APPROACHES TO IDENTIFY GENETIC TRAITS

Abstract: The present invention relates to the field of genetic screening. More specifically, the described embodiments concern methods to screen multiple samples, in a single assay, for the presence or absence of mutations or polymorphisms in a plurality of genes.

Description: APPROACHES TO IDENTIFY GENETIC TRAITS FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the field of genetic screening More specifically, the described embodiments concern methods to screen multiple samples, in a single assay, for the presence or absence of mutations or polymorphisms in a plurality of genes BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Despite the tremendous progress in molecular biology and the identification of genes, mutations, and polymorphisms responsible for disease, the ability to rapidly screen a subject for the presence of multiple disorders has been technically difficult and cost prohibitive Current DNA based diagnostics allow for the identification of a single mutation or polymorphism or gene per analysis Although high throughput methods and gene chip technology have enabled the ability to screen multiple samples or multiple loci within the same sample, these approaches require several independent reactions, which increases the time required to process clinical samples and drastically increases the cost. Further, because of time and expense, conventional diagnostic approaches focus on the identification of the presence of DNA fragments that are associated with a high frequency of mutation, leaving out analysis of other loci that may be critical to diagnose a disease The need for a better way to diagnose genetic disease is manifest. With the advent of multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), the ability to use multiple primer sets to generate multiple extension products from a single gene is at hand By hybridizing isolated DNA with multiple sets of primers that flank loci of interest on a single gene, it is possible to generate a plurality of extension products in a single PCR reaction corresponding to fragments of the gene As the number of primers increases, however, the complexity of the reaction increases and the ability to resolve the extension products using conventional techniques fails. Further, since many diseases are caused by changes of a single nucleotide, the rapid detection of the presence or absence of these mutations or polymorphisms is frustrated by the fact that the PCR products that indicate both the diseased and noπ diseased state are of the same size Developments in gel electrophoresis, however, have enabled the separation of double stranded DNAs based upon differences in their melting temperatures, which has allowed investigators to resolve DNA fragments having a single mutation or single polymorphism. Techniques such as temporal temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TTGE) have been used to screen for small changes or point mutations in DNA fragments. The separation principle of TTGE is based on the melting behavior of DNA molecules In a denaturing polyacrylamide gel, double stranded DNA is subject to conditions that will cause it to melt in discrete segments called "melting domains " The melting temperature T m of these domains is sequence specific When the T m of the lowest melting domain is reached, the DNA will become partially melted, creating branched molecules Partial melting of the DNA reduces its mobility in a polyacrylamide gel Since the T m of a particular melting domain is sequence specific, the presence of a mutation or polymorphism will alter the melting profile of that DNA in comparison to the wild type or non polymorphic DNA. Thus, the DNA containing the mutation or polymorphism will have a different mobility compared to the wild type or non-polymorphic DNA. The TTGE approach has been used as a method for screening for mutations in the cystic fibrosis gene, for example (Bio Rad U.S./E.G. Bulletin 2103). Despite the efforts of many, there remains a need for a better approach to screen for genetic disorders BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Embodiments described herein concern a novel approach to screen for the presence or absence of multiple mutations or polymorphisms in a plurality of genes in a single assay, thus, improving the speed and lowering the cost to diagnose genetic diseases. Several embodiments also permit very sensitive detection of single base mutations, single base mismatches, and small nuclear polymorphisms (SNPs), as well as, larger alterations in DNA at multiple loci, in a plurality of genes, in multiple samples. Further, by employing a DNA standard or by screening a plurality of DNA samples in the same assay, improved sensitivity of detection can be obtained Embodiments include a method of identifying the presence or absence of a plurality of genetic markers in a subject One method is practiced, for example, by providing a DNA sample from said subject, providing a plurality of nucleic acid primer sets that hybridize to said DNA at regions that flank said plurality of genetic markers, wherein each primer set has a first and a second primer and, wherein said plurality of genetic markers exist on a plurality of genes, contacting said DNA and said plurality of nucleic acid primer sets in a single reaction vessel, generating, in said single reaction vessel, a plurality of extension products that comprise regions of DNA that include the location of said plurality of genetic markers, separating said plurality of extension products on the basis of melting behavior, and identifying the presence or absence of said plurality of genetic markers in said subject by analyzing the melting behavior of said plurality of extension products In some aspects of this method, the subject is selected from the group consisting of a plant, virus, bacteria, mold, yeast, animal, and human and either the first or the second primer comprise a GC clamp. In other aspects of this embodiment, either the first or the second primer hybridize to a sequence within an intron. Preferably, at least one of the plurality of genetic markers is indicative of a disease selected from the group consisting of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), cystic fibrosis, Tay sachs, thalassemia, sickle cell disease, phenylketonuna, galactosemia, fragile X syndrome, hemophilia A, myotonic dystrophy, medium chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase, maturity onset diabetes, cystinuπa, methylmolonic acidemia, urea cycle disorders, hereditary fructose intolerance, hereditary hemachromatosis, neonatal thrombocytopenia, Gaucher's disease, tyrosinemia, Wilson's disease, alcaptonuπa, hypolactasia, Baker's disease, argininemiaAdenomatous polyposis coll (APC), Adult Polγcystic Kidney disease, a-1 antitrypsin deficiency, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, Hemophilia A, Hereditary Nonpolyposis coleceral cancer, Huntingtons disease, Marfans syndrome, Myotonic dystrophy, Neurofibromatosis, Osteogenesis imperfecta, Retmoblastoma, Sickle cell disease, Freidnchs ataxia, Hemoglobinopathies, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, MCAD, Canavan's disease, Retintitus Pigmentosa, Bloom Syndrome, Fancom anemia, and Neimann Pick disease. In other aspects of this embodiment, the plurality of primer sets consist of at least 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 primer sets Additionally, in some embodiments, the plurality of genes consist of at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 genes The method above preferably generates the extension products using the Polymerase Chain Reaction and the method can be supplemented by a step in which a control DNA is added. Another embodiment concerns a method of identifying the presence or absence of a plurality of genetic markers in a plurality of subjects. This method is practiced by: providing a DNA sample from said plurality of subjects, providing a plurality of nucleic acid primer sets that hybridize to said DNA at regions that flank said plurality of genetic markers, wherein each primer set has a first and a second primer and, wherein said plurality of genetic markers exist on a plurality of genes, contacting said DNA and said plurality of nucleic acid primer sets in a single reaction vessel, generating, in said single reaction vessel, a plurality of extension products that comprise regions of DNA that include the location of said plurality of genetic markers, separating said plurality of extension products on the basis of melting behavior, and identifying the presence or absence of said plurality of genetic markers in said plurality of subjects by analyzing the melting behavior of said plurality of extension products In some aspects of this next method, the subject is selected from the group consisting of a plant, virus, bacteria, mold, yeast, animal, and human and either the first or the second primer comprise a GC clamp. In other aspects of this embodiment, either the first or the second primer hybridize to a sequence within an intron Preferably, at least one of the plurality of genetic markers is indicative of a disease selected from the group consisting of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), cystic fibrosis, Tay-sachs, thalassemia, sickle cell disease, phenylketonuna, galactosemia, fragile X syndrome, hemophilia A, myotonic dystrophy, medium chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase, maturity onset diabetes, cystinuna, methylmolonic acidemia, urea cycle disorders, hereditary fructose intolerance, hereditary hemachromatosis, neonatal thrombocytopenia, Gaucher's disease, tyrosinemia, Wilson's disease, alcaptoπuπa, hypolactasia, Baker's disease, argininemiaAdenomatous polyposis coh (APC), Adult Polycystic Kidney disease, a-1 - antitrypsm deficiency, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, Hemophilia A, Hereditary Nonpolyposis coleceral cancer, Huntingtons disease, Marfans syndrome, Myotonic dystrophy, Neurofibromatosis, Osteogenesis imperfecta, Retmoblastoma, Sickle cell disease, Freidnchs ataxia, Hemoglobinopathies, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, MCAD, Canavan's disease, Retintitus Pigmentosa, Bloom Syndrome, Fancom anemia, and Neimann Pick disease. In other aspects of this embodiment, the plurality of subjects consist of at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 subjects. In more aspects of this embodiment, the plurality of primer sets consist of at least 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 primer sets. Additionally, in some embodiments, the plurality of genes consist of at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 genes. The method