INTEGRATED FREQUENCY TRANSLATION AND SELECTIVITY WITH A VARIETY OF FILTER EMBODIMENTS

Abstract: Methods and apparatuses for frequency selectivity and frequency translation, and applications for such methods and apparatuses, are described herein. The method includes steps of filtering an input signal, and down-converting the filtered input signal. The filtering and the down-conversion operations are performed in an integrated, nified manner. The apparatus described herein can be implemented as an integrated circuit (IC).

Description: Integrated Frequency Translation And Selectivity With a Variety of Filter Embodiments Background of the Invention Field of the Invention The present invention is generally related to methods and apparatuses for frequency translation and frequency selectivity. Related Art FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an example conventional receiver 112. FIG. 2 is a flowchart representing the operation of the receiver 112. In step 206, a band-select filter 102 filters an RF (radio frequency) spectrum 114. An example RF spectrum 114 is shown in FIG. 4 A. The RF spectrum 114 includes signal components at frequencies f l5 f 2 , f 3 , and f 4 . Assume, for purposes of example, that the receiver 112 is configured to receive signals at frequency f 3 . Typically, the band-select filter 102 is a wide-band filter. The characteristics of the band- select filter 102 are generally illustrated in FIG. 4B. The band-select filter 102 has a center frequency f c , and a band-select bandwidth 402. In the example shown in FIG. 1, where the receiver 112 is receiving an RF spectrum 114, the center frequency f c of the band-select filter 102 is within the RF range. For example, the center frequency f c may be 900 MHZ. Depending on the application, the band-select bandwidth 402 may be as much as 50 MHz, or greater. In the example where the center frequency f c is 900 MHZ and the band-select bandwidth 402 is 50 MHZ, the passband (i.e., the band of frequencies that pass through a filter with little loss, relative to frequencies outside of the band) of the band-select filter 102 is 875 Mhz to 925 MHz. According to these specifications, the quality factor of the band-select filter 102, or Q, is equal to 18 (as described further below, Q is equal to the center frequency divided by the bandwidth, or 900MHz ÷ 50Mhz in this example). This Q factor is typical for a band-pass filter operating at RF. In fact, generally, high Q factors at high frequencies are difficult to realize using conventional filter techniques, and have at best limited tuning capabilities. The band-select filter 102 in step 206 operates to filter out signals outside its passband. For example purposes, assume that f, and f 4 are outside the passband of the band-select filter 102, and f, and f 3 are inside the passband of the band-select filter 102 (this is the case in the example of FIGS. 4A and 4B). Accordingly, in this example, the band-select filter 102 operates to filter out the signal components at frequencies f, and f 4 . The band-select filter 102 passes the signal components at frequencies f 2 and f 3 . The result of the operation of the band-select filter 102 is shown in FIG. 4C. In steps 208 and 210, the signal output by the band-select filter 102 (herein called the band-select filtered spectrum 408 for reference purposes) is processed by a low-noise amplifier (LNA) 104 and a mixer 106. The LNA 104 operates to amplify the band-select filtered spectrum 408, and the mixer 106 operates to down-convert the band-select filtered spectrum 408 in a well known manner. Both the LNA 104 and the mixer 106 have limited dynamic ranges over which their operation is linear. Outside of these ranges, the LNA 104 and the mixer 106 exhibit non-linear operation. The broader the band select filter 102 (i.e., the wider the pass band), the more energy is able to reach the LNA 104 and the mixer 106. Consequently, the broader the band select filter 102, the greater the chance that the respective dynamic ranges of the LNA 104 and the mixer 106 will be exceeded. For purposes of example, assume that the signal component 420 at frequency f 3 combined with the undesired signal component 421 at frequency f 2 exceed the linear ranges of the LNA 104 and the mixer 106 (this is a common practical example). When operating on a signal that is outside their linear ranges (i.e., when operating in a non-linear manner), the LNA 104 and/or the mixer 106 generate spurious signal components. In the given example, when operating on the signal components 420 and 421, the LNA 104 and/or the mixer 106 generate spurious signal components 404. See FIG. 4D. Some of these spurious components 404 may coincide and interfere with signals at desired frequencies. For example, as noted above, the receiver 112 is tuned to receive signals at frequency f 3 (in the example of FIGS. 4A-4G, frequency f 7 corresponds to f 3 after downconversion; similarly, frequency f 6 corresponds to f, after downconversion). In the process of operating on the signal components 420 and 421, the LNA 104 and/or the mixer 106 generate a spurious signal component 404C at frequency f 7 . This spurious component 404C coincides with the desired signal component 420 at frequency f 7 . This spurious component 404C interferes with the desired signal component 420. In step 212, a channel-select filter 108 filters the signal generated by the LNA 104 and the mixer 106 (this signal is herein called the processed spectrum 410 for reference purposes). The characteristics of the channel-select filter 108 are generally shown in FIG.4E. The channel- select filter 108 has a center frequency at frequency f 7 and a channel-select bandwidth 406. The center frequency f 7 of the channel select filter 108 is at a lower frequency than the center frequency of the band select filter 102. For example, the center frequency f 7 of the channel select filter 108 may be 10 MHZ. Depending on the application, the channel-select bandwidth 406 may be, for example, 50 KHz. According to these specifications, the quality factor of the channel- select filter 108, or Q, is equal to 200 (as indicated above, and described further below, Q is equal to the center frequency divided by the bandwidth, or 10MHz ÷ 50 KHz in this example). This Q factor is typical for a narrowband band-pass filter operating at IF (intermediate frequency). As this example illustrates, it is possible to realize higher Q factors at lower frequencies using conventional filter techniques. As shown in FIG. 4F, the effect of the channel-select filter 108 in step 212 is to filter-out the signal component at frequency f 6 and spurious components 404A, 404B, and 404D, but to pass any signals at frequency f 7 . Both the desired signal component 420 and the spurious component 404C exist at frequency f 7 , and are within the passband of the channel-select filter 108. Thus, both the desired signal component 420 and the spurious component 404C are passed by the channel-select filter 108. In step 214, an amplifier 110 amplifies the signal output from the channel-select filter 108 (this signal is called the channel select filtered signal 412 for reference purposes). The channel select filtered signal 412 includes both the desired signal component 420 and the spurious component 404C. Consequently, the amplifier 110 amplifies both the desired signal component 420 and the spurious component 404C. In other words, once the spurious component 404C is generated, it follows the desired signal component 420 in all downstream processing. As noted above, the spurious signal component 404C may make it difficult if not impossible to properly receive the desired signal component 420. Accordingly, because the receiver 112 utilized a wide-band, band-select filter 102 prior to amplification and frequency translation by non-linear components (i.e., by the LNA 104 and the mixer 106, respectively), the receiver 112 suffers from potentially degraded performance. The potential for signal interference as described above limits the receiver 112's applicability. Summary of the Invention The present invention is directed to methods and apparatuses for frequency selectivity and frequency translation. The invention is also directed to applications for such methods and apparatuses. Briefly stated, the invention operates to filter an input signal, and to down-convert the filtered input signal. According to embodiments of the present invention, the filtering operation and the down-conversion operation are performed in an integrated, unified manner. According to embodiments of the invention, the filtering operation is effectively performed prior to the down-conversion operation. Thus, the frequency selectivity operation performed by the present invention represents input filtering, such as but not limited to front end filtering. In embodiments of the invention, a relatively high Q factor can be realized regardless of center frequency. In embodiments of the invention, the input signal is an RF signal. Thus, the frequency selectivity operation performed by the present invention represents relatively high Q RF filtering. Thus, embodiments of the present invention preferably perform front end, narrowband filtering at RF, followed by frequency down-conversion. In other words, embodiments of the invention provide precise frequency selectivity at high frequencies. Also, the invention provides for frequency down-conversion. It is noted that the invention is not limited to the embodiments summarized in this section. The embodiments summarized in this section, as well as other embodiments, are described below. Further features and advantages of the invention, as well as the structure and operation of various embodiments of the invention, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. The drawing in which an element first appears is typically indicated by the leftmost digit(s) in the corresponding reference number. Brief Description of the Figures The present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a conventional receiver; FIG. 2 is a flowchart representing the operation of the conventional receiver of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 3 illustrates an operational map of the conventional receiver of FIG. 1 ; FIGS. 4A-4G are waveforms used to illustrate the operation of the conventional receiver of FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is used to illustrate the manner in which a filter's quality factor is calculated; FIGS. 6A-6D illustrate characteristics of different types of filters; FIGS. 7A-7C illustrate different types of modulation schemes; FIG. 8 is a block diagram of a receiver and functions that are performed by the receiver; FIG. 9 is an operational map of a receiver according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 10A-10E are waveforms used to describe the operational map of FIG. 9; FIG. 11 is a block diagram of a unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 12 is a block diagram of the UDF module of FIG. 11, wherein the unified performance of the frequency selectivity operation and the frequency translation operation according to the present invention is depicted; FIG. 13 is a block diagram of the UDF module of FIG. 11, wherein it is illustrated that operations related to the frequency translation operation are performed prior to operations relating to the frequency selectivity operation, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 14 is a flowchart depicting the operation of the unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 15 is a table illustrating example values at nodes within an example UDF module (shown in FIG. 26) at consecutive time increments; FIG. 16 is a more detailed operational flowchart of the unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) operations performed by embodiments of the invention; FIG. 17 is a more detailed block diagram of an example UDF module according to -an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 18 is an operational flowchart of the unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) operations performed by embodiments of the invention, wherein the filtering operation comprises a band-pass filtering operation; FIG. 19 is an example implementation of the operational steps of FIG. 18; FIG. 20 is a table representing example values in nodes of the UDF module of FIG. 19 at consecutive time increments; FIG. 21 is an example block diagram of an example filter; FIG. 22 is an operational flowchart of the unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) operations performed by embodiments of the invention, wherein the filtering operation comprises a low-pass filtering operation; FIG. 23 is an example UDF module useful for implementing the steps of the flowchart in FIG. 22; FIG. 24 is a flowchart illustrating the operation of an example midpoint injection embodiment of the present