (not shown). Fig. 2 depicts a cross-sectional view of the compression means 122 that seals the microfluidic liquid junction 102 structure onto the end of the reference electrode chamber 114. The threaded retainer ring 124 compresses the microfluidic liquid junction structure 102 against the o-ring 126 and the gasket 128 and thereby seals it into the end of the reference electrode chamber 114. The pressurized electrolyte 1 10 is pushed through aperture 130 and into and through the microfluidics liquid junction structure 102 then out of the orifice 132 and into the sample stream (not shown). Fig. 3 depicts an exploded diametric view of the compression means 122. In this example of the embodiment the microfluidic liquid junction structure 102 is a round planar element. Fig. 4 depicts a schematic cross-section of the microfluidic liquid junction structure 102 in its most elementary form, a single planar element. As shown, the microfluidic liquid junction structure 102 is fabricated in a planar substrate 104. Suitable substrate materials are generally selected based upon cost, ease of fabrication, dimensional stability, mechanical strength, and compatibility with the conditions present in the particular environment that the structure will be operating in. Such conditions can include extremes of pH, temperature, ionic concentration, and presence of organic solvents. Useful substrate materials include glass, quartz, ceramic, siiicone, polysilicone, as well as polymeric materials such as polycarbonate, polyi ide, and other plastics typically utilized in microfabrication techniques. The junction structure 102 includes a multitude of nanochannels 106 fabricated through the substrate 104 and generally perpendicular to the planar axis of the substrate 104. These nanochannels typically have very small cross-section dimensions, preferably in the range from about 1 nm to 500 nm. It is this small, nanometer scale, cross- sectional width of the nanochannels 106 that gives them their name. For the particular preferred embodiments, nanochannels 106 that have cross section widths of about 10 nm to 100 nm and lengths of about 0.5 μm to 100/vm will work most effectively, although deviations from these dimensions are within the scope of the invention. The multitude of nanochannnels 106 present in the microfluidic liquid junction structure 102 are referred to collectively as the array 105. The size of the array 105 is characterized by the number of nanochannels 106 present in the structure 102. The number of nanochannels can vary from 100 to 100,000,000 per crτι2. For these particular embodiments discussed below, an array 105 with a number of nanochannels 106 between 1000 and 1,000,000 will work most effectively, though deviations from these numbers are within the scope of the invention. The array 105 of nanochannels 106 is a common element in all depicted embodiments of the invention and the operational characteristics of a particular array may be predicted by specifying only three parameters of the array 105: (1 )the cross-sectional width of the nanochannel 106, (2) the length of the nanochannel 106, (3) and the number of nanochannels 106 present in the array 105. Table 1 provides ranges expressed in approximate values preferred ranges, for these three parameters. TABLE 1. Representative Approximate Ranges for Nanochannel Array Parameters Individual Nanochannel 106 Cross-sectional Width Range: 1 nm to 500 nm Preferable range: 10 nm to 100 nm; 40 nm to 80 nm; 70 nm Individual Nanochannel 106 Length Range- 0.5 μm to 500 μm Preferable ranges: 0.5 μm to 100 μm; 6 to 10 μm Number of Individual Nanochannels 106 in Array 105 Range: 100 to 100,000,000; 1000 to 10,000 Preferable ranges- 1000 to 1,000,000 Manufacturing of the array 105 of nanochannels 106 and other micro- and nano scale elements and features into the substrate 104 may be carried out by any number of microfabrication techniques that are well known in the art. For example, photolithographic techniques may be employed in fabricating glass, quartz, ceramic, silicone, polysihcone, or "plastic" polymeric substrates with methods well known in the semiconductor manufacturing industries. Photolithographic masking, plasma or wet etching and other semiconductor processing technologies define microscale and nanoscale elements in and through the substrate and on the substrate's surfaces. Alternatively, micromachining methods, such as laser drilling, micromilhng, microgrinding, and the like may be employed. Similarly, for polymeric substrates, such as plastics, well known manufacturing techniques may be used. These techniques include charged particle bombardment and subsequent wet etching of nanoscale and microscale channels through polymeric substrates. Additional techniques include injection molding techniques or stamp molding methods where large numbers of substrates may be produced or polymer microcasting techniques where substrates with microscale and nanoscale features are polymerized within a microf abncated mold The microfluidic liquid junction structure 102 may be one planar element or a laminate of multiple planar elements. The planar elements may be attached to each other by a variety of means, including thermal bonding, adhesives, or in the case of glass and some plastics, direct fusion by heating to the melting point. The additional planar elements may constitute all or part of the array structure, or a rigid support element for the array structure element, or such additional layers may include other microfluidic components that integrate into the microfluidic liquid junction structure to provide increased performance or additional features. Such additional elements might include micro scale sensors and sensing elements that measure parameters such as pressure, flow rate, temperature, electrical