HIGH DENSITY NON-VOLATILE MEMORY DEVICE

Abstract: This invention provides novel high density memory devices (Fig. 3) that are electrically addressable permitting effective reading and writing, that provide a high memory density (102), that provide a high degree of fault tolerance, and that are amenable to efficient chemical synthesis and chip fabrication. The devices are intrinsically latchable, defect tolerant, and support destructive or non-destructive read cycles. In a preferred embodiment, the device comprises a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a storage medium having a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states wherein data is stored in said oxidation states by the addition or withdrawal of one or more electrons from said storage medium via the electrically coupled electrode.

Description: HIGH DENSITY NON-VOLATILE MEMORY DEVICE CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims benefit of USSN 09/346,228 filed on July 1, 1999, USSN 09/346,221, filed on July 1, 1999, and 09/484,394, filed on January 14, 2000 all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes. STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT This invention was made with government support under Grant Number N00014-99-1-0357 from the Office of Naval Research. The Government ofthe United States of America may have certain rights in the invention. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to memory devices. In particular this invention provides a nonvolatile electronic memory device capable of storing information in extremely high density. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Basic functions of a computer include information processing and storage. In typical computer systems, these arithmetic, logic, and memory operations are performed by devices that are capable of reversibly switching between two states often referred to as "0" and "1." In most cases, such switching devices are fabricated from semiconducting devices that perform these various functions and are capable of switching between two states at a very high speed using minimum amounts of electrical energy. Thus, for example, transistors and transistor variants perform the basic switching and storage functions in computers. Because ofthe huge data storage requirements of modern computers, a new, compact, low-cost, very high capacity, high speed memory configuration is needed. To reach this objective, molecular electronic switches, wires, microsensors for chemical analysis, and opto-electronic components for use in optical computing have been pursued. The principal advantages of using molecules in these applications are high component density (upwards of 10 18 bits per square centimeter), increased response speeds, and high energy efficiency. A variety of approaches have been proposed for molecular-based memory devices. While these approaches generally employ molecular architectures that can be switched between two different states, all ofthe approaches described to date have intrinsic limitations making their uses in computational devices difficult or impractical. For example, such approaches to the production of molecular memories have involved photochromic dyes, electrochromic dyes, redox dyes, and molecular machines. Each of these approaches, however, has intrinsic limitations that ultimately render it unsuitable for use in molecular memories. For example, photochromic dyes change conformation in response to the absorption of light (e.g. cis-trans interconversion of an alkene, ring opening of a spiropyran, interconversion between excited-states in bacteriorhodopsin, etc.). Typically, the molecular structure ofthe dye is intercon verted between two states that have distinct spectral properties. Reading and writing data with such photochromic dyes requires use of light, often in the visible region (400-700 nm). Light-mediated data storage has intrinsic diffraction-limited size constraints. Moreover, most photochromic schemes are limited to scanning and interrogating dyes deposited on a surface and are not amenable to 3-D data storage. Even with near-field optical approaches, which might allow reliable encoding/reading of data elements of 100 x 100 nm dimensions (Nieto-Nesperinas and Garcia, Ν., eds. (1996) Optics at the Nanometer Scale, NATO ASI Series E, Vol. 319, Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht) the inherent restricted dimensionality (2-D) limits data density to 10 10 bits/cm 2 . Strategies for 3 -dimensional reading and writing of photochromic systems have been proposed that rely on two-photon excitation of dyes to encode data, and one-photon excitation to read the data (Birge et al. (1994) Amer. Sci. 82: 349-355, Parthenopoulos and Rentzepis (1989) Science, 245: 843-845), but it is believed that no high-density memory cubes have reached prototype stage in spite ofthe passage of at least a decade since their initial proposition. In addition, it is noted that these dyes often exhibit relatively slow switching times ranging from microsecond to millisecond durations. Electrochromic dyes have been developed that undergo a slight change in absoφtion spectrum upon application of an applied electric field (Liptay (1969) Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 8: 177-188). The dyes must be oriented in a fixed direction with respect to the applied field. Quite high fields (> 10 7 N/cm) must be applied to observe an altered absoφtion spectrum which can result in heat/power dissipation problems. In addition, the change in the absoφtion spectrum is typically quite small, which can present detection difficulties. The dyes revert to the initial state when the applied field is turned off. Redox dyes have been developed that undergo a change in absoφtion spectrum upon chemical or electrochemical reduction (typically a 2-electron, 2-proton reduction) (Otsuki et al. (1996) Chem. Lett. 847-848). Such systems afford bistable states (e.g., quinone/hydroquinone, azo/hydrazo). Redox dyes have only been examined in solution studies, where they have been proposed for applications as switches and sensors (de Silva et al. (1991) Chem. Rev. 97: 1515-1566). On a solid substrate, electrochemical reduction would need to be accompanied by a source of protons. The latter requirement may be difficult to achieve on a solid substrate. Furthermore, any optical reading scheme would pose the same 2-D limitations as described for photochromic dyes. Yet another approach involves the design of molecular machines (Anell et al. (1992) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114: 193-218). These elegant molecular architectures have moving parts that can be switched from one position to another by chemical or photochemical means. The chemically induced systems have applications as sensors but are not practical for memory storage, while the photochemically induced systems have the same fundamental limitations as photochromic dyes. Moreover, methods have not yet been developed for delineating the conformation/structure ofthe molecular machine that are practical in any device applications. 1H NMR spectroscopy, for example, is clearly the method of choice for elucidating structure/conformation for molecules in solution, but is totally impractical for interrogating a molecular memory element. None ofthe current architectures for molecular machines has been designed for assembly on a solid substrate, an essential requirement in a viable device. In summary, photochromic dyes, electrochromic dyes, redox-sensitive dyes, and molecular machines all have fundamental limitations that have precluded their application as viable memory elements. These molecular architectures are typically limited by reading/writing constraints. Furthermore, even in cases where the effective molecular bistability is obtained, the requirement for photochemical reading restricts the device architecture to a 2-dimensional thin film. The achievable memory density of such a film is unlikely to exceed 10 10 bits/cm 2 . Such limitations greatly diminish the appeal of these devices as viable molecular memory elements. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention provides novel high density memory devices that are electrically addressable permitting effective reading and writing, that provide a high memory density (e.g., 10 15 bits/cm 3 ), that provide a high degree of fault tolerance, and that are amenable to efficient chemical synthesis and chip fabrication. The devices are intrinsically latchable, defect tolerant, and support destructive or non-destructive read cycles. In a preferred embodiment, this invention provides an apparatus for storing data (e.g., a "storage cell"). The storage cell includes a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a "storage medium" having a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states where data is stored in the (preferably non-neutral) oxidation states by the addition or withdrawal of one or more electrons from said storage medium via the electrically coupled electrode. In preferred storage cells, the storage medium stores data at a density of at least one bit, preferably at a density of at least 2 bits, more preferably at a density of at least 3 bits, and most preferably at a density of at least 5, 8, 16, 32, or 64 bits per molecule. Thus, preferred storage media have at least 2, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 or 256 different and distinguishable oxidation states. In particularly preferred embodiments, the bits are all stored in non-neutral oxidation states. In a most preferred embodiment, the different and distinguishable oxidation states ofthe storage medium can be set by a voltage difference no greater than about 5 volts, more preferably no greater than about 2 volts, and most preferably no greater than about 1 volt. The storage medium is electrically coupled to the electrode(s) by any of a number of convenient methods including, but not limited to, covalent linkage (direct or through a linker), ionic linkage, non-ionic "bonding", simple juxtaposition/apposition ofthe storage medium to the electrode(s), or simple proximity to the electrode(s) such that electron tunneling between the medium and the electrode(s) can occur. The storage medium can contain or be juxtaposed to or layered with one or more dielectric material(s). Preferred dielectric materials are imbedded with counterions (e.g. Nafion). The storage cells of this invention are fully amenable to encapsulation (or other packaging) and can be provided in a number of forms including, but not limited to, an integrated circuit or as a component of an integrated circuit, a non-encapsulated "chip", etc. In some embodiments, the storage medium is electronically coupled to a second electrode that is a reference electrode. In certain preferred embodiments, the storage medium is present in a single plane in the device. The apparatus of this invention can include the storage medium present at a multiplicity of storage locations, and in certain configurations, each storage location and associated electrode(s) forms a separate storage cell. The storage present on a single plane in the device or on multiple planes and said storage locations are present on multiple planes of said device. Virtually any number (e.g., 16, 32, 64, 128, 512, 1024, 4096, etc.) of storage locations and/or storage cells can be provided in the device. Each storage location can be addressed by a single electrode or by two or more electrodes. In other embodiments, a single electrode can address multiple storage locations and/or multiple storage cells. In preferred embodiments, one or more ofthe electrode(s) is connected to a voltage source (e.g. output of an integrated circuit, power supply, potentiostat, microprocessor (CPU), etc.) that can provide a voltage/signal for writing, reading, or refreshing the storage cell(s). One or more ofthe electrode(s) is preferably connected to a device (e.g., a voltammetric device, an amperometric device, a potentiometric device, etc.) to read the oxidation state of said storage medium. In particularly preferred embodiments, the device is an impedance spectrometer or a sinusoidal voltammeter. Various signal processing methods can be provided to facilitate readout in the time domain or in the frequency domain. Thus, in some embodiments, the readout device(s) provide a Fourier transform (or other frequency analysis) ofthe output signal from said electrode. In certain preferred embodiments, the device refreshes the oxidation state of said storage medium after reading said oxidation state. In order to simplify construction ofthe arrays for molecular based information storage, in certain embodiments, this invention describes the use of polymeric molecules having multiple oxidation states where the monomeric subunits comprising the polymers are tightly coupled (e.g. directly linked as opposed to linking through a linker). The "tight coupling" is manifested as a splitting in redox potentials ofthe structurally identical subunits. Thus, for example, combination of two identical subunits each having two identical non-zero oxidation states can result in a dimer having four different and distinguishable non-zero oxidation states. This greatly simplifies fabrication of a storage molecule as, in this instance, only a single type of subunit need be synthesized. Thus, in one embodiment, this invention provides an apparatus for storing data comprisign a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a storage medium comprising a storage molecule having a first subunit and a second subunit (i.e. at least two subunits) wherein the first and second subunits are tightly coupled such that oxidation ofthe first subunit alters the oxidation potential ofthe second subunit. A wide variety of molecules can be used as storage molecules and hence comprise the storage medium. Preferred molecules include, but are not limited to a poφhyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene, a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom- substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom-substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tetraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1 ,4- phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2'-bipyridyl, a 4,4'-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, and a peri-bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide. Even more preferred molecules include a poφhyrin, an expanded poφhyrin, a contracted poφhyrin, a ferrocene, a linear poφhyrin polymer, and a poφhyrin array. Certain particularly preferred storage molecules include a poφhyrinic macrocycle substituted at a β- position or at a meso- position. Molecules well suited for use as storage molecules include the molecules described herein (e.g. the molecules of Formulas I-XXXIV). The storage molecule can be directly covalently linked to the electrode or covalently linked through a linker (see, e.g., Figure 34). In another embodiment, the storage medium is juxtaposed in the proximity of said electrode such that electrons can pass from said storage medium to said electrode. The storage medium can be juxtaposed to (or embedded in) a dielectric material imbedded with counterions. In some embodiments, the storage medium and said electrode are fully encapsulated in an integrated circuit. The storage medium can be electronically coupled to a second fixed electrode that is a reference electrode. In one architecture, the storage medium is present on a single plane in said device, while in another architecture, the storage medium is present at a multiplicity of storage locations. The apparatus may comprise multiple planes and the storage locations may be present on multiple planes ofthe device. In preferred devices, the storage locations range from about 1024 to about 4096 different locations. Each location can be addressed by a single electrode or each location can be addressed by two (or more) electrodes. Typically at least one electrode is connected to a voltage source (e.g. the output of an integrated circuit). Typically at least one electrode is connected to a device (e.g. a voltammetric device, an amperometric device, or a potentiometric device) to read the oxidation state of the storage medium. Preferred devices include, but are not limited to an impedance spectrometer or a sinusoidal voltammeter. The device can optionally provides a Fourier transform ofthe output signal from the electrode. The device can also optionally refresh the oxidation state of said storage medium after reading the oxidation state. Particularly preferred methods and/or devices of this invention utilize a "fixed" electrode. Thus, in one embodiment, methods and/or devices in which the electrode(s) are moveable (e.g. one or ore electrodes is a "recording head", the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM), the tip of an atomic force microscope (AFM), or other forms in which the electrode is movable with respect to the storage medium are excluded. In certain embodiments, methods and/or devices and/or storage media, and/or storage molecules in which the storage molecule is an alkanethiolferrocene are excluded. Similarly in certain embodiments, methods and/or devices and/or storage media, in which the storage molecules are responsive to light and/or in which the oxidation state of a storage molecule is set by exposure to light are excluded. In another embodiment, this invention provides an information storage medium. The information storage medium can be used to assemble storage cells and/or the various memory devices described herein. In a preferred embodiment the storage medium comprises one or more different storage molecules. When different species of storage molecule are present, each species of storage molecule oxidation state(s) different from and distinguishable from the oxidation state(s) ofthe other species of storage molecule comprising the storage medium. In preferred embodiments, the storage molecule(s) include a poφhyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene, a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom- substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom-substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tetraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1,4- phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2'-bipyridyl, a 4,4'-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, or a peri-bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide. In even more preferred embodiment, the storage molecule(s) include a poφhyrin, an expanded poφhyrin, a contracted poφhyrin, a feπocene, a linear poφhyrin polymer, or a poφhyrin array. Preferred storage molecules contain two or more covalently linked redox-active subunits. In various preferred embodiments, the storage molecules include any ofthe storage molecules as described herein (e.g. the molecules of Formulas I-XXXIV). In still another embodiment this invention provides a collection of molecules for the production of a data storage medium. A preferred collection comprises a plurality of storage molecules wherein each species of storage molecule has an oxidation state different from and distinguishable from the oxidation states ofthe other species of storage molecules comprising the collection. In various preferred embodiments, the storage molecules include any ofthe storage molecules as described herein (e.g. the molecules of Formulas I-XXXIV). This invention also provides particularly preferred molecules for the storage of information (storage molecules). The molecules preferably have at least one non-neutral oxidation state and more preferably have at least two different and distinguishable non- neutral oxidation states. In various preferred embodiments, the storage molecules include any ofthe storage molecules as described herein (e.g. the molecules of Formulas I-XXXIV). This invention also provides methods of storing data. The methods involve i) providing an apparatus, e.g., comprising one or more storage cells as described herein; and ii) applying a voltage to the electrode at sufficient current to set an oxidation state of said storage medium (the storage medium comprising one or more storage cells). In preferred embodiments, the voltage ranges is less than about 5 volts, more preferably less than about 2 volts, and most preferably less than about 1 or less than about 0.5 volts. The voltage can be the output of any convenient voltage source (e.g. output of an integrated circuit, power supply, logic gate, potentiostat, microprocessor (CPU), etc.) that can provide a voltage/signal for writing, reading, or refreshing the storage cell(s). The method can further involve detecting the oxidation state ofthe storage medium and thereby reading out the data stored therein. The detection (read) can optionally involve refreshing the oxidation state ofthe storage medium (particularly in static-hole devices). The read (detecting) can involve analyzing a readout signal in the time or frequency domain and can thus involve performing a Fourier transform on the readout signal. The detection can be by any of a variety of methods including, but not limited to a voltammetric method. One particularly preferred readout utilizes impedance spectroscopy. The readout (detecting) can involve exposing the storage medium to an electric field to produce an electric field oscillation having characteristic frequency and detecting the characteristic frequency. In preferred embodiments, the storage cells used in the methods of this invention have storage media comprising one or more ofthe storage molecules described herein (e.g. the molecules of Formulas I-XXXIV). This invention additionally provides the memory devices of this invention (e.g. memory cells) in a computer system. In addition computer systems utilizing the memory devices of this invention are provided. Preferred computer systems include a central processing unit, a display, a selector device, and a memory device the storage devices (e.g. storage cells) of this invention. DEFINITIONS The term "oxidation" refers to the loss of one or more electrons in an element, compound, or chemical substituent/subunit. In an oxidation reaction, electrons are lost by atoms ofthe element(s) involved in the reaction. The charge on these atoms must then become more positive. The electrons are lost from the species undergoing oxidation and so electrons appear as products in an oxidation reaction. An oxidation is taking place in the reaction Fe 2+ (aq) --> Fe 3+ (aq) + e " because electrons are lost from the species being oxidized, Fe 2+ (aq), despite the apparent production of electrons as "free" entities in oxidation reactions. Conversely the term reduction refers to the gain of one or more electrons by an element, compound, or chemical substituent/subunit. An "oxidation state" refers to the electrically neutral state or to the state produced by the gain or loss of electrons to an element, compound, or chemical substituent/subunit. In a preferred embodiment, the term "oxidation state" refers to states including the neutral state and any state other than a neutral state caused by the gain or loss of electrons (reduction or oxidation). The term "multiple oxidation states" means more than one oxidation state. In preferred embodiments, the oxidation states may reflect the gain of electrons (reduction) or the loss of electrons (oxidation). The terms "different and distinguishable" when referring to two or more oxidation states means that the net charge on the entity (atom, molecule, aggregate, subunit, etc.) can exist in two different states. The states are said to be "distinguishable" when the difference between the states is greater than thermal energy at room temperature (e.g. 0°C to about 40°C). The term "tightly coupled" when used in reference to a subunit of a multi- subunit (e.g., polymeric) storage molecule of this invention refers to positioning ofthe subunits relative to each other such that oxidation of one subunit alters the oxidation potential(s) ofthe other subunit. In a preferred embodiment the alteration is sufficient such that the (non-neutral) oxidation state(s) ofthe second subunit are different and distinguishable from the non-neutral oxidation states ofthe first subunit. In a preferred embodiment the tight coupling is achieved by a covalent bond (e.g. single, double, triple, etc.). However, in certain embodiments, the tight coupling can be through a linker, via an ionic interaction, via a hydrophobic interaction, through coordination of a metal, or by simple mechanical juxtaposition. It is understood that the subunits could be so tightly coupled that the redox processes are those of a single supermolecule. The term "electrode" refers to any medium capable of transporting charge (e.g. electrons) to and/or from a storage molecule. Preferred electrodes are metals or conductive organic molecules. The electrodes can be manufactured to virtually any 2- dimensional or 3-dimensional shape (e.g. discrete lines, pads, planes, spheres, cylinders, etc.). The term "fixed electrode" is intended to reflect the fact that the electrode is essentially stable and unmovable with respect to the storage medium. That is, the electrode and storage medium are arranged in an essentially fixed geometric relationship with each other. It is of course recognized that the relationship alters somewhat due to expansion and contraction ofthe medium with thermal changes or due to changes in conformation ofthe molecules comprising the electrode and/or the storage medium. Nevertheless, the overall spatial arrangement remains essentially invariant. In a preferred embodiment this term is intended to exclude systems in which the electrode is a movable "probe" (e.g. a writing or recording "head", an atomic force microscope (AFM) tip, a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) tip, etc.). The term "working electrode" is used to refer to one or more electrodes that are used to set or read the state of a storage medium and/or storage molecule. The term "reference electrode" is used to refer to one or more electrodes that provide a reference (e.g. a particular reference voltage) for measurements recorded from the working electrode. In preferred embodiments, the reference electrodes in a memory device of this invention are at the same potential although in some embodiments this need not be the case. The term "electrically coupled" when used with reference to a storage molecule and/or storage medium and electrode refers to an association between that storage medium or molecule and the electrode such that electrons move from the storage medium molecule to the electrode or from the electrode to the storage medium/molecule and thereby alter the oxidation state ofthe storage medium/molecule. Electrical coupling can include direct covalent linkage between the storage medium/molecule and the electrode, indirect covalent coupling (e.g. via a linker), direct or indirect ionic bonding between the storage medium molecule and the electrode, or other bonding (e.g. hydrophobic bonding). In addition, no actual bonding may be required and the storage medium/molecule may simply be contacted with the electrode surface. There also need not necessarily be any contact between the electrode and the storage medium/molecule where the electrode is sufficiently close to the storage medium/molecule to permit electron tunneling between the medium/molecule and the electrode. The term "redox-active unit" or "redox-active subunit" refers to a molecule or component of a molecule that is capable of being oxidized or reduced by the application of a suitable voltage. The term "subunit", as used herein, refers to a redox-active component of a molecule. The terms "storage molecule" or "memory molecule" refer to a molecule having one or more oxidation states that can be used for the storage of information (e.g. a molecule comprising one or more redox-active subunits). Preferred storage molecules have two or more different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. The term "storage medium" refers to a composition comprising two or more storage molecules. The storage medium can contain only one species of storage molecule or it can contain two or more different species of storage molecule. In preferred embodiments, the term "storage medium" refers to a collection of storage molecules. Preferred storage media comprise a multiplicity (at least 2) of different and distinguishable (preferably non- neutral) oxidation states. The multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states can be produced by the combination of different species of storage molecules, each species contributing to said multiplicity of different oxidation states and each species having a single non-neutral oxidation state. Alternatively or in addition, the storage medium can comprise one or more species of storage molecule having a multiplicity of non-neutral oxidation states. The storage medium can contain predominantly one species of storage molecule or it can contain a number of different storage molecules. The storage media can also include molecules other than storage molecules (e.g. to provide chemical stability, suitable mechanical properties, to prevent charge leakage, etc.). The term "electrochemical cell" consists minimally of a reference electrode, a working electrode, a redox-active medium (e.g. a storage medium), and, if necessary, some means (e.g., a dielectric) for providing electrical conductivity between the electrodes and/or between the electrodes and the medium. In some embodiments, the dielectric is a component ofthe storage medium. The terms "memory element", "memory cell", or "storage cell" refer to an electrochemical cell that can be used for the storage of information. Preferred "storage cells" are discrete regions of storage medium addressed by at least one and preferably by two electrodes (e.g. a working electrode and a reference electrode). The storage cells can be individually addressed (e.g. a unique electrode is associated with each memory element) or, particularly where the oxidation states of different memory elements are distinguishable, multiple memory elements can be addressed by a single electrode. The memory element can optionally include a dielectric (e.g. a dielectric impregnated with counterions). The term "storage location" refers to a discrete domain or area in which a storage medium is disposed. When addressed with one or more electrodes, the storage location may form a storage cell. However if two storage locations contain the same storage media so that they have essentially the same oxidation states, and both storage locations are commonly addressed, they may form one functional storage cell. "Addressing" a particular element refers to associating (e.g., electrically coupling) that memory element with an electrode such that the electrode can be used to specifically determine the oxidation state(s) of that memory element. The term "storage density" refers to the number of bits per volume and/or bits per molecule that can be stored. When the storage medium is said to have a storage density greater than one bit per molecule, this refers to the fact that a storage medium preferably comprises molecules wherein a single molecule is capable of storing at least one bit of information. The terms "read" or "interrogate" refer to the determination ofthe oxidation state(s) of one or more molecules (e.g. molecules comprising a storage medium). The term "refresh" when used in reference to a storage molecule or to a storage medium refers to the application of a voltage to the storage molecule or storage medium to re-set the oxidation state of that storage molecule or storage medium to a predetermined state (e.g. an oxidation state the storage molecule or storage medium was in immediately prior to a read). The term "E^" refers to the practical definition ofthe formal potential (E°) of a redox process as defined by E = E° + (RT/nF)ln(D 0 χ/D red ) where R is the gas constant, T is temperature in K (Kelvin), n is the number of electrons involved in the process, F is the Faraday constant (96,485 Coulomb/mole), D ox is the diffusion coefficient ofthe oxidized species and D red is the diffusion coefficient ofthe reduced species. A "voltage source" is any source (e.g. molecule, device, circuit, etc.) capable of applying a voltage to a target (e.g. an electrode). The term "present on a single plane", when used in reference to a memory device of this invention refers to the fact that the component(s) (e.g. storage medium, electrode(s), etc.) in question are present on the same physical plane in the device (e.g. are present on a single lamina). Components that are on the same plane can typically be fabricated at the same time, e.g., in a single operation. Thus, for example, all ofthe electrodes on a single plane can typically be applied in a single (e.g., sputtering) step (assuming they are all ofthe same material). The phrase "output of an integrated circuit" refers to a voltage or signal produced by a one or more integrated circuit(s) and/or one or more components of an integrated circuit. A "voltammetric device" is a device capable of measuring the current produced in an electrochemical cell as a result ofthe application of a voltage or change in voltage. An "amperometric device" is a device capable of measuring the current produced in an electrochemical cell as a result ofthe application of a specific potential field potential ("voltage"). A "potentiometric device" is a device capable of measuring potential across an interface that results from a difference in the equilibrium concentrations of redox molecules in an electrochemical cell. A "coulometric device" is a device capable ofthe net charge produced during the application of a potential field ("voltage") to an electrochemical cell. An "impedance spectrometer" is a device capable of determining the overall impedance of an electrochemical cell. A "sinusoidal voltammeter" is a voltammetric device capable of determining the frequency domain properties of an electrochemical cell. The term "poφhyrinic macrocycle" refers to a poφhyrin or poφhyrin derivative. Such derivatives include poφhyrins with extra rings ortho-fused, or ortho- perifused, to the poφhyrin nucleus, poφhyrins having a replacement of one or more carbon atoms ofthe poφhyrin ring by an atom of another element (skeletal replacement), derivatives having a replacement of a nitrogen atom ofthe poφhyrin ring by an atom of another element (skeletal replacement of nitrogen), derivatives having substituents other than hydrogen located at the peripheral (meso-, β-) or core atoms ofthe poφhyrin, derivatives with saturation of one or more bonds ofthe poφhyrin (hydropoφhyrins, e.g., chlorins, bacteriochlorins, isobacteriochlorins, decahydropoφhyrins, coφhins, pyrrocoφhins, etc.), derivatives obtained by coordination of one or more metals to one or more poφhyrin atoms (metallopoφhyrins), derivatives having one or more atoms, including pyrrolic and pyrromethenyl units, inserted in the poφhyrin ring (expanded poφhyrins), derivatives having one or more groups removed from the poφhyrin ring (contracted poφhyrins, e.g., corrin, corrole) and combinations ofthe foregoing derivatives (e.g. phthalocyanines, sub-phthalocyanines, and poφhyrin isomers). Preferred poφhyrinic macrocycles comprise at least one 5-membered ring. The term "poφhyrin" refers to a cyclic structure typically composed of four pyrrole rings together with four nitrogen atoms and two replaceable hydrogens for which various metal atoms can readily be substituted. A typical poφhyrin is hemin. The term "multipoφhyrin array" refers to a discrete number of two or more covalently-linked poφhyrinic macrocycles. The multipoφhyrin arrays can be linear, cyclic, or branched. A "linker" is a molecule used to couple two different molecules, two subunits of a molecule, or a molecule to a substrate. A "substrate" is a, preferably solid, material suitable for the attachment of one or more molecules. Substrates can be formed of materials including, but not limited to glass, plastic, silicon, minerals (e.g. quartz), semiconducting materials, ceramics, metals, etc. The term "odd hole oxidation state", refers to the case where the number of electron equivalents added or removed from a molecule or molecules is not an integer multiple ofthe number of redox-active (e.g. oxidizable or reducable) subunits in the molecule or molecules. The phrase "hole hopping" refers to the exchange of oxidation states between subunits of thermodynamically similar potentials. The term "aryl" refers to a compound whose molecules have the ring structure characteristic of benzene, naphthalene, phenanthrene, anthracene, etc. (i.e., either the 6-carbon ring of benzene or the condensed 6-carbon rings ofthe other aromatic derivatives). For example, and aryl group may be phenyl (C 6 H ) or naphthyl (Cι 0 H ). It is recognized that the aryl, while acting as substituent can itself have additional substituents (e.g. the substituents provided for S n in the various Formulas herein). The term "alkyl" refers to a paraffinic hydrocarbon group which may be derived from an alkane by dropping one hydrogen from the formula. Examples are methyl (CH 3 -), ethyl (C 2 H 5 -), propyl (CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 -), isopropyl ((CH 3 ) 2 CH 3 -). The term "halogen" refers to one or the electronegative elements of group VILA ofthe periodic table (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine). The term "nitro" refers to the NO 2 group. The term "amino" refers to the NH 2 group. The term "perfluoroalkyl" refers to an alkyl group where every hydrogen atom is replaced with a fluorine atom. The term "perfluoroaryl" refers to an aryl group where every hydrogen atom is replaced with a fluorine atom. The term "pyridyl" refers to an aryl group where one CH unit is replaced with a nitrogen atom. The term "cyano" refers to the -CN group. The term "thiocyanato" refers to the -SCN group. The term "sulfoxyl" refers to a group of composition RS(O)- where R is some alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, perfluoroalkyl, or perfluoroaryl group. Examples include, but are not limited to methylsulfoxyl, phenylsulfoxyl, etc. The term "sulfonyl" refers to a group of composition RSO 2 - where R is some alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, perfluoroalkyl, or perfluoroaryl group. Examples include, but are not limited to methylsulfonyl, phenylsulfonyl, ?-toluenesulfonyl, etc. The term "carbamoyl" refers to the group of composition R 1 (R 2 )NC(O)- where R 1 and R 2 are H or some alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, perfluoroalkyl, or perfluoroaryl group. Examples include, but are not limited to N-ethylcarbamoyl, NN-dimethylcarbamoyl, etc. The term "amido" refers to the group of composition R'COΝ(R 2 )- where R 1 and R 2 are H or some alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, perfluoroalkyl, or perfluoroaryl group. Examples include, but are not limited to acetamido, N-ethylbenzamido, etc. The term "acyl" refers to an organic acid group in which the OH ofthe carboxyl group is replaced by some other substituent (RCO-). Examples include, but are not limited to acetyl, benzoyl, etc In prefeπed embodiments, when a metal is designated by "M" or "M n ", where n is an integer, it is recognized that the metal may be associated with a counterion. The term "substituent" as used in the formulas herein, particularly designated by S or S n where n is an integer, in a prefeπed embodiment refer to redox-active groups (subunits) that can be used to adjust the redox potential(s) ofthe subject compound. Preferred substituents include, but are not limited to, aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, amido, and carbamoyl. In preferred embodiments, a substituted aryl group is attached to a poφhyrin or a poφhyrinic macrocycle, and the substituents on the aryl group are selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, amido, and carbamoyl. Particularly prefeπed substituents include, but are not limited to, 4- chlorophenyl, 3-acetamidophenyl, 2,4-dichloro-4-trifluoromethyl). Preferred substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 5 volts, preferably less than about 2 volts, more preferably less than about 1 volt. The phrase "provide a redox potential range of less than about X volts" refers to the fact that when a substituent providing such a redox potential range is incoφorated into a compound, the compound into which it is incoφorated has an oxidation potential less than or equal to X volts, where X is a numeric value. The abbreviations "SHSU", "SHMU" and "DHMU", refer to "static-hole single unit", static-hole multi-unit" and dynamic hole multi-unit", respectively. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Figure 1 illustrates a basic molecular memory unit "storage cell" of this invention. The basic memory device, a "storage cell" 100 comprises a working electrode 101 electrically coupled to a storage medium 102 comprising a multiplicity of storage molecules 105. The storage cell optionally includes an electrolyte 107 and a reference electrode 103. The storage medium has a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states, preferably a multiplicity of different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states, and can change oxidation (charge) state when a voltage or signal is applied thereby adding or removing one or more electrons. Figure 2 illustrates the disposition ofthe storage cell(s) of this invention on a chip. Figure 3 illustrates a preferred chip-based embodiment of this invention. A two-level chip is illustrated showing working electrodes 101, orthogonal reference electrodes 103, and storage elements 104. Figure 4. The three-dimensional architecture of a single memory storage cell (memory element) on the chip. Figure 5 illustrates the encoding of a prototypical DHMU storage molecule using hole-hopping states (the double-headed arrows indicate hole hopping). Figure 6 illustrates poφhyrin mono-thiols for attachment to a metal (e.g., gold) electrode. Figure 7 illustrates the modular synthesis of a SHMU storage molecule. Figure 8 illustrates a representative synthesis of a DHMU storage molecule. Three poφhyrin building blocks are prepared and metalated with magnesium or zinc. The synthetic strategy builds the two arms ofthe DHMU storage molecule separately, which are then coupled in the penultimate step ofthe synthesis. Each arm is constructed via two Pd- mediated couplings, yielding the respective trimers. One trimer is iodinated at the ethyne, then joined with the other trimer in a heterocoupling process to form the H-like structure. Figure 9 illustrates writing to a molecular memory of this invention. In preferred embodiments, this is accomplished through the application of very short (e.g., microsecond) pulses applied at a voltage sufficient to oxidize a storage medium (e.g., a poφhyrin) to the appropriate redox state as summarized in this figure. Thus, each redox state ofthe composite multiunit nanostructure (e.g. poφhyrinic array) can be independently accessed to provide one bit of resolution. This can be accomplished via the electrochemical oxidation ofthe molecule in stepwise increments. Figure 10 illustrates a frequency domain spectrum ofthe faradaic SN response. Note that the numerous harmonic frequency components depend on many ofthe same voltammetric parameters (e.g., E°, E switch , scan rate, number of electrons, etc.) that govern the response observed in cyclic voltammetry, and can be easily isolated in the frequency domain. Figure 11 illustrates a sinusoidal voltammetry system suitable for readout of the memory devices of this invention. Figure 12 illustrates a computer system embodying the memory devices described herein. Typically the memory device will be fabricated as a sealed "chip". Ancillary circuitry on the chip and/or in the computer permits writing bits into the memory and retrieving the written information as desired. Figure 13 illustrates the memory devices of this invention integrated into a standard computer architecture or computer system 200. Figure 14 illustrates synthesis scheme 1 for the synthesis of latent benzaldehydes with various protecting groups for the >-thiol moiety. These are used in the synthesis of thiol-substituted poφhyrins. Figure 15 illustrates synthesis scheme 2 for the synthesis of benzaldehydes with protected thiol groups. These are used in the synthesis of thiol-derivatized poφhyrins. Figure 16 illustrates synthesis scheme 3 for the synthesis of metallo-free and zinc poφhyrins each bearing three mesityl groups and one protected j-thiophenyl group. Figure 17 illustrates synthesis scheme 4 for the synthesis of a zinc poφhyrin bearing three mesityl groups and one free thiol group. Figure 18 illustrates synthesis scheme 5 for the synthesis of a magnesium poφhyrin bearing three mesityl groups and one -mercaptophenyl group. Figure 19 illustrates synthesis scheme 6 for the synthesis of metallo-free and zinc poφhyrins each bearing three groups to tune the oxidation potential and one free or protected jo-thiophenyl group. Figure 20 illustrates synthesis scheme 7 for the synthesis of metallo-free and zinc poφhyrins bearing four /n-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl groups for horizontal orientation on a gold surface. Figure 21 illustrates synthesis scheme 8 for the synthesis of metallo-free and zinc poφhyrins bearing two m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl groups for horizontal orientation on a gold surface. Figure 22 illustrates synthesis scheme 9 for the synthesis of metallo-free and zinc poφhyrins bearing four /w-(5-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl groups for horizontal orientation on a gold surface. Figure 23 illustrates the writing of bits on a poφhyrin monolayer having two non-neutral oxidation states. A plot of current versus time at 3 applied voltages is illustrated. At 0-300 mN, no bit is set and the plot provides a background signal. At 500- 800 mV and at 800-1100 mV the first and second bits are written, respectively. Figure 24 illustrates the read/write of a monomeric poφhyrin. Cunent is plotted as a function of potential. Figure 25 illustrates background-subtracted faradaic read current. Figure 26 shows synthesis scheme 1 for the synthesis of Zn-2 from 5- phenyldipyrromethane. Figure 27 shows synthesis scheme 2 for the synthesis of Zn-3 and Zn-4 from Zn-2. Figure 28 shows synthesis scheme 3 for the synthesis of Zn-8. Figure 29 shows equation 1 illustrating a first attempt to synthesize a dipyπomethane by reacting commercially available 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde with pyrrole to give the corresponding dipyrromethane (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634- 8647). However, subsequent treatment with sodium tert-butoxide (Pinchart et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 5479-5482), followed by quenching ofthe anion with acetyl chloride did not afford the desired product. Figure 30 shows Equation 2 illustrating the reaction of 4-5- acetylthiobenzaldehyde (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634-8647) with pyπole to yield dipyrromethane 6. Figure 31 shows synthesis scheme 4 for the synthesis of Zn-9. Figure 32 shows synthesis scheme 5 for the synthesis of Zn-10. Figure 33 shows synthesis scheme 6 for the synthesis of Zn-13. Figure 34 illustrates a variety of linkers and their couling to a poφhyrinic macrocycle. Figure 35 illustrates a synthesis ofthe aldehyde 4-(S-acetylthio)-2,3,5,6- tetrafluorobenzaldehyde (9). Figure 36 illustrates substitution bromide with potassium thioacetate to give 5-acetyl protected thiobenzaldehyde 10. Figure 37 illustrates a synthesis of aldehyde 11. Figure 38 illustrates a treatment of crude aldehyde 16 with potassium thioacetate to yield aldehyde 17. Figure 39 illustrates a Pd-coupling of commercially available propiolaldehyde diethylacetal with l-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene (1). Figure 40 illustrates scheme 1 for the synthesis of compound 3 using 1-iodo- 4-(5'-acetylthio)benzene 1. Figure 41 illustrates scheme 2 for the synthesis of aldehyde 8. Figure 42 illustrates scheme 3 for the synthesis of aldehyde 15 starting from 4-bromobenzaldehyde. Figure 43 illustrates scheme 4 for the conversion of aldehydes 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15 and 17 to the thiol-protected A 3 B-poφhyrins 19-25. Figure 44 illustrates scheme 5 for theconversion of acetal 18 to the desired A 3 B poφhyrin. Figure 45 shows equation 1 illustrating the synthesis of diphenylethyne- linked ferrocene carboxaldehyde 30 via Pd-coupling of ethynylphenylfeπocene 4 with 4- iodobenzaldehyde. Figure 46 shows equation 2 illustrating the treatment of 4- ferrocenylbenzaldehyde 17 with excess pyrrole at room temperature to produce 36. Figure 47 illustrates the reaction of ferrocenyldipyrromethane 36, 4-(S- acetylthio)benzaldehyde 31 and 4-methylbenzaldehyde to provide provided the expected poφhyrins. Figure 48 illustrates scheme 1 for the synthesis of 4-iodophenylferrocene (1) in 30% yield. Figure 49 illustrates scheme 2 for the synthesis of 4-{2-[4-(5'- acetylthio)phenyl]ethynyl}phenylferrocene (5). Figure 50 illustrates scheme 3for the synthesis of 11. Figure 51 shows scheme 4 for the synthesis of 12 using the Clemmensen system (Zn HgCl amalgam and HCl). Figure 52 illustrates scheme 5 for the arylation of ferrocene using 4- aminobenzyl alcohol to produce 4-feπocenylbenzyl alcohol (16) and 4- ferrocenylbenzaldehyde (17) which are then separated chromatographically. Figure 53 illustrates scheme 6 for the synthesis of 4- (bromomethyl)phenylfeπocene (19). Figure 54 illustrates scheme 7 for the synthesis of a set of S-acetylthio- derivatized alkylferrocenes with different length alkyl chains. Figure 55 illustrates scheme 8 for the condensation of 4- ferrocenylbenzaldehyde (17), 4-[5'-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thio]-benzaldehyde 32 and 5- mesityldipyrromethane in the presence of BF -etherate and ΝH 4 C1 in acetonitrile followed by oxidation with DDQ to yield a crude poφhyrin mixture containing poφhyrin 34. DETAILED DESCRIPTION This invention provides novel high density memory devices that are electrically addressable permitting effective reading and writing, that provide a high memory density (e.g., 10 15 bits/cm 3 ), that provide a high degree of fault tolerance, and that are amenable to efficient chemical synthesis and chip fabrication. The devices are intrinsically latchable, defect tolerant, and support destructive or non-destructive read cycles. In a preferred embodiment, this invention provides an apparatus for storing data (e.g., a "storage cell"). The storage cell includes a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a "storage medium" having a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states where data is stored in the (preferably non-neutral) oxidation states by the addition or withdrawal of one or more electrons from said storage medium via the electrically coupled electrode. One embodiment of this invention is illustrated in Figure 1. The basic memory device, a "storage cell" 100 comprises a working electrode 101 electrically coupled to a storage medium 102 comprising a multiplicity of storage molecules 105. The storage cell optionally includes an electrolyte 107 and a reference electrode 103. The storage medium has a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states, preferably a multiplicity of different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states, and can change oxidation (charge) state when a voltage or signal is applied thereby adding or removing one or more electrons. Each oxidation state represents a particular bit. Where the storage medium supports eight different and distinguishable oxidation states it stores one byte. The storage medium remains in the set oxidation state until another voltage is applied to alter that oxidation state. The oxidation state ofthe storage medium can be readily determined using a wide variety of electronic (e.g. amperometric, coulometric, voltammetric) methods thereby providing rapid readout. The storage medium comprises molecules having a single oxidation state and/or molecules having multiple different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. Thus, for example, in one embodiment, the storage medium can comprise eight different species of storage molecules each having one non-neutral oxidation state and thereby store one byte. In another embodiment, the storage medium can comprise one species of molecule that has eight different and distinguishable oxidation states and store one byte in that manner as well. As explained herein, a large number of different molecules having different numbers of oxidation states can be used for the storage medium. In certain prefeπed embodiments, the storage medium preferably utilizes molecules employing weakly coupled arrays of poφhyrins and/or poφhyrinic macrocycles. The electrochemical potential in such molecules is preferably tuned through the use of various substituents and central metals, but the molecules retain their distinctive oxidation potentials when they are incoφorated into arrays. Accordingly this approach typically involved the synthesis of a family of differently substituted poφhyrins (or other molecules) for incoφoration into a molecular aπay. In other preferred embodiments, in order to simplify construction of molecular for information storage, this invention contemplates the use of polymeric molecules having multiple oxidation states where the monomeric subunits comprising the polymers are tightly coupled (e.g. directly linked as opposed to linking through a linker). The "tight coupling" is manifested as a splitting in redox potentials ofthe structurally identical subunits. Thus, for example, combination of two identical subunits each having two identical non-zero oxidation states can result in dimer having four different and distinguishable non-zero oxidation states. This greatly simplifies fabrication of a storage molecule as, in this instance, only a single type of subunit need be synthesized. In any ofthe embodiments described herein, because molecular dimensions are so small (on the order of angstroms) and individual molecules in the devices of this invention can store multiple bits, the storage devices of this invention therefore offer remarkably high storage densities (e.g. > 10 15 bits/cm 3 ). Moreover, the devices of this invention are capable of a degree of self- assembly and hence easily fabricated. Because the devices are electrically (rather than optically) addressed, and because the devices utilize relatively simple and highly stable storage elements, they are readily fabricated utilizing existing technologies and easily incoφorated into electronic devices. Thus, the molecular memory devices of this invention have a number of highly desirable features: Because the storage medium ofthe devices described herein is electrically- addressed, the devices are amenable to the construction of a multilayered chip architecture. An architecture compatible with such a three-dimensional structure is essential to achieve the objective of 10 bits/cm . In addition, because writing and reading is accomplished electrically, many ofthe fundamental problems inherent with photonics are avoided. Moreover, electrical reading and writing is compatible with existing computer technology for memory storage. In addition, the devices of this invention achieve a high level of defect tolerance. Defect tolerance is accomplished through the use of clusters of molecules (up to several million in a memory cell). Thus, the failure of one or a few molecules will not alter the ability to read or write to a given memory cell that constitutes a particular bit of memory. In prefeπed embodiments, the basis for memory storage relies on the oxidation state(s) of poφhyrins or other poφhyrinic macrocycles of defined energy levels. Poφhyrins and poφhyrinic macrocycles are well known to form stable radical cations. Indeed, the oxidation and reduction of poφhyrins provide the foundation for the biological processes of photosynthesis and respiration. Poφhyrin radical cations can be formed chemically on the benchtop exposed to air. We know of no other class of molecules with such robust electroactive properties. Preferred storage molecules of this invention molecule (e.g., SHMU or DHMU) can hold multiple holes, corresponding to multiple bits. In contrast, the dyes (photochromic, electrochromic, redox) and molecular machines are invariably bistable elements. Bistable elements exist either in a high/low state and hence can only store a single bit. The SHMU and DHMU are unique molecular nanostructures providing resilient storage of multiple bits. Reading can be accomplished non-destructively or destructively as required in different chip applications. The speed of reading is conservatively estimated to lie in the MHz to GHz regime. Memory storage is inherently latchable due to the stability ofthe poφhyrin or other poφhyrinic macrocycle radical cations. Oxidation ofthe poφhyrins or other poφhyrinic macrocycles can be achieved at relatively low potential (and at predesignated potentials through synthetic design), enabling memory storage to be achieved at very low power. Poφhyrins and poφhyrin radical cations are stable across a broad range of temperatures, enabling chip applications at low temperature, room temperature, or at elevated temperatures. Fabrication ofthe devices of this invention relies on known technology. The synthesis ofthe storage media takes advantage of established building block approaches in poφhyrin and other poφhyrinic macrocycle chemistry. Synthetic routes have been developed to make the poφhyrin and poφhyrinic macrocycle building blocks, to join them in covalent nanostructures, and to purify them to a high level (>99%). In prefeπed embodiments, the storage medium nanostructures are designed for directed self-assembly on gold surfaces. Such self-assembly processes are robust, result in the culling out of defective molecules, and yield long-range order in the surface- assembled cluster. Poφhyrin-thiols have been assembled on electroactive surfaces. The arrays that define the addressable bits of memory can be achieved through conventional microfabrication techniques. The storage molecules are self-assembled onto these electrode arrays and attached to the gold surface using conventional dipping methods. I. Uses of the storage device. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the memory devices of this invention have wide applicability in specialized and general-puφose computer systems. Of course commercial realization ofthe device(s) will be facilitated by the adoption of computer architecture standards compatible with this technology. In addition, commercial adoption of this technology will be facilitated by the use of other molecular electronic components that will serve as on-chip buffers and decoders (that is, molecular logic gates), and the like. In addition, commercialization will be facilitated by the development of a full manufacturing infrastructure. Regardless, prior to the development of a fully integrated design and manufacturing platform for molecular electronic information storage and transfer, even early generation prototype molecular memory devices described herein have utility in highly specialized military and/or stealthy applications. For example, a prototype 1024/512-bit molecular memory device has sufficient capacity to hold a substantial base of personal and/or other proprietary information. This information could be transported anywhere in the world virtually undetected owing to the extremely small size ofthe device. If detected, the memory device is easily erased simply by applying a low potential reverse bias current across all memory cells. This protection mechanism can be readily incoφorated into any type of transport architecture designed for the memory device. The memory devices of this invention have sufficient capacity to hold personal information (e.g. medical, personal identification, financial information on a "smart card"). Even a memory device that degrades upon multiple read cycles is extremely useful if the number of read cycles is highly limited (perhaps only one). A memory device that degrades upon multiple read cycles or simply with time is also useful in applications where long-term data persistence is not needed or is strategically unwise. Thus, numerous strategically important applications for early generation memory devices present themselves. Successes ofthe memory devices in these applications will foster even more rapid full-scale commercialization ofthe technology. II. Architecture of the storage device. The basic storage cell (electrode(s) and storage medium) of this invention can be incoφorated into a functional device in a wide variety of configurations. One prefeπed embodiment of this invention is illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. The basic memory device, a "storage cell" 100 comprises one or more working electrodes 101 electrically coupled to a storage medium 102 comprising a multiplicity of storage molecules 105. The storage cell optionally includes an electrolyte 107 and one or more reference electrode(s) 103. The storage medium has a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states, preferably a multiplicity of different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states, and can change oxidation (charge) state when a voltage or signal is applied thereby adding or removing one or more electrons. Each oxidation state represents a particular bit, however, in certain embodiments, where the oxidation states are not fully independently addressable, it may take as many as eight oxidation states to independently write three bits. The storage medium generally remains in the set oxidation state until another voltage is applied to alter that oxidation state. The oxidation state ofthe storage medium can be readily determined using a wide variety of electronic (e.g. amperometric, coulometric, voltammetric) methods thereby providing rapid readout. The storage medium comprises molecules having a single oxidation state and/or molecules having multiple different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. Thus, for example, in one embodiment, the storage medium can comprise eight different species of storage molecules each having one non-neutral oxidation state and thereby store one byte. In another embodiment, the storage medium can comprise one species of molecule that has eight different and distinguishable oxidation states and store one byte in that manner as well. As explained herein, a large number of different molecules having different numbers of oxidation states can be used for the storage medium. Because molecular dimensions are so small (on the order of angstroms) and individual molecules in the devices of this invention can store multiple bits, the storage devices of this invention therefore offer remarkably high storage densities (e.g. > 10 15 bits/cm 3 ). One chip-based embodiment of this invention is illustrated in Figure 2. As illustrated in Figure 2 the storage medium 102 is disposed in a number of storage locations 104. Each storage location is addressed by a working electrode 101 and a reference electrode 103 so that the storage medium 102 combined with the electrodes forms a storage cell 100 at each storage location. One particularly prefened chip-based embodiment is illustrated in Figure 3. In the illustrated embodiment, a plurality of working electrodes 101 and reference electrodes 103 are illustrated each addressing storage media 102 localized at discrete storage locations thereby forming a plurality of storage cells 100. Multiple storage cells can be associated with a single addressing electrode as long as oxidation states ofthe storage cells are distinguishable from each other. It should be noted that this forms a functional definition of a storage cell. Where two discrete areas of storage medium are addressed by the same electrode(s) if the storage media comprise the same species of storage molecule the two discrete areas will functionally perform as a single storage cell, i.e. the oxidation states of both locations will be commonly set, and/or read, and/or reset. The added storage location, however, will increase the fault tolerance ofthe storage cell as the functional storage cell will contain more storage molecules. In another embodiment, each individual storage cell is associated with a single addressing electrode. In preferred embodiments, the storage medium comprising the storage cells of a memory device are all electrically coupled to one or more reference electrodes. The reference electrode(s) can be provided as discrete electrodes or as a common backplane. The chip illustrated in Figure 3 has two levels of working electrodes and hence two levels of storage cells 100 (with numerous storage cells on each level). Of course, the chip can be fabricated with a single level of electrodes and memory element or literally hundreds or thousands of different levels of storage cell(s), the thickness ofthe chip being limited essentially by practical packaging and reliability constraints. In certain prefeπed embodiments the storage medium is juxtaposed to a dielectric medium to insure electrical connectivity to a reference voltage (e.g. a reference electrode, a reference backplane, etc.). In particularly prefened embodiments, a layer of dielectric material imbedded with counterions to ensure electrical connectivity to the reference electrode and stability ofthe cationic species in the absence of applied potential (latching), is disposed between the reference working electrode(s). Dielectric materials suitable for the devices of this invention are well known to those of skill in the art. Such materials include, but are not limited to Nafion™, cellulose acetate, polystyrene sulfonate, poly(vinylpyridine), electronically conducting polymers such as polypynole and polyaniline, etc. While, in some prefened embodiments, feature sizes are rather large (e.g. memory elements approximately (10 x 10 x 10 μm) and electrode thickness -200 nm, feature size can be reduced at will so that feature sizes are comparable to those in conventional silicon-based devices (e.g., 50 nm - 100 nm on each axis). In one particularly prefened embodiment, the storage device includes: (1) A metal (e.g. gold) working electrode (e.g., 200 nm thick), deposited on a nonconducting base, and line-etched to achieve electrode widths of 10's to 100's of nm. (2) A monolayer of self- assembled poφhyrinic nanostructures (storage molecules 105) attached to the gold surface via the sulfur atom ofthe thiophenol group. (3) A 100-nm thick layer of dielectric material 107 embedded with counterions to ensure electrical connectivity to the reference electrode and stability ofthe cationic species in the absence of applied potential (latching). (4) A 200- nm thick nonpolarizable reference electrode 103 line etched in the same fashion as those of the working electrode 101, but assembled with lines orthogonal to the latter electrode. (5) A minor image construct that utilizes the same reference electrode. Thus, in one embodiment, the three-dimensional architecture of a single memory storage location (memory element) on the chip will look as indicated in Figure 4. While the discussion herein of electrodes is with respect to gold electrodes, it will be recognized that numerous other materials will be suitable. Thus, electrode materials include, but are not limited to gold, silver, copper, other metals, metal alloys, organic conductors (e.g. doped polyacetylene, doped polythiophene, etc.), nanostructures, crystals, etc. Similarly, the substrates used in the fabrication of devices of this invention include, but are not limited to glasses, silicon, minerals (e.g. quartz), plastics, ceramics, membranes, gels, aerogels, and the like. III. Fabrication and characterization of the storage device. A) Fabrication. The memory devices of this invention can be fabricated using standard methods well known to those of skill in the art. In a prefened embodiment, the electrode layer(s) are applied to a suitable substrate (e.g. silica, glass, plastic, ceramic, etc.) according to standard well known methods (see, e.g., Choudhury (1997) The Handbook of Microlithography, Micromachining, and Microfabrication, Soc. Photo-Optical Instru. Engineer, Bard & Faulkner (1997) Fundamentals of Microfabrication). In addition, examples ofthe use of micromachining techniques on silicon or borosilicate glass chips can be found in U.S. Patents 5,194,133, 5,132,012, 4,908,112, and 4,891,120. In one prefened embodiment a metal layer is beam sputtered onto the substrate (e.g.. a 10 nm thick chromium adhesion layer is sputtered down followed by a 200 nm thick layer of gold). Then maskless laser ablation lithography (see below), performed e.g., with a Nd:YAG laser, is used to create features with micron dimensions, or with an excimer laser to create features of nanometer dimensions) will create an anay of parallel lines of conductor (e.g., gold), used as the working electrodes with dimensions ranging between a few microns to a tens of nanometers; Once the electrode anay is formed, the entire aπay, or portions ofthe anay, or individual electrodes are wetted (e.g. immersed or spotted) with one or more solutions of the appropriate derivatized storage media (e.g. thiol-substituted poφhyrin nanostructures), and the constituents ofthe memory medium (e.g., monomeric poφhyrin subunits) self- assemble on the micro-sized gold anays to form the memory elements. It will be appreciated that different solutions can be applied to different regions ofthe electrode anay to produce storage cells comprising different storage medium. Methods of spotting different reagents on surfaces (e.g. on glass surfaces) at densities up to tens of thousands of different species/spots per cm 2 are known (see, e.g., U.S. Patent No: 5,807,522). Then a suitable electrolyte layer (e.g. a thin layer of Nafion polymer) approximately 1 nm to 1000 nm, preferably about 100 nm to about 500 nm, more preferably about 10 nm to about 100 nm and most preferably about one hundred nanometers thick) will be cast over the entire surface ofthe chip. This polymer serves to hold the electrolyte for electrochemical reaction. Finally, the entire chip is coated with a layer (e.g., 10 nm to about 1000 nm, more preferably 100 nm to about 300 nm and most preferably about 200 nm of conducting material (e.g. silver) which acts as a reference electrode 103. The chip is then turned 90 degrees, and maskless laser ablation lithography will be performed again to create a second anay of parallel lines that are peφendicular to the original set. This forms a three dimensional anay of individual memory elements, where each element is formed by the intersection of these two peφendicular linear anays (see Figure 4). Each individual element can be addressed by selecting the appropriate X and Y logic elements, conesponding to one gold working electrode and one reference electrode separated by the Nafion polymer/electrolyte layer. Since this structure is inherently three dimensional, it should be possible to extend the anay into the Z-direction, creating a 3-D anay of memory elements as large as it is feasible to connect to. These structures are initially created on the micron scale. It is possible to decrease the size of these structures to sub-micron dimensions. It is possible to create these structures on a scale similar to silicon microstructures created with conventional nanolithographic techniques (i.e. 100-200 nm). This would allow the interfacing ofthe memory elements with conventional silicon-based semiconductor electronics. In the laser-ablation lithography discussed above, coherent light is sent through a beam splitter (50% transmittance) and reflected by a minor to make two nearly parallel identical beams (Rosenwald et al. (1998) Anal. Chem., 70: 1133-1140). These beams are sent through e.g., a 50 cm focal length lens for ease in focusing to a common point. The placement ofthe beams is fine-tuned to allow complete overlap ofthe mode structure ofthe laser spot. Higher order interference patterns are minimized through the use of high quality optics (1/10 wave surface flatness). This ensures that the variation between intensity maxima and minima in the first order will be several orders of magnitude larger than those formed with second and higher orders. This produces a well-defined pattern of lines across the electrode surface, where the spacing between points of positive interference (D) can be approximated by the Bragg Equation: nλ = 2Dsin(θ/2), where λ = wavelength, θ = angle between the beams, and n is order. For example, when a Nd:YAG is used at 1064nm, the recombination ofthe two beams in this manner generates an interference pattern with ~2 micron spacing when the angle between the 2 beams is 15°. The interference pattern spacing can easily be changed by modifying the angle between the beams. Attenuation ofthe beam was accomplished by inserting one or more neutral density filters before the beam splitter. In this way, the exposure ofthe gold layer to the Nd-YAG interference pattern can be performed at different beam attenuations to produce power densities between 1 and 100 MW/cm 2 . B) Electrically coupling storage medium to electrode. In the storage devices of this invention, the storage medium is electrically coupled to one or more electrodes. The term "electrical coupling" is used to refer to coupling schemes that permit the storage medium to gain or lose electrons to the electrode. The coupling can be a direct attachment ofthe storage medium to the electrode, or an indirect attachment (e.g. via a linker). The attachment can be a covalent linkage, an ionic linkage, a linkage driven by hydrogen bonding or can involve no actual chemical attachment, but simply a juxtaposition ofthe electrode to the storage medium. In some embodiments, the electrode can be some distance (e.g, about 5 A to about 50 A) from the storage medium and electrical coupling can be via electron tunneling. In some prefeπed embodiments, a "linker" is used to attach the molecule(s) ofthe storage medium to the electrode. The linker can be electrically conductive or it can be sufficient position the molecule(s) ofthe storage medium such that electrons can pass directly or indirectly between the electrode and a molecule ofthe storage medium. The manner of linking a wide variety of compounds to various surfaces is well known and is amply illustrated in the literature. Means of coupling the molecules comprising the storage medium will be recognized by those of skill in the art. The linkage ofthe storage medium to a surface can be covalent, or by ionic or other non-covalent interactions. The surface and/or the molecule(s) may be specifically derivatized to provide convenient linking groups (e.g. sulfur, hydroxyl, amino, etc.). The linker can be provided as a component ofthe storage medium molecule(s) or separately. Linkers, when not joined to the molecules to be linked are often either hetero- or homo-bifunctional molecules that contain two or more reactive sites that may each form a covalent bond with the respective binding partner (i.e. surface or storage medium molecule). When provided as a component of a storage molecule, or attached to a substrate surface, the linkers are preferably spacers having one or more reactive sites suitable for bonding to the respective surface or molecule. Linkers suitable for joining molecules are well known to those of skill in the art and include, but are not limited to any of a variety of, a straight or branched chain carbon linker, or a heterocyclic carbon linker, amino acid or peptide linkers, and the like. Particularly prefened linkers include, but are not limited to 4,4'-diphenylethyne, 4,4'- diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4'-biphenyl, 1,4-phenylene, 4,4'-stilbene, 1 ,4-bicyclooctane, 4,4'- azobenzene, 4,4'-benzylideneaniline, and 4,4"-teφhenyl. Linkers include molecules that join one or more molecules ofthe storage medium to the electrode(s). A variety of suitable linkers are illustrated in Figure 34, although in certain embodiments, this invention excludes linker A in Figure 34. The synthesis of these linkers is described in detail in Example 4. Using the teaching provided herein, a wide variety of other suitable linkers can routinely be produced by one of ordinary skill in the art. C) Addressing the memory cells. Addressing ofthe storage cell(s) in the devices of this invention is relatively straightforward. In a simple approach a discrete pair of electrodes (one working and one reference electrode) can be connected to every storage cell. Individual reference electrodes, however are not required and can be replaced with one or more common reference electrodes connected to all or to a subset of all ofthe storage elements in a particular device. Alternatively, the common reference electrodes can be replaced with one or more conductive "backplanes" each communicating to all, or to a subset, ofthe storage cells in a particular device. Where the storage cells contain identical storage media, each storage cell is preferably addressed with a separate working electrode so that the storage (oxidation) states ofthe storage cells can be distinguished from each other. Where the storage cells contain different storage media such that the oxidation states of one storage cell is different and distinguishable from the oxidation states of another storage cell, the storage cells are preferably addressed by a common working electrode thereby reducing the number of electrodes in a device. In one prefened embodiment, the storage devices of this invention contain 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024 or more storage locations per layer (64, 128, 256, 512, 1024 or more locations in the minor image architecture) with each location capable of holding a multiple- bit SHMU or DHMU word. Accordingly, a prefened 1024-bit SHMU or a prefened 512-bit DHMU chip will contain 8 wiring interconnects on each ofthe three electrode grids in the 3- dimensional WPDRDPW architecture illustrated in Figure 4. D) Characterization of the memory device. The performance (e.g. operating characteristics) ofthe memory devices of this invention is characterized by any of a wide variety of methods, most preferably by electrochemical methods (amperometry, sinusoidal voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy, see, e.g., Howell et al. (1986) Electroanal. Chem., 209: 77-90; Singhal et al. (1997) Anal. Chem., 69: 1662-1668; Schick et α/. (1989) Am. Chem. Soc. I l l : 1344-1350), atomic force microscopy, electron microscopy and imaging spectroscopic methods. Surface-enhanced resonance and Raman spectroscopy are also used to examine the storage medium on the electrodes. Among other parameters, characterization ofthe memory devices (e.g., memory cells) involves determining the number of storage medium molecules (e.g., poφhyrin anays) required for defect-tolerant operation. Defect tolerance includes factors such as reliably depositing the required number of holes to write the desired digit and accurately detecting the numbers/hopping rates of the holes. The long-term resistance of electron holes to charge-recombination in the solid-phase medium ofthe device package is also determined. Using these parameters, the device architecture can be optimized for commercial fabrication. IV. Architecture of the storage medium. The storage medium used in the devices of this invention comprises one or more species of storage molecule. A prefened storage medium is characterized by having a multiplicity of oxidation states. Those oxidation states are provided by one or more redox- active units. A redox-active unit refers to a molecule or to a subunit of a molecule that has one or more discrete oxidation states that can be set by application of an appropriate voltage. Thus, for example, in one embodiment, the storage medium can comprise one species of redox-active molecule where that molecule has two or more (e.g. 8) different and distinguishable oxidation states. Typically, but not necessarily, such multi-state molecules will be composed of several redox-active units (e.g. poφhyrins or feπocenes). In another exemplary embodiment, the storage medium can comprise two or more different species of storage molecule. Each storage molecule comprises at least one redox-active unit, but can easily contain two or more redox-active units. Where each species of storage molecule has a single, non-neutral, oxidation state, the storage medium achieves multiple bit storage by having a plurality of such molecules where each molecule has a different and distinguishable oxidation state (e.g. each species of molecule oxidizes at a different and distinguishable potential). Of course, each species of molecule can have a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states. Thus, a storage medium comprising eight different species of storage molecule where each ofthe eight species has eight different and distinguishable oxidation states, will be able to store 64 (8 x 8) bits of information. As indicated above, the storage medium can be broken down into individual, e.g., spatially segregated, storage locations. Each storage element can have a storage medium that is the same or different from the other storage elements in the chip and/or system. Where the storage elements are of identical composition, in prefened embodiments, they are separately addressed so that information in one element can be distinguished from information in another element. Where the storage elements are of different composition they can be commonly addressed (where the oxidation states ofthe commonly addressed storage elements are distinguishable) or they can be individually addressed. In certain prefened embodiments the storage medium is juxtaposed to a dielectric medium to insure electrical connectivity to a reference voltage (e.g. a reference electrode, a reference backplane, etc.). In particularly prefened embodiments, a layer of dielectric material is imbedded with counterions to ensure electrical connectivity to the reference electrode and stability ofthe cationic species in the absence of applied potential (latching) is disposed between the reference working electrode(s). Dielectric materials suitable for the devices of this invention are well known to those of skill in the art. Such materials include, but are not limited to nafion, cellulose acetate, polystyrene sulfonate, poly(vinylpyridine), electronically conducting polymers such as polypynolic acid and polyaniline, etc. The poφhyrinic macrocycles identified herein are ideally suited for molecular based memory storage. The poφhyrinic macrocycles, and especially the poφhyrins, have unique electroactive properties, a well-developed modular synthetic chemistry, and in conjunction with thiols, and other linkers described herein, undergo directed self-assembly on electroactive surfaces. In addition, as described below, the poφhyrinic macrocycles are well suited for the design of multi -bit storage systems. In prefened embodiments, this invention contemplates three fundamental architectures for the storage medium; static hole single-unit (SHSU) storage (e.g. SHSU molecules), static hole multi-unit (SHMU) storage (e.g. SHSU molecules), and dynamic hole multi-unit (DHMU) storage (e.g. DHMU molecules). A) Static hole single unit (SHSU) storage. In the simplest embodiments of this invention, the storage medium comprises one or more molecules wherein each molecule has one non-neutral oxidation state. Thus, each molecule is capable of storing one bit (e.g. bit = 1 when oxidized and bit = 0 when neutral). A number of different species of static hole single unit storage molecules can be assembled into a single storage medium. Thus, for example a number of different fenocenes, or a number of different poφhyrins, or combinations of poφhyrin and fenocene monomers can be combined into a single storage medium. In one prefened embodiment, a molecule comprising a static hole single unit molecular memory has the formula shown in Formula I. S - "" ^lg L— X where L is a linker, M is a metal (e.g., Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Ni, Ti, Nb, Mn, Re, V, Cr, W), S 1 and S 2 are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl. In prefened embodiments, a substituted aryl group is attached to the poφhyrin, and the substituents on the aryl group are selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl. Particularly prefened substituents include, but are not limited to, 4-chlorophenyl, 3- acetamidophenyl, 2,4-dichloro-4-trifluoromethyl). Prefened substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. It will be appreciated that in some embodiments, L-X can be replaced with another substituent (S ) like S or S . In certain embodiments, L-X can be present or absent, and when present preferably is 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4- mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, or 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. The oxidation state of molecules of Formula I is determined by the metal and the substituents. Thus, particular prefened embodiments are illustrated by Formulas II- VII, (listed sequentially) below: The fenocenes listed above in Formulas II through VII provide a convenient series of one-bit molecules having different and distinguishable oxidation states. Thus the molecules of Formulas II through VII have oxidation states (E 2 ) of +0.55 V, +0.48V, +0.39 V, +0.17 V, -0.05 V, and -0.18 V, respectively, and provide a convenient series of molecules for incoφoration into a storage medium of this invention. It will be appreciated that the oxidation states ofthe members ofthe series can be routinely altered by changing the metal (M) or the substituents. B) Static hole multi-unit (SHSU) storage. Static hole multi-unit (SHSU) molecular memories typically comprise a multiplicity of redox-active subunits. In a prefeπed embodiment, the redox-active subunits are covalently linked to form a single molecule and are selected to have different and distinguishable oxidation states, preferably a multiplicity of different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. Thus, in this configuration a single molecule can have multiple (e.g. 2, A, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 512 etc.) different non-neutral oxidation states. In one particularly prefened embodiment the static hole multi-unit molecular memory is a "static hole multipoφhyrin molecular memory" (SHMMM) storage system. In this embodiment, the redox-active subunits are poφhyrinic macrocycles, most preferably poφhyrins. The poφhyrins can be ananged in a wide variety of configurations (e.g. linear polymers, branched polymers, anays, etc.), however, linear configurations are well suited to the practice of this invention. One particularly prefened linear configuration is illustrated by Formula VIII. where S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts, M 1 , M 2 , M 3 , and M 4 are independently selected metals (e.g., Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Ga, Pb, and Sn), K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , K 8 , K 9 , K 10 , K 11 , K 12 , K 13 , K 14 , K 15 , and K 16 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH, and J 3 are independently selected linkers, L 1 , L 2 , L 3 , and L 4 are present or absent and, when present are independently selected linkers, X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , and X 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a 1 substrate, and E and E are terminating substituents independently aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, or carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. In prefened embodiments, the molecule has at least two, preferably at least 4, more preferably at least 8, and most preferably at least 16, at least 32, at least 64 or at least 128 different and distinguishable oxidation states. In some embodiments, one or more ofthe linker/reactive site subunits (L'-X 1 , L 2 -X 2 , L 3 -X 3 , or L 4 -X 4 ), can be eliminated and replaced with a substituent independently selected from the same group as S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , or S 4 . In prefened embodiments, the substituents are selected so that the molecule illustrated by Formula XVIII has at least 2, more preferably at least 4 and most preferably at least 8 different and distinguishable oxidation states. In certain prefened embodiments, J 1 , J 2 , and J 3 are independently 4,4'- diphenylethyne, 4,4'-diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4'-biphenyl, 1-4-phenylene, 4,4'-stilbene, 1,4- bicyclooctane, 4,4'-azobenzene, 4,4'-benzylideneaniline, or 4,4"-teφhenyl. L'-X 1 , L 2 -X 2 , L 3 -X 3 , and L 4 -X 4 are independently present or absent and, when present, can include 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4- mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. In a particularly prefened embodiment, K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , K 8 , K 9 , K 10 , K 11 , K 12 , K 13 , K 14 , K 15 , and K 16 are the same, M 1 and M 3 are the same, M 2 and M 4 are the same and different from M 1 and M 3 , S 1 and S 2 are the same; and S 3 and S 4 are the same 1 7 and different from S and S . In a most prefened embodiment, the metals (M 1 , M 2 , M 3 , and M 4 ) and the substituents (S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 ) are selected so that each poφhyrin has two non-neutral oxidation states. L'-X 1 , L 2 -X 2 , L 3 -X 3 , and L 4 -X 4 provide convenient linkers for attaching the molecule to a substrate (e.g. an electrode). With each subunit having two oxidation states, the subunits can be configured so that the entire molecule has 8 different and distinguishable oxidation states. One such molecule is illustrated by Formula IX. IX The poφhyrin metalation state alters between Mg and Zn in proceeding from one end to the other. The different metalation state alters the redox characteristics ofthe poφhyrins. In particular, magnesium poφhyrins are more easily oxidized than zinc poφhyrins. Differentiation ofthe oxidation potentials ofthe left-most pair of Zn and Mg poφhyrins from those ofthe right-most pair is achieved through the use of different substituents (Ar 2 , right pair; Ar 1 , left pair) attached to the meso- (and/or to the β-) positions. The poφhyrins are joined via linkers (e.g. jι p'-diarylethyne linkers). These constrain the poφhyrins at fixed distances from each other. In addition, each poφhyrin bears a linker (e.g., a thiol) for attachment to an electroactive surface such as gold. Information is stored in the SHMU storage molecule by removing electrons from the poφhyrin constituents (leaving a hole and forming a π-cation radical (Strachan et al. (1991) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 11191-11201; Li et al. (1991) J. Mater. Chem. 1: 1245- 1262, and Seth et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118: 11194-11207; Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116: 10578-10592). The redox characteristics ofthe Zn and Mg poφhyrins in conjunction with the substituents Ar 1 and Ar 2 permit oxidation to form in sequence, (MgAr 1(+) , others neutral), (MgAr 1(+) , ZnAr 1(+) , with MgAr 2 and ZnAr 2 neutral], and so forth until two holes have been removed from all ofthe four metallopoφhyrins, i. e., [MgAr 1(++) , ZnAr 1(++) , MgAr 2 ^, ZnAr 2 ^]. Thus, up to eight holes can be stored in the memory with each unique oxidation state serving as a digit of a basic eight-bit memory element. This is illustrated below in Table 1. Table 1. Bit architecture in a prototype SHMU storage molecule. Subunit PI Subunit P2 Subunit P3 Subunit P4 Memory MgAr 1 ZnAr 1 MgAr 2 ZnAr 2 "parity" 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 1 + + 0 0 0 1 0 ++ + 0 0 0 1 1 ++ ++ 0 0 1 0 0 ++ ++ + 0 1 0 1 ++ ++ + + 1 1 0 ++ ++ ++ + 1 1 1 ++ ++ ++ ++ The synthetic methodologies already established permit the extension ofthe linear architecture, thus increasing the dynamic range ofthe basic memory element well beyond the three bits indicated. Conversely, the molecule could be reduced to two subunits thereby encoding 2 bits (+ "parity"). In addition, subunits can be engineered that have more than two oxidation states. Thus for example, molecules and/or subunits can be engineered that have virtually any number (e.g., 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, etc.) of different and distinguishable oxidation states. In other embodiments, single molecule, non-polymeric molecules can maintain multiple oxidation states and thereby support multiple bits. In prefened embodiments, such molecules comprise multiple redox-active subunits. Certain prefened molecules have 2, 3, 5, 8, or even more different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. One such molecule is illustrated by Formula XI. where, F is a redox-active subunit (e.g., a fenocene, a substituted fenocene, a metallopoφhyrin, or a metallochlorin, etc.), J 1 is a linker, M is a metal (e.g., Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Ga, Pb, and Sn), S 1 and S 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts, K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. In some embodiments L-X can be eliminated and replaced with a substituent independently selected from the same group as S'or S 2 . In prefeπed embodiments, the molecule has at least three different and distinguishable oxidation states. Particularly prefened variants of this storage molecule are illustrated by Formulas XII, XIII, and XIV, below: where K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , and K 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; S and S are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts, and M 2 is a metal (e.g., Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Ga, Pb, and Sn). These molecules can exist in three different and distinguishable oxidation states. The values ofthe oxidation states are determined by the metal (M), the ssuubbssttiittuueenntt(s) (S , S , and S ), and the redox-active subunit (e.g. poφhynn, chlorin, or fenocene). Even more prefened embodiments include the molecules of Formulas XV, XVI, and XVII. A molecule capable of storing even more information is illustrated in Formula XVIII. XVIII where M is a metal (e.g., Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Ga, Pb, and Sn), F , F , and F are independently selected fenocenes or substituted fenocenes, J , J , and J are independently selected linkers, K 1 , K , K , and K are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. In some embodiments, L-X can be eliminated and replaced with a substituent (i.e., a fenocene, a substituted fenocene, aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl. Prefened substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 5 volts, preferably less than about 2 volts, more preferably less than about 1 volt. In prefened embodiments, J 1 , J 2 , and J 3 are selected from the group consisting of 4,4'- diphenylethyne, 4,4'-diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4'-biphenyl, 1-4-phenylene, 4,4'-stilbene, 1,4- bicyclooctane, 4,4'-azobenzene, 4,4'-benzylideneaniline, and 4,4"-teφhenyl In certain particularly prefened embodiments, in the molecules of Formula XVIII, K 1 , K 2 , K 3 and K 4 are the same, M is a metal selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Pb, Al, Ga, and Sn, J 2 , J 2 , and J 3 are the same; and F 1 , F 2 , and F 3 are all different. One prefened embodiment is a 5 bit molecule illustrated by Formula XIX. In this example, two oxidation states are determined by the poφhyrin, and the remaining three states are determined by the three fenocenes. Still another prefeπed embodiment, includes molecules represented by Formula XX: where K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, S, O, Se, Te, and CH; M is a metal or (H,H); S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl; L is present or absent and, when present, is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. In some embodiments L-X can be eliminated and replaced with a substituent independently selected from the same group as S'or S 2 . Prefened substituents (S 1 , S 2 , or S 3 ) provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. In some prefened variants M is Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Pb, Ga, or Sn. More preferably M is Zn, Mg, or (H,H). In some prefened variants, S is mesityl, C 6 F 5 , 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, or tt-pentyl. In some prefened variants, S , S , and S are independently CONH(Et), COCH 3 , or H. In some particularly prefened variants, L-X is absent or present, and when present, L- X is 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4- hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, or 4- (2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. In some more prefened embodiments of Formula XX, S , S , and S are all the same, K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are all N; and L is p-thiophenyl. M is then preferably Zn or (H,H). Particularly prefened variants are listed in Table 2. Table 2. Prefened variants of Formula XX. Variant S 1 and/or S z and/or S 3 X M 1 Mesityl SCONH(Et) H,H 2 Mesityl SCONH(Et) Zn 3 Mesityl SCOCH 3 H,H 4 Mesityl SCOCH 3 Zn 5 Mesityl SH Zn 6 C 6 F 5 SCONH(Et) H,H 7 C 6 F 5 SH Zn 8 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl SCONH(Et) H,H 9 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl SCONH(Et) Zn 10 M-pentyl SCONH(Et) H,H 11 w-pentyl SH Zn In particularly prefened variants ofthe compounds indicated in Table 2, L can be a phenyl. Other prefened molecules are illustrated by Formula XXI: where K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; M is a metal or (H,H); L 1 , L 2 , and L 3 , and L 4 are independently present or absent and, when present, are linkers; and X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , and X 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. In some embodiments L-X can be eliminated and/or replaced with a substituent independently selected from various substituents such as aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl. Prefeπed substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 5 volts, preferably less than about 2 volts, more preferably less than about 1 volt. In prefened embodiments, M is Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Pb, Al, Ga, or Sn and in some embodiments, M is more preferably Zn, Mg, or (H,H). In certain prefened embodiments, L'-X 1 , L 2 -X 2 , L 3 -X 3 , and L 4 -X 4 are independently present or absent and, when present, are independently 3-mercaptophenyl, 3- mercaptomethylphenyl, 3-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-(2-(3- mercaptomethylphenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-hydroselenophenyl, 3-hydroselenomethylphenyl, 3-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-(2-(3-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3- hydrotellurophenyl, 3-hydrotelluromethylphenyl and 3-(2-(4- hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, or 3-(2-(3-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl Particularly prefened variants of Formula XXI are illustrated by the compounds of Formulas XXII, XXIII, and XXIV: M = H,H; Zn XXII M = H,H; Zn XXIII = H,H; Zn XXIV Using the examples and teaching provided herein, one of skill can produce a virtually limitless supply of data storage molecules suitable for use in the SHMU storage format ofthe apparatus of this invention. C) Dynamic hole multi-unit (DHMU) storage. In another embodiment, the data storage medium used in the devices of this invention includes one or more molecules that act as a dynamic multi-unit (DHMU) molecular memory storage. In one embodiment, such a storage molecule comprises a poφhyrinic macrocycle containing at least two poφhyrins of equal energies held apart from each other at a spacing less than about 50 A such that said molecule has an odd hole oxidation state permitting the hole to hop between said two poφhyrins and wherein said odd hole oxidation state is different from and distinguishable from another oxidation state of said poφhyrinic macrocycle. The basic unit of a dynamic hole multi-unit storage molecule is illustrated by Formula XXV. p 1 p2 3 XXV. where P 2 is a redox-active subunit having an oxidation potential higher than P 1 or P 3 and P 1 and P 3 have the essentially the same oxidation potential. Thus, when an electron is withdrawn from the molecule, the "hole" does not reside on P 1 and, instead, "hops" from P 1 to P 3 and back again. Data are stored in the "hopping" hole. As will be explained below, this permits intenogation ofthe molecule without resetting the state ofthe molecule. Accordingly, a "read" can be performed without a "refresh". One particularly prefened DHMU storage molecule is illustrated by Formula XXVI: J 1 P — Q— P 5 XXVI where P 1 , P 3 , P 4 , and P 6 are independently selected poφhyrinic macrocycles; J 1 , J 2 , J 3 , and J 4 are independently selected linkers that permit electron transfer between the poφhyrinic macrocycles; P 2 and P 5 are independently selected metallo-free poφhyrinic macrocycles; and Q is a linker. Prefened "Q" linkers include, but are not limited to linkers such as 1,4- bis(4-teφhen-4"-yl)butadiyne or a tetrakis(arylethyne), or linkers comprised of 1,12- carboranyl (C 2 B 10 Hι 2 ), 1,10-carboranyl (C 2 B 8 H 10 ), [w]staffane, 1 ,4-cubanediyl, 1,4- bicyclo[2.2.2]octanediyl, phenylethynyl, or ?-phenylene units. One particularly prefened variant of this molecule is illustrated in Formula XXVII. XXVII where M 1 and M 2 are independently selected metals; S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 4 , S 5 , S 6 , S 7 , and S 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , and K 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of are independently 1 selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L and L are independently selected linkers; and X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. Prefened substituents (S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 4 , S 5 , S 6 , S 7 or S 8 ) provide a redox potential range of less than about 5 volts, more preferably less than about 2 volts, and most preferably less than about 1 volt. In some embodiments L-X can be eliminated and replaced with a substituent independently selected from the same group as S 1 - S 8 . In particularly prefened DHMU storage molecules of Formula XXVII, S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 5 , S 6 , S 7 , are the same, S 4 and S 8 are the same; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , and K 8 are the same, J 1 , J 2 , J 3 and J 4 are the same; and M 1 and M 2 are different. A prefened species is illustrated by Formula XXVIII: XXVIII The overall architecture of these molecule consists of linear trimers (e.g. like Formula XXV) joined together by a linker (e.g., a l,4-bis(4-teφhen-4"-yl)butadiyne or a tetrakis(arylethyne) unit). In some prefened embodiments, trimers consist of metallo-free base-metallo poφhyrins (see, e.g., Formula XVIII). In prefened embodiments, the peripheral poφhyrins in a given trimer have identical metals and substituents engendering equivalent redox potentials. The core free base poφhyrins each have perfluorophenyl substituents to render the poφhyrins more resistant to oxidation. The central linker (e.g., a l,4-bis(4-teφhen-4"-yl)butadiyne or a tetrakis(arylethyne)) serves as a structural unit to hold the trimers together. In addition, each poφhyrin bears a linker (e.g., a/?-thiophenol unit) for assembly on electroactive surfaces. This nanostructure, although complex in appearance, is in fact substantially smaller than other nanostructures synthesized and known in the prior art. Information is stored in the dynamic hole memory via oxidation ofthe poφhyrinic macrocycles as described above for the static-hole memory. However, there are certain key differences that distinguish the two types of memory elements that are illustrated by reference to Formula XXVIII. In compounds of Formula XXVIII, the oxidation potentials ofthe two Mg poφhyrins are essentially identical to one another (the difference is less than thermal energy at room temperature), as is also the case for the two Zn poφhyrins. Thus, oxidation results in the following sequence of states: [MgPi "1" , others neutral], [MgPι + , MgP 2 + , both ZnP 3 and ZnP 4 neutral], [MgPι + , MgP 2 + , ZnP 3 + , ZnP 4 ], [MgPι + , MgP 2 + , ZnP 3 + , ZnP + ], MgP 2 + , ZnP 3 + , ZnP 4 + ], and so forth until two holes have been removed from each metallopoφhyrin, i.e. [MgP ! "1"1" , MgP ++ , ZnP 3 ++ , ZnP 4 ++ ]. Thus, up to eight holes can again be stored in the nanostructure. However, the cases where one hole (or three holes) resides on either the Mg or the Zn poφhyrins are unique. For these odd-hole oxidation states, the hole(s) rapidly hop between the two metallopoφhyrins (100's of KHz to 100's of MHz, depending on the type of poφhyrin. In contrast, when each Mg or Zn poφhyrin contains the same number of holes, no hopping can occur. In a prefened embodiment, information is stored only via the hole-hopping states ofthe multipoφhyrin nanostructure, hence the designation "dynamic-hole" multi-unit storage. The encoding of a prototypical DHMU storage cell using the hole-hopping states is shown in Figure 5 (the double-headed anows indicate hole hopping). The synthetic methodologies already established permit extension ofthe architecture via addition of other trimeric units wherein the oxidation potential ofthe metallopoφhyrin is different from that ofthe others, thus increasing the dynamic range ofthe basic memory element beyond that shown. D) Tightly coupled storage molecules. As indicated above, the use of tightly coupled subunits permits the creation of a storage molecule/storage medium having multiple different and distinguishable non- neutral oxidation states. In particular, the juxtaposition ofthe subunits at a spacing that permits strong (tight) coupling between the two subunits results in a splitting ofthe redox potentials ofthe structurally identical units. In this manner, identical poφhyrins can be used in the construction of a storage molecule capable of storing many bits of information thereby resulting in substantial efficiencies in the construction of storage media. This is illustrated with respect to a poφhyrin. A monomeric poφhyrin has three accessible oxidation states (neutral, mono-cation, dication), the precise level of which can be tuned through synthetic variation of peripheral substituents, central metal, and use of skeletal atoms other than nitrogen. One example of a tightly coupled dimeric poφhyrin anay that we have investigated is shown below in Formula XXIX (poφhyrin dimer XXIX). This molecule has two zinc poφhyrins linked to each other at the poφhyrin meso-positions. XXIX. The synthesis of this poφhyrin dimer was accomplished using methods for preparing building block poφhyrins (Cho et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 7890-7901). Electrochemical examination of poφhyrin dimer XXIX revealed oxidation waves at +0.49 and +0.66 V for the formation ofthe monocation ofthe two poφhyrins comprising the poφhyrin dimer. This is in contrast to the single oxidation wave for the conesponding poφhyrin monomer which is expected at +0.58 V. The appearance of two waves in poφhyrin dimer XXIX indicates that the oxidation ofthe first poφhyrin forming the monocation shifts the potential ofthe second poφhyrin to higher potential. This shift in potential provides the opportunity to access distinct and different oxidation potentials in a multipoφhyrin anay where each poφhyrin is identical. In this example, the poφhyrin dimer I has four non-zero oxidation states as illustrated in Table 3. Table 3. Oxidation potentials observed in poφhyrin dimer XXIX. Oxidation potential (V) Redox-active unit 0.49 dimer oxidation potential 1 0.66 dimer oxidation potential 2 0.95 dimer oxidation potential 3 1.03 dimer oxidation potential 4 In this example, four different and distinguishable non-zero oxidation states are available in the resulting dimer, but construction ofthe storage molecule required synthesis of only a single subunit (poφhyrin monomer). This dramatically reduces the complexity and cost of the creation of suitable storage molecules for use in the storage devices of this invention. The principle is generalizable. One is not limited to the construction of tightly coupled dimers. It is also possible to construct tightly coupled trimers and longer oligomers having more different and distinguishable oxidation states. In addition, the constituent subunits need not be limited to poφhyrins. Essentially any molecule that has multiple different and distinguishable oxidation states and that can be tightly coupled to produce molecules having even more different and distinguishable oxidation states can be used as a subunit. Such molecules include, but are not limited to a poφhyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene (e.g. a fenocene), a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom-substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom-substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tetraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1 ,4-phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2'-bipyridyl, a 4,4'-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, a/?er/-bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide, and the like. A pair of subunits is said to be strongly coupled when coupling ofthe subunits (e.g. poφhyrins) increases the number of distinct and distinguishable oxidation states above the number of oxidation states available in the separate pair of subunits. In the case ofthe dimer of Formula I, the two separate subunits each have one non-zero oxidation state, but the dimer has four non-zero oxidation states and is thus essentially strongly coupled for the puφoses of this invention. Tight coupling is typically achieved by directly covalently linking the two subunits. In certain, instances, however, the subunits may be joined by a linker and/or joined by coordination to a metal, as long as the subunits are positioned closely enough together that they are functionally "tightly coupled." One example of subunits tightly coupled by coordination to a metal is provided by the lanthanide poφhyrinic "sandwich" molecules. These include, but are not limited, to a variety of double-decker and triple- decker sandwich molecules comprised of poφhyrinic molecules and metals (e.g. metals of the lanthanide series such as La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu and Y which has properties similar to lanthanides) (see, e.g., Jiang et al. (1997) Inorg. Chim. Ada, 255: 59-64; Ng and Jiang (1997) J. Chem. Soc. Rev., 26: 433-442; Chabach et al. (1996) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engi, 35: 898-899). Sandwich structures have also been made using Zr, Hf, Th, and U. Methods of determining when molecules are tightly coupled are well known to those of skill in the art. Using optical spectrographic methods, tightly coupled molecules will be revealed as perturbations in the optical spectra ofthe tightly coupled molecule. Thus, typically when an electron is removed from the system it will typically be accompanied an electronic transition (mixed valence transition). Similarly when examining the vibrational spectrum ofthe system (e.g. via infrared or raman spectroscopy) a weakly coupled system shows a neutral and a cation signature. As the system becomes more tightly coupled, the neutral and cation signature diminish and the system shows a characteristic signature at a frequency between the neutral and the cation frequency (Donohoe et al. (1988) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 110: 6119-6124). It is understood that the subunits could be so tightly coupled that the redox processes are those of a single supermolecule. In a prefened embodiment, the system is designed to provide multiple distinct and distinguishable oxidation states in a redox potential range of less than about 5 volts, preferably less than about 2 volts, more preferably less than about 1 volt. While the oxidation states are different and distinguishable at a difference of at least 1 mN, preferably at least 5 mN, and more preferably at least 10 mN, in particularly prefened embodiments, the oxidation states are separated from each other by at least about 25 mN, preferably by at least 50 mN, more preferably by at least about 100 mV, and most preferably by at least about 130-150 mV. As indicated above, in certain prefened embodiments, the storage molecules of this invention, are polymeric molecules comprising two or more monomeric subunits. In particularly prefened embodiments the subunits are identical or perhaps differ only in the presence or absence of a linker for attachment to the electrode. Use of essentially identical subunits substantially reduces the synthetic chemistry required to produce a storage device resulting in substantially more efficient and less enor-prone device assembly and substantial savings of labor and cost. In this approach, prefened subunits (monomers comprising the multimeric (anay) molecule are poφhyrinic macrocycles or metallocenes with poφhyrinic macrocycles being most prefened. In one particularly prefened embodiments, a pair ofthe tightly coupled subunits has the following structure shown in Formula XXX: XXX. where S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl and the substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. Alternatively, one or more of S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 are -L-X where -L-X, when present is optionally present on one or both subunits and L, when present, is a linker; X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; M is a metal; and K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH. In certain prefened embodiments, S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 are independently selected from the group consisting of mesityl, C 6 F 5 , 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, phenyl, »-tolyl, p-(tert- butyl)phenyl, 3,5-dimethylphenyl, 3,5-di(tert-butyl)phenyl, 3,5-dimethoxyphenyl, 3,5- dialkoxyphenyl, and n-pentyl. In certain prefened embodiments, -L-X is selected from the group consisting 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4- hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, 2-(4- mercaptophenyl)ethynyl, 2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl, 2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. Of course, the molecule need not be a dimer, in which case one or more of S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , or S 4 can independently be another subunit. In a particularly prefened embodiment, S 1 and S 3 are both the same; and K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are all the same (e.g. N). Various prefened embodiments are listed above in Formula XXIX and below in Formulas XXXI, XXXII, XXXIII, and XXXIV. XXXIII. XXXIV. Information is stored in the storage molecule by removing electrons from the poφhyrin constituents (leaving a hole and forming a π-cation radical (Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 11191-11201; Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem. 7: 1245-1262, and Seth et α/. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118: 11194-11207; Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116: 10578-10592). The redox characteristics ofthe subunits are adjusted by selection of the metal (M) and the substituents (e.g. S 1 , S 2 , S 3 ). The synthetic methodologies already established permit the extension ofthe linear architecture, thus increasing the dynamic range of this basic memory element well beyond the four bits indicated in Table 3. In addition, subunits can be engineered that have more than two oxidation states and more complex subunits can be utilized (e.g. subunits each comprising a poφhyrinic macrocycle coupled to a metallocene). Thus for example, molecules and/or subunits can be engineered that have virtually any number (e.g., 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, etc.) of different and distinguishable oxidation states. V. Synthesis and characterization of storage medium molecule(s). A) Designing oxidation states into the storage medium molecule(s). Control over the hole-storage and hole-hopping properties ofthe redox-active units ofthe storage molecules used in the memory devices of this invention allows fine control over the architecture of the memory device. Such control is exercised through synthetic design. The hole-storage properties depend on the oxidation potential ofthe redox-active units or subunits that are themselves or are that are used to assemble the storage media used in the devices of this invention. The hole-storage properties and redox potential can be tuned with precision by choice of base molecule(s), associated metals and peripheral substituents (Yang et al. (1999) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 3: 117-147). For example, in the case of poφhyrins, Mg poφhyrins are more easily oxidized than Zn poφhyrins, and electron withdrawing or electron releasing aryl groups can modulate the oxidation properties in predictable ways. Hole-hopping occurs among isoenergetic poφhyrins in a nanostructure and is mediated via the covalent linker joining the poφhyrins (Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 116: 10578-10592, Seth et al (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 11194-11207, Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 11191- 11201; Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245-1262, Strachan et al. (1998) Inorg. Chem., 37: 1191-1201, Yang et al. (1999) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 121: 4008-4018). Hole-hopping is not expected in the SHMU storage molecule(s) because each poφhyrin has a different oxidation potential. Hole-hopping is expected among isoenergetic poφhyrins in the DHMU molecule(s). We have studied hole-hopping phenomena extensively in related nanostructures in solution. We also have prepared and characterized the electrochemical properties of a library of monomeric Mg or Zn poφhyrins bearing diverse aryl groups (Yang et al. (1999) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 3: 117-147). The effects of metals on metalloprophyrin oxidation potentials are well known (Fuhrhop and Mauzerall (1969) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 91: 4174-4181). Together, these provide a strong foundation for designing devices with predictable hole-storage and hole-hopping properties. The design of compounds with predicted redox potentials is well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. In general, the oxidation potentials of redox-active units or subunits are well known to those of skill in the art and can be looked up (see, e.g., Handbook of Electrochemistry ofthe Elements). Moreover, in general, the effects of various substituents on the redox potentials of a molecule are generally additive. Thus, a theoretical oxidation potential can be readily predicted for any potential data storage molecule. The actual oxidation potential, particularly the oxidation potential ofthe information storage molecule(s) or the information storage medium can be measured according to standard methods. Typically the oxidation potential is predicted by comparison ofthe experimentally determined oxidation potential of a base molecule and that of a base molecule bearing one substituent in order to determine the shift in potential due to that particular substituent. The sum of such substituent-dependent potential shifts for the respective substituents then gives the predicted oxidation potential. In addition, the oxidation potential shift produced by tightly coupling the molecules can be predicted by methods well known to those of skill in the art (see, e.g., Citation). The actual oxidation states can be empirically determined as described herein. B) Synthesis of storage medium molecules. The basic synthetic methodologies used to construct the storage medium molecules of this invention are described in Prathapan et al. (1993) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 115: 7519-7520, Wagner et al. (1995) J. Org. Chem., 60: 5266-5273, Nishino et al. (1996) J. Org. Chem., 61: 7534-7544, Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 11166-11180, Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 11191-11201, and Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245-1262. These papers describe various strategies for the synthesis of a number of multi-poφhyrin (poφhyrinic macrocycle) compounds. More particularly, these papers which focus on light capture, energy funneling, and optical gating, has led to the preparation of nanostructures containing up to 21 covalently linked poφhyrins (Fenyo et al. (1997) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 1: 93-99, Mongin et al. (1998) J. Org. Chem., 63: 5568-5580, Bunell and Officer (1998) Synlett 1297-1307, Mak et al. (1998) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37: 3020-3023, Nakano et al. (1998) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37: 3023-3027, Mak et al. (1999) Chem. Commun., 1085-1086). Two-dimensional architectures, such as molecular squares (Wagner et al. (1998) J. Org. Chem., 63: 5042-5049), T-shapes (Johnson, T. E. (1995), Ph.D. Thesis, Carnegie Mellon University), and starbursts (Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245-1262) all comprised of different covalently linked poφhyrin constituents, have also been prepared. In addition, the hole storage and dynamic hole mobility characteristics ofthe multipoφhyrin nanostructures have been investigated in detail during the course of our other studies of these materials (Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 116: 10578-10592, Seth et al (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 11194-11207, Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 11191-11201; Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245-1262, Strachan et al. (1998) Inorg. Chem., 37: 1191-1201, Yang et al. (1999) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 121 : 4008- 4018). The general synthetic strategy preferably involves the following approaches: (1) a synthesis ofthe subunit(s) comprising the storage molecules of this invention; (2) coupling ofthe subunits, if necessary, to form the polymeric storage molecules; and (3) the directed self-assembly ofthe resulting structures on electrode (e.g. gold electrode) surfaces. The methods for synthesis, purification, and characterization for the molecular memory molecules (MMMs) generally follow those employed in the modular stepwise synthesis (Lindsey et al. (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 8941-8968) of molecular wires (Wagner et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 116: 9759-9760), optoelectronic gates (Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 3996-3997) and light-harvesting nanostructures (Prathapan et al. (1993) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 115: 7519-7520, Johnson, T. E. (1995), Ph.D. Thesis, Carnegie Mellon University, Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 11166- 11180, Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 1: 1245-1262, and Li et al. (1998) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 120: 10001-10017). In certain prefened embodiments, the following synthetic methods form the foundation for the building block synthesis of poφhyrin building blocks: (1) A room temperature one-flask synthesis of mesø-substituted poφhyrins (Lindsey et al. (1987) J. Org. Chem. 52: 827-836, Lindsey et al. (1994) J. Org. Chem. 59: 579-587, Li et al. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53: 12339-12360.). (2) Incoφoration of bulky groups around the poφhyrin to achieve enhanced solubility in organic solvents (Lindsey and Wagner (1989) J. Org. Chem., 54: 828-836). (3) A one-flask synthesis of dipynomethanes, key building blocks in the synthesis of poφhyrins bearing 2-4 different meso-substituents (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427-11440, Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391-1396). (4) A synthesis of trans-substituted poφhyrins without acidolytic scrambling (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 2864-2872). (5) A rational synthesis of poφhyrins bearing up to 4 different meso-substituents (Lee et al. (1995) Tetrahedron, 51 : 11645-11672, Cho et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 7890-7901). (6) Mild methods for inserting magnesium (Lindsey and Woodford (1995) Inorg. Chem. 34: 1063-1069, O'Shea et α/. (1996) Inorg. Chem., 35: 7325-7338) or other metals (Buchler, j. W. In The Porphyrins; Dolphin, D. Ed.; Academic Press: New York. 1978; Vol. I, pp. 389-483) into poφhyrins. (7) A general approach for preparing thiol-derivatized poφhyrin building blocks including various protecting groups for the thiol moiety (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634-8647). In one embodiment, building blocks are synthesized using methods described by Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 11166-11180, Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 11191-11201, Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 3996-3997, Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 1: 1245-1262; Lindsey et al. (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 8941- 8968; Wagner et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 116: 9759-9760; Lindsey and Wagner (1989) J. Org. Chem., 54: 828-836; Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427-11440; Lee et al. (1995) Tetrahedron, 51: 11645-11672; Lindsey and Woodford (1995) Inorg. Chem. 34: 1063-1069; and Wagner et al. (1995) J. Org. Chem., 60: 5266-5273. The synthesis ofthe molecules that form the basis for the storage molecules (e.g., SHMU storage molecules, DHMU storage molecules, etc.) is performed using a modular building block approach. This approach employs a stepwise synthesis (rather than polymerization) and yields highly purified and well-characterized products. One approach, utilizes a series of redox-active "building blocks" (e.g., a series of monomeric poφhyrinic macrocycles or fenocene constituents) that can be linked to the gold substrate that will serve as one ofthe electrodes in the chip. Prefened monomeric redox-active units that are prepared have different oxidation potentials that fall in the range from 0 to 1.3 volts. The two different redox-active units can be linked together to form a basic dimeric architecture. Similarly, two other different redox-active units (e.g. poφhyrins) can be linked to form a second dimeric architecture. Then the two dimers can be linked to form a linear, or non- linear, tetrameric architecture consisting of four different types of redox- active units (e.g., poφhyrins). One example of a prefened synthesis approach is shown in Figure 6. The reaction of 5-mesityldipynomethane (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427- 11440) with two aldehydes affords three poφhyrins, including the desired mono-thiol poφhyrin. The latter is metalated with Zn or Mg, and then the thiol protecting group can be removed. Ofthe various thiol protecting groups (Hsung et al. (1995) Tetrahedron Lett., 36: 4525-4528; Ricci et al. (1977) J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Transactions I., 1069-1073) the S- acetyl or ^-(N-ethyl-carbamoyl) group is stable toward the required synthetic conditions yet cleaved easily with methanolic diethylamine. The useful precursor 4- mercaptobenzaldehyde is readily available (Young et al. (1984) Tetrahedron Lett., 25: 1753-1756). The resulting poφhyrin mono-thiol can be assembled on a gold surface, or the protected thiol can be deprotected in situ on a gold surface. The synthesis of an SHMU storage molecule is shown in Figure 7. Four poφhyrin building blocks are employed in the synthesis of this nanostructure. Each building block is available via established synthetic routes (either via the route we established for ABCD-poφhyrins or via a 3 + 1 route involving a tripynane) (Lee et al. (1995) Tetrahedron, 51: 11645-11672). The fundamental methodology for joining the poφhyrin building blocks involves Pd-mediated coupling of an ethynyl-poφhyrin and an iodo-poφhyrin (Wagner et al. (1995) J. Org. Chem., 60: 5266-5273). Our optimized conditions for these coupling reactions afford 60-80% yields in 2-4 h. Purification is achieved using size-exclusion chromatography and characterization is accomplished with laser desoφtion mass spectrometry (see, e.g., Fenyo et al. (1997) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 1 : 93-99). This synthetic route is tolerant toward diverse aryl groups and metals in the poφhyrin unit. The stepwise synthesis makes available the dimeric unit ofthe SHMU storage molecule upon one cycle of coupling. The dimer will be examined electrochemically. Following cleavage ofthe S-acetyl protecting group, the thiols may undergo oxidative coupling (forming the disulfides) during handling and processing. Such disulfides can be reduced to regenerate the thiols, or deposited on gold surfaces whereupon reduction in situ yields the bound thiol species. Alternatively, the S-acetyl groups can be cleaved in situ upon exposure to the metal (e.g., gold) surface (Tour et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 117: 9529-9534). A number of poφhyrin thiols have been prepared and deposited on metals but not for memory storage applications (see, e.g., Zak et al. (1993) Langmuir, 9: 2112-211 A; Hutchison et al. (1993) Langmuir 9: 3277-3283; Bradshaw et al. (1994) Gazz. Chim. Ital. 124, 159-162; Postlethwaite et al. (1995) Langmuir, 11: 4109- 4116; Akiyama et al. (1996) Chem. Lett, 907-908; Uosaki et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 8367-8368; Katz and Willner (1997) Langmuir, 13: 3364-3373; Ishida et al. (1998) Chem. Lett, 267-268; Ishida et al. (1998) Chem. Commun., 57-58). Nanostructures having up to 21 poφhyrins are readily synthesized. A representative synthesis of a DHMU storage molecule is shown in Figure 8. Three poφhyrin building blocks are prepared and metalated with magnesium or zinc. The synthetic strategy builds the two arms ofthe DHMU storage molecule separately, which are then coupled in the penultimate step ofthe synthesis. Each arm is constructed via two Pd-mediated couplings, yielding the respective trimers. One trimer is iodinated at the ethyne (Barluenga et al. (1987) Synthesis, 661-662; and Brunei and Rousseau (1995) Tetrahedron Lett., 36: 2619-2622) then joined with the other trimer in a heterocoupling process to form the H-like structure. A variety of conditions can be employed for the heterocoupling reaction (Alami and Ferri (1996) Tetrahedron Lett., 37: 2763-2766). We previously showed that Pd-mediated (copper-free) couplings can be employed for homocoupling reactions (Wagner et al. (1995) J. Org. Chem., 60: 5266-5273). Copper- free couplings are prefened to avoid copper insertion in the free base poφhyrin. Here the same Pd-mediated coupling is used to perform the heterocoupling. The final step is cleavage of the S-acetyl protecting group, which proceeds in methanolic Et 2 NH. Such conditions do not alter any ofthe other functionalities in the molecule. Alternatively, the S-acetyl groups can be cleaved in situ upon exposure to the metal (e.g., gold) surface (Tour et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 117: 9529-9534). General methods for joining poφhyrin monomers to form linked poφhyrin anays (e.g. meso-meso linked poφhyrins) are described by Osuka and Shimidzu (1997) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 36: 135-137, Yoshida et al. (1998) Chem. Lett. 55-56, Nakano et al. (1998) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37: 3023-3027, Ogawa et al. (1998) Chem. Commun. 337-338, Ogawa et al. (1999) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 38: 176-179, and Senge and Feng (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 4165-4168. Using the synthesis strategies exemplified here and in the Examples, one of ordinary skill in the art can routinely produce relatively complex data storage molecules for use in the devices of this invention. Using the synthesis strategies exemplified here and in the Examples, one of ordinary skill in the art can routinely produce relatively complex data storage molecules for use in the devices of this invention. C) Characterization of the storage media. The storage media molecule(s), once prepared, can be characterized according to standard methods well known to those of skill in the art. The characterization of multipoφhyrin nanostructures has been described (see, e.g., Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 11191-11201; Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 3996-3997; Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245-1262; Seth et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 11194-11207; Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 116: 10578-10592). In a prefened embodiment, the electrochemical studies include cyclic and square-wave voltammetry to establish the redox potentials ofthe monomeric and multi-unit constituents ofthe storage media. Bulk electrochemical oxidations are performed on each ofthe storage materials to assess the hole-storage capabilities and the stability. Absoφtion and vibrational spectroscopic methods are used to assess the structural and electronic properties of both the neutral and oxidized materials. Electron paramagnetic resonance techniques are used to probe the hole-storage and hole-mobility characteristics ofthe oxidized storage molecules. Using the above-identified techniques, benchmarks for the expected performance characteristics of a storage molecule (e.g., oxidation potentials, redox reversibility, dynamic hole-mobility characteristics, etc.) can be ascertained. D) Self-assembly of the storage medium molecules on target substrates. In prefened embodiments, the storage molecules comprising the storage medium are designed to self-assemble on a substrate (e.g. a metal such as gold). The disklike structure ofthe poφhyrin macrocycles engenders self-assembly. Self-assembled monolayers of poφhyrins on solid substrates are well known and have been extensively studied (see, e.g., Schick et al. (1989) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 111: 1344-1350, Mohwald et al. (1986) Thin Solid Films, 141: 261-275). To exert control over the pattern of self-assembly, reactive sites (e.g. thiols) or linkers bearing active sites are incoφorated into the storage molecules (nanostructures). The reactive sites bind to the target (e.g. gold electrode) surface giving an organized self- assembled structure. In the case of poφhyrins with thiol linkers attached to the meso- positions, the poφhyrins anange in upright orientations. Non-covalent interactions between storage molecules are typically weak, particularly when bulky aryl groups are attached to each ofthe poφhyrins. VI. Writing to the storage device. In prefened embodiments ofthe data storage devices of this invention, information is written to a particular memory location via application of a potential ofthe requisite value and temporal duration at the appropriate working and reference electrode(s) to achieve the desired digital value. The information can be erased via application of a potential ofthe opposite sign. The writing process is illustrated with respect to storage of data in a static hole multi-unit storage molecule (SHMU storage molecule). One particular such molecular memory is illustrated by Formula IX and the writing process is summarized below in Table 4. As shown in Table 4, each poφhyrin has two redox processes, each of which is separated by at least 150 mV. To activate bit 001, a potential greater than 0.38 V (but less than 0.51 V) would be applied to the memory element to oxidize the magnesium poφhyrin to its first oxidation state. The other poφhyrins in the SHMU storage molecule could then be sequentially oxidized through the various redox states to provide the different bits. In prefened embodiments, this is accomplished through the application of very short (e.g., microsecond) pulses applied at a voltage sufficient to oxidize a poφhyrin to the appropriate redox state. This process is summarized in Figure 9. Thus, each redox state of the composite poφhyrinic nanostructure can independently accessed to provide one bit of resolution. This can be accomplished via the electrochemical oxidation ofthe molecule in stepwise increments. Table 4. Redox properties of model metallopoφhyrins (MP). Bit Redox process E υ (V vs. Ag/AgCl) 000 All redox components in neutral state 001 MgPZnP «--» MgP + ZnP + 1 e " 0.38 010 MgP + ZnP «- ■ » MgP + ZnP + + 1 e " 0.51 011 MgP + ZnP + ■ • ■ » MgP 2+ ZnP + + 1 e ' 071 Another example ofthe writing process is illustrated with respect to storage of data in poφhyrin dimer XXIX (Formula XXIX). While each poφhyrin subunit individually has a single non-neutral oxidation state, as shown in Table 5, the dimer has four non-zero oxidation states, each of which is separated by at least about 50 mV. To activate bit Table 2. Mapping of bits onto oxidation potential in the poφhyrin dimer of Formula I. Bit Oxidation potential (V) Redox-active unit parity 0 dimer neutral 00 0.49 dimer oxidation potential 1 01 0.66 dimer oxidation potential 2 10 0.95 dimer oxidation potential 3 00 1.03 dimer oxidation potential 4 001, a potential greater than 0.49 V (but less than 0.66 V) would be applied to the memory element to oxidize poφhyrin 1 to its first oxidation state. A voltage greater than 0.66 V and less than 0.95 V would oxidize poφhyrin 1 to its second oxidation state. A voltage greater than 0.95 V and less than 1.03 V would oxidize poφhyrin 2 ofthe dimer to its first oxidation state and a voltage greater than 1.03 would oxidize poφhyrin 2 ofthe dimer to its second oxidation state. There is a great advantage to the small size of each memory element, which is essentially a modified electrode surface. When each memory element is reduced to sub- micron dimensions, the area ofthe surface allows the presence of only a few hundred data storage (e.g., poφhyrin) molecules. Using Faraday's law, Q=nFN (where Q equals the total charge, n equals the number of electrons per molecule, F is 96,485 Coulombs/mole and N is the number of moles of electroactive species present), it can be determined that only a small charge (1.6 x 10 "16 C; if passed in 1 μs, would result in a cunent of roughly 160 pA) must pass in order to change the electrochemical charge conesponding to each bit. Additionally, the intrinsic limitation to the speed of most electrochemical experiments lies in the time required to charge the electrode to the appropriate potential (the charging cunent, which has a time dependence of exp(-t/RC)). Since the capacitance ofthe electrode is directly proportional to its area, miniaturization of each element ofthe system to submicron dimensions will greatly increase its speed. For example, a square gold electrode with 0.1 μm dimensions would have a capacitance of approximately 2 x 10 "19 F, leading to an RC time constant of only 2 picoseconds. For this reason, electrode charging cunents should be insignificant in determining the ultimate performance of these devices. The voltage used to write the data can be derived from any of a wide variety of sources. In a simple embodiment, the voltage can simply be the output from a power supply. However, in prefened embodiments, the voltage will be the output from some element of an electronic circuit. The voltage can be a signal, the representation of a logic state, the output from a gate, from an optical transducer, from a central processing unit, and the like. In short, virtually any voltage source that can be electrically coupled to the devices of this invention can be used to write data to the storage media therein. VII. Reading from the storage device. The storage device(s) of this invention can be read according to any of a wide variety of methods well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Essentially any method of detecting the oxidation state of a compound can be utilized in the methods of this invention. However, where the readout is destructive ofthe state ofthe memory cell(s) (e.g. in certain SHSU or SHMU memories), the read will preferably be followed by a refresh to reset the oxidation state ofthe storage cell. In particularly prefened embodiments, the storage medium 102 of a storage cell 100 is set to neutral (e.g., 0 potential for the system, but which might not be at true zero voltage with respect to ground) using the working electrode. The oxidation state ofthe memory cell is then set by changing the potential at the reference electrode 103 (e.g. by setting the reference electrode negative to the desired voltage). The oxidation state ofthe storage cell is then measured (e.g. using sinusoidal voltammetry) via the working electrode 101. In this prefened format, the oxidation state is assayed by measuring cunent. By measuring cunent at the working electrode 101 and setting the state with the reference electrode 103, the measurement is not made at the place the potential is applied. This makes it far simpler to discriminate the oxidation state. If the potential were applied to the electrode through which the cunent was measured unnecessary noise would be introduced into the system. A) Reading from static hole storage media In the case of static hole storage media (e.g. SHSU and SHMU), the reading of information from a particular memory location is achieved extremely rapidly by sweeping a potential over the full range used to establish the dynamic range ofthe storage element. The fidelity ofthe measurement is dependent on how well the oxidation state of the individual storage element can be determined. Traditionally, electrochemical methods could only improve the signal to noise ratio by discriminating the faradaic signal from the background components in the time domain through application of pulse waveforms (i.e., differential pulse polarography, square wave voltammetry). These methods discriminate the faradaic cunent from the charging cunent in the time domain, since charging cunents decay much more rapidly than the faradaic cunent (exp(-t/RC) vs t _1 2 , respectively). However, the analytical faradaic current is not totally discriminated from the charging cunent, and most ofthe signal is discarded because sampling is done late in the pulse cycle. More recently, sinusoidal voltammetry (SV) has been shown to have significant advantages over traditional waveforms in an electrochemical experiment (Singhal et al. (1997) Anal. Chem., 69: 1662-1668. For example, the background cunent resulting from cyclic voltammetry (consisting primarily of charging current) resembles a square wave, which contains significant intensity at both fundamental and odd harmonic frequencies. In contrast, the charging cunent resulting from sine wave excitation has only one frequency component centered at the fundamental, while the faradaic cunent is distributed over many frequencies as is illustrated in Figure 10. This characteristic of sine wave excitation simplifies the electroanalytical measurement, since the signal from each oxidation state can be fine-tuned by "locking-in" on one ofthe higher frequency harmonics. Ultimately, the speed at which this can be performed is only limited by the kinetics ofthe redox reaction, which may ultimately lead to megahertz frequency operation. Since most electrochemical methods rely on differences between the E 1/2 's (Ei /2 is the potential at which half of the subject molecules are oxidized or reduced to a particular oxidation state) to differentiate compounds present in a sample and thereby to generate the selectivity for the measurement, this has severely limited the utility of electrochemical methods for the analysis of many complex matrices. In contrast, sinusoidal voltammetry can exploit the vast diversity in electron transfer rates observable at solid electrodes (k°, the rate of electron transfer) can vary over ten orders of magnitude at the same electrode surface) to obtain additional selectivity in the electrochemical measurement. The composition ofthe frequency spectrum is extremely dependent on the rate of electron transfer. By adjusting the frequency ofthe sinusoidal (or other time- varying) excitation waveform, it becomes possible to use this kinetic information as well as the phase information to discriminate between two molecules which have very similar electrochemical properties. For example, this technique has been used for the detection of the direct oxidation of double-stranded DNA at copper electrodes (Singhal and Kuhr (1997) Anal. Chem., 69: 1662-1668). Where this is usually undetectable at conventional electrodes with standard voltammetric techniques, the use of sinusoidal voltammetry allowed the measurement of 1.0 nM double-stranded DNA. The concentration detection limit (S/N=3) for this size of dsDNA at the 6th harmonic is 3.2 pM. When coupled with a low- volume system, such as a monolayer ofthe adsorbed material, this allows detection of sub- zeptomole (10 "21 mole) quantities ofthe storage medium molecule(s) on the surface. This procedure may ultimately degrade the memory in the absence of a refresh mechanism. The level of degradation will depend on the total number of molecules ultimately used to ensure acceptable fault tolerance. To avoid degradation problems, however, a refresh cycle (a write cycle resetting the memory to the read value) can be inserted immediately after each read cycle is complete. B) Reading from a dynamic hole storage medium The same methods as described above for the static hole storage media can also be used to read dynamic hole storage media. However, the dynamic hole storage media were designed for and afford the unique possibility of intenogating a particular memory location via examination ofthe impedance ofthe working electrode. This reading scheme is possible because the impedance is modulated by the hole that hops between the two identical poφhyrinic macrocycle units orthogonal to the surface ofthe electrode. The frequency of hole hopping is different depending on which pair of redox-active subunits is in an odd-hole state (and whether they are in a three-hole or one-hole state). The value of the bit can be read via determination of that frequency. This is most easily accomplished by an impedance measurement (preferably a function of frequency). The "hole-hopping" state ofthe poφhyrin will determine the conductive state ofthe molecular monolayer. Since the hole(s) rapidly hop between the two metallopoφhyrins in the odd-hole oxidation states at rates which vary from the 100's of KHz to 100's of MHz, depending on the type of poφhyrin, it is possible to find these states by the frequency at which the impedance ofthe nanostructure dips. In contrast, when each Mg or Zn poφhyrin contains the same number of holes, no hopping can occur. The rate of hole hopping will determine the impedance characteristics of each state of each poφhyrin nanostructure in the chip, and a decrease in the cell impedance would be expected at the hole-hopping frequency for each state of each poφhyrin. While characterization of these hole-hopping states requires the collection ofthe entire frequency spectrum, the actual read cycle ofthe DHMU storage medium need only monitor a single frequency at a time. Impedance measurements using lock-in based systems apply only one frequency at a time to the electrode; any other frequencies are nearly totally suppressed by the lock-in amplifier. Thus, it is possible to monitor the frequency characteristic of hole-hopping level of each state and simultaneously determine the logic level of each element in the anay using lock-in techniques. This method of reading is extremely sensitive for molecular memories that utilize relatively small numbers of redox-active units (e.g. poφhyrinic macrocycle nanostructures). The examination ofthe impedance can also be performed without compromising the integrity of a particular memory element. For all I/O operations with the molecular memories of this invention, the use of molecular electronic components as on-chip buffering and decoding circuitry is desirable although not required. Hybrid systems can easily be produced incoφorating the devices of this invention into conventional integrated circuit packages that contain all the circuitry required for encoding/decoding data, reading and writing to the storage element, monitoring fault tolerance and dynamically optimizing/selecting active storage elements to maximize fault tolerance. C) Instrumentation for reading/writing molecular memories. As indicated above, the molecular memory devices can be read by any of a wide variety of electrochemical technologies including amperometric methods (e.g. chronoamperometry), coulometric methods (e.g. chronocoulometry), voltammetric methods (e.g., linear sweep voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry, pulse voltammetries, sinusoidal voltammetry, etc.), any of a variety of impedance and/or capacitance measurements, and the like. Such readouts can be performed in the time and/or frequency domain. 1) Fast potentiostat/voltammetry system. In one prefened embodiment, readout is accomplished using a fast potentiostat/voltammetry system. Such a system is capable of reading and writing the memory elements, on a microsecond time scale. Such a system can be modified from a prototypical system described in U.S. Patent 5,650,061. As illustrated in Figure 11 , a potentiostat with an RC time constant less than one microsecond is provided by using a fast voltage driver (e.g., video buffer amplifier). A prefened video buffer amplifier retains a usable bandwidth beyond 20 MHz and is used to rephase the voltage and cunent in the excitation signal to zero phase shift between voltage and cunent. This rephasing ofthe excitation signal immediately before the working electrode cancels out any phase shift which might be introduced by capacitance in the cable leading from the Arbitrary Waveform Synthesizer (AWS) function generator. An important part ofthe cunent monitor is a wide band op-amp. By using an op-amp with a very wide gain-bandwidth product, the amplifier gain can be set to 10,000 and still retain a bandwidth usable from DC to above 1 MHz. This allows the collection of impedance data from electrodes as small as a 1 μm disk over a frequency range from 15 kHz to 5 MHz. 2) A megahertz impedance analysis system. An ultrafast impedance analysis system capable of characterizing the SHMU storage medium on a microsecond time scale can be constructed using an Arbitrary Waveform Synthesizer (e.g., HP 8770 A, AWS) and a 1-GHz Digitizing Oscilloscope (e.g., HP 5411 ID) controlled by a computer system (e.g. HP 9000 series 300 computer system, Hewlett-Packard, Palo Alto, CA). The impedance data sets can be collected with the digital scope with 8192 time domain points at 25 MHz. Thus, a full 8192 point data set can be acquired in a total of 328 μs. Both the excitation and the response waveforms are measured; the excitation waveform is measured prior to the start ofthe experiment so that the response acquisitions can be done during the course ofthe experiment without interruption. One prefened excitation signal consists of a waveform with an amplitude of 60 mV (P-P) which covers a frequency band from approximately 30 KHz to over 1 MHz. If five complete replicates of each excitation or response waveform are contained within the 8192 data points set captured by the capture device (e.g. oscilloscope), because no further ensemble averaging is needed, each full impedance spectra can be acquired in 328 μs. Therefore, the whole frequency band under study can be excited and monitored in a single acquisition. The FFT ofthe time domain data provides frequency-amplitude and frequency-phase characterization ofthe data equivalent to the data given by a lock-in based system. VIII. Computer systems comprising storage device(s) according to this invention. The use ofthe storage devices of this invention in computer systems is contemplated. One such computer system is illustrated in Figure 12. The computer comprises a signal source (e.g. I/O device or CPU) a storage device of this invention and appropriate circuitry (e.g. voltammetry circuitry) to read the state(s) ofthe storage device. In operation, voltages representing the bits to be stored are applied to the working electrodes ofthe storage device thereby setting the memory. When retrieval is necessary (e.g. for output, or further processing) the state(s) ofthe storage device is read by the I/O circuitry and the information is passed off to other elements (e.g. CPU) in the computer. Figure 12 illustrates the memory devices of this invention integrated into a standard computer architecture or computer system 200. The hardware of system 200 includes a processor (CPU) 205, a memory 206 (which can comprise molecular memory devices), a persistent storage 208 which does comprise molecular memory devices of this invention, and hardware for a graphical user interface (GUI) 220, coupled by a local bus or interface 210. The persistent memory 208 can include the elements shown in Figure 11. System 200 can further include additional hardware components (not shown). System 200 can be, for example, a personal computer or workstation. Processor 205 can be, for example, a microprocessor, such as the 80386, 80486 or Pentium(tm) microprocessor, made by Intel Coφ. (Santa Clara, Calif). Memory 206 can include, for example, random-access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), virtual memory, molecular memory (Figure 11) or any other working storage medium or media accessible by processor 205. Persistent storage 208 can include a hard disk, a floppy disk, an optical or magneto-optical disk, a molecular memory or any other persistent storage medium. GUI 220 facilitates communications between a user and system 200. Its hardware includes a visual display 221 and a selector device (mouse, keyboard, etc.) 222. Through visual display 221, system 200 can deliver graphical and textual output to the user. From selector device 222, system 200 can receive inputs indicating the user's selection of particular windows, menus, and menu items. Visual display 221 can include, for example, a cathode-ray tube (CRT) or flat-panel display screen, or a head-mounted display such as a virtual reality display. Selector device 222 can be, for example, a two-dimensional pointing device such as a mouse, a trackball, a track pad, a stylus, a joystick, or the like. Alternatively or additionally, selector device 222 can include a keyboard, such as an alphanumeric keyboard with function and cursor-control keys. The software of system 200 includes an operating system 250 and an application program 260. The software of system 200 can further include additional application programs (not shown). Operating system 150 can be, for example, the Microsoft® Windows95® operating system for IBM PC and compatible computers having or emulating Intel 80386, 80486, or Pentium(tm) processors. Alternatively, the operating system can be specialized for operation utilizing molecular memory elements. Application program 160 is any application compatible with the operating system and system 200 architecture. Persons of skill in the art will appreciate that a wide range of hardware and software configurations can support the system and method ofthe present invention in various specific embodiments. EXAMPLES The following examples are offered to illustrate, but not to limit the claimed invention. Example 1 : Thiol-Porphyrins for Attachment to Electroactive Surfaces as Molecular Memory Devices I. Molecular Design This example presents the design and synthesis of poφhyrins that can be attached covalently, in defined geometries, to electroactive surfaces. For the present puφoses, we consider only the surface of a gold electrode. Three design features we sought to obtain included the following: (1) The ability to attach poφhyrins via a sulfide linkage to the gold electrode surface with the poφhyrins oriented vertically or horizontally. (2) The ability to tune the poφhyrin electrochemical oxidation potential through the use of electron- withdrawing or releasing substituents at the periphery ofthe poφhyrin, or the use of different metals in metallopoφhyrins. (3) The use of thiol protecting groups that would cleave spontaneously on the gold surface, thereby avoiding the potential practical problems of handling free thiols. In order to achieve a vertical orientation ofthe poφhyrin attached to the gold surface, we employed A 3 B meso-substituted poφhyrins where the B group bears the thiol for surface attachment. The remaining three A groups bear substituents for control ofthe electrochemical potential. In order to achieve a horizontal orientation ofthe poφhyrin attached to the gold surface, we employed poφhyrins possessing two or four -CH 2 SH groups in the meta position ofthe meso-phenyl rings. The tuning ofthe electrochemical potential can be achieved in a straightforward manner in the A 3 B-poφhyrins, where the A group can range from electron-rich substituents such as mesityl to electron-deficient substituents such as the pentafluorophenyl group. With the horizontally-oriented poφhyrins, the introduction of substituents to tune the potential must be done without interfering with the metα-CH 2 SH groups. Accordingly, we have elected to investigate different metals with the horizontally-positioned poφhyrins. The selection ofthe thiol protecting group poses extensive challenges. The protecting group of choice should be stable under diverse conditions, including the acidic and oxidative conditions of poφhyrin formation as well as conditions for poφhyrin metalation (generally involving mild Lewis acids, in some cases in the presence of bases). One objective is to be able to construct diarylethyne-linked multipoφhyrin anays, which require Pd-mediated coupling reactions. We sought thiol protecting groups that would meet these diverse criteria. II. Results Aldehydes. Our initial synthetic strategy toward mono-thiol (A 3 B) poφhyrins for vertical orientation started from 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde which we hoped to convert to 4- mercaptobenzaldehyde dimethyl acetal (using the strategy of Young et al. (Young et al. (1984) Tetrahedron Lett., 25: 1753-1756)) and next to the thiol-protected dimethyl acetals. The first step involved conversion ofthe aldehyde group to its dimethyl acetal under standard conditions. The sulfide obtained was successfully converted to the sulfoxide in 95% yield but treatment ofthe sulfoxide with TFAA led to polymerization rather than the thiol (probably because of cleavage of acetal and intermolecular thioacetalization). We overcame this problem by making two improvements: (1) the dimethyl acetal was replaced by a more bulky acetal protecting group at an earlier stage ofthe synthesis, (2) milder conditions for the Pummerer reanangement were employed (Sugihara et al. (1978) Synthesis, 881). Thus protection ofthe carbonyl group with neopentyl glycol (Rondestvedt (1961) J. Org. Chem., 26: 2247 - 2253) followed by oxidation ofthe resulting acetal (1) smoothly afforded sulfoxide 2 in 86% overall yield (Scheme 1, Figure 14). Treatment of sulfoxide 2 with TFAA in the presence of 2,6-lutidine followed by hydrolysis ofthe resulting intermediate furnished thiol 3. Compound 3 was transformed into the 5-protected acetals 4, 5, 6, and 7 using ethyl isocyanoacetate (Ricci et al. (1977) J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. 1: 1069-1073), 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (Vorozhtsov et al. (1958) Z. Obs. Chim., 28: 40-44, Engl. Transl. 40-44), 9-chloromethylanthracene (Kornblum and Scott (1974) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 96: 590-591), and pivaloyl chloride, respectively, in overall yields of 20-65% from the sulfoxide 2. The acetal group in 4, 5, 6 and 7 was selectively hydrolyzed prior to formation ofthe conesponding poφhyrin. Two other S-protected ?-thiobenzaldehydes were obtained as shown in Scheme 2 (Figure 15). The thiocyanato-benzaldehyde 8 was prepared according to a general procedure (Suzuki and Abe (1996) Synth. Commun., 26: 3413-3419) in 20% yield. All attempts to improve the yield by replacement of DMF with l,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone, increasing the temperature, or prolonging the reaction time were unsuccessful. S- Acetylthiobenzaldehyde 9 was prepared in a two-step one-flask procedure. Cleavage ofthe methyl group of 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde according to a general procedure (Tiecco et al. (1982) Synthesis, 478-480) followed by trapping ofthe resulting anion with acetyl chloride afforded the desired S-acetylthiobenzaldehyde 9 in 55% yield. Our approach toward horizontally-oriented poφhyrins required access to S- protected m-(HSCH 2 )benzaldehydes. The commercially available m- (bromomethyl)benzomtrile was reduced with DiBAl-H to the conesponding m- (bromomethyl)benzaldehyde (Wagner et al. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53: 6755-6790) (Scheme 2, Figure 15). Substitution ofthe bromine with potassium thiocyanate gave the thiocyanato- benzaldehyde 10 as colorless crystals in 74% yield. By using the thiocyanate as protecting group, incoφoration and protection ofthe sulfur unit could be achieved in one step. Porphyrins. The A B-poφhyrins were prepared using a two-step, one-flask room temperature synthesis of meso-substituted poφhyrins that is compatible with a variety of precursor aldehydes including the ortλo-disubstituted benzaldehydes that yield facially- encumbered poφhyrins (Lindsey and Wagner (1989) J. Org. Chem., 54: 828-836, Lindsey, J.S. in Metalloporphyrins-Catalyzed Oxidations; Montanari, F., Casella, L., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: The Netherlands, 1994; pp 49-86, Lindsey et al. (1994) J. Org. Chem., 59: 579-587). A mixed-aldehyde condensation of mesitaldehyde, a thiol-protected aldehyde, and pynole afforded a mixture of poφhyrins, from which the desired thiol- protected A 3 B-poφhyrin was obtained by chromatography. The acetals 4-7 were hydrolyzed with trifluoroacetic acid and the resulting aldehydes 11-14 were used directly without purification in the respective poφhyrin syntheses. Thus, aldehydes 9, 11, 12, 13 or 14 as well as commercially available 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde afforded thiol-protected A 3 B-poφhyrins 20, 15, 16, 17, 18 or 19, respectively, in -10% yield (Scheme 3, Figure 16). The poφhyrins obtained were metalated using Zn(OAc) 2 »2H 2 O, affording Zn-20, Zn-15, Zn-16, Zn-17, Zn-18 or Zn-19. Examination ofthe behavior of various thiol-protected zinc poφhyrins revealed that the S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) and S-acetyl groups easily cleaved in situ and the resulting poφhyrin product bound on the gold surface (vide infra). We decided to confirm this result by also cleaving the S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) group in poφhyrin Zn-15 using basic conditions. Treatment of poφhyrin Zn-15 with sodium methoxide followed by acidic workup gave mono-thiol poφhyrin Zn-21, which was air-sensitive and proved very difficult to purify to homogeneity (the poφhyrin disulfide was also present) (Scheme 4, Figure 17). The same reaction performed with quenching by acetyl chloride afforded the S-acetyl poφhyrin Zn-20. Both Zn-15 and Zn-20 were found to bind to the gold surface identically with that of the free thiol containing poφhyrin Zn-21. We attempted to insert magnesium into poφhyrins 15 and 16 using Mgl 2 and NN-diisopropylethylamine in CH 2 C1 2 (Lindsey and Woodford (1995) Inorg. Chem. 34: 1063-1069). In both cases we obtained complex mixtures of poφhyrins due to cleavage of the protecting groups. The resulting salts likely contain the thiolate anion complexed with the protonated diisopropylethylamine. All attempts at acidification caused demetalation of magnesium. Magnesium insertion occuned with 5,10,15-trimesityl-20-(4- thiocyanatophenyl)poφhyrin under these conditions but the Mg-chelate could not be purified to homogeneity. The difficulty in purification may stem from lability ofthe thiocyanate group on alumina, as we observed that the thiocyanate group of 5,10,15- trimesityl-20-(4-thiocyanatophenyl)poφhyrin is cleaved during chromatography on alumina. Finally we subjected the S-acetyl-derivatized poφhyrin 20 to the same magnesium insertion conditions. Magnesium insertion occuned but with cleavage ofthe thiol protecting group, affording the free thiol Mg-21 in 32% yield (Scheme 5, Figure 18). The results ofthe gold-binding studies (vide infra) prompted us to use the S- carbamoyl benzaldehyde 11 in subsequent syntheses. Thus mixed aldehyde-pynole condensations of aldehyde 11 with 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzaldehyde, pentafluorobenzaldehyde, or n-hexanal yielded poφhyrins 22, 23 or 24, respectively (Scheme 6, Figure 19). Attempted conversion to the zinc chelate gave the thiol-protected poφhyrin Zn-22, however the more forcing conditions required for metalation ofthe tris(pentafluorophenyl)poφhyrin and tri-«-pentyl-substituted poφhyrin resulted in cleavage ofthe S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) group, giving Zn-25 and Zn-26. The design of poφhyrins oriented in a horizontal manner can be achieved by the synthesis of poφhyrins bearing a metα-(mercaptomethyl)phenyl group at each ofthe four meso-positions. We attempted to repeat the synthesis ofthe unprotected 5,10,15,20- tetrakis[m-(mercaptomethyl)phenyl]poφhyrin (Wen et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 7726-7733), but encountered solubility problems due to disulfide formation. Because ofthe promising results with other thiol protecting groups cleaved directly on the gold surface we decided to synthesize the conesponding thiol-protected poφhyrin. As a protected sulfide entity we chose the thiocyanate group due to its high chemical stability. Condensation of 10 with pynole at room temperature afforded the desired 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[ -(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]pθφhyrin 27 as a dark puφle solid. Metalation with zinc acetate afforded the zinc-chelate Zn-27 as a puφle solid in 79% yield (Scheme 7, Figure 20). The thiocyanates were easily cleaved on the gold surface, affording a self-assembled poφhyrin oriented parallel to the gold surface using all four thiol groups for binding (vide infra). Driven by these positive results we decided to synthesize a poφhyrin with only two 'legs' for attachment to the gold surface. Condensation of aldehyde 10 with 5- phenyldipynomethane (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427-11440, Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1391-1396) using BF 3 » OEt 2 in acetonitrile to minimize scrambling (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 2864-2872) gave the desired trans- poφhyrin 28 in 7% yield (accompanied by 10,15,20-triphenyl-5-[/w- (thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]poφhyrin in 2% yield due to scrambling) (Scheme 8, Figure 21). Metalation of 28 with zinc acetate afforded the zinc poφhyrin Zn-28 as a puφle solid in 59%> yield. Poφhyrin Zn-28 also bound to the gold surface by in situ cleavage ofthe thiocyanate units. To achieve horizontally-oriented poφhyrins with different potentials we decided to metalate 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[/«-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]poφhyrin (29) with various metal acetates (Scheme 9, Figure 22). 