above preferably generates the extension products using the Polymerase Chain Reaction and the method can be supplemented by a step in which a control DNA is added Another embodiment involves a method of identifying the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism in a subject. This method is practiced by providing a DNA sample from said subject, generating a population of extension products from said sample, wherein said extension products comprise a region of said DNA that corresponds to the location of said mutation or polymorphism, providing at least one control DNA, wherein said control DNA lacks said mutation or polymorphism, contacting said control DNA and said population of extension products in a single reaction vessel thereby forming a mixed DNA sample, heating said mixed DNA sample to a temperature sufficient to denature said control DNA and said DNA sample, cooling said mixed DNA sample to a temperature sufficient to anneal said control DNA and said DNA sample, separating said mixed DNA sample on the basis of melting behavior, and identifying the presence or absence of said mutation or polymorphism by analyzing the melting behavior of said mixed DNA sample. In some aspects of this embodiment, the control DNA is DNA obtained from a second subject and the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism is not known. Still more embodiments concern isolated or purified nucleic acids consisting of a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ. ID. Nos. 1-44. These nucleic acid primers can be used to efficiently determine the presence or absence of a polymorphism or mutation in a multiplex PCR reaction that screens a plurality of genes and a plurality of subjects in a single reaction vessel DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The invention described herein concerns approaches to analyze DNA samples for the presence or absence of a plurality of genetic markers that reside on a plurality of genes in a single assay. Some embodiments allow one to rapidly distinguish a plurality of DNA fragments in a single sample that differ only slightly in size and/or composition (e.g., a single base change, mutation, or polymorphism) Other embodiments concern methods to screen multiple genes from a subject, in a single assay, for the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism. An approach to achieve greater sensitivity of detection of mutations or polymorphisms present in a DNA sample is also provided. Preferred embodiments, however, include methods to screen multiple genes, in a plurality of DNA samples, in a single assay, for the presence or absence of mutations or polymorphisms. It was discovered that multiple extension products that have slight differences in length and/or composition can be resolved by separating the DNA on the basis of melting temperature. By one approach, a plurality of varying lengths of double-stranded DNA are applied to a denaturing gel and the double stranded DNAs are separated by applying an electrical current while the temperature of the gel is raised gradually. By slowly increasing the temperature while the DNA is electrically separated on a polyacrylamide gel containing a denaturant (e g , urea), the dsDNA eventually denatures to partially single stranded (branched molecules) DNA. Because branched DNA migrates more slowly than dsDNA, one can rapidly determine the differences in melting behavior between DNA fragments, compare this melting temperature to a standard DNA (e.g., a wild type DNA or non-polymorphic DNA), and identify the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism in the screened DNA. This technique efficiently separates multiple DNA fragments, generated by a single multiplex PCR reaction on a plurality of loci from different genes (e.g., in one experiment, 10 different loci were analyzed in the same reaction and each of the extension products, some that differed by only a single mutation, were efficiently resolved). Some of the embodiments described herein have adapted the DNA separation technique described above to allow for high-throughput genetic screening of organisms (e g., plant, virus, bacteria, mold, yeast, and animals including humans). Typically, multiple primers that flank genetic markers (e.g., mutations or polymorphisms that indicate a congenital disease or a trait) on different genes are employed in a single amplification reaction and the multiple extension products are separated on a denaturing gel according to their melting behavior. The presence or absence of mutations or polymorphisms, also referred to as "genetic markers", in the subject's DNA are then detected by identifying an aberrant melting behavior in the extension products (e.g., too fast or too slow). Advantageously, some embodiments provide a greater understanding of a subject's health because more loci that are indicative of disease, for example, are analyzed in a single assay. Further, some embodiments drastically reduce the cost of performing such diagnostic assays because many different genes and markers for disease can be screened simultaneously in a single assay. By one approach, for example, a biological sample from the subject (e.g., blood) is obtained by conventional means and the DNA is isolated. Next, the DNA is hybridized with a plurality of nucleic acid primers that flank regions of a plurality of genetic loci or markers that are associated with or linked to the plurality of traits to be analyzed Although 10 different loci have been detected in a single assay (requiring 20 primers), more or less loci can be screened in a single assay depending on the needs of the user. Preferably, each assay has sufficient primers to screen at least three different loci, which may be located on three different genes That is, the embodied assays can have sufficient primers to screen at least 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, or more, independent loci or markers that are indicative of a disease in a single assay and these loci can be on different genes. Because more than one loci or marker can be detected by a single set of primers, the detection of 20 different markers, for example, can be accomplished with less than 40 primers. However, in many assays, a different set of primers is needed to detect each different loci. Thus, in several embodiments, at least 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, or more primers are used. Desirably, the primers hybridize to regions of human DNA that flank markers or loci associated with or linked to human diseases such as: familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), cystic fibrosis, Tay sachs, thalassemia, sickle cell disease, phenylketonuna, galactosemia, fragile X syndrome, hemophilia A, myotonic dystrophy, medium chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase, maturity onset diabetes, cystiπuna, methylmolonic acidemia, urea cycle disorders, hereditary fructose intolerance, hereditary hemachromatosis, neonatal thrombocytopenia, Gaucher's disease, tyrosinemia, Wilson's disease, alcaptonuna, hypolactasia. Baker's disease, argininemiaAdenomatous polyposis coll (APC), Adult Polycystic Kidney disease, a 1 antitrypsm deficiency, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, Hemophilia A, Hereditary Nonpolyposis coleceral cancer, Huntingtons disease, Marfans syndrome, Myotonic dystrophy, Neurofibromatosis, Osteogenesis imperfecta, Retmoblastoma, Sickle cell disease, Freidnchs ataxia, Hemoglobinopathies, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, MCAD, Canavan's disease, Retintitus Pigmentosa, Bloom Syndrome, Fancom anemia, and Neimann Pick disease. It should be understood, however, that the list above is not intended to limit the invention in any way and the techniques described herein can be used to detect and identify any gene or mutation or polymorphism desired (e.g., polymorphisms or mutations associated with alcohol dependence, obesity, and cancer). Once the primers are hybridized to the subject's DNA, a plurality of extension products having the marker or loci indicative of the trait are generated. Preferably, the extension products are generated through a polymerase-dnven amplification reaction, such as multiplex PCR or multiplex Ligase Chain Reaction (LCR) The extension products are preferably isolated from the reactants in the amplification reaction, suspended in a non-denaturing loading buffer, and are loaded on a denaturing gel (e.g., an 8%, 7M urea polyacrylamide gel) In some embodiments, the sample is heated to a temperature sufficient to denature a DNA duplex then is cooled to a temperature that allows reannealiπg, prior to suspending the DNA in the non denaturing loading buffer. The extension products can be loaded into a single lane or multiple lanes, as desired. Next, an electrical current is applied to the gel and extension products. Subsequently, the temperature of the denaturing gel is gradually raised, while maintaining the electrical current, so as to separate the extension products on the basis of their melting behaviors. Once the fragments have been separated by size and melting behavior, one can identify the presence or absence of mutations or polymorphisms at the screened loci by analyzing the migration behavior of the extension products. The appearance of a slower or faster migrating band at a temperature below or above the predicted melting point for the particular extension product, for example, indicates the presence of a homozygous mutation or polymorphism in the subject's DNA. A heterozygous sample will display both homoduplex bands (wild type homoduplexes and mutant homoduplexes), as well as, two heteroduplex bands that are the product of mutant/wild-type annealing. Because of a base pair mismatch in these fragments, they melt significantly sooner than the two homoduplex bands. Accordingly, a user can rapidly identify the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism at the screened loci and determine whether the tested subject has a predilection for a disease. In a related embodiment, greater sensitivity is obtained by adding a "standard" DNA or "control" DNA to the DNA to be screened prior to amplification or after amplification, prior to separation of the DNA on the gel. This insures the presence of heteroduplex bands in the case of either a homozygous mutant, which normally would not display heteroduplex bands, or a heterozygous mutant. Desired DNA standards include, but are not limited to, DNA that is wild-type for at least one of the traits that are being screened. Preferred standards include, but are not limited to, DNA that is wild type for all of the traits that are being screened. A DNA standard can also be a mutant or polymorphic