resistance, and oxidation reduction (redox) potential, conductivity, and pH. These sensors could be utilized to provide feedback concerning the performance of the potentiometric reference electrode 100 and the microfluidic liquid junction structure 102 Such feedback could be utilized by monitor instrumentation for preventative diagnostics of the reference electrode's 100 performance Such diagnostics might include determining the need for recalibration and predicting and signaling the need for service well before the reference electrode 100 fails in an on-line industrial application. Fig. 5 depicts an illustrative diametric cross-sectional view of the array 105 of a microfluidic liquid junction structure 102 that is fabricated as a single planar polymer element. The planar element has a specific density of etched anisotropic nanochannels 105. In this embodiment of the present invention specific channel densities of generally anisotropic nanochannels were fabricated in 10 μm thick sheets of polycarbonate. The first step in the fabrication process was to expose 10 μm thick sheets of polycarbonate to charged particles, mostly heavy ions, in a nuclear reactor. These charged particles perforate the polymer sheets and leave "sensitized tracks" in the polymer which are substantially anisotropic. By controlling the duration of the exposure to the charged particles, the density of tracks per square centimeter can be controlled to a high degree of reproducibility. These tracks were generally uniform in width and straight, or anisotropic, and transverse the polymer sheet in a direction generally 90° to the planar axis of the polymer sheet. The tracks in the polymer substrate were preferably etched. This enabled the nanochannels to be selectively etched to channel diameters of 10 nm and larger. The etching process consisted of immersing the polycarbonate sheets in a strong alkaline solution of 6 M NaOH with 10% methaπol by volume. To obtain sheets with different channel cross-sectional widths the etch times were varied from 1 hour to 1 minute. In a final step in the fabrication process, the polycarbonate sheets were coated by dipping them into a bath of 0.5% polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) solution. The PVP coating is hydrophihc and it enhances the "wetability" of the polycarbonate sheets and nanochannels. To obtain polycarbonate sheets with nanochannels of cross-sectional diameters of less than 10 nm, the inside walls of the 10 nm nanochannels were uniformily plated with gold until the nanochannels were reduced to a cross-sectional width of 5 nm. By these fabrication techniques, polycarbonate planar elements with a range of nanochannel arrays that contained combinations of ultrasmall nanochannel cross-sectional widths and low nanochannel densities that were not available from commercial sources were obtained and then analyzed. By design of the nanochannel array 105 density, an microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 102 was fabricated such that it had the desire number of flowing nanochannels 106 exposed to aperture 130 on one side of the microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 102, and the corresponding number of flowing nanochannels 106 exposed to orifice 132 on the other side of the microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 102. Fig. 6 depicts steps in the fabrication of a microfluidic liquid junction (microfluidic flowing liquid junction) structure 164 from multiple polymer, polyimide planar elements 160 and 162 that may be thermal bonded together into one structure. The two polyimide planar elements can be bonded together using various techniques including those of U.S. Patent No. 5,525,405 (Coverdall et al.) and U.S. Patent No. 5,932,799 (Moles). Anisotropic nanochannels may be fabricated into the polymer polyimide planar element 162 in the same manner as with the polycarbonate planar element previously described above. The polyimide planar element 162 is fabricated to have a specific density of anisotropic nanochannels. The thicker planar element 160 may also be fabricated from polyimide into a honeycomb structure containing relatively larger, micron scale, microchannels 166 with cross-sectional widths on the order of 5 μm to 25μm in this embodiment. This honeycomb structure of the polyimide planar element 160 adds mechanical strength to the finished microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 164 without unduly impeding the force of the pressurized electrolyte through the nanochannels 106 The polyimide planar element can be fabricated into a micron scale honeycomb structure by well known photolithography and wet etch techniques such as those reported in U.S. Patent No 5,807,406 (Brauker et al.). Due to the relatively regular geometry of the resultant structure the resultant number of active flowing nanochannels 106 may be calculated as the number of nanochannels 106 that face a microchannel 166. Fig 7 depicts a schematic cross section of the resultant microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 164 that is made from two polyimide planar elements, 160 and 162, that have been thermal bonded into one structural element. On the average, each of the microchannels 166 is connected to a small array 168 with approximately the same number of nanochannels 106 In operation, pressurized electrolyte 110 enters into an array 169 of micronchannels 166 and exits through the many connected nanochannels 106 In this way pressurized electrolyte 1 10 flows through an array 169 of many smaller arrays 168 of nanochannels 106. This is a useful technique to build up relatively thick planar structures that do not unduly impede the pressurized flow of electrolyte into the nanochannels 106. In an alternative embodiment of the invention, additional planar