29 was synthesized by substitution of all four bromides in 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[w-(bromomethyl)phenyl)poφhyrin (Wen et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 7726-7733, Karaman et al. (1992) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 114: 4889- 4898) with potassium thioacetate in 63% yield. Metalation of free base poφhyrin 29 with zinc acetate gave the desired zinc poφhyrin Zn-29 in quantitative yield as a puφle solid. Using Co(OAc) 2 » 4H 2 O afforded the conesponding cobalt chelate Co-29 as an orange-puφle solid in quantitative yield. Characterization. The synthetic poφhyrins are puφle solids with a metallic reflection. The poφhyrins are stable to air but slowly decompose in solution in the presence of light. The purity of all poφhyrin compounds was routinely checked by TLC, Η NMR spectroscopy (with the exception ofthe paramagnetic Co-29), LD-MS and UV/VIS spectroscopy. Fluorescence emission and excitation spectroscopy was used to confirm the completeness of the different metalation procedures. FAB-MS and IR spectra were measured to support the structure ofthe poφhyrins. Generally the LD-MS spectrum of a poφhyrin shows the cationic molecule ion peak M + in high intensity with only little fragmentation (Srinivasan et al. (1999) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 3: 283-291). But some poφhyrins with delicate peripheral groups undergo characteristic and extensive fragmentation upon LD-MS analysis. Poφhyrins with thiocyanate substituents show the loss ofthe cyano and the thiocyanato groups, with the latter exhibiting more intense peaks. If more than one thiocyanate group is present, fragmentation can occur for each of these groups. Poφhyrins with S-acetyl groups show loss of both the acetyl (-COCH 3 ) and the thioacetate (-SCOCH 3 ) groups. Such fragmentation can generally occur for each thioacetate substituent. A further LD-MS feature observed with thioacetate-derivatized poφhyrins involves the appearance of an (M + 15) + peak. Because this peak occuned in the LD-MS spectra of all poφhyrins with thioacetate substituents, which were synthesized via different routes, and no other types of spectra show any evidence for the presence of another species, this cannot be an impurity but must be a photochemical artifact involving the transfer of a methyl group. In each case the (M + 15) + peak exhibited the same pattern of fragmentation as observed for the parent molecule ion (M) + . The intensity ofthe (M + 15) + peak is about 10% of that ofthe M + peak. Behavior on gold. We surveyed the behavior ofthe thiol-protected zinc chelates Zn-15, Zn-16, Zn-17, Zn-18, Zn-19 and Zn-20 on gold electrodes. The members of this set of zinc poφhyrins each bears three mesityl groups and differ only in the nature ofthe thiol protecting group. These studies revealed that the S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) (Zn-15) and S- acetyl (Zn-20) groups were easily cleaved on the gold surface, whereas the S-(2,4- dinitrophenyl) (Zn-16), S-(9-anthrylmethyl) (Zn-17), S-pivaloyl (Zn-18) and S-methyl (Zn- 19) protecting groups were not cleaved. When no cleavage occuned, the thiol-protected poφhyrins were not bound to the gold surface. We found that Zn-15 (S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) protected), Zn-20 (S-acetyl protected), and Zn-21 (free thiol) bind to the gold surface identically. We also examined thiocyanatomethyl-derivatized poφhyrins (Zn-27, Zn-28) on gold electrodes. We found that the thiocyanato protecting group cleaves in situ and the conesponding thiol-derivatized poφhyrin binds on the gold surface. These results are in accord with and extend a previous report (Tour et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117: 9529- 9534) that the S-acetyl group of various thiol-substituted arenes (not poφhyrins) is cleaved on the gold surface. Ofthe three thiol protecting groups that we identified to undergo cleavage in situ on gold electrodes, we also found in survey experiments that only the S- acetyl group is compatible with Pd-coupling reactions for the preparation of diarylethyne- linked multipoφhyrin anays. Poφhyrins Zn-15, Zn-20, Zn-21, Zn-22, Zn-25, Zn-26, Zn-27, Zn-28, and Mg-21 have been attached to a gold electrode. Poφhyrins Zn-15, Zn-20, Zn-21, Zn-22, Zn-25, Zn-26, and Mg-21 bear one thiol or protected thiol and bind to the gold surface in a vertical orientation. Poφhyrins Zn-27 and Zn-28 bind to the surface in a horizontal orientation with four and two sites of attachment, respectively. The set of zinc poφhyrins with three mesityl (Zn-15, Zn-20, Zn-21), n-pentyl (Zn-26), 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl (Zn- 22), or pentafluorophenyl (Zn-25) groups, as well as the magnesium poφhyrin with three mesityl groups (Mg-21), demonstrate the storage of data (upon oxidation) at different electrochemical potentials. III. Experimental. General. All chemicals were obtained commercially and used as received unless otherwise noted. Reagent grade solvents (CH2CI2, CHC1 3 , hexanes) and HPLC grade solvents (acetonitrile, toluene) were used as received from Fisher. Pynole was distilled from CaH 2 . 1H NMR spectra (300 MHz, General Electric GN 300NB), absoφtion spectra (HP 8453, Cary 3), and emission spectra (Spex FluoroMax) were collected routinely. All reported NMR results were obtained at 300 MHz in CDC1 3 . UN-Nis absoφtion spectra were recorded in CH 2 C1 2 or toluene. Flash chromatography was performed on flash silica (Baker, 200-400 mesh) or alumina (Fisher, 80-200 mesh). Mass spectra were obtained via laser desoφtion (LD-MS) in the absence of an added matrix (Fenyo et al. (1997) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 1 : 93-99) using a Bruker Proflex II mass spectrometer, fast atom bombardment (FAB-MS) using a JEOL HX1 lOHF mass spectrometer (ion source 40 °C, CsKI or polyethylene glycol standards, 10 ppm elemental compositional accuracy for the poφhyrins), or electron-impact mass spectrometry (EI-MS). 2-[(4-MethvIthio)phenyll-5,5-dimethvI-1.3-dioxane (l). Samples of 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde (20.0 mL, 150 mmol), neopentyl glycol (16.0 g, 155 mmol), toluene (250 mL) and ?-toluenesulfonic acid (190 mg, 1.00 mmol) were placed in a 500 mL flask fitted with a Dean-Stark trap and a reflux condenser. The mixture was refluxed cautiously until a sudden exotherm ceased, then for an additional hour (total - 1.5 h). The cooled mixture was washed with sodium bicarbonate solution and with water. After drying with Νa 2 SO 4 and evaporation, white crystals crystallized from hexanes (32.2 g, 89.4%). mp 74-75°C; 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 0.83 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 1.33 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 2.50 (s, 3H, CH 3 S), 3.67 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J = 10.2 Hz), 3.79 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J = 10.2 Hz), 5.25 (s, IH, acetal), 7.30, (AA'BB', 4H, ArH); 13 C NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 16.5, 22.6, 23.8, 30.9, 78.3, 102.1, 127.1, 127.4, 136.2, 140.0; EI-MS m/z 238.1028 (M) + (Cι 3 Hι 8 O 2 S requires 238.1028); Anal. Calcd. for C, 3 H 18 O 2 S: C, 65.51; H, 7.61; S, 13.45; Found: C, 65.62; H, 7.70; S, 13.55. 2-[(4-Methylsulfoxy)phenyll-5,5-dimethyl-l,3-dioxane (2). A solution of acetal 1 (19 g, 80 mmol) in CH 2 C1 2 (150 mL) was cooled to - 20°C and stined vigorously. Then a solution of MCPBA (31 g of 50-55% water suspension, 90 mmol) in CH 2 C1 2 (100 mL) was added dropwise over 1 h. The mixture was stined at 0°C for an additional 1 h. Then Ca(OH) 2 (11 g, 0.15 mmol) and Na 2 SO 4 (20 g) were added and stirring was continued for 1 h. After filtration and evaporation, the warm colorless oil was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (20 mL) and hexanes was added, affording white crystals that were isolated by filtration (14.6 g). The filtrate was evaporated and the residual oil was recrystalhzed, affording a second crop of white crystals. The total yield was 19.6 g (97%). mp 116-117°C; 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 0.77 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 1.24 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 2.65 (s, 3H, CH 3 SO), 3.62 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 0, 7= 11.1 Hz), 3.74 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J= 10.8 Hz), 5.40 (s, IH, acetal), 7.6 - 7.7 (m, 4H, ArH); 13 C NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 22.5, 23.7, 30.9, 44.7, 78.3, 101.3, 124.0, 128.0, 142.2, 146.7; EI-MS obsd 254.0975, calcd exact mass 254.0977 (C 13 H 18 O 3 S); Anal. Calcd. for C 13 H 18 O 3 S: C, 61.39; H, 7.13; S, 12.61; Found: C, 61.29; H, 7.03; S, 12.70. 2-(4-Mercaptophenyl)-5,5-dimethyI-l ,3-dioxane (3). Sulfoxide 2 (7.62 g, 30.0 mmol) was dissolved in CH 3 CN (120 mL). 2,6- Lutidine (10.8 mL, 93.0 mmol) was added and the mixture was cooled to -20°C. To the resulting suspension TFAA (12.7 mL, 90.0 mmol) was added dropwise maintaining the temperature below 0°C. The sulfoxide disappeared and the mixture turned a lemon yellow. When the addition was complete, the mixture was stined at ~ 0°C for 1 h. The mixture was then allowed to warm to room temperature. All volatile materials were evaporated at 30°C. Next a precooled mixture of NEt 3 (50 mL) and MeOH (50 mL) was added. After 30 min at room temperature all volatile materials were evaporated under reduced pressure at low temperature. The residual yellow oil was dissolved in ether (70 mL) and extracted with sat. NH C1 (250 mL). The layers were separated, the organic layer was dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and concentrated to dryness giving a yellow-orange oil (6.61 g, 98% yield of crude material) of which -70%) was the desired compound. The crude thiol was pure enough for the next step. A small sample was oxidized to the respective disulfide and characterized, mp 134-136°C; 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 0.80 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 1.28 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 3.63 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J = 10.2 Hz), 3.76 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J = 11.2 Hz), 5.36 (s, IH, acetal), 7.43, 7.49 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH); 13 C NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 16.5, 22.6, 23.7, 30.9, 78.3, 101.8, 127.6, 128.1, 138.2, 138.4; FAB-MS obsd 446.1574, calcd exact mass 446.1586 (C 24 H 30 O 4 S 2 ); Anal. Calcd. for C 24 H 30 O 4 S 2 : C, 64.54; H, 6.77; S, 14.36; Found: C, 64.52; H, 6.70; S, 14.44. 2-[(4-S-(N-Ethylcarbamoyl)thiophenyll-5.5-dimethyl-l,3-dioxane (4). To the crude thiol 3 (6.60 g, 29.5 mmol) was added ethyl isocyanoacetate (2.33 mL, 29.5 mmol) followed by phenylthiotrimethylsilane (0.568 mL, 3.00 mmol). The reaction mixture was stined for 3 h at room temperature. During this time the mixture gradually solidified to a pale yellow solid. Then n-pentane (5 mL) was added and the suspension was filtered and washed thoroughly with n-pentane. The yellowish crystals were dissolved in hot toluene and hexanes was added. After standing for a few hours, off-white crystals were collected (4.01 g, yield 45.2% from sulfoxide 2). mp 117-118°C; 1H ΝMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 0.81. (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 1.08 (t, 3H,_CH 3 -CH 2 , J= 7.2 Hz), 1.29 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 3.2- 3.3 (m, 2H, CH 2 N), 3.67 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J= 10.8 Hz), 3.78 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J= 11.1 Hz), 5.42 (s, IH, acetal), 5.57 (bs, IH, NH), 7.58 (bs, 4H, ArH); 13 C NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 15.5, 22.6, 23.7, 30.9, 37.2, 78.3, 101.5, 128.1, 130.0, 136.0, 140.7, 166.4; EI-MS obsd 295.1235, calcd exact mass 295.1242 (C 15 H 21 NO 3 S); Anal. Calcd. for C 15 H 21 NO 3 S: C, 60.99; H, 7.17; N, 4.74; S, 10.86; Found: C, 61.16; H, 7.05; N, 4.70; S, 11.02. 2-f(4-S-(2,4-Dinitrophenyl)thiophenyll-5,5-dimethyl-l,3-dioxane (5). Crude thiol 3 (1.00 g, 4.46 mmol) was mixed with 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (830 mg, 4.46 mmol). After heating to 35 °C, cesium fluoride (1.35 g, 8.92 mmol) was added. The yellow mixture was stined and heated at 45°C for 1 h. Next toluene (10 mL) was added and the hot suspension was filtered to remove insoluble materials. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness, giving an orange oil. The crude product was chromatographed on silica (CH 2 Cl 2 /hexaness 1 :2) affording a yellow oil, which finally was crystallized from hot ethanol, affording yellow crystals (1.2 g, 63% from sulfoxide 2). mp 132-133°C; 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 0.77 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 1.24 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 3.63 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J= 10.8 Hz), 3.74 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J= 11.1 Hz), 5-40 (s, IH, acetal), 6.93 (d, IH, ArH-5, J= 8.7 Hz), 7.57 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.00 (dd, IH, ArH-6, J= 8.7 Hz, J= 2.1 Hz), 8.99 (d, IH, ArH-3, J= 2.1 Hz); ,3 C NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 22.4, 23.6, 30.9, 78.4, 101.2, 122.0, 127.5, 129.2, 129,6, 130.0, 136.4, 142.2, 144.9, 148.8; EI-MS obsd 390.0873, calcd exact mass 390.0886 (Cι 8 H 18 N 2 O 6 S); Anal. Calcd. for C 18 Hι 8 N 2 O 6 S: C, 55.38; H, 4.65; N, 7.18; S, 8.21; Found: C, 55.50; H, 4.64; N, 7.12; S, 8.30. 2-K4-S-(9-Anthrylmethvnthiophenvn-5.5-dimethyl-l,3-dioxane (6). Crude thiol 3 (1.15 g, 50.0 mmol) was dissolved in methanol (10 mL). To this solution was added a freshly prepared solution of sodium methoxide [from Na (117 mg, 50.0 mmol) and MeOH (50 mL)]. After 15 min the mixture was evaporated to dryness and the orange solid was dried under vacuum. Then the solid was dissolved in anhydrous DMF (15 mL) at room temperature and a solution of 9-chloromethylanthracene (1.13 g, 50.0 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) was added. The reaction mixture was stined at room temperature for 72 h. The DMF was evaporated under reduced pressure, and the resulting yellow oil was chromatographed on alumina (hexanes/CH 2 Cl 2 ). The resulting yellow crystals were recrystalhzed from CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes to afford 1.17 g of the desired product (56.4%). mp 158-159°C; 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 0.84 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 1.37 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 3.69 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J= 10.8 Hz), 3.84 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J= 10.8 Hz), 5.01 (s, 2H, CH 2 S), 5.44 (s, IH, acetal), 7.4-7.6 (m, 8H, anthracene), 8.01, 8.26 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.42 (s, IH, anthracene); 13 C NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 22.6, 23.8, 30.9, 32.7, 78.4, 102.0, 124.8, 125.8, 127.1, 127.6, 128.1, 128.5, 129.7, 129.9, 130.8, 132,2, 137.5, 139.3; FAB-MS obsd 414.1653, calcd exact mass 414.1654 (C 27 H 26 O 2 S); Anal. Calcd. for C 27 H 26 O 2 S: C, 78.22; H, 6.32; S, 7.73; Found: C, 78.05; H, 6.24; S, 7.63. 2-r(4-5-Pivaloylthiophenyll-5.5-dimethyl-l,3-dioxane (7). Crude thiol 3 (2.24 g, 10.0 mmol) was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (10 mL) and methanol (10 mL) was added. To this solution was added a freshly prepared solution of sodium methoxide [from Na (230 mg, 10.0 mmol) and MeOH (5 mL)]. After 30 min pivaloyl chloride (1.40 mL, 11.4 mmol) was added and the mixture was stined for an additional 3 h at room temperature. After evaporation of all volatile components, the residual oil was chromatographed on silica, affording a mixture of less polar compounds. The yellowish oil was further chromatographed using centrifugal preparative chromatography to afford a mixture ofthe title compound and the conesponding disulfide. The mixture was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 and MeOH was added. Next CH 2 C1 2 was flushed out with argon. The crystals were filtered and dissolved in hot methanol and the mixture was carefully cooled. After 30 min crystals ofthe title compound were collected (502 mg, 16.0%). mp 115-116 °C; 1H NMR (CDCI 3 ) δ 0.80 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 1.28 (s, 3H, CH 3 C), 1.32 (s, 9H, C(CH 3 ) 3 ), 3.64 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J = 10.2 Hz), 3.77 (AB/2, 2H, CH 2 O, J = 10.2 Hz), 5.41 (s, IH, acetal), 7.40, 7.55 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH); 13 C NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 22.6, 23.7, 28.1, 30.9, 47.6, 78.3, 101.6, 127.5, 129.3, 135.4, 140.1; Anal. Calcd. for C H 24 O 3 S: C, 66.20; H, 7.84; S, 10.40; Found: C, 66.22; H, 7.92; S, 10.60. 4-Thiocyanatobenzaldehyde (8). Under an argon atmosphere, a mixture of 4-iodobenzaldehyde (232 mg, 1.00 mmol), KSCN (95.0 mg, 1.00 mmol), CuSCN (120 mg, 1.00 mmol) and DMF (7.5 mL) was heated with stirring in an oil bath maintained at 140°C for 12 h. After cooling, the mixture was diluted with toluene and water, and then filtered through a Celite bed. The aqueous phase was extracted with toluene, the organic fractions were combined and washed with water, dried and concentrated. The resulting dark oil was chromatographed on silica gel using centrifugal preparative chromatography to obtain off-white crystals (33 mg, 20%). mp 82-83 °C; 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 7.63, 7.92 (AA'BB', 2H, ArH), 10.01 (s, IH, CHO); 13 C NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 109.4, 129.3, 131.6, 132.9, 191.3; EI-MS obsd 163.0092, calcd exact mass 163.0092 (C 8 H 5 NOS); Anal. Calcd. for C 8 H 5 NOS: C, 58.88; H, 3.09; N, 8.58; S, 19.65; Found: C, 58.85; H, 2.99; N, 8.61; S, 19.68. 4-S-Acetylthiobenzaldehyde (9). 4-Methylthiobenzaldehyde (4.45 mL, 0.033 mol) and sodium thiomethoxide (10 g, 0.13 mol) were suspended in HMPA (100 mL) and the reaction mixture was heating with stirring at 100°C for 18 h. The resulting brown suspension was cooled and acetyl chloride (10 mL) was added. After 2 h the resulting suspension was poured into water and diethyl ether was added. The ethereal layer was extracted with water three times, dried and evaporated. Next chromatography was performed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1). A yellow oil was collected containing the title compound with some impurities (3.33 g, crude yield 55.5%). This oil was recrystalhzed from ethanol giving off-white crystals (1.05 g, 18.3%). mp 44-45 °C (lit. 46°C, Zhdanov et al. (1970) Zh. Organ. Khim., 6: 554-559, Engl. Transl. (1970), 6: 551-555); 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 2.44 (s, 3H, COCH3), 7.56 (AA'BB', 2H, ArH), 7.87 (AA'BB', 2H, ArH), 10.00 (s, IH, CHO); 13 C NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 31.2, 130.6, 135.2, 136.1, 137.1, 192.1, 192.9; Anal. Calcd. for C 9 H 8 O 2 S: C, 59.98; H, 4.47; S, 17.79; Found: C, 59.58; H, 4.52; S, 17.78. ffi-(ThiocvanatomethyI)benzaldehvde (10). To a solution of 300 mg of /w-(bromomethyl)benzaldehyde (Wagner et al. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53: 6755-6790) (1.5 mmol) in 5 mL of methanol was added a solution of 321 mg of potassium thiocyanate (3.3 mmol) in 4 mL of methanol under stirring at ambient temperature. After a few minutes a precipitate formed. The reaction was monitored by TLC and stopped by adding 20 mL of H 2 O when no starting material was detectable. 30 mL of ether was added and the phases were separated. The aqueous phase was washed twice with 20 mL of ether and the combined organic phases were dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). Column chromatography over flash silica gel with ether/hexanes (1 :2) gave 198 mg (1.1 mmol, 74% yield) of a slightly yellow oil which solidified upon standing at 0 °C. Recrystallization (ether/hexanes) gave colorless crystals (mp 39 °C). IR (neat): v = 3060 cm "1 (m, arom. CH), 2996 (m, CH), 2832 (s, CH), 2751 (m, CH), 2149 (s, CN), 1695 (s, C=O), 1603 (s, arom. C=C), 1450 (m, arom. C=C), 1424 (m), 1394 (w), 1294 (w), 1145 (s), 1084 (w), 1006 (w), 960 (w), 908 (w), 881 (w), 803 (s), 754 (w), 696 (s), 652 (s); 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 4.22 (s, 2H, CH 2 ), 7.55 - 7.69 (m, 2H, ArH), 7.86 - 7.93 (m, ArH), 10.04 (s, IH, CHO); 13 C NMR (75.6 MHz, CDC1 3 , APT): δ = 32.7 (+, CH 2 ), 111.4 (+, CN), 129.6 (-, CH), 129.8 (-, CH), 130.1 (-, CH), 134.6 (-, CH), 135.7 (+, C q ), 136.8 (+, C q ), 191.4 (-, CHO); GC-MS (El) obsd 177 [M + ], 149 [M + - CO], 120, 119 [M + - SCN], 91 [M* - SCN - CO], 90, 89, 77 [C 6 H 5 + ], 65, 63; Anal. Calcd for C 9 H 7 NOS, C, 60.99; H, 3.98; N, 7.90; S, 18.09. Found: C, 60.75; H, 4.05; N, 7.86; S, 18.19. General procedure for synthesis of porphyrins 15-18, 19-20 and 22-24. Acetal (4, 5, 6 or 7) (0.730 mmol) was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (1 mL) and trifluoroacetic acid (2 mL) was added. The mixture was stined at room temperature overnight. After evaporation ofthe reaction mixture to dryness, the residue was redissolved in CHC1 (40 mL). Alternatively, aldehyde 9 or 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde (0.730 mmol) was added to CHC1 3 (40 mL). Next samples ofthe other aldehyde (2.20 mmol), pynole (0.200 mL, 2.92 mmol) and BF 3 OEt 2 (0.090 mL, 0.71 mmol) were added. The reaction mixture was stined at room temperature for 90 min. Then DDQ (500 mg, 2.20 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture was gently refluxed for 1 h. After cooling, the reaction mixture was passed over a short silica column (CH 2 C1 2 ) affording poφhyrins usually free from dark pigments and quinone species. Further purification details are described for each case as follows. 5a0,15-Trimesityl-20-r4-S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thiophenvnporphyrin (15 The mixture of poφhyrins was loaded onto a silica column (4 x 30 cm, toluene). The title poφhyrin comprised the second puφle band, affording 72 mg (12%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ -2.47 (s, 2H, NHpynole), 1.32 (t, 3H, CH 3 -CH 2 , J= 7.2 Hz), 1.94 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.69 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 3.4-3.6 (m, 2H, CH 2 N), 5.65 (bs, IH, NH), 7.35 (s, 6H, ArH), 8.00, 8.33 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.72 (s, 4H, ^-pyrrole), 8.78 (d, 2H, ^-pyrrole, J= 4.2 Hz), 8.87 (d, 2H, /^pynole, J= 4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 844.1, obsd 844.6 [M + ], 773.1 [M + - CONHEf]; FAB-MS obsd 843.4019, calcd exact mass 843.3971 (C 56 H 53 N 5 OS); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 419, 515, 548, 591 nm. 5,10,15-Trimesityl-20- [4-S-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)thiophenyll porphyrin (16). The mixture of poφhyrins was purified by preparative centrifugal TLC (silica, toluene/hexanes, 1 :2). The title poφhyrin comprised the second puφle band, affording 70 mg (10%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ -2.44 (s, 2H, NHpynole), 1.95 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.71 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 7.30 (d, IH, ArH, J= 8.1 Hz), 7.37 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.60 (d, IH, ArH, J= 8.7 Hz), 8.00, 8.49 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.75 (s, 4H, β-pyττo\e), 8.8 - 9.0 (m, 4H, ^pynole), 9.30 (d, IH, ArH, J= 2.1 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 938.4, obsd 938.0; FAB- MS obsd 938.3632, calcd exact mass 938.3614 (C 59 H 5 oN 6 O 4 S); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 419, 515, 549, 591, 646 nm. 5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-(9-anthrylmethvnthiophenyllporphyrin (17). The mixture was chromatographed on an alumina column (toluene/hexanes, 1 :4). The resulting mixture of poφhyrins was purified by preparative centrifugal TLC (silica, toluene/hexanes, 1 :3). The title poφhyrin comprised the second piuple band, affording 28 mg (4.0%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ -2.51 (s, 2H, NHpynole), 1.90 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.66 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 5.43(s, 2H, CH 2 S), 7.1 - 7.8 (m, 5H, anthracene), 7.31 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.79, 8.52 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.0-8.2 (m, 4H, anthracene), 8.68 (s, 4H, yS-pynole), 8.75 (d, 2H, yS-pynole, J= 4.5 Hz), 8.80 (d, 2H, yff-pynole, J= 4.5 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 962.5, obsd 964.0, 787.4 [M + -C 14 H 8 ], 773.1 [M + -Cι 5 H 10 ]; FAB-MS obsd 962.4368, calcd exact mass 962.4382 (C 68 H 58 N 4 S); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 420, 515, 549, 593, 648 nm. 5,10,15-TrimesityI-20- [4-S-pivalovI-thiophenyll porphyrin (18). The mixture was chromatographed on a silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1:1). The title poφhyrin comprised the second puφle band, affording 68 mg (11%). Η NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ -2.49 (s, 2H, NH), 1.52 (s, 9H, C(CH 3 ) 3 ), 1.92 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.68 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 7.35 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.83, 8.30 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.70 (s, 4H, β-pyrτo\e), 8.75 (d, 2H, y^pynole, J= 5.4 Hz), 8.88 (d, 2H, ^pynole, J= 5.4 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 856.4, obsd 858.6, 831.5 [M + -C 2 H 6 ], 774.2 [M + -COC(CH 3 ) 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 856.4186, calcd exact mass 856.4175 (C 58 H 56 N 4 OS); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 419, 515, 548, 591, 646 nm. 5,10,15-Trimesityl-20- r4-S-methyIthiophen yll porphyrin (19). The mixture was chromatographed on a silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1:1). The resulting mixture was next chromatographed on silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1 :4). The title poφhyrin comprised the second puφle band, affording 57 mg (10%). 1H NMR (CDCI 3 ) δ -2.49 (s, 2H, NH), 1.92 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.68 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 2.79 (s, 3H, SCH 3 ),7.33 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.67, 8.18 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.70 (s, 4H, ^pynole), 8.74 (d, 2H, y0-pynole, J= 5.1 Hz), 8.87 (d, 2H, β-pynole, J= 5.1 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 786.4, obsd 786.9; FAB-MS obsd 786.3790, calcd exact mass 786.3756 (C 5 H 50 N 4 S); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 420, 515, 550, 592, 648 nm. 5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-f4-S-acetylthiophenyllporphyrin (20). The mixture was chromatographed on a silica column (toluene/hexanes 1:1, then toluene). The title poφhyrin comprised the second puφle band, affording 62 mg (10.5%). 1H NMR (CDCI 3 ) δ -2.46 (s, 2H, NH), 1.94 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.66 (s, 3H, COCH 3 ), 2.70 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 7.35 (s, 6H, ArH, 7.88, 8.35 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.73 (s, 4H, y^pynole), 8.79 (d, 2H, β-pyπole, J= 4.2 Hz), 8.89 (d, 2H, ^pynole, J= 4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 814.4, obsd 815.7, 813.9 [M + +15]; 787.7 [M + - CH 3 CO + 15], 773.7 [M + - CH 3 CO]; FAB-MS obsd 814.3694, calcd exact mass 814.3705 (C 55 H 50 N 4 OS); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 419, 515, 548, 591, 647 nm. 5,10,15-Tris(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)-20-r4-S-(N- ethylcarbamovDthiophenyll porphyrin (22). Purification was performed by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /MeOH, 98:2). The title compound was obtained as a -1 :1 mixture with 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)poφhyrin. The presence ofthe title compound was confirmed by mass spectrometry (LD-MS C 56 H 5 N 5 Oι 0 S calcd av mass 987.4, obsd 988.6). This mixture was not purified further but was used in the metalation reaction to prepare Zn-22. 5,10,15-Tris(2.3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenyl)-20-[4-S-(N- ethylcarbamovDthiophenvH-porphyrin (23). The mixture of poφhyrins was chromatographed on a silica column (4 x 30 cm, hexanes/CH 2 Cl , 2:1). The title poφhyrin comprised the second puφle band, affording 72 mg (10%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ -2.74 (s, 2H, NHpynole), 1.32 (t, 3H, CH 3 -CH 2 , J= 7.2 Hz), 3.5 - 3.6 (m, 2H, CH 2 N), 5.67 (bs, IH, NH), 8.00, 8.32 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.94 (d, 2H, yS-pynole, J= 5.1 Hz), 9.02 (s, 4H, ^pyrrole), 9.09 (d, 2H, y^pynole, J= 4.2 Hz); LD- MS calcd av mass 987.1, obsd 989.9, 918.7 [M + - CONHEt]; FAB-MS obsd 987.1136, calcd exact mass 987.1149 (C 47 H 20 F ]5 N 5 OS); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 415, 509, 540, 584, 638 nm. 5,10,15-Tri-/ -pentyl-20-[4-S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thiophenyllporphyrin (24). The free base was purified by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica/CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 5:1) followed by column chromatography (silica/CH 2 Cl 2 /toluene, 4:1). The title poφhyrin comprised the second puφle band, affording 9 mg (4%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ -2.62 (s, 2H, NH), 1.00 - 1.10 (m, 9H, CH .3 -CH 2 ), 1.30 - 1.70 (m, 9H, CH 2 aliphatic + CH 3 -CH?-N), 1.75 - 1.90 (m, 6H, CH 2 ), 2.45 - 2.70 (m, 6H, CH 2 ), 3.50 - 3.62 (m, 4H, N-CH 2 ), 4.90 - 5.10 (m, 6H, CH 2 -poφhyrin), 5.63 (bt, IH, NH, J= 5.1Hz), 7.98, 8.26 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.85 (d, 2H, yfl-pyπole, J= 4.2 Hz), 9.43 (d, 2H, yff-pyrrole, 7= 5.1 Hz); 9.52-9.62 (m, 4H, ?-pyπole); LD-MS calcd av mass 699.4, obsd 700.7; FAB-MS obsd 699.3996, calcd exact mass 699.3971 (C 44 H 53 N 5 OS); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 419, 519, 554, 598, 656 nm. General procedure for zinc insertion. Poφhyrin (0.040 mmol) was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (15 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc) 2 *2H 2 O (880 mg, 4.00 mmol) in methanol (15 mL) was added. The reaction mixture was stined overnight at room temperature. After metalation was complete (TLC, fluorescence excitation spectroscopy), the reaction mixture was washed with water and 10% NaHCO 3 , dried (Na 2 SO 4 ), filtered and rotary evaporated to a puφle solid. Purification was achieved by chromatography on silica. Zn(ID-5,10.15-Trimesityl-20-r4-S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thiophenyllporphyrin (Zn-15). Column chromatography (silica, CH 2 C1 2 ) afforded 29 mg (75%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 1.30 (t, 3H, CH r CH 2 , J= 7.5 Hz), 1.87 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.66 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 3.4 - 3.6 (m, 2H, CH 2 N), 5.61 (bs, IH, NH), 7.31 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.93, 8.30 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.74 (s, 4H, ^-pynole), 8.80 (d, 2H, β-pyno\e, J= 5.1 Hz), 8.88 (d, 2H, ^-pynole, J= 4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 905.3, obsd 906.7, 835.7 [M + - CONHEt]; FAB-MS obsd 905.3098, calcd exact mass 905.3106 (C 56 H 51 N 5 OSZn); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 421, 549 nm. Znαi)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-r4-S-(2,4-dinitrophenvnthiophenyllporphyrin (Zn- 1_ Column chromatography (silica, toluene/hexanes) afforded 34 mg (85%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 1.87 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.64 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 7.26 (d, IH, ArH, J= 9.0 Hz), 7.29 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.54 (d, IH, ArH, J= 9.0 Hz), 7.99, 8.44 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.75 (s, 4H, ^pynole), 8.86 (AB, 4H, β-pyπole, J= 4.5 Hz), 9.23 (d, IH, ArH, J= 3.0 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 1000.3, obsd 1000.3; FAB-MS obsd 1000.2726, calcd exact mass 1000.2749 (C 59 H 48 N 6 O 4 SZn); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 422, 550 nm. Znαi)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-(9-anthrylmethvnthiophenyllporphyrin (Zn- __ The product was purified by preparative centrifugal TLC (silica, hexanes/CH 2 Cl 2 ) 31 mg (74%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 1.85 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 1.88 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 2.65 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 5.36 (s, 2H, CH 2 S), 7.1 - 8.5 (m, 19H, anthracene + ArH), 8.72 (s, 2H, -pynole), 8.73 (s, 2H, /3-pyπole), 8.8 - 9.0 (m, 4H, β-pyπo\e); LD-MS calcd av mass 1024.4, obsd 1027.3, 834.9 [M + - Cι 5 H 10 ]; FAB-MS obsd 1024.3529, calcd exact mass 1024.3517 (C 68 H 56 N 4 SZn); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 421, 550 nm. Znαi)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-r4-S-pivaloylthiophenyllporphyrin (Zn-18). The product was purified on a silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1 :1), affording 31 mg (85%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 1.50 (s, 9H, C(CH 3 ) 3 ), 1.87 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.65 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 7.31 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.79, 8.29 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.74 (s, 4H, ?-pynole), 8.79 (d, 2H, ^pynole, J= 4.2 Hz), 8.91 (d, 2H, yfcpynole, J= 4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 918.3, obsd 919.5, 891.4 [M + - C 2 H 6 ], 835.3 [M + - COC(CH 3 ) 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 918.3332, calcd exact mass 918.3310 (C 58 H 54 N 4 OSZn); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 422, 549 nm. Zn(IIV5.10,15-Trimesityl-20-r4-S-methylthiophenyllporphyrin (Zn-19). The mixture was chromatographed on a silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1:1). The resulting mixture was next chromatographed on a silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1 :4). The title poφhyrin comprised the second puφle band, affording 31 mg (90%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 1.84 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.63 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 2.74 (s, 3H, SCH 3 ),7.26 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.59, 8.13 (AA'BB', 2H, ArH), 8.70 (s, 4H, ^-pynole), 8.75 (d, 2H, yff-pynole, J= 5.1 Hz), 8.87 (d, 2H, -pynole, J= 5.1 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 848.3, obsd 851.5; FAB-MS obsd 848.2913, calcd exact mass 848.2891 (C 54 H 48 N 4 SZn); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 421, 550 nm. Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-acetylthiophenyllporphyrin (Zn-20). Method 1. (From 20 by general zinc insertion procedure). Purification by chromatography (silica, toluene/CH 2 Cl 2 ). Yield 82%. Method 2. Zn(II)-poφhyrin Zn-15 (9.0 mg, 0.010 mmol) was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (20 mL) and the solution was carefully flushed with argon. Next a solution of sodium methoxide [freshly prepared from sodium (23 mg, 1.0 mmol) and MeOH (10 mL) under argon] was added. The reaction mixture was stined under argon at room temperature for 1 h. Next acetyl chloride (1 mmol, 0.7 mL) was added and the mixture was evaporated to dryness. The mixture of poφhyrins was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 and chromatographed (silica, hexanes/CH 2 Cl 2 ) affording 6.3 mg (72%). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 1.85 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.63 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 2.61 (s, 3H, CH 3 CO), 7.28 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.46, 8.07 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.70 (s, 4H, β-pynolc), 8.74 (d, 2H, ^pynole, J= 5.1 Hz), 8.83 (d, 2H, ^-pynole, J= 5.1 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 876.3, obsd 874.6; FAB-MS obsd 878.2983, calcd exact mass 878.2997 (C 55 H 50 N 4 OSZn). Zn(II)-5,l 0,15-Trimesityl-20- [4-mcrcap tophen yl I porphyrin (Zn-21 ). A sample of Zn-15 (9.0 mg, 0.010 mmol) was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (20 mL) and the solution was carefully flushed with argon. Next a solution of sodium methoxide [freshly prepared from sodium (23 mg, 1 mmol) and MeOH (10 mL) and also flushed with argon] was added. The reaction mixture was stined at room temperature for 1 h. Next HCl (0.2 mL, 5 M soln.) was added and the mixture was evaporated to dryness. The mixture of poφhyrins was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 and chromatographed (silica, hexanes/CH 2 Cl 2 ) affording 4.3 mg (51 %). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 1.89 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.66 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 7.31 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.64, 8.22 (AA'BB', 2H, ArH), 8.76 (s, 4H, ^ ■ pyrrole), 8.8 - 9.0 (m, 4H, yfcpyπole); LD-MS calcd av mass 834.3, obsd 834.0; FAB-MS obsd 834.2071, calcd exact mass 834.2735 (C 53 H 46 N 4 SZn). Zn(II)-5,10,15-Tris(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenvI)-20-f4-S-(N- ethylcarbamovDthiophenvn-porphyrin (Zn-22). 30.0 mg of a mixture ofthe desired free base A 3 B-poφhyrin and the conesponding Aj-poφhyrin was metalated according to the general procedure. The desired chelate was purified by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica/CH 2 Cl 2 /MeOH, 99:1), affording 10.0 mg (1.3% from acetal 5). 1H NMR (CDC1 3 ) δ 1.27 (t, 3H, CH r CH 2 , J = 7.2 Hz), 3.4 - 3.6 (m, 2H, CH 2 N), 3.49 (s, 18H, OCH 3 ), 4.09 (s, 9H, OCH 3 ), 5.57 (bt, IH, NH, J= 5.1 Hz), 6.57 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.89, 8.26 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.81 (d, 2H, y^pynole, J = 4.5 Hz), 8.86 (d, 2H, /9-pynole, J= 4.5 Hz), 8.84 (s, 4H, /3-pyπole); LD-MS calcd av mass 1049.3, obsd 1052.7, 981.5 [M + - CONHEt]; FAB-MS obsd 1049.2666, calcd exact mass 1049.2648 (C 56 H 5 ιN 5 Oι 0 SZn); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 423, 549 nm Zn(II)-5,l 0,15-Tris(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenyl)-20- [4- mercaptophenyl] porphyrin (Zn-25). Refluxing a mixture of poφhyrin 25 and Zn(OAc) 2 » 2H 2 O for 8 h followed by purification on silica (CH 2 C1 2 ) afforded 25 mg (63% yield). 1H NMR (CDCI 3 ) δ 3.79 (s, IH, SH), 7.67, 8.09 (AA'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.93 (d, 2H, ^-pynole, J= 4.2 Hz), 9.00 (s, 4H, β- pynole), 9.09 (d, 2H, y#-pyπole, J= 4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 978.0, obsd 975.4; FAB-MS obsd 977.9925, calcd exact mass 977.9913 (C 44 H 13 F 15 N 4 SZn). λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 416, 545 nm. Zn(II)-5,10,15-Tri-/ -pentyl-20-f4-mercaptophenyllporphyrin (Zn-26). The product was purified by column chromatography (silica/CH 2 Cl ) followed by preparative centrifugal TLC (silica, hexanes/CH 2 Cl 2 , 1:9), affording 12 mg (44%). 1H NMR (CDCI 3 ) δ 0.80-1.40 (m, 12H, CH r CH 2 + CH CH 2 -N), 1.50-1.70 (m, 6H, CH 2 aliphatic), 1.75 - 1.95 (m, 6H, CH 2 ), 2.40 - 2.60 (m, 6H, CH 2 ), 4.70 - 4.90 (m, 6H, CH 2 -poφhyrin), 8.17, 8.28 (AB'BB', 4H, ArH), 8.95 (d, 2H, β-pynole, J= 5.1 Hz), 9.35 - 9.48 (d, 6H, ^pynole); LD-MS calcd av mass 690.3, obsd 690.4, 633.1 [M + - C 4 H 9 ]; FAB- MS obsd 690.2706, calcd exact mass 690.2735 (C 4 ιH 46 N 4 SZn); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 419, 554 nm. Mg(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-mercaptophenyl1porphyrin (Mg-21). Poφhyrin 20 (16 mg, 0.020 mmol) was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (5 mL) and Mgl 2 (56 mg, 0.20 mmol) and DIEA (0.070 mL, 0.40 mmol) were added. After 10 min the mixture was diluted with CH 2 C1 2 (20 mL), washed with 10% NaHCO 3 and dried. The resulting pink- violet residue was chromatographed on an alumina column (CH 2 Cl 2 /MeOH, 100:1, 100:2, 100:4) to afford the pink-violet product (5.0 mg, 31%). Η NMR (CDCI 3 ) δ 1.80 (s, 18H, ArCH 3 ), 2.61 (s, 9H, ArCH 3 ), 7.23 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.8 - 8.1 (m, 4H, ArH), 8.5 - 8.9 (m, 8H, β-pyrτo\e); LD-MS calcd av mass 795.3, obsd 797.4; FAB-MS obsd 794.3278, calcd exact mass 794.3294 (C 53 H 46 N 4 SMg); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 426, 565, 605 nm. 5,10,15,20-Tetrakis[#M-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenvπporphyrin (27). A solution of 513 mg of m-(thiocyanatomethyl)benzaldehyde (10, 2.9 mmol) and 0.20 mL of pynole (193 mg, 2.9 mmol) in 300 mL of CHCI 3 was purged with argon for 30 min. Under stirring at ambient temperature 12 μL of BF 3 »O(Et) 2 (13 mg, 0.1 mmol) and 180 μL of TFA (266 mg, 2.3 mmol) were added. Soon the solution turned yellow and later to dark red. After 2 h an additional 90 μL of BF 3 *O(Et) 2 (98 mg, 0.7 mmol) was added. After 2 h 500 μL of TEA (364 mg, 3.6 mmol) and 583 mg of o-tetrachlorobenzoquinone (2.4 mmol) were added and the mixture was refluxed for 1 h. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and the solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Column chromatography over flash silica gel with ether/hexanes (3:1) gave 119 mg (0.1 mmol, 18% yield) of a dark puφle solid. IR (neat) v = 2953 (m, CH), 2917(s, CH), 2846 (m, CH), 2152 (m, CN), 1470 (m), 1392 (w), 1344 (w), 1152 (w), 1082 (w); 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCI 3 ): δ = -2.84 (s, 2H, NH), 4.44 (s, 8Η, CH 2 ), 7.76 - 7.85 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.18 - 8.25 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.88 (s, 8H, S-pynole); LD-MS calcd av mass 899.1, obsd 901.7, 876.3 [M + - CN], 843.5 [M + - SCN], 818.1 [M + - SCN - CN], 785.1 [M + - 2 SCN], 758.5 [_vT - 2 SCN - CN], 726.8 [M + - 3 SCN], 668.0 [M + - 4 SCN], 577.6 [M* - 4 SCN - C 7 H 7 ]; FAB-MS obsd 898.1797, calcd exact mass 898.1789 (C 52 H 34 N 8 S 4 ); λ abs (toluene) 420, 514, 549, 590, 646 nm. Zinc i)-5,10,15,20-Tetrakis[w-(thiocvanatomethyl)phenyI]porphyrin (Zn-27). To a solution of 84 mg of 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[m- (thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]poφhyrin (27, 93 μmol) in 50 mL of CHCI 3 was added 250 mg of Zn(OAc) 2 »2H 2 O (1.1 mmol) in 5 mL of methanol under stirring at ambient temperature. After completion ofthe metalation (checked by fluorescence excitation spectroscopy) the mixture was washed with 20 mL of 10% NaHCO 3 and 20 mL of H 2 O, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and filtered. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure affording 71 mg (74 μmol, 19% yield) of a dark puφle solid. Recrystallization (CH 2 Cl 2 /methanol) gave dark puφle crystals. ER (neat): v = 2995 (m, CH), 2880 (w, CH), 2153 (m, CN), 1652 (w), 1601 (m, arom. C=C), 1478 (m), 1436 (m), 1338 (m), 1206 (m), 1070 (w), 1031 (w), 1001 (s), 934 (m), 795 (s), 707 (s); 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 4.44 (s, 8H, CH 2 ), 7.77 - 7.83 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.20 - 8.25 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.97 (s, 8H, ^pynole); LD-MS calcd av mass 962.5, obsd 958.2, 900.2 [M + - SCN], 843.5 [M + - 2 SCN], 787.5 [M + - 3 SCN], 726.7 [M + - 4 SCN]; FAB-MS obsd 960.0959, calcd exact mass 960.0924 (C 52 H 32 N 8 S 4 Zn); λ abs (toluene) 422, 550, 589 nm; λ em (toluene) 603, 652 nm. 10,20-Diphenyl-5,15-bis[- w-(thiocvanatomethyl)phenyl1porphyrin (28). A mixture of 316 mg of -(thiocyanatomethyl)benzaldehyde (10, 1.8 mmol), 396 mg of 5 -phenyldipynomethane (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427- 11440, Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1391-1396) (1.8 mmol) and 1.07 g of NH 4 C1 (20.0 mmol) in 200 mL of acetonitrile was purged with argon for 30 min. Under stirring at ambient temperature 23 μL of BF 3 » O(Et) 2 (26 mg, 0.18 mmol) was added. Soon the solution turned to yellow and later to dark red. After 6.5 h, 607 mg of DDQ (2.7 mmol) was added. After 1 h the reaction was quenched with 0.5 mL of TEA (365 g, 3.6 mmol). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Purification was done by column chromatography over two flash silica gel columns with different solvent mixtures: (column 1) ether/hexanes (3:1) and (column 2) CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes (gradient, start: 1:1). Two fractions of dark puφle solids were obtained. I: 12 mg 10,15,20-triphenyl-5-[w- (thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]poφhyrin (17.5 μmol, 2% yield). II: 44 mg ofthe title compound (58.1 μmol, 7% yield). IR (neat): v = 2921 (s, CH), 2850 (m, CH), 2154 (m, CN), 1597 (m, arom. C=C), 1471 (s), 1348 (m), 1206 (m), 1181 (w), 1097 (w), 973 (s), 898 (w), 743 (s), 691 (s), 623 (s); 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = -2.811 (s, 2H, NH), 4.57 (s, 4H, CH 2 ), 7.71 - 7.83 (m, 11H, ArH), 8.17 - 8.25 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.84 (d, 4H, yS-pynole, 3 J = 5.1 Hz), 8.88 (d, 4H, -pynole); LD-MS calcd av mass 756.9, obsd 757.4, 699.2 [M + - SCN], 641.0 [M + - 2 SCN]; FAB-MS obsd 756.2172, calcd exact mass 756.2130 (C 48 H 32 N 6 S 2 ); λ abs (toluene) 420, 514, 549, 590, 647, 657 nm. Zinc(H)-10,20-Diphenyl-5,15-bis[-»ι-(thiocvanatomethyl)phenyllporphyrin (Zn- 28). A mixture of 38 mg of 10,20-diphenyl-5,15-bis[ - (thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]poφhyrin (28, 50.2 μmol) in 30 mL of CH 2 C1 2 and a solution of 140 mg of Zn(OAc) 2 » 2H 2 O (0.64 mmol) in 5 mL of methanol were combined and stined at ambient temperature. After completion ofthe metalation (checked by fluorescence excitation spectroscopy) 20 mL of H 2 O were added. The phases were separated and the organic layer was washed with 20 mL of 5% NaHCO 3 and 20 mL of H 2 O, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and filtered. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Column chromatography over flash silica gel with CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes (5:1) gave 22 mg (26.8 μmol, 53% yield) of a dark puφle solid. IR (neat): v = 3049 (w, arom. CH), 2924 (s, CH), 2853 (m, CH), 2154 (m, CN), 1598 (m, arom. C=C), 1522 (w), 1480 (m), 1440 (m), 1339 (m), 1206 (m), 1070 (m), 1002 (s), 934 (w), 796 (s), 741 (m), 703 (s), 662 (m); 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 4.44 (s, 4H, CH 2 ), 7.70 - 7.90 (m, 1 IH, ArH), 8.16 - 8.28 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.93 (d, 4H, β- pyπole, 3 J = 4.2 Hz), 8.98 (d, 4H, β-pyrτo\e); LD-MS calcd av mass 820.31, obsd 819.6, 792.3 [M + - CN], 761.5 [M + - SCN], 703.3 [M + - 2 SCN], 626.0 [M + - 2 SCN - C 6 H 5 ], 613.5 [M + - 2 SCN - C 7 H 7 ]; FAB-MS obsd 818.1275, calcd exact mass 818.1265 (C 48 H 30 N 6 S 2 Zn); λ abs (toluene) 424, 550, 590 nm; λ em (toluene) 599, 647 nm. 5,10,15,20-Tetrakis r/w-(S-acetylthiometh vDphen yll porphyrin (29). A solution of 101 mg of 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[w- (bromomethyl)phenyl)pθφhyrin (Wen et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 7726-7733, Karaman et al. (1992) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 114: 4889-4898) (102 μmol) and 60 mg of potassium thioacetate (525 μmol) in 20 mL of THF was refluxed. After 5 h the mixture was cooled to room temperature. 30 mL of water was added. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed with 40 mL of 5% NaHCO 3 solution and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). Column chromatography over flash silica gel with THF afforded a puφle wax, which was purified by refluxing in hexanes. The mixture was filtered and the residue was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 . The solvent was removed under reduced pressure, affording 63 mg (65 μmol, 63% yield) of a puφle solid. IR (neat) v = 3423 (m, NH), 3318 (m, NH), 2963 (w, CH), 2926 (w, CH), 1690 (s, CO), 1600 (w), 1562 (w), 1540 (w), 1508 (w), 1472 (w), 1420 (w), 1351 (w), 1132 (m), 1103 (w), 1018 (w), 997 (w), 957 (w), 917 (w), 800 (m), 718 (m); 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = -2.83 (s, 2H, NH), 2.40 (s, 12Η, CH 3 ), 4.41 (s, 8H, CH 2 ), 7.65 - 7.75 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.06 - 8.17 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.84 (s, 8H, ,/2-pynole); LD-MS calcd av mass 966.2 (C 56 H 46 N 4 O 4 S 4 ), obsd 967.4, 925.3 [M + - COCH 3 ], 892.2 [M + - SCOCH 3 ], 850.0 [M + - SCOCH 3 - COCH 3 ], 817.2 [M + - 2 SCOCH 3 ], 775.5 [M + - 2 SCOCH 3 - COCH 3 ; λ abs (toluene) 421, 515, 550, 591, 648 nm. Zinc(H)-5,l 0,15,20-Tetrakis [#»-(S-acetyIthiomethyI)phenyll porphyrin (Zn-29). A mixture of 16.2 mg of 29 (16.7 μmol) in 20 mL of CHCI 3 and a solution of 80.0 mg of Zn(OAc) 2 » 2H 2 O (365 μmol) in 5 mL of methanol were combined and stined at ambient temperature. After 2 h the metalation was completed (checked by fluorescence excitation spectroscopy) and 40 mL of H 2 O was added. The phases were separated and the organic layer was washed three times with 5% NaHCO 3 and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Column chromatography over flash silica gel with CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes (4:1) gave the title compound as a puφle solid in quantitative yield. IR • (neat): v = 2922 (w, CH), 2849 (w, CH), 1690 (s, CO), 1655 (m, arom. C=C), 1600 (w, arom. C=C), 1478 (w), 1420 (w), 1338 (w), 1208 (m), 1131 (m), 1067 (w), 1002 (m), 955 (w), 932 (w), 794 (m), 717 (m); 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 2.30 (s, 12H, CH 3 ), 4.31 (s, 8H, CH 2 ), 7.62 - 7.69 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.05 - 8.13 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.92 (s, 8H, β-pyvτ \c); LD-MS calcd av mass 1028.15 obsd 1028.8, 986.6 [M + - COCH 3 ], 954.7 [M + - SCOCH 3 ], 911.3 [M + - SCOCH 3 - COCH 3 ], 880.4 [M + - 2 SCOCH 3 ], 838.8 [M + - 2 SCOCH 3 - COCH3], 805.3 [M + - 3 SCOCH 3 ]; λ abs (toluene) 424, 550, 589 nm; λ em (toluene) 597, 647 nm. Cobalt(II)-5,10,15,20-Tetrakisf#M-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyllporphyrin (Co- 29). A mixture of 14.2 mg of 29 (14.7 μmol) in 20 mL of CHCI 3 and a solution of 60.0 mg of Co(OAc) 2 » 4H 2 O (339 μmol) in 5 mL of methanol were combined and stined at ambient temperature. After 5 h an additional 261.0 mg of Co(OAc) 2 »4H 2 O (1.5 mmol) was added because there was still free base poφhyrin left. Stirring at room temperature was continued. After 20 h the metalation was completed (checked by fluorescence excitation spectroscopy) and 30 mL of H 2 O was added. The phases were separated and the organic layer was washed three times with 5% NaHCO 3 and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Column chromatography over flash silica gel with CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes (5:1) gave the title compound as an orange-piuple solid in quantitative yield. IR (neat): v = 3037 (w, arom. CH), 2955 (w, CH), 2924 (m, CH), 2849 (w, CH), 1725 (w), 1693 (s, CO), 1601 (w, arom. C=C), 1455 (w), 1422 (w), 1350 (m), 1131 (m), 1003 (m), 957 (w), 796 (m), 714 (m); LD-MS calcd av mass 1023.16 (C 56 H 44 N 4 O 4 S 4 Co), obsd 1023.4, 980.3 [M* - COCH 3 ], 948.3 [M + - SCOCH 3 ], 875.2 [M + - 2 SCOCH 3 ]; λ abs (toluene) 414, 529 nm. Example 2 Setting and Reading the State of a Porphyrinic Macrocycle L Preparation of gold electrodes, formation of electrochemical cell, deposition of thiol-porphyrin monolayer. Glass slides were soaked in 90°C piranha solution for thirty minutes, thoroughly rinsed with doubly distilled water, and dried under vacuum. A 1 nm layer of chromium was evaporated onto the glass, followed by 100 nm of gold through a thin mask consisting of four parallel lines, each with a width of approximately 75 microns, spaced at approximately 1 mm intervals. All depositions were done at 10 "6 ton using an E-beam evaporator. Immediately after venting ofthe vacuum system, the slides were removed and stored under dry ethanol until use. The slides were dried with a stream of nitrogen and a piece of PDMS with a 3 mm diameter hole in the center was immediately placed over all four gold electrodes and filled with a poφhyrin solution (0.1 mg per milliliter in dry ethanol) (Z-15 from example 1). The slide was then sonicated at room temperature for 15 minutes which was found to facilitate monolayer formation. After sonication, the PDMS mask was removed and the slide was rinsed with dry ethanol. A new PDMS mask was prepared by casting a 10: 1 ratio solution of monomer to catalyst into a mold consisting of a pyramidal channel with a 40 μm by 1 cm base width. This new mask was placed on top ofthe poφhyrin- covered electrodes to form the electrochemical cell. The channel was filled with 1.0 M TBAP, and a silver wire reference electrode was used to complete the electrical circuit. This creates four identical poφhyrin-covered gold electrodes with 40 by 75 micron dimensions, each of which is individually addressable using a common backplane reference electrode. The poφhyrin monolayer was then analyzed with cyclic voltammetry to establish that the poφhyrin had bound to the gold substrate and to establish the extent of coverage ofthe monolayer on the gold surface (Figure 23). II. Reading and writing porphyrin bits. A labview program was written to apply a potential pulse (the pulse was applied to the reference electrode, since the working electrode was maintained at ground potential). Thus, the potential was inverted and applied to the reference electrode. The waveform was generated at 5 MHz and applied to a bare silver wire reference electrode. The cunent response was monitored through the gold working electrode. The reference electrode was poised at a constant DC potential using a home built potentiostat that also amplifies the resulting cunent. In order to write a bit into the poφhyrin monolayer, it was necessary to apply the appropriate potential to create the appropriate oxidation state ofthe poφhyrin. The reference electrode was poised at three DC potentials while the working electrode was held at zero potential, in order to probe the response at the neutral and at both non-neutral oxidation states ofthe poφhyrin (Figure 23). A 0-300 mN potential pulse was applied below the first oxidation potential to record the background charging cunent. At 300 mN, there was no redox process occurring, thus, only the background charging cunent was observed. The electrode was then set at 500 mV DC and an identical 300 mV potential pulse was applied raising the potential to 800 mN and thereby eliciting the first oxidation of the poφhyrin. This cunent response was the sum ofthe faradaic cunent superimposed on the background charging cunent. Because the background was constant, the first response could be subtracted from the latter and the remainder was the faradaic cunent. A second potential step was applied from 800-1100 mV. This step oxidized the poφhyrin into the second oxidation state and produced a second increment of faradaic cunent which again was background subtracted. The background subtracted cunents had approximately equal magnitude because each conesponded to a one electron processes in the same molecule(s) immobilized to the electrode surface. The amplified signal was acquired at 5 MHz giving a time resolution of 200 ns per data point which was sufficient to detect the roughly 70 μs transient response. The background-subtracted instantaneous cunent was integrated to produce a plot ofthe instantaneous charge as a function of time (Figure 23). Once the poφhyrin was set at a given oxidation state, it could be read by applying the appropriate negative potential step. For example, the higher bit could be read simply by stepping between 1100-800 mN. The lower bit could be read by stepping between 800-500 mV. The charging cunent could be determined by stepping between 300- 0 mV. Again, the background was subtracted from each step to determine the background- subtracted read cunent (Figure 25). The read/write cycles are illustrated in Figure 24. Example 3 Tightly Coupled Porphyrin Arrays for Molecular Memory Storage We have been developing approaches for molecular-based information storage where information is stored in the different oxidation states of molecular poφhyrin anays. To explore a simple design for suitable storage molecules, we report here the synthesis of poφhyrin anays where poφhyrins, having identical oxidation potentials, are directly linked to one another instead of joined via a molecular linker. Oxidative coupling with AgPF 6 of zinc(II)-5,15-bis(4-tert-butylphenyl)-10-phenylpoφhyrin, obtained by a rational synthesis, afforded the expected meso.meso-linked dimer and an unexpected meso,meso,meso-\inked trimer. For attachment to an electroactive surface we synthesized a meso.meso-linked poφhyrin dimer with a thiol-linker in one ofthe /naso-positions. The thiol-group was protected as thioacetyl moiety to avoid handling of free thiol groups. Coupling of zinc(II)-5,10,15-tris(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)pθφhyrin ("upper half) and zinc(II)-10,20-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)-5-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]poφhyrin ("bottom half) afforded a set of three different meso.meso-livked dimers with the desired one as the main product. Electrochemical examination ofthe meso,meso-\ ked dimer in solution showed that the charge introduced upon oxidation of one ofthe poφhyrin units shifts the oxidation potential ofthe adjacent poφhyrin. Thereby two bits of information can be stored in such a structure. No significant shift ofthe oxidation potentials was observed in the trimer in this instance. Introduction. In order to simplify the construction ofthe anays for molecular based information storage, we decided to synthesize poφhyrin anays where the poφhyrins are directly linked to one another (Osuka and Shimidzu (1997) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl, 36: 135-137; Yoshida et al. (1998) Chem. Lett. 55-56; Nakano et al. (1998) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37: 3023-3027; Senge and Feng (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 4165-4168). We expected that the juxtaposition ofthe poφhyrins in the anays would result in strong ("tightly") coupling between the two constituents. This means that the charge introduced upon oxidation of one ofthe poφhyrin units shifts the oxidation potential ofthe adjacent poφhyrin. In this manner, identical poφhyrins can be used in the construction ofthe multipoφhyrin anay while still maintaining the ability to access multiple oxidation states. Storing and retrieving information in redox-active molecules requires a means of electrical communication from the macroscopic world to the molecular assemblies. One means of electrical communication involves the attachment of redox-active molecules via a thiol linker to an electroactive surface such as gold (Zak et αl. (1993) Langmuir 9: 2112-211 A; Postlethwaite et al. (1995) Langmuir 11 : 4109-4116; Kondo et al. (1996) Thin Solid Films 284-285: 652-655; Simpson et al. (1996) Analyst 121 : 1501-1505; Simpson et al. (1997) Langmuir 13: 460-464; Ishida et al. (1998) Chem. Lett. 267-268; Ishida et al. (1998) Chem. Commun. 57-58; Imahori et al. (199S) Langmuir 14: 5335-5338; Yanagida et al. (1998) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 71 : 2555-2559). To overcome the problem of handling free thiol groups we decided to use protected thiol groups, especially after the report of Tour et al. that an S-acetylthio-substituted phenyl ethynyl oligomer underwent deprotection in situ upon exposure to the gold surface (Tour et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117: 9529-9534). Recently we have synthesized a number of poφhyrin monomers bearing one, two, or four protected thiol units and have investigated the utility of a variety of different thiol protecting groups (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634-8647). In this example, we report the synthesis of five different meso, meso-linked poφhyrin dimers and trimers. The electrochemical properties ofthe dimers and trimers have been investigated in solution. Two dimers bear acetyl protected thiol groups for attachment to gold surfaces. Results and Discussion. Our first target molecule was a meso.meso-linked poφhyrin dimer of two identical poφhyrin monomers. With this molecule we wanted to test if the juxtaposition affords strong coupling between the two poφhyrin units, so that the redox potentials ofthe structurally identical poφhyrin units are shifted by a reasonable amount. The preparation ofthe monomer utilized a new rational synthesis of meso- susbstituted poφhyrins (Cho et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 7890-7901). Treatment of 5- phenyldipynomethane (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391-1396) with ethyl magnesium bromide followed by acylation with 4-tert-butylbenzoyl chloride led to the diacylated dipynomethane 1 (Scheme 1, Figure 26). Reduction with excess NaBH 4 in THF/methanol afforded the conesponding diol, which was condensed with dipynomethane (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron 50: 11427-11440; Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391-1396) under TFA catalysis. The desired poφhyrin 2 was obtained in 35% yield as a puφle solid. This synthesis route afforded the desired poφhyrin with one free meso- position without acidolytic scrambling. Poφhyrin 2 is almost insoluble in common solvents. Metalation with Zn(OAc) 2 .2H 2 O in refluxing CHCI 3 afforded Zn-2 in quantitative yield, which also has low solubility. For the meso,meso-\ivked coupling of Zn-2 we used the method reported by Osuka et al. (Osuka and Shimidzu (1997) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl, 36: 135-137) which employed AgPF 6 in a mixture of CHCI 3 and acetonitrile as the oxidizing agent. Due to the low solubility of Zn-2 the reaction was run under reflux instead of room temperature. Using 0.5 mol equiv of AgPF 6 as reported by Osuka et al., supra., led only to a small amount of dimerization (-10%, checked by analytical SEC). After addition of another 0.5 mol equiv of AgPF 6 , quantitative conversion occuned within 15 h. Because slight demetalation occuned under the coupling conditions, the crude mixture was again treated with Zn(OAc) 2 »2H O. We obtained two different oligomers, the expected dimer Zn-4 in 89% yield and, suφrisingly, also the trimer Zn-3 in 9% yield (Scheme 2, Figure 27). Both are brown-puφle solids and exhibit good solubility in common solvents. The substitution pattern of Zn-3 was confirmed by its ! H NMR spectrum, which is almost identical with that of Zn-4 with addition of a peak due to the tert-butyl groups and the presence ofthe AA'BB' pattern from the protons ofthe central aryl groups. Such a spectrum arises from a symmetrical molecule and the suggested structure is the only possibility for Zn-3. Electrochemical examination of poφhyrin dimer Zn-4 revealed oxidation waves at + 0.49 and + 0.66 V for the formation ofthe monocation ofthe two poφhyrin units comprising poφhyrin dimer Zn-4. This is to be compared with the single oxidation wave for the conesponding poφhyrin monomer, which is expected at 0.58 V. The appearance of two waves in poφhyrin dimer Zn-4 indicates that the oxidation of the first poφhyrin unit, forming the monocation, shifts the oxidation potential ofthe second poφhyrin unit to higher potential. A similar potential shift occuned for the second oxidation of each poφhyrin unit (Table 1). The electrochemical examination of poφhyrin trimer Zn-3 showed that only the oxidation potentials ofthe central poφhyrin unit are shifted by the neighboring units. The two terminal poφhyrin units do not significantly influence the oxidation potentials of each other and overlapping ofthe waves was observed. Driven by the positive results for the poφhyrin dimer Zn-4 we decided to synthesize a meso,meso-\vnked poφhyrin dimer bearing a thiol linker for attachment to a gold surface. To improve the solubility ofthe monomers we chose 3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl groups as substituents for the non-linking maso-positions. The "bottom" poφhyrin Zn-8 with the S-acetyl protected thiol group was synthesized in a similar way as for monomer Zn-2. Diacylation of dipynomethane (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 6A: 1391-1396) with 3,5-di-tert-butylbenzoyl chloride afforded dipynomethane 7 as a white powder after crystallization (Scheme 3, Figure 28). For the synthesis of dipynomethane 6 there are at least two conceivable pathways. The first attempt to synthesize this molecule involved reaction of commercially available 4- methylthiobenzaldehyde with pynole to give the conesponding dipynomethane (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634-8647). However, subsequent treatment with sodium tert- butoxide (Pinchart et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 5479-5482), followed by quenching of the anion with acetyl chloride did not afford the desired product (equation 1, Figure 29). In this situation we decided to change our strategy. Thus reaction of 4-S- acetylthiobenzaldehyde (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634-8647) with pynole afforded dipynomethane 6 in 62% yield (equation 2, Figure 30). Reduction of 7 to the conesponding diol and condensation with 6 under TFA catalysis yielded poφhyrin 8 in 10% yield, accompanied by disulfide 9 in 3% yield. Metalation of 8 with Zn(OAc) 2 .2H 2 O gave Zn-8 as a puφle solid in 90% yield. Disulfide 9 was metalated likewise, affording Zn-9 in 60%) yield as an orange-puφle solid (Scheme 4, Figure 31). The synthesis ofthe "top" poφhyrin Zn-10 was done using the same method as before but in much better yield. Reduction ofthe diacylated dipynomethane 7 with NaBH 4 and condensation ofthe resulting diol with 5-(3,5-di-tert- butylphenyl)dipynomethane (Imahori et al. (1999) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn, 72: 485-502) under TFA catalysis afforded pόφhyrin 10 as a puφle solid in 21% yield (Scheme 5, Figure 32). Metalation with Zn(OAc) 2 »2H 2 O led to Zn-10 as a red-puφle solid in quantitative yield. Zn-10, like all the other poφhyrin monomers (8, Zn-8 and 10) and disulfides (9 and Zn-9) bearing 3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl groups in the /neso-positions, exhibits good solubility in common solvents. Coupling of Zn-8 and Zn-10 with AgPF 6 in refluxing CHC1 3 afforded the expected three dimers in almost quantitative yield. Traces of higher oligomers were also present. After remetalation with Zn(OAc) 2 .2H 2 O we obtained poφhyrin dimers Zn-11, Zn- 12 and Zn-13 in 30%, 44% and 23% yield, respectively (Scheme 6, Figure 33). All poφhyrin dimers are puφle solids with good solubility in common solvents. Under these reaction conditions the acetylthio group remained intact. Conclusion. Various meso.meso-liiiked poφhyrin dimers and trimers have been synthesized. The electrochemical studies ofthe dimers in solution revealed a shift ofthe oxidation potential for the generation ofthe monocation ofthe second poφhyrin unit after oxidation ofthe first poφhyrin unit. This shift in the oxidation potentials ofthe individual poφhyrin units provides an opportunity to access distinct and different oxidation potentials in a dimeric anay where each poφhyrin unit is identical. The effect was small in the trimers tested herein. Experimental General. All reactions involving poφhyrin formation and transformation were performed with shielding from ambient light. All chemicals obtained commercially were used as received unless noted otherwise. Reagent grade solvents (CH 2 C1 2 , CHCI 3 , hexanes, ethyl ether, ethyl acetate) and HPLC grade solvents (acetonitrile, toluene) were used as received from Fisher. THF was distilled from sodium/benzophenone. All reported NMR spectra were obtained at 300 MHz. UV-Vis absoφtion and fluorescence spectra were recorded in toluene. Flash chromatography was performed on flash silica (Baker, 200-400 mesh) or alumina (Fisher, 80-200 mesh). Mass spectra were obtained via laser desoφtion (LD-MS) in the absence of an added matrix using a Bruker Proflex II mass spectrometer, fast atom bombardment (FAB-MS) using a JEOL HX110HF mass spectrometer (ion source 40°C, CsKI or polyethylene glycol standards, 10 ppm elemental compositional accuracy for the poφhyrins), or electron-impact mass spectrometry (EI-MS). Poφhyrin metalation was monitored by fluorescence excitation and emission spectroscopy. Preparative scale size exclusion chromatography (SEC) was performed using BioRad Bio-Beads SX-1 with toluene as eluent. The chromatography was performed with gravity flow. Analytical scale SEC was performed with a Hewlett-Packard 1090 HPLC using a 1000 A column (5 μL, styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer) with THF as eluent. General procedure for metal insertion. A solution of poφhyrin in CHC1 or CH 2 C1 2 and a solution/suspension ofthe metal acetate in methanol were combined and stined. After the metalation was completed (checked by fluorescence excitation spectroscopy), H 2 O was added. The phases were separated and the organic layer was washed three times with 5% NaHCO 3 and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Purification was done by column chromatography over flash silica gel. l,9-Bis(4-te -butylbenzoyl)-5-phenyldipyrromethane (l). To a solution of 5-phenyldipynomethane (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron 50: 11427-11440; Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391-1396) (2.22 g, 10 mmol) in toluene (200 mL) stined under argon and cooled in a water bath was slowly added a solution of ethyl magnesium bromide (1 M solution in THF, 50 mL, 50 mmol). The resulting brown-orange mixture was stined for 30 min. Then a solution of 4-tert- butylbenzoyl chloride (4.9 mL, 25.1 mmol) in toluene (25 mL) was added dropwise. The solution became darker and was stined for 1 h after the addition was completed. Then the reaction was quenched with satd aq NH 4 C1 (100 mL). Ethyl acetate (100 mL) was added and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed with water, 2 M aq NaOH, water and brine and then dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was filtered through a pad of silica and eluted with CH 2 Cl 2 /ethyl acetate 10: 1. The solvents were again removed under reduced pressure and the brown residue was purified by column chromatography (1 st column: alumina, hexanes - CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes - CH 2 C1 2 - CH 2 Cl 2 /MeOH; 2 nd column: silica, ethyl ether/hexanes 1 :2; 3 rd column: silica: CH 2 Cl 2 /ethyl acetate 5:1), affording 2.96 g (5.5 mmol, 55%) as a brown solid, mp 133 °C; IR (neat): v = 3438, 3251, 2963, 2903, 2868, 1611, 1556, 1479; 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 1.34 (s, 18H), 5.67 (s, IH), 6.00 (dd, 2H, 3 J= 3.7 Hz, 4 J= 2.9 Hz), 6.64 (dd, 2H, 3 J= 3.7 Hz, 4 J= 2.2 Hz), 7.30 - 7.51 (m, 5H), 7.42, 7.73 (AA',BB', 2 x 4H), 11.04 (br, s, 2H); 13 C NMR (75.6 MHz, CDC1 3 , ATP): δ = 31.1 (-), 34.9 (+), 44.9 (- ), 111.0 (-), 120.6 (-), 124.9 (-), 127.3 (-), 128.8 (-), 129.2 (-), 129.5 (-), 131.0 (+), 135.6 (+), 140.5 (+), 140.8 (+), 155.0 (+), 184.3 (+); El obsd 542, 527, 465, 409, 381, 316; Anal. Calcd. for C 37 H 38 N 2 O 2 : C, 81.88; H, 7.06; N, 5.16; Found: C, 81.79; H, 7.22; N, 5.21. 5,15-Bis(4-ferf-butylphenvD-l O-phenylporphyrin (2). To a solution of 1 (500 mg, 921 μmol) in a 1:2 mixture of methanol/THF (27 mL) was added NaBrL; (1.74 g, 46 mmol) in several portions. The mixture was stined for 2.5 h, then quenched with water (40 mL) and extracted with CH 2 C1 2 . The organic phase was dried (K 2 CO 3 ) and the solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The yellow residue and dipynomethane (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391-1396) (135 mg, 923 μmol) were then dissolved in acetonitrile and stined at room temperature in the dark. Then TFA (852 μL, 11.1 mmol) was added and the solution turned dark immediately. After 20 min DDQ (630 mg, 2.8 mmol) was added because the yield did not increase any further (checked by oxidizing an aliquot with DDQ and quantifying with UN/VIS spectroscopy). After stirring for 1.5 h the mixture was filtered through a pad of alumina and eluted with CH 2 C1 2 . The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in a mixture of CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 1 :1. Purification by column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 1:1 - CH 2 C1 2 ) afforded 211 mg (324 μmol, 35%) of a puφle solid. IR (neat): v = 3312, 3030, 2957, 2864, 1596, 1560, 1500; 1H ΝMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = - 2.99 (s, 2H), 1.62 (s, 18H), 7.70 - 7.82 (m, 3H), 7.78, 8.18 (AA',BB', 2 x 4H), 8.14 - 8.24 (m, 2H), 8.85 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 8.95 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 9.06 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.33 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 10.20 (s, IH); LD-MS obsd 649.9; FAB-MS obsd 650.3416, calcd exact mass 650.3409 (C4 6 H4 2 Ν4); λ abs (toluene) 415, 509, 543, 586, 641 nm. Zincfll)-5,15-bis(4-ferι'-butylphenyl)-10-phenylporphyrin (Zn-2). A suspension of 2 (112 mg, 172 μmol) in CHCI 3 (50 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc) 2 »2H 2 O (3.78 g, 172 mmol) in methanol (10 mL) were combined and refluxed 2 h. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford 123 mg (172 μmol, 100%) of a bright puφle solid. IR (neat): v = 3081, 3022, 2956, 1498; 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 1.63 (s, 18H), 7.71 - 7.83 (m, 3H), 7.78, 8.17 (AA'BB', 2 x 4H), 8.20 - 8.25 (m, 2H), 8.96 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 9.04 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 9.14 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.40 (d, 2H, 3 J = 4.4 Hz), 10.25 (s, IH); LD-MS obsd 714.1; FAB-MS obsd 712.2565, calcd exact mass 712.2544 (C 46 H 40 N 4 Z11); λ abs (toluene) 419, 544, 582 nm; λ em (toluene) 592, 639 nm. Meso-meso-meso porphyrin trimer Zn-3 and meso-meso porphyrin dimer Zn-4. To a suspension of Zn-2 (31.1 mg, 43.5 μmol) in CHCI 3 (20 mL) was added a solution of AgPF 6 (5.5 mg, 21.8 μmol) in acetonitrile (3 mL). The mixture was refluxed for 8 h. Then more AgPF 6 (5.5 mg, 21.8 μmol) was added because the reaction stopped (monitored by analytical SEC). After an additional 15 h the reaction was quenched with water (30 mL). The phases were separated and the organic phase was washed with water and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The brown-puφle solid was dissolved again in CHCI3 (30 mL). A solution of Zn(OAc) 2 .2H 2 O (290 mg, 1.3 mmol) in methanol (7 mL) was added and the mixture was stined for 3 h in the dark. Then the reaction was quenched with water and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed three times with 5% aq NaHCO 3 and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in a minimum amount of toluene. Purification by preparative SEC with toluene afforded 2.8 mg ofthe meso,meso,meso-tήmeτ (1.4 μmol, 9% yield) as a brown solid and 27.6 mg ofthe meso,meso-dimer (19.3 μmol, 89% yield) as a brown-puφle solid. Zn-3: IR (neat): v = 2959, 2922, 2854, 1542, 1458; Η NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 1.54 (s, 18H), 1.56 (s, 36H), 7.59, 8.15 (AA'BB', 2 x 4H), 7.70, 8.18 (AA'BB', 2 x 8H), 7.78 - 7.85 (m, 6H), 8.15 - 8.22 (m, 4H), 8.23 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 8.30 - 8.36 (m, 4H), 8.76 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 8.77 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.03 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.07 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz); LD-MS obsd 2056.8 [M + ], 2000.7 [M + - l Bu]; FAB-MS obsd 2062.68, calcd exact mass 2062.70 (C1 3 2H112N12Z113); λ abs (toluene) 419, 477, 567 nm; λ em (toluene) 641, 664 nm; Zn-4: IR (neat): = 2958, 2868, 1558, 1488; 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ - 1.52 (s, 36H), 7.67, 8.15 (AA'BB', 2 x 8H), 7.74 - 7.86 (m, 6H), 8.18 - 8.20 (m, 4H), 8.31 (d, 4H, 3 J= 3.7 Hz), 8.71 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.01 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.04 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz); LD-MS obsd 1423.7; FAB-MS obsd 1422.48, calcd exact mass 1422.49 (C 92 H 78 N 8 Zn 2 ); λ abs (toluene) 421, 459, 561 nm; λ em (toluene) 634, 659 nm. 5-[4-Methylthiophenylldipyrromethane (5). Pynole (50.0 mL, 720 mmol) and 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde (3.83 mL, 28.8 mmol) were added to a 250 mL flask and degassed with a stream of argon. Then TFA (0.22 mL) was added and the mixture was stined under argon at room temperature for 5 min and quenched with 0.1 M NaOH. Ethyl acetate was then added and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed with water and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). Then the solvent was removed under vacuum to afford an orange oil. Bulb-to-bulb distillation (200°C, 0.01 mmHg) gave a yellow oil. The oil was dissolved in EtOH and addition of a small amount of water afforded white crystals (5.00 g, 64.7%). mp 94-95 °C; 1H NMR δ 2.51 (s, 3H), 5.43 (s, IH), 5.95 (s, 2H), 6.21 (m, 2H), 6.69 (m, 2H), 7.17, 7.25 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 7.87 (br, s, 2H); 13 C NMR δ 16.6, 44.1, 108.0, 109.2, 118.1, 127.6, 129.6, 133.1, 137.7, 139.8; EI-MS obsd 268.1033 (M + ), calcd exact mass 268.1034; Anal. Calcd. for C 16 H 16 N 2 S: C, 71.60; H, 6.01; N, 10.44; S, 11.95; Found: C, 71.60; H, 5.99; N, 10.31; S, 11.81. 5-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenvHdipyrromethane (6). Pynole (34.0 mL, 489 mmol) and 4-(S-acetylthio)benzaldehyde ((Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634-8647) (3.50 g, 19.4 mmol) were added to a 100 mL flask and degassed with a stream of argon. Then TFA (0.15 mL, 1.94 mmol) was added and the mixture was stined under argon at room temperature for 5 min and quenched with DIEA (0.330 mL, 1.94 mmol). All volatile materials were evaporated under high-vacuum. The crude mixture was filtered through a pad of silica to afford a yellow oil, which was dissolved in EtOH and allowed to stand at -20 ° C for 3 days. Yellowish crystals were isolated by filtration. The filtrate was concentrated, a small amount of water was added and the mixture was allowed to stand at -20°C for a few days, affording a second crop of crystals (3.56 g, 62.0%). mp 100-101°C; 1H NMR δ 2.44 (s, 3H), 5.40 (s, IH), 5.90 (s, 2H), 6.18 (m, 2H), 6.62 (m, 2H), 7.20, 7.34 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 7.97 (br, s, 2H); 13 C NMR δ 31.0, 44.3, 108.2, 108.9, 118.3, 126.8, 130.1, 132.8, 135.3, 144.7, 195.7; EI-MS obsd 296.0996 (M + ), calcd exact mass 296.0983; Anal, calcd. for C 17 H 16 N 2 OS: C, 68.89; H, 5.44; N, 9.45; S, 10.82; Found: C, 68.69; H, 5.56; N, 9.39; S, 10.91. l,9-Bis(3,5-di-i , grf-butylbenzoyl)dipyrromethane (7). To a solution of dipynomethane (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391-1396) (421 mg, 2.9 mmol) in toluene (60 mL) stined under argon and cooled in a water bath was slowly added a solution of ethyl magnesium bromide (1 M solution in THF, 14.4 mL, 14.4 mmol). The resulting brown-orange mixture was stined for 30 min at ambient temperature. 3,5-Di-tert-butylbenzoic acid was refluxed in thionyl chloride in the presence of 1 vol% DMF. A colorless liquid, bp 167 °C (water suction pump) was obtained in 89% yield. A solution of 3,5-di-tβrt-butylbenzoyl chloride (1.82 g, 7.2 mmol) in toluene (8 mL) was added dropwise to the brown-orange mixture. The solution became darker and was stined for 2 h after the addition was completed. Then the reaction was quenched with satd aq NFUCl (30 mL). Ethyl acetate (60 mL) was added and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed with water, 2 M aq NaOH, water and brine and then dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was filtered through a pad of silica and eluted with CH 2 Cl 2 /ethyl acetate 6: 1 - 5:3. The solvents were again removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in a small amount of ethyl acetate. Hexanes was added until turbidity occuned. The mixture was cooled overnight at -20 °C and filtered, affording 442 mg (0.8 mmol, 27%) of a white powder, mp 220 °C; IR (neat): v = 3263, 2963, 1607, 1582, 1485; 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 1.32 (s, 36H), 4.27 (s, 2H), 6.17 - 6.13 (m, 2H), 6.71 - 6.77 (m, 2H), 7.57 (s, 2H), 7.72 (s, 4H), 11.47 (br, s, 2H); ,3 C NMR (75.6 MHz, CDC1 3 , ATP): δ = 26.8 (+), 31.3 (-), 34.9 (+), 110.0 (-), 121.1 (-), 123.6 (-), 125.6 (-), 131.2 (+), 137.5 (+), 138.0 (+), 150.5 (+), 185.6 (- ); Anal. Calcd. for C 39 H 50 N 2 O 2 : C, 80.93; H, 8.71; N, 4.84; Found: C, 80.69; H, 8.72; N, 4.85. 10,20-Bis(3,5-di-terf-butylphenyl)-5-r4-(S-acetylthio)phenyllporphyrin (8). To a solution of 7 (397 mg, 686 μmol) in a 1:2 mixture of methanol/THF (21 mL) under argon was added NaBH 4 (1.30 g, 34 mmol) in several portions. The mixture was stined for 2.5 h, then quenched with water (40 mL) and extracted with CH 2 C1 2 . The organic phase was dried (K 2 CO 3 ) and the solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The yellow foam obtained and 5 -[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl] dipynomethane 6 (204 mg, 686 μmol) were dissolved in acetonitrile and stined at room temperature. Then TFA (640 μL, 8.3 mmol) was added and the solution immediately turned dark blue. After 25 min DDQ (467 mg, 2.1 mmol) was added because the yield did not increase any further (checked by oxidizing an aliquot with DDQ and quantifying with UN/VIS spectroscopy). After 1.5 h the mixture was filtered through a pad of alumina and eluted with CH 2 C1 2 . The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was purified by column chromatography on silica (1 st column: CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 1:4 - 1:1, 2 nd column: CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 1:2). Two fractions of brown-puφle solids were obtained, yielding 14 mg ofthe disulfide 9 (9 μmol, 3% yield) and 57 mg of 8 (68 μmol, 10% yield). 9: IR (neat): v = 3316, 2961, 2924, 2854, 1592, 1466; Η NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = - 2.94 (s, 4H), 1.52 (s, 72H), 7.79 (t, 4H, 4 J = 1.5 Hz), 8,10, 8.30 (AA'BB', 2 x 4H), 8.10 (d, 8H, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 8.94 (d, 4H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 8.96 (d, 4H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 9.07 (d, 4H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 9.34 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 10.22 (s, 2H); LD-MS obsd 1589.4 [M + ], 793.4 [M 2]; FAB-MS obsd 1586.87, calcd exact mass 1586.86 (Ci 08 H U4 N 8 S 2 ); λ abs (toluene) 417, 511, 544, 586, 642 nm. 8: IR (neat): v = 3307, 2958, 2861, 1708, 1590, 1467; 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = - 2.95 (s, 2H), 1.55 (s, 36H), 2.60 (s, 3H), 7.81, 8.28 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 7.82 (t, 2H, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 8.12 (d, 4H, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 8.88 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 8.97 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 9.08 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 9.35 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 10.2 (s, IH); LD-MS obsd 837.2 [M + ], 852.2 [M + + 15], 809.2 [M + - CO], 795.1 [M + - COCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 836.4503, calcd exact mass 836.4488 (C 56 H 60 N 4 OS); λ abs (toluene) 416, 510, 544, 585, 641 nm. Zinc(II)-10,20-Bis(3,5-di-ι'gr^-butylphenyl)-5-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyllporphyrin (Zn-8). A solution of 6 (56 mg, 172 μmol) in CHCI 3 (20 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc) 2 .2H 2 O (734 mg, 3.3 mmol) in methanol (5 mL) were combined and stined 6.5 h. Purification by column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 1:1) afforded 54 mg (60.0 μmol, 90%) of a puφle solid. IR (neat): v = 3066, 2956, 1703, 1675, 1590, 1469; Η NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCI 3 ): δ = 1.55 (s, 36H), 2.59 (s, 3H), 7.79, 8.28 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 7.82 (t, 2H, 4 J= 2.2 Hz), 8.12 (d, 4H, 4 J= 2.2 Hz), 8.99 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.06 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.17 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.43 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 10.29 (s, IH); LD-MS obsd 900.1, 915.2 [M + + 15], 872.0 [M + - CO], 857.9 [M* - COCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 898.3617, calcd exact mass 898.3623 (C 56 H 58 N 4 OSZn); λ abs (toluene) 420, 545, 583 nm; λ em (toluene) 591, 640 nm. ZincdD-Disulfide Zn-9. A solution of 9 (14 mg, 8.8 μmol) in CHC1 3 (5 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc) 2 .2H 2 O (193 mg, 879 μmol) in methanol (2 mL) were combined and stined. After 7 h an additional 194 mg (879 μmol) of Zn(OAc) 2 .H 2 O was added and stirring was continued for 15.5 h. Purification by column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 1 :2) afforded 9.0 mg (5.2 μmol, 60%) of an orange-puφle solid. IR (neat): v = 3067, 2959, 2923, 2862, 1592, 1468; 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 1.51 (s, 72H), 7.78 (s, 4H), 8.10, 8.30 (AA'BB', 2 x 4H), 8.10 (s, 8H), 9.05 (s, 8H), 9.16 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.42 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 10.28 (s, 2H); LD-MS obsd 1716.6, 871.2 [M + /2 + 15], 856.2 [M + /2], 751.9 [M + - S - l Bu - Me]; FAB-MS obsd 1710.71, calcd exact mass 1710.69 (Cιo 8 H no N 8 S 2 Zn 2 ); λ abs (toluene) 421, 545, 585 nm; λ em (toluene) 594, 641 nm. 5,10,15-Tris(3,5-di-ferι'-butyIphenyl)porphyrin (10). To a solution of 7 (578 mg, 1.0 mmol) in a 1:2 mixture of methanol/THF (30 mL) under argon was added NaBH 4 (1.89 g, 50 mmol) in several portions. The mixture was stined for 2 h, then quenched with water (60 mL) and extracted with CH 2 C1 2 . The organic phase was dried (K 2 CO 3 ) and the solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The resulting orange oil and crude 5-(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)dipynomethane (Imahori et al. (1999) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn, 72: 485-502) (334 mg, 1.0 mmol) were dissolved in acetonitrile and stined at room temperature. Then TFA (930 μL, 12.1 mmol) was added and the solution immediately turned dark blue. After 25 min DDQ (680 mg, 3.0 mmol) was added because the yield did not increase any further (checked by oxidizing an aliquot with DDQ and quantifying with UV/VIS spectroscopy). After 75 min the solution was filtered through a pad of alumina and eluted with CH 2 C1 2 . The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 1:4 - 1:2), affording 183 mg (209 μmol, 21% yield) a puφle solid. IR (neat): v = 3305, 3064, 2958, 1588, 1468; 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = - 2.91 (s, 2H), 1.51 (s, 18H), 1.55 (s, 36H), 7.79 (t, IH, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 7.81 (t, 2H, 4 J= 2.2 Hz), 8.07 (d, 2H, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 8.12 (d, 2H, 4 J= 2.2 Hz), 8.92 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 8.96 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 9.07 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.34 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 10.20 (s, IH); LD-MS obsd 875.7; FAB-MS obsd 874.5935, calcd exact mass 874.5913 (C 62 H 74 N 4 ); λ abs (toluene) 416, 510, 544, 585, 641 nm. Zinc(II)-5,l 0,15-Tris(3,5-di-fe -butylphenyl)porphyrin (Zn-10). A solution of 10 (177 mg, 202.2 μmol) in CHC1 3 (40 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc) 2 »2H 2 O (2.22 g, 10.1 mmol) in methanol (10 mL) were combined and stined 21 h. Purification by column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 1:2) afforded 187 mg (199.2 μmol, 99%) of a red-puφle solid. IR (neat): v = 3060, 2960, 2872, 1591, 1470; 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 1.52 (s, 18H), 1.54 (s, 36H), 7.78 (t, IH, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 7.81 (t, 2H, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 8.08 (d, 2H, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 8.12 (d, 2H, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 9.03 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.06 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.15 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.41 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 10.27 (s, IH); LD-MS obsd 937.6, 951.8 [M + + 15], 752.1 [M + - 3 l Bu - Me]; FAB-MS obsd 936.5057, calcd exact mass 936.5048 (C 62 H 72 N 4 Zn); λ abs (toluene) 419, 545 nm; λ em (toluene) 591, 639 nm. Meso-meso porphyrin dimers Zn-11, Zn-12 and Zn-13. To a solution of Zn-8 (15.9 mg, 17.7 μmol) and Zn-10 (16.6 mg, 17.7 μmol) in CHC1 3 (20 mL) was added a solution of AgPF 6 (8.9 mg, 35.2 μmol) in acetonitrile (3 mL). The mixture was refluxed for 7 h. Then more AgPF 6 (15 mg, 59.3 μmol) was added because the reaction stopped (monitored by analytical SEC). After an additional 22 h an additional 22 mg (87.0 μmol) of AgPF 6 was added because the reaction stopped again. Refluxing was continued for 19 h and then the reaction was quenched with water (30 mL). The phases were separated and the organic phase was washed with water and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The dark pmple solid was dissolved in CHC1 3 (30 mL). A solution of Zn(OAc) 2 .2H 2 O (390 mg, 1.8 mmol) in methanol (7 mL) was added and the mixture was stined for 3 h in the dark. Then the reaction was quenched with water (50 mL) and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed three times with 5% aq NaHCU 3 and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in a minimum amount of toluene. Purification by preparative SEC followed by column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 1:2 - 2:3) afforded 9.9 mg of Zn-11 (5.3 μmol, 30% yield) as an orange solid, 14.3 mg of Zn-12 (7.8 μmol, 44% yield) as a red-puφle solid and 7.3 mg of Zn-13 (4.1 μmol, 23% yield) as a brown-puφle solid. Zn-11: IR (neat): v = 3060, 2956, 2861, 1592, 1465; Η NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 1.43 (s, 72H), 1.57 (s, 36H), 7.68 (t, 4H, 4 J = 2.2 Hz), 7.83 (t, 2H, 4 J= 1.4 Hz), 8.08 (d, 8H, 4 J= 2.2 Hz), 8.15 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 8.30 (d, 4H, 4 J= 1.4 Hz), 8.71 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.04 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 9.08 (d, 4H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz); LD-MS obsd 1877.1; FAB-MS obsd 1870.87, calcd exact mass 1870.99 (Cι 24 H 142 N 8 Zn 2 ); λ abs (toluene) 421, 460, 561 nm; λ em (toluene) 625, 660 nm. Zn-12: IR (neat): v = 3069, 2955, 1700, 1588, 1465; Η NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCI 3 ): δ = 1.43 (s,36H), 1.44 (s, 36H), 1.57 (s, 18H), 7.66 - 7.72 (m, 4H), 7.82 (t, IH, 4 J= 2.2 Hz), 7.85, 8.37 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.09 (d, 8H, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 8.12 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 8.17 (d, 2H, 4 J= 2.2 Hz), 8.17 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 8.71 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 8.72 (d, 2H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 9.02 - 9.07 (m, 6H), 9.08 (d, 2H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz); LD-MS obsd 1423.7; FAB-MS obsd 1832.85, calcd exact mass 1832.85 (C u8 H 128 Nι 6 OSZn 2 ); λ abs (toluene) 420, 460, 561 nm; λ em (toluene) 626, 660 nm. Zn-13: IR (neat): v = 2919, 1702, 1561, 1461; 1H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDC1 3 ): δ = 1.44 (s, 72H), 7.70 (t, 4H, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 7.85, 8.37 (AA'BB', 2 x 4H), 8.09 (d, 8H, 4 J= 1.5 Hz), 8.14 (d, 4H, 3 J= 4.4 Hz), 8.72 (d, 4H, 3 J= 51 Hz), 9.03 (d, 4H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz), 9.05 (d, 4H, 3 J= 5.1 Hz); LD-MS obsd 1801.1, 1816.3 [M + + 15], 1772.9 [M + - CO], 1758.9 [M + - COCH 3 ], 1715.8 [M + - 2 COCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 1794.62, calcd exact mass 1794.71 (C 1 ι 2 H H N 8 O 2 S 2 Zn 2 ); λ abs (toluene) 421, 461, 561 nm; λ em (toluene) 626, 659 nm. Example 4 Synthesis of "Porphyrin-Linker-Thiol" Molecules with Diverse Linkers for Studies of Molecular-Based Information Storage The attachment of redox-active molecules such as poφhyrins to an electroactive surface provides an attractive approach for electrically addressable molecular based information storage. Poφhyrins are readily attached to a gold surface via thiol linkers. The rate of electron transfer between the electroactive surface and the poφhyrin is one of the key factors that dictates suitability for molecular-based memory storage. This rate depends on the type and length ofthe linker connecting the thiol unit to the poφhyrin. In this example, we the effects of different linkers. We have developed different routes for the preparation of thiol-derivatized poφhyrins with various linkers. Three ofthe linkers contain alkyne groups (S-phenylethynyl, S-phenylethynylphenyl and S-methylphenylethynylphenyl), four have alkyl units (S-methylphenyl, S-ethylphenyl, S-propylphenyl and S-hexyl) and one has four fluorine atoms attached directly to the thiophenyl unit. To facilitate the synthesis of the poφhyrins, convenient routes have been developed to a wide range of aldehydes possessing a protected S-acetylthio group. An efficient synthesis of l-iodo-4-(S- acetylthio)benzene also has been developed. A set of poφhyrins each bearing one S-acetyl derivatized linker at one meso position and mesityl moieties at the three remaining meso positions has been synthesized. Altogether seven new aldehydes, eight free base poφhyrins and eight zinc poφhyrins have been prepared. The zinc poφhyrins bearing the different linkers all form self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on gold via in situ cleavage ofthe S- acetyl protecting group. The SAM of each ofthe poφhyrins is electrochemically robust and exhibits two reversible oxidation waves. This example describes thiol-derivatized poφhyrins containing diverse linkers designed to explore how the linker affects the rates of writing and reading as well as duration of information storage (i.e., memory persistence). The studies reported here from the methods described above for the synthesis of thiol-derivatized poφhyrin monomers for studies of molecular-based information storage. In various embodiments of this work, poφhyrins bearing one thiol group were designed for vertical organization on a gold surface, while poφhyrins bearing two or four thiol groups were designed for horizontal anangement on a gold surface. The redox potentials were tuned through variation in the meso substituents and/or the central metal. The different meso substituents can also give rise to altered packing patterns ofthe molecules in a self-assembled monolayer (SAM). Thiol protecting groups were examined for compatibility with the reactions for poφhyrin- formation, metal insertion, Pd-coupling to form multipoφhyrin anays, and in situ deprotection on a gold surface. The S-acetylthio protecting group gave the best overall results (including in situ cleavage on gold) and has been used in almost all of our subsequent work. The synthetic methodology described above is used herein to prepare a set poφhyrins, each bearing one thioacetate group and three mesityl groups. These molecules are designed for vertical organization on a gold surface. One prototypical example, incoφorates a thiol-derivatized -phenylene unit (linker A, Figure 34). This molecule binds to a gold electrode and exhibits facile electronic communication with the gold surface. The p,p' -diphenylethyne unit (linker B, Figure 34) increases the distance ofthe poφhyrin from the gold surface, potentially slowing writing/reading rates, though linkers of this type are known to provide efficient hole transport (Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 116: 10578- 10592; Seth (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 11194-11207). A similar structure with one additional methylene unit (linker C, Figure 34) provides a test of whether a conjugated connection (e.g., a direct thiophenyl attachment) is essential. An electron-deficient p- phenylene linker is provided by linker D (Figure 34). The effects of a progressive increase in the alkyl character ofthe linker can be examined by comparison of linkers A, E, F, G and H (Figure 34). Finally, an ethynylphenyl linker (I) is employed to achieve direct conjugation to the poφhyrin (Anderson (1994) Inorg. Chem. , 33 : 972-9811; Lin (1994) J. Science, 264, 1105-1111). The use of these poφhyrins as memory storage entities will be reported elsewhere. Results and Discussion A large number of poφhyrin monomers bearing free thiols or S-acetyl derivatized thiols have been prepared. The traditional method of synthesis involves the derivatization of a substituted poφhyrin with a thiol reagent or protected thiol unit. The emergence of mild conditions for preparing poφhyrins has made possible those strategies where sensitive or elaborate substituents are incoφorated in the aldehyde precursor to the poφhyrin (Lindsey (2000) In The Porphyrin Handbook; Kadish, K. M.; Smith, K. M.; Guilard, R., Eds.; Academic Press, San Diego, CA, Vol. 1, pp 45-118; Lindsey (1997) In Modular Chemistry, Michl, J. Ed., NATO ASI Series C: Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Vol. 499, Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, pp. 517-528, Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 8941-8968; Ravikanth (1998) Tetrahedron, 54: 7721-7734). This latter approach has been explored using S-acetyl protected thio-derivatized benzaldehydes, which are converted to the respective poφhyrin with the protecting group intact (Nishimura (1999) J. Electroanal. Chem., 473: 75-84; Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64, 8635-8647; Kuroda (1989) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 111: 1912-1913; Jagessar and Tour (2000) Org. Lett., 2: 111-113). The advantages of introducing the S-acetylthio moiety at the aldehyde stage are as follows. (1) Synthetic manipulation ofthe poφhyrins is minimized. (2) The polarity imparted by the S-acetylthio moiety facilitates separation ofthe desired poφhyrin from a mixed aldehyde condensation. (3) Purification at the aldehyde stage is often more straightforward than separation of poφhyrin mixtures. For those molecules where the linker is constructed using a Pd coupling reaction (e.g., diphenylethyne), the reaction conditions for use with aldehydes (high concentration, inclusion of Cul) afford superior results compared with those with poφhyrins (Wagner et al. (1999) Chem. Mater., 11: 2974-2983). Thus we have opted to introduce the S-acetyl protected thiol unit at the aldehyde stage throughout this work. Synthesis of Aldehydes. The synthesis of aldehydes possessing a thioacetate group utilized several different approaches. Five ofthe aldehydes possess an alkyl thiol unit and three contain an aryl thiol unit. The former are usually obtained by straightforward reaction of an alkyl halide and a thiol reagent (thioacetate, thiourea), while the latter (S-protected or free thiol form) are often obtained with more difficulty. The few known methods for preparing aryl thiols, from aryl sulfides or aryl halides, generally require harsh conditions. Thus, we searched for new approaches for incoφorating the S-acetyl group in arenes. The S-acetyl group is compatible with a variety of reaction conditions, including those in poφhyrin formation and Pd-mediated iodo-ethyne couplings (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64, 8635-8647), but is labile in the presence of bases (e.g., NEt 3 , alumina) if attached to an arene. The structures of aldehydes 4 and 8 (Figure 38 and Figure 39, respectively) suggested an obvious method of synthesis via Pd-coupling of 4-iodobenzaldehyde with l-[4- (S-acetylthio)phenyl]acetylene (3) or l-[4-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl] acetylene (7). The synthesis of compound 3 utilizes l-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene 1 (Scheme 1, Figure 40). We found the previously reported procedures (Pearson and Tour (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376-1387; Hsung et al. (1995) Tetrahedron Lett., 26: 4525-4528) of this starting material to require tedious purification. In searching for a more efficient pathway to this key molecule, the selective transformation of l-fluoro-4-iodobenzene into l-iodo-4-(S- acetylthio)benzene using conditions developed by Tiecco and coworkers (Tiecco et al. (1982) Synthesis, 478-480; Testaferri et al. (1983) Synthesis, 751-755) was attempted. However, we obtained an inseparable mixture of products, regardless ofthe temperature and the amount of MeSNa used. Sita and coworkers converted pipsyl chloride (4- iodobenzenesulfonyl chloride) to l-iodo-4-mercaptobenzene (Hsung et al. (1995) Organometallics, 14: 4808-4815). We adopted this attractive route but with the use ofthe non-aqueous conditions for reduction of sulfonyl chlorides recently reported by Uchiro and Kobayashi (Uchiro and Kobayashi (1999) Tetrahedron Lett., 40: 3179-3182), thereby obtaining a much higher yield. Thus, pipsyl chloride was successfully reduced to l-iodo-4- mercaptobenzene which upon in situ treatment with acetyl chloride gave the desired 1-iodo- 4-(S-acetylthio)benzene (1, 85%) after straightforward chromatographic purification (Scheme 1, Figure 40). The zinc chloride formed in the first step is a likely catalyst ofthe acylation in the second step. The iodobenzene 1 obtained in this manner was successfully converted into the ethyne derivative 3 using established procedures (Pearson and Tour (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376-1387; Hsung et al. (1995) Tetrahedron Lett., 26: 4525- 4528). Pd-coupling of 3 and 4-iodobenzaldehyde smoothly afforded aldehyde 4 in 90% yield. As noted by Sita and coworkers (Hsung et al. (1995) Tetrahedron Lett., 26: 4525- 4528), it is essential to use a hindered amine such as NN-diisopropylethylamine instead of triethylamine to obtain satisfactory yields in all Pd-coupling reactions involving the S- acetylthiophenyl group. The synthesis of aldehyde 8 proceeded along a similar strategy (Scheme 2, Figure 41). Treatment of 4-(bromomethyl)-l-iodobenzene with thioacetate under very mild conditions (Zheng et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 603-606) gave 5, which upon Pd- coupling with trimethylsilylacetylene afforded the building block bearing two protecting groups (6). Deprotection ofthe TMS group in 6 gave 7, which upon Pd-mediated coupling with 4-iodobenzaldehyde furnished aldehyde 8. Each reaction in this sequence afforded high yields. The next target aldehyde was 4-(S-acetylthio)-2,3,5,6- tetrafluorobenzaldehyde (9) (Figure 35). The fluorine atom in the para position of pentafluorobenzenes is known to be very reactive toward nucleophilic substitution. Indeed, pentafluorophenyl-substituted poφhyrins were recently reported to undergo fluoro- substitution by alkyl thiols (Shaw et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 1595-1596; Shaw et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 7585-7586). This result encouraged us to attempt a similar substitution of pentafluorobenzaldehyde with thioacetate using conditions resembling those used in the reaction of potassium thioacetate with benzyl halides. After a vigorous reaction we found that the substrate had vanished, and the only product was a very polar substance which bound at the origin of TLC (silica, CH C1 2 ). We surmised that the latter molecule might be the anion of 4-mercapto-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzaldehyde (formed by thioester cleavage following nucleophilic substitution), and upon treatment with acetyl chloride the desired aldehyde 9 was obtained in 69% yield after chromatography. The synthesis of aldehyde 10 was accomplished using the strategy described herein 3-(S-acetylthiomethyl)benzaldehyde and also described in Gryko et al. (199) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8635-8647. Reduction ofthe commercially available 4-(bromo- methyl)benzonitrile with DD3ALH gave the conesponding 4-(bromomethyl)benzaldehyde (Wen and Schlenoff (1997) Am. Chem. Soc. 119: 7726-7733; Bookser and Bruice (1991) Am. Chem. Soc. 113: 4208-4218; Wagner et al. (1997) Tetrahedron 53: 6755-6790 for the synthesis of 3-(bromomethyl)benzaldehyde). Substitution ofthe bromide with potassium thioacetate gave the desired S-acetyl protected thiobenzaldehyde 10 in good yield (Figure 36). Aldehyde 11 was synthesized by radical addition (Lub et al. (1997) Liebigs Ann. Recueil, 2281-2288) of thioacetic acid to 4-vinylbenzaldehyde. Vinyl benzaldehyde was synthesized by the procedure of Ren et al. (1993) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 66: 1897-1902 with the following changes: The addition of DMF was performed at a 38 mmol scale at 0 °C. Purification by column chromatography (silica, Et 2 O/hexanes, 1:3) afforded 4- vinylbenzaldehyde in 60% yield (Figure 37). The homologous aldehyde 15 with a propyl rather than ethyl unit was synthesized starting from 4-bromobenzaldehyde (Scheme 3, Figure 42). Protection ofthe carbonyl group as the cyclic acetal 12 (Hewlins et al. (1986) J. Chem. Res. (M), 8: 2645- 2696), conversion to the conesponding Grignard reagent and in situ reaction with allyl bromide furnished intermediate 13. Radical addition with thioacetic acid afforded acetal 14, which was easily hydrolyzed to the respective aldehyde 15 (overall yield 18% from 4- bromobenzaldehyde). The aliphatic aldehyde 17 should be accessible via the same procedure as used for aldehyde 10. However, reduction of 7-bromoheptanitrile with 1 eq of DIBALH gave only -50% conversion to aldehyde 16, probably due to competing deprotonation ofthe protons a- to the nitrile group. Therefore we chose to synthesize 16 by oxidation of 7- bromo-1-heptanol with PCC (Enders and Bartzen (1991) Liebigs Ann. Chem, 569-574). Treatment of crude aldehyde 16 with potassium thioacetate afforded aldehyde 17 as a yellow oil in 51% yield (overall yield 42% from 7-bromo-l-heptanoι) (Figure 38). The shortest and most promising strategy for the synthesis of poφhyrin 26 involves the preparation of 3-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]propynal followed by mixed-aldehyde condensation, rather than attempting the Pd-mediated coupling of an iodo or ethynyl poφhyrin. Due to the instability of propynal, we performed a Pd-coupling of commercially available propiolaldehyde diethylacetal with l-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene (1) (Figure 39). The desired acetal 18 was obtained in 62% yield. It is noteworthy that in each strategy employed, the S-acetyl protecting group and the sulfur atom were incoφorated in one step, or the thiol was protected in situ with an acetyl group without workup and purification. In so doing the handling of free thiols was avoided while working with a wide range of thiol-derivatized compounds. Synthesis of Porphyrins. The investigation of poφhyrins oriented in a vertical manner on an electroactive surface can be achieved by the synthesis of poφhyrins bearing a^-thioaryl or ω-thioalkyl unit at one meso position. Such A 3 B-poφhyrins were prepared using a two- step, one-flask synthesis of facially-encumbered meso-substituted poφhyrins that is compatible with diverse ortλo-disubstituted benzaldehydes (Lindsey and Wagner (1989) J. Org. Chem., 54: 828-836). A mixed-aldehyde condensation of mesitaldehyde, a thiol- protected aldehyde and pynole afforded a mixture of poφhyrins, from which the desired thiol-protected A 3 B-poφhyrin was obtained by chromatography. The polarity imparted by the thioacetate group enabled facile separation ofthe mixture of poφhyrins. In this manner, aldehydes 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15 and 17 were converted to the thiol-protected A 3 B-poφhyrins 19-25, respectively, in yields of 7-22% (Scheme 4, Figure 43). It is noteworthy that purification of most ofthe poφhyrins was achieved by silica pad filtration followed by one column chromatography (or centrifugal preparative TLC) operation. This same approach was applied to acetal 18 but the yield ofthe desired A 3 B poφhyrin was only 0.8% (Scheme 5, Figure 44). We attribute the low yield in part to the competitive Michael reaction of pynole and the activated alkyne. The conesponding zinc chelates Zn-19 - Zn-26 were obtained by reaction ofthe free base poφhyrins 19-26 with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (Chart 1). In each case, zinc insertion occuned without altering the thiol protecting groups. Electrochemical Studies. The electrochemical behavior ofthe Zn poφhyrins was investigated for samples both in solution and self-assembled on gold. The solution electrochemistry of each ofthe poφhyrins is similar to that previously reported for other aryl-substituted Zn poφhyrins. 2 In particular, each poφhyrin exhibits two reversible oxidation waves. The Ey 2 values for all the poφhyrins in solution are similar to one another (E> /2 (1) ~ 0.58 V; Eι /2 (2) ~ 0.86 V; versus Ag/Ag + ; By, FeCp 2 /FeCρ 2 + = 0.19 V), with the exception of Zn-21 and Zn- 26. The E 2 values for Zn-21 are shifted -0.1 V more positive due to fluorination of one of the poφhyrin aryl groups. The Ey 2 values for Zn-26 are shifted ~0.1 V more negative due to the presence ofthe conjugating meso-alkynyl group. The poφhyrins bearing the different linkers all form self- assembled monolayers (SAMs) on gold via in situ cleavage ofthe S- acetyl protecting group. The SAM of each ofthe poφhyrins is electrochemically robust and exhibits two reversible oxidation waves. The two oxidation waves ofthe Zn poφhyrin SAMs were well resolved, as is the case for the Zn poφhyrins in solution. However, the two Eι 2 values ofthe Zn-20 and Zn-23 SAM are each shifted -0.10-0.15 V more positive than those observed in solution. This same behavior is observed for the SAMs ofthe other Zn poφhyrins. The positive shifts in redox potentials observed upon formation ofthe poφhyrin SAMs are consistence with the results of previous experiments on other electroactive species (e.g., thiol-derivatized fenocenes) on gold (Creager and Rowe (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem. 370: 203-211). Conclusions The introduction of an S-acetyl protected thiol unit in an aldehyde enables the conesponding poφhyrin to be prepared without handling free poφhyrin thiols. The combination of a few simple strategies provided access to a broad range of thiol-derivatized aldehydes. A set of poφhyrins has been prepared for vertical organization via one linker on an electroactive surface. The S-acetyl protecting group cleaves in situ when the poφhyrin contacts a gold surface. The poφhyrins form SAMs that exhibit robust, reversible electrochemistry. Collectively, the studies indicated that all ofthe linker architectures examined are suitable candidates for molecular information storage elements. Experimental. General. All chemicals obtained commercially were used as received unless otherwise noted. Reagent grade solvents (CH2CI2, CHCI 3 , hexanes, Et 2 O, acetone) and HPLC grade solvents (acetonitrile, toluene) were used as received from Fisher. Pynole was distilled from CaH 2 . All reported NMR spectra were collected in CDC1 3 (1H NMR at 300 MHz; 13 C NMR at 75 MHz) unless noted otherwise. UN- Vis absoφtion and fluorescence spectra were recorded in CH 2 C1 2 or toluene as described previously. 54 Flash chromatography was performed on flash silica (Baker, 200-400 mesh) or alumina (Fisher, 80-200 mesh). Mass spectra were obtained via laser desoφtion (LD-MS) in the absence of an added matrix, 55 fast atom bombardment (FAB-MS, 10 ppm elemental compositional accuracy for the poφhyrins), or electron-impact mass spectrometry (EI-MS). ACS grade chloroform containing 0.75% of ethanol was used in all poφhyrin forming reactions. Poφhyrin metalation was monitored by fluorescence emission and excitation spectroscopy. 4- Iodobenzaldehyde and l-bromomethyl-4-iodobenzene were obtained from Karl Industries, Ltd. l-Iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene (l). Following a general procedure (Uchiro and Kobayashi (1999) Tetrahedron Lett., 40: 3179-3182), to a stined suspension of zinc powder (3.80 g, 58.0 mmol) and dichlorodimethylsilane (7.00 mL, 58.0 mmol) in 1 ,2-dichloroethane (126 mL) was added a solution of 4-iodobenzenesulfonyl chloride (5.00 g, 16.5 mmol) and NN-dimethylacetamide (4.60 mL, 50.0 mmol) in dichloroethane (126 mL). The mixture was stined at 75 °C for 2 h until the zinc powder was no longer visible. The reaction mixture was cooled to 50 °C and acetyl chloride (1.53 mL, 21.5 mmol) was added. After 15 min the mixture was poured into water. The water layer was extracted with CH 2 C1 2 and the combined organic layers were dried (Na 2 SO 4 ), filtered and evaporated. The colorless oil thus obtained was chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1 :4) affording a colorless oil (3.93 g, 85.0%) which solidified at -20 °C. mp 56-57 °C (lit. 54-55 °C) 43 ; 1H NMR δ 2.42 (s, 3H), 7.12, 7.73 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 31.0, 96.7, 128.4, 136.7, 139.0, 193.9; Anal. Calcd. for C 8 H 7 IOS: C, 34.55; H, 2.54; I, 45.63; S, 11.53; Found: C, 34.69; H, 2.59; I, 45.52; S, 11.59. 2-(4-Formylphenyl)-l-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenvH acetylene (4). Samples of 4-iodo-benzaldehyde (660 mg, 2.80 mmol), 3 (500 mg, 2.80 mmol), Cul (29 mg, 15 μmol) and Pd(PPh 3 ) 2 Cl 2 (13 mg, 18 μmol) were placed in a Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated for 3 min then the flask was backflushed with argon for 3 min. The process of evacuation and flushing was repeated 3 times. At this point the argon flow rate was increased and the threaded stopcock was removed. Deareated THF (5.0 mL) and DIEA (5.0 mL) were added in succession to the flask by gastight syringe. The threaded stopcock was replaced, the argon flow rate was reduced and the flask was immersed in an oil bath thermostated at 40°C. The reaction was stopped after 40 h. The mixture was then filtered and evaporated. The resulting orange-brown solid was chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 2:3, then 1:1, then 3:2) to afford yellowish-white crystals, which upon recrystallization (ethyl acetate/heptane) afforded 707 mg (90.2%) of white crystals, mp 128-129 °C (lit. 122-123 °C) 36 ; 1H NMR δ 2.65 (s, 3H), 7.63, 7.79 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 7.87, 8.07 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 10.22 (s, IH); 13 C NMR δ 31.2, 91.0, 93.5, 124.5, 129.9, 130.0, 130.5, 133.1, 133.2, 135.2, 136.5, 192.3, 194.1; FAB-MS obsd 280.0551, calcd exact mass 280.0558; Anal. Calcd. for C 17 H, 2 O 2 S: C, 72.83; H, 4.31; S, 11.44; Found: C, 72.66; H, 4.39; S, 11.52. l-Iodo-4-(S-acetylthiomethyl)benzene (5). Following a general procedure (Zheng et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 603-606), potassium thioacetate (2.20 g, 19.3 mmol) was added to a solution of 4- (bromomethyl)-l-iodobenzene (4.80 g, 16.2 mmol) in anhydrous NN-dimethylacetamide (15 mL). The mixture was stined overnight at rt, poured into water, and extracted with CH 2 C1 2 . The combined organic extracts were washed with water, dried (Νa 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated. The resulting brown oil was distilled (90 °C, 0.005 mmHg) to obtain a pale- yellow solid which solidified after a few days (4.68 g, 99%). mp 40-41 °C; 1H NMR δ 2.37 (s, 3H), 4.07 (s, 2H), 7.07, 7.64 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 31.09, 33.6, 93.5, 131.6, 138.2, 138.4, 195.5; FAB-MS obsd 291.9425, calcd exact mass 291.9419; Anal. Calcd. for C 9 H 9 IOS: C, 37.00; H, 3.11; I, 43.44; S, 10.98; Found: C, 37.39; H, 3.13; I, 43.04; S, 11.26. l-[4-(S-AcetylthiomethvI)phenyl)1-2-(trimethvIsilyl)acerylene (6). Samples of 5 (2.92 g, 10.0 mmol), Cul (105 mg, 553 μmol) and Pd(PPh 3 ) 2 Cl 2 (46 mg, 66 μmol) were placed in a Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated for 3 min and then the flask was backflushed with argon for 3 min. The process of evacuation and flushing was repeated 3 times. At this point the argon flow rate was increased and the threaded stopcock was removed. Deareated THF (10.0 mL) and DIEA (10.0 mL) were added in succession to the flask by gastight syringe. Next trimethylsilylacetylene (2.00 ml, 14.0 mmol) was added. The threaded stopcock was replaced, the argon flow rate was reduced and the flask was immersed in an oil bath thermostated at 40 °C. The reaction was stopped after 40 h. The mixture was then filtered and evaporated. The resulting orange- brown solid was chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1 :4, then 3:7) to afford a slightly yellow oil which solidified upon standing at rt (2.40 g, 91.8%). mp 41-42 °C; 1H NMR δ 0.23 (s, 9H), 2.32 (s, 3H), 4.07 (s, 2H), 7.21, 7.36 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 0.7, 31.0, 33.9, 95.1, 105.5, 122.8, 129.4, 132.8, 138.9, 195.4; FAB-MS obsd 262.0839, calcd exact mass 262.0848; Anal. Calcd. for C 14 H 18 SiOS: C, 64.07; H, 6.91; S, 12.22; Found: C, 64.02; H, 6.99; S, 12.23. 1 - [4-(S-Acetylthiomethyl)phenyll acetylene (7). To a solution of 6 (2.52 g, 9.60 mmol) in THF (30 mL) was added acetic acid (0.2 mL) and acetic anhydride (0.2 mL). The mixture was cooled to -20 °C and a solution of B11 NF (2.40 g, 9.60 mmol) in THF (20 mL) was added dropwise during 5 min. The reaction mixture was kept at -20 °C for another 10 min then poured on a silica pad and eluted with CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes (1:1). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 , dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated, affording a yellowish oil (1.69 g, 92.3%). 1H NMR δ 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.88 (s, IH), 3.88 (s, 2H), 7.02, 7.20 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 30.8, 33.6, 83.8, 121.5, 129.3, 132.8, 139.0, 195.3; EI-MS obsd 190.0458, calcd exact mass 190.0452 (C U H 10 OS). 2-(4-Formylphenyl)-l-f(4-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl)acetylene (8). Samples of 4-iodobenzaldehyde (1.18 g, 5.00 mmol), 7 (950 mg, 5.00 mmol), Cul (52 mg, 270 μmol) and Pd(PPh 3 ) 2 Cl 2 (23 mg, 33 μmol) were placed in a Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated via vacuum pump for 3 min and then the flask was backflushed with argon for 3 min. The process of evacuation and flushing was repeated 3 times. At this point the argon flow rate was increased and the threaded stopcock was removed. Deareated THF (5.0 mL) and DIEA (5.0 mL) were added in succession to the flask by gastight syringe. The threaded stopcock was replaced, the argon flow rate was reduced and the flask was immersed in an oil bath thermostated at 40 °C. The reaction was stopped after 40 h. The mixture was then filtered and evaporated. The resulting orange-brown solid was chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 2:3, then 1:1, then 3:2) to afford yellowish-white crystals. Recrystallization (ethyl acetate/heptane) gave 1.30 g (88.2%) of white crystals, mp 128-129 °C; 1H NMR δ 2.49 (s, 3H), 4.07 (s, 2H), 7.25, 7.43 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 7.59, 7.79 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 9.95 (s, IH); 13 C NMR δ 30.9, 33.9, 89.5, 93.9, 122.1, 129.8, 130.1, 130.2, 132.7, 132.7, 136.1, 139.5, 192.0, 195.4; FAB-MS obsd 294.0717, calcd exact mass 294.0715; Anal. Calcd. for C 18 H 14 O 2 S: C, 73.44; H, 4.79; S, 10.89; Found: C, 73.18; H, 4.82; S, 10.88. 2,3,5,6-Tetrafluoro-4-(S-acetylthio)benzaIdehvde (9). Potassium thioacetate (1.28 g, 11.2 mmol) was added to a solution of pentafluorobenzaldehyde (1.24 mL, 10.2 mmol) in anhydrous DMA (20 mL). After a strong exotherm subsided, the mixture was stined at rt for 30 min. Acetyl chloride (1.60 mL, 22.4 mmol) was added and the mixture was stined for another 30 min, then poured into water and extracted twice with ethyl ether. The combined organic extracts were dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated to obtain an orange oil which was chromatographed (silica, CH Cl 2 /hexanes, 2:3) affording a pale-yellow solid. Recrystallization from heptane gave white crystals (1.77 g, 69%). mp 86-87 °C; 1H NMR δ 2.53 (s, 3H), 10.30 (s, IH); 13 C NMR δ 30.9, 115.5, 117.2, 145.3, 148.7, 182.9, 187.9; FAB-MS obsd 252.9936, calcd exact mass 252.9946; Anal. Calcd. for C, 42.86; H, 1.60; S, 12.72; Found: C, 43.00; H, 1.71; S, 12.67. 4-(S- AcetylthiomethyDbenzaldehyde (10). To a solution of 4-(bromomethyl)-benzaldehyde (Hsung et al. (1995) Organometallics, 14: 4808-4815; Bookser and Bruice (1991) Am. Chem. Soc. 113: 4208- 4218; Wagner et al. (1997) Tetrahedron 53: 6755-6790 for the synthesis of 3- (bromomethyl)benzaldehyde) (0.43 g, 2.2 mmol) in acetone (10 mL) was added potassium thioacetate (280 mg, 2.5 mmol) under stirring at rt, then the mixture was refluxed. A precipitate formed after a few minutes. The reaction was monitored by TLC and cooled to rt when no starting material was detectable (3.5 h). Water (25 mL) was added, the mixture was extracted with ethyl acetate (3 x 30 mL), and the combined organic phases were dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated. Column chromatography over flash silica gel (ethyl ether/hexanes, 1:1) gave 359 mg (85% yield) of a brown oil which darkened upon standing (nonetheless elementary analysis four weeks after exposure to air at rt indicated a high level of purity as listed below). IR (neat): v 3052, 2923, 2830, 2737, 1694, 1606, 1576; Η NMR δ 2.36 (s, 3H), 4.15 (s, 2H), 7.45, 7.81 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 9.97 (s, IH); 13 C NMR (APT) δ 30.1 (-), 32.9 (+), 129.3 (-), 129.9 (-), 135.2 (+), 144.7 (+), 191.5 (-), 194.3 (+); GC-MS (El) obsd 194, 152, 119, 91, 43; Anal. Calcd for C 10 Hι 0 O 2 S: C, 61.83; H, 5.19; S, 16.51; Found: C, 61.97; H, 5.20; S, 16.60. 4-r2-(S-Acetylthio)ethvnbenzaldehvde (11). Following a general procedure (Lub et al. (1997) Liebigs Ann. Recueil, 2281- 2288), 4-vinylbenzaldehyde (Vinyl benzaldehyde was synthesized by the procedure of Ren et al. (1993) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 66: 1897-1902 with the following changes: The addition of DMF was performed at a 38 mmol scale at 0 °C. Purification by column chromatography (silica, Et 2 O/hexanes, 1:3) afforded 4-vinylbenzaldehyde in 60% yield.) (1.15 g, 8.70 mmol) and thioacetic acid (2.20 mL, 30.8 mmol) were dissolved in toluene (20 mL) and the solution was purged with argon for 15 min. Then AEBN (20 mg) was added and the mixture was heated to 90 °C. After 2 h more AJJBN (160 mg) was added. This was repeated after one additional hour. 2 h later AIBN (100 mg) was added again and the mixture was heated for one additional hour. Then aq NaHCO 3 (10%, 50 mL) was added and the phases were separated. The aqueous phase was washed with ether and the combined organic phases were dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). Purification by column chromatography (silica, ether/hexanes, 1:3) gave an orange oil, which solidified and darkened upon standing at -20 °C to give a black solid (983 mg, 54%), which was pure enough for further reactions. A small sample was recrystallized from refluxing heptane to afford colorless plates, mp 35 °C; IR (neat): v 3029, 2929, 2828, 2737, 1699, 1606, 1578; 1H NMR δ 2.34 (s, 3H), 2.96 (t, 3 J= 8.1 Hz, 2H), 3.15 (t, 3 J= 8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.40, 7.83 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 9.99 (s, IH); 13 C NMR (APT) δ 30.5 (+), 31.3 (-), 36.5 (+), 129.0 (-), 129.7 (-), 134.7 (+), 146.8 (+), 191.5 (-), 194.9 (+); GC-MS (El) obsd 208, 166, 133, 120, 91, 77, 43; Anal. Calcd for C π H 12 O 2 S: C, 63.43; H, 5.81; S, 15.40; Found: C, 63.63; H, 5.90; S, 15.62. 2-(4-Bromophenyl)-5,5-dimethyl-l ,3-dioxane (12). The following describes an improved procedure at three times larger scale in much shorter time compared with the literature (Hewlins et al. (1986) J. Chem. Res. (M), 8: 2645-2696). 4-Bromobenzaldehyde (3.00 g, 16.2 mmol), neopentylglycol (1.86 g, 17.9 mmol) and/7-toluenesulfonic acid (50 mg, 0.3 mmol) were dissolved in toluene (30 mL) and the solution was refluxed for 3 h. Then the solution was cooled to rt, washed twice with aq NaHCO 3 (10%), twice with water and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvent was evaporated and the oily residue was crystallized from hexanes, affording colorless needles (2.81 g, 64%). 13 C NMR (APT) δ 21.7 (-), 22.9 (-), 30.1 (+), 77.5 (+), 100.8 (-), 122.7 (+), 127.8 (-), 131.3 (- ), 137.5 (+). 2-(4-Allylphenyl)-5,5-dimethyl-l ,3-dioxane (13). In a dry apparatus a solution of 12 (2.05 g, 7.60 mmol) in THF (15 mL) was added dropwise to magnesium powder (0.22 g, 9.1 mmol) under argon. After the addition was completed the mixture was refluxed for 45 min. Then the mixture was cooled to rt and allyl bromide (720 μL, 8.30 mmol) dissolved in THF (10 mL) was added slowly. The mixture was stined for 4.5 h, then quenched with satd aq NHUC1 (25 mL) and extracted with ether. The combined organic phases were washed with aq NaHCO 3 (5%) and brine and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was crystallized from hexanes and filtered. The filtrate was purified by column chromatography (silica, ether/hexanes, 1:4), affording a light yellow oil (1.04 g, 59%). IR (neat): v 3077, 2955, 2904, 2846, 1639, 1619, 1517; 1H NMR δ 0.79 (s, 3H), 1.29 (s, 3H), 3.38 (d, 3 J= 6.6 Hz, 2H), 3.64 (d, 2 J= 11.0 Hz, 2H), 3.76 (d, 2 J= 11.0 Hz, 2H), 5.00 - 5.10 (m, 2H), 5.37 (s, IH), 5.86 - 6.01 (m, IH), 7.19, 7.43 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR (APT) δ 21.7 (-), 22.9 (-), 30.0 (+), 39.8 (+), 77.5 (+), 101.5 (-), 115.6 (+), 126.1 (-), 128.4 (-), 136.3 (+), 137.2 (-), 140.5 (+); GC-MS (El) obsd 232, 231, 191, 163, 145, 115, 105, 91, 69, 56, 41; Anal. Calcd for C 15 H 20 O 2 : C, 77.55; H, 8.68; Found: C, 77.52; H, 8.77. 2-{4-[3-(S-Acetylthio)propyllphenyl}-5,5-dimethyl-l,3-dioxane (14). Following a general procedure (Lub et al. (1997) Liebigs Ann. Recueil, 2281- 2288), 13 (845 mg, 3.60 mmol) and thioacetic acid (910 μL, 12.7 mmol) were dissolved in toluene (20 mL) and the solution was purged with argon for 15 min. Then AIBN (200 mg) was added and the mixture was heated to 90 °C. Over a period of 23 h more A N (1.10 g) was added in several portions. Then aq NaHCO 3 (10%, 50 mL) was added and the phases were separated. The aqueous phase was washed with ether and the combined organic phases were dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). Purification by column chromatography (silica, ether/hexanes, 1 :4) gave an orange oil, which solidified upon standing at -20 °C and was recrystalhzed from pentane to give 708 mg (63%) of colorless needles. mp 44 °C. IR (neat): v 2951, 2850, 1692, 1620, 1518; 1H NMR δ 0.79 (s, 3H), 1.29 (s, 3H), 1.78 - 1.94 (m, 2H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 2.68 (t, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.86 (t, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.64 (d, 2 J= 11.0 Hz, 2H), 3.76 (d, 2 J= 11.0 Hz, 2H), 5.37 (s, IH), 7.18, 7.42 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR (APT) δ 21.6 (-), 22.8 (-), 28.1 (+), 29.9 (+), 30.4 (-), 30.8 (+), 34.3 (+), 77.3 (+), 101.4 (-), 126.0 (-), 128.1 (-), 136.1 (+), 141.5 (+), 195.3 (+); GC-MS (El) obsd 308, 307, 265, 232, 221, 204, 199, 180, 146, 133, 115, 91, 69, 43; Anal. Calcd for Cι 7 H 24 O 3 S: C, 66.20; H, 7.84; S, 10.40; Found: C, 66.19; H, 7.89; S, 10.54. 4-[3-(S-Acetylthio)propyl1benzaldehvde (15). Compound 14 (525 mg, 1.70 mmol) was dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (10 mL) and TFA (2.0 mL) was added together with a drop of water. The solution was stined for 15 h at rt. Then aq NaHCO 3 (5%, 35 mL) was added and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed twice with aq NaHCO (5%), once with brine and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the oily residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, ether/hexanes, 1 :2), affording a yellow oil (279 mg, 74%). IR (neat): v 3037, 2928, 2849, 2731, 1693, 1605; 1H NMR δ 1.88 - 1.99 (m, 2H), 2.35 (s, 3H), 2.78 (t, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.89 (t, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 2H), 7.35, 7.81 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 9.98 (s, IH); 13 C NMR (APT) δ 28.1 (+), 30.4 (+), 34.7 (+), 128.8 (-), 129.7 (-), 134.4 (+), 148.3 (+), 191.6 (-), 195.2 (+); GC-MS (El) obsd 222, 180, 146, 133, 117, 105, 91, 43. 7-(S-Acetylthio)heptanal (17). To a solution of crude 7-bromoheptanal (Enders and Bartzen (1991) Liebigs Ann. Chem, 569-574) (3.32 g, 17.2 mmol) in acetone (50 mL) was added potassium thioacetate (2.36 g, 21 mmol) under stirring at rt. Then the mixture was refluxed, yielding a precipitate after a few minutes. The reaction was monitored by TLC and cooled to rt when no starting material was detectable (4 h). Water (50 mL) was added, the mixture was extracted with ethyl ether until the organic phase was colorless, and the combined organic phases were dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated. Distillation at 98 °C with a water suction pump afforded 1.66 g (51%, 42% from 7-bromoheptanol) of a yellow oil. IR (neat): v 2938, 2857, 2721, 1725, 1694; 1H NMR δ 1.28 - 1.43 (m, 4H), 1.53 - 1.69 (m, 4H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 2.43 (dt, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 3 J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 2.86 (t, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 2H), 9.77 (t, 3 J= 1.5 Hz, IH); ,3 C NMR (APT) δ 21.6 (+), 28.1 (+), 28.3(+), 28.6 (+), 29.0 (+), 30.3 (-), 43.3 (+), 195.4 (+), 202.0 (-); GC-MS (El) obsd 188, 187, 145, 128, 112, 94, 43. l-f4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl1-2-(diethoxymethyl)acetylene (18). Samples of 1 (500 mg, 1.80 mmol), Cul (19.0 mg, 100 μmol) and Pd(PPh 3 ) 2 Cl 2 (8.4 mg, 12 μmol) were placed in a Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated via vacuum pump for 3 min and then backflushed with argon for 3 min. The process of evacuation and flushing was repeated 3 times. At this point the argon flow rate was increased and the threaded stopcock was removed. Deareated THF (5.0 mL) and DIEA (5.0 mL) were added in succession to the flask by gastight syringe. The threaded stopcock was replaced, the argon flow rate was reduced and the flask was immersed in an oil bath thermostated at 40 °C. The reaction was stopped after 40 h and the mixture was evaporated. The resulting orange-brown solid was chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1, then 7:3) to afford a yellowish-white oil (319 mg, 63.8%). 1H NMR δ 1.27 (t, J= 6.6 Hz, 6H), 2.40 (s, 3H), 3.5 - 4.0 (m, 4H), 5.49 (s, IH), 7.36, 7.50 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H); ,3 C NMR δ 15.8, 30.9, 61.7, 85.0, 86.8, 92.4, 123.7, 129.5, 133.1, 134.8, 193.7; FAB-MS obsd 278.0970, calcd exact mass 278.0977; Anal. Calcd. for Cι 5 HιgO 3 S: C, 64.72; H, 6.52; S, 11.52; Found: C, 64.45; H, 6.53; S, 11.34. 5,10,15-trimesityl-20-[4-{2-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenvnethynvI)phenyllporphyrin (19). Following a general procedure for mixed-aldehyde condensations (Lindsey et al. (1991) Tetrahedron, 50: 8941-8968; Ravikanm et al. (1998) Tetrahedron, 54: 7721- 7734) with mesitaldehyde, 52 aldehyde 4 (204 mg, 0.730 mmol) was added to CHC1 3 (40 mL, containing 0.75% ethanol), followed by mesitaldehyde (0.32 mL, 2.2 mmol), pynole (200 μL, 2.92 mmol) and BF 3 -OEt 2 (90 μL, 0.71 mmol). The reaction mixture was stined at rt for 90 min. Then DDQ (500 mg, 2.20 mmol) in THF (10 mL) was added. The resulting mixture was stined at rt for 1 h and then passed over a short silica column (CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1 :1) affording poφhyrins free from dark pigments and quinone species. The mixture of poφhyrins was purified by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica, CH Cl 2 /hexanes, 5:7). The title poφhyrin eluted as the second puφle band, affording 78 mg (12%). 1H NMR δ -2.40 (s, 2H), 1.99 (s, 18H), 2.57 (s, 3H), 2.73 (s, 9H), 7.40 (s, 6H), 7.58, 7.61 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.04, 8.34 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.78 (s, 4H), 8.8 - 9.0 (m, 4H); LD-MS obsd 917.2, 932.2 [M + + 15], 890.0 [M + - 28], 875.0 [M + - CH 3 CO]; FAB-MS obsd 914.4059, calcd exact mass 914.4018 (C 63 H 54 N 4 OS); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 420, 515, 550, 592, 646 nm. 5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-r4-(2-f4-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyllethvnvUphenyll- porphyrin (20). Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 8 (214 mg, 0.730 mmol), mesitaldehyde (0.32 mL, mmol), pynole (200 μL, 2.92 mmol) and BF 3 OEt 2 (90 μL, 0.71 mmol) were stined in CHCI 3 (40 mL) for 1.5 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (500 mg, 2.20 mmol) in THF (10 mL) for 1 h. Filtration over a silica pad (CH 2 C1 2 ) followed by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 5:7) gave the title poφhyrin as the second puφle band, affording 96 mg (14%>). 1H NMR δ -2.53 (s, 2H), 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.35 (s, 3H), 2.59 (s, 9H), 4.13 (s, 2H), 7.26 (s, 6H), 7.31, 7.59 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 7.90, 8.19 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.65 (s, 4H), 8.7-8.9 (m, 4H); LD-MS obsd 932.1, 847.9 [M + + 15], 903.7 [M + - 28], 889.5 [M÷ - CHaCO], 856.3 [M + - CH 3 COS], 841.4 [M + - CH 3 COSCH 2 ] FAB-MS obsd 928.4193, calcd exact mass 928.4175 (C 64 H 56 N 4 OS); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 420, 515, 548, 592, 648 nm. 5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-4-(S-acetylthio)phenyllporphyrin __ Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 9 (184 mg, 0.730 mmol), mesitaldehyde (0.32 mL, 2.2 mmol), pynole (200 μL, 2.92 mmol) and BF 3 OEt 2 (90 μL, 0.71 mmol) were stined in CHC1 3 (40 mL) for 1.5 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (500 mg, 2.20 mmol) in THF (10 mL) for 1 h. Filtration over a silica pad (CH 2 C1 2 ) followed by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl /hexanes, 1 :4) gave the title poφhyrin as the second puφle band, affording 46 mg (7.1%). 1H NMR (THF-d 8 ) δ - 2.51 (s, 2H), 1.83 (s, 18H), 2.61 (s, 9H), 2.67 (s, 3H), 7.29 (s, 6H), 8.8 - 9.0 (m, 8H); LD- MS obsd 887.2, 902.2 [M + + 15], 859.0 [M + - 28], 845.0 [M + - CH 3 CO]; FAB-MS obsd 886.3364, calcd exact mass 886.3328 (C 55 H 46 F 4 N 4 OS); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 418, 513, 546, 588, 644 nm. 5-[4-(S-Acetylthiomethyl)phenyll-10,15.20-trimesitylporphyrin (22). Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 10 (148 mg, 0.8 mmol), mesitaldehyde (337 μL, 2.3 mmol), pynole (211 μL, 3.0 mmol) and BF 3 OEt 2 (94 μL, 0.70 mmol) were stined in CHC1 3 (125 mL) for 3 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (519 mg, 2.3 mmol) for 1 h. The mixture was then filtered through a pad of silica (CH 2 C1 2 ) followed by column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:3 - 1:1). The title compound eluted as the second puφle band, affording 118 mg (19%) as a puφle solid. IR (neat): v 3318, 2921, 2861, 1695, 1608, 1561; 1H NMR δ -2.58 (s, 2H), 1.84 (s, 12H), 1.85 (s, 6H, 2.50 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 9H), 4.46 (s, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.65, 8.12 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.63 (brs, 4H), 8.67 (d, 3 J= 5.1 Hz, 2H), 8.77 (d, 3 J= 5.1 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 844.0 [M + + 15], 829.0 [M + ], 786.8 [M + - COCH 3 ], 753.8 [M + - SCOCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 828.3892, calcd exact mass 828.3862 (C 56 H 52 N 4 OS); λ abs (toluene) 420, 515, 548, 592, 649 nm. 5-(4-r2-(S-Acetylthio)ethyllphenv -10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (23). Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 11 (98 mg, 0.5 mmol), mesitaldehyde (208 μL, 1.4 mmol), pynole (131 μL, 1.9 mmol) and BF 3 OEt 2 (52 μL, 0.4 mmol) were stined in CHCI 3 (100 mL) for 3 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (320 mg, 1.4 mmol) for 1.5 h. The mixture was then filtered through a pad of silica (CH 2 C1 2 ) followed by column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1 - 3:2). The title compound comprised the second puφle band, affording 69 mg (17%) as a puφle solid. IR (neat): v 3319, 2920, 2861, 1694, 1608, 1561; 1H NMR δ -2.57 (s, 2H), 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.45 (s, 3H), 2.62 (s, 9H), 3.21 (t, 3 J= 8.1 Hz, 2H), 3.37 - 3.52 (m, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.58, 8.13 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.62 (s, 4H), 8.67 (d, 3 J= 5.1 Hz, 2H), 8.77 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 860.4 [M + + 15], 845.3 [M + ], 803.1 [M + - COCH 3 ], 769.0 [M + - SCOCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 842.4025, calcd exact mass 842.4018 (C 57 H 54 N 4 OS); λ a s (toluene) 420, 515, 548, 593, 650 nm. 5-{4-[3-(S-Acetylthio)propyllphenyI)-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (24). Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 15 (108 mg, 0.5 mmol), mesitaldehyde (215 μL, 1.5 mmol), pynole (135 μL, 1.9 mmol) and BF 3 OEt 2 (54 μL, 0.4 mmol) were stined in CHCI 3 (100 mL) for 3.5 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (331 mg, 1.5 mmol) for 1 h. The mixture was then filtered through a pad of silica (CH 2 C1 2 ) followed by column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 3:2 - 2:1). The title compound comprised the second puφle band as a puφle solid, which was recrystalhzed from methanol to afford 41 mg (48 μL, 10%) of a puφle solid. IR (neat): v 3322, 3102, 2920, 2852, 1693, 1612, 1559; 1H NMR: δ -2.56 (s, 2H), 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.14 - 2.25 (m, 2H), 2.41 (s, 3H), 2.61 (s, 9H), 3.02 (t, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.37 (t, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.53, 8.11 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.63 (s, 4H), 8.67 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, 2H), 8.79 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 873.4 [M + + 15], 858.4 [M + ], 816.2 [M + - COCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 856.4216, calcd exact mass 856.4175 (C 58 H 56 N 4 OS); λ abs (toluene) 420, 515, 548, 593, 649 nm. 5- r7-(S-Acetylthio)hexyll -10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (25). Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 17 (111 mg, 0.6 mmol), mesitaldehyde (261 μL, 1.8 mmol), pynole (164 μL, 2.4 mmol) and BF 3 -OEt 2 (65 μL, 0.5 mmol) were stined in CHCI 3 (100 mL) for 3 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (401 mg, 1.8 mmol) for 1.5 h. The mixture was then filtered through a pad of silica (CH 2 C1 2 ) followed by two column chromatography procedures (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1 : 1 - 3:2). The title compound eluted as the second puφle band and was purified by column chromatography (silica, CH Cl 2 /hexanes, 2:1) to afford 105 mg (22%) as a puφle solid. IR (neat): v 3317, 3107, 2922, 2856, 1691, 1609, 1562; 1H NMR δ -2.51 (s, 2H), 1.52-1.67 (m, 4H), 1.74 - 1.89 (m, 2H), 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.30 (s, 3H), 2.45 - 2.58 (m, 2H), 2.60 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 6H), 2.88 (t, 3 J= 6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.98 (t, 3 J= 8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.25 (s, 2H), 7.28 (s, 4H), 8.55 - 8.62 (m, 4H), 8.75 (d, 3 J= 3.7 Hz, 2H), 8.40 (d, 2H, 3 J= 3.7 Hz); LD-MS obsd 825.2 [M + ], 783.0 [M + - COCH 3 ], 679.5 [M + - (CH 2 ) 5 SCOCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 822.4355, calcd exact mass 822.4331 (C 55 H 58 N 4 OS); λ abs (toluene) 419, 516, 549, 594, 652 nm. 5,10,15-TrimesitvI-20-{2-f4-(S-acetylthio)phenyllethvnyl}porphyrin (26). Following the general procedure for 19, acetal 18 (100 mg, 0.36 mmol), mesitaldehyde (0.16 mL, mmol), pynole (100 μL, 1.46 mmol) and BF 3 OEt 2 (45 μL, 0.35 mmol) were stined in CHC1 3 (20 mL) for 1.5 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (250 mg, 1.10 mmol) in THF (5 mL) for 1 h. Filtration over a silica pad (CH 2 C1 2 ) followed by two subsequent preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:3, then 1 :1) gave the title poφhyrin as the second puφle band, affording 2.5 mg (0.83%). 1H NMR δ -2.14 (s, 2H), 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.50 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 9H), 7.25 (s, 6H), 7.60, 8.03 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.54 (s, 4H), 8.73 (m, 2H), 9.63 (m, 2H); LD-MS obsd 841.6, 856.6 [M + + 15], 813.4 [M + - 28], 799.4 [M + - CH 3 CO]; FAB-MS obsd 838.3737, calcd exact mass 838.3705 (C 57 H 50 N 4 OS); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 436, 534, 576, 611, 668 nm. General Procedure for Zinc Insertion. The poφhyrin was dissolved in CHC1 3 or CH 2 C1 2 and a solution of Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O in methanol was added. The reaction mixture was stined at rt. After metalation was complete (TLC, fluorescence excitation spectroscopy), the reaction mixture was washed with water and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ), filtered and concentrated to a puφle solid. Purification was achieved by column chromatography on silica. Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-j2-f4-(S-acetylthio)phenvnethvnyl}phenyll- porphyrin (Zn-19). A solution of poφhyrin 19 (37 mg, 0.040 mmol) in CH 2 C1 2 (15 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (880 mg, 4.00 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and the mixture was stined for 16 h. Column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1) afforded 35.6 mg (92.0%). 1H NMR δ 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.48 (s, 3H), 2.64 (s, 9H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.48, 7.72 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 7.92, 8.23 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.70 (s, 4H), 8.70 - 8.90 (m, 4H); LD-MS obsd 979.8, 995.8 [M + + 15], 953.6 [M + - 28], 939.6 [M + - CH 3 CO]; FAB-MS obsd 976.3177, calcd exact mass 976.3153 (C 63 H 52 N 4 OSZn); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 422, 550 nm. Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-r4-(2-r4-(S- acetylthiomethyDphenyllethynyllphenyll porphyrin (Zn-20). A solution of poφhyrin 20 (37 mg, 0.040 mmol) in CH 2 C1 2 (15 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (880 mg, 4.00 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and the mixture was stined for 16 h. Column chromatography (silica, CH Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1) afforded 37.7 mg (95.0%). 1H NMR (THF-d 8 ) δ 1.86 (s, 18H), 2.34 (s, 3H), 2.60 (s, 9H), 4.18 (s, 2H), 7.29 (s, 6H), 7.38, 7.58 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 7.88, 8.19 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.63 (s, 4H), 8.6 - 8.8 (m, 4H); LD-MS obsd 992.4, 1008.5 [M* + 15], 964.4 [M + - 28], 950.2 [M + - CH 3 CO], 934.2 [M + - 58], 918.1 [M + - CH 3 COS], FAB-MS obsd 990.3280, calcd exact mass 990.3310 λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 422, 550 nm. Zn(II)-5,10.15-Trimesityl-20-r2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-4-(S- acetylthio)phenyll porphyrin (Zn-21). A solution of poφhyrin 21 (35 mg, 0.040 mmol) in CH 2 C1 2 (15 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (880 mg, 4.00 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and the mixture was stined for 16 h. Column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1 :4) afforded 31.4 mg (83.3%). 1H NMR (THF-d 8 ) δ 1.87 (s, 18H), 2.66 (s, 9H), 2.71 (s, 3H), 7.30 (s, 6H), 8.7 - 9.0 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 953.5, 967.7 [M + + 15], 925.4 [M + - 28], 909.3 [M + - CH 3 CO]; FAB-MS obsd 948.2480, calcd exact mass 948.2463 (C 55 H4 4 F 4 N 4 OSZn); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 421, 548 nm. Zn(II)-5-r4-(S-Acetylthiomethyl)phenyll-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (Zn-22). A solution of poφhyrin 22 (54.8 mg, 66.1 μmol) in CHCI 3 (20 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (435 mg, 2.00 mmol) in MeOH (5 mL) and the mixture was stined for 6 h. An excess of Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (290 mg, 1.3 mmol) was added because the metalation was not completed. Stirring was continued for another 23 h. The organic phase was washed with aq NaHCO 3 (5%). Column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1) afforded a puφle solid in quantitative yield. IR (neat): v 2922, 2853, 1663; 1H NMR δ 1.84 (s, 18H), 2.49 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 9H), 4.46 (s, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.63, 8.14 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.70 (brs, 4H), 8.74 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, IH), 8.75 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, IH), 8.845 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, IH), 8.850 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, IH); LD-MS obsd 906.3 [M + + 15], 891.3 [M + ], 849.2 [M + - COCH 3 ], 831.2 [M* - 4 CH 3 ], 816.1 [M + - SCOCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 890.3035, calcd exact mass 890.2997 (C 56 H 50 N 4 OSZn); λ abs (toluene) 423, 550 nm; λ em (toluene) 593, 644 nm. Zn(H)-5-{4-r2-(S-Acetylthio)ethvnphenyli-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (Zn- 23). A solution of poφhyrin 23 (48 mg, 57 μmol) in CHC1 3 (20 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (1.25 g, 5.70 mmol) in MeOH (5 mL) and the mixture was stined for 17 h. The organic phase was washed with aq NaHCO 3 (5%). Column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 3:1) afforded a puφle solid in quantitative yield. IR (neat): v 3096, 2910, 2849, 1646; 1H NMR δ 1.84 (s, 12H), 1.85 (s, 6H), 2.44 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 9H), 3.20 (t, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.38 - 3.46 (m, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.57, 8.14 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.70 (s, 4H), 8.75 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, 2H), 8.86 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 920.5 [M + + 15], 906.4 [M + ], 864.3 [M + - COCH 3 ], 830.2 [M + - SCOCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 904.3121, calcd exact mass 904.3153 (C 5 H 52 N 4 OSZn); λ abs (toluene) 423, 550 nm; λ em (toluene) 593, 644 nm. Zn i)-5-{4-r3-(S-Acetylthio)propyllphenyl}-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (Zn- 24 A solution of poφhyrin 24 (37.7 mg, 44 μmol) in CHC1 3 (20 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (965 mg, 4.40 mmol) in MeOH (5 mL) and the mixture was stined for 5 h. The organic phase was washed with aq NaHCO 3 (5%) and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). Column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 4:1) afforded a puφle solid in quantitative yield. IR (neat): v 3107, 2919, 2849, 1650; 1H NMR δ 1.84 (s, 12H), 1.85 (s, 6H), 2.13 - 2.26 (m, 2H), 2.40 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 9H), 3.03 (t, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.11 (t, 3 J= 7.3 Hz, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.53, 8.13 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.69 (s, 4H), 8.74 (d, 3 J= 5.1 Hz, 2H), 8.86 (d, 3 J= 5.1 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 937.8 [M + + 15], 921.8 [M + ], 879.6 [M + - COCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 918.3343, calcd exact mass 918.3310 (C 58 H 54 N 4 OSZn); λ abs (toluene) 423, 550 nm; λ em (toluene) 593, 644 nm. Zn(II)-5-[7-(S-Acetylthio)hexyn-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (Zn-25). A solution of poφhyrin 25 (93 mg, 110 μmol) in CHCI 3 (25 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (2.50 g, 11.4 mmol) in MeOH (7 mL) and the mixture was stined for 18 h. The organic phase was washed with aq NaHCO 3 (5%) and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). Column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 2:1) afforded a puφle solid (85 mg) in 85% yield. IR (neat): v 3107, 2920, 2849, 1690, 1658, 1608; 1H NMR δ 1.55 - 1.67 (m, 4H), 1.78 - 1.89 (m, 2H), 1.83 (s, 18H), 2.20 (s, 3H), 2.52 - 2.65 (m, 2H), 2.61 (s, 3H), 2.64 (s, 6H), 2.83 (t, 3 J= 6.6 Hz, 2H), 5.02 (t, 3 J= 8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.25 (s, 2H), 7.28 (s, 4H), 8.64 (d, 3 J= 5.1 Hz, 2H), 8.66 (d, 3 J= 5.1 Hz, 2H), 8.81 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, 2H), 9.49 (d, 3 J= 4.4 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 887.7 [M + ], 844.5 [M + - COCH 3 ], 742.0 [M + - (CH 2 ) 5 SCOCH 3 ]; FAB-MS obsd 884.3490, calcd exact mass 884.3466 (C 55 H 56 N 4 OSZn); λ a s (toluene) 423, 552 nm; λ em (toluene) 593, 646 nm. Zn i)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-{2-f4-(S-acetvIthio)phenyllethvnyl}porphyrin (Zn- 26). A solution of poφhyrin 26 (2.5 mg, 2.9 μmol) in CH 2 C1 2 (5 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (64 mg, 29 μmol) in MeOH (5 mL) and the mixture was stined for 16 h. Column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1) afforded 2.4 mg (92%). 1H NMR δ 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.50 (s, 3H), 2.62 (s, 9H), 7.29 (s, 6H), 7.60, 8.04 (AA'BB', 2 x 2H), 8.64 (m, 4H), 8.82 (m, 2H), 9.73 (m, 2H); LD-MS obsd 906.1, 922.1 [M + + 15], 878.4 [M + - 28], 862.0 [M + - CH 3 CO]; FAB-MS obsd 900.2825, calcd exact mass 900.2840 (C 57 H 48 N 4 OSZn); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 440, 566, 611 nm. Electroch emistry. The solution electrochemical studies ofthe Zn poφhyrins were performed using techniques and instrumentation previously described (Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 116: 10578-10592; Seth et α/.( 1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 11194-11207). The solvent was CH 2 C1 2 ; tetrabutylammomum hexafluorophosphate (TBAH, 0.1 M) (Aldrich, recrystallized three times from methanol and dried under vacuum at 110 °C) served as supporting electrolyte. The potentials reported are vs Ag/Ag + ; E' /2 (FeCp 2 /FeCp 2 + ) = 0.19 V. The SAM electrochemical studies ofthe Zn poφhyrins were performed on 75-micron wide gold band electrodes formed via E-beam evaporation (to a thickness of 100 nm) onto piranha-solution-etched glass slides that had a 1 nm thick underlayer of chromium. The electrochemical cell was constructed by forming a 3-rnm diameter polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) well (-3 mm deep) over the gold band. The Zn poφhyrins were dissolved in absolute ethanol and the solution (-1 mM) was added to the well and allowed to stand. Deposition times of 30 min were found to give the same quality cyclic voltammograms as those obtained with much longer deposition times (12 h). Subsequent to soaking, the solvent was removed and the PDMS well was rinsed with absolute ethanol followed by a final rise with CH 2 C1 2 . A small amount of CH 2 C1 2 containing 1 M TBAH was then added to the PDMS well. Silver and platinum wires were inserted into the well to serve as the reference and counter electrodes, respectively. The cyclic voltammograms were recorded with an Ensman Instruments 400 potentiostat at a rate of 100 V/s. Example 5 Synthesis of Thiol-Derivatized Ferrocenes and Thiol-Derivatized Ferrocene- Porphyrins for Comparative Studies of Molecular-Based Information Storage This example describes the systhesis of various fenocene-poφhyrins. Three ofthe fenocene-poφhyrins have linkers of different length between the fenocene and poφhyrin. The fourth fenocene-poφhyrin has two fenocenes positioned at the lateral sites on the poφhyrin. The latter architecture is designed to provide a shorter distance between the electroactive surface and the fenocene while maintaining an upright orientation ofthe poφhyrin. Each fenocene-poφhyrin affords three cationic oxidation states (fenocene monocation, poφhyrin monocation, poφhyrin dication) in addition to the neutral state thereby affording the capability of storing two bits of information. Each fenocene or fenocene-poφhyrin bears an S-acetyl or S-(N-ethyl)carbamoyl protected thiol moiety, thereby avoiding handling of free thiols. Each fenocene-poφhyrin forms a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) on gold via in situ cleavage ofthe thiol protecting group. The SAMs of all anays are electrochemically robust and exhibit three well-resolved, reversible oxidation waves. Introduction We have shown that a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of poφhyrins attached to an electroactive surface can be used for molecular-based information storage. The poφhyrins are addressed electrically and information is stored in the distinct oxidation states provided by the poφhyrins. In principle, multiple bits of information can be stored in a given memory storage location (i.e., a memory cell) by accessing a series of distinct oxidation states of a molecular assembly. Gold, the electroactive surface predominantly employed, presents an electrochemical window that extends to -+1.2 N (versus Ag/Ag + ). A number of writing and reading schemes require a potential difference of ΔE = 150 mN in order to distinguish distinct oxidation states. Thus, to store multiple bits it is useful to have redox-active molecules that span the full potential provided by the gold electrode. For puφoses of stability we have selected redox-active molecules that are reversibly cycled between neutral and cationic states rather than anionic states, given the greater stability of cations under ambient conditions. We have described herein the synthesis of thiol-derivatized poφhyrins for attachment to electroactive surfaces. Poφhyrins have two stable and easily accessible cationic oxidation states (monocation, dication) (Felton (1978) In The Porphyrins; Dolphin, D., Ed.; Academic Press, Ν.Y.5: 53-126). In poφhyrins the electrochemical potentials can be tuned by attachment of appropriate substituents (Yang et αl, (1999) J. Porphyrins Phthαlocyαnines 3: 117-147) or by variation in the central metal (Fuhrhop, et αl. (1969) Am. Chem. Soc, 91 : 4174-4181), thereby achieving oxidation potentials in the range of +0.5 - +1.2 V. In optimizing storage molecules according to the present invention, we have explored a number questions such as Whether, or not, there is a difference between co- depositing a collection of different types of molecules having distinct oxidation potentials in a memory storage location, versus employing a homogeneous population of molecules where each molecule is comprised of multiple redox-active units. The former approach is more easily implemented while the latter avoids potential problems such as differential partitioning onto the surface and/or compartmentalization of attached molecules that may occur with a heterogeneous population of molecules. We have aslo explored how the rate of electron transfer (and therefore the rate of writing and reading) and memory persistence lifetime are affected by molecular architecture? In addition, we have explored the effects of linker length and composition on rate of electron transfer of redox-active molecules attached to SAMs. One ofthe most widely studied redox-active molecules in self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) is fenocene (Chidsey (1991) Science, 251 : 919-921; Tender et al., (\99A) Anal. Chem. 66: 3173-3178; Weber et al. (\99A) Anal. Chem. 66: 3164-3168; Everett, et al. (1995) Anal. Chem., 67: 292-298; Campbell et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 118: 10211-10219; Sachs et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 10563-10564; Creager et al, (1999) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121 : 1059-1064; Kondo et al, (1999) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 121 : 391-398; Ye et al, (1999) Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 1: 3653-3659), due to the central role played by fenocene in non-aqueous electrochemical studies. Fenocenes present a number of attractive electrochemical features. Fenocenes exhibit relatively stable radical cations. The electrochemical potential can be tuned by attachment of appropriate substituents (and other metallocenes can be employed), affording oxidation potentials in the range of -0.2 to > +0.5 V (Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry ofthe Elements, Bard, A. J.; Lund, H.; Eds.; Marcel Dekker: New York, 1979, Vol. 13, pp 3-27). One key distinction between a fenocene and a poφhyrin, however, is that fenocene only has two easily accessible oxidation states (neutral, monocation), while poφhyrins have three accessible and stable oxidation states (neutral, monocation, dication). The distinct electrochemical windows that are readily accessible with fenocenes and poφhyrins prompted us to explore the combination of poφhyrins and fenocenes in order to span the electrochemical window provided on a gold surface. Thiol-derivatized fenocene-poφhyrins are attractive as prototypical molecular anays comprised of multiple redox-active units for studies of multi-bit information storage. A large number of fenocene-poφhyrins have been prepared to date (Uosaki et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 8367-8368; Yanagida et al. (1998) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 71: 2555-2559; Kondo, et al. (1999) Z Phys. Chem., 212: 23-30; Thornton et al. (1998) J. Phys. Chem. B, 102,:2101-2110; Beer et al. (1987) J. Organomet. Chem., 336: C17-C21; Beer et al. (1989) J. Organomet. Chem., 366: C6-C8; Wagner et al.,( 1991) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1463-1466; Wagner, et al. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53: 6755- 6790; Hisatome et al. (1985) Tetrahedron Lett., 26: 2347-2350; Beer et al. (1995) J. C/?e/w. Soc. Chem. Commun., 1187-1189; Beer et al. (1997) J. CAe/w. Soc. E ) α/ton Tra«5. 881-886; Fujitsuka et α/., CΛe w. Z,ett. 1999, 721-722; Imahori et α/. (1999) CΛe . Commun., 1165- 1166; Wollmann et al. (1977) 7«org. CTzem., 16: 3079-3089; Maiya et al. (1989) Inorg. Chem. 28: 2524-2527; Loim et al. (1996) Mendeleev Commun., 2: 46-47; Loim et α/. (1997) Russ. Chem. B., 46: 1193-1194; Loim et al. (1998) Russ. Chem. B., Al, 1016-1020; Boyd et al. (1999) Chem. Commun., 637-638; Nadiochenko et al. (1999) Russ. Chem. B., AB: 1900- 1903; Vaijayanthimala et al. (1990) J. Coorrf. Chem., 21 (Part A), 333-342; Schmidt et al. (1986) Inorg. Chem., 25: 3718-3720; Giasson, et al. (1993) J. /jys. CAem., 97: 2596-2601; Bunell et al. (1997) Tetrahedron Lett., 38: 1249-1252; Bunell et al. (1999) J. CΛew. Soc. Dalton Trans., 3349-3354). The type of linker between the two electroactive units in these structures ranges from non-conjugated ether (Uosaki (1997) et al, J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 8367-8368; Yanagida et al. (1998) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 71 : 2555-2559; Kondo et al, (1999) Z Phys. Chem., 212: 23-30; Thornton et al. (1998) J. Phys. Chem. B., 102: 2101- 2110), ester (Beer et al, (1987) J. Organomet. Chem., 336: C17-C21; Beer et al. (1989) J. Organomet. Chem., 366: C6-C8; Wagner et al, (1991) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1463-1466; Wagner et al. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53: 6755-6790), amide (Hisatome et al. (1985) Tetrahedron Lett. 26: 2347-2350; Beer et al. (1995) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1187-1189; Beer et al. (1997) J. Chem. Soc. Dalton Trans., 881-886; Fujiisuka et al. (1999) Chem. Lett., 721-722; Imahori et al. (1999) Chem. Commun 1165-1166) to conjugated (direct linkage [Wollmann et al, (1977) Inorg. Chem. 16: 3079-3089; Maiya et al. (1989) Inorg. Chem., 28: 2524-2527; Loim et al. (1996) Mendeleev Commun., 2: 46-47; Loim et al, (1997) Russ. Chem. B., 46: 1193-1194; Loim et al. (1998) Russ. Chem. B., Al: 1016- 1020; Boyd et al, (1999) Chem. Commun., 637-638; Nadiochenko et al. (1999) Russ. Chem. B., 48: 1900-1903), imine (Vaijayanthimala et al. (1990) J. CσorJ. Chem., 21(Part A): 333- 342), phenyl (Schmidt et al. (1986) Inorg. Chem., 25: 3718-3720), alkene (Giasson et al. (1993) J. P/?^. CTzerø., 97: 2596-2601; Bunell et al. (1997) Tetrahedron Lett., 38: 1249- 1252; Bunell, et al. (1999) J. Cλe/w. Soc. Dalton Trans., 3349-3354). Two fenocene poφhyrins that bear a thiol unit attached to the end of a long flexible hydrocarbon chain have been prepared for attachment to a gold electrode (Uosaki et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 119: 8367-8368; Yanagida et al. (1998) Bull Chem. Soc. Jpn., 71: 2555-2559; Kondo et al. (1999) Z Phys. Chem., 212: 23-30; Imahori et al. (1999) Chem. Commun., 1165- 1166). For our studies we used a set of molecules with a high level of architectural rigidity and appropriate positioning of fenocene, poφhyrin, linkers, and thiol unit. In this example, we describe a set of four thiol-derivatized fenocene poφhyrins. In order to achieve a high degree of 3-dimensional order, the/?-phenylene linker has been used for attachment ofthe poφhyrin to the thiol group. Three ofthe fenocene-poφhyrins are designed such that the fenocene and poφhyrin are separated by linkers of different length. Each fenocene-poφhyrin is designed for vertical orientation upon binding ofthe thio group on a gold surface, thereby disposing the fenocene far from the gold surface (Zn-34, Zn-35 and Zn-36). A fourth fenocene-poφhyrin explores a different architecture, where the fenocenes are attached to the lateral positions ofthe poφhyrin (Zn-37). In this case the through-bond distance from thiol to fenocene remains the same as with the fenocene-poφhyrin having the same spacer but in an upright position (Zn-35) while the through-space distance to the gold surface is much shorter. This set of fenocene-poφhyrins should provide valuable guidance concerning the design of molecular devices for the storage of multiple bits of information. Two sets of fenocenes with thiol linkers of different lengths and extent of conjugation also have been synthesized. These thiol-derivatized fenocene molecules serve as benchmarks for comparison with the fenocene-poφhyrins, with the thiol-derivatized poφhyrins bearing diverse linkers described in the previous paper [Gryko, D. T., et al., submitted, companion paper 1], and with the large body of data where thiol-derivatized fenocenes have been attached to electroactive surfaces. All ofthe thiol-derivatized molecules are prepared with S-acetyl or S-(N- ethylcarbamoyl) protected thiol groups, which undergo in situ cleavage on a gold electrode and thereby obviate handling of free thiols (Tour et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 111: 9529- 9534; Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 8635-8647). Results and Discussion Ferrocene-Linked Thiols and Ferrocene Building Blocks. We sought to prepare thiol-derivatized fenocenes bearing a variety of aryl or alkyl linkers. Fenocene is known to undergo arylation with a variety of diazonium salts (Νesmeyanov et al. (1954) Dokl Akad. NaukS.S.S.R, 97: 459-462; Broadhead et al, (1955) J. Chem. Soc, 367-370; Weinmayr (1955) Am. Chem. Soc, 77: 3012-3014), which is an approach we employed in the preparation of several ofthe fenocene derivatives. Treatment of fenocene with one molar equivalent ofthe diazonium salt of 4-iodoaniline afforded 4- iodophenylfenocene (1) in 30% yield (Scheme 1, Figure 48). However, an excess of 4- iodoaniline (3 mol equiv) afforded 1 in 55% yield after separation from unreacted fenocene. Lithiation of 4-iodophenylfenocene (1), following by trapping with sulfur (Jones et al. (1970) Org. Syn., 50: 104) and acetyl chloride (Pearson et al. (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376-1387) at -78° C gave 4-(S-acetylthio)phenylfenocene (2) in 85% yield. 