invention; FIG.25 is an example UDF module useful for performing the operational steps of the flowchart of FIG. 24; FIG. 26 is an example implementation of the UDF module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 27 A and 27B are used to illustrate the filter characteristics of the UDF module of FIG. 26; FIGS. 28A-28F and 29A-29F are waveforms used to illustrate the operation of the UDF module of FIG. 26; FIG. 30 is a block diagram of an example receiver according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 31 is a flowchart representing the operation of the receiver of FIG. 30 according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 32 illustrates an example switched capacitor used to implement the delay modules in an example UDF module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 33A and 33B illustrate a clock signal having two phases, φl and φ 2 ; FIG. 34 illustrates an example analog delay line used to implement the delay modules of an example UDF module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 35 illustrates a resistor attenuater used to implement the scaling modules in an example UDF module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 36 illustrates an example resistor attenuater; FIG. 37 illustrates an example amplifier capable of implementing the scaling module in an example UDF module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 38 illustrates an example resistive summer capable of implementing the summer/adder in an example UDF module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 39 illustrates an example resistive summer; FIG. 40 illustrates an example OP AMP (operational amplifier) summer capable of implementing the summer/adder in an example UDF module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 41 illustrates an example OP AMP summer; FIG. 42 illustrates an example control signal generator according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 43A-43D illustrate signals present at nodes in the control signal generator of FIG. 42; FIG. 44 illustrates an operational map of an example UDF module according to an alternate embodiment of the invention; FIG. 45 is used to illustrate the operation of a sample and hold circuit according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 46 is a flowchart representing an example operation of the sample and hold circuits shown in FIG. 45; FIG. 47 is a table indicating example values present at nodes in the sample and hold circuits of FIG. 45; FIG. 48 illustrates an example bi-phase clock signal used to control switches in the sample and hold circuits of FIG. 45; FIG. 49 is a flowchart depicting the manner in which a UDF module is designed according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 50 is a more detailed flowchart depicting the manner in which a UDF module- is designed according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 51 illustrates an example table of transform expressions that can be used when designing a UDF module according to embodiments of the invention; FIGS. 52A-52F illustrate example applications of the UDF module according to embodiments of the invention; FIGS. 53A and 53A-1 illustrate example aliasing modules according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 53B-53F illustrate example waveforms used to describe the operation of the aliasing modules of FIGS. 53A and 53A-1 ; FIGS. 54A-54C present filter-related equations that are relevant to embodiments of the invention; FIG. 55 is a block diagram of a unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) module that performs finite impulse response (FIR) filtering according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 56 is a block diagram of a unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) module that performs running average filtering according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 57A illustrates example control signals used to illustrate the operation of the UDF module of FIG. 56; FIG. 57B illustrates an example filter passband used to illustrate the operation of the UDF module of FIG. 56; FIGS. 58A and 58B are block diagrams of unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) modules representative of n-path filters according to embodiments of the invention; FIGS. 59A-59C are example control signals used to illustrate the operation of the UDF module of FIG. 58 A; FIG. 60 is a block diagram of a unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) module that is representative of a passive filter according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 61 is a block diagram of an example FIR filter according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 62 illustrates characteristics of an example FIR filter; FIG. 63 is a block diagram of a UDF module according to another embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 64A-D illustrate example implementations of a switch module according to embodiments of the invention; FIGS. 65H-K illustrate example aperture generators; FIG. 65L illustrates an oscillator according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 66 illustrates an energy transfer system with an optional energy transfer signal module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 67 illustrates an aliasing module with input and output impedance match according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 68A illustrates an example pulse generator; FIGS. 68B and C illustrate example waveforms related to the pulse generator of FIG. 68A; FIG. 69 illustrates an example energy transfer module with a switch module and a reactive storage module according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS.70A-B illustrate example energy transfer systems according to embodiments of the invention; FIG. 71 A illustrates an example energy transfer signal module according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 71 B illustrates a flowchart of state machine operation according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 71 C is an example energy transfer signal module; FIG. 72 is a schematic diagram of a circuit to down-convert a 915 MHZ signal to a 5 MHZ signal using a 101.1 MHZ clock according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG.73 shows simulation waveforms for the circuit of FIG.72 according to embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 74 is a schematic diagram of a circuit to down-convert a 915 MHZ signal to a 5 MHz signal using a 101 MHZ clock according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG.75 shows simulation waveforms for the circuit of FIG.74 according to embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 76 is a schematic diagram of a circuit to down-convert a 915 MHZ signal to a 5 MHZ signal using a 101.1 MHZ clock according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 77 shows simulation waveforms for the circuit of FIG. 76 according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 78 shows a schematic of the circuit in FIG. 72 connected to an FSK source that alternates between 913 and 917 MHZ at a baud rate of 500 Kbaud according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 79A illustrates an example energy transfer system according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 79B-C illustrate example timing diagrams for the example system of FIG. 79A; FIG. 80 illustrates an example bypass network according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 81 illustrates an example bypass network according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 82 illustrates an example embodiment of the invention; FIG. 83A illustrates an example real time aperture control circuit according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 83B illustrates a timing diagram of an example clock signal for real time aperture control, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 83 C illustrates a timing diagram of an example optional enable signal for real time aperture control, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 83D illustrates a timing diagram of an inverted clock signal for real time aperture control, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 83E illustrates a timing diagram of an example delayed clock signal for real time aperture control, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 83F illustrates a timing diagram of an example energy transfer including pulses having apertures that are controlled in real time, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG.84 illustrates an example embodiment of the invention; FIG.85 illustrates an example embodiment of the invention; FIG.86 illustrates an example embodiment of the invention; FIG.87 illustrates an example embodiment of the invention; FIG.88A is a timing diagram for the example embodiment of FIG. 84; FIG.88B is a timing diagram for the example embodiment of FIG. 85; FIG.89A is a timing diagram for the example embodiment of FIG. 86; FIG.89B is a timing diagram for the example embodiment of FIG. 87; FIG.90A illustrates and example embodiment of the invention; FIG.90B illustrates equations for determining charge transfer, in accordance with the present invention; FIG.90C illustrates relationships between capacitor charging and aperture, in accordance with the present invention; FIG.90D illustrates relationships between capacitor charging and aperture, in accordance with the present invention; FIG.90E illustrates power-charge relationship equations, in accordance with the present invention; FIG.90F illustrates insertion loss equations, in accordance with the present invention; and FIG.91 shows the original FSK waveform 7802 and the down-converted waveform 7804. Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiments Table of Contents Terminology 1.1 Filters 1.2 Other Terms Overview of the Invention Unified Downconverting and Filtering 3.1 Conceptual Description 3.2 High Level Description 3.2.1 Operational Description 3.2.2 Structural Description 3.3 Example Embodiments 3.3.1 First Embodiment: Band Pass Filtering and Frequency Translation 3.3.1.1 Operational Description 3.3.1.2 Structural Description 3.3.2 Second Embodiment: Low Pass Filtering and Frequency Translation 3.3.2.1 Operational Description 3.3.2.2 Structural Description 3.3.3 Third Embodiment: Filtering With Mid-Point Injection and Frequency Translation 3.3.3.1 Operational Description 3.3.3.2 Structural Description 3.3.4 Fourth Embodiment: Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filtering 3.3.5 Fifth Embodiment: Running Average Filter 3.3.6 Sixth Embodiment: N-Path Filter 3.3.7 Seventh Embodiment: Passive Filter 3.3.8 Other Embodiments 3.4 Implementation Examples 3.4.1 Implementation Example of a Unified Downconverting and Filtering (UDF) Module 3.4.2 Implementation Examples of Components of the UDF Module 3.4.2.1 Downconvert and Delay Module 3.4.2.1.1 Universal frequency down-conversion (UFD) Module 3.4.2.1.1.1 Optional Energy Transfer Signal Module 3.4.2.1.1.2 Smoothing the Down-Converted Signal 3.4.2.1.1.3 Impedance Matching 3.4.2.1.1.4 Tanks and Resonant Structures 3.4.2.1.1.5 Charge and Power Transfer Concepts 3.4.2.1.1.6 Optimizing and Adjusting the Non- Negligible Aperture Width/Duration 3.4.2.1.1.6.1 Varying Input and Output Impedances 3.4.2.1.1.6.2 Real Time Aperture Control 3.4.2.1.1.7 Adding a Bypass Network 3.4.2.1.1.8 Modifying the Energy Transfer Signal Utilizing Feedback 3.4.2.1.1.9 Other Implementations 3.4.2.1.1.10 Example Energy Transfer Down- Converters 3.4.2.2 Delay Modules 3.4.2.3 Scaling Modules 3.4.2.4 Adder 3.4.2.5 Control Signal Generator 3.4.2.6 Output Sample and Hold Module 3.4.2.7 Output Smoothing Module 3.4.2.8 Mid-Point Injection Embodiment: High Frequency Delay Module 3.4.2.9 Mid-Point Injection Embodiment: Optional Filter 3.4.2.10 Mid-Point Injection Embodiment: Downconvert Module 3.4.2.11 Mid-Point Injection Embodiment: Upconvert Module 3.4.3 Implementing the UDF Module as an Integrated Circuit (IC) 3.4.4 Other Implementations Designing a Unified Downconverting and Filtering (UDF) Module 5 Adjustable UDF Module 6 Amplification 7 Example Applications 7.1 Receiver 7.2 Other Application Examples 8 Conclusion 1 Terminology Various terms and concepts used in this application are generally described in this section. The description in this section is provided for illustrative and convenience purposes only, and is not limiting. The meaning of these terms and concepts will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the entirety of the teachings provided herein. 