elements of the same or different materials can be bonded on top of the microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 164 for additional features and performance such as additional strengthening structures, valves, or sensing elements Such fabrication techniques are well known and are reviewed by Marc Madou in "Fundamentals of Microfabrication", 1997, CRC Press. Referring to Fig. 1, it can be seen that this microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 164 can be sealed into the exemplary reference electrode 100 by compression means 122 By proper selection of the nanochannel density of planar element 162 and the microchannel density of planar element 160, a microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 164 can be fabricated such that it has an microchannel array 169 with the desire number of flowing microchannels 166 exposed to aperture 130 and the corresponding, connecting nanochannel arrays 168 with the desired number of flowing nanochannels 106 exposed to orifice 132 Fig 8 depicts a microfluidic liquid junction (microfluidic flowing liquid junction) structure 170 that can be fabricated from a single planar element of siiicone by means of anisotropic plasma etching techniques such as those reported in U.S. Patent No 5,501,893 (Laermer et al ) The microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 170 has a micron scale microchannels 176 etched in one side of the structure and connecting nanochannels 106 etched through the other side of the structure. Fig 9 depicts a schematic cross section of the siiicone microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 170 The microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 170 has an array 179 of microchannels 176 on one side of the structure that connect to an array 178 of nanochannels 106 on the other side of the structure In this exemplary embodiment the ratio of nanochannels 106 that connect to each microchannel 176 is one to one Anisotopic plasma etching can fabricate high aspect ratio features in siiicone with ratios as high as 20:1. Accordingly, in this embodiment the microchannels 176 can be etched 5 μm wide and 75 μm deep from one side of the structure and the nanochannels 106 can be etched 100 nm wide and up to 2 μm deep from the other side of the microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 170. Again, the nanochannel array 178 density and the microchannel array 179 density may be selected such that, a microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 170 may be fabricated such that it has a microchannel array 179 with the desired number of flowing microchannels 176 exposed to aperture 130 and the corresponding, connected nanochannel array 178 with the desired number of flowing nanochannels 106 exposed to orifice 132. Such a junction may be designed to exhibit certain characteristics suitable to any use. Fig. 10 depicts steps in the fabrication of a microfluidic liquid junction (microfluidic flowing liquid junction) structure 184 from multiple glass planar elements 180 and 182 that can be thermal bonded or fused together into one planar structure. Planar element 180 is a solid element of glass, such as Corning 0120 glass, that has a single, relatively large channel 186 in the center. The channel 186 can be several microns to 1 mm in diameter and it can be fabricated with well known microfabrication techniques. The planar element 182 is a glass disk that has at its center an array 188 region of nanochannels. This planar element 182 can be made by methods reported in U.S. Patent. No 5,264,722 (Tonucci et al.) for the manufacture of nanochannel glass rod. Nanochannel glass rod made by this method is essentially a fused bundle of anisotropic glass tubes that each have a cross-sectional width of just a few nanometer to several hundred nanometers. Furthermore, the nanochannel glass rod, also fabricated from Corning 0120 glass, can be clad in non-porous glass so that just the core of the resultant glass rod is made up of an array 188 of nanochannels. A single planar cross section 182 of this rod can be cut to use as the nanochannel array 188 of the present embodiment of the present invention. The width of the nanochannels and the number of nanochannels can be precisely controlled by the fabrication methods reported in U.S. Patent. No 5,264,722 (Tonucci et al.). The length of the nanochannels in the array 188 length can be controlled by cutting a cross-section of the rod and grinding it to the desired thickness. Where both glass planar layers, 180 and 182, are made from the same glass, they may be fused together into a single microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 184 by scientific glass blowing techniques well known to those skilled in the art. Alternatively, they may be thermally bonded by the techniques disclosed and reviewed by Marc Madou in "Fundamentals of Microfabrication", 1997, CRC Press. Fig. 1 1 depicts a schematic cross-section view of the glass microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 184. The microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 184 has a single large channel 186 on one side and a corresponding, connecting array 188 of nanochannels 106 on the other side. The planar element 180 lends mechanical strength to the planar element 181 in this embodiment of the present invention once they are bonded or fused together into the single planar microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 184. As before, by design of the nanochannel array 188 density and the size of the single channel 186, a microfluidic flowing liquid junction structure 184 may be fabricated such that the single channel 186 aligns with the aperture 130 and the corresponding, connected nanochannel array 188 with the desired number of flowing nanochannels 106 are exposed to orifice 132. TABLE 2. Representative Operational Specifications Of Microfluidic Flowing Liquid Junctions Experimental and Theoretical Data Based Upon Experimental Data Table 3 and 4, presented below, detail certain actual physical and potentiometric characteristics, and estimated physical and potentiometric characteristics based upon and extrapolated from the actual physical and potentiometric characteristics, of microfluidic flowing liquid junctions of the invention having various structural characteristics. Table 3 provides experimental test data for reference electrodes having exemplary MLJ structures within the scope of the present invention. Transient, static and stirring errors were determined in standard pH 7 buffer solutions after consecutive exposures to the test solution. The potential was measured against a pH-sensitive glass electrode. The exemplary MLJ structures were obtained from Osmonics Laboratory Products (Westborough, Mass., USA). The Osmonics part number for the 30 nm nanochannel MLJ, P/N KN3CP01300; the Osmonics part number for the 50 nm nanochannel MLJ, P/N KN5CP01300. The BJC Model 9015 commercially available diffusion junction was obtained from Broadley-James Corp. (Irvine, Calif., USA) Table 4 provides the estimated resistance, velocity and lifetime of exemplary MLJ structures within the scope of the present invention. Table 4 was generated based on the actual, experimentally determined data derived from a MLJ structure with 1,000 10-μm long, nanochannels having widths of approximately 70 nm (see bottom row), specially prepared as described herein. TABLE 3 Microfluidic Flowing Liquid Junction Reference Electrode Tests TABLE 4 Electrode Characteristics / Lifetime Estimates for Various Junction Designs t i Technical, Computational and Theoretical Analyses Although the invention is not limited to any specific explanation of theory to explain why or under what conditions it performs as described herein, the following technical, computational and theoretical analyses are advanced to explain the invention. The techmc al aspects of the microfluidic flowing liquid junction of the invention are addressed. The theoretical and practical requirements of a stable liquid junction are described, and the advantages of using a microfluidic flowing liquid junction are described and presented Calculations and references demonstrate that the inventive use of microfluidic and naπopore technology lead to a stable liquid junction potential. Potentiometric measurements are necessarily made using two electrodes. One electrode is the sensing electrode, which changes its potential with the concentration, or activity, of the analyte, e.g., a, in eq. (1). The other electrode is the reference electrode, which ideally generates a constant half-cell potential, E ref , eq. (1). The potential at each electrode is characteristic of the physicochemical state of the electrode system, for example, the potential depends on temperature, pressure and the chemical composition of the system. The potential of the reference half-cell remains constant by placing the electrode in a separate compartment with its own electrolyte. The reference compartment has a conductive path to the sample solution The arrangement of the electrode, the reference electrolyte and the conductive path is known as the reference electrode. See Midgley, K.; Torrance, K Potentiometric Water Analysis, 2"" ed.; John Wiley & Sons: New York, 1991; p 12. The interface between the reference electrode and the sample solution is the liquid junction, which contributes a potential, E ιmc . The sum of the sensing and reference electrode potentials, and the liquid junction potential is the measured cell potential, £„„, eq. (1 ). E α „ = (E; + -^log α + E rcf + E jmc ( 1 ) In order to determine the liquid junction potential accurately {see Bates, R G The Determination of pH; John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1973), or to minimize it [see Horvai, G , Bates, R G Anal. Lett 1989, 22, 1293), the overall composition of the sample must be known a priori However, in most chemical analyses the desire is typically not to precisely determine or even minimize the liquid junction potential, but rather that the potential remain substantially constant and unchanging so that a reliable calibration can be made There is typically no need to determine the liquid junction potential, but there is a need that the potential be substantially invariant from one test measurement to another at a given temperature and pressure See IUPAC, Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry; Mills, I. Εd.; Blackwell: Oxford, 1993, p 62. Accurate potentiometric measurements thus depend on the constancy of the liquid junction potential However, there is a fundamental limitation with the accuracy in potentiometric measurements due to a number of theoretical and practical limitations including a drifting, πon constant liquid junction potential. The performance of a reference electrode not only depends on the chemical properties of the electrode, but also on the physical arrangement of the liquid junction. The four main physical criterion of substantially invariant liquid junction include, see Midgley, D.; Torrance, K. Potentiometric Water Analysis, 2 nd ed.; John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1991; p 46, li) the junction structure should be constant, (ii) stirring or streaming of the sample solution should not affect the reference potential, [in) particulate matter from the sample should not clog the junction, and (ivl solution from one sample should not be retained in the junction and carried over to the next sample. The accuracy of any potentiometric measurement thus depends on the ability of the liquid junction design to meet these requirements. Currently commercially