4-{2-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]ethynyl}phenylfenocene (5) was synthesized by two routes. The first route employed the key intermediate 4-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]- phenylfenocene (3), which was accessed in two ways (Scheme 2, Figure 49). The Pd- coupling (Takahashi et al. (1980) Synthesis, 8: 627-630) of 4-iodophenylfenocene (1) and (irimethylsilyl)acetylene in TEA at 40° C for 4 h afforded 3. Alternatively, Pd-coupling of 4-iodoaniline with (trimethylsilyl)acetylene gave 4-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]aniline (Id.), which upon diazotization and reaction with fenocene gave 3. In both cases 3 was obtained in 50-55% yield. Cleavage ofthe trimethylsilyl group in 3 using K 2 CO 3 in THF/MeOH gave 4-ethynylphenylfenocene (previously synthesized using a less efficient procedure (Simionescu et al. (1976) J. Organomet. Chem., 113, 23-28) (4), which upon Pd-coupling with l-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene in the presence of TEA gave the desired fenocene 5 in 56% yield. However, the yield of 5 was greatly improved (88%) with use of DIEA instead of TEA which is often used in such Pd coupling reactions. In the second route to 5, 4-iodo-l-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]benzene (Moore et al. (1991) Tetrahedron Lett., 32: 2465-2466; Lavastre et al. (1996) Tetrahedron, 52: 5495-5504; Hsung et al. (1995) Organometal, 14: 4808-4815; Yao et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1968-1971) (6) served as a key intermediate. This bifunctional compound has been prepared previously for use in the synthesis of molecular nanostructures. We investigated two paths as potential refinements to this key building block (Scheme 2, Figure49). Employing Tour's procedure (Yao et α/ ( 1990) J. Org. Chem., 6A: 1968-1971) but with an improved Pd reagent and amine, the reaction of 1,4-diiodobenzene with 0.5 equiv of (trimethylsilyl)acetylene in TEA at 50° C for 4 h afforded 6. Alternatively, treatment ofthe diazonium salt of 4-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]aniline with KI also afforded 6. Lithiation of 6 and trapping with sulfur and acetyl chloride at -78° C afforded 1-(S- acetylthio)-4-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]benzene (7) in 90% yield. Deprotection of 7 with tetrabutylammomum fluoride in the presence of acetic acid and acetic anhydride following a reported procedure (Pearson et al (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376-1387) gave 1-(S- acetylthio)-4-ethynylbenzene (8) in 90% yield. Finally, the Pd-coupling of 4- iodophenylfenocene (1) and 8 in THF at room temperature in the presence of DIEA gave the desired fenocene 5 in 90% yield. Although the next target molecule 11 was available (Hsung et al. (1995) Organometal, 14: 4808-4815) via Pd-coupling of ethynylfenocene and l-iodo-4-(S- acetylthio)benzene, we decided to examine another synthetic route. A slight modification of the catalyst in the Pd-coupling of ethynylfenocene 9 (Doisneau et al. (1992) J. Organomet. Chem, 425: 113-117) with excess 1,4-diiodobenzene increased the yield of intermediate 10 from 73% (Yu et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 2070-2079) to 95% (Scheme 3, Figure 50). Lithiation of 10 following by trapping with elemental sulfur and acetyl chloride at -78° C afforded the desired product 11 in 95% yield. We also sought to investigate thiol-derivatized fenocenes with lower oxidation potentials. Selective reduction of l,l'-diacetylfenocene to 1-ethyl-l'- acetylfenocene 12 has been accomplished using systems such as H 2 /PtO 2 (Rosenblum et al. (1958) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 80: 5443-5448) or Zn/Me 3 SiCl (Denifil et al. (1996) J. Organomet. Chem., 523: 79-91) albeit in modest yield. Thus, we decided to apply the classical Clemmensen system (Zn/HgCl 2 amalgam and HCl), which gave 12 in up to 60% yield (Scheme 4, Figure 51). The same sequence of reactions employed to prepare 11 was then applied to 12. In this manner, 12 was converted into the ethynylfenocene 13, which was coupled with 1,4-diiodobenzene to give 14, and the latter was treated with t-BuLi, sulfur, and acetyl chloride at -78° C to obtain the desired product 15. We recognized that 4-fenocenylbenzyl alcohol could serve as a versatile intermediate in the synthesis of a variety of fenocene derivatives. Arylation of fenocene using commercially available 4-aminobenzyl alcohol following a general synthetic outline (Nesmeyanov et al, (1954) Dokl Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R., 97: 459-462; Broadhead et al, (1955) J. Chem. Soc, 367-370; Weinmayr (1955) Am. Chem. Soc, 11: 3012-3014) afforded 4-fenocenylbenzyl alcohol (16) and 4-fenocenylbenzaldehyde (17) which were separated chromatographically (Scheme 5, Figure 52). It is likely that the oxidation ofthe alcohol to the aldehyde occuned by nitrous acid generated from reaction of NaNO 2 with HCl. This reaction provides a new and simple way to prepare aldehyde 17. Subsequent borohydride reduction of aldehyde 17 gave alcohol 16 in 95% yield. Alternatively, treatment of fenocene with the diazonium salt of ethyl 4-aminobenzoate afforded fenocenyl ester 18 (Nesmeyanov (1958) Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, , 246: 495-501; Akiyama et al. (1977) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 50: 1137-1141; Shimizu et al, (1983) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 56: 2023-2028). Reduction of 18 gave alcohol 16 (Scheme 5, Figure 52). Treatment of alcohol 16 with PPI1 3 and CBr 4 in dry ether at room temperature for 12 h afforded 4-(bromomethyl)phenylfenocene (19) in 90% yield (Scheme 6, Figure 53). Reaction of 19 with potassium thioacetate in DMF (Zhang et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett., 40: 603-606) at room temperature for 16 h afforded 4-[S- (acetylthio)methyl]phenylfenocene (20) in 81% yield. We also prepared a set of S-acetylthio-derivatized alkylfenocenes with different length alkyl chains for comparative studies. One member of this set (29) has been prepared previously (Chidsey et al. (1990) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 112: 4301-4306). Two closely related approaches to the S-acetylthio-derivatized alkylfenocenes have been established (Chidsey et al. (1990) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 112: 4301-4306; Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem., 370: 203-211), one of which is the route we followed to prepare a systematic set of compounds. The first step involves Friedel-Crafts acylation of fenocene with the appropriate bromoalkanoyl chloride (Scheme 7, Figure 54). The established route employed 6-bromohexanoyl chloride, followed by reduction ofthe carbonyl group to form the 6-(fenocenyl)hexyl bromide (24) (Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem., 370, 203- 211). Similar treatment of fenocene with 12-bromododecanoyl chloride or 16- bromohexadecanoyl chloride gave the respective acylated fenocenes (22, 23), which upon Clemmensen reduction gave 12-fenocenyldodecyl bromide (25) and 16- fenocenylhexadecyl bromide (26), respectively. Reaction of each fenocenyl alkyl bromide (24-26) with potassium thioacetate afforded the respective S-acetylthio derivatized long- chain fenocene (27-29) in good yield. Ferrocene-Porphyrin-Thiols. The synthesis ofthe thiol-derivatized fenocene-poφhyrins requires access to fenocenyl aldehydes. Among three desired fenocenyl aldehydes, fenocenecarboxaldehyde is available commercially, and 4-fenocenylbenzaldehyde 17 was already obtained using several different approaches (Egger et al. (1964) Monatsch. Chem., 95: 1750-1758; Shih et al, (1965) K'o Hsueh T'ungPao, 1 : 78-79. CA 63:13314b; Moiseev et al, (1988) Koord. Khim., 14: 328-331; Coe et al. (1993) J. Organomet. Chem, 464: 225-232; Coles et al. (1997) J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. 1: 881-886). The serendipitous preparation of 17 from fenocene and 4-aminobenzyl alcohol (vide supra) represents one ofthe most efficient preparations to date. Alternatively 4-fenocenylbenzaldehyde 17 can be obtained from 4- fenocenylbenzyl alcohol via oxidation using pyridinium chlorochromate. The diphenylethyne-linked fenocene carboxaldehyde 30 was synthesized via Pd-coupling of ethynylphenylfenocene 4 with 4-iodobenzaldehyde in 85% yield (eqn 1, Figure 45). Each ofthe target poφhyrins bears three different meso substituents (AB 2 C type). One route to AB 2 C-poφhyrins involves a mixed condensation of one dipynomethane and two aldehydes, forming three poφhyrin products. The latter are then separated chromatographically. This overall synthetic route has been augmented recently by the development of non-scrambling conditions for the condensation, which ensures that the resulting mixture consists of no more than the expected three poφhyrins. Two sets of non- scrambling conditions have been identified (BF 3 -etherate and NH 4 C1 in CH 3 CN at 0° C, or 17.8 mM TFA in CH 2 C1 2 at rt) (Littler et al. (1999) S. J. Org. Chem., 64: 2864-2872). While not elegant, this route is expedient if the three poφhyrins can be readily separated. The difficulty of this separation depends on the difference in polarity imparted by the substituents on the two aldehydes. In the course of this study, we found that the N- ethylcarbamoyl or the acetyl group attached to the thiophenol moiety (aldehyde 31 or 32) provides moderate polarity, thereby facilitating separation ofthe poφhyrin mixtures. The condensation of 4-fenocenylbenzaldehyde (17), 4-[S-(N- ethylcarbamoyl)thio]-benzaldehyde 32 (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 8635-8647), and 5-mesityldipynomethane (Lee et al. 91994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427-11440; Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1391-1396) in the presence of BF 3 -etherate and ΝH 4 C1 in acetonitrile at 0° C followed by oxidation with DDQ afforded the crude poφhyrin mixture (containing poφhyrin 34) (Scheme 8. Figure 55). The mixture was treated with zinc acetate and upon final purification poφhyrin Zn-34 was obtained in 3% yield (from aldehyde 31). The relatively low yield of poφhyrin Zn-34 prompted us to perform the same condensation with TFA in CH 2 C1 2 , which have proved for sterically hindered dipyπomethanes (Littler (1999) supra.). Additionally we decided to replace DDQ with -chloranil (which is a weaker oxidant and thereby is less prone to oxidize the fenocene moiety). Diisopropylethylamine (DIEA) also was added to neutralize the acid prior to oxidation (as acids are known to increase the oxidation potential of quinones) (Fukuzumi et al. (1987) J. Chem. Soc, Perkin Trans. II, 751-760). In this manner, poφhyrin Zn-34 was obtained in 19% yield (from aldehyde 31). The synthesis of poφhyrin Zn-33 from fenocenecarboxaldehyde, 5- mesityldipyno-methane and 4-(S-acetylthio)benzaldehyde (Gryko (1999) supra ) was performed under both types of reaction conditions. Both conditions afforded much higher yields of poφhyrin Zn-33 (9.4% in MeCN, 37% in CH 2 C1 2 , from aldehyde 32) in comparison to poφhyrin Zn-34. The latter result is astonishing because the best yield obtained to date for the condensation of 5-mesityldipynomethane and any aldehyde yielding an A 2 B 2 -poφhyrin in a non-statistical process is 48% (Littler et al. (1999) supra.); yet in this case the AB 2 C-poφhyrin is formed in a statistical reaction. Careful analysis by TLC and LD-MS showed significant skewing from the statistical ratio ofthe three expected poφhyrins (which should be 1 :2: 1). The synthesis of poφhyrin 35 was performed only in the conditions affording higher yields (i.e., TFA in CH 2 Cl 2 /DIEA p-chloranil). In this manner, aldehyde 30 was converted to poφhyrin 35 in a yield of 10.3%. Upon metalation, Zn-35 was obtained in 70% yield. Thus a significant decrease in yield was discerned upon moving from fenocenecarboxaldehyde (37%) through 17 (19%) to 30 ( 10%). It is noteworthy that TLC analysis as well as LD-MS analysis ofthe crude reaction mixtures showed no sign of scrambling in these reactions. In order to synthesize the poφhyrin bearing two lateral fenocenes (Zn-37) we needed the conesponding dipynomethane 36. Treatment of 4-fenocenylbenzaldehyde 17 with excess pynole at room temperature using a standard procedure (Lee et al. (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427-11440; Littler et al (1999) supra.) afforded 36 in 94% yield (eqn 2, Figure 46). The reaction of fenocenyldipynomethane 36, 4-(S-acetylthio)benzaldehyde 31 and 4-methylbenzaldehyde provided the three expected poφhyrins (Figure 47). After purification the desired poφhyrin 37 was isolated, contaminated with some undefined species. Conversion to the zinc chelate enabled purification of Zn-37 (0.33% yield) by column chromatography. The source ofthe smprisingly low yield of poφhyrin 37 has not been unequivocally established, but two possibilities involve DDQ-mediated oxidation of the fenocene moieties or precipitation ofthe poφhyrinogen. Thus the reaction was repeated with replacement of DDQ with/?-chloranil and addition of a significant amount of THF to the reaction mixture upon initiation ofthe oxidation step. The free base thus obtained was converted to the zinc chelate in 3.1% yield (from dipynomethane 36) (which represents an appreciable increase in yield). The low yield of metalation is partially due to a free base impurity and partially due to a side reaction which created undefined species that bound on the origin of TLC. In summary, the yields of some ofthe poφhyrins were quite low, though sufficient material was obtained for electrochemical characterization. Electrochemical Studies. The electrochemical behavior ofthe fenocenes and Zn fenocene-poφhyrins was investigated for samples both in solution and self-assembled on gold. The solution oxidation potentials of all the fenocenes are similar to one another (E' /2 -0.2 N vs Ag/Ag + ) and similar to that of unsubstituted fenocene (E /2 = 0.19 N vs Ag/Ag + ). The solution electrochemistry ofthe Zn fenocene-poφhyrins is characterized by three resolved oxidation waves (not shown). These waves conespond to the oxidation ofthe fenocene constituent(s) and the two oxidations ofthe Zn poφhyrin. In the case of Zn-37, the wave due to fenocene conesponds to the overlapping waves ofthe two identical fenocene constituents. For Zn- 34, Zn-35, and Zn-37, the oxidation potentials for the fenocene constituent(s) and the poφhyrin are essentially identical to those of a the isolated components (Zn-P, Ey 2 (l) -0.6 N; E> /2 (2) -0.9 N; fenocene, Ey. = -0.20 N versus Ag/Ag + ). This result indicates that the fenocene constituent(s) and the Zn poφhyrins are electrically isolated from one another. In the case of Zn-33, the potentials for all three oxidations are shifted negatively by -0.1 V. This shift is attributed to conjugative interactions that occur because the fenocene is directly bound to the poφhyrin. The fenocenes and the Zn fenocene-poφhyrins bearing the different linkers all form self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on gold via in situ cleavage ofthe S-acetyl protecting group. The SAMs of all the fenocenes and Zn fenocene-poφhyrins are electrochemically robust and exhibit one (fenocenes) or three (Zn fenocene poφhyrins) reversible oxidation waves. In fast-scan (100 V/s) cyclic voltammograms ofthe SAMs of two fenocenes (27 and 20) and two Zn fenocene-poφhyrins (Zn-34 and Zn-37), respectively, the Ey 2 values for the fenocene SAMs are shifted slightly more positive (0.05 V or less) than those observed in solution. The Ey 2 values for the fenocenes and the Zn poφhyrins in the Zn fenocene-poφhyrin SAMs are each shifted by -0.15 V more positive than those observed in solution. This trend parallels that previously reported for SAMs of both fenocenes (Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem., 370: 203-211) and poφhyrins. The observation that the voltammograms ofthe Zn-34 and Zn-37 SAMs are generally similar indicates that positioning the fenocene substituents either on top of (Zn-34) or at the sides of (Zn-37) the poφhyrin is a viable design for constructing multiple bit information storage elements. However, the former design offers the advantage of a smaller molecular area and therefore, a higher packing density. Conclusions Fenocene has been the benchmark for a wide variety of electrochemical studies of self-assembled monolayers on electroactive surfaces. Most prior studies have employed fenocene alkanethiols. The facile in situ deprotection ofthe S-acetyl protecting group on gold surfaces has motivated the synthesis of S-acetyl protected fenocenylalkanethiol derivatives. A set of fenocene-poφhyrins bearing an attached thiol unit have been prepared for studies ofthe effects of molecular structure on information storage properties (writing/reading rates, persistence of memory). Non-scrambling conditions for aldehyde-dipynomethane condensations facilitated the synthesis ofthe AB C-type fenocene-poφhyrin-thiol structures. A small set of fenocene-aldehydes enabled the preparation ofthe conesponding fenocene-poφhyrins. Each fenocene-poφhyrin is designed for vertical organization on an electroactive surface yet possesses a distinct location ofthe fenocene in the molecular architecture. Each ofthe fenocene-poφhyrins forms a SAM that exhibits robust, reversible electrochemistry. Collectively, the studies indicated that all ofthe architectures examined are potential candidates for multi-bit molecular information storage elements. Experimental Section General. All chemicals obtained commercially were used as received unless otherwise noted. Reagent grade solvents (CH 2 CI2, CHC1 3 , hexanes) and HPLC grade solvents (acetonitrile, toluene) were used as received from Fisher Scientific. Unless otherwise indicated, all solvents were obtained from Fisher Scientific. Pynole was distilled from CaH 2 . All reported NMR spectra were collected in CDCI 3 (1H NMR at 300 MHz; 13 C NMR at 75 MHz). UV-Vis absoφtion and fluorescence spectra were recorded in CH 2 C1 2 or toluene as described previously (Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 1: 1245-1262; Li et al. (1999) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 121: 8927-8940). Flash chromatography was performed on flash silica (Baker, 200-400 mesh) or alumina (Fisher, 80-200 mesh). Mass spectra were obtained via laser desoφtion (LD-MS) in the absence of an added matrix (Fenyo et al. (1997) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 1 : 93-99), fast atom bombardment (FAB-MS, 10 ppm elemental compositional accuracy for the poφhyrins), or electron-impact mass spectrometry (EI-MS). Poφhyrin metalation was monitored by fluorescence emission and excitation spectroscopy. After elution, the TLC plates were visualized with UN light or sprayed with a solution of -methoxybenzaldehyde (26 mL), glacial acetic acid (11 mL), concentrated sulfuric acid (35 mL), and 95% ethanol (960 mL) followed by heating (Gordon et al. (1972) The Chemist's Companion, Wiley-Interscience, New York:, p. 379]. All solvents were dried by standard methods prior to use. 4-iodobenzaldehyde was obtained from Karl Industries, Ltd. Ethynylfenocene 9 (Doisneau et al. (1992) J. Organomet. Chem., 425: 113-117), 5- (fenocenylcarbonyl)pentyl bromide 22 and 6-fenocenylhexyl bromide 25 were prepared according to the reported procedures (Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem. 370: 203- 211). 4-Iodophenylferrocene (1). 4-Iodoaniline (8.8 g, 40 mmol) was suspended in a mixture of cone. HCl (20 mL) and H 2 O (50 mL) and cooled to 0° C. A solution of NaNO 2 (3.3 g, 48 mmol) in H 2 O (10 mL) was added dropwise with stirring while the temperature was carefully maintained at 0-5° C. After the addition was completed, the mixture was stined for 30 min at 0° C. The resulting diazonium salt solution was then added slowly to a solution of fenocene (3.7 g, 20 mmol) in toluene (100 mL) at 0° C. An instantaneous evolution of gas was observed. After complete addition, the reaction mixture was stined at 0° C for 1 h. Then the mixture was warmed to rt and stirring was continued for 16 h. The layers were separated and the aqueous layer was extracted with toluene (3 x 100 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with satd aq NaHCO 3 (3 x 100 mL), brine (3 x 100 mL), dried (MgSO 4 ) and filtered. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:2) to afford 4.2 g (55%) of an orange solid: mp 119-121° C; 1H NMR δ 4.02 (s, 5H), 4.33 (t, J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.61 (t, J- 1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.20, 7.58 (AA'BB', J= 7.8 Hz, 4H); 13 C NMR δ 66.4, 69.2, 69.7, 84.1, 90.5, 127.9, 137.3, 139.2; FAB-MS obsd 387.9420 calcd exact mass 387.9411 (C 16 H 13 FeI). 4-(S-AcetyIthio)phenylferrocene (2). Following a general procedure for lithiation and sulfur trapping (Jones et al, (1970) Org. Syn., 50: 104) followed by acetylation (Pearson et al. (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376-1387), a solution of 1 (2.0 g, 5.1 mmol) in dry THF (20 mL) under argon at -78° C was stined and treated with tert-butyllithium (3.1 mL, 5.2 mmol, 1.7 M in pentane) dropwise over a period of 10 min. The mixture was stined at -78° C for an additional 5 min. Elemental sulfur (0.16 g, 5.2 mmol) in dry THF (40 mL, 0° C) was added in one portion, and the mixture was allowed to warm to 0° C for 30 min. The mixture was cooled to -78° C, and acetyl chloride (0.60 g, 5.2 mmol) was added in one portion. The reaction mixture was warmed to rt overnight, poured into rapidly stined ice- water (50 mL), extracted with CH 2 C1 2 (3 x 50 mL) and dried (MgSO 4 ). The solvent was removed and the residue was purified by flash column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/di ethyl ether, 10:1) to afford 1.5 g (85%) of an orange solid: mp 108-110° C; 1H NMR δ 2.42 (s, 3H), 4.12 (s, 5H), 4.22 (t, J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.42 (t, J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.35, 7.50 (AA'BB', J= 8.5 Hz, 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 30.2, 66.7, 69.3, 69.7, 84.1, 124.7, 126.8, 134.3, 141.2, 194.4; FAB-MS obsd 336.0297, calcd exact mass 336.0271; Anal. Calcd for C 18 H 16 FeOS: C, 64.30; H, 4.80; Found: C, 64.29; H, 4.83. 4-f2-(TrimethylsilvI)ethvnyllphenylferrocene (3). Method 1. Samples of 1 (2.0 g, 5.2 mmol), Cul (5.0 mg, 26 μmol) and PdCl 2 (PPh 3 ) 2 (30 mg, 43 μmol) were dissolved in freshly distilled TEA (40 mL). The flask was then evacuated and purged with argon (3 times) on a Schlenk line. (Trimethylsilyl)acetylene (0.78 mL, 5.5 mmol) was added dropwise under stirring. After the addition was complete, the reaction mixture was heated to 50° C and sealed for 4 h at this temperature. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure to give a red oil. Purification by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/ethyl ether, 10:3) afforded 1.6 g (85%) of a red- orange solid: mp 110-112° C. Method 2. 4-[2-(Trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]aniline (Takahashi et al. (1980) Synthesis, 8: 627-630) (1.0 g, 5.3 mmol) was suspended in a mixture of cone. HCl (2.4 mL) and H 2 O (10 mL) and cooled to 0° C under stirring. A solution of NaNO 2 (0.40 g, 5.8 mmol) in H 2 O (2 mL) was added while the temperature was carefully maintained between 0-5° C. After the addition was complete, the mixture was stined for 30 min at 0° C. The resulting diazonium salt solution was then added slowly to a solution of fenocene (0.49 g, 2.7 mmol) in toluene (100 mL) at 0° C, resulting in gas evolution. After the addition was complete, the mixture was stined for 1 h at 0° C, warmed to rt and stirring was continued for an additional 16 h. The layers were separated and the aqueous layer was extracted with toluene (3 x 50 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with satd aq NaHCO 3 (3 x 50 mL), brine (3 x 50 mL), dried (MgSO 4 ) and filtered. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1) to remove unreacted fenocene. Elution with CH 2 C1 2 afforded 0.42 g (44%) of compound 3. 1H NMR δ 0.27 (s, 9H), 4.02 (s, 5H), 4.35 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.65 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.40 (s, 4H); 13 C NMR δ 0.04, 66.5, 69.3, 69.7, 84.1, 94.0, 105.5, 120.2, 125.6, 132.0, 140.1; FAB-MS obsd 358.0851, calcd exact mass 358.0840 (C 21 H 22 FeSi). 4-(Ethynyl)phenylferrocene (4). A solution of 3 (1.5 g, 4.2 mmol) in anhydrous THF/MeOH (2:1, 30 mL) was treated with K 2 CO 3 (1.2 g, 8.4 mmol) and the mixture was stined at rt for 30 min. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure affording an orange solid. The residue was dissolved in ether (50 mL), washed with H 2 O (3 x 50 mL), dried (MgSO 4 ) and filtered. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. Purification by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/ethyl ether, 10:2) afforded an orange solid (1.0 g, 90%): mp 104- 106° C; 1H NMR δ 3.11 (s, IH), 4.04 (s| 5H), 4.35 (t, J= 2.4 Hz, 2H), 4.65 (t, J= 2.4 Hz, 2H), 7.42 (s, 4H); 13 C NMR δ 66.5, 69.3, 69.7, 84.0, 94.1, 105.5, 120.3, 125.7, 132.1, 140.3; FAB-MS obsd 286.0460, calcd exact mass 286.0445 (C 18 Hj 4 Fe). Physical properties concur with published data (Simionescu et al (1976) J. Organomet. Chem., 113: 23-28). 4-{2-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenvIlethvnyl}phenylferrocene (5). Method 1: Samples of 4 (1.0 g, 3.5 mmol), Cul (2.5 mg, 13 μmol), (PPh 3 ) 2 PdCl 2 (6.0 mg, 13 μmol) and l-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene [Gryko, D. T., et al., submitted, companion paper 1] (1.0 g, 3.9 mmol) were added to a 50 mL Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated and purged with argon (3 times) on the Schlenk line. Then freshly distilled and degassed DIEA (1.3 mL, 7.0 mmol) and THF (5 mL) were added. The flask was placed in a preheated oil bath (40° C) and sealed. The mixture was stined for 4 h at 40° C, cooled to rt and filtered. The filter cake was washed with CH 2 C1 2 (3 x 10 mL). The filtrate was washed with water (3 x 20 mL) and satd aq NaCl and dried (MgSO 4 ). The solvents were removed and the residue was purified by flash column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:2) to afford a red solid (1.3 g, 88%). Method 2: 4-Iodophenylfenocene (1, 1.0 g, 2.5 mmol), Cul (2.5 mg, 13 μmol), (PPh 3 ) 2 PdCl 2 (6.0 mg, 13 μmol), 8 (0.5 g, 3.0 mmol) and DIEA (1.3 mL, 7.0 mmol) were added to a 50 mL Schlenk flask. The flask was then evacuated and purged with argon (3 times) on a Schlenk line. Then freshly distilled and degassed THF (5 mL) was added. The flask was sealed and the mixture was stined for 24 h at rt and filtered. The filter cake was washed with CH 2 C1 2 (3 x 10 mL). The filtrate was washed with water (3 x 20 mL) and satd aq NaCl and dried (MgSO 4 ). The solvent was removed and the residue was purified by flash column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:2) to afford a red solid (1.0 g, 90%). mp 118-120° C; IR(KBr) v/cm "1 : 2253.6 (s), 1794.0 (w), 1474.4 (m), 1382.1(w), 1105.6 (m), 1003 (m); 1H NMR δ 2.44 (s, 3H), 4.04 (s, 5H), 4.36 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.67 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.39, 7.55 4.67 (AA'BB', J= 8.7 Hz, 2 x 2H), 7.45 (s, 4H); 13 C NMR δ 31.0, 67.2, 67.3, 70.1, 70.4, 70.6, 71.0, 89.4, 92.2, 125.5, 126.5, 132.4, 132.8, 133.2, 133.3, 134.9, 140.9, 193.2; FAB-MS obsd 436.0595, calcd exact mass 436.0584; Anal. Calcd for C 26 H 20 FeOS: C, 71.57; H, 4.62; Found: C, 71.56; H, 4.64. l-Iodo-4-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethvnyl1benzene (6) To a mixture of (trimethylsilyl)-acetylene (2.0 mL, 14 mmol) and 1,4- diiodobenzene (9.4 g, 28 mmol) in freshly distilled TEA (40 mL) and THF (20 mL) in a 100 mL Schlenk flask were added Cul (0.19 g, 1.0 mmol) and PdCl 2 (PPh 3 ) 2 (0.30 g, 0.43 mmol) with stirring. The flask was then evacuated and purged with argon (3 times) on a Schlenk line. The mixture was heated at 40° C (oil bath), sealed and stined for 4 h. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in ethyl ether (150 mL), washed with H 2 O (3 x 100 mL), dried (MgSO 4 ) and filtered. The solvent removed under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/ethyl ether, 10:1) to afford 5.5 g (85%) of an off-white solid, mp 57-59° C (lit. 25 56-58 °C); 1H NMR δ 0.33 (s, 9H), 7.18, 7.64 (AA'BB', J= 8.7 Hz, 2 x 2H); ,3 C NMR δ 0.24, 94.2, 96.1, 102.6, 123.4, 133.5, 137.8; FAB-MS obsd 299.9821, calcd exact mass 299.9882 (d ιHι 3 ISi). 1 -(S-Acetylthio)-4- [2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyll benzene (7). Following a general procedure for lithiation and sulfur trapping [Jones et al, (1970) Org. Syn., 50: 104) followed by acetylation (Pearson et al (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376-1387), a solution of 6 (2.0 g, 6.3 mmol) in dry THF (20 mL) was stined under argon at -78° C and treated with tert-butyllithium (3.8 mL, 6.3 mmol, 1.7 M in pentane) dropwise over a 10 min period. The mixture was stined at -78° C for additional 5 min. A cold slurry of elemental sulfur (0.2 g, 6.3 mmol) in dry THF (40 mL, 0° C) was added in one portion, and the mixture was warmed to 0° C in 30 min. The flask was cooled to -78 °C, and acetyl chloride (0.8 g, 6.5 mmol) was added in one portion. The yellow mixture was warmed to rt overnight, then poured into rapidly stined ice-water (50 mL), extracted with CH 2 C1 2 (3 x 50 mL) and dried (MgSO ). The solvents were removed and the residue was purified by flash column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) to afford a yellow solid (1.4 g, 80%): mp 45-47 °C (lit. 42 42-44° C); Η NMR δ 0.25 (s, 9H), 2.41 (s, 3H), 7.34, 7.48 (AA'BB', J= 8.7 Hz, 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 31.3, 97.0, 105.5, 125.3, 129.4, 133.9, 135.5, 195.2; FAB-MS obsd 248.0713, calcd exact mass 248.0718 (C 13 H 16 OSSi). 2-(4-Iodophenyl)ethvnylferrocene (10). Following the procedure for preparing 6, samples of 9 (Doisneau et al. (1992) J. Organomet. Chem. 425: 113-117) (1.0 g, 9.6 mmol), 1,4-diiodobenzene (3.0 g, 20 mmol), PdCl 2 (PPh 3 ) 2 (30 mg, 43 μmol) and Cul (5.0 mg, 26 μmol) were reacted in THF (20 mL) and Et 3 N (20 mL). The reaction mixture was stined at 50° C for 5 h and worked up. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether) to afford 1.9 g (95%) of a red-brown solid. 1H NMR δ 4.24 (s, 5H), 4.25 (s, 2H), 4.50 (s, 2H), 7.21, 7.65 (AA'BB', J= 8.7 Hz, 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 66.3, 68.8, 70.5, 72.0, 85.1, 91.1, 124.6, 127.4, 133.5, 137.8; FAB-MS obsd 411.9439, calcd exact mass 411.9436 (Cι 8 H 13 FeI). Spectral and physical properties concur with published data (Yu et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 2070-2079). 2-f4-(S-Acetylthio)phenyllethvnylferrocene (ll). Following a general procedure for lithiation and sulfur trapping [Jones, E., et al., Org. Syn. 1970, 50, 104] followed by acetylation (Pearson et al. (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376-1387), samples of 10 (1.0 g, 2.4 mmol), t-BuLi (3.0 mL, 5.1 mmol, 1.7 M in pentane), elemental sulfur (0.092 g, 2.9 mmol) and acetyl chloride (0.8 mL, 2.9 mmol) were reacted in dry THF under -78° C. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to rt for 16 h and worked up. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether:ether, 10:1) to afford 0.81 g (95%) of a red-brown solid, mp 113-115° C (lit. 25 96-98° C); 1H NMR δ 2.44 (s, 3H), 4.25 (s, 5H), 4.26 (t, J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.51 (t, J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.18, 7.64 (AA'BB', J= 8.1 Hz, 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 30.1, 65.1, 69.2, 70.5, 71.7, 85.0, 90.6, 125.3, 127.3, 133.0, 134.4, 198.0; FAB-MS obsd 360.0270, calcd exact mass 360.0269 (C 20 H 16 FeOS). l-Acetyl-l'-ethylferrocene (12) l,l'-Diacetylfenocene (5.0 g, 20 mmol) in toluene (20 mL) was added to a freshly prepared mixture of zinc/mercury amalgam (3.0 g of granulated Zn, 0.2 g of HgCl 2 ), 10 M HCl (20 mL) and water (20 mL). The reaction mixture was heated to reflux for 4 h with vigorous stirring. The mixture was cooled to rt and extracted with toluene (3 x 50 mL) and the organic layer was washed with water (3 x 100 mL) and satd aq NaHCO 3 (3 x 50 mL). The organic layer was dried (MgSO 4 ), evaporated, and chromatographed (silica, petroleum etheπether, 1 : 10) to afford 2.8 g (60%) of a red-brown oil. 1H NMR δ 1.13 (t, J= 7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.26 (q, J= 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.36 (s, 3H), 4.08 (s, 4H), 4.44 (t, J= 2.1 Hz, 2H), 4.69 (t, J= 2.1 Hz, 2H); ,3 C NMR δ 15.4, 22.2, 28.2, 69.8, 69.9, 70.7, 73.6, 92.5, 202.8; FAB-MS obsd 256.0544, calcd exact mass 256.0551 (Cι 4 H 16 FeO). Spectral and physical properties concur with published data (Rosenblum et al. (1958) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 80: 5443-5448). 1-Ethyl-r-ethvnylferrocene (13). Following a general procedure (Doisneau et al. (1992) J. Organomet. Chem. 425: 113-117), to a solution of 12 (2.0 g, 7.8 mmol) in dry THF (50 mL) at -78° C were added dropwise 1.1 equiv of freshly prepared LDA (40 mL, 8.0 mmol) in THF. After 1 h at -78° C, diethyl chlorophosphate (1.1 equiv, 1.2 mL, 8.0 mmol) was added at -78° C for 1 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to rt for an additional 1 h and then was recooled to -78° C and an additional 2.3 equiv of LDA (80 mL, 20 mmol) was added. The reaction mixture was warmed to rt and stined overnight then hydrolyzed at 0° C. The reaction mixture was extracted with ether (3 x 50 mL) and the combined organic layers were washed with water (3 x 50 mL) and satd NaCl (3 x 50 mL) and dried (MgSO 4 ). The resulting residue after evaporation was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether) to afford 1.7 g (90%) of a yellow oil. 1H NMR δ 1.19 (t, J= 7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.36 (q, J= 7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.73 (s, IH), 4.10 (m, 4H), 4.15 (t, J= 2.1 Hz, 2H), 4.37 (t, J= 2.1 Hz, 2H); 13 C NMR δ 15.3, 21.9, 66.5, 69.7, 69.8, 70.0, 72.9, 74.3; FAB-MS obsd 238.0466, calcd exact mass 238.0445; Anal. Calcd for C 14 H 14 Fe: C, 70.62; H, 5.93; Found: C, 70.65; H, 5.92. 1 -Eth yl-1 '- [2-(4-iodophen vDethynyll ferrocene (14). Following the procedure for preparing 6, samples of 13 (1.0 g, 4.2 mmol), 1,4-diiodobenzene (2.8 g, 8.5 mmol), PdCl 2 (PPh 3 ) 2 (30 mg, 43 μmol) and Cul (5.0 mg, 26 μmol) were reacted in THF (20 mL) and Et 3 N (20 mL). The reaction mixture was stined at 50° C for 5 h and worked up. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether) to afford 1.8 g (95%) of a red-brown solid, mp 55-57 °C; 1H NMR δ 1.17 (t, J= 7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.35 (q, J= 7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.10 (s, 4H), 4.18 (t, J= 2.1 Hz, 2H), 4.40 (t, J= 2.1 Hz, 2H), 7.18, 7.64 (AA'BB', J= 8.1 Hz, 2 x 2H); ,3 C NMR δ 15.5, 22.3, 67.0, 68.9, 69.5, 70.2, 74. 5, 91.2, 123.3, 133.5, 134.0, 135.8; FAB-MS obsd 439.8721, calcd exact mass 439.8724 (C 20 H, 7 Feι). l-{2-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenyll-2-ethvnylM , -ethyIferrocene (15). Following a general procedure for lithiation and sulfur trapping (Jones et al. (1970) Org. Syn.50: 104] followed by acetylation (Pearson et al. (1997) J. Org. Chem. 62: 1376-1387), samples of 14 (1.0 g, 2.3 mmol), t-BuLi (2.7 mL, 4.6 mmol, 1.7 M in pentane), elemental sulfur (0.09 g, 2.8 mmol) and acetyl chloride (0.8 mL, 2.8 mmol) were reacted in dry THF under -78° C. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to rt for 16 h and worked up. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether:ether, 10:1) to afford 0.83 g (95%) of a red-brown solid, mp 83-85° C; 1H NMR δ 1.20 (t, J= 7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.40 (q, J= 7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.42 (s, 3H), 4.12 (s, 4H), 4.22 (t, J= 2.1 Hz, 2H), 4.42 (t, J= 2.1 Hz, 2H), 7.35, 7.50 (AA'BB', J= 8.1 Hz, 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 15.1, 21.8, 30.9, 65.5, 69.6, 70.0, 70.1, 72.6, 132.5, 134.9, 194.4; FAB-MS obsd 388.0644, calcd exact mass 388.0645; Anal. Calcd for C 22 H 20 FeOS: C, 68.05; H, 5.19; Found: C, 68.08; H, 5.24. 4-Ferrocenylbenzyl alcohol (16). Method A: A solution of 4-(carbethoxy)phenyl-feπocene 18 (1.13 g, 3.40 mmol) in THF (10 mL) was added via syringe to a suspension of LiAlH 4 (105 mg, 2.70 mmol) in THF (10 mL). The mixture was heated to reflux under Ar for 1 h. After 1 h TLC (silica, CH 2 C1 2 ) showed a new component (R f = 0.2) and no starting material (R f = 0.6). The reaction mixture was cooled to 0° C and then quenched by sequential addition of 200 μL H 2 O, 200 μL 10% NaOH, and 600 μL H 2 O (caution: exothermic reaction). The resulting slurry was poured into a mixture Et 2 O (40 mL) and satd aq Rochelle's salt (60 mL) and stined at rt until the aluminum salts dissolved (about 20 min). The layers were separated, and the ethereal layer was washed with H 2 O (30 mL), brine (30 mL), and dried over MgSO 4 . The solution was evaporated to yield 878 mg of a yellow solid (87.8%). Method B: 4-Aminobenzyl alcohol (3.0 g, 24 mmol) was suspended in a mixture of cone. HCl (20 mL) and H 2 O (20 mL) and cooled to 0° C under stirring. A solution of NaNO 2 (2.1 g, 30 mmol) in H 2 O (10 mL) was added dropwise while the temperature was carefully maintained between 0-5° C. The resulting mixture was stined for 30 min at 0° C, then slowly added at 0° C to a solution of fenocene (3.7 g, 20 mmol) in toluene (100 mL), resulting in gas evolution. After complete addition, the reaction mixture was stined at 0° C for 6 h and warmed to rt. Stirring was continued for another 6 h. The layers were separated and the aqueous layer was extracted with toluene (3 x 100 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with satd aq NaHCO 3 (3 x 100 mL), brine (3 x 100 mL), dried (MgSO 4 ) and filtered. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:2) to afford 0.94 g (20%) of 4-fenocenylbenzyl alcohol 16 (as well as 2.1 g (45%) of 4- feπocenylbenzaldehyde 17). Method C: Sodium borohydride (0.5 g, 14 mmol) was added to a cold (0 °C) solution of 17 (2.0 g, 6.9 mmol) in methanol (20 mL) with stirring. After stirring for 40 min at 0 °C, the mixture was neutralized with dilute HCl (10%) and extracted with diethyl ether (3 x 50 mL). The ether solution was dried (MgSO 4 ) and removed in vacuo to yield a yellow solid (1.9 g, 95%). mp 109-111 °C; 1H NMR δ 1.66 (t, J= 6.0 Hz, IH), 4.04 (s, 5H), 4.31 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.64 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.66 (d, J- 6 Hz, 2H), 7.29, 7.47 (AA'BB', J = 8.7 Hz, 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 65.9, 67.2, 69.3, 70.3, 85.7, 105.0, 127.0, 127.9, 139.0, 139.5; FAB-MS obsd 292.0631, calcd exact mass 292.0648; Anal. Calcd for C H 16 FeO: C, 69.89; H, 5.52; Found: C, 70.03; H, 5.46. 4-Ferrocenylbenzaldehyde (17). A sample of 4-fenocenylbenzyl alcohol 16 (630 mg, 2.15 mmol) was added to a suspension of pyridinium chlorochromate (1.22 g, 3.23 mmol) in CH 2 C1 2 (5 mL) and the mixture was stined under argon at rt for 18 h. Then Et 2 O (20 mL) was added and the mixture was filtered through a pad of Celite. The filtrate was concentrated and chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 4:1) affording 306 mg (47.8%). TLC (silica, CH 2 C1 2 ), R f = 0.35; mp 122-125° C (lit. 35a 121-125° C); 1H NMR δ 4.07 (s, 5H), 4.46 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.47 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.60, 7.78 (AA'BB', J= 8.7 Hz, 4H), 9.97 (s, IH); 13 C NMR δ 67.8, 70.5, 70.6, 70.8, 127.0, 127.7, 130.7, 130.7, 134.7, 192.5; EI-MS obsd 290.0406 (M + ), calcd exact mass 290.0394; Anal. Calcd for C 17 H 14 FeO: C, 70.37; H, 4.86; Found: C, 70.50; H, 4.81. 4-(Bromomethyl)phen ylferrocene (19). Triphenylphosphine (2.6 g, 10 mmol) and CBr 4 (3.3 g, 10 mmol) were added to a solution of 16 (1.9 g, 6.6 mmol) in dry ether (50 mL) and the mixture was stined overnight under argon at rt. The precipitate was filtered off and the filtrate was evaporated iΛ vacuo. The residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) to afford a red oil (1.9 g, 82%): 1H NMR δ 4.06 (s, 5H), 4.35 (s, 2H), 4.52 (s, 2H), 4.65 (s, 2H), 7.32, 745 (AA'BB', J= 8.5 Hz, 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 33.1, 33.8, 67.1, 69.2, 70.0, 85.9, 127.4, 129.1, 135.5, 138.9; FAB-MS obsd 355.0543, calcd exact mass 355.0548; Anal. Calcd for Cι 7 H 15 BrFe: C, 57.51; H, 4.26; Found: C, 57.59; H, 4.20. 4-[(S-Acetylthio)methyllphenylferrocene (20). Following a general procedure (Zhang et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett., 40: 603-606), a solution of 19 (1.5 g, 4.2 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) was added to a solution of potassium thioacetate (0.60 g, 5.0 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) and the mixture was stined overnight at rt. The mixture was filtered and water was added to the filtrate. The filtrate was extracted with ethyl ether (3 x 50 mL), and the combined organic layers were dried (MgSO 4 ) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) affording a yellow solid (1.3 g, 90%): mp 79- 81° C; 1H NMR δ 2.38 (s, 3H), 4.05 (s, 5H), 4.12 (s, 2H), 4.31 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.62 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.21, 7.41 (AA'BB', J= 8.5 Hz, 2 x 2H); 13 C NMR δ 31.1, 34.0, 67.2, 69.6, 70.3, 85.7, 127.0, 129.5, 135.7, 139.1, 196.1; FAB-MS obsd 350.0431, calcd exact mass 350.0428; Anal. Calcd for C 19 H ]8 FeOS: C, 65.15; H, 5.18; Found: C, 64.91; H, 5.15. ll-(Ferrocenylcarbonyl)undecyI bromide (22). Following a general procedure for preparing 21 (Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem., 370: 203-211), a solution of 12-bromododecanoic acid (4.2 g, 15 mmol) in SOCl 2 (50 mL) was heated at 50° C under argon for 1 h. The excess SOCl 2 was removed by water pump distillation with benzene (3 x 50 mL). 4.3 g (95%) of 12- bromododecanoyl chloride was obtained as a colorless oil and used in the subsequent reaction without further purification. In a 50 mL flask anhydrous A1C1 3 (2.8 g, 21 mmol) was added to a stined solution of 12-bromododecanoyl chloride (4.0 g, 13.6 mmol) in dry CH 2 C1 2 (30 mL) at 0° C under argon for 20 min. Then the mixture was added dropwise over 10 min to a solution of fenocene (2.6 g, 14 mmol) in CH 2 C1 2 (50 mL) at 0° C. The mixture was stined and allowed to warm to rt. After 2 h water (30 mL) was added slowly into this mixture. Then the phases were separated, and the organic layer was washed with water (3 x 100 mL) and NaHCO 3 (2 x 50 mL) and over (MgSO 4 ). The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:3) to afford a red oil (4.3 g, 85%). Η NMR δ 1.28 (s, 16H), 1.64 (m, 2H), 2.63 (m, 2H), 3.29 (m, 2H), 4.19 (s, 5H), 4.48 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.78 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H); ,3 C NMR δ 25.0, 28.5, 29.0, 30.1, 30.9, 33.3, 34.5, 40.5, 70.0, 70.4, 72.9, 89.0, 205.0; FAB-MS obsd 446.0955, calcd exact mass 446.0958 (C 12 H 31 BrFeO). 15-(Ferrocenylcarbonyl)pentadecyl bromide (23) 16-Bromohexadecanoic acid (4.5 g, 14 mmol) in SOCl 2 (50 mL) was heated at 50° C under argon for 1 h. The excess SOCl 2 was removed by water pump distillation with benzene (3 x 50 mL). 4.3 g (95 %) of 16-bomohexadecanoyl chloride was obtained as a colorless oil and used in the subsequent reaction without further purification. 16- Bromohexadecanoyl chloride (4.5 g, 13 mmol) was treated with fenocene (2.5 g, 14 mmol) following the same procedure as described for 22 to form a brown oil (5.7 g, 85%): 1H NMR δ 1.25 (s, 22H), 1.68 (m, 2H), 1.84 (m, 2H), 2.68 (m, 2H), 3.39 (m, 2H), 4.18 (s, 5H), 4.47 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.76 (A 2 B 2 , J= 1.5 Hz, 2H); 13 C NMR δ 25.3, 28.8, 29.4, 30.1, 30.2, 30.3, 34.8, 40.4, 70.0, 70.4, 72.7, 89.1, 205.4; FAB-MS obsd 502.1533, calcd exact mass 502.1535 (C 26 H 39 BrFeO). 12-Ferrocenyldodecyl bromide (25). Following a general procedure for preparing 24 (Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem., 370: 203-211), to a freshly prepared zinc/mercury amalgam (6.7 g granulated Zn, 0.4 g HgCl 2 ) in a 100 mL flask was added 10 M HCl (40 mL) with stirring. A solution of 22 (3.0 g, 6.7 mmol) in toluene (40 mL) was added in one portion. The resulting two-phase mixture was heated to reflux and stined vigorously. After 16 h under reflux, during which two 5 mL portions of 10 M HCl were added, the reaction flask was cooled to rt. The phases were separated, and the organic layer was washed with water (3 x 100 mL) and dried (MgSO 4 ). The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) to afford a brown oil (2.6 g, 90%) that solidified upon standing in the freezer: mp 40-42° C; 1H NMR δ 1.29 (s, 16H), 1.47 (m, 2H), 1.86 (m, 2H), 2.32 (m, 2H), 3.42 (m, 2H), 4.05 (s, 2H), 4.06 (s, 2H), 4.10 (s, 5H); 13 C NMR δ 28.2, 28.8, 29.5, 29.6, 31.1, 32.9, 34.0, 67.0, 68.1, 68.5, 89.6; FAB-MS obsd 432.1114, calcd exact mass 432.1115 (C 22 H 33 BrFe). 16-Ferrocenylhexadecyl bromide (26). 15-(Fenocenylcarbonyl)pentadecyl bromide 23 (1.5 g, 2.8 mmol) was treated with zinc/mercury amalgam (2.8 g of granulated Zn, 0.3 g of HgCl 2 ) as described for 25 to afford a yellow solid (1.3 g, 90%): mp 52-54° C; 1H NMR δ 1.27 (s, 18H), 1.55 (m, 2H), 2.32 (m, 2H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 2.87 (m, 2H), 4.05 (s, 2H), 4.07 (s, 2H), 4.11 (s, 5H); ,3 C NMR δ 28.2, 28.8, 29.5, 29.6, 29.7, 31.1, 32.9, 34.0, 67.0, 68.1, 68.5, 88.9; FAB-MS obsd 488.1752, calcd exact mass 488.1741 (C 26 H 4] BrFe). 6-(S-Acetylthio)hexylferrocene (27). Following a general procedure (Zhang et al. (1999), Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 603-606), 6-fenocenylhexyl bromide (24, 1.2 g, 3.5 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) was added to a stined solution of potassium thioacetate (0.51 g, 4.5 mmol) in DMF (10 mL). The mixture was stined at rt until TLC showed complete consumption ofthe fenocene starting material (20 h). The mixture was filtered and water was added to the filtrate. The filtrate was extracted with ethyl ether (3 x 50 mL), and the combined organic layers were dried (MgSO 4 ) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) to afford a yellow oil (1.1 g, 90%) that solidified upon standing in the freezer, mp 40-42 °C; 1H NMR δ 1.35 (m, 4H), 1.50 (m, 2H), 1.56 (m, 2H), 2.32 (t, J= 7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 2.88 (t, J= 7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.05 (s, 4H), 4.10 (s, 5H); 13 C NMR δ 29.4, 29.8, 30.2, 31.3, 31.6, 67.7, 68.8, 69.2, 90.0, 196.0; FAB-MS obsd 344.0908, calcd exact mass 344.0897; Anal. Calcd for Cι 8 H 24 FeOS: C, 62.79; H, 7.03; Found: C, 62.81; H, 7.03. 12-(S-Acetylthio)dodecylferrocene (28). 12-Fenocenyldodecyl bromide 25 (2.0 g, 4.6 mmol) was treated with potassium thioacetate (0.70 g, 6.0 mmol) for 20 h as described for 27 to form yellow crystals (1.8 g, 93%): mp 45-47° C; 1H NMR δ 1.27 (s, 18H), 1.55 (m, 2H), 2.32 (m, 2H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 2.87 (m, 2H), 4.05 (s, 2H), 4.07 (s, 2H), 4.11 (s, 5H); 13 C NMR δ 29.5, 29.8, 30.2, 30.3, 30.3, 31.3, 31.8, 67.7, 68.8, 69.2, 90.4, 196.8; FAB-MS obsd 428.1851, calcd exact mass 428.1836; Anal. Calcd for C 24 H 36 FeOS: C, 67.28; H, 8.47; Found: C, 67.25; H, 8.51. 16-(S-Acetylthio)hexadecylferrocene (29). 16-Fenocenylhexadecyl bromide 26 (1.1 g, 2.3 mmol) was treated with potassium thioacetate (0.4 g, 3.5 mmol) for 20 h following the same procedure described for 27 to afford yellow crystals (1.0 g, 93%): mp 55-57° C; 1H NMR δ 1.25 (s, 22H), 1.51 (m, 2H), 2.30 (m, 2H), 2.32 (s, 3H), 2.86 (m, 2H), 4.04 (s, 2H), 4.05 (s, 2H), 4.09 (s, 5H); 13 C NMR δ 29.5, 29.8, 30.2, 30.3, 30.3, 31.8, 67.7, 68.8, 69.2, 90.0, 197.5; FAB-MS obsd 484.2518, calcd exact mass 484.2514; Anal. Calcd for C 28 H 44 FeOS: C, 69.40; H, 9.15; Found: C, 69.45; H, 9.07. 1 -(4-Ferrocenylphenyl)-2-(4-formylphenyl)acetvIene (30). Samples of 4 (500 mg, 1.75 mmol), 4-iodobenzaldehyde (406 mg, 1.75 mmol), Cul (18 mg, 94 μmol) and Pd(PPh 3 ) 2 Cl 2 (8 mg, 11 μmol) were placed in a Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated for 3 min and then the flask was backflushed with argon for 3 min. The process of evacuation and flushing was repeated 3 times. At this point flow rate was increased and the threaded stopcock was removed. Deaerated THF (5 mL) and DIEA (5.0 mL) were added in succession to the flask by gas-tight syringe. The threaded stopcock was replaced, the argon flow rate was reduced and the flask was immersed in an oil bath thermostated at 40° C. The reaction was stopped after 40 h. The mixture was then evaporated and the resulting orange solid was chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1 :1). The second orange band comprising the title compound was collected (579 mg, 84.9%). mp 219-220° C; 1H NMR δ 4.10 (s, 5H), 4.42 (s, 2H), 4.73 (s, 2H), 7.52 (s, 4H), 7.72, 7.92 (AA'BB', 4H), 10.07 (s, IH); 13 C NMR δ 67.3, 70.3, 70.5, 84.6, 89.4, 94.8, 120.2, 126.6, 130.4, 130.6, 132.6, 132.7, 135.9, 141.6, 192.2; EI-MS obsd 390.0696 (M + ), calcd exact mass 390.0707; Anal. Calcd for C 25 Hι 8 FeO: C, 76.94; H, 4.65; Found: C, 76.75; H, 4.68. 5-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenyll-15-ferrocenyl-10,20-dimesitylporphyrin (33). Method A Acetonitrile (250 mL) was degassed with a stream of Ar for 10 min. Freshly ground NH 4 C1 (1.34 g, 25 mmol) was added and the flask was placed in an ice-bath and cooled under Ar. Samples of 5-mesityldipynomethane (Lee et al. (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427-11440; Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1391-1396) (660 mg, 2.50 mmol), 4- (S-acetylthio)benzaldehyde 31 (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 8635-8647] (225 mg, 1.25 mmol) and fenocenecarboxaldehyde (270 mg, 1.25 mmol) were added followed by BF 3 -eιherate (32 μL, 0.25 mmol) and the mixture was stined at 0 °C under Ar. The progress ofthe reaction was monitored by UN- Visible spectroscopy. After 6 h, DDQ (851 mg, 3.75 mmol) was added. The ice-bath was removed and the mixture was stined at rt for 1 h. The reaction mixture was evaporated to one-third of its initial volume and then filtered through a silica pad (CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1). The dark solid was subsequently chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 3:7; CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 5:5). The second green band contained the title poφhyrin together with some impurities. A subsequent chromatographic procedure did not improve the product purity (119 mg). Method B Samples of 5-mesityldipynomethane (264 mg, 1.0 mmol), feπo- cenecarboxaldehyde (107 mg, 0.50 mmol) and 31 (90 mg, 0.50 mmol) were dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (100 mL, undistilled) and then TFA (0.137 ml, 1.78 mmol) was added slowly over 30 s. The mixture was stined at rt for 30 min, and then DIEA (0.3 mL, 1.8 mmol) and a solution ofp-chloranil (370 mg, 1.5 mmol) in THF (20 mL) was added and the mixture was stined at rt for a further 6 h. Next the reaction mixture was evaporated to one-third of its initial volume and purified as described above to afford 188 mg ofthe title compound having purity similar to that obtained via method A. LD-MS obsd 945.6, 961.8 [M + + 15], 905.4 [M + - CH 3 CO], impurities 762.7 and 1096.8; FAB-MS obsd 880.2839, calcd exact mass 880.2898 (Cs^e^OSZnFe); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 422, 510, 602 nm. Zn(II)-5-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenyll-15-ferrocenyl-10,20-dimesitylporphyrin (Zn- 33). A solution of poφhyrin 33 (100 mg, 0.11 mol) in CH 2 C1 2 (30 mL) was treated with a solution of Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (498 mg, 2.27 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and the mixture was stined for 16 h. After metalation was complete (TLC), the reaction mixture was washed with water and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ), filtered, concentrated, and chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 6:4) to give the pure title compound [91 mg, 9.4% (method A) and 37% (method B) from aldehyde 31]. 1H NMR δ 1.87 (s, 12H), 2.57 (s, 3H), 2.67 (s, 6H), 4.24 (s, 5H), 4.79 (s, 2H), 5.52 (s, 2H), 7.31 (s, 6H), 7.77, 8.28 (AA'BB', 4H), 8.7-8.9 (m, 6H), 10.17 (m, 2H); LD-MS obsd 945.6, 961.8 [M + + 15], 905.4 [M + - CH 3 CO]; FAB-MS obsd 942.2073, calcd exact mass 942.2033 (C 56 H 46 N 4 OSZnFe); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 423, 563, 616 nm. 5-(4-[S-(N-Ethylcarbamoyl)thiolphenvU-15-(4-ferrocenylphenyl)-10,20- dimesityl-porphyrin (34). Method A: Acetonitrile (207 mL) was degassed with a stream of Ar for 10 min. Freshly ground NH 4 C1 (1.11 g, 20.7 mmol) was added and the flask was placed in an ice-bath and cooled under Ar. Samples of 5-mesityldipynomethane (546 mg, 2.07 mmol), 4- feπocenylbenzaldehyde 17 (300 mg, 1.03 mmol) and aldehyde 32 (216 mg, 1.03 mmol) were added followed by BF 3 -etherate (25 μL, 0.209 mmol) and the mixture was stined at 0° C under Ar. The progress ofthe reaction was monitored by UV- Visible spectroscopy. After 5 h, DDQ (705 mg, 3.11 mmol) was added. The ice-bath was removed and the mixture was stined at rt for 1 h. TEA (28.8 μL, 2.07 mmol) was added and the mixture was chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1 :1). The dark puφle solid was subsequently chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 7:3; CH 2 C1 2 ). The second piuple band (R f = 0.54) contained the title poφhyrin together with some blue impurities. A subsequent column chromatography procedure did not improve the product purity (34 mg). Method B: Samples of 5-mesityldipynomethane (264 mg, 1.0 mmol), 17 (145 mg, 0.50 mmol) and 32 (105 mg, 0.50 mmol) were dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (100 mL, undistilled) and then TFA (0.137 ml, 1.78 mmol) was added slowly over 30 s. The mixture was stined at rt for 30 min, and then DIEA (0.30 mL, 1.8 mmol) and a solution ofp-chloranil (370 mg, 1.5 mmol) in THF (20 mL) was added and the mixture was stined at rt for a further 6 h. Next the reaction mixture was concentrated and purified as described above to afford 101 mg. TLC (CH 2 C1 2 ), Rf = 0.6; LD-MS obsd 988.6, 917.4 [M + - CH 3 CH 2 NHCO], impurity 850.0; FAB-MS obsd 985.3434, calcd exact mass 985.3477 (C 63 H 55 N 5 OSFe); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 419, 517, 553, 593, 648 nm; λ abs 653, 720 nm;. Zinc(II)-5-{4-fS-(N-Ethylcarbamoyl)thio1phenyl}-15-(4-ferrocenylphenyl)- 10,20-dimesitylporphyrin (Zn-34). A solution of 34 (17 mg, 0.017 mmol) in CH 2 C1 2 (15 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (380 mg, 1.73 mmol) in methanol (10 mL) and the mixture was stined at rt under argon. TLC analysis (silica, CH 2 C1 2 ) after 6 h showed no starting material (expected R f = 0.58) and the presence of two new components (R f = 0.51, R f = 0.91). The reaction was stopped by adding 100 mL of satd aq ΝaHCθ 3 and 20 mL of CH 2 C1 2 . The aqueous solution was extracted with CH 2 C1 2 . The combined CH 2 C1 2 layers were dried (Na 2 SO 4 ), concentrated and the residue was chromatographed (silica, CH 2 C1 2 ). The red band was collected and evaporated, affording [16 mg, 3% (method A) and 19% (method B) (from aldehyde 32)]. TLC (silica, CH 2 C1 2 ) R f = 0.51; 1H NMR 1.30 (t, J= 7.0 Hz, 3H), 1.84 (s, 12H), 2.64 (s, 6H), 3.4 - 3.6 (m, 2H), 4.24 (s, 5H), 4.47 (s, 2H), 4.91 (s, 2H), 5.60 (s, IH), 7.29 (s, 4H), 7.84, 8.15 (AA'BB', 4H), 7.92, 8.28 (AA'BB', 4H), 8.7 - 9.1 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 1051.2, 979.0 [xVT - CH 3 CH 2 NHCO]; FAB-MS obsd 1047.2625, calcd exact mass 1047.2612 (C 63 H 53 N 5 OSZnFe); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 424, 552, 593 nm; λ abs 610, 650 nm. 5- r4-(5- Acetylthio)phenyll -15-( 4- r2-(4-ferrocenylphenyl)eth ynyll phenyll-10.20- dimesitylporphyrin (35). Samples of 5-mesityldipynomethane (264 mg, 1.0 mmol), aldehyde 30 (195 mg, 0.50 mmol) and aldehyde 32 (105 mg, 0.50 mmol) were dissolved in CH 2 C1 2 (100 mL, undistilled) and then TFA (0.137 ml, 1.78 mmol) was added slowly over 30 s. The reaction mixture was stined at rt for 30 min, and then DIEA (0.3 mL, 1.8 mmol) and a solution ofp- chloranil (370 mg, 1.5 mmol) in THF (20 mL) was added and the mixture was stined at rt for a further 6 h. Next the reaction mixture was evaporated to one-third of its initial volume and filtered through a silica pad (CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1). Fractions containing the second puφle band were collected and chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1:1; then CH 2 C1 2 ) to afford a slightly impure product. A second column (silica, CH C1 2 ) was performed to obtain 56 mg of pure poφhyrin (10.3%). 1H NMR δ -2.55 (s, 2H); 1.31 (t, J= 7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.90 (s, 12H), 2.68 (s, 6H), 3.51 (m, 2H), 4.12 (s, 5H), 4.40 (s, 2H), 4.73 (s, 2H), 5.61 (brt, IH), 7.34 (s, 6H), 7.56, 7.64 (AA'BB', 4H), 7.9-8.4 (m, 8H), 8.7-9.0 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 1089.0, 1018.0 [M + - CH 3 CH 2 NHCO]; FAB-MS obsd 1085.3766, calcd exact mass 1085.3790 (C 7 ιH 59 N 5 OSFe); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 422, 516, 551, 590, 647 nm. Zn(II)-5-f4-(S-acetylthio)phenyll-15-{4-[2-(4-ferrocenylphenyl)ethynyllphenyl}- 10,20-dimesitylporphyrin (Zn-35). A solution of poφhyrin 35 (43 mg, 40 μmol) in CH 2 C1 2 (20 mL) was treated with a solution of Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (430 mg, 1.95 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and the mixture was stined for 16 h. After metalation was complete, the reaction mixture was washed with water, dried (Na SO 4 ), filtered, concentrated, and chromatographed (silica, CH 2 C1 2 ) affording a puφle solid (32 mg, 70.3%). 1H NMR δ 1.30 (t, J= 7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.87 (s, 12H), 2.67 (s, 6H), 3.4-3.6 (m, 2H), 4.10 (s, 5H), 4.39 (s, 2H), 4.73 (s, 2H), 5.57 (brt, IH), 7.32 (s, 6H), 7.54, 7.62 (AA'BB', 4H), 7.9-8.4 (m, 8H), 8.7-9.0 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 1154.0, 1082.7 pv - CH 3 CH 2 NHCO]; FAB-MS obsd 1147.2724, calcd exact mass 1147.2925 (C 71 H 59 N 5 OSFe); λ abs (CH 2 C1 2 ) 423, 549 nm. 5-(4-Ferrocenylphenyl)dipyrromethane (36). Following a general procedure [Lee, C.-H., et al., Tetrahedron 1994, 50, 11427-11440; Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1391-1396), pynole (3.00 mL, 43.2 mmol) and 4-fenocenylbenzaldehyde 17 (0.50 g, 1.7 mmol) were added to a 25 mL flask and degassed with a stream of argon. Then TFA (13.0 μL) was added and the mixture was stined under argon at rt for 10 min and then quenched with 0.1 M NaOH. Ethyl acetate was then added and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed with water, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ), and concentrated to afford an orange oil. The oil was chromatographed using centrifugal preparative TLC (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1 : 1 ) to afford a yellow oil (660 mg, 94.3%). 1H NMR δ 4.19 (s, 5H), 4.45 (s, 2H), 4.75 (s, 2H), 5.45 (s, IH), 6.05 (s, 2H), 6.30 (m, 2H), 6.71 (m, 2H), 7.22, 7.53 (AA'BB', J= 8.5 Hz, 4H), 7.94 (brs, 2H); 13 C NMR δ 61.3, 67.4, 69.8, 70.5, 86.0, 108.1, 109.1, 118.2, 127.1, 129.3, 133.5, 138.6, 140.6; EI-MS obsd 406.1144 (M + ), calcd exact mass 406.1132 (C 25 H 22 N 2 Fe). Znαi)-5,15-Bis(4-Ferrocenylphenyl)-10-r4-methylphenyll-20-r4-(S-acetylthio)- phenyll porphyrin (Zn-37). Method A: Acetonitrile (80 mL) was degassed with a stream of Ar for 10 min. Freshly ground NH 4 C1 (430 mg, 7.90 mmol) was added, and the flask was placed in an ice-bath and cooled under Ar. Samples of 36 (321 mg, 0.79 mmol), 4-methylbenzaldehyde (47 μL, 0.40 mmol) and aldehyde 31 (72 mg, 0.40 mmol) were added, followed by BF 3 -etherate (11 μL, 0.08 mmol), and the mixture was stined at 0° C under Ar. After 6 h DDQ (270 mg, 0.75 mmol) was added. The ice-bath was removed and the mixture was stined at rt for 1 h. TLC revealed a lack of red-fluorescent species, thus CH 2 C1 2 (50 mL) was added and the mixture was stined at rt overnight. Removal ofthe solvents gave a black solid which was chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes, 1 :1). The first band collected was chromatographed (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes 7:3, then CH 2 C1 2 ). The second puφle band contained the title poφhyrin [LD-MS obsd 1075.1; FAB-MS obsd 1070.2435, calcd exact mass 1070.2404 (C 67 H 5 oN 4 Fe 2 OS)] together with a significant amount of impurities. Subsequent chromatography procedures with various eluants did not improve the purity. The mixture (1.5 mg, 1.3 μmol) was dissolved in CH C1 2 (10 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (29.0 mg, 130 μmol) in methanol (5 mL) was added and the reaction mixture was stined overnight at rt. After metalation was complete, the reaction mixture was washed with water, dried and concentrated. Chromatography (silica, CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes) gave 1.5 mg (0.33% from dipynomethane 36). Method B: Acetonitrile (50 mL) was degassed with a stream of Ar for 10 min. Freshly ground NH 4 C1 (268 mg, 5.00 mmol) was added, and the flask was placed in an ice-bath and cooled under Ar. Samples of 36 (203 mg, 0.50 mmol), 4-methylbenzaldehyde (30 μL, 0.25 mmol) and aldehyde 31 (45 mg, 0.25 mmol) were added, followed by BF 3 -etherate (7 μL, 0.055 mmol), and the mixture was stined at 0° C under Ar. After 6 h, DIEA (10 μL, 0.055 mmol) and a solution ofp-chloranil (185 mg, 0.75 mmol) in THF (30 mL) was added. The ice-bath was removed and the mixture was stined at rt overnight. An analogous purification process afforded 29 mg, comprised ofthe product and a significant amount of impurities. The mixture was subsequently metalated with Zn(OAc) 2 -2H 2 O (595 mg, 2.7 mmol) to obtain 8.8 mg (yield 3.1% from dipynomethane 36) of pure zinc poφhyrin. Η NMR δ 2.60 (s, 3H), 2.72 (s, 3H), 4.26 (s, 5H), 4.49 (s, 2H), 4.94 (s, 2H), 7.5 - 8.4 (m, 4 x AA'BB', 16H), 8.95 - 9.10 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 1138.7, 1153.9 [M + + 15], 1095.5 [M + - CH 3 CO], 966.0; FAB-MS obsd 1132.1526, calcd exact mass 1132.1529 (C 67 H 48 N 4 Fe 2 OS); λ abs (CH 2 Cl 2 ) 421, 551 nm. Electrochemistry. Both the solution and SAM electrochemical studies were conducted using the same instrumentation, techniques, and preparation strategies as described above. The solvent was CH 2 C1 2 ; tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate (TBAH, 0.1 M) (Aldrich, recrystalhzed three times from methanol and dried under vacuum at 110° C) served as supporting electrolyte. The potentials reported are vs Ag/Ag + ; Ey 2 (FeCp 2 /FeCp 2 + ) = 0.19 V. It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative puφoses only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and scope ofthe appended claims. All publications, patents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incoφorated by reference in their entirety for all puφoses.