1.1 Filters A filter is a device that allows electromagnetic signals of specific frequencies to pass with little attentuation. More particularly, a filter passes signals inside a frequency range (called a passband) with little attentuation. The filter does not pass signals outside of the passband (i.e., the filter attentuates signals outside of the passband). There are a number of different types of filters. These include, for example, low-pass filters, high-pass filters, band-pass filters, notch filters, etc. The characteristics of these filters are generally illustrated in FIGS. 6A-6D. There are many transfer functions for characterizing the operation of filters. For example, and without limitation, the following biquadratic equation represents the transfer function of a second order filter. vo a 2 z + a, z a, EQ. 1 VI β 2 z 2 + β, z + β 0 Often, the β 2 coefficient is factored out in order to solve for z 2 . As will be appreciated, doing so merely results in changing the values of other coefficients. Without any loss- of generality, EQ. 1 is re- written below with β 2 factored out (for ease of illustration, the effect of filtering out β 2 on the other coefficients of EQ. 1 is not explicitly indicated in the following): VO a 2 z + a, z a, VI z 2 + β { z + β 0 It is noted that the invention is not limited to second order filters (the invention is applicable to filters of other orders), or to EQ. 1 for second order filters. A well known conceptual block diagram implementation of this biquadratic equation is shown in FIG. 21. The z ~ ' designation in FIG. 21 designates a unit delay operation (that is, a z " ' module delays an input signal by one time unit). The biquadratic equation of EQ. 1 applies to second order filter types. The transfer function for a particular type of second order filter (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, notch, etc.) can be obtained from the biquadratic equation of EQ. 1 by appropriately setting the values of the coefficients. For example, a transfer function of a band-pass filter can be obtained from the biquadratic equation of EQ. 1 by setting a 2 and oc 0 to zero. The resulting transfer function, representing the operation of a band-pass filter, is as follows: VO α, z EQ. 2 VI z 2 + /J, z + ? 0 Solving for VO yields the following: VO = a, z '1 VI - ?, z-'VO - β 0 z "2 VO EQ. 3 In the above, the value z equals the following: In EQ. 4, f is the frequency, and F s is the sample frequency of the system. An example transfer function of a low-pass filter can be obtained from the biquadratic equation of EQ. 1 by setting α 2 and α, equal to zero. The resulting transfer function, corresponding to a low-pass filter, is as follows: VO a, EQ. 5 VI z 2 + /J, z + /J 0 Solving for VO yields the following: VO = a 0 z '2 VI - β λ z 'VO - β 0 z "2 VO EQ. 6 Transfer functions for other types of filters, such as (and without limitation) high-pass filters and notch filters, can be obtained in a similar manner from the biquadratic equation of EQ. 1. It should be noted that the transfer functions provided above are not the only representations of a band-pass filter and a low-pass filter. Multiple transfer functions for filter types can be obtained via different combinations of coefficient values in the biquadratic of EQ. 1 , or via use of base equations other than the biquadratic of EQ. 1. There are a number of measures for characterizing the performance of a filter. For example, and without limitation, the performance of a second order band-pass filter is often measured by its quality factor, or Q. FIG. 5 illustrates the manner in which Q is calculated for a second order filter. Q is equal to the center frequency f c of the filter divided by the bandwidth B W of the filter. The bandwidth B W is measured at a point 3 DB below the maximum amplitude of the filter. Therefore, if a filter operates at a center frequency f c of 1 MHz, and has a bandwidth BW of 50 KHz, the Q of the filter is 1,000,000 ! = 20 50,000 1.2 Other Terms Various terms used in this application are generally described in this section. The description in this section is provided for illustrative and convenience purposes only, and is not limiting. The meaning of these terms will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the entirety of the teachings provided herein. These terms may be discussed throughout the specification with additional detail. Amplitude Modulation (AM): A modulation technique wherein the amplitude of the carrier signal is shifted (i.e., varied) as a function of the information signal. A subset of AM is referred to as "amplitude shift keying" which is used primarily for digital communications where the amplitude of the carrier signal shifts between discrete states rather than varying continuously as it does for analog information. Analog signal: A signal that is constant or continuously variable as contrasted to changes between discrete states. Baseband: A frequency band occupied by any generic information signal desired for transmission and/or reception. Baseband signal: Any generic information signal desired for transmission and/or reception. Carrier frequency: The frequency of a carrier signal. Typically, it is the center frequency of a transmission signal that is generally modulated. Carrier signal: An EM wave having at least one characteristic that may be varied by modulation, that is capable of carrying information via modulation. Control a switch: Causing a switch to open and close. The switch may be, without limitation, mechanical, electrical, electronic, optical, etc., or any combination thereof. Demodulation: The process of removing or extracting information from a carrier signal. Digital signal: A signal in which the information contained therein is discrete as contrasted to continuous. Direct down conversion: A down conversion technique wherein a transmitted signal is directly down converted from the transmitted frequency (i.e., a carrier frequency) to the baseband signal without having an intermediate frequency. Down conversion: A process for performing frequency translation in which the final frequency is lower than the initial frequency. Electromagnetic spectrum: A spectrum comprising waves characterized by variations in electric and magnetic fields. Such waves may be propagated in any communication medium, both natural and manmade, including but not limited to air, space, wire, cable, liquid, waveguide, microstrip, stripline, optical fiber, etc. The EM spectrum includes all frequencies greater than zero hertz. EM signal: A signal in the EM spectrum. Also generally called an EM wave. Unless stated otherwise, all signals discussed herein are EM signals, even when not explicitly designated as such. Frequency Modulation (FM): A modulation technique wherein the frequency of the carrier signal is shifted (i.e., varied) as a function of the information signal. A subset of FM is referred to as "frequency shift keying" which is used primarily for digital communications where the frequency of the carrier signal shifts between discrete states rather than varying continuously as it does for analog information. Harmonic: A harmonic is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave. It has a frequency that is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency of the periodic wave. In other words, if the periodic waveform has a fundamental frequency off (also called the first harmonic), then it has harmonics at frequencies of "n»f," where "n" is 2, 3, 4, etc. The harmonic corresponding to n=2 is referred to as the second harmonic, the harmonic corresponding to n=3 is referred to as the third harmonic, and so on. Information signal: The signal that contains the information that is to be transmitted. As used herein, it refers to the original baseband signal at the source. When it is intended that the information signal modulate a carrier signal, it is also referred to as the "modulating baseband signal." It may be voice or data, analog or digital, or any other signal or combination thereof. Intermediate frequency (IF) signal: A signal that is at a frequency between the frequency of the baseband signal and the frequency of the transmitted signal. Modulation: The process of varying one or more physical characteristics of a signal to represent the information to be transmitted. Three commonly used modulation techniques are frequency modulation, phase modulation, and amplitude modulation. There are also variations, subsets, and combinations of these three techniques. Phase Modulation (PM): A modulation technique wherein the phase of the carrier signal is shifted (i.e., varied) as a function of the information signal. A subset of PM is referred to as "phase shift keying" which is used primarily for digital communications where the phase of the carrier signal shifts between discrete states rather than varying continuously as it does for analog information. Subharmonic: A subharmonic of a periodic waveform is a sinusoidal wave having a frequency that is an integer submultiple of the fundamental frequency of that periodic waveform. That is, a subharmonic frequency is the quotient obtained by dividing the fundamental frequency by an integer. For example, if the periodic waveform has a frequency of "f (also called the fundamental), then its subharmonics have frequencies of "f/n," where n is 2, 3, 4, etc. The subharmonic corresponding to n=2 is referred to as the second subharmonic, the subharmonic corresponding to n=3 is referred to as the third subharmonic, and so on. A subharmonic itself has harmonics, and the i th harmonic of the i th subharmonic will be at the fundamental frequency of the original periodic waveform. For example, the third subharmonic (which has a frequency of "f/3"), has harmonics at integer multiples of itself (i.e., a second harmonic at "2»f/3," a third harmonic at "3»f/3," and so on). The third harmonic of the third subharmonic of the original signal (i.e., "3»f/3") is at the frequency of the original signal. Up conversion: A process for performing frequency translation in which the final frequency is higher than the initial frequency. 2 Overview of the Invention The present invention is directed to methods and apparatuses for frequency selectivity and frequency translation. The invention is also directed to applications for such methods and apparatuses. According to the present invention, frequency selectivity and frequency translation are performed as a single unified (i.e., integrated) operation. By performing frequency selectivity and translation as a single unified operation, the invention achieves high frequency selectivity prior to frequency translation. The invention achieves high frequency selectivity at any input frequency (the input frequency refers to the frequency of the input spectrum being filtered and translated), including but not limited to RF (radio frequency) and greater frequencies. It should be understood that the invention is not limited to this example of RF and greater frequencies. The invention is intended, adapted, and capable of working with lower than radio frequencies. Understanding of the invention may be facilitated by considering the operation of a receiver. Generally, a receiver 802 performs three primary functions: frequency translation 808, frequency selection 810, and amplification 812. See FIG. 8. In the conventional receiver L12 of FIG. 1, for example, the mixer 106 performs the frequency translation operation; the band select filter 102 and the channel select filter 108 collectively perform the frequency selection operation; and the LNA 104 and the amplifier 110 collectively perform the amplification operation. In the conventional receiver 112, note that the band select filter 102 is positioned prior to the mixer 106, and the channel select filter 108 is positioned after the mixer 106. Thus, in the conventional receiver 112, only a portion of the frequency selection operation 810 is performed prior to the frequency translation operation 808. Specifically, only band select filtering (i.e., wideband or image reject filtering) is performed prior to the frequency translation operation 810; channel select filtering (i.e., narrowband filtering) is performed after the frequency translation operation 808. This operational map of the conventional receiver 112 is illustrated in FIG. 3. As described above, in the conventional receiver 112, signal components at frequencies near the desired frequency are not filtered out by the band select filter 102. This is because the bandwidth of the band select filter 102 is wide (specifically, the bandwidth of the band select filter 102 is greater than the bandwidth of the channel select filter 108). These signal components can exceed the dynamic range of the system and cause the LNA 104 and/or the mixer 106 to generate spurious signal components that may interfere with other signal components at desired frequencies (see FIGS. 4A-4G). Thus, the conventional receiver 112 suffers from potentially degraded performance because only band select or wideband filtering is performed prior to the frequency translation operation 808 or other operations (such as the amplification operation 812) that involve components