available reference electrodes use an assortment of liquid junction structures and designs to protect the reference electrolyte from the sample. These materials include porous ceramic, porous Teflon, wood, asbestos, and various fibers. Designs with double junctions, glass-sleeves, and fused salts are also used. All these materials and designs are meant to keep the reference environment constant. However, even if the reference solution remains unchanged, the liquid junction can become contaminated with the sample solution. This inevitably alters the potential of the liquid junction, and requires the electrochemical sensor to be recalibrated. A changing liquid junction is typically why an electrochemical sensor requires frequent recalibration. The most stable, reproducible, and reliable reference electrode designs incorporate a flowing-liquid junction. See Covmgton, A. K.; Whalley, P. D.; Davison, W. Anal. Chim Ada 1985, 169, 221; llhπgworth, J. A. Biochem. J. 1981, 195, 259; Wu, Y. C; Feng, D.; Koch, W. F. J. Solution Chem. 1989, 18, 641; Ito, S.; Kobayashi, F.; I Baba, K.; Asano, Y.; Wada, H. Talanta 1996, 43, 135; Peters, G. Anal. Chem. 1997, 69, 2362; Lvov, S. N.; Zhou, X. Y.; Macdonald, D. D. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1999, 463, 146; Brezinski, D. P. The Analyst 1983, 108, 425. The constant flow of reference electrolyte through the liquid junction helps it maintain a constant composition by the continual renewal of fresh electrolyte. The disadvantage of using such an electrode is that it requires considerable maintenance because the reference cell must be frequently refilled with electrolyte. For this reason, flowing junctions are usually only suitable for the laboratory environment. Another problem of a typical flowing reference electrode is that if the sample is at a pressure higher than the reference reservoir, the reference cell will readily become contaminated with the sample. Because of these disadvantages, in recent years, the convenience and low maintenance of diffusion-style junctions has replaced the flowing liquid junction in industrial application. A superior flowing liquid junction has been developed by combining microfluidic materials and nanomatenals. The electrolyte has a continual flow of small, manageable volumes of electrolyte through the junction with a linear velocity sufficient to eliminate contamination of the junction and/or contamination of the reference electrolyte. The microfluidic flowing liquid junction provides the superior stability and performance of a flowing liquid junction yet remain maintenance free for extended periods of time, including a week, two weeks, a month, six months, a year, or two years. When miniaturizing chemical and physical processes, as in microfluidics, scaling laws must be considered. In addition, modeling fluid mechanics requires that correct assumptions as to the type of flow be made. Microfluidics typically have very low Reynolds numbers, Re < 1, see Madou, M. Fundamentals of Microfabrication; CRC Press: New York, 1997; p 429. where viscous forces dominate. A consequence of viscous flow is that each microscopic fluid element follows a fixed path or streamline. Any subsequent fluid element, starting at the same point, will follow the same streamline along its entire course. See Giddings, J. C. Unified Separation Science; John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1991; pp 58-63. Such a flow pattern creates a reproducible, non-varying, and predictable structure, like that desired in a flowing- liquid junction. To characterize the flow through a liquid junction the velocity profiles must be determined. To determine the velocity profile through a microchannel or nanochannel, all of the external forces acting on the fluid are to be balanced. First, the Newtonian acceleration (or inertial) forces are significant for only a brief moment before steady flow is achieved in very small channels, see Giddings, J. C. Unified Separation Science; John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1991; pp 58-63, and can be neglected. Second, all of the fluidic elements under consideration terminate as a sudden expansion. This implies that the kinetic energy of the fluid is not transferred from one element to the next. See Gravesen, P.; Branebjerg, J.; Jensen, 0. S. J. Micromech. Microeng. 1993, 3, 168. Third, in very small channels gravitational forces may be neglected since the pressure required to induce steady flow is typically much larger than the gravitational force, i.e., p > > gh. See Giddings, J. C. Unified Separation Science; John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1991; pp 58-63. By neglecting acceleration, kinetic, and gravitational forces we need only balance the pressure acting against the viscous forces in order to determine the velocity profile through a microchannel. Flow through very small channels is described by the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, eq. (2). The flux, Q (L/s), or the rate of flow through a cross-sectional area of a channel is a function of the channel dimensions, the differential pressure, and the properties of the solution. In eq. (2) p is the pressure differential at the two ends of the channel, r_ and L are the radius and length of the channel, respectively, and is the solution viscosity. (All of the calculations in this proposal have assumed that the viscosity of the electrolyte is equal to 1.0 cp.) See All pure aqueous KCI solutions have a viscosity between 0.9 and 1.1 cp. Hai- lang, Z.; Shi-Jun, H. J. Chem. Eng. Data 1996, 41, 516. Examination of eq. (2) indicates that 0 ∞ r *, thus, simply constricting the size of a channel will greatly diminish the flow through it. However, decreasing the cross-sectional area of a channel increases the electrolytic resistance. The conductance through a cylindrical channel can be calculated by using eq. (3). R L The electrolytic resistance of the channel is taken as the reciprocal of the cell conductance, G. is the electrolyte conductance, C is the electrolyte concentration, A and L are the cross-sectional area and length of the channel, respectively, for a 4.0 M KCI solution is " 10 2 m 2 S mol 1 . See Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 71 s ' ed.; Lide, D. R., Ed.; CRC Press: Ann Arbor, 1990. To minimize the electrolyte flow-rate and the resistance by simply reducing the size of a single channel is impractical, since the electrolytic resistance rapidly becomes too high when the channel radius < " 1 m. For example, the calculated electrolytic resistance, using eq. (3), of a 1 mm long channel with a 1 μm radius containing 4.0 M KCI is " 8 M . This resistance is too high for any realistic consideration, since electrolytic resistance greater than approximately 500 k is outside the capabilities of typical commercial instrumentation Fortunately, flow decreases as the fourth power of the radius while resistance increases as the square of the radius. Decreasing pore size but increasing the number of pores is a practical way to reduce the electrolytic resistance while maintaining the desired low flow. Preferred embodiments of the present invention use an array of nanochannels as a liquid junction structure to minimize both the flow rate and electrolytic resistance. For example, while a single nanochannel with a 5-nm radius, and 6 μm long [see Nishizawa, M,; Menon, V. P., Martin, C. R. Science 1995, 268, 700) has an electrolytic resistance of approximately 1000 M in 4.0 M KCI (eq (3)), and for example, an array of 10 5 nanochannels will have a resistance < 100 k . Calculations thus far show that a microfluidic flowing liquid junction can provide the desired flow control and electrolytic conductivity to achieve the project goals. Next, the electrolyte velocity needed to minimize the back diffusion of a sample into the liquid junction is calculated. The average solution velocity through a single nanochannel can be calculated by dividing the flux, Q, eq. (2), by the cross-sectional area of the nanochannel. Q = -^τ (4) Using eqs. (2) and (4), the flux through a nanochannel array and the average velocity (v) through a single nanochannel are plotted in Figure 1 as a function of the nanochannel radius The calculations assume a steady pressure difference of 40 psi. The flux is plotted as the sensor life assuming a 50 ml reservoir of electrolyte. The array contains 10 5 nanochannels and is 6 μm long A 50 mL reservoir will be sufficient for continuous operation of a year or more for nanochannel radii less than approximately 30 nm. The radii of the nanochannels or microtubes may also have radii of less than approximately 20 nm, less than approximately 40 nm, less than approximately 50 nm, or less than approximately 60 nm. By increasing the volume of the reservoir, or by decreasing the number or density of the nanochannels, the lifetime of a sensor can be adjusted as needed, as will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art An order of magnitude estimate of the electrolyte velocity needed to diminish diffusion of the sample into the liquid junction is calculated A hydrodynamic model is used to model the convective-diffusion transport through a nanochannel. This model neglects electrostatic interactions and migratioπal effects. Diffusion of the sample into the liquid junction is described by Fick's first law, N D = DVC, and the convective flux is N v = Cv. The sum of the diffusional and convective fluxes is the total flux, eq. (5) dC N = -D — + Cv dx (5) In eq. (5) C is the concentration of the sample at position x in the channel, v is the convective velocity of the sample, and is approximated as the average solution velocity through the channel. Integration of the continuity equation, V-/I/ - 0, with boundary conditions, C = C 0 at * = /and C = 0 at x =0, where C„ is the initial concentration of the sample, and /is the length of the nanochannel, yields the concentration profile for convective diffusion through a nanochannel. c exp ( )- ! c„ exp K D ) J (6) The concentration profiles in the liquid junction are plotted as a function of velocity in Figure 13, using eq. (7). Apparently, solution velocities > " 0 1 cm/s should be sufficient to exclude the sample from diffusing into the reference reservoir. Figure 12 shows a solution velocity of " 0.1 cm/s can be generated for nanochannel radii > " 10 nm with a differential pressure of 40 psi. According to these calculations, nanochannels with radii between 10 to 40 nm will yield a constant, non-varying liquid junction that is low in resistance, and is operative for at least one year. Nanochannel arrays thus are shown theoretically to provide the ideal approach to solving the liquid junction problem. Preferred Laboratory System Embodying the Invention A system according to a preferred embodiment of the invention was assembled. This system was used to test electrodes at controlled temperatures, pressures and agitation rates. The system consists of a 50 mL pressure cell, which can handle pressures as high as 45 psig as equipped. The laboratory test system mimics the different, sometimes harsh environments to which sensors may routinely be exposed in industrial or field applications. The cell is exposed temperatures for example, within 0.1 °C, in a precision temperature bath. A mechanical stirrer provides adequate aeration and mixing of the test solution. The cell has sensor ports that allow simultaneously testing of several sensors. All of the instrumentation is linked to a computer for data acquisition and archiving of the experimental measurements. Theoretical Aspects of the Preparation and Characterization of the Nanochannel Array The Au nanochannel arrays that were used as the liquid junction structure were prepared via a general approach for preparing nanomatenals called "template synthesis." See Hulteen, J. C; Martin, C. R. J. Mater. Chem. 1997, 7, 1075. The template method entails the synthesis of a desired material within the pores of a microporous membrane. The membranes employed have cylindrical pores with monodisperse diameters that run the complete thickness of the membrane. Corresponding cylindrical nanostructures of the desired material are obtained within the pores. A commercially available microporous polycarbonate filtration membrane may be used as the template to prepare the nanochannel arrays. This membrane contains monodisperse and cylindrical pores. An electronic plating procedure is used to deposit Au nanochannels within these pores. See Nishizawa, M,; Menon, V. P.; Martin, C. R. Science 1995, 268, 700; Hulteen, J. C; Martin, C. R. J. Mater Chem. 1997, 7, 1075; Hulteen, J. C; Martin, C. R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1998, 26, 6603; Menon, V. P.; Martin, C. R. Aπal. Chem. 1995, 67, 1920. This Au plating procedure is well known in the art. The template membrane may be first rinsed in methanol and then immersed in a 0.025 M SnCI 2 and 0.07 M in tπfluoroacetic acid solution. This results in "sensitization" of the membrane, typically meaning the adsorption of Sn(ll) to the pores walls and membrane surfaces. The sensitized membrane is then immersed into an aqueous solution of ammoniacal AgN0 3 . This causes the following surface redox reaction, 2 Ag * + Sπ (II) → 2 Ag° + Sπ (IV) (7) and the pore walls and membrane phases become coated with πanoscopic Ag particles. These particles act as the initial catalyst for electroless Au deposition. Finally, the membrane may be placed in a gold plating bath, which contains 0.5 mL of a commercially-available gold plating solution, 0.127 M Na 2 S0 3 , 0.625 M formaldehyde and 0.025 M NaHC0 3 . The solution may be adjusted to pH 10 by dropwise addition of 0.5 M H 2 S0 4 . The temperature of this plating bath is typically maintained at 5 °C. The inside diameter of the Au nanochannels deposited within the pores of the array is adjusted by varying the plating time, which typically refers to the immersion time in the Au plating bath. This procedure is optionally used to prepare arrays containing Au nanochannels with inside diameters of molecular dimensions ( < 1nm). See Nishizawa, M,; Menon, V. P.; Martin, C. R. Science 1995, 268, 700; Hulteen, J. C; Martin, C. R. J. Mater. Chem. 1997, 7, 1075; Hulteen, J. C; Martin, C. R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1998, 26, 6603; Menon, V. P.; Martin, C. R. Anal. Chem. 1995, 67, 1920; Petzny, W. J.; Quinn, J. A. Science 1969, 166, 751. Ion-transport in these arrays has been studied, see Nishizawa, M,; Menon, V. P.; Martin, C. R. Science 1995, 268, 700. The resulting nanochannels are ion permselective and may be reversibly switched between amon-transportmg and cation transporting states. The inside diameters of the Au nanochannels may be readily approximated by measuring the flux of H 2 gas across the nanochannel array. See Petzny, W. J ; Quinn, J A. Science 1969, 166, 751. See also Liu, C, Texas A&M University, College Station; 1991. The nanochannel samples are then placed in a vacuum oven for at least 12 hours prior to making the flux measurements, to remove traces of water or other volatile species absorbed in the nanochannels. Reproducible values of flux are best obtained when nanochannels are pretreated in this manner. The nanochannel array may then be placed in the gas-permeation cell, and the upper and lower half-cells evacuated. The upper half is pressurized to 20 psig with H 2 , and the pressure-time transient associated with leakage of H 2 through the nanochannels into the lower half-cell was measured. This is converted to the flux of gas, from which the average nanochannel diameter may be approximated. Assuming gas transport through a nanochannel array occurs via Knudsen diffusion, the flux of gas, Q, as (moles c 2 s '), is related to the pore density, n (pores cm 2 ), the pore diameter, t/(cm), and the membrane thickness, L (cm) using eq. (8). ( ) 0 = * πnd ^P (8) 3 RJZ p is the pressure difference across the membrane (dynes cm 2 ), M is the molecular weight of the gas, R is the gas constant (erg K ' mol 1 ), and 7 " is the temperature (K). In our experiment, we know all of the parameters in eq. (8), except d. A variety of nanochannel arrays of various sizes and materials may be constructed and used. These include different radii for example, (10, 20, 30 and 40 nm), and substrate materials, for example, (polycarbonate and polyester), and two Au surfaces. The inside diameter of the nanochannels may be varied by the plating time, which have been characterized for precise nanochannel dimensions. Au nanochannels and Au nanochannels with an adsorbed propanethiol monolayer are preferred. Chloride ions readily adsorb on gold surfaces, thus, in 4.0 M KCI reference solutions the Au nanochannels will have a net negative charge. However, the nanochannels pretreated with propanethiol have an inert, uncharged monolayer that prevents chloride ions from adsorbing. Alternatively, addition of a propaπthiol monolayer is accomplished by immersing the array into an ethanol solution containing the thiol. This small thiol molecule does not appreciably change the nanochannel inside diameter when the diameter > " 5 nm. For this reason, there is no need to redetermme the nanochannel inside diameter after chemisorption of the thiol. In addition, the propanethiol-modified Au nanochannels remain water "wetable" after addition of the thiol. See Nishizawa, M,; Menon, V. P.; Martin, C. R. Science 1995, 268, 700. The various articles of the scientific and/or medical literature, and the U.S. and international and/or foreign patents and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the extent permitted by law. To the extent that each is incorporated by reference herein, each constitutes a part of the disclosure of this specification. Furthermore, specific embodiments, working examples, and prophetic examples of the invention have been described in detail to illustrate the broad applicability and principles underlying the invention, such as the use of microfluidic flowing liquid junction as part of a reference electrode or as part of a combination electrode, and the various methods of manufacturing and/or using the microfluidic flowing liquid junction, or of manufacturing and/or using a reference electrode or a combination electrode comprising a microfluidic flowing liquid junction Notwithstanding these specific embodiments, working examples, and prophetic examples, it will be understood by those of skill in the art that the invention may be embodied otherwise without departing from such broad applicability and principles

Claims: WHAT IS CLAIMED IS: 1. A flowing junction reference electrode comprising: a microfluidic liquid junction member situated between a reference electrolyte solution and a sample solution, the microfluidic liquid junction member having an array of nanochannels; wherein the reference electrolyte solution flows through the array of nanochannels and into the sample solution at a linear velocity, and wherein the sample solution does not substantially enter the array of nanochannels. 2. The electrode of Claim 1, wherein the number of nanochannels is less than approximately 10 8 and greater than approximately 100. 3. The electrode of Claim 2, wherein the number of nanochannels is less than approximately 10 6 . 4. The electrode of Claim 2, wherein the number of nanochannels is less than approximately 10 5 . 5. The electrode of Claim 2, wherein the number of nanochannels is less than approximately 10 4 . 6. The electrode of Claim 2, wherein the number of nanochannels is greater than approximately 10 3 . 7. The electrode of Claim 1 , wherein the nanochannels are substantially straight and substantially parallel to one another. 8. The electrode of Claim 1, wherein the width of any nanochannel in the array of nanochannels is substantially equal to the width of any other nanochannels in the array of nanochannels. 9. The electrode of Claim 1, wherein the nanochannels have widths of greater than approximately 1 nanometer and less than approximately 500 nanometers. 10. The electrode of Claim 1, wherein the nanochannels have widths of greater than approximately 10 nanometers and less than approximately 100 nanometers. 11 The electrode of Claim 1, wherein the nanochannels are coated. 12. The electrode of Claim 1 wherein the junction member is constructed of a polymer 13. The electrode of Claim 12 wherein the polymer is selected from the group consisting of polycarbonate and polyimide. 14. The electrode of Claim 1 wherein the junction member is constructed of silicon, glass, or ceramic. 15. The electrode of Claim 1 , further comprising means for maintaining positive linear flow of the reference electrolyte solution through the array of nanochannels and into the sample solution. 16 The electrode of Claim 15 wherein the means for maintaining positive linear flow of electrolyte flow is selected from the group consisting a pressurized collapsible bladder, an electro-osmotic pump, a mechanical pump, a piezo electric pump, and a electro hydrodynamic pump. 17. A combination electrode comprising: a flowing liquid junction reference electrode comprising a microfluidic junction member situated between a reference electrolyte solution and a sample solution, the microfluidic junction member having an array of nanochannels; wherein the reference electrolyte solution flows through the array of nanochannels and into the sample solution at a linear velocity, and wherein the sample solution does not substantially enter into the array of nanochannels; and a sensing electrode. 18. The combination electrode wherein the sensing electrode is selected from the group consisting of pH electrodes, other ion-selective electrodes, and redox electrodes. 19. A microfluidic flowing liquid junction reference electrode comprising: a reference electrolyte solution flowing through a junction member and into a sample solution; wherein substantially no sample solution enters into the junction member. 20. The reference electrode of Claim 19 wherein the linear velocity of the reference electrolyte solution flowing into the sample solution is greater than approximately 0.1 cm per second. 21. The reference electrode of Claim 20 wherein the volumetric flow rate of the reference electrolyte solution into the sample solution is less than approximately 60 μL per hour. 22. The reference electrode of Claim 20 wherein the volumetric flow rate of the reference electrolyte solution into the sample solution is less than approximately 10 μL per hour. 23. A microfluidic flowing liquid junction reference electrode capable of having a lifetime of greater than one year, during which variations of electrolytic potential are less than approximately 1 mV, and during which less than approximately 100 mL of electrolyte flows into the sample solution. 24. The electrode of Claim 23 wherein the lifetime is greater than two years. 25. The electrode of Claim 1, 19 or 23, wherein the resistance across the junction member is less than approximately 1 megohm.

Inventors: BROADLEY SCOTT, RAGSDALE STEVEN, SILVERMAN HERBERT, BROADLEY, SCOTT, RAGSDALE, STEVEN, SILVERMAN, HERBERT
Applicants: BROADLEY TECHNOLOGIES CORP, BROADLEY TECHNOLOGIES CORPORATION
Application year: 2000
Main classification: G01N27
IPC codes: G01N27