DNA In some embodiments, particularly when the control DNA is added after amplification, the DNA standard is an extension product generated from a wild type genomic DNA or a mutant genomic DNA By this approach, the amplification phase of the method is performed as described above. That is, DNA from the subject to be screened and the DNA standard are hybridized with nucleic acid primers that flank regions of the genetic loci or markers that are associated with or linked to the traits being tested. Extension products are then generated. If the subject being tested has at least one trait that is detected by the assay (e.g , a congenital disorder), then two populations of extension products are generated, a first population that corresponds to the standard DNA and a second population that corresponds to the subject's DNA having at least one mutation or polymorphism. Next, preferably, the two populations of extension products are isolated from the amplification reactants and are denatured by heat (e.g., 95°C for 5 minutes), then are allowed to anneal by cooling (e.g., ice for 5 minutes). This ensures the formation of the heteroduplex bands in the presence of any relatively small mutation (e.g., point mutation, small insertion, or small deletion). The isolation and denaturing/annealing steps are not practiced with some embodiments, however. Subsequently, the two populations of extension products are suspended in a non-denaturing loading buffer and loaded on a denaturing polyacrylamide gel and separated on the basis of melting behavior, as described above. Because the two populations of extension products are not perfectly complementary, they form heteroduplexes. Heteroduplexes are less stable than homoduplexes, have a lower melting temperature, and are easily differentiated from homoduplexes using the DNA separation technique described above One can identify the presence or absence of mutations or polymorphisms at the screened loci, for example, by comparing the migration behavior of the extension products generated from the screened DNA with the migration behavior of the DNA standard. If heteroduplexes are present, two additional bands that correspond to the single extension product will appear on the gel, alerting the user to the presence of a mutation or polymorphism. Accordingly, a significant increase in sensitivity is obtained and a user can rapidly identify the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism in the tested DNA sample and, thereby, determine whether the screened subject has a predilection for a particular trait (e.g , a congenital disease). Similarly, an increase in sensitivity can be obtained by mixing DNA from a plurality of subjects prior to amplification. Because the frequency of mutations or polymorphisms for most disorders are very low in the population, most of the extension products generated are wild type DNA. Thus, most of the pool of DNA behaves as a DNA standard. That is, the predominant structure formed upon annealing after denaturation is a homoduplex, which can be rapidly distinguished from any heteroduplex that would appear if a subject were to have a polymorphism or mutation Of course, extension products previously generated from multiple subjects can be used as control DNA by mixing the previously generated extension products with the extension products generated from the DNA that is being screened prior to electrophoresis. In several embodiments, the DNA from at least 2 subjects is mixed. Desirably, the DNA from at least 3 subjects is mixed. Preferably, the DNA from at least 4 subjects is mixed It should be understood, however, that the DNA from at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, or more subjects can be mixed prior to amplification or prior to separation on the basis of melting behavior, in accordance with some of the described embodiments. In one embodiment, for example, DNA from a plurality of subjects to be tested is obtained by conventional methods, pooled, and hybridized with the desired nucleic acid primers. Extension products are then generated, as before If at least one of the subjects being tested has at least one congenital disorder that is detected by the screen then two populations of extension products will be generated, a first population that corresponds to DNA from subjects that have the wild-type gene and a second population that corresponds to DNA from subjects having at least one mutant or polymorphic gene. Preferably, the two populations of extension products are then isolated from the amplification reactants, suspended in a non-denaturing loading buffer, denatured by heat, annealed by cooling, and are separated by melting behavior, as described above The presence of a subject in the DNA pool having at least one mutation or polymorphism is identified by analyzing the migration behavior of the DNA on the gel The appearance of a slower or faster migrating band at a temperature below or above the predicted melting point for a particular extension product indicates the presence of a mutation or polymorphism in the DNA from one of the subjects. By repeating the analysis with smaller and smaller pools of samples, one can identify the ιndιvιdual(s) in the pool that has the mutation or polymorphism. Additionally, DNA standards can be used, as described above, to facilitate identification of the ιndιvιdual(s) having the mutation or polymorphism. Advantageously, some embodiments can be used to screen multiple samples at multiple loci that are on found on a plurality of genes in a single assay, thus, increasing sample throughput. The analysis of a plurality of DNA samples in the same assay also unexpectedly provides greater sensitivity. The section below describes a DNA separation technique that can be used with the embodiments described herein Multiple extension products of similar composition can be separated on the same lane of a denaturing gel It was discovered that multiple fragments of DNA, which vary slightly in length and/or composition, can be rapidly and efficiently resolved on the basis of melting behavior. Although the preferred method for differentiating multiple fragments of DNA on the basis of melting behavior involves gel electrophoresis, it is contemplated that other conventional techniques that are amenable to DNA separation on the basis of melting behavior can be equivalentlγ employed (e g., size exclusion chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, and thin layer chromatography). In the preferred approach, a polyacrylamide gel having a porosity sufficient to resolve the DNA fragments on the basis of size (e.g., 4 20% acrylamide/bis acrylamide gel having a set concentration of denaturant) is used. The amount of denaturant in the gel (e.g., urea or formamide) can vary according to the length and composition of the DNA to be resolved. The concentration of urea in a polyacrylamide gel, for example, can be 3M, 3.5M, 4M, 4.5M, 5M, 5.5M, 6M, 6.5M, 7M, 7.5M, or 8M. In preferred embodiments, an 8% polyacrylamide gel with 7M urea is used. It should be emphasized, however, that other types of polyacrylamide gels, equivalents thereof, and agarose gels can be used. The DNA samples to be resolved are placed in a non-denaturing buffer and can be loaded directly to the gel. In some embodiments, for example, when heteroduplex formation is desired to increase the sensitivity of the assay, it is desirable to heat the double stranded DNA to a temperature that permits denaturation (e.g., 95°C for 5 10 minutes) and then slowly cool the DNA to a temperature that allows annealing (e.g., ice for 5 10 minutes) prior to mixing with the loading buffer. Preferably, the DNA is loaded onto the gel in a total volume of 10-20μl. Preferably, a Temporal Temperature Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (TTGE) apparatus is used. A commercially available system that is suitable for this technique can be obtained from BioRad. The gel can be run at 120, 130, 140, 150, 175, 200, 220, 250, 275, or 300 V for 1.5 10 hours, for example. Once the DNA has been loaded, an electrical current is applied to begin separating the fragments on the bass of size and the temperature of the gel is raised gradually. In one embodiment, for example, the melting behavior separation is performed by raising the temperature beyond 60°C, 61 °C, 62°C, 63°C, 64°C, 65°C, 66°C, 67°C, 68°C, 69°C, 70°C, 71 °C, 72°C, 73°C, 74°C, or 75°C at approximately 5.0 C°/hour 0.5°C/hour in 0.1 °C increments. Once the extension products have been separated by melting behavior, the gel can be stained to reveal the separated DNA. Many conventional stains are suitable for this purpose including, but not limited to, ethidium bromide stain (e.g., 1 % ethidium bromide in a 1.25X Tns Acetate EDTA pH 8.0 (TAE) solution), fluorescent stains, silver stains, and colloidal gold stains. In some embodiments, it is desirable to destain the gel (e.g., 20 minutes in a 1.25X TAE solution). After staining, the gel can be analyzed visually (e.g., under a U V. lamp) and/or with a digital camera and computer software such as, the Eagle Eye System by Stratagene or the Gel Documentation System (BioRad). Mutations or polymorphisms are easily identified by comparing the migration behavior of the DNA to be screened with the migration behavior of a control DNA and/or by monitoring the melting temperature of the extension products generated from the screened DNA. Desirable "control" DNA or "standard" DNA includes a DNA that is wild type or non-polymorphic for at least one loci that is screened and preferred standard DNA is wild-type or non polymorphic for all of the loci that are being screened. Because this DNA separation technique is sufficiently sensitive to identify a single base pair substitution in a DNA fragment up to 600 base pairs in length, small changes in the melting behaviors and migration of the extension products can be rapidly identified Mutation analysis hardware and software can also be employed to aid in the identification of mutations or polymorphisms. For example, the "ALFexpress II DNA Analysis System", available from Amersham Pharmacia Biotech and the "Mutation Analyser 1.01 ", also available from Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, can be used. Mutation Analyser automatically detects mutations in sample sequence data, generated by the ALFexpress II DNA analysis instrument. All mutations or polymorphisms identified by sequencing can be compiled along with the respective melting behaviors and the sizes of extension products This data can be recorded in a database so as to generate a profile for each loci Additionally, this profile information can be recorded with other subject specific information, for example family or medical history, so as to generate a subject profile By creating such databases, individual mutations can be better characterized Further, the identified products can be isolated from the gel and sequenced Sequencing can be performed using the conventional dideoxy approach (e.g., Sequenase kit) or an automated sequencer. Preferably, all possible mutant fragments are sequenced using the CEQ 2000 automated sequencer from BeckmanfCoulter and the accompanying analysis software. The section below describes embodiments that allow for the identification of a mutation or polymorphism at multiple loci in a plurality of genes in a single assay. Identification of the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism at multiple loci in a plurality of genes in a single assay The DNA separation technique described herein can be used to rapidly identify the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism at multiple loci in a plurality of genes in a single assay. Accordingly, a biological sample containing DNA is obtained from a subject and the DNA is isolated by conventional means. For some applications, it may be desired to screen the RNA of a subject for the presence of a genetic disorder (e.g., a congenital disease that arises through a splicing defect). In this case, a biological sample containing RNA is obtained, the RNA is isolated, and then is converted to cDNA by methods well known to those of skill in the art DNA from a subject or cDNA synthesized from the mRNA obtained from a subject can be easily and efficiently isolated by various techniques known in the art Also known in the art is the ability to amplify DNA fragments from whole cells, which can also be used with the embodiments described herein. Thus, the DNA sample for use with the embodiments described herein need only be isolated in the sense that the DNA is in a form that allows for PCR amplification. In some embodiments, genomic DNA is isolated from a biological sample by using the Amersham Pharmacia Biotech "GenomicPrep Blood DNA Isolation Kit". The isolation procedure involves four steps: (1) cell lysis (cells are lysed using an anionic detergent in the presence of a DNA preservative, which limits the activity of endogenous and exogenous Dnases); (2) RNAse treatment (contaminating RNA is removed by treatment with RNase A); (3) protein removal (cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins are removed by salt precipitation); and (4) DNA precipitation (genomic DNA is isolated by alcohol precipitation) EXAMPLE 1 also describes an approach that was used to isolate DNA from human blood. Once the sample DNA has been obtained, primers that flank the desired loci to be screened are designed and manufactured. Preferably, optimal primers and optimal primer concentrations are used. Desirably, the concentrations of reagents, as well as, the parameters of the thermal cycling are optimized by performing routine amplifications using control templates. Primers can be made by any conventional DNA synthesizer or are commercially available. Optimal primers desirably reduce non specific annealing during amplification and also generate extension products that resolve reproduciblγ on the basis of size or melting behavior and, preferably, both Preferably, the primers are designed to hybridize to sample DNA at regions that flank loci that can be used to diagnose a trait, such as a congenital disease (e.g., loci that have mutations or polymorphisms that indicate a human disease). Desirably, the primers are designed to detect loci that diagnose conditions selected from the group consisting of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), cystic fibrosis, Tay sachs, thalassemia, sickle cell disease, phenylketonuna, galactosemia, fragile X syndrome, hemophilia A, myotonic dystrophy, medium chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase, maturity onset diabetes, cystinuna, methylmolonic acidemia, urea cycle disorders, hereditary fructose intolerance, hereditary hemachromatosis, neonatal thrombocytopenia, Gaucher's disease, tyrosinemia, Wilson's disease, alcaptonuna, hypolactasia, Baker's disease, argininemiaAdenomatous polyposis coll (APC), Adult Polycystic Kidney disease, a-1 - antitrypsm deficiency, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, Hemophilia A, Hereditary Nonpolyposis coleceral cancer, Huntingtons disease, Marfans syndrome, Myotonic dystrophy, Neurofibromatosis, Osteogenesis imperfecta, Retmoblastoma, Sickle cell disease, Freidnchs ataxia, Hemoglobinopathies, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, MCAD, Canavan's disease, Retintitus Pigmentosa, Bloom Syndrome, Fancom anemia, and Neimann Pick disease Primers can be designed to amplify any region of DNA, however, including those regions known to be associated with diseases such as alcohol dependence, obesity, and cancer. It should be understood that the embodiments described herein can be used to detect any gene, mutation, or polymorphism found in plants, virus, molds, yeast, bacteria, and animals. Preferred primers are designed and manufactured to have a GC rich "clamp" at one end of a primer, which allows the dsDNA to denature in a "zipper-like" fashion. As one of skill will appreciate, PCR requires a "primer set", which includes a first and a second primer, only one of which has the GC clamp so as to allow for separation of the double stranded molecule from one end only. Since the GC clamp is significantly stable, the rest of the fragment melts but does not completely separate until a point after the inflection point of the DNA, which contains the mutation or polymorphism of interest. The denaturant in the gel allows the temperature of melting to be lower and allows the inflection point of the melt to be longer in terms of temperature and, thus, the sensitivity to temperature at the inflection point is less (i.e., increment temperature = less increment melting), which increases the resolution on the gel. Additionally, desirable primers are designed with a properly placed GC-clamp so that extension products that contain a single melting domain are produced. Preferably, the primers are selected to complement regions of introns that flank exons containing the genetic markers of interest so that polymorphisms or mutations that reside within the early portions of exons are not masked by the GC clamp. For example, it was discovered that GC clamps significantly perturb melting behavior and can prevent the detection of a polymorphism or mutation by melting behavior if the mutation or polymorphism resides too close to the GC clamp (e.g., within 40 nucleotides). By performing amplification reactions with control templates, optimal primer design and optimal concentration can be determined. The use of computer software, including, but not limited to, WinMelt or MacMelt (Bio Rad] and Primer Premire 5.0 can aid in the creation and optimization of primers and proper positioning of the GC clamp. Accordingly, many of the primers described herein (SEQ. ID. Nos. 1-44) are embodiments of the invention. EXAMPLE 2 further describes the design and optimization of primers that allowed for the high throughput multiplex PCR technique described herein. Once optimal primers are designed and selected, the DNA sample is screened using the inventive multiplex PCR technique. In some embodiments, for example, approximately 25ng - 500ng of template DNA (preferably, 200ng for human genomic DNA) is suspended in a buffer comprising: 10mM Tris (pH 8.4), 50mM KCI, 1.5mM MgCI 2 , 200μM dNTPs, 50pmol of each primer, and 1 unit Taq polymerase per primer set in a total volume of 50μl. Preferably, amplification is performed under the same conditions that were used to design the primers. In some embodiments, for example, amplification is performed on a conventional thermal cycler for 30 cycles, wherein each cycle is: 1 minute @ 95°C, 58°C for 1 minute, 72°C for 1 minute. Final extension is performed at 72°C for 5 minutes. When the primers have a GC clamp, it was found that conditions often favor an amplification reaction having over 40 cycles, wherein each cycle is: 35 seconds (g ) 95°C, 120 seconds (3 ) 50-57°C, and 60 seconds + 3 seconds/cycle @ 72°C. Thermal cyclers are available from a number of scientific suppliers and most are suitable for the embodiments described herein. Once the PCR reaction is complete, the extension products are desirably isolated by centrifugal microfiltration using a standard PCR cleanup cartridge, for example, Qiagen's QIAquick 96 PCR Purification Kit, according to manufacture's instructions. Isolation or purification of the extension products is not necessary to practice the invention, however. The isolated extension products can then be suspended in a non-denaturing loading buffer and either loaded directly on a denaturing gel or the sample can be denatured by heating (e.g., 95°C for 5 10 minutes) and annealed by cooling (e.g., ice for 5 10 minutes) prior to loading onto the gel. The various extension products are then separated on a denaturing gel on the basis of melting behavior and, after separation, the gel can be stained and analyzed for the presence or absence of polymorphisms or mutations EXAMPLES 3 and 4 describe experiments that verified that multiple loci on a plurality of genes can be screened in a single assay. The section below describes a method of genetic analysis, wherein improved sensitivity of detection was obtained by adding a DNA standard to the screened DNA. Improved sensitivity was obtained when a DNA standard was mixed with the screened DNA It was also discovered that greater sensitivity in the inventive multiplex PCR reactions described herein can be obtained by mixing a DNA standard with the DNA to be tested prior to conducting amplification or after amplification but prior to separation on the gel. Desired DNA standards include, but are not limited to, DNA that is wild-type for at least one of the traits that are being screened and preferred DNA standards include, but are not limited to, DNA that is wild-type for all of the traits that are being screened. DNA standards can also be mutant or polymorphic DNA. In some embodiments, particularly when the control DNA is added after amplification, the DNA standard is an extension product generated from a wild-type genomic DNA or a mutant genomic DNA. By one approach, the DNA from the subject to be screened and the DNA standard are pooled and then the amplification reaction, as described above, is performed. Accordingly, optimal primers are designed and selected and approximately 25ng - 500ng of template DNA (preferably, 200ng for human genomic DNA) is suspended in a buffer comprising: 10mM Trts (pH 8.4), 50mM KCI, 1.5mM MgCI 2 , 200μM dNTPs, 50pmol of each primer, and 1 unit Taq polymerase per primer set in a total volume of 50μl. Preferably, amplification is performed under the same conditions that were used to design the primers In some embodiments, amplification is performed on a conventional thermal cycler for 30 cycles, wherein each cycle is: 1 minute @ 95°C, 58°C for 1 minute, 72°C for 1 minute. Final extension is performed at 72°C for 5 minutes. When the primers have a GC clamp, however, conditions often favor an amplification reaction having over 40 cycles, wherein each cycle is: 35 seconds (51 95°C, 120 seconds @ 50-57°C, and 60 seconds + 3 seconds/cycle (5 ) 72°C. If the subject being tested has at least one congenital disorder that is detected by the assay then two populations of extension products are generated, a first population that corresponds to the standard DNA and a second population that corresponds to the subject's DNA having at least one mutation or polymorphism. The pool of extension products are desirably isolated from the amplification reactants, as above, and are suspended in a non-denaturing loading buffer. Preferably, the extension products are then denatured by heat (e.g., 95°C for 5 minutes), and are allowed to anneal by cooling (e.g., ice for 5 minutes) prior to suspension in the loading buffer. In this manner, the formation of heteroduplexes will be favored if the subject has a mutation or polymorphism because the two populations of extension products are not perfectly complementary However, the isolation and denaturing/annealing steps are not necessary for some embodiments. By another approach, the DNA standard is added to the extension products generated from the tested subject's DNA after the amplification reaction. As above, the pooled DNA sample is preferably denatured by heat (e.g., 95°C for 5 minutes), and allowed to anneal by cooling (e.g., ice for 5 minutes). This second approach also produces heteroduplexes if the extension product and the DNA standard are not perfectly complementary. Next, the denaturing gel is loaded and the extension products are separated on the basis of melting behavior, as described above. Since heteroduplexes are less stable than homoduplexes and have a lower melting temperature, the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism in the tested DNA sample is easily determined. By comparing the migration behavior of the extension products generated from the screened DNA with the migration behavior of the DNA standard, a user can rapidly determine the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism (e.g., two additional bands that correspond to the single extension product will appear on the gel when a mutation or polymorphism is present in the tested DNA). The section below describes a method of genetic analysis, wherein improved efficiency and sensitivity of detection was obtained by screening multiple DNA samples in the same assay. Improved sensitivity was obtained when multiple DNA samples were screened in the same assay It was also discovered that an improved sensitivity of detection and increased throughput could be obtained by mixing DNA from a plurality of subjects prior to amplification. Because the frequency of mutations or polymorphisms for most disorders are very low in the population, most of the extension products generated correspond to wild type DNA. Accordingly, most of the DNA in a reaction comprising DNA from a plurality of subjects behave similar to a DNA standard. That is, the predominant structure formed upon annealing after denaturation is a homoduplex, which can be rapidly distinguished from any heteroduplex that would appear if a subject were to have a mutation or polymorphism. Although the reaction is "dirty" from the perspective that the identity of each subject's DNA is not known initially, the identity of any polymorphic or mutant DNA can be determined through a process of elimination. For example, by repeating the analysis with smaller and smaller pools of samples, one can identify the ιndιvιdual(s) in the pool that have the mutation or polymorphism. Additionally, DNA standards can be used, as described above, to facilitate identification of the ιndιvιdual(s) having the mutation or polymorphism. By one approach, DNA from a plurality of subjects to be tested is obtained by conventional methods, pooled, and hybridized with the desired nucleic acid primers. Accordingly, optimal primers are designed and selected and approximately 25ng 500ng of template DNA (preferably, 200ng for human genomic DNA) is suspended in a buffer comprising: 10mM Tns (pH 8.4), 50mM KCI, 1.5mM MgCI 2 , 200μM dNTPs, 50pmol of each primer, and 1 unit Taq polymerase per primer set in a total volume of 50μl. Preferably, amplification is performed under the same conditions that were used to design the primers. In some embodiments, amplification is performed on a conventional thermal cycler for 30 cycles, wherein each cycle is: 1 minute (3 ) 95°C, 58°C for 1 minute, 72°C for 1 minute. Final extension is performed at 72°C for 5 minutes When the primers have a GC clamp, however, conditions often favor an amplification reaction having over 40 cycles, wherein each cycle is 35 seconds @ 95°C, 120 seconds (3 50 57°C, and 60 seconds + 3 seconds/cycle @ 72°C. The pool of extension products are preferably isolated from the amplification reactants, as above, and are suspended in a non-denaturing loading buffer. Preferably, the extension products are then denatured by heat (e.g., 95°C for 5 minutes), and are allowed to anneal by cooling (e.g., ice for 5 minutes). In this manner, the formation of heteroduplexes will be favored if the subject has a mutation or polymorphism because the two populations of extension products are not perfectly complementary. Again, the isolation and denaturing/annealing steps are not performed in some embodiments. Next, the denaturing gel is loaded and the extension products are separated on the basis of melting behavior. When one of the subjects being tested has at least one trait that is detected by the screen, two populations of extension products are generated and the presence of heteroduplexes are detected on the gel. The assay can be then repeated with smaller pools of samples and assays with a DNA standard can be conducted with individual samples to confirm the identity of the subject having the mutation or polymorphism. EXAMPLE 5 describes an experiment that verified that an improved sensitivity can be obtained by mixing a plurality of DNA samples. EXAMPLE 6 describes an experiment that verified that multiple genes and multiple loci therein can be screened in a plurality of subjects, in a single assay. The example below describes an approach that was used to isolate DNA from human blood. EXAMPLE 1 A sample of blood was obtained from a subject to be tested by phlebotomy A portion of the sample (e g., approximately 1.0ml) was added to approximately three times the sample volume or 3.0ml of a lysis solution (10mM KHC0 3 , 155mM NH 4 CI, 0.1 mM EDTA) and was mixed gently. The lysis solution and blood were allowed to react for approximately five minutes. Next, the sample was centnfuged (x500g) for approximately 2 minutes and the supernatant was removed. Some of the supernatant was left (e.g., on the walls of the vessel) to facilitate suspension. The pellet was then vortexed for approximately 5 10 seconds An extraction solution, which contains chaotrope and detergent (Oiagen), was then added (e g , 500μl), the sample was vortexed again for approximately 5 10 seconds, and the solution was allowed to react for five minutes at room temperature Next, a GFX column, which are pre packed columns containing a glass fiber matrix, was placed under vacuum (e.g., a Microplex 24 vacuum system) and the extracted solution containing the DNA was transferred to the column (e.g., in 500μl aliquots). Once all of the sample has been passed through the column, the vacuum was allowed to continue for approximately 5 minutes. Subsequently, a wash solution (Tns-EDTA buffer in 80% ethanol) was added (e.g., approximately 500μl) under vacuum. Once the wash solution had been drained from the column, the vacuum was allowed to continue for approximately 15 minutes The GFX columns containing the DNA were then placed into sterile microfuge tubes but the lids were kept open. Elution buffer (10mM Tns HCI, 1mM EDTA, pH 8.0) was then added to the column (e g., approximately 100μl of buffer that was heated to approximately 70°C) and the buffer was allowed to react with the column for approximately 2 minutes. Then, the tubes containing the columns were centnfuged at x5000g for approximately 1.5 minutes. After centnfugation, the column was discarded and the microfuge tube containing the isolated DNA was stored at -20°C The example below describes the design and optimization of primers that allowed for the inventive high throughput multiplex PCR technique, described herein. EXAMPLE 2 Sets of primers for PCR amplification were designed for every exon of the following genes: Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Reductase (CFTR), Beta hexosammidase alpha chain (HEXA), PAH, Alpha globιn-2 (HBA2), Beta globin (HBB), Glucocerebrosidase (GBA), Galactose-1 -phosphae undyl transferase (GALT), Medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (MCAD), Protease inhibitor 1 (PI), Factor VIII, FMR1 , and Aspartoacylase (ASPA). The primers were designed from sequence information that was available from GenBank or from sequence information obtained from Ambry Genetics Corporation. Information regarding mutations or polymorphisms was obtained from The Human Gene Mutation Database. One of the primers in each primer set contained a GC-clamp. It was discovered that the addition of a GC clamp significantly altered the melting profile of the DNA extension product. Further, proper positioning of the GC clamp served to level the melting profile It was desired to position the GC clamp so that a single melting domain across the fragment was created. Proper positioning of the GC-clamp was oftentimes needed to prevent the GC-clamp from masking the presence of a mutation or polymorphism (e.g., if the mutation or polymorphism is too close to the GC-clamp). Software was also used to optimize primer design. For example, many primers were designed with the aid of Primer Premiere 4.0 and 5.0 and appropriate positioning of the GC clamps was determined using WinMelt software from BioRad. To maintain sensitivity of the test, the primers were designed to anneal at a minimum of 40 base pairs either upstream or downstream of the nearest known mutation in the intronic region of the genes. Although multiplex PCR can be technically difficult when using the quantity of primers described herein, it was discovered that almost all of the PCR artifacts disappeared when salt concentration, temperature, primer selection, and primer concentration were carefully optimized. Optimization was determined for each primer set alone and in combination with other primer sets Optimization experiments were conducted using Master Mix from Qiagen and a Thermocyler from MJ Research. The conditions for thermal cycling were 5 minutes (51 95°C for the initial denaturation, then 30 cycles of: 30 seconds (3 ) 94°C, 45 seconds 48 68°C, and 1 minute (3 ) 72°C. A final extension was performed at 72°C for 10 minutes. In addition to primer compatibility, primers were selected to facilitate identification of extension products by electrophoresis. To optimize primer design in this regard, separate PCR reactions were conducted for each individual set of primers and the extension products were separated by the inventive DNA separation technique, described above. Identical parameters were maintained for each assay and the migration behavior for each extension product was analyzed (e.g., compared to a standard to determine a R, value for each fragment). An R f value is a unit less value that characterizes a fragment's mobility relative to a standard under set conditions. In many primer optimization experiments, for example, the generated extension products were compared to a standard extension product obtained from amplification of the first exon of the PAH (phenylalamne hydroxylase) gene. A measurement of the distance of migration of each band in comparison to the distance of migration of the first exon of PAH was recorded and the R f value was calculated according to the following: R, = (migration distance of fragment) cm (migration distance of PAH exon 1) cm By conducting these experiments, it was verified that the selected primers (SEQ. ID. Nos.1-44) did not produce extension products that overlapped on the gel. Optimal primer selection was obtained when optimal PCR parameters were maintained and the extension products produced dissimilar R, values. Finally, the multiplex PCR was tested with all sets of primers and it was verified that few artifacts were created during amplification. Embodiments of the invention include the primers provided in the sequence listing. (SEQ. ID. Nos. 1-44). The example below describes an experiment that verified that the embodiments described herein effectively screen multiple loci present on a plurality of genes in a single assay. EXAMPLE 3 Two independent PCR reactions were conducted to demonstrate that multiple loci on a plurality of genes can be screened in a single assay using an embodiment of the invention. In a first reaction, seven different loci from four different genes were screened and, in the second reaction, eight different loci from four different genes were screened. The primers used in each multiplex reaction are provided in TABLE 1. TABLE T Multiplex #1 Multiplex #2 Factor VIII 4 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 7 and 25) CFTR 23 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 3 and 21) Factor VIII 1 1 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 9 and 27) CFTR 18 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 2 and 20) Factor VIII 24 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 10 and 28) Factor VII1 11 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 9 and 27) PAH 9 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 18 and 36) Factor VIII 3 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 6 and 24) GBA 6 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 15 and 33) CFTR 24 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 37 and 38) Factor VII1 1 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 4 and 22) GBA 4 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 14 and 32) GALT 9 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 17 and 35) GALT 9 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 17 and 35) GBA 3 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 13 and 31) * Prιmers are stored in a 50μM storage stock and a 12.5μM working stock. Abbreviations are: Phenyl alamne hydroxylase (PAH), Glucocerebrosidase (GBA), Galactose 1 -phosphate undyl transferase (GALT), and cystic fibrosis transmembrane reductase (CFTR). The numbers following the abbreviations represent the exons probed. The amplification was carried out in 25μl reactions using a 2X Hot Start Master Mix, which contains Hot Start Taq DNA Polymerase, and a final concentration of 1.5mM MgCI 2 and 200μM of each dNTP (commercially available from Qiagen) In each reaction, 12 5μl of Hot Start Master Mix was mixed with 1 μl of genomic DNA (approximately 200ng genomic DNA), which was purified from blood using a commercially available blood purification kit (Pharmacia or Amersham). Primers were then added to the mixture (0.5μM final concentration of each primer). Then, ddH 2 0 was added to bring the final volume to 25μl. Thermal cycling for the Multiplex #1 reaction was performed using the following parameters: 15 minutes @ 95°C for 1 cycle; 30 seconds @ 94°C, 1 minute @ 53°C, 1 minute and 30 seconds @ 72°C for 35 cycles; and 10 minutes (51 72°C for 1 cycle. Thermal cycling for the Multiplex #2 reaction was performed using the following parameters- 15 minutes (5 ) 95°C for 1 cycle; 30 seconds § 94°C, 1 minute @ 49°C, 1 minute and 30 seconds (5 ) 72°C for 35 cycles; and 10 minutes @ 72°C for 1 cycle. After the amplification was finished, approximately 5μl of each PCR product was mixed with 5μl of non- denaturing gel loading dye (70% glycerol, 0.05% bromophenol blue, 0.05% xylene cyanol, 2mM EDTA). The DNA in the two reactions was then separated on the basis of melting behavior on separate denaturing gels. Each gel was a 16 x 16cm, 1 mm thick, 7M urea, 8% acrylamide/bis (37.5:1) gel composed in 1.25 x TAE (50mM Tris, 25mM acetic acid, 1.25mM EDTA). Separation was conducted for 4 hours at 150 V on the Dcode system (BioRad) and the temperature ranged from 51 °C to 63°C with a temperature ramp rate of 3°C/hour. Subsequently, the gels were stained in 1 μg/ml ethidium bromide in 1.25 x TAE for 3 minutes and destained in 1.25 x TAE buffer for 20 minutes. The gels were then photographed using the Gel Doc 1000 system from BioRad. The primers in TABLE 1 were selected and manufactured because they produced extension products with very different R, values and the extension products were clearly resolved by separation on the basis of melting behavior. Although some bands were more visible than others on the gel, seven distinct bands were observed on the gel loaded with extension products generated from the Multiplex 1 reaction and eight distinct bands were observed on the gel loaded with extension products generated from the Multiplex 2 reaction. These results verified that the described method effectively screened multiple loci on a plurality of genes in a single assay. The example below describes another experiment that verified that the embodiments described herein can be used to effectively screen multiple loci present on a plurality of genes in a single assay. EXAMPLE 4 Experiments were conducted to differentiate extension products generated from wild-type DNA and extension products generated from mutant DNA. Samples of genomic DNA that had been previously identified to contain mutations or polymorphisms were purchased from Coriell Cell Repositories. The mutation or polymorphism that was analyzed in this experiment was the delta-F508 mutation of the CFTR gene. This mutation is a 4bp deletion in exon 10 of the CFTR gene. Other loci analyzed in these experiments included the Fragile X gene, exon 17; Fragile X gene, exon 3; Factor VIII gene exon 2; and the Factor VIII gene, exon 7. Both the known mutant and a control wild- type for CFTR exon 10 were amplified within a multiplex reaction and individually. PCR amplification was conducted as described in EXAMPLE 3; however, 0.25μM (final concentration) of each primer was used. The primers used in these experiments were CFTR 10 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 1 and 19), FragX 17 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 12 and 30), FragX 3 (SEQ. ID. Nos.1 1 and 29), Factor VIII 7 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 8 and 26) and Factor VIII 2 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 5 and 23). The numbers following the abbreviations represent the exons probed. The DNA templates that were analyzed included known wild-type genomic DNA, known mutant genomic DNA, mixed wild-type genomic DNA from various subjects, and mixed wild-type and mutant genomic DNA. Approximately 200ng of genomic DNA was added to each reaction. The mixed wild-type and mutant DNA sample had approximately 100ng of each DNA type. Thermal cycling was carried out with a 15-minute. step at 95°C to activate the Hot Start Polymerase, followed by 30 cycles of 30 seconds at (5 ) 94 C, 1 minute at (51 53°C, 1 minute and 30 seconds at @ 72°C; and 72°C for 10 minutes. After amplification, approximately 5μl of the PCR product was mixed with 5μl of non-denaturing gel loading dye (70% glycerol, 0.05% bromophenol blue, 0.05% xylene cyanol, 2mM EDTA). The samples were then separated on a 16 x 16cm, 1 mm thick, 6M urea, 6% acrylamide/bis (37.5:1 ) gel in 1.25 x TAE (50mM Tns, 25mM acetic acid, 1.25mM EDTA) for 5 hours at 130 V using the Dcode system (BioRad) The temperature ranged from 40°C to 50°C at a temperature ramp rate of 2°C/hour. The gels were then stained in 1 μg/ml ethidium bromide in 1.25 x TAE for 3 minutes and destained in 1.25 x TAE buffer for 20 minutes. The gels were then photographed using the Gel Doc 1000 system from BioRad. The resulting gel revealed that the lane containing the extension products generated from the wild-type DNA using the CFTR10 primers had a mobility commensurate to the wild-type DNA standard, as did the extension products generated from the other primers and the wild type DNA That is, a single band appeared on the gel in these lanes. The lane containing the extension products generated from the template having the F508 mutant, on the other hand, showed 2 bands. One of the bands had the same mobility as the extension products generated from the wild-type or DNA standard and the other band migrated slightly faster These two populations of bands represent the two populations of homoduplexes (i.e., wild-type/wild-type and mutant/mutant). The top band is the wild-type homoduplex and the lower band is the mutant F508 homoduplex. Similarly, the lane that contained the wild-type/mutant DNA mix exhibited two populations of extension products, one representing the wild-type homoduplex population