Claims: CLAIMS What is claimed is: 1. An apparatus for storing data, said apparatus comprising: a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a storage medium having a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states wherein data is stored in said oxidation states by the addition or withdrawal of one or more electrons from said storage medium via the electrically coupled electrode. 2. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein said storage medium stores data at a density of at least one bit per molecule. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having at least two different and distinguishable oxidation states. 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having at least eight different and distinguishable oxidation states. 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is covalently linked to said electrode. 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is electrically coupled to said electrode through a linker 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is covalently linked to said electrode through a linker. 8. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein said linker is a thiol linker. 9. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is juxtaposed in the proximity of said electrode such that electrons can pass from said storage medium to said electrode. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is juxtaposed to a dielectric material imbedded with counterions. 11. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium and said electrode are fully encapsulated in an integrated circuit. 12. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is electronically coupled to a second fixed electrode that is a reference electrode. 13. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is present on a single plane in said device. 14. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is present at a multiplicity of storage locations. 15. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said storage locations are present on a single plane in said device. 16. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said apparatus comprises multiple planes and said storage locations are present on multiple planes of said device. 17. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said storage locations range from about 1024 to about 4096 different locations. 18. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein each location is addressed by a single electrode. 19. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein each location is addressed by two electrodes. 20. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said electrode is connected to a voltage source. 21. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein said voltage source is the output of an integrated circuit. 22. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said electrode is connected to a device to read the oxidation state of said storage medium. 23. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein said device is selected from the group consisting of a voltammetric device, an amperometric device, and a potentiometric device. 24. The apparatus of claim 23, wherein said device is an impedance spectrometer or a sinusoidal voltammeter. 25. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein said device provides a Fourier transform ofthe output signal from said electrode. 26. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein said device refreshes the oxidation state of said storage medium after reading said oxidation state. 27. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said different and distinguishable oxidation states of said storage medium can be set by a voltage difference no greater than about 2 volts. 28. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is selected from the group consisting of a poφhyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene, a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom-substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom-substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tetraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1,4-phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2'-bipyridyl, a 4,4'-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, and a ?er -bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide. 29. The apparatus of claim 28, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule selected from the group consisting of a poφhyrin, an expanded poφhyrin, a contracted poφhyrin, a fenocene, a linear poφhyrin polymer, and a poφhyrin anay. 30. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a poφhyrinic macrocycle substituted at a β- position or at a meso- position. 31. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having the formula: wherein S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; M 1 , M 2 , M 3 , and M 4 are independently selected metals; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , K 8 , K 9 , K 10 , K", K 12 , K 13 , K 14 , K 15 , and K 16 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; J rl , J τ 2 , and J are independently selected linkers; L 1 , L 2 , L 3 , and L 4 are present or absent and, when present are independently selected linkers; X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , and X 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; and E 1 and E 2 are terminating substituents selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; and said molecule has at least two different and distinguishable oxidation states. 32. The apparatus of claim 31 , wherein said molecule has at least eight different and distinguishable oxidation states. 33. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein M 1 , M 2 , M 3 , and M 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Ga, Pb, and Sn. 34. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein J 1 , J 2 , and J 3 are independently selected from the group consisting of 4,4'-diphenylethyne, 4,4'-diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4'- biphenyl, 1,4-phenylene, 4,4'-stilbene, 1,4-bicyclooctane, 4,4'-azobenzene, 4,4'- benzylideneaniline, and 4,4"-teφhenyl. 35. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein L'-X 1 , L 2 -X 2 , L 3 -X 3 , and L 4 -X 4 are independently present or absent and, when present, are independently selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4- hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 36. The apparatus of claim 32, wherein K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , K 8 , K 9 , K 10 , K n , K 12 , K 13 , K 14 , K 15 , and K 16 are the same; M and M are the same; M 2 and M 4 are the same and different from M 1 and M 3 ; 1 "? S and S are the same; and S 3 and S 4 are the same and different from S 1 and S 2 . 37. The apparatus of claim 31 , wherein said apparatus comprises a molecule having the formula: Ar 1 and Ar 2 are independently aromatic groups; and X 1 , X , X , and X 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of H or a substrate. 38. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein said storage medium comprises a poφhyrinic macrocycle containing at least two poφhyrins of equal energies held apart from each other at a spacing less than about 50 A such that said molecule has an odd hole oxidation state permitting the hole to hop between said two poφhyrins and wherein said odd hole oxidation state is different from and distinguishable from another oxidation state of said poφhyrinic macrocycle. 39. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having the formula: pi p4 J' } I I p _ Q_ p5 1. wherein J , J , J , and J are independently selected linkers that permit electron transfer between the poφhyrinic macrocycles; P and P are poφhyrinic macrocycles selected to have the same oxidation state; P 4 and P 6 are poφhyrinic macrocycles selected to have the same oxidation state; P 2 has an oxidation potential greater than the oxidation potential of P 1 or P 3 ; P 5 has an oxidation potential greater than the oxidation potential of P 4 or P 6 ; and Q is a linker. 40. The apparatus of claim 39, wherein Q is selected from the group consisting of l,4-bis(4-teφhen-4"-yl)butadiyne or a tetrakis(arylethyne), a linker comprising 1,12-carboranyl (C 2 Bι 0 Hι 2 ), 1,10-carboranyl (C 2 B 8 H 10 ), [τj]staffane, 1,4- cubanediyl, l,4-bicyclo[2.2.2]octanediyl, phenylethynyl, and a linker comprising a/7- phenylene unit. 41. The apparatus of claim 39, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having the formula: M and M are independently selected metals; S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 4 , S 5 , S 6 , S 7 , and S 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , and K 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L 1 and L 2 are independently selected linkers; and X and X are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. 42. The apparatus of claim 41 , wherein S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 5 , S 6 , and S 7 are the same; S 4 and S 8 are the same; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , and K 8 are the same J 1 , J 2 , J 3 and J 4 are the same; and M 1 and M 2 are different. 43. The apparatus of claim 42, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having the formula: 1 "7 wherein X and X are independently selected from the group consisting of H and a substrate. 44. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having three different and distinguishable oxidation states. 45. The apparatus of claim 44, wherein said molecule has the formula: wherein F is selected from the group consisting of a fenocene, a substituted fenocene, a metallopoφhyrin, and a metallochlorin; J 1 is a linker; M is a metal; S 1 and S 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, S, O, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; and and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; and said molecule has at least three different and distinguishable oxidation states. 46. The apparatus of claim 45, wherein said molecule has the formula: 47. The apparatus of claim 45, wherein said molecule has the formula: wherein M 2 is a metal; S ft 7 R K , K , K , and K are independently selected from the group consisting of N, S, O, Se, Te, and CH; S 3 , S 4 , and S 5 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; and L-X is selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4- mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4- hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4- hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 48. The apparatus of claim 45, wherein said molecule has the formula: wherein M 2 is a metal; K , K , K , and K are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; S3 is selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts and L-X is selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4- mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4- hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4- hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 49. The apparatus of claim 46, wherein said molecule is 0. The apparatus of claim 47, wherein said molecule is 1. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein said molecule is 52. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having five different and distinguishable oxidation states. 53. The apparatus of claim 52, wherein said molecule has the formula: wherein M 1 is a metal; 1 7 ^ F , F , and F are independently selected fenocenes or substituted fenocenes; J 1 , J 2 , and J 3 are independently selected linkers; KI , K2, K3, and K4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. 54. The apparatus of claim 53, wherein K 1 , K 2 , K 3 and K 4 are the same; M 1 is a metal selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Pb, Al, Ga, and Sn; J 2 , J 2 , and J 3 are the same; and F 1 , F 2 , and F 3 are all different. 55. The apparatus of claim 54, wherein said molecule is "λ 56. The apparatus of claim 45, wherein J , J , and J are selected from the group consistin g of 4,4'-diphenylethyne, 4,4'-diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4'-biphenyl, 1,4- phenyl ene, 4,4'-stilbene, 1,4-bicyclooctane, 4,4'-azobenzene, 4,4'-benzylideneaniline, and 4,4"-teφhenyl. 57. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having the formula: wherein L is a linker; M is a metal; S 1 and S 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. 58. The apparatus of claim 57, wherein said molecule is selected from the group consisting of: wherein X is a substrate. 59. The apparatus of claim 57, wherein -L-X is selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4- hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 60. An information storage medium, said storage medium comprising a one or more storage molecules such that said storage medium has at least two different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. 61. The storage medium of claim 60, wherein said storage molecule is selected from the group consisting of a poφhyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene, a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom-substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom- substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tetraselenafiilvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1 ,4-phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2'-bipyridyl, a 4,4'-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, and a peri-bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide. 62. The storage medium of claim 61, wherein said storage medium comprises a sto rage molecule selected from the group consisting of a poφhyrin, an expanded poφhyrin, a contracted poφhyrin, a fenocene, a linear poφhyrin polymer, and a poφhyrin anay. 63. The storage medium of claim 62, comprising a storage molecule that contains two or more covalently linked redox-active subunits. 64. The storage medium of claim 63, wherein said storage molecule has a the formula: wherein S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 are substituents independently selected from the group consistin g of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; M 1 , M 2 , M 3 , and M 4 are independently selected metals; K 1 , and K - 16 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; J 1 , J 2 , and J 3 are independently selected linkers; L 1 , L 2 , L 3 , and L 4 are present or absent and, when present are independently selected linkers; and X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , and X 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; 1 7 and E and E are terminating substituents; and said molecule has at least two different and distinguishable oxidation states. 65. The storage medium of claim 64, wherein said storage molecule has at least eight different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. 66. The storage medium of claim 65, wherein K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , K 8 , K 9 , K 10 , K 11 , K 12 , K 13 , K 14 , K 15 , and K - 16 are the same; M 1 and M 3 are the same; M 2 and M 4 are the same and different from M 1 and M 3 ; S 1 and S 2 are the same; and S 3 and S 4 are the same and different from S 1 and S 2 . 67. The storage medium claim 66, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: wherein Ar 1 and Ar 2 are independently aromatic groups; and X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , and X 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of H or a substrate. 68. The storage medium of claim 62, wherein said storage molecule is a poφhyrinic macrocycle containing a metallo-free poφhyrin and having an odd hole oxidation state permitting the hole to hop between two subunits of said poφhyrinic macrocycle and wherein said odd hole oxidation state is different from and distinguishable from another oxidation state of said poφhyrinic macrocycle. 69. The storage medium of claim 68, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: P 2 — Q— P 5 wherein J 1 , J 2 , J 3 , and J 4 are independently selected linkers that permit electron transfer between the poφhyrinic macrocycles; P 1 , P 3 , P 4 , and P 6 are independently selected poφhyrinic macrocycles; P 2 and P 5 are independently selected metallo-free poφhyrinic macrocycles; and Q is a linker. 70. The storage medium of claim 69, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: wherein M 1 and M 2 are independently selected metals; S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 4 , S 5 , S 6 , S 7 , and S 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , and K 8 are independently selected from the group c onsisting of are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L 1 and L 2 are independently selected linkers; and X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. 71. The storage medium of claim 70, wherein S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 5 , S 6 , and S 7 are the same; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , and K 8 are the same J 1 , J 2 , J 4 and J 5 are the same; and M 1 and M 2 are different. 72. The storage medium of claim 71 , wherein said storage molecule has the formula: wherein X and X are independently selected from the group consisting of H and a substrate. 73. The storage medium of claim 62, wherein said storage molecule has three different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. 74. The storage medium of claim 73, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: wherein F 1 is selected from the group consisting of a fenocene, a substituted fenocene, a metallopoφhyrin, and a metallochlorin; J 1 is a linker; M 1 is a metal; S 1 and S 2 are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; K 1 , K 2 , K , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate, and said molecule has at least three different and distinguishable oxidation states. 75. The storage medium of claim 74, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: 76. The storage medium of claim 74, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: wherein M 2 is a metal; K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , and K 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; S 3 , S 4 , and S 5 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. 77. The storage medium of claim 74, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: wherein M 2 is a metal; K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , and K 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; S 3 is selected fr om the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. 78. The storage medium of claim 75, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: 79. The storage medium of claim 76, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: 80. The storage medium of claim 77, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: 81. The storage medium of claim 62, wherein said storage molecule has five different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. 82. The storage medium of claim 81, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: wherein M is a metal; F 1 , F 2 , and F 3 are independently selected fenocenes or substituted fenocenes; J , J , and J are independently selected linkers; K l , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. 83. The storage medium of claim 82, wherein K 1 , K 2 , K 3 and K 4 are the same; M is a metal selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Pb, Ga, and Sn; J 2 , J 2 , and J 3 are the same; and F 1 , F 2 , and F 3 are all different. 84. The storage medium of claim 83, wherein said molecule is • 1 7 ^ 85. The storage medium of claim 82, wherein J , J , and J are selected fro m the group consisting of 4,4'-diphenylethyne, 4,4'-diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4'-biphenyl, 1,4-phenylene, 4,4'-stilbene, 1,4-bicyclooctane, 4,4'-azobenzene, 4,4'-benzylideneaniline, and 4,4"-teφhenyl. 86. The storage medium of claim 62, wherein said storage molecule has the formula: J ^y -L— -X k J wherein M is a metal; S 1 and S 2 are selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. 87. The storage medium of claim 86, wherein said storage molecule has a formula selected from the group consisting of: 88. The storage medium of claim 86, wherein -L-X is selected from the group consistin g of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4- hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 89. The storage medium of claim 60, wherein each storage molecule is present at a discrete storage location on a substrate. 90. The storage medium of claim 60, wherein the storage molecule is in contact with a dielectric material imbedded with counterions. 91. The storage medium of claim 60, wherein said storage molecule comprises two or more covalently linked redox-active subunits. 92. A collection of molecules for the production of a data storage medium, said collection comprising a plurality storage molecules wherein each species of storage molecule has an oxidation state different from and distinguishable from the oxidation states ofthe other species of storage molecules comprising said collection. 93. The collection of claim 92, wherein said collection of molecules comprising a plurality of poφhyrinic macrocycle species, wherein each species has an oxidation state different from and distinguishable from the oxidation states of every other species of poφhyrinic macrocycle in said collection. 94. A molecule for the storage of information, said molecule having the formula: wherein S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 are substituents independently selected from the group consistin g of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; M 1 , M 2 , M 3 , and M 4 are independently selected metals; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , K 8 , K 9 , K 10 , K 11 , K 12 , K 13 , K 14 , K 15 , and K -16 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; 1 7 ^ J , J , and J are independently selected linkers; L 1 , L 2 , L 3 , and L 4 are present or absent and, when present are independently selected linkers; and X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , and X 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; and E and E are terminating substituents; and said molecule has at least two different and distinguishable oxidation states. 95. A molecule for the storage of information, said molecule having the formula: wherein 1 7 M and M are independently selected metals; S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 4 , S 5 , S 6 , S 7 , and S 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , and K 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of are independently selec ted from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L 1 and L 2 are independently selected linkers; and X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. 96. A molecule for the storage of information, said molecule having the formula: F 1 is selected from the group consisting of a fenocene, a substituted fenocene, a metallopoφhyrin, and a metallochlorin; J 1 is a linker; M is a metal; S 1 and S 2 are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nifro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a subsfrate, and said molecule has at least three different and distinguishable oxidation states. 97. A molecule for the storage of information, said molecule having the formula: wherein M is a metal; S 1 and S 2 are selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a subsfrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. 98. A method of storing data, said method comprising: i) providing an apparatus according to claim 1 ; and ii) applying a voltage to said electrode at sufficient cunent to set an oxidation state of said storage medium. 99. The method of claim 98, wherein said voltage ranges up to about 2 volts. 100. The method of claim 98, wherein said voltage is the output of an integrated circuit. 101. The method of claim 98, wherein said voltage is the output of a logic gate. 102. The method of claim 98, further comprising detecting the oxidation state of said storage medium and thereby reading out the data stored therein. 103. The method of claim 102, wherein said detecting the oxidation state ofthe storage medium further comprises refreshing the oxidation state ofthe storage medium. 104. The method of claim 102, wherein said detecting comprises analyzing a readout signal in the time domain. 105. The method of claim 102, wherein said detecting comprises analyzing a readout signal in the frequency domain. 106. The method of claim 105, wherein said detecting comprises performing a Fourier transform on said readout signal. 107. The method of claim 102, wherein said detecting utilizes a voltammetric method. 108. The method of claim 102, wherein said detecting utilizes impedance spectroscopy. 109. The method of claim 102, wherein said detecting comprises exposing said storage medium to an electric field to produce an electric field oscillation having characteristic frequency and detecting said characteristic frequency. 110. The method of claim 98, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule selected from the group consisting of a poφhyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene, a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom-substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom- substituted cyclic polyene, a tefrathiafulvalene, a tefraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1,4-phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2'-bipyridyl, a 4,4'-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, and a en-bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide. 111. The method of claim 110, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule selected from the group consisting of a poφhyrin, an expanded poφhyrin, a contracted poφhyrin, a fenocene, a linear poφhyrin polymer, and a poφhyrin anay. 112. The method of claim 110, wherein said storage medium comprises a poφhyrinic macrocycle substituted at a β- position or at a meso- position. 113. The method of claim 110, wherein said molecule has at least eight different and distinguishable oxidation states. 114. In a computer system, a memory device, said memory device comprising the apparatus of claim 1. 115. A computer system comprising a central processing unit, a display, a selector device, and a memory device, said memory device comprising the apparatus of claim 1. 116. An apparatus for storing data, said apparatus comprising: a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a storage medium comprising a storage molecule having the formula: wherein K -1 , K v-2 , τ Kj , and K are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; M is a metal or (H,H); S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 are indepently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, alkoxy, halogen, alkylthio, alkoxy, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyidyl, nitrile, nitro, amino, and alkylamino; L is present or absent and, when present, is a linker; and X is a substrate or a reactive site that can covalently or ionically couple to a substrate. 117. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage medium stores data at a density of at least one bit per molecule. 118. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage medium has at least two different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. 119. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage medium has at least eight different and distinguishable oxidation states. 120. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage molecule is covalently linked to said electrode. 121. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage molecule is electrically coupled to said electrode through a linker. 122. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage molecule is covalently linked to said electrode through a linker. 123. The apparatus of claim 122, wherein said linker is a thiol linker. 124. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage medium is juxtaposed in the proximity of said electrode such that elecfrons can pass from said storage medium to said electrode. 125. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage medium is juxtaposed to a dielectric material imbedded with counterions. 126. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage medium and said electrode are fully encapsulated in an integrated circuit. 127. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage medium is electronically coupled to a second fixed electrode that is a reference electrode. 128. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage medium is present on a single plane in said device. 129. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said storage medium is present at a multiplicity of storage locations. 130. The apparatus of claim 129, wherein said storage locations are present on a single plane in said device. 131. The apparatus of claim 129, wherein said apparatus comprises multiple planes and said storage locations are present on multiple planes of said device. 132. The apparatus of claim 129, wherein said storage locations range from about 1024 to about 4096 different locations. 133. The apparatus of claim 129, wherein each location is addressed by a single electrode. 134. The apparatus of claim 129, wherein each location is addressed by two electrodes. 135. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said electrode is connected to a voltage source. 136. The apparatus of claim 135, wherein said voltage source is the output of an integrated circuit. 137. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said electrode is connected to a device to read the oxidation state of said storage medium. 138. The apparatus of claim 137, wherein said device is selected from the group consisting of a voltammetric device, an amperometric device, and a potentiometric device. 139. The apparatus of claim 137, wherein said device is an impedance spectrometer or a sinusoidal voltammeter. 140. The apparatus of claim 137, wherein said device provides a Fourier transform ofthe output signal from said electrode. 141. The apparatus of claim 137, wherein said device refreshes the oxidation state of said storage medium after reading said oxidation state. 142. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein said different and distinguishable oxidation states of said storage medium can be set by a voltage difference no greater than about 2 volts. 143. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Pb, Ga, and Sn. 144. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, and (H,H). 145. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein S is selected from the group consisting of mesityl, C 6 F 5 , 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, and n-pentyl. 146. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of CONH(Et), COCH 3 , and H. 147. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein L-X is selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4- hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 148. The apparatus of claim 116, wherein S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 are all the same; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are all N; and L is p-thiophenyl. 149. The apparatus of claim 148, wherein M is Zn or (H,H). 150. The apparatus of claim 149, wherein S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 are selected from the group consisting of mesityl, CβFs, 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, and Ti-pentyl. 151. The apparatus of claim 149, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of CONH(Et), COCH 3 , and H. 152. An apparatus for storing data, said apparatus comprising: a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a storage medium comprising a molecule having the formula: wherein K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, S, O, Se, Te, and CH; M is a metal or (H,H); L 1 , L 2 , and L 3 , and L 4 are independently present or absent and, when present, are a linkers; and X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , and X 4 are independently present or absent and, when present, independently a substrate or a reactive site that can covalently or ionically couple to a substrate. 153. The apparatus of claim 152, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Pb, Al, Ga, and Sn. 154. The apparatus of claim 152, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, and (H,H). 155. The apparatus of claim 152, wherein L'-X 1 , L 2 -X 2 , L 3 -X 3 , and L 4 -X 4 are independently present or absent and, when present, are independently selected from the group consisting of 3-mercaptophenyl, 3 -mercaptomethylphenyl, 3-(2-(4- mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-(2-(3-mercaptomethylphenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3- hydroselenophenyl, 3-hydroselenomethylphenyl, 3-(2-(4- hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-(2-(3-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3- hydrotellurophenyl, 3-hydrotelluromethylphenyl and 3-(2-(4- hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, and 3-(2-(3-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 156. The apparatus of claim 152, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having a formula selected from the group consisting of: M = H,H; Zn M = H,H; Zn M = H,H; Zn 157. An information storage molecule, said molecule having the formula: wherein K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, S, O, Se, Te, and CH; M is a metal or (H,H); S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 are independently selected frm the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; L is present or absent and, when present, is a linker; and X is a substrate or a reactive site that can covalently or ionically couple to a substrate. 158. The molecule of claim 157, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Pb, Ga, and Sn. 159. The molecule of claim 157, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, and (H,H). 160. The molecule of claim 157, wherein S is selected from the group consisting of mesityl, C 6 F 5 , 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, and τz-pentyl. 161. The molecule of claim 157, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of gold, silver, copper, CONH(Et), COCH 3 , and H. 162. The molecule of claim 157, wherein L-X is selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4- hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 163. The molecule of claim 157, wherein S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 are all the same; K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are all N; and L is p-thiophenyl. 164. The molecule of claim 163, wherein M is Zn or (H,H). 165. The molecule of claim 164, wherein S , S , and S are selected from the group consisting of mesityl, C 6 F 5 , 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, and τι-pentyl. 166. The molecule of claim 164, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of SCONH(Et), SCOCH 3 , and SH. 167. An information storage molecule, said molecule having the formula: wherein K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; M is a metal or (H,H); 1 7 ^ S , S , and S are indepently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, alkoxy, halogen, alkylthio, alkoxy, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, nitrile, nitro, amino, and alkylamino; L 1 , L 2 , and L 3 , and L 4 are independently present or absent and, when present, are linkers; and X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , and X 4 are independently present or absent and, when present, independently a substrate or a reactive site that can covalently or ionically couple to a subsfrate. 168. The molecule of claim 167, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Pb, Ga, and Sn. 169. The molecule of claim 167, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, and (H,H). 170. The molecule of claim 167, wherein L 1 -X 1 , L 2 -X 2 , L 3 -X 3 , and L 4 -X 4 are independently present or absent and, when present, are independently selected from the group consisting of 3-mercaptophenyl, 3-mercaptomethylphenyl, 3-(2-(4- mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-(2-(3-mercaptomethylphenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3- hydroselenophenyl, 3-hydroselenomethylphenyl, 3-(2-(4- hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-(2-(3-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3- hydrotellurophenyl, 3-hydrotelluromethylphenyl and 3-(2-(4- hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, and 3-(2-(3-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 171. The molecule of claim 167, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having a formula selected from the group consisting of: M = H,H; Zn M = H,H; Zn and = H,H; Zn 172. An apparatus for storing data, said apparatus comprising: a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a storage medium comprising a storage molecule comprising a first subunit and a second subunit wherein the first and second subunits are tightly coupled such that oxidation ofthe first subunit alters the oxidation potential ofthe second subunit. 173. The apparatus of claiml72, wherein the subunits are selected from the group consisting of a poφhyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene, a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom-substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom-substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tefraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a friarylamine, a al,4-phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2'-bipyridyl, a 4,4'-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, and aperi- bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide. 174. The apparatus of claim 173, wherein the subunits are both poφhyrinic macrocycles or metallocenes. 175. The apparatus of claim 173, wherein the subunits are both fenocenes. 176. The apparatus of claim 173, wherein the subunits are both poφhyrinic macrocycles. 177. The apparatus of claim 173 , wherein a pair of the tightly coupled subunits has the following structure: wherein S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nifro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts, or one or more of S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 are -L-X where -L-X, when present is optionally present on one or both subunits and L, when present, is a linker; X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a subsfrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; M is a metal; and K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH. 178. The apparatus of claim 177, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Pb, Ga, Fe, and Sn. 179. The apparatus of claim 177, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, and (H,H). 1 7 1 180. The apparatus of claim 177, wherein S , S , and S are independently selected from the group consisting of mesityl, C 6 F 5 , 2,4,6- trimethoxyphenyl, phenyl, /?-tolyl,/?-(tert-butyl)phenyl, 3,5-dimethylphenyl, 3,5-di(tert- butyl)phenyl, 3,5-dimethoxyphenyl, 3,5-dialkoxyphenyl, and /z-pentyl. 181. The apparatus of claim 177, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of SCOR 1 , and SCON(R 2 )(R 3 ), wherein R 1 , R 2 , and R 3 are independently selected groups. 182. The apparatus of claim 177, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of SCN, SCONH(Et), SCOCH 3 , and SH. 183. The apparatus of claim 177, wherein L-X is selected from the group consisting 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4- hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, 2- (4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl, 2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl, 2-(4- hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 184. The apparatus of claim 177, wherein S 1 and S 3 are both the same; and K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are all the same. 185. The apparatus of claim 184, wherein M is Zn; and K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are all N. 186. The apparatus of claim 184, wherein a pair ofthe tightly coupled subunits has the following structure: 187. The apparatus of claim 184, wherein a pair of the tightly coupled subunits has the following structure: 188. The apparatus of claim 184, wherein a pair ofthe tightly coupled subunits has the following structure: 189. The apparatus of claim 184, wherein a pair of the tightly coupled subunits has the following structure: 190. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage medium has at least three different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. 191. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage medium has at least eight different and distinguishable oxidation states. 192. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage molecule is covalently linked to said electrode. 193. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage molecule is electrically coupled to said electrode through a linker. 194. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage molecule is covalently linked to said electrode through a linker. 195. The apparatus of claim 194, wherein said linker is a thiol linker. 196. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage medium is juxtaposed in the proximity of said electrode such that elecfrons can pass from said storage medium to said elecfrode. 197. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage medium is juxtaposed to a dielectric material imbedded with counterions. 198. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage medium and said electrode are fully encapsulated in an integrated circuit. 199. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage medium is electronically coupled to a second fixed electrode that is a reference electrode. 200. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage medium is present on a single plane in said device. 201. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said storage medium is present at a multiplicity of storage locations. 202. The apparatus of claim 201, wherein said storage locations are present on a single plane in said device. 203. The apparatus of claim 201, wherein said apparatus comprises multiple planes and said storage locations are present on multiple planes of said device. 204. The apparatus of claim 201, wherein said storage locations range from about 1024 to about 4096 different locations. 205. The apparatus of claim 204, wherein each location is addressed by a single electrode. 206. The apparatus of claim 204, wherein each location is addressed by two electrodes. 207. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said electrode is connected to a voltage source. 208. The apparatus of claim 207, wherein said voltage source is the output of an integrated circuit. 209. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein said electrode is connected to a device to read the oxidation state of said storage medium. 210. The apparatus of claim 209, wherein said device is selected from the group consisting of a voltammetric device, an amperometric device, and a potentiometric device. 211. The apparatus of claim 210, wherein said device is an impedance spectrometer or a sinusoidal voltammeter. 212. The apparatus of claim 209, wherein said device provides a Fourier transform ofthe output signal from said electrode. 213. The apparatus of claim 209, wherein said device refreshes the oxidation state of said storage medium after reading said oxidation state. 214. The apparatus of claim 172, wherein the second subunit can be oxidized by a voltage difference no greater than about 2 volts. 215. An information storage medium, said storage medium comprising one or more storage molecules such that said storage medium has at least two different and distinguishable non-neufral oxidation states, wherein the storage molecules comprise a first subunit and a second subunit wherein the first and second subunits are tightly coupled such that oxidation ofthe first subunit alters the oxidation potential ofthe second subunit, wherein said subunits are selected from the group consisting of a poφhyrinic macrocycle and a metallocene and said molecule has at least two different non-zero oxidation states and said oxidation states are within a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. 216. The molecule of claim 215, wherein the subunits are both fenocenes. 217. The molecule of claim 215, wherein the subunits are both poφhyrinic macrocycles. 218. The molecule of claim 215, wherein said storage molecule comprises a pair ofthe tightly coupled subunits has the following subunits has the following structure: wherein S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts, or one or more of S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , and S 4 are -L-X where -L-X, when present is optionally present on one or both subunits and L, when present, is a linker; X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; M is a metal; and K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH. 219. The molecule of claim 218, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Pb, Ga, Fe, and Sn. 220. The molecule of claim 218, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, and (H,H). 221. The molecule of claim 218, wherein S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 are independently selected from the group consisting of mesityl, C 6 F 5 , 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, phenyl, p- tolyl,p-(tert-butyl)phenyl, 3,5-dimethylphenyl, 3,5-di(tert-butyl)phenyl, 3,5- dimethoxyphenyl, 3,5-dialkoxyphenyl, and «-penty. 222. The molecule of claim 218, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of SCN, SCONH(Et), SCOCH 3 , and SH. 223. The molecule of claim 218, wherein L-X is selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4- hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, 2- (4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl, 2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl, 2-(4- hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. 224. The molecule of claim 218, wherein S 1 and S 3 are both the same; and K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , and K 4 are all the same. 225. The molecule of claim 224, wherein M is Zn; and K^ ^ K 3 , and K 4 are all N. 226. The molecule of claim 224, wherein a pair of the tightly coupled subunits has the following structure: 227. The molecule of claim 224, wherein a pair of the tightly coupled subunits has the following structure: 228. The molecule of claim 224, wherein a pair ofthe tightly coupled subunits has the following structure: 229. The molecule of claim 224, wherein a pair of the tightly coupled subunits has the following structure: 230. The molecule of claim 218, wherein said storage medium has at least three different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. 231. The molecule of claim 218, wherein said storage medium has at least eight different and distinguishable oxidation states. 232. A method of storing data, said method comprising: i) providing an apparatus according to claim 172; and ii) applying a voltage to said elecfrode at sufficient cunent to set an oxidation state of said storage medium. 233. The method of claim 232, wherein said voltage ranges up to about 2 volts. 234. The method of claim 232, wherein said voltage is the output of an integrated circuit. 235. The method of claim 232, wherein said voltage is the output of a logic gate. 236. The method of claim 232, further comprising detecting the oxidation state of said storage medium and thereby reading out the data stored therein. 237. The method of claim 236, wherein said detecting the oxidation state ofthe storage medium further comprises refreshing the oxidation state ofthe storage medium. 238. The method of claim 236, wherein said detecting comprises analyzing a readout signal in the time domain. 239. The method of claim 236, wherein said detecting comprises analyzing a readout signal in the frequency domain. 240. The method of claim 239, wherein said detecting comprises performing a Fourier transform on said readout signal. 241. The method of claim 236, wherein said detecting utilizes a voltammetric method. 242. In a computer system, a memory device, said memory device comprising the apparatus of claim 172. 243. A computer system comprising a central processing unit, a display, a selector device, and a memory device, said memory device comprising the apparatus of claim 172.

Inventors: BOCIAN DAVID F, CLAUSEN PETER CHRISTIAN, GRYKO DANIEL TOMASZ, KUHR WERNER G, LINDSEY JONATHAN S, BOCIAN, DAVID, F., CLAUSEN, PETER, CHRISTIAN, GRYKO, DANIEL, TOMASZ, KUHR, WERNER, G., LINDSEY, JONATHAN, S.
Applicants: BOCIAN DAVID F, CLAUSEN PETER CHRISTIAN, GRYKO DANIEL TOMASZ, KUHR WERNER G, LINDSEY JONATHAN S, UNIV CALIFORNIA, UNIV NORTH CAROLINA, BOCIAN, DAVID, F., CLAUSEN, PETER, CHRISTIAN, GRYKO, DANIEL, TOMASZ, KUHR, WERNER, G., LINDSEY, JONATHAN, S., NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY, THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Application year: 2000
Main classification: G11B
IPC codes: C07D487, C07D519, C07F17, G11C11, G11C13, H01L21, H01L27, H01L51