A METHOD FOR EFFICIENT AND HIGHLY SELECTIVE CONTROL OF MICROORGANISMS

Abstract: The invention features a method of selectively killing a first microorganism. The method includes: (i) contacting the first microorganism with a second microorganism that has a microcidal compound; and (ii) allowing the first microorganism and the second microorganism to undergo fusion, whereby the microcidal compound is delivered into and kills the microorganism that forms following the fusion.

Description: A METHOD FOR EFFICIENT AND HIGHLY SELECTIVE CONTROL OF MICROORGANISMS Statement as to Federally Sponsored Research The invention has been sponsored in part by Grant GM 35010 from the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention has also been supported by funding from Damon Runyon - Walter Winchell Cancer Research Grant DRG 1378. Background of the Invention Microbial pathogens greatly reduce yields of a variety of important food crops (e.g., corn, rice), threaten entire industries (e.g., rubber, tobacco), and devastate ornamental plants and trees (e.g., elm, chestnut, ash). Unfortunately, treatment with broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents destroys, in addition to the pathogen, important commensal or non-pathogenic organisms and, thus, can facilitate the subsequent colonization by additional pathogens. Therefore, the ideal antimicrobial treatment or therapy is a substance that selectively kills or eliminates specific pathogenic organisms while having minimal effects on the microbial ecology. The importance of the microbial ecology is well-illustrated in the successful use of "antagonistic yeasts," such as Epicoccum nigrum, Penicillium oxalicum, and Candida sake, in the control of brown rot of peaches and other fruit. In these examples, protection is a result of the ability of the applied fungal strains to rapidly colonize the fruit and prevent subsequent colonization by organisms associated with post-harvest decay. While these antagonistic approaches can serve as prophylactic treatments, they are much less effective displacing or selectively killing pathogenic or undesirable microorganisms once colonization has occurred. Selective killing of a microorganism can be achieved by development of a -2- substance that is either selectively toxic or one that is generally toxic but selectively targeted. Development of either type of antimicrobial agent is plagued by the inherent similarities between pathogenic and non-pathogenic organisms at the level of physiology, nutrient requirements, and biology. Virtually all organisms mate or fuse to allow exchange of genetic and/or other intracellular components. In fungi, fusion is not a random event, but rather is restricted to occur only between members of the same species, and often includes a further dependency on secondary characteristics such as mating type and vegetative compatibility group (VCG). For instance, haploid strains of S. cerevisiae will mate and fuse only if they are of opposite mating types. In addition to mating, many filamentous fungi are also able to undergo anastomosis (hyphal fusion) but only if they are of the same vegetative compatibility group. Importantly, these fusion reactions occur with absolute selectivity. Summary of the Invention We have harnessed the biological discriminatory mechanisms described above to selectively target and kill pathogens. Accordingly, in a first aspect, the invention features a method of selectively killing a first microorganism. The method includes: (i) contacting the first microorganism with a second microorganism that contains a microcidal compound; and (ii) allowing the first microorganism and the second microorganism to undergo fusion, whereby the microcidal compound is delivered into and kills the microorganism that forms following the fusion. In a preferred embodiment, the first microorganism is fungus. Preferred fungi include Absidia spp., Actinomadura madurae, Actinomyces spp., Allescheria boydii, Alternaria spp., Anthopsis deltoidea, Aphanomyces spp., Apophysomyces eleqans, Armillaria spp., Arnium leoporinum, Aspergillus spp., Aureobasidium pullulans, Basidiobolus ranarum, Bipolaris spp., Blastomyces dermatitidis, Botrytis spp., -3- Candida spp., Centrospora spp., Cephalosporium spp., Ceratocystis spp., Chaetoconidium spp., Chaetomium spp., Cladosporium spp., Coccidioides immitis, Colletotrichum spp, Conidiobolus spp., Corynebacterium tenuis, Cryptoporiopsis spp., Cylindrocladium spp., Cryptococcus spp., Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Curvularia spp., Dactylaria spp., Diplodia spp., Epidermophyton spp., Epidermophyton floccosum, Exserophilum spp., Exophiala spp., Fonsecaea spp., Fulvia spp., Fusarium spp., Geotrichum spp., Guignardia spp., Helminthosporium spp., Histoplasma spp., Lecythophora spp., Macrophomina spp., Madurella spp., Magnaporthe spp., Malassezia furfur, Microsporum spp., Monilinia spp., Mucor spp., Mycocentrospora acerina, Nectria spp., Nocardia spp., Oospora spp., Ophiobolus spp., Paecilomyces spp., Paracoccidioides brasiliensis , Penicillium spp., Phaeosclera dematioides, Phaeoannellomyces spp., Phialemonium obovatum, Phialophora spp., Phlyctaena spp., Phoma spp., Phomopsis spp., Phymatotrichum spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Piedraia hortai, Pneumocystis carinii, Puccinia spp., Pythium insidiosum, Rhino eladiella aquaspersa, Rhizomucor pusillus, Rhizoctonia spp., Rhizopus spp., Saccharomyces spp., Saksenaea vasiformis, Sarcinomyces phaeomuriformis , Scerotium spp., Sclerotinia spp., Sphaerotheca spp., Sporothrix schenckii, Syncephalastrum racemosum, Taeniolella boppii, Taphrina spp., Thielaviopsis spp., Torulopsosis spp., Trichophyton spp., Trichosporon spp., Ulocladium chartarum, Ustilago spp., Venturia spp., Verticillium spp., Wangiella dermatitidis, Whetxelinia spp., Xylohypha spp., and their synonyms. In another preferred embodiment, the compound is a toxic compound or is a compound that causes a toxic compound to be produced in the microorganism that forms following fusion. Preferably, the toxic compound is a toxin or fragment thereof selected from the group consisting of: diphtheria toxin, diphtheria toxin F2 fragment, diphtheria toxin A domain, Pseudomonas exotoxin A, and the A domain of -4- Pseudomonas exotoxin A. Alternatively, the compound is a biosynthetic enzyme that causes a toxic compound to be produced in the microorganism that forms following fusion. In a related embodiment, the second microorganism is resistant to the microcidal compound. In preferred embodiments, the second microorganism is a nonpathogenic fungus. In a second aspect, the invention features a method for producing a diphtheria toxin-resistant fungus. The method includes introducing into the fungus a mutation in its DPHf, DPH3, or DPH4 gene that prevents the biosynthesis of diphthamide, wherein the fungus is selected from the group consisting of: Absidia spp., Actinomadura madurae, Actinomyces spp., Allescheria boydii, Alternaria spp., Anthopsis deltoidea, Aphanomyces spp., Apophysomyces eleqans, Armillaria spp., Arnium leoporinum, Aspergillus spp., Aureobasidium pullulans, Basidiobolus ranarum, Bipolaris spp., Blastomyces dermatitidis, Botrytis spp., Candida spp., Centrospora spp., Cephalosporium spp., Ceratocystis spp., Chaetoconidium spp., Chaetomium spp., Cladosporium spp., Coccidioides immitis, Colletotrichum spp, Conidiobolus spp., Corynebacterium tenuis, Cryptoporiopsis spp., Cylindrocladium spp., Cryptococcus spp., Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Curvularia spp., Dactylaria spp., Diplodia spp., Epidermophyton spp., Epidermophyton flocco um, Exserophilum spp., Exophiala spp., Fonsecaea spp., Fulvia spp., Fusarium spp., Geotrichum spp., Guignardia spp., Helminthosporium spp., Histoplasma spp., Lecythophora spp., Macrophomina spp., Madurella spp., Magnaporthe spp., Malassezia furfur, Microsporum spp., Monilinia spp., Mucor spp., Mycocentrospora acerina, Nectria spp., Nocardia spp., Oospora spp., Ophiobolus spp., Paecilomyces spp., Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Penicillium spp., Phaeosclera dematioides, Phaeoannellomyces spp., Phialemonium obovatum, Phialophora spp., Phlyctaena spp., Phoma spp., Phomopsis spp., Phymatotrichum spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Piedraia hortai, Pneumocystis carinii, Puccinia spp., Pythium insidiosum, Rhinocladiella aquaspersa, Rhizomucor pusillus , Rhizoctonia spp., Rhizopus spp. Saccharomyces spp., Saksenaea vasiformis, Sarcinomyces phaeomuriformis , Scerotium spp., Sclerotinia spp., Sphaerotheca spp., Sporothrix schenckii, Syncephalastrum racemosum, Taeniolella boppii, Taphrina spp., Thielaviopsis spp., Torulopsosis spp., Trichophyton spp., Trichosporon spp., Ulocladium chartarum, Ustilago spp., Venturia spp., Verticillium spp., Wangiella dermatitidis, Whetxelinia spp., and Xylohypha spp. In a third aspect, the invention features a diphtheria toxin-resistant fungus containing a mutation in its DPH1, DPH3, or DPH4 gene that prevents the biosynthesis of diphthamide, wherein the fungus is selected from the group consisting of: Absidia spp., Actinomadura madurae, Actinomyces spp., Allescheria boydii, Alternaria spp., Anthopsis deltoidea, Aphanomyces spp., Apophysomyces eleqans, Armillaria spp., Arnium leoporinum, Aspergillus spp., Aureobasidium pullulans, Basidiobolus ranarum, Bipolaris spp., Blastomyces dermatitidis, Botrytis spp., Candida spp., Centrospora spp., Cephalosporium spp., Ceratocystis spp., Chaetoconidium spp., Chaetomium spp., Cladosporium spp., Coccidioides immitis, Colletotrichum spp, Conidiobolus spp., Corynebacterium tenuis, Cryptoporiopsis spp., Cylindrocladium spp., Cryptococcus spp., Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Curvularia spp., Dactylaria spp., Diplodia spp., Epidermophyton spp., Epidermophyton floccosum, Exserophilum spp., Exophiala spp., Fonsecaea spp., Fulvia spp., Fusarium spp., Geotrichum spp., Guignardia spp., Helminthosporium spp., Histoplasma spp., Lecythophora spp., Macrophomina spp., Madurella spp., Magnaporthe spp., Malassezia furfur, Microsporum spp., Monilinia spp., Mucor spp., Mycocentrospora acerina, Nectria spp., Nocardia spp., Oospora spp., Ophiobolus spp., Paecilomyces spp., Paracoccidioides brasiliensis , Penicillium spp., Phaeosclera dematioides, Phaeoannellomyces spp., Phialemonium obovatum, Phialophora spp., Phlyctaena spp., Phoma spp., Phomopsis spp., Phymatotrichum spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Piedraia hortai, Pneumocystis carinii, Puccinia spp., Pythium insidiosum, Rhinocladiella aquaspersa, Rhizomucor pusillus , Rhizoctonia spp., Rhizopus spp., ' Saccharomyces spp., Saksenaea vasiformis, Sarcinomyces phaeomuriformis , Scerotium spp., Sclerotinia spp., Sphaerotheca spp., Sporothrix schenckii, Syncephalastrum racemosum, Taeniolella boppii, Taphrina spp., Thielaviopsis spp., Torulopsosis spp., Trichophyton spp., Trichosporon spp., Ulocladium chartarum, Ustilago spp., Venturia spp., Verticillium spp., Wangiella dermatitidis, Whetxelinia spp., and Xylohypha spp. In a preferred embodiment of the second or third aspect, the gene hybridizes at high stringency to S. cerevisiae DPH1, DPH3, or DPH4 and has DPH activity. In a fourth aspect, the invention features a substantially pure preparation of a Dph3 polypeptide. In preferred embodiments, the Dph3 polypeptide is at least 55% identical to the amino acid sequence of Fig. 7 (SEQ ID No: 10), is from a fungus (e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and has DPH biological activity. In a fifth aspect, the invention features DNA encoding a Dph3 polypeptide. In preferred embodiments, the DNA includes the DPH3 gene of Fig. 7 (SEQ ID No: 9) and complements a DPH3 mutation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. By "fusion" is meant any combination of two organisms or cells that leads to the exchange, mixing, or transfer of intracellular contents. Preferred forms of fusion are mating and anastomosis. By "kill" is meant to induce death in the microorganism that forms following fusion, resulting in a reduction in the number of microorganisms. Preferably, the reduction is at least 25%; more preferably the reduction is 50%; and most preferably the reduction in the number of microorganisms is 75% or even 95%. By a "microcidal compound" is meant a molecule that leads to the induction of death of the microorganism. Exemplary microcidal compounds include, but are not limited to, molecules that are themselves toxic, molecules that induce production of a toxic compound, molecules that are toxic when combined with additional molecules, and DNA or RNA molecules encoding any of the foregoing molecules. By "DPH biological activity" is meant an activity required for the biosynthesis of diphthamide; lack of said activity confers resistance to toxic compounds, including diphtheria toxin, diphtheria toxin F2 fragment, diphtheria toxin A domain, Pseudomonas exotoxin A, and the A domain of Pseudomonas exotoxin A. By "polypeptide" is meant any chain of amino acids, regardless of length or post-translational modification (for example, glycosylation or phosphorylation). By "high stringency conditions" is meant hybridization in 2X SSC at 40°C with a DNA probe length of at least 40 nucleotides. For other definitions of high stringency conditions, see F. Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, pp. 6.3.1-6.3.6, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1994, hereby incorporated by reference. By a "substantially pure polypeptide" is meant a polypeptide (for example, a polypeptide such as a Dph3 polypeptide) that has been separated from components which naturally accompany it. Typically, the polypeptide is substantially pure when it is at least 60%, by weight, free from the proteins and naturally-occurring organic molecules with which it is naturally associated. Preferably, the preparation is at least 75%, more preferably at least 90%, and most preferably at least 99%, by weight, a Dph3 polypeptide. A substantially pure Dph3 polypeptide may be obtained, for example, by extraction from a natural source (for example, a fungal cell); by expression of a recombinant nucleic acid encoding a Dph3 polypeptide; or by chemically synthesizing the protein. Purity can be measured by any appropriate method, for example, column chromatography, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, or by HPLC analysis. By "isolated DNA" is meant DNA that is free of the genes which, in the naturally-occurring genome of the organism from which the DNA of the invention is derived, flank the gene. The term therefore includes, for example, a recombinant -8- DNA that is incorporated into a vector; into an autonomously replicating plasmid or virus; or into the genomic DNA of a prokaryote or eukaryote; or that exists as a separate molecule (for example, a cDNA or a genomic or cDNA fragment produced by PCR or restriction endonuclease digestion) independent of other sequences. It also includes a recombinant DNA which is part of a hybrid gene encoding additional polypeptide sequence. This invention provides significant advances over existing methods of controlling pathogenic microorganisms. First, in contrast to chemical agents, this method is highly selective; only the target microorganism is eliminated and, thus, protective elements of the microbial ecosystem are left intact. Second, unlike the application of "antagonistic" biocontrols to control post- harvest disease, the method of the invention actively kills target organisms and, thus, is expected to be more successful in eliminating established infections. Third, unlike the use of hypoviruses to attenuate pathogenic strains of Cryphonectria parasitica (the causative agent of chestnut blight), the method described herein is broadly adaptable and can utilize a variety of toxic compounds and strains. It is not restricted by the identification of a suitable virus or the limited host- range of the infectious agent. Finally, because mutation of DPH1, DPH2, DPH4, or DPH5 does not significantly affect cell growth, the killer organism is expected to grow robustly and perform well in the environment. Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments thereof, and from the claims. Brief Description of the Drawings Fig. 1 is a schematic representation of the present method, referred to as Mate and Die (MAD) technology. -9- Fig. 2 is a schematic representation of plasmid pTM147, which expresses the diphtheria toxin F2 fragment (DT F2) under the control of the EFT2 promoter (P EFT2 ). Transcription is indicated by the arrow and is terminated in the EFT2 transcription termination sequences (T EFT2 ). ARSICEN represents sequences for replication and segregation in yeast and HIS3 represents a selectable auxotrophic marker. Also present (but not shown) are sequences enabling replication in E. coli. Figs. 3A-3E show the DNA sequence of a gene encoding EF-2 (EFTl) (SEQ ID No.: 1) and the encoded amino acid sequence of EF-2 protein (SEQ ID No.: 2), in which amino acid residue 699 (bold) is listed as a histidine. In the mature, toxin s protein, this histidine has been post-translationally modified by the DPH gene products to a diphthamide residue, the target of diphtheria toxin. Figs. 4A-4E show the DNA sequence of a gene encoding EF-2 (EFT2) (SEQ ID No.: 3) and the encoded amino acid sequence of EF-2 protein (SEQ ID No.: 4). Amino acid residue 699 (bold), listed as a histidine, is post-translationally modified as described in Fig. 3. The DNA of the EFT2 gene differs slightly from that of the EFTl gene, but encodes an identical protein. Figs. 5A-5D show the DNA sequence of the DPH1 gene (SEQ ID No.: 5) and the resulting Dphl amino acid sequence (SEQ ID No.: 6). Figs. 6A-6D show the DNA sequence of the DPH2 gene (SEQ ID No.: 7) and the resulting Dph2 amino acid sequence (SEQ ID No.: 8). Figs. 7A and 7B show the DNA sequence of the DPH3 gene (SEQ ID No.: 9) and the resulting Dph3 amino acid sequence (SEQ ID No.: 10). Figs. 8 A and 8B show the DNA sequence of the DPH4 gene (SEQ ID No. 11) and the resulting Dph4 amino acid sequence (SEQ ID No.: 12). Figs. 9A-9C show the DNA sequence of the DPH5 gene (SEQ ID No.: 13) and the resulting Dph5 amino acid (SEQ ID No.: 14). Figs. 10A-10C show examples of structural homologs of DPH gene products. Analysis was performed February 1998 using the Gapped BLAST database search -10- tool (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/BLAST/). Entries are organized by gene (DPHl, DPH2, DPH3, or DPH5), by database origin of the sequence (either annotated in GenBank or as an expressed sequence tag (EST)), and the corresponding species from which it was isolated. Where available, the predicted size of the protein product is indicated as well as the GenBank Accession number. Relative similarity is denoted by the "Score" corresponding to the probability (p value) that the observed similarity could occur by random chance. Fig. 11 is a photograph of results of mating a killer strain expressing diphtheria toxin (DT; Killer + DT) with a target strain (Target) and of matings between either the target and a killer strain that does not express toxin (Killer no DT); the toxin- expressing killer strain (Killer + DT) and a toxin R derivative of the target (Toxin R Target); or the toxin R derivative of the target (Toxin R Target) and a killer strain that does not express toxin (Killer no DT). Detailed Description of the Invention We have discovered methods of biological control that (i) selectively target a microorganism that has an undesirable attribute; and (ii) introduce into the target microorganism a compound (e.g., a protein, peptide, DNA, or RNA) that kills the cell that forms following fusion. Undesirable attributes include pathogenicity and excessive or unwanted growth. The present invention provides a method of selectively delivering a microcidal compound into a target microorganism, such as a bacterium or fungus, by fusing the target microorganism with a second microorganism. The second microorganism is referred to as a killer microorganism , as the delivered microcidal compound kills the microorganism that forms following the fusion. The killer microorganism has been altered in two key respects. First, it has been altered so that it expresses the toxic compound or a product, such as a biosynthetic enzyme, which will make a toxic compound in the microorganism. Toxic -1 1- compounds include compounds that are themselves toxic (e.g., bacterial toxins) or - result in the production of a toxic compound (e.g., a biosynthetic enzyme which causes production of a toxic compound) in the microorganism. DNA or RNA encoding the toxic compound can be introduced into the killer microorganism (or an ancestor) either extrachromosomally (e.g., in a plasmid) or stably integrated into chromosomal DNA. In either case, the toxic compound is expressed in the killer microorganism. Second, the killer microorganism has been modified in such a manner that it is resistant to the toxic compound. This is done, for example, by mutating or deleting all or a portion of a gene(s) which renders the wild-type or unmodified microorganism sensitive to the toxic compound. As a result, the modified microorganism is itself resistant to its effects. For certain uses, the killer strain is also altered in such a manner that it does not exhibit the undesirable characteristic (e.g., pathogenicity, rapid or unwanted growth) of the target microorganism. Alternatively, a nonpathogenic microorganism (nonpathogenic wild-type) which undergoes fusion with the target microorganism can be used as a progenitor for the killer microorganism. In various embodiments of the present method, the target microorganism is a fungus, such as Absidia spp., Actinomadura madurae, Actinomyces spp., Allescheria boydii, Alternaria spp., Anthopsis deltoidea, Aphanomyces spp., Apophysomyces eleqans, Armillaria spp., Arnium leoporinum, Aspergillus spp., Aureobasidium pullulans, Basidiobolus ranarum, Bipolaris spp., Blastomyces dermatitidis, Botrytis spp., Candida spp., Centrospora spp., Cephalosporium spp., Ceratocystis spp., Chaetoconidium spp., Chaetomium spp., Cladosporium spp., Coccidioides immitis, Colletotrichum spp, Conidiobolus spp., Corynebacterium tenuis, Cryptoporiopsis spp., Cylindrocladium spp., Cryptococcus spp., Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Curvularia spp., Dactylaria spp., Diplodia spp., Epidermophyton spp., Epidermophyton floccosum, Exserophilum spp., Exophiala spp., Fonsecaea spp., Fulvia spp., Fusarium -12- spp., Geotrichum spp., Guignardia spp., Helminthosporium spp., Histoplasma spp.; Lecythophora spp., Macrophomina spp., Madurella spp., Magnaporthe spp., Malassezia furfur, Microsporum spp., Monilinia spp., Mucor spp., Mycocentrospora acerina, Nectria spp., Nocardia spp., Oospora spp., Ophiobolus spp., Paecilomyces spp., Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Penicillium spp., Phaeosclera dematioides, Phaeoannellomyces spp., Phialemonium obovatum, Phialophora spp., Phlyctaena spp., Phoma spp., Phomopsis spp., Phymatotrichum spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Piedraia hortai, Pneumocystis carinii, Puccinia spp., Pythium insidiosum, Rhinocladiella aquaspersa, Rhizomucor pusillus, Rhizoctonia spp., Rhizopus spp., Saccharomyces spp., Saksenaea vasiformis, Sarcinomyces phaeomuriformis, Scerotium spp., Sclerotinia spp., Sphaerotheca spp., Sporothrix schenckii, Syncephalastrum racemosum, Taeniolella boppii, Taphrina spp., Thielaviopsis spp., Torulopsosis spp., Trichophyton spp., Trichosporon spp., Ulocladium chartarum, Ustilago spp., Venturia spp., Verticillium spp., Wangiella dermatitidis, Whetxelinia spp., and Xylohypha spp. The method is particularly applicable to organisms that (i) are predominantly of a single mating type in their pathogenic forms (e.g., Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum); (ii) require fusion for pathogenesis (e.g., smuts such as Ustilago maydis); (iii) outbreed at high frequency (e.g., powdery mildews); or (iv) have limited numbers of VCGs (e.g., Fusarium circinatum). According to the method described herein, the toxic compound expressed in the killer strain diffuses to and makes contact with components of the target microorganism which are sensitive to it (inactivated or otherwise rendered nonfunctional). At the same time, the cytoplasm of the target cell can furnish the means (e.g., the enzymatic machinery) necessary to render the killer strain sensitive to the toxic compound. As a result of the mating or fusion, the toxic compound inhibits a process or processes (e.g., protein synthesis) essential for viability/growth of the fused cells (e.g., the fused zygote) and cell death occurs. -13- Killer