and the other representing the mutant homoduplex. Since F508 is a 4 bp deletion it failed to form heteroduplex bands in sufficient quantity to be visible on the gel. Thus, this experiment demonstrated that the described method effectively screened multiple genes, in a single assay, and detected the presence of a polymorphism in one of the screened genes. The example below describes an experiment that demonstrated that an improved sensitivity can be obtained by mixing a plurality of DNA samples. EXAMPLE 5 This example describes two experiments that verified that an improved sensitivity of detection can be obtained by (1 ) mixing the DNA samples from a plurality of subjects prior to amplification or by (2) mixing amplification products before separation on the basis of melting behavior. In these experiments, PCR amplifications of exon 9 of the GBA gene (Glucocerebrosidase gene) were used. DNA samples known to contain a mutation in exon 9 of the GBA gene were purchased from Coriell Cell Repositories. These DNA samples contain a homozygous mutation in exon 9 of the GBA gene (the N370S mutation). In a first experiment, single amplification of exon 9 was performed in a 25μl reaction. A Taq PCR Master Mix (containing Taq DNA Polymerase and a final concentration of 1.5mM MgCI 2 and 200μM dNTPsKQiagen) was mixed with 0.5μM (final concentration) of primers (SEQ. ID. Nos. 16 and 34). The template genomic DNAs analyzed in this experiment included wild type DNA, mutant DNA, and various mixtures of wild type and mutant DNA. For the single non-mixed reactions, approximately 200ng of genomic DNA was used for amplification. In the mixed samples, approximately 200ng of DNA was again used, however, the percentage of wild-type to mutant genomic DNA varied. Thermal cycling was performed according to the following parameters: 10 minutes _ ) 94°C; 30 cycles of 30 seconds @ 94°C, 1 minute @ 44.5°C, and 1 minute and 30 seconds @ 72°C; and 10 minutes @ 72°C. In the second experiment, the amplification products were mixed prior to separation on the basis of melting behavior. Amplification of both wild-type and mutant (N370S) exon 9 of the GBA gene was performed using 25μl reactions, as before. The Taq Master Mix obtained from Qiagen was mixed with 200ng of genomic DNA and 0.5μM final concentration of both primers (SEQ. ID. Nos. 16-34). PCR was carried out for 30 cycles with an annealing temperature of 56°C for 1 minute. The denaturation and elongation steps were 94°C for 30 seconds and 72°C for 1 minute and 30 seconds. Final elongation was carried out at 72° C for 10 minutes. The extension products obtained from the single amplification of wild-type GBA exon 9 was then mixed with the extension products obtained from the single amplification of the mutant GBA exon 9. Next, the pooled DNA was subjected to denaturation at 95°C for 10 minutes and cooled on ice for 5 minutes, then heated to 65°C for 5 minutes and cooled to 4°C. This denaturation and annealing procedure was performed to facilitate the formation of heteroduplex DNA. Once the extension products from both experiments were in hand, approximately 5μl of both the prior to PCR mixture and post PCR mixture were loaded on 16 x 16cm, 1 mm thick gels (7M Urea/8% acrylamide (37.5:1) gel in 1.25 x TAE) using the gel loading dye and the Dcode system (BioRad), described above. The DNA on the gel was then separated at 150 V for 5 hours and the temperature was uniformly raised 2°C/hour throughout the run starting at 50°C and ending at 60°C. The gel was stained in 1μg/ml ethidium bromide in 1.25 x TAE buffer for 3 minutes and destained in buffer for 20 minutes. It should be noted that the GBA gene has a pseudo gene, which was co-amplified by the procedure above. An extension product generated from this psuedo gene migrated slightly faster than the extension product generated from the true expressed gene on the gel. In all lanes, the band representing the extension product generated from the psuedo gene was present. Then next fastest band on the gel was the extension product generated from the GBA exon 9 wild-type allele. The extension product generated from the mutant GBA exon 9 allele comigrated with the wild-type allele and was virtually indistinguishable on the basis of melting behavior due to the single base difference. The heteroduplexes formed in the mixed samples were easily differentiated from the homoduplexes. The samples mixed prior to PCR showed both homoduplexes (wild-type and mutant) along with heteroduplexes, which appeared higher on the gel. Thus, by mixing samples, either prior to amplification or prior to separation on the basis of melting behavior an improved sensitivity of detection was obtained. Since homoduplex bands no longer need to be resolved to identify a mutation or polymorphism, only the heteroduplex bands need to be resolved, the throughput of diagnostic analysis was greatly improved. The example below describes experiments that verified that the embodiments taught herein can be used to effectively screen multiple genes in a plurality of subjects, in a single assay, for the presence or absence of a polymorphism or mutation. EXAMPLE 6 Two experiments were conducted to verify that multiple genes from a plurality of subjects can be screened in a single assay for the presence or absence of a genetic marker (e.g. a polymorphism or mutation) that is indicative of disease. These experiments also demonstrated that an improved sensitivity of detection could be obtained by mixing DNA samples either prior to generation of extension products or prior to separation on the basis of melting behavior In both experiments, five different extension products were generated from three different genes in a single reaction vessel. The five different extension products were generated using the following primers: Factor VIII 1 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 4 and 22); GBA 9 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 16 and 34); GBA 1 1 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 39 and 40); GALT 5 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 41 and 42), and GALT 8 (SEQ. ID. Nos. 43 and 44). Abbreviations are: Glucocerebrosidase (GBA) and Galactose-1 - phosphate uπdyl transferase (GALT). The numbers following the abbreviations represent the exons probed. Extension products were generated for each experiment in 25μl amplification reactions using Qiagen's 2X Hot Start Master Mix (Contains Hot Start Taq DNA Polymerase, and a final concentration of 1 5 mM MgCI 2 and 200 μM of each dNTP) To each reaction, 12.5 μl of Hot Start Master Mix was added to 1 μl of genomic DNA (approximately 200ng genomic DNA for the mutant DNA sample and the wild type DNA sample), which was purified from human blood using Pharmacia Amersham Blood purification kits. For the experiment in which the DNA samples from a plurality of subjects were mixed prior to generation of the extension products, approximately 10Ong of wild- type genomic DNA was mixed with approximately 10Oπg of mutant N370S genomic DNA. In both experiments, primers were added to achieve a final concentration of 0.5 μM for each primer and a final volume of 25 μl was obtained by adjusting the volume with ddH 2 0. Thermal cycling for both experiments was performed using the following parameters. 15 minutes (5 ) 95°C for 1 cycle; 30 seconds (5 ) 94 °C, one minute (5 ) 57°C, and one minute 30 seconds (3 ) 72 °C for 35 cycles; and 10 minutes (5 ) 72 °C for 1 cycle. After amplification, the extension products generated from the wild-type and mutant templates (the un-mixed samples) were separated from the PCR reactants using a PCR Clean Up kit (Qaigen). Then, approximately 10 μL of the wild-type and mutant DNA were removed from each tube and gently mixed in a single reaction vessel This preparation was then denatured at 95°C for 1 minute and rapidly cooled to 4°C for 5 minutes. Finally, the preparation was brought to 65 °C for an additional 1 5 minutes The extension products generated from the mixed sample (wild type DNA and mutant DNA mixed prior to amplification) were stored until loaded onto a denaturing gel Next, approximately 10 μl of the unmixed sample was combined with 10 μl of loading dye and approximately 5μl of the mixed sample was combined with 5μl of loading dye. The loading dye was composed of 70 % glycerol, 0.05 % bromophenol blue, 0.05% xylene cyanol, and 2 mM EDTA). The samples in loading dye were then loaded on separate 16 x 16 cm, 1 mm thick, 7M urea, 8% acryiamide/bis (37.5:1) gels in 1.25 x TAE (50 mM Tns, 25 mM acetic acid, 1.25 mM EDTA). The DNA was separated on the basis of melting behavior for 5 hours at 150 V on the Dcode system (BioRad) The temperature ranged from 56°C to 68 °C at a temperature ramp rate of 2°C/hr. The gels were then stained in 1 μg/ml ethidium bromide in 1.25 x TAE for 3 minutes and destained in 1.25 x TAE buffer for 20 minutes. The gels were photographed using the Gel Doc 1000 system (BioRad). In all lanes of the gel, 5 extension products generated from three different genes were visible in the following order from top to bottom: Factor VII1 1, GBA 9, GBA 11, GALT 8, and GALT 5. Two different extension products were generated from the GBA 9 primers, as described above. The less intense band below the homoduplex bands corresponded to an extension product generated from the pseudogene. In the lanes loaded with extension products generated from only the wild-type or mutant DNA template, it was difficult to distinguish the wild type homoduplex from the N370S mutant homoduplex. In the lane loaded with the extension products generated from the mixed DNA templates (wild-type and mutant DNA mixed prior to amplification) and the lane loaded with extension products (generated from wild type and mutant DNA separately) that were mixed after amplification, heteroduplex bands were easily visualized. These experiments verified that multiple genes can be screened in a plurality of individuals in a single assay and that a single nucleotide mutation or polymorphism can be detected. Further, these experiments demonstrate that screening a plurality of DNA samples in a single reaction vessel or adding a control DNA before or after amplification greatly improves the sensitivity of detection. By practicing the methods taught in this example, the throughput of diagnostic screening can be drastically improved and the cost of identifying genetic traits can be significantly reduced. Although the invention has been described with reference to embodiments and examples, it should be understood that various modifications can be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. Accordingly, the invention is limited only by the following claims.