having a limited linear range (such as the mixer 106 and the LNA 104). What would be desired is a receiver 902 having an operational map as shown in FIG. 9. In the receiver 902 of FIG. 9, preferably filtering (shown as the frequency selectivity operation 906 in FIG. 9) with a relatively narrow bandwidth (such as channel select filtering) is performed prior to the frequency translation operation 908 and the amplification operation 910. The advantages of the functional arrangement of the receiver 902 shall be considered with reference to FIGS. 10A-10E. FIG. 10A illustrates an example input spectrum 904 having signal components at frequencies f„ f 2 , f 3 , and f 4 . Input spectrum 904 is, for example, an RF spectrum. Assume, for purposes of example, that the receiver 902 is tuned to receive signals at frequency f 3 . In-the receiver 902, the frequency selectivity operation 906 is first performed on the input spectrum 904. In the example receiver 902, this frequency selectivity operation 906 comprises channel select filtering. The characteristics of such filtering is generally illustrated in FIG. 10B, where the filter (that is performing the frequency selectivity operation 906) is centered at frequency f 3 and has a channel select bandwidth 1002. In the case where the input spectrum 904 is an RF spectrum, the center frequency f 3 is also an RF frequency. For purposes of example, assume that the center frequency f 3 is 900 MHZ. Preferably, the channel select bandwidth 1002 is consistent with that of a narrow band filter. For example and without limitation, the channel select bandwidth 1002 may be 50 KHz, such that the passband associated with the frequency selectivity operation 906 is 899.95 MHZ to 900.05 MHz. Accordingly, the frequency selectivity operation 906 of the receiver 902 represents a front end, narrow band filtering operation operating at RF. The Q of this filter is 900 MHZ divided by 50 KHZ, or 18,000. Thus, with the present invention, filters with high Q factors at high frequencies are realizable. The frequency selectivity operation 906 operates to filter out signal components not falling within the passband associated with the frequency selectivity operation 906. For purposes of example, assume that the signal component at frequency f 3 falls within this passband, but the signal components at f„ f 2 , and f 4 fall outside this passband (this is the example shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B). Accordingly, only the signal component at frequency f 3 is passed by the frequency selectivity operation 906. This signal component at frequency f 3 is referred to as the filtered spectrum 914 for reference purposes. In the receiver 902 of FIG. 9, the frequency translation operation 908 and the amplification operation 910 follow the frequency selectivity operation 906. Because of the operation of the frequency selectivity operation 906, these operations 908, 910 operate on only the signal component at frequency f 3 . Other signal components (that is, the signal components at frequencies f,, f 2 , and f 4 ) were filtered out by the frequency selectivity operation 906 and, thus, these signal components are not processed by the frequency translation operation 908 or the amplification operation 910. When the frequency translation operation 908 and the amplification operation 910 operate on the filtered signal 914, spurious components due to other than the filtered signal 914 are not generated. The result of the frequency translation operation 908 is depicted in FIG. 10D, and he result of the amplification operation 910 is depicted in FIG. 10E. Note that the desired output signal 912 shown in FIG. 10E is not compromised by spurious signal components. The present invention is directed to methods and apparatuses for unified down-converting and filtering (UDF). The invention preferably performs at least the frequency selectivity operation 906 and the frequency translation operation 908. According to embodiments of the present invention, the frequency selectivity operation 906 performed by the present invention comprises filtering at any frequency, such as RF or greater. Such filtering is effectively performed prior to performance of the frequency translation operation 908, as shown in FIG. 9. Accordingly, the present invention exhibits the advantages described above with reference to FIGS. 10A-10E. In some embodiments, the filter bandwidth of the present invention is consistent with narrow band filtering. Thus, the present invention can be accurately characterized as performing a narrow band filtering operation. In other embodiments, depending on the application, the filter bandwidth of the present invention is consistent with wide band filtering. Thus, the present invention can be accurately characterized as performing a wide band filtering operation. However, it should be understood that such characterizations of the invention are provided herein for illustrative purposes only. The filtering capabilities of the invention are not limited to those filter bandwidths typically associated with "narrow band filtering" and "wide band filtering." Instead, the unified down-converting and filtering (UDF) functionality of the present invention can be designed with substantially any filter bandwidth. The present invention is intended, adapted, and capable of filtering using substantially any filter bandwidth. As noted above, the invention is capable of operating with input electromagnetic signals having frequencies equal to RF and above. In these embodiments, the invention operates to filter and downconvert at RF and greater frequencies. However, it should be understood that the invention is not limited to operation at RF and above. Instead, the invention is intended, adapted, and capable of working with substantially any frequency. The invention is operable with any communication medium, including but not limited to wireless, optical, wire, etc., and variations and combinations thereof. Signals referred to herein may be modulated or unmodulated. Modulated signals may have been generated using any modulation scheme, such as AM, FM, PM, etc., or combinations thereof. See, for example and without limitation, various modulation examples shown in FIGS. 7A-7C. The invention is described in detail below. 3 Unified Downconverting and Filtering The following sections describe operational methods for unified down-converting and filtering (UDF) according to embodiments of the invention. Structural exemplary embodiments for achieving these methods are also described. It should be understood that the invention is not limited to the particular embodiments described below. Equivalents, extensions, variations, deviations, etc., of the following will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. Such equivalents, extensions, variations, deviations, etc., are within the scope and spirit of the present invention. 3.1 Conceptual Description The present invention is conceptually described in this section. FIG. 11 is a conceptual block diagram of a unified down-converting and filtering (UDF) module 1102 according to an embodiment of the present invention. The UDF module 1102 performs at least the frequency translation operation 908 and the frequency selectivity operation 906 (FIG. 9). The effect achieved by the UDF module 1102 is to perform the frequency selectivity operation 906 prior to the performance of the frequency translation operation 908. Thus, the UDF module 1102 effectively performs input filtering. According to embodiments of the present invention, such input filtering involves a relatively narrow bandwidth. For example, such input filtering may represent channel select filtering, where the filter bandwidth may be, for example, 50 KHz to 150 KHz. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to these frequencies. The invention is intended, adapted, and capable of achieving filter bandwidths of less than and greater than these values. In embodiments of the invention, input signals 1104 received by the UDF module 1102 are at radio frequencies. The UDF module 1102 effectively operates to input filter these RF input signals 1104. Specifically, in these embodiments, the UDF module 1102 effectively performs input, channel select filtering of the RF input signal 1104. Accordingly, the invention achieves high selectivity at high frequencies. The UDF module 1102 effectively performs various types of filtering, including but not limited to bandpass filtering, low pass filtering, high pass filtering, notch filtering, all pass filtering, band stop filtering, etc., and combinations thereof. Conceptually, the UDF module 1102 includes a frequency translator 1108. The frequency translator 1108 conceptually represents that portion of the UDF module 1102 that performs frequency translation (down conversion). The UDF module 1102 also conceptually includes an apparent input filter 1106 (also sometimes called an input filtering emulator). Conceptually, the apparent input filter 1106 represents that portion of the UDF module 1102 that performs input filtering. In practice, the input filtering operation performed by the UDF module 1102 is integrated with the frequency translation operation. The input filtering operation can be viewed as being performed concurrently with the frequency translation operation. This is a reason why the input filter 1106 is herein referred to as an "apparent" input filter 1106. The UDF module 1102 of the present invention includes a number of advantages. For example, high selectivity at high frequencies is realizable using the UDF module 1102. This feature of the invention is evident by the high Q factors that are attainable. For example, and without limitation, the UDF module 1102 can be designed with a filter center frequency f c on the order of 900 MHz, and a filter bandwidth on the order of 50 KHz. This represents a Q of 18,000, as indicated below. 900 - 10 6 = 18,000 50 - 10 3 It should be understood that the invention is not limited to filters with high Q factors. The filters contemplated by the present invention may have lesser or greater Qs, depending on the application, design, and/or implementation. Also, the scope of the invention includes filters where Q factor as described herein is not applicable. The invention exhibits additional advantages. For example, the filtering center frequency f c of the UDF module 1102 can be electrically adjusted, either statically or dynamically. Also, the UDF module 1102 can be designed to amplify input signals. Further, the UDF module 1102 can be implemented without large resistors, capacitors, or inductors. Also, the UDF module 1102 does not require that high tolerances be maintained on its individual components, i.e., its resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc. As a result, the architecture of the UDF module 1102 is friendly to integrated circuit design techniques and processes. These and other advantages of the UDF module 1102 of the present invention will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. Further understanding of the UDF module 1102 may be facilitated by making a comparison with the conventional receiver 112 (FIGS. 1 and 3). The frequency selectivity operations 302, 308 performed by the conventional receiver 112 are distinct from the frequency translation operation 306 (see FIG. 3). More particularly, the components which perform the frequency selectivity operation 302, 308 (that is, the band-select filter 102 and the channel-select filter 108) are different from the component that performs the frequency translation operation 306 (that is, the mixer 106). The features and advantages exhibited by the UDF module 1102 are achieved at least in part by adopting a new technological paradigm with respect to frequency selectivity and translation. Specifically, according to the present invention, the UDF module 1102 performs the frequency selectivity operation and the frequency translation operation as a single, unified (integrated) operation. This is conceptually represented in FIG. 12, where the selectivity operation 1202 is shown as being combined or integrated with the frequency translation operation 1204. This is also indicated via the dotted line representations of the apparent input filter 1106 and the frequency translator 1108 in FIG. 11. Referring to FIG. 13, as described above, the UDF module 1102 preferably performs frequency translation 1204 prior to frequency selectivity 1202 (in other embodiments, the reverse is true). The overlapping area 1302 depicted in FIG. 13 indicates that the operations relating to frequency translation 1204 also contribute to the performance of frequency selectivity 1202, and/or vice versa. 