Strain Properties A key element in this invention is the use of the natural physiology of the killer strain, and its propensity to undergo fusion, as a means to destroy or inactivate the target (e.g., pathogenic) species. Therefore, the spectrum of antimicrobial activity is determined by the physiology of the killer and target strains and the conditions and determinants that regulate the selection of partners and orchestration of the mating and/or fusion event (including mating type and VCG). In some circumstances, these determinants may be undesirably restrictive (e.g., the presence of many VCGs in pathogenic strains). Therefore, it may be desirable to develop killer strains that tolerate differences at one or more incompatibility loci (for instance, the tol mutants of Neurospora tetrasperma). It is desirable that the toxic compounds are unable to cross cellular membranes or are able to do so only to a very limited extent, in order that the killer strain is substantially non-toxic if consumed, lysed, or ingested. The toxins act intracellularly . As a result, with cell-impermeable toxic compounds, the only means of toxin entry into a cell would be upon fusion. The cell death that results from the transfer of the toxic compound is not necessarily restricted to the site of the cell fusion, however, as the hyphae of many filamentous fungi are characterized by pores in the septae that allow transport of molecules among hyphal cells. Therefore, by using a toxin (such as diphtheria toxin) that is very stable and acts catalytically, it is possible to kill entire hyphal filaments as a consequence of a single fusion event. For application as a biological control agent, it is also desirable that the killer strain be engineered or attenuated such that it is itself non-pathogenic. This enables the treatment of an infected plant or organism with an excess of killer strain relative to the pathogen. Killer cells that undergo fusion with their pathogenic counterparts will be killed or inactivated. Killer cells that do not undergo fusion, or do so with another killer cell, will persist in a non-pathogenic form, growing superficially and awaiting -14- challenge by toxin-sensitive pathogenic strains. Microcidal Compounds The microcidal compound in the killer strain can be any of a variety of toxic products (e.g., enzymes, proteins, small molecules) which act intracellularly. Preferably, the toxic compounds cross cellular membranes only to a limited extent or not at all. Toxic compounds which can be produced by killer cells include diphtheria toxin, diphtheria toxin F2 fragment, diphtheria toxin A domain, Pseudomonas exotoxin A, or the A domain of Pseudomonas exotoxin A. They can be expressed individually in killer cells or two or more can be expressed. DNA or RNA encoding the toxic compound(s) is introduced into an appropriately modified wild-type cell, using known methods. For example, it can be incorporated into an expression vector, such as a plasmid, which is introduced into a microorganism to produce a killer strain. In this case, introduced DNA or RNA is expressed extrachromosomally. Alternatively, the introduced DNA is incorporated into the genomic DNA of the recipient. This can be carried out, for example, by means of a vector that introduces toxic compound-encoding DNA into host cell genomic DNA through homologous, non-homologous, or site specific recombination. As a result, DNA directing synthesis the toxic compound is maintained as part of the genome. Applications of the Method The method, killer cells, and toxin resistant strains of the present invention have broad applicability to any microorganism that undergoes fusion. They are also broadly applicable to a wide variety of contexts in which selective biological control of microorganisms is desired. For example, potential applications include, but are not limited to: prophylactic or retroactive treatment of microbial infections of agricultural crops (e.g. corn, rice, rubber, tobacco, etc.) or ornamental trees (e.g., elm, chestnut); prevention of the post-harvest colonization of fruits and vegetables by microbes that -15- cause rotting or other damage; prophylactic or retroactive treatment of ventilation - units to eliminate microorganisms that produce volatile organic compounds (VOCs) implicated in "sick building" syndrome; and treatment of humans, pets or livestock colonized or infected by microorganisms, particularly pathogenic forms of a microorganism. The present invention is illustrated by the following examples, which is not intended to be limiting in any way. Example 1 In this embodiment, the killer strain is a yeast strain of the opposite mating type from that of the target yeast. The killer strain has been modified such that it expresses a toxic compound, is resistant to the toxic compound and is non-pathogenic. For example, the killer strain is engineered to produce a toxic molecule (e.g., diphtheria toxin, diphtheria toxin F2 fragment, diphtheria toxin A domain, Pseudomonas exotoxin A, or the A domain of Pseudomonas exotoxin A) and to be resistant to the toxin. The killer strain can be rendered resistant by deletion of a gene required for biosynthesis of diphthamide, the intracellular target of diphtheria toxin. In this case, diphtheria toxin resistant mutants were isolated by selecting for yeast strains that were viable when expressing diphtheria toxin under a regulated promoter (GAL-DT). Mutations were identified in a total of five genes that blocked the biosynthesis of diphthamide (Figs. 5-9). Three of these genes (DPHl, DPH3, and DPH4) were previously uncharacterized and, thus, were not known to be involved in diphthamide biosynthesis. Additionally, prior to this work, DPH3 had not been recognized as a potential protein coding sequence due to its small size (246 bp ORF encoding a predicted protein product of 82 amino acids). Strains with mutations in any of the DPH genes (including the three novel genes identified herein) enable the non-toxic intracellular expression of diphtheria toxin suitable for the methods described herein, as well as for other applications. -16- In the specific example, DNA sequences encoding the DPHl gene were replaced with the TRP1 marker DNA to generate a dphlr. TRPl strain. This strain does not make diphthamide, and is viable and can be propagated even while expressing diphtheria toxin. The target yeast and the killer yeast are combined or contacted with one another, whereby they undergo fusion. Subsequently, nuclei also fuse to generate a diploid organism with a genome reflecting the sum of each of the two mating partners. As a result of the initial cell fusion, toxin contained within the cytoplasm of the killer strain diffuses to, and enzymatically inactivates, toxin sensitive components of the target cell. In the provided example with diphtheria toxin, the toxin ADP-ribosylates translation elongation factor 2 (EF-2) on a diphthamide residue to inactivate the protein and consequently block protein synthesis. At the same time, the cytoplasm of the target cell furnishes the enzymatic machinery to synthesize diphthamide on the toxin-resistant EF-2 of the killer cell to convert it into a toxin- sensitive form. As a result of the mating reaction, the toxin inhibits protein synthesis in the microorganism formed following fusion, causing cessation of growth of this fused, resultant zygote and ultimately cell death. Example 2 The following are experiments performed in S. cerevisiae. Analogous modifications can be performed in any microorganism, using analogous genes and standard methods. Toxin expression The diphtheria toxin F2 fragment contains the catalytic activity of diphtheria toxin and thus is sufficient to catalyze the ADP-ribosylation of the diphthamide residue of translation elongation factor 2 (EF- 2). The F2 fragment lacks the determinants for binding to cell surface receptors and for translocating across cellular membranes. The DNA sequence encoding this fragment was inserted between the -17- transcriptional initiation and termination regions of the EFT2 gene (Fig. 2). This " allows high level, constitutive transcription of the DNA sequence corresponding to the F2 fragment and the subsequent translation into active F2 protein. In this particular case, this EFT2-DT-EFT2 fusion was introduced into a plasmid vector that allows extrachromosomal replication in yeast (pRS313). For construction of a biological control agent, this fusion might preferably be integrated into the genome of the killer strain such that it is more stably maintained. Toxin resistance Diphtheria toxin specifically catalyzes the ADP-ribosylation of EF-2 on a diphthamide residue. Diphthamide is a unique post-translationally modified amino acid residue found only in EF-2. Mutants that fail to make diphthamide or lack the histidine precursor of diphthamide are resistant to toxin. Therefore, mutations in any one of seven or more genes is sufficient to provide resistance to diphtheria toxin. These are the genes encoding EF-2 (two genes), Dphl, Dph2, Dph3, Dph4, and Dph5. The sequences of these genes are displayed in Figs. 3-9. Deletion of any one of the DPH genes is sufficient to yield nearly complete resistance to diphtheria toxin. The toxin resistant phenotype is completely recessive such that strains that carry at least one functional copy of a given DPH gene are toxin-sensitive regardless of the number of mutant or deleted copies. In contrast, mutations in the genes encoding EF-2 (EFTl and EFT2) that confer toxin resistance, generally behave in a dominant fashion and, thus, are less useful for construction of an effective killer strain. Strains mutant or deleted for DPH3 exhibit pleiotropic growth defects, including but not limited to slow growth, hypersensitivity to a variety of drugs, and defects in invasion of an agar substrate. The pleiotropic and significant defects of dph3 mutant strains make this an excellent candidate mutation for a killer strain as it simultaneously provides resistance to toxin while attenuating cellular vitality and several growth characteristics of pathogenic organisms (e.g., substrate invasion). Alternatively, it was found that -18- mutations in DPHl, DPH2, DPH4, or DPH5 impair the ability of the organism to - survive long periods of starvation. While mutations in the latter group of genes are not sufficient to attenuate the pathogenesis of the killer strain alone, they may be useful to effectively limit the persistence of the killer strain in the environment. The dphl, dph2, dph4, and dph5 mutations do not significantly impair the growth and mating of the microorganism, and, thus, would be expected to perform well in the environment. The sequences displayed in Figs. 3-9 detail S. cerevisiae genes that can be mutated to give diphtheria toxin resistance. Additionally, analysis of DNA sequence databases reveals the clear presence of genes in a variety of organisms that are structurally, and presumably functionally, related (Figs. 10A-10C). Construction and mating of killer and target strains Prototypical killer and target strains were constructed in S. cerevisiae. The killer strain, TMY401 (MATa dphl ::TPRP1 ura3-52 leu2-3,112 his3-ll,15 trpl-1 ade2-l) was transformed with pTM147 (EFT2:DT:EFT2 HIS3 CEN). This strain is also His+ as a result of the HIS3 marker of pTM147. TMY407 <pRS426> was selected as a sample target strain. It was constructed by transforming TMY407 (MATa ura3-52 leu2-3, 112 his3-ll,15 trpl 63 ade2-l) with pRS426 (2μ URA3) which confers uracil prototrophy. Killer and target strains were patched to SC-His and SC-Ura media, respectively and grown overnight at 30°C. The killer and target strains were mixed and allowed to mate (i.e., undergo fusion) by transferring them (by replica plating) to rich media (YPD). After incubation overnight at 30°C, mating mixtures were then transferred to media (SC-Ura, His) that selects for growth of the mated diploids. Diploids appear on these plates as growing patches (many colonies) at the intersection of the two mating partners. Neither of the haploid mating partners will grow on the SC-Ura, His plates as a result of either Ura or His auxotrophies. As is illustrated in Fig. 11 , very few viable diploids appear at the intersection of -19- the killer and target strains. In contrast, if the killer strain is mated with a Ura+ strain that is resistant to diphtheria toxin, TMY403( 47α dphl ::TRP1 ura3-52 leu2-3,112 his3-ll, 15 trpl-1 ade2-l <HIS3 CEN>), healthy diploids are readily obtained. Production of diphtheria toxin-resistant fungi It is possible to isolate fungi that are resistant to toxin and, thus, are useful as killer strains. In one example, following isolation of any specific homolog of a S. cerevisiae DPH gene from another fungus, one can engineer this second fungus to be a killer strain by introducing a mutation into the homologous gene. Mutating any such gene is likely to make the fungus diphtheria toxin-resistant. Alternatively, one can use the selection described herein to isolate toxin-resistant strains. These strains are likely to contain a mutation in one of the DPH genes described herein, including genes that are homologous to DPHl, DPH3, and DPH4. Genetic engineering methods, including transformation and homologous recombination techniques, are practiced in many fungi (Punt and van den Hondel, Methods Enzymol. 1992, 216:447-457; Timberlake and Marshall, Science, 1989, 244:1313-1317; Fincham, Microbiol Rev. 1989, 53: 148-170). Gene deletion techniques are currently practiced in many fungi, including, but not limited to, Candida albicans (Fonzi and Irwin, Genetics 1993, 134: 717-728), Ustilago maydis (Fotheringham and Hollman, Mol. Cell Biol. 1989, 9:4052-4055; Bolker et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 1995, 248:547-552), Yarrowia lipolytica (Neuveglise et al., Gene 1998, 213:37-46; Chen et al, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1997, 48:232-235; Cordero et al, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1996, 46: 143-148), Acremonium chrysogenum (Skatrud et al., Curr. Genet. 1987, 12:337-348; Walz and Kuck, Curr. Genet. 1993, 24:421- 427), Magnaporthe grisea (Sweigard et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 1992, 232: 183-190); Kershaw et al., EMBO J. 1998, 17:3838-3849), Histoplasma capsulatum (Woods et al, J. Bacteriol. 1998, 180:5135-5143) and Aspergillus sp. (Miller et al., Mol. Cell Biol. 1985, 5: 1714-1721 ; de Ruiter- Jacobs et al., Curr. Genet. 1989, 16: 159-163; -20- Gouka et al., Curr. Genet. 1995, 27:536-540; van den Hombergh et al., Mol. Gen. - Genet. 1996, 251 :542-550; D'Enfert, Curr. Genet. 1996, 30:76-82; Weidner et al., Curr. Genet. 1998, 33:378-385). Other Embodiments While this invention has been particularly shown and described with references to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described specifically herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed in the scope of the claims. What is claimed is:

Claims: -21- 1. A method of selectively killing a first microorganism, said method comprising: a) contacting said first microorganism with a second microorganism that contains a microcidal compound; and b) allowing said first microorganism and said second microorganism to undergo fusion, whereby said microcidal compound is delivered into and kills the microorganism that forms following said fusion. 2. The method of claim 1 , wherein said first microorganism is a fungus. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein said fungus is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein said fungus is a pathogenic fungus. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein said pathogenic fungus is selected from the group consisting of: Absidia spp., Actinomadura madurae, Actinomyces spp., Allescheria boydii, Alternaria spp., Anthopsis deltoidea, Aphanomyces spp., Apophysomyces eleqans, Armillaria spp., Arnium leoporinum, Aspergillus spp., Aureobasidium pullulans, Basidiobolus ranarum, Bipolaris spp., Blastomyces dermatitidis, Botrytis spp., Candida spp., Centrospora spp., Cephalosporium spp., Ceratocystis spp., Chaetoconidium spp., Chaetomium spp., Cladosporium spp., Coccidioides immitis, Colletotrichum spp, Conidiobolus spp., Corynebacterium tenuis, Cryptoporiopsis spp., Cylindrocladium spp., Cryptococcus spp., Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Curvularia spp., Dactylaria spp., Diplodia spp., Epidermophyton spp., Epidermophyton floccosum, Exserophilum spp., Exophiala spp., Fonsecaea spp., Fulvia spp., Fusarium spp., Geotrichum spp., Guignardia spp., Helminthosporium spp., Histoplasma spp., Lecythophora spp., Macrophomina spp., Madurella spp., Magnaporthe spp., Malassezia furfur, Microspomm spp., Monilinia spp., Mucor spp., -22- Mycocentrospora acerina, Nectria spp., Nocardia spp., Oospora spp., Ophiobolus ' spp., Paecilomyces spp., Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Penicillium spp., Phaeosclera dematioides, Phaeoannellomyces spp., Phialemonium obovatum, Phialophora spp., Phlyctaena spp., Phoma spp., Phomopsis spp., Phymatotrichum spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Piedraia hortai, Pneumocystis carinii, Puccinia spp., Pythium insidiosum, Rhinocladiella aquaspersa, Rhizomucor pusillus , Rhizoctonia spp., Rhizopus spp., Saccharomyces spp., Saksenaea vasiformis, Sarcinomyces phaeomuriformis , Scerotium spp., Sclerotinia spp., Sphaerotheca spp., Sporothrix schenckii, Syncephalastrum racemosum, Taeniolella boppii, Taphrina spp., Thielaviopsis spp., Torulopsosis spp., Trichophyton spp., Trichosporon spp., Ulocladium chartarum, Ustilago spp., Venturia spp., Verticillium spp., Wangiella dermatitidis, Whetxelinia spp., and Xylohypha spp. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein said compound is a toxic compound or is a compound that causes a toxic compound to be produced in said microorganism that forms following fusion. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein said toxic compound is a toxin or fragment thereof selected from the group consisting of: diphtheria toxin, diphtheria toxin F2 fragment, diphtheria toxin A domain, Pseudomonas exotoxin A, and the A domain of Pseudomonas exotoxin A. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein said second microorganism is resistant to said microcidal compound. 9. The method of claim 6, wherein said compound is a biosynthetic enzyme that causes a toxic compound to be produced in said microorganism that forms following fusion. -23- 10. The method of claim 1, wherein said second microorganism is a nonpathogenic fungus. 1 1. The method of claim 1 , wherein said second microorganism is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein said fusion results from the mating of said first microorganism and said second microorganism. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein said fusion results from the anastomosis of said first organism and said second microorganism. 14. A method for rendering a fungus diphtheria toxin-resistant, said method comprising introducing into said fungus a mutation in its DPHl, DPH3, or DPH4 gene that decreases biosynthesis of diphthamide, wherein said fungus is selected from the group consisting of: Absidia spp., Actinomadura madurae, Actinomyces spp., Allescheria boydii, Alternaria spp., Anthopsis deltoidea, Aphanomyces spp., Apophysomyces eleqans, Armillaria spp., Arnium leoporinum, Aspergillus spp., Aureobasidium pullulans , Basidiobolus ranarum, Bipolaris spp., Blastomyces dermatitidis, Botrytis spp., Candida spp., Centrospora spp., Cephalosporium spp., Ceratocystis spp., Chaetoconidium spp., Chaetomium spp., Cladosporium spp., Coccidioides immitis, Colletotrichum spp, Conidiobolus spp., Corynebacterium tenuis, Cryptoporiopsis spp., Cylindrocladium spp., Cryptococcus spp., Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Curvularia spp., Dactylaria spp., Diplodia spp., Epidermophyton spp., Epidermophyton floccosum, Exserophilum spp., Exophiala spp., Fonsecaea spp., Fulvia spp., Fusarium spp., Geotrichum spp., Guignardia spp., Helminthosporium spp., Histoplasma spp., Lecythophora spp., Macrophomina spp., Madurella spp., Magnaporthe spp., Malassezia furfur , Microspomm spp., Monilinia spp., Mucor spp., -24- Mycocentrospora acerina, Nectria spp., Nocardia spp., Oospora spp., Ophiobolus ' spp., Paecilomyces spp., Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Penicillium spp., Phaeosclera dematioides, Phaeoannellomyces spp., Phialemonium obovatum, Phialophora spp., Phlyctaena spp., Phoma spp., Phomopsis spp., Phymatotrichum spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Piedraia hortai, Pneumocystis carinii, Puccinia spp., Pythium insidiosum, Rhinocladiella aquaspersa, Rhizomucor pusillus , Rhizoctonia spp., Rhizopus spp., Saccharomyces spp., Saksenaea vasiformis, Sarcinomyces phaeomuriformis, Scerotium spp., Sclerotinia spp., Sphaerotheca spp., Sporothrix schenckii, Syncephalastrum racemosum, Taeniolella boppii, Taphrina spp., Thielaviopsis spp., Tomlopsosis spp., Trichophyton spp., Trichosporon spp., Ulocladium chartarum, Ustilago spp., Venturia spp., Verticillium spp., Wangiella dermatitidis, Whetxelinia spp., and Xylohypha spp. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein said gene hybridizes at high stringency to S. cerevisiae DPHl , DPH3, or DPH4 and has DPH biological activity. 16. A diphtheria toxin-resistant fungus containing a mutation in its DPHl, DPH3, or DPH4 gene that decreases biosynthesis of diphthamide, wherein said fungus is selected from the group consisting of: Absidia spp., Actinomadura madurae, Actinomyces spp., Allescheria boydii, Alternaria spp., Anthopsis deltoidea, Aphanomyces spp., Apophysomyces eleqans, Armillaria spp., Arnium leoporinum, Aspergillus spp., Aureobasidium pullulans, Basidiobolus ranarum, Bipolaris spp., Blastomyces dermatitidis, Botrytis spp., Candida spp., Centrospora spp., Cephalosporium spp., Ceratocystis spp., Chaetoconidium spp., Chaetomium spp., Cladosporium spp., Coccidioides immitis, Colletotrichum spp, Conidiobolus spp., Corynebacterium tenuis, Cryptoporiopsis spp., Cylindrocladium spp., Cryptococcus spp., Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Curvularia spp., Dactylaria spp., Diplodia spp., Epidermophyton spp., Epidermophyton floccosum, Exserophilum spp., Exophiala spp., -25- Fonsecaea spp., Fulvia spp., Fusarium spp., Geotrichum spp., Guignardia spp., Helminthosporium spp., Histoplasma spp., Lecythophora spp., Macrophomina spp., Madurella spp., Magnaporthe spp., Malassezia furfur, Microspomm spp., Monilinia spp., Mucor spp., Mycocentrospora acerina, Nectria spp., Nocardia spp., Oospora spp., Ophiobolus spp., Paecilomyces spp., Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Penicillium spp., Phaeosclera dematioides, Phaeoannellomyces spp., Phialemonium obovatum, Phialophora spp., Phlyctaena spp., Phoma spp., Phomopsis spp., Phymatofrichum spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Piedraia hortai, Pneumocystis carinii, Puccinia spp., Pythium insidiosum, Rhinocladiella aquaspersa, Rhizomucor pusillus, Rhizoctonia spp., Rhizopus spp., Saccharomyces spp., Saksenaea vasiformis, Sarcinomyces phaeomuriformis, Scerotium spp., Sclerotinia spp., Sphaerotheca spp., Sporothrix schenckii, Syncephalastrum racemosum, Taeniolella boppii, Taphrina spp., Thielaviopsis spp., Tomlopsosis spp., Trichophyton spp., Trichosporon spp., Ulocladium chartarum, Ustilago spp., Venturia spp., Verticillium spp., Wangiella dermatitidis, Whetxelinia spp., and Xylohypha spp. 17. The microorganism of claim 16, wherein said gene hybridizes at high stringency to S. cerevisiae DPHl, DPH3, or DPH4 and has DPH biological activity. 18. Substantially pure Dph3 polypeptide. 19. The Dph3 polypeptide of claim 18, wherein the amino acid sequence of said Dph3 polypeptide is at least 55% identical to the amino acid sequence of Fig. 7 (SEQ ID No.: 10 ) and has DPH biological activity. 20. The polypeptide of claim 18, wherein said Dph3 polypeptide is of a fungus. -26- 21. The polypeptide of claim 20, wherein said fungus is a yeast. 22. The polypeptide of claim 21 , wherein said yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 23 The polypeptide of claim 18, wherein said polypeptide has DPH biological activity. 24. Isolated DNA encoding a Dph3 polypeptide. 25. The DNA of claim 24, wherein said DNA comprises a DPH3 gene of Fig. 7 (SEQ ID No.: 9). 26. The DNA of claim 24, wherein said DNA complements a DPH3 mutation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Inventors: FINK GERALD R, MILNE G TODD, FINK, GERALD, R., MILNE, G., TODD
Applicants: MICROBIA INC, MICROBIA, INC.
Application year: 1999
Main classification: A01N63
IPC codes: A01N63, A61K35, A61P31, C07H21, C07K14, C12N1, C12N9, C12N15, C12Q1