Claims: WHAT IS CLAIMED IS: 1. A method of identifying the presence or absence of a plurality of genetic markers in a subject comprising: providing a DNA sample from said subject; providing a plurality of nucleic acid primer sets that hybridize to said DNA at regions that flank said plurality of genetic markers, wherein each primer set has a first and a second primer and, wherein said plurality of genetic markers exist on a plurality of genes; contacting said DNA and said plurality of nucleic acid primer sets in a single reaction vessel; generating, in said single reaction vessel, a plurality of extension products that comprise regions of DNA that include the location of said plurality of genetic markers; separating said plurality of extension products on the basis of melting behavior; and identifying the presence or absence of said plurality of genetic markers in said subject by analyzing the melting behavior of said plurality of extension products 2. The method of Claim 1, wherein said subject is selected from the group consisting of a plant, virus, bacteria, mold, yeast, animal, and human. 3. The method of Claim 1 , wherein either said first or said second primer comprise a GC clamp. 4. The method of Claim 1 , wherein either said first or said second primer hybridize to a sequence within an intron. 5. The method of Claim 1, wherein at least one of said plurality of genetic markers is indicative of a disease selected from the group consisting of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), cystic fibrosis, Tay-sachs, thalassemia, sickle cell disease, phenylketonuna, galactosemia, fragile X syndrome, hemophilia A, myotonic dystrophy, medium chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase, maturity onset diabetes, cystmuna, methylmolonic acidemia, urea cycle disorders, hereditary fructose intolerance, hereditary hemachromatosis, neonatal thrombocytopenia, Gaucher's disease, tyrosinemia, Wilson's disease, alcaptonuna, hypolactasia, Baker's disease, argininemiaAdenomatous polyposis coli (APC), Adult Polycystic Kidney disease, a-1 -antιtrypsιn deficiency, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, Hemophilia A, Hereditary Nonpolyposis coleceral cancer, Huntingtons disease, Marfans syndrome, Myotonic dystrophy, Neurofibromatosis, Osteogenesis imperfecta, Retmoblastoma, Sickle cell disease, Freidnchs ataxia, Hemoglobinopathies, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, MCAD, Canavan's disease, Retintitus Pigmentosa, Bloom Syndrome, Fancom anemia, and Neimann Pick disease. 6. The method of Claim 1, wherein said plurality of primer sets consist of at least 3 primer sets. 7. The method of Claim 1, wherein said plurality of primer sets consist of at least 4 primer sets. 8. The method of Claim 1, wherein said plurality of primer sets consist of at least 5 primer sets. 9. The method of Claim 1, wherein said plurality of primer sets consist of at least 6 primer sets. 10. The method of Claim 1 , wherein said plurality of primer sets consist of at least 7 primer sets. 11. The method of Claim 1 , wherein said plurality of genes consist of at least 2 genes. 12 The method of Claim 1, wherein said plurality of genes consist of at least 3 genes. 13 The method of Claim 1, wherein said plurality of genes consist of at least 4 genes 14 The method of Claim 1 , wherein said plurality of genes consist of at least 5 genes 15. The method of Claim 1 , wherein said plurality of genes consist of at least 6 genes. 16. The method of Claim 1, wherein said plurality of genes consist of at least 7 genes. 17. The method of Claim 1 , wherein said extension products are generated by Polymerase Chain Reaction 18 The method of Claim 1, further comprising adding a control DNA 19 A method of identifying the presence or absence of a plurality of genetic markers in a plurality of subjects comprising- providing a DNA sample from said plurality of subjects, providing a plurality of nucleic acid primer sets that hybridize to said DNA at regions that flank said plurality of genetic markers, wherein each primer set has a first and a second primer and, wherein said plurality of genetic markers exist on a plurality of genes, contacting said DNA and said plurality of nucleic acid primer sets in a single reaction vessel; generating, in said single reaction vessel, a plurality of extension products that comprise regions of DNA that include the location of said plurality of genetic markers, separating said plurality of extension products on the basis of melting behavior; and identifying the presence or absence of said plurality of genetic markers in said plurality of subjects by analyzing the melting behavior of said plurality of extension products. 20 The method of Claim 19, wherein said subject is selected from the group consisting of a plant, virus, bacteria, mold, yeast, animal, and human 21 The method of Claim 19, wherein either said first or said second primer comprise a GC clamp. 22 The method of Claim 19, wherein either said first or said second primer hybridize to a sequence within an intron 23. The method of Claim 19, wherein at least one of said plurality of genetic markers is indicative of a disease selected from the group consisting of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), cystic fibrosis, Tay-sachs, thalassemia, sickle cell disease, phenylketonuna, galactosemia, fragile X syndrome, hemophilia A, myotonic dystrophy, medium-chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase, maturity onset diabetes, cystmuna, methylmolonic acidemia, urea cycle disorders, hereditary fructose intolerance, hereditary hemachromatosis, neonatal thrombocytopenia, Gaucher's disease, tyrosinemia, Wilson's disease, alcaptonuna, hypolactasia, Baker's disease, argininemiaAdenomatous polyposis coli (APC), Adult Polycystic Kidney disease, a 1 antitrypsin deficiency, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, Hemophilia A, Hereditary Nonpolyposis coleceral cancer, Huntingtons disease, Marfans syndrome, Myotonic dystrophy, Neurofibromatosis, Osteogenesis imperfecta, Retmoblastoma, Sickle cell disease, Freidnchs ataxia, Hemoglobinopathies, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, MCAD, Canavan's disease, Retintitus Pigmentosa, Bloom Syndrome, Fancom anemia, and Neimann Pick disease 24 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f subjects consist of at least 2 subjects 25 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f subjects consist of at least 3 subjects. 26 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f subjects consist of at least 4 subjects. 27 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f subjects consist of at least 5 subjects, 28 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f subjects consist of at least 6 subjects, 29 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f subjects consist of at least 7 subjects, 30 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f primer sets consist of at least 3 primer sets 31 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f primer sets consist of at least 4 primer sets 32 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f primer sets consist of at least 5 primer sets 33 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f primer sets consist of at least 6 primer sets, 34 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f primer sets consist of at least 7 primer sets, 35 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f genes consist of at least 2 genes, 36. The method of Claim 1 , wherein said plurality o f genes consist of at least 3 genes, 37 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f genes consist of at least 4 genes, 38 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f genes consist of at least 5 genes, 39 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f genes consist of at least 6 genes 40 The method of Claim 19, wherein said plurality o f genes consist of at least 7 genes. 41 The method of Claim 19, wherein said extension products are generated by Polymerase Chain Reaction. 42 A method of identifying the presence or absence of a mutation or polymorphism in a subject comprising: providing a DNA sample from said subject, generating a population of extension products from said sample, wherein said extension products comprise a region of said DNA that corresponds to the location of said mutation or polymorphism; providing at least one control DNA, wherein said control DNA lacks said mutation or polymorphism; contacting said control DNA and said population of extension products in a single reaction vessel thereby forming a mixed DNA sample; heating said mixed DNA sample to a temperature sufficient to denature said control DNA and said DNA sample; cooling said mixed DNA sample to a temperature sufficient to anneal said control DNA and said DNA sample; separating said mixed DNA sample on the basis of melting behavior; and identifying the presence or absence of said mutation or polymorphism by analyzing the melting behavior of said mixed DNA sample. 43. The method of Claim 42, wherein said control DNA is DNA obtained from a second subject and, wherein, the presence or absence of said mutation or polymorphism is not known. 44. An isolated or purified nucleic acid consisting of a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ. ID. Nos. 1-44. 45. A kit comprising an isolated or purified nucleic acid consisting of the sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ. ID. Nos. 1-44. 46. The kit of Claim 45, further comprising a control DNA. 47. A kit for performing amplification on a plurality of discrete genes of a subject, comprising: a mixture of at least 3 primer sets, each of said primer set adapted to amplify a DNA associated with a different genetic trait of said subject. 48. A reaction vessel comprising: a DNA sample obtained from a subject; and a plurality of nucleic acid primer sets that hybridize to said DNA sample at regions that flank a plurality of genetic markers, wherein said plurality of genetic markers exist on a plurality of genes. 49. The reaction vessel of Claim 48, wherein said plurality of nucleic acid primers comprises at least one nucleic acid primer consisting of a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ. ID. Nos. 1-44. 50. A reaction vessel comprising: a plurality of DNA samples obtained from a plurality of subjects; and a plurality of nucleic acid primer sets that hybridize to said plurality of DNA samples at regions that flank a plurality of genetic markers, wherein said plurality of genetic markers exist on a plurality of genes. 51. The reaction vessel of Claim 50, wherein said plurality of nucleic acid primers comprises at least one nucleic acid primer consisting of a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ. ID. Nos. 1-44. 52. A gel having lanes and adapted to separate different DNAs comprising: a plurality of extension products, in a single lane of said gel, wherein said plurality of extension products correspond to regions of DNA located on a plurality of genes and, wherein said regions of DNA comprise loci that indicate a genetic trait. 53. A gel having lanes and adapted to separate different DNAs comprising: a plurality of extension products, in a single lane of said gel, wherein said plurality of extension products correspond to regions of DNA located on a plurality of genes in a plurality of subjects and, wherein said regions of DNA comprise loci that indicate a genetic trait.

Inventors: DUNLOP CHARLES L M, WEISEL JAMES M, DUNLOP, CHARLES, L.M., WEISEL, JAMES, M.
Applicants: DUNLOP CHARLES L M, WEISEL JAMES M, DUNLOP, CHARLES, L.M., WEISEL, JAMES, M.
Application year: 2000
Main classification: C12Q1
IPC codes: C12Q1