3.2 High Level Description This section (including its subsections) provides a high-level description of unified down- converting and filtering (UDF) according to the present invention. In particular, an operational process of down-converting and filtering is described at a high-level. Also, a structural implementation for achieving this process is described at a high-level. This structural implementation is described herein for illustrative purposes, and is not limiting. In particular, the process described in this section can be achieved using any number of structural implementations, one of which is described in this section. The details of such structural implementations will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. 3.2.1 Operational Description According to embodiments of the present invention, the UDF module generates an output signal from an input signal using samples/instances of the input signal and samples/instances of the output signal. This operation is represented by step 1406 in a flowchart 1402 (FIG. 14). By operating in this manner, the UDF module preferably performs input filtering and frequency down-conversion in a unified manner. For illustrative purposes, the operation of the invention is often represented by flowcharts, such as flowchart 1402 in FIG. 14. It should be understood, however, that the use of flowcharts is for illustrative purposes only, and is not limiting. For example, the invention is not limited to the operational embodiment(s) represented by the flowcharts. Instead, alternative operational embodiments will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. Also, the use of flowcharts should not be interpreted as limiting the invention to discrete or digital operation. In practice, as will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the herein discussion, the invention can be achieved via discrete or continuous operation, or a combination thereof. Further, the flow of control represented by the flowcharts is provided for illustrative purposes only. As will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), other operational control flows are within the scope and spirit of the present invention. Also, the ordering of steps may differ in various embodiments. The operation of embodiments of the invention shall now be described in greater detail with reference to a flowchart 1602 shown in FIG. 16. The steps of flowchart 1602 generally represent step 1406 in FIG. 14. In step 1606, the input signal is sampled. This input sample includes information (such as amplitude, phase, etc.) representative of the input signal existing at the time the sample was taken. As described further below, the effect of repetitively performing step 1606 is to translate the frequency (that is, down-convert) of the input signal to a desired lower frequency, such as an intermediate frequency (IF) or baseband. In step 1608, the input sample is held (that is, delayed). In step 1610, one or more delayed input samples (some of which may have been scaled), such as the delayed input sample of step 1608, are combined with one or more delayed instances of the output signal (some of which may have been scaled) to generate a current instance of the output signal. Thus, according to a preferred embodiment of the invention, the output signal is generated from prior samples/instances of the input signal and/or the output signal. (It is noted that, in some embodiments of the invention, current samples/instances of the input signal and/or the output signal may be used to generate current instances of the output signal.) As noted above, this operation of the present invention supports multiple filtering types, including but not limited to bandpass, low pass, high pass, notch, all pass, etc., and combinations thereof. 3.2.2 Structural Description FIG. 17 illustrates a UDF module 1702 according to an embodiment of the invention. The UDF module 1702 includes a portion that generally corresponds to the frequency translator 1108 (FIG. 11). The UDF module 1702 includes another portion that generally corresponds to the input filter 1106. Note that the portion of the UDF module 1702 that corresponds to the frequency translator 1108 also forms a part of the input filter 1106. This further highlights the preferred aspect of the invention that the frequency selectivity operation 1202 and the frequency translation operation 1204 are performed as an integrated and unified operation. Note that the UDF module 1702 includes scaling elements 1790. These elements are optional, and are used for amplification. The scaling elements 1790 are discussed in a section below. In the present discussion, the scaling elements 1790 are not considered. The operation of the UDF module 1702 shall now be described with reference to flowchart 1602 in FIG. 16. In step 1606, a down-convert and delay module 1708 samples the input signal 1704. This sampling operation is performed in accordance with a control signal 1734A. The down-convert and delay module 1708, when repetitively performing step 1606, results in translating the frequency of the input signal 1704 to a desired lower frequency, such as IF or baseband. Accordingly, the down-convert and delay module 1708 down-converts the input signal 1704 to a desired lower frequency. In step 1608, the down-convert and delay module 1708 holds (delays) the input sample. This delaying operation by the down-convert and delay module 1708 contributes to the performance of the frequency selectivity operation 1202. In step 1610, components of the UDF module 1702 operate to combine one or more delayed input samples (some of which may have been scaled) with one or more delayed instances of the output signal 1706 (some of which may have been scaled) to generate a current instance of the output signal 1706. More particularly, delay modules 1710A, 1710B, etc., operate to delay samples of the input signal 1704 taken by the down-convert and delay module 1708 (although two delay modules 1710A, 1710B are shown in the example of FIG. 17, the invention is not limited to this embodiment). Scaling modules 1716A, 1716B, 1716C, etc., operate to scale these delayed input samples from the down-convert and delay module 1708 and the delay modules 1710A, 1710B, etc. Delay modules 1722A, 1722B, 1722C, etc., operate to delay instances of the output signal 1706 (note that the output signal 1706 is present at both nodes 1712 and 1718). (Although three delay modules 1722A-1722C are shown in the example of FIG. 17, the invention is not limited to this embodiment.) Scaling modules 1724A, 1724B, 1724C, etc., operate to scale these delayed instances of the output signal 1706 from the delay modules 1722A, 1722B, 1722C, etc. An adder 1720 operates to combine the delayed and scaled input samples and the delayed and scaled instances of the output signal 1706 to generate instances of the output signal 1706. As noted above, different embodiments of the UDF module utilize different numbers and/or configurations of delay modules 1710, 1722, and different numbers and/or configurations of scaling modules 1716 and 1724. Also, the operation of the delay modules 1710, 1722 and the scaling modules 1716, 1724 will vary among embodiments of the UDF module. For example, the amount of delay introduced by each delay module 1710, 1722 will vary among embodiments of the UDF module. Also, the scale factors of scaling modules 1716, 1724 will vary among embodiments of the UDF module (generally, the scale factor of each scaling module 1716, 1724 may be any real number). For example, and without limitation, the scale factor of one or more scaling modules in some embodiments may be zero. Accordingly, it should be understood that the embodiments of the UDF module shown and discussed herein are provided for illustrative purposes only. The present invention is not limited to the embodiments of the UDF module shown and discussed herein. Alternate embodiments of the UDF module, differing slightly or greatly from those shown and discussed herein, will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. 3.3 Example Embodiments Various embodiments related to the method(s) and structure(s) described above are presented in this section (and its subsections). These embodiments are described herein for purposes of illustration, and not limitation. The invention is not limited to these embodiments. Alternate embodiments (including equivalents, extensions, variations, deviations, etc., of the embodiments described herein) will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. The invention is intended and adapted to include such alternate embodiments. 3.3.1 First Embodiment: Band Pass Filtering and Frequency Translation An example embodiment of the invention, wherein band-pass filtering and frequency translation are performed, is described in the following sections. 3.3.1.1 Operational Description - A representation of a transfer function for a band-pass filter is shown in EQ.3 , which was discussed above and presented below for convenience. As indicated above, EQ. 3 is described herein for illustrative purposes only, and is not limiting. VO = λ z 1 VI - /J, z 1 VO - β 0 z 2 VO EQ. 3 As evidenced by EQ. 3, the output signal VO is formed from a summation of scaled delayed values of the input signal VI and scaled delayed values of the output signal VO. More particularly, at any given time t, the value of the output signal VO is equal to a scaled value of the input signal VI from time t- 1 , minus a scaled value of the output signal VO from time t- 1 , minus a scaled value of the output signal VO from a time t-2. It is noted that EQ. 3 is a transfer function for band-pass filtering the input signal VI. EQ. 3 is not in any way related to translating the frequency of the input signal VI. That is, EQ. 3 is not in any way related to down-converting the input signal VI. However, the invention preferably operates such that frequency translation is performed at substantially the same time that band-pass filtering is performed in accordance with EQ. 3. Such operation of the present invention shall now be described with reference to a flowchart 1802 presented in FIG. 18. In step 1806, at a time t- 1 , the input signal VI is under-sampled. According to the present invention and as further described below, this under-sampling of the input signal results in translating the frequency of the input signal VI to a desired lower frequency (such as IF or baseband), such that the input sample is an instance of a down-converted image of the input signal VI. As described below, this input sample is used in the frequency selectivity operation. This further indicates the integrated operation of the present invention. In step 1808, at a time t, the input sample that was held from step 1806 is released and scaled. The scaling value can be any real number, including but not limited to zero. In steps 1810 and 1812, at time t, an instance of the output signal VO that was previously captured at time t- 1 , and that was held until this time, is released and scaled. The scaling value can be any real number, including but not limited to zero. In steps 1814 and 1816, at time t, an instance of the output signal that was previously captured at time t- 2, and that was held until this time, is released and scaled. The scaling value can be any real number, including but not limited to zero. In step 1818, at time t, a current instance of the output signal, VO„ is generated by combining the scaled and delayed sample of the input signal VI t _, with the scaled and delayed instances of the output signal VO t _, and VO t _ 2 . 3.3.1.2 Structural Description FIG. 19 is a block diagram of a UDF module 1950 according to an embodiment of the invention. The UDF module 1950 includes a portion that corresponds to the frequency translator 1108 (FIG. 11), and a portion that corresponds to the input filter 1106. Note that the portion corresponding to the frequency translator 1108, that is, the down-convert and delay module 1908, also forms a part of the input filter 1106. This is indicative of the preferred aspect of the invention wherein the frequency selectivity operation 1202 and the frequency translation operation 1208 are performed as a single unified operation. The UDF module 1950 of FIG. 19 is a structural embodiment for performing the operational steps of flowchart 1802 (FIG. 18). However, it should be understood that the scope and spirit of the present invention includes other structural embodiments for performing the steps of flowchart 1802. The specifics of these other structural embodiments will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. The operation of the UDF module 1950 is now described in detail with reference to the flowchart 1802 of FIG. 18. Reference also will be made to a table 2002 in FIG. 20 that indicates example values at nodes in the UDF module 1950 at a number of consecutive time increments. In step 1806, at time t- 1, the down-convert and delay module 1908 under-samples the input signal VI. This input sample is denoted as VI t . , . As noted above, in performing step 1806, the down-convert and delay module 1908 operates to translate the frequency of the input signal VI to a desired lower frequency, such as IF or baseband. Accordingly, the input sample VI t _, represents an instance of a down-converted image of the input signal VI. This operation of the down-convert and delay module 1908 is further described below. Also in step 1806, the down-convert and delay module 1908 holds the input sample VI t _ , for preferably one time unit. See cell 2004 in Table 2002. As apparent from EQ. 3, above, the band-pass filtering transfer function requires that the input sample be held for one time unit. Accordingly, when performing this portion of step 1806, the down-convert and delay module 1908 is performing a portion of the frequency selectivity operation 1202. Accordingly, as should be apparent by this description, the down-convert and delay module 1908 contributes to both the frequency translation operation 1204 and the frequency selectivity operation 1202. In step 1808, at time t, the input sample that was held for one time unit (that is, VI,.,) is released by the down-convert and delay module 1908, and scaled by the input scaling module 1909. Accordingly, the signal present at node 1902 is (see cell 2006 in Table 2002): α, ■ VI,.,. Previously, at time t- 1, the first delay module 1912 captured an instance of the output signal VO. This instance of the output signal VO is denoted as VO,.,. In step 1810, at time t, the first delay module 1912 releases this instance of the output signal VO,.,. In step 1812, this instance of the output signal VO,, , is scaled by the first scaling module 1916. The value present atnode 1904 after operation ofthe first scaling module 1916 is (see cell 2012 in Table 2002): -β, • o,,. Previously, at time t- 1 , the second delay module 1914 captured an instance ofthe output signal VO stored in the first delay module 1912 (note that the first delay module 1912 sampled the output signal VO to obtain this instance at time t-2). This instance ofthe output signal VO is denoted as VO, 2 . At time t, this instance ofthe output signal VO,_ 2 is released by the second delay module 1914. In step 1816, the second scaling module scales this instance ofthe output signal VO,_ 2 . After operation ofthe second scaling module 1918, the following value is present at node 1906 (see cell 2016 in Table 2002): -β 0 • VO t _ 2 . In step 1818, at time t, a summer 1910 adds the values present at nodes 1902, 1904, and 1906. The sum represents the current instance of the output signal VO. This output signal instance is denoted as VO„ and is equal to the following (see field 2008 in Table 2002): α, • VI,_ , - β, - vo,_, - β 0 - vo, 2 . 3.3.2 Second Embodiment: Low Pass Filtering and Frequency Translation An example embodiment of the invention, wherein low-pass filtering and frequency translation are performed, is described in the following sections. 3.3.2.1 Operational Description EQ. 6 is a representation of a transfer function for a low-pass filter. EQ. 6, first introduced above, is presented below for convenience. As indicated above, EQ. 6 is described herein for illustrative purposes only, and is not limiting. VO = a 0 z "2 VI - /?, z " 'VO - β 0 z "2 VO EQ. 6 As evidenced by EQ. 6, a low-pass filtering operation can be achieved by adding a scaled instance ofthe input signal VI that has been delayed by two time units to two scaled instances ofthe output signal VO that had been delayed by one and two time units, respectively. Note that the low-pass transfer function of EQ. 6 is not in any way related to the frequency translation operation 1204. However, the invention preferably operates such that frequency translation is performed at substantially the same time that low-pass filtering is performed in accordance with EQ. 6. Such operation of the present invention shall now be described with reference to a flowchart 2202 presented in FIG. 22. In step 2206, at a time t-2, the input signal VI is under-sampled. The input sample is denoted as VI t _ 2 According to the present invention and as further described below, this under- sampling ofthe input signal results in translating the frequency ofthe input signal VI to a desired lower frequency (such as IF or baseband), such that the input sample is an instance of a down- converted image ofthe input signal VI. The input sample is preferably held for two time periods. Also in step 2206, the input sample VI,_ 2 is held for two time units. As evident from EQ. 6, in order to achieve a low-pass filtering operation, it is necessary to hold an instance ofthe input signal VI by two time units. Accordingly, this aspect of step 2206 constitutes a portion of the frequency selectivity operation 1202. Thus, in performing step 2206, the present invention is performing aspects ofthe frequency selectivity operation 1202. Thus, the down-convert and delay module 2308 contributes to both the frequency translation operation and the frequency selectivity operation. In step 2208, at time t, the input sample VI,_ 2 that had been held by two time units is released. This input sample VI,_ 2 is scaled in step 2210. In steps 2212 and 2214, at time t, an instance ofthe output signal VO,_ , that has been held by one time unit is released and scaled. In steps 2216 and 2218, at time t, an instance ofthe output signal VO,_ 2 that has been held by two time units is released and scaled. In step 2220, at time t, the current instance of the output signal, VO„ is generated by combining the scaled input sample VI,_ 2 with the scaled instances ofthe output signal VO,_, and VO t . 2 . 3.3.2.2 Structural Description FIG. 23 is a block diagram of a UDF module 2302 according to an embodiment ofthe invention. The UDF module 2302 includes a portion that corresponds to the frequency translator 1108, and a portion that corresponds to the input filter 1106. Note that the portion ofthe UDF module 2302 that corresponds to the frequency translator 1108 also forms a part ofthe input filter 1106. The UDF module 2302 is a structural embodiment for performing the operational steps of flowchart 2202. However, it should be understood that the scope and spirit of the present invention includes other structural embodiments for performing the steps of flowchart 2202. The specifics of these other structural embodiments will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. The operation ofthe UDF module 2302 shall now be described in detail with reference to the flowchart 2202 of FIG. 22. At a time t-2, the down-convert and delay module 2308 under-samples the input signal VI.. This input sample is denoted as VI,_ 2 . The down-convert and delay module 2308 under- samples the input signal VI to obtain input sample VI, 2 in accordance with a control signal 2324A. As further described below, the down-convert and delay module 2308 performs such sampling in a manner that operates to translate the frequency ofthe input signal VI to a desired lower frequency, such as IF or baseband. Accordingly, the input sample VI,. 2 represents an instance of a down-converted image ofthe input signal VI. Also in step 2206, the down-convert and delay module 2308 holds the input sample VI,_ 2 for one time unit. At time t- 1 , the input sample VI, 2 is captured by a delay module 2310, and held for an additional time unit. As evident from the low-pass filtering transfer function of EQ. 6, in order to perform the low-pass filtering operation, it is necessary to hold or delay the input signal VI by two time units. As just described, this delaying operation is performed collectively by the down-convert and delay module 2308 and the delay module 2310. Therefore, in performing this aspect of step 2206, the down-convert and delay module 2308 contributes to the performance ofthe frequency selectivity operation 1202, as well as the frequency translation operation 1204. In step 2208, at time t, the input sample VI,_ 2 that has been held/delayed by two time units is released by the delay module 2310. In step 2210, at time t, the input sample VI,_ 2 is scaled by the scaling module 2312. Previously, at time t- 1 , the delay module 2316 captured an instance ofthe output signal VO. This instance of the output signal VO is denoted as VO,.,. In step 2212, at time t, this instance ofthe output signal VO,_, is released by the delay module 2316. In step 2214, at time t, this instance of the output signal VO,_, is scaled by the scaling module 2320. Previously, at time t- 1 , the delay module 2318 captured an instance ofthe output signal VO stored in the delay module 2316. This instance ofthe output signal VO is denoted as VO,_ 2 . At time t, in step 2216, this instance ofthe output signal VO,_ 2 is released by the delay module 2318. In step 2218, at time t, this instance of the output signal VO,_ 2 is scaled by the scaling module 2322. In step 2220, at time t, the current instance of the output signal, VO„ is generated by combining the scaled input sample VI t _ 2 with the scaled instances ofthe output signal, VO,_ , and O,,. 3.3.3 Third Embodiment: Filtering With Mid-Point Injection and Frequency Translation The UDF embodiments described above are provided for illustrative purposes only. The invention is not limited to these embodiments. For example, as will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), it is possible to achieve a given set of filter characteristics using a variety of transfer functions. The elements of such transfer functions can be arranged and configured to satisfy particular goals and/or requirements. In a similar manner, a variety of UDF embodiments are possible. In such embodiments, components contained therein are selected and arranged to satisfy particular goals and/or requirements. For example, and without limitation, it is possible to construct a UDF module 4402 having the operational map illustrated in FIG. 44. Such operation is herein characterized as filtering with mid-point injection, in combination with frequency translation. These embodiments are described in the following sections. It is noted that the mid-point injection embodiment is presented to illustrate the great flexibility ofthe invention. In particular, UDF embodiments according to the invention can be constructed with a great variety of components and component configurations. Additional UDF embodiments will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. 3.3.3.1 Operational Description EQ. 3, discussed above, is a representation of a transfer function for a band-pass filter. EQ. 3 is reproduced below for convenience. As indicated above, EQ. 3 is described herein for illustrative purposes only, and is not limiting. VO = a z Vl - ?, z 'VO - β 0 z '2 VO EQ. 3 An embodiment ofthe UDF module for performing, in a unified manner, the frequency translation operation 1204 and the frequency selectivity operation 1202 according to the bandpass filtering transfer function of EQ. 3 was described above. See, for example, FIGS. 18 and 19. An alternate embodiment of the present invention, wherein frequency translation is performed in an integrated manner with frequency selectivity per the band-pass filtering transfer function of EQ. 3, shall now be described with reference to a flowchart 2402 presented in FIG. 24. In flowchart 2402, step 2405 generally corresponds to steps 1606 and 1608 of FIG. 16, and steps 2406-2424 generally correspond to step 1610. In step 2405, prior to and including time t- 1 , instances ofthe input signal VI are captured and delayed, as required by the band-pass filtering transfer function of EQ. 3. These delayed instances ofthe input signal VI are used in conjunction with other values (described below) to generate instances ofthe output signal VO. For example, at time t-1, an instance ofthe input signal VI is captured. This capturing of the input signal VI is performed prior to any frequency translation of the input signal VI. Accordingly, the resulting instance ofthe input signal VI is representative ofthe input signal VI prior to down-conversion. This instance ofthe input signal VI is denoted as VI HF , . ,, where HF stands for "high frequency." In step 2406, at a time t- 1 , the output signal is under-sampled. The output signal being sampled has a relatively high frequency. In particular, the frequency of the output signal is generally equal to the frequency ofthe input signal VI before down-conversion. Accordingly, the output signal being sampled in step 2406 is denoted as VO HF , where HF stands for "high frequency." According to the present invention, the under-sampling performed in step 2406 operates to translate the frequency ofthe high-frequency output signal VO HF to a desired lower frequency, such as IF or baseband. Accordingly, the output sample VO, , represents an instance of a down- converted image ofthe high-frequency output signal VO HF . As apparent from this discussion, this aspect of step 2406 relates to the frequency translation operation 4410. Also in step 2406, the output sample VO,, is held for one time period. As evident from EQ. 3, the bandpass filtering transfer function requires that the output signal be held, as is being done in step 2406. Therefore, this aspect of step 2406 relates to the frequency selectivity operation 4408. Accordingly, in step 2406, operations related to both the frequency translation operation 4410 and the frequency selectivity operation 4408 are performed in a single, unified (integrated) manner. In steps 2408 and 2410, at time t, the high-frequency instance ofthe input signal VI HF ,_, that has been held by one time unit is released and optionally filtered and scaled. Preferably, the filtering done at this point involves relatively wide filter bandwidths (for example, wideband filtering as opposed to narrowband filtering). In steps 2412 and 2414, at time t, the output sample VO,, from step 2406 that has been held for one time unit is released, and scaled. In steps 2416 and 2418 , at time t, an instance of the output signal VO that has been held by two time units is released and scaled. This instance of the output signal VO is denoted as VO, 2 In step 2420, at time t, the scaled VO,, and the scaled VO, 2 are summed. Note that VO, , and VO, 2 are at a frequency that is lower than the frequency ofthe input signal 2504. This is due to the fact that VO,_, was obtained from an under-sampling operation that involved frequency down-conversion (as described above in step 2406), and the fact that VO, 2 was obtained from VO, , . Also in step 2420, the sum ofthe scaled VO,, and the scaled VO, 2 is upconverted to a frequency substantially equal to the frequency ofthe input signal VI. In step 2422, at time t, the scaled instance ofthe input signal VI^,., is combined with the upconverted sum ofthe scaled VO, , and the scaled VO, 2 . This results in generating the current instance ofthe high-frequency output signal, VO HFt . In step 2424, at time t, this current instance ofthe high-frequency output signal, VO HF „ is down-converted to the desired lower frequency, for example, IF or baseband. The result is an instance ofthe low-frequency output signal, VO LF „ where LF stands for "low frequency." 3.3.3.2 Structural Description FIG. 25 is a block diagram of a UDF module 2502 according to an embodiment ofthe invention. The UDF module 2502 includes a portion that corresponds to the frequency translator 1108, and a portion that corresponds to the input filter 1106. Note that the portion ofthe UDF module 2502 that corresponds to the frequency translator 1108 also forms a part ofthe portion ofthe UDF module 2502 that corresponds to the input filter 1106. The UDF module 2502 is a structural embodiment for performing the operational steps of flowchart 2402. However, it should be understood that the scope and spirit of the present invention includes other structural embodiments for performing the steps of flowchart 2402. The specifics of these other structural embodiments will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. The operation ofthe UDF module 2502 shall now be described in detail with reference to the flowchart 2402 of FIG. 24. In step 2405, prior to and including time t- 1, a high frequency delay module 2506 captures instances ofthe input signal VI. For example, at time t- 1 , an instance ofthe input signal VI is captured by the high frequency delay module 2506. This instance ofthe input signal VI is noted as VI HFt .,. In step 2406, at a time t- 1 , the down-convert and delay module 2514 under-samples a high-frequency representation ofthe output signal VO HF . This high-frequency output signal VO HF is at a frequency substantially equal to the frequency of the input signal VI. As discussed in further detail below, the down-convert and delay module 2514 under-samples the high frequency output signal VO HF in a manner so as to translate the frequency of the high-frequency output signal VO HF to a desired lower frequency, such as IF or baseband. Accordingly, the output sample VO,_, represents an instance of a down-converted image of the high frequency output signal VO HF . Also in step 2406, the output sample VO, , is held by the down-convert and delay module 2514. In step 2408, at time t, the instance ofthe input signal VI HF ,„, that was previously captured by the high-frequency delay module 2506 at time t- 1, is released. In step 2410, at time t, the instance ofthe input signal VI HFt ., is optionally filtered by a filter 2508, and scaled by a scaling module 2510. In step 2412, at time t, the output sample VO,, from step 2406 is released by the down- convert and delay module 2514. In step 2414, at time t, the output sample VO,, is scaled by the scaling module 251-8. Previously, at time t-1, a low frequency delay module 2516 captured an instance ofthe output sample VO, 2 stored in the down-convert and delay module 2514. In step 2416, at time t, this instance ofthe output signal VO, 2 is released by the low frequency delay module 2516. In step 2418, at time t, the instance of the output signal VO, 2 is scaled by the scaling module 2520. In step 2420, at time t, an adder 2522 sums the scaled sample ofthe output signal VO, , and the scaled instance ofthe output signal VO, 2 . Recall that VO, , and VO, 2 are at a frequency that is lower than the frequency ofthe input signal 2504. This is due to the fact that VO,, was obtained from an under-sampling operation that involved frequency down-conversion (as described above in step 2406), and the fact that VO, 2 was obtained from VO,, (as described above in step 2416). Also in step 2420, the sum ofthe scaled VO,_, and the scaled VO, 2 is upconverted by an upconvert module 2524 to a frequency substantially equal to the frequency ofthe input signal VI. In step 2422, at time t, the scaled instance ofthe input signal VI HF ,_, is combined with the upconverted sum ofthe scaled sample ofthe output signal VO,, and the scaled instance ofthe output signal VO, 2 The result is the current instance ofthe high-frequency output signal, VO HFt . Note that this instance ofthe high-frequency output signal VO HF , is at a frequency generally equal to the frequency ofthe input signal VI. In step 2424, at time t, a down-convert module 2526 down-converts the current instance ofthe high-frequency output signal, VO HF „ to a desired lower frequency, such as IF or baseband. The result is an instance ofthe low-frequency output signal, VO LFt . 3.3.4 Fourth Embodiment: Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filtering The filtering embodiments described above can be generally characterized as infinite impulse response (IIR) filters. Generally speaking, in IIR filters, the output is a function ofthe input and the output. Finite impulse response (FIR) filters also exist. Generally speaking, in FIR filters, the output is a function ofthe input alone. As discussed above, according to embodiments of the invention, the output signal is generated from current and/or prior samples/instances ofthe input signal and/or the output signal. Accordingly, the invention is directed to IIR and FIR filters. FIR filters according to embodiments ofthe invention are considered in greater detail in this section. Consider first EQ. 11 shown in FIG. 54A. EQ. 11 is a general filter transfer function. A variety of filters, including linear phase filters, can be represented using instances and/or variations of EQ. 11. For example, the example bandpass filter transfer function of EQ. 3 can be derived from EQ. 11. This is shown in EQS. 12-14 of FIG. 54A, where EQ. 14 is equivalent to EQ. 3. IIR filter transfer functions can be derived from EQ. 11. This is shown, for example, in EQS. 15 and 16 of FIG. 54B. EQ. 16 represents an example IIR filter transfer function. FIG. 55 illustrates an unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) module 5502. The UDF module 5502 is an example FIR filter, and corresponds to the example IIR filter transfer function of EQ. 16. The UDF module 5502 includes a frequency translator 5508, which is preferably implemented using a down-convert and delay module 5506. The down-convert and delay module 5506 samples the input signal 5504. As further described below, the down-convert and delay module 5506 performs such sampling in a manner that operates to translate the frequency ofthe input signal 5504 to a lower frequency, such as IF or baseband (this sampling operation is performed in accordance with a control signal 5522). The input sample represents an instance of a down-converted image ofthe input signal 5504. Accordingly, the down-convert and delay module 5506 down-converts the input signal 5504 to a desired lower frequency. In some embodiments, the operation ofthe down-convert and delay module 5506 is sometimes referred to as "integrate and transfer," because the invention provides for a number of advantages, such as enhanced energy transfer during the frequency translation operation. Additional details regarding the manner in which the invention performs frequency down-conversion are provided below, and are further provided in pending U.S. application "Method and System for Down- Converting Electromagnetic Signals," referenced above. The down-convert and delay module 5506 also holds (delays) the input sample for a period of time. In the example of FIG. 55, the down-convert and delay module 5506 delays the input sample for one time unit (such as one sample period), although other embodiments achieve different amounts of delay. As evident from the FIR filtering transfer function of EQ. 17, in order to perform filtering, it is necessary to hold or delay the input signal by various time units. As just described, the down-convert and delay module 5506 participates in this delaying operation. Therefore, the down-convert and delay module 5506 contributes to both the performance of the frequency selectivity operation 1202, as well as the frequency translation operation 1204. In fact, as apparent from the teachings contained herein, when performing the frequency translation operation 1204, the down-convert and delay module 5506 is also performing at least a portion ofthe frequency selectivity operation 1202, and vice versa. Thus, according to the invention, performance of the frequency selectivity operation 1202 is integrated with performance ofthe frequency translation operation 1204. This is further evident in FIG. 55, which shows the frequency translator 5508 (comprising the down-convert and delay module 5506) being a part ofthe filter 5510. The example UDF module 5502 also includes a delay module 5512, scaling modules 5514, 5516, and summer 5518. The operation of these elements will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings provided herein. The example UDF module 5502 only includes two taps (a tap is a branch between two points, in this case between the input signal and the summer 5518). Other FIR embodiments include greater than two taps. For example, many FIR embodiments include at least 16 taps. Some FIR embodiments include much more than 16 taps, such as 50 taps, 256 taps, etc., or more taps. As will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the herein teachings, the number of taps will depend on the transfer function being used, and the manner in which it is desired to implement the transfer function. FIR embodiments according to the invention may be implemented with linear phase. An example FIR transfer function is shown as EQ. -19 in FIG. 54C. This transfer function is provided for illustrative purposes only, and is not limiting. See also corresponding EQ. 18 in FIG. 54C. This transfer function is representative of a low pass filter having the following characteristics: 3 db at 0.17 ofthe clock (control signal), and at least 9 db rejection at 0.5 of-the clock. Additional characteristics are shown in FIG. 62. An example UDF module 6102 corresponding to this FIR transfer function is shown in FIG. 61. This UDF module 6102 maps to the FIR transfer function of EQS. 18 and 19. The structure and operation of this UDF module will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. It is noted that the invention is not limited to this implementation. Other implementations ofthe transfer function according to the principles of the invention will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings presented herein. It is noted that the FIR transfer function presented in EQ. 19 is provided for illustrative purposes only, and is not limiting. Design and construction of different transfer functions to achieve other filter functions and characteristics will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s), and these different transfer functions are within the scope and spirit of the invention. Implementation of such transfer functions as a UDF module will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings presented herein, and such UDF module embodiments and implementations are within the scope and spirit ofthe present invention. 3.3.5 Fifth Embodiment: Running Average Filter In the embodiments discussed above, the control signals were the same frequency, although their phases sometimes differed. In these embodiments, the requirement that all the control signals be at the same frequency placed demands on circuit design and implementation (although such demands could be satisfied). The invention is directed to embodiments where the control signals do not have to be at the same frequency. By lifting this requirement, generally, circuit design and implementation is simplified, and hardware requirements are reduced. FIG.56 illustrates an example unified down-converting and filtering (UDF) module 5602 where the control signals CS1 and CS2 are not at the same frequency. The UDF module 5602 includes a frequency translator 5606, which is preferably implemented using a down-convert and delay module 5608. The down-convert and delay module 5608 samples the input signal 5612. As further described below, the down-convert and delay module 5608 performs such sampling in a manner that operates to translate the frequency ofthe input signal 5612 to a lower frequency, such as IF or baseband (this sampling operation is performed in accordance with the control signal CS 1 ). The input sample represents an instance of a down-converted image ofthe input signal 5612. Accordingly, the down-convert and delay module 5608 down-converts the input signal 5612 to a desired lower frequency. In some embodiments, the operation ofthe down-convert and delay module 5608 is sometimes referred to as "integrate and transfer," because the invention provides for a number of advantages, such as enhanced energy transfer during the frequency translation operation. Additional details regarding the manner in which the invention performs frequency down-conversion are provided below, and are further provided in pending U.S. application "Method and System for Down- Converting Electromagnetic Signals," referenced above. The down-convert and delay module 5608 also holds (delays) the input sample for a period of time. In the example of FIG. 56, the down-convert and delay module 5608 delays the input sample for one time unit (such as one sample period), although other embodiments achieve different amounts of delay. As evident from the filtering transfer functions discussed herein, in order to perform filtering, it is necessary to hold or delay the input signal 5612 by various time units. As just described, the down-convert and delay module 5608 participates in this delaying operation. Therefore, the down-convert and delay module 5608 contributes to both the performance ofthe frequency selectivity operation 1202, as well as the frequency translation operation 1204. In fact, as apparent from the teachings contained herein, when performing the frequency translation operation 1204, the down-convert and delay module 5608 is also performing at least a portion of the frequency selectivity operation 1202, and vice versa. Thus, according to the invention, performance of the frequency selectivity operation 1202 is integrated with performance ofthe frequency translation operation 1204. This is further evident in FIG. 56, which shows the frequency translator 5608 (comprising the down-convert and delay module 5608) being a part ofthe filter 5604. In the example of FIG. 56, the down-convert and delay module 5608 is implemented using a switch 5616 and a capacitor 5618. The invention is directed to other embodiments ofthe down-convert and delay module 5608. Such other embodiments are described herein, and are further described in pending U.S. application "Method and System for Down-Converting Electromagnetic Signals," referenced above, as well as the other applications referenced above. As noted above, in the example UDF module 5602, the control signals CSl and CS2 are not at the same frequency. Preferably, frequency fl of control signal CSl is greater than frequency f2 of control signal CS2. For example, and without limitation, in the example of FIG. 57A the ratio of f 1 to f2 is four, such that there are four pulses in CS 1 for every one pulse in CS2. It is noted that this example is provided for illustrative purposes only, and is not limiting. The invention encompasses other ratios of fl to f2, as will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings presented herein. During each pulse of CSl, the switch 5616 closes and the capacitor 5618 charges as a function ofthe input signal 5612. In other words, the capacitor 5618 accumulates charge during the pulses of CSl . The capacitor 5618 is sufficiently large to accommodate the charge. Teachings regarding example sizes ofthe capacitor to achieve this functionality are provided in the applications referenced above. The capacitor 5618 only begins to discharge when switch 5620 closes in the output module 5610 upon a pulse in CS2. Since, in the example of FIG. 57A, there are four pulses of CS 1 to every one pulse of CS2, charge accumulates in the capacitor 5618 over four pulses of CS 1 (or, equivalently, over four samples taken by switch 5616) before discharging through the switch 5620 in the output module 5610. Thus, since fl > £2, the capacitor 5618 accumulates charge from a number of samples before discharge begins. This accumulation of charge operates to average the samples taken ofthe input signal 5612. Such averaging has a number of advantages. For example, and without limitation, averaging operates to increase signal-to-noise ratio as noise is averaged out. This advantage is enhanced as the pulse aperture of CSl is optimized. The averaging achieved by the invention also contributes to the filtering effect. In other words, the UDF module 5602 operates to filter the input signal 5612. Accordingly, such embodiments of the invention (as represented by way of example by FIG. 56) are sometimes called "running average filters." The output module 5614 operates to establish the cutoff frequency 5704 ofthe filter (see FIG. 57B, for example). In embodiments, the ratio of fl to f2 is sufficient to allow the capacitor 5618 (or other energy storage device) to sufficiently charge before being discharged upon the closing of switch 5620 in the output module 5610. When selecting the frequencies of CSl and CS2, as well as other characteristics of CS 1 and CS2 (such as their respective pulse widths or apertures), and characteristics of other elements such as the capacitor 5618 and the resistor 5622, consideration is given to the amount of charging that is desired of the capacitor 5618, and the amount of discharge of capacitor 5618 that is desired when switch 5620 is closed, and the timing of same. 3.3.6 Sixth Embodiment: N-Path Filter Another type of filter is called an "n-path filter." An n-path filter includes, appropriately, n taps. The invention is directed to n-path filters. FIG. 58A illustrates an example n-path filter (UDF module 5802) according to an embodiment ofthe invention. According to this embodiment, each tap preferably includes a frequency translator 5804, which preferably comprises a down-convert and delay module (DDM) 5806. The down-convert and delay module 5806 samples the input signal 5814. As further described below, the down-convert and delay module 5806 performs such sampling in a manner that operates to translate the frequency ofthe input signal 5814 to a lower frequency, such as IF or baseband. The input sample represents an instance of a down-converted image ofthe input signal 5814. Accordingly, the down-convert and delay module 5806 down-converts the input signal 5814 to a desired lower frequency. In some embodiments, the operation of the down- convert and delay module 5806 is sometimes referred to as "integrate and transfer," because the invention provides for a number of advantages, such as enhanced energy transfer during the frequency translation operation. Additional details regarding the manner in which the invention performs frequency down-conversion are provided below, and are further provided in pending U.S. application "Method and System for Down-Converting Electromagnetic Signals," referenced above. The down-convert and delay module 5806 also holds (delays) the input sample for a period of time. As evident from the filtering transfer functions discussed herein, in order to perform filtering, it is necessary to hold or delay the input signal 5814 by various time units. As just described, the down-convert and delay module 5806 participates in this delaying operation. Therefore, the down-convert and delay module 5806 contributes to both the performance ofthe frequency selectivity operation 1202, as well as the frequency translation operation 1204. In fact, as apparent from the teachings contained herein, when performing the frequency translation operation 1204, the down-convert and delay module 5806 is also performing at least a portion of the frequency selectivity operation 1202, and vice versa. Thus, according to the invention, performance of the frequency selectivity operation 1202 is integrated with performance ofthe frequency translation operation 1204. This is further evident in FIG. 58A, which shows the frequency translators 5804 (comprising the down-convert and delay modules 5806) being a part ofthe filter 5812. In the example of FIG. 58 A, the down-convert and delay modules 5806 are implemented using a switch and a capacitor. The invention is directed to other embodiments of the down- convert and delay modules 5806. Such other embodiments are described herein, and are further described in pending U.S. application "Method and System for Down-Converting Electromagnetic Signals," referenced above, as well as the other applications referenced above. Characteristics ofthe switch and capacitor are also discussed in these applications. In the example embodiment of FIG. 58A, the control signals have the same frequency but different non-overlapping phases (alternatively, the control signals can be viewed as a single control signal with multiple, non-overlapping phases). The control signals are represented in FIG. 58A as φ, φ 2 φ n An example ofthe control signals (where n is equal to 3) is shown in FIGS. 59A-59C. Since the control signals have non-overlapping phases, the switches in the down-convert and delay modules 5806 are closed at different times. In other words, the down-convert and delay modules 5806 sample the input signal 5814 at different times. Thus, sampling ofthe input signal 5814 can be said to roll through or rotate through the down-convert and delay modules 5806 in the taps. A given down-convert and delay module 5806 samples when its respective control signal pulses, and then holds the sample (i.e., delays the sample). Accordingly, the down-convert and delay modules 5806 delay their respective samples. At any time, since the control signals have non-overlapping delays, the delay introduced by one down-convert and delay module 5806 A differs from the delays introduced by the other down-convert and delay modules 5806B, 5806C. Also, for the same reason, the delay introduced by a given down-convert and delay module 5806 differs at different times. As a result, the tap which corresponds to a given factor in a filter transfer function changes over time. For example, suppose that the filter transfer function implemented by the UDF 5802 of FIG. 58A includes a z "2 factor. At time t n , this factor may be provided by down- convert and delay module 5806A; at time t n+1 , this factor may be provided by down-convert and delay module 5806B; at time t n+2 , this factor may be provided by down-convert and delay module 5806C; at time t n+3 , this factor may be again provided by down-convert and delay module 5806A; and so on. Accordingly, it can be said that delay factors roll through, or rotate through, the taps. The example embodiment of the UDF module 5802 of FIG. 58A includes additional switches 5801. In some embodiments, these switches can be considered to be part ofthe DDMs 5806, or external to the DDMs 5806. These switches 5801 prevent signal bleed through. They are clocked by clock signals of non-overlapping phases. Preferably, clocking of a given switch 5801 is one phase delayed from the switch in the corresponding DDM 5806, although other phase relationships are envisioned by the invention. At any time, the output signal 5816 is coupled to only one DDM 5806 via operation ofthe switches 5801. According to the invention, n-path filters may be IIR filters or FIR filters. An example FIR filter according to the invention is shown in FIG. 58A. An example IIR filter according to the invention is shown in FIG. 58B. 3.3.7 Seventh Embodiment: Passive Filter The invention is also directed to passive filters. Generally speaking, a passive filter is one that does not include any amplifiers, such as any buffer amplifiers. An example passive filter (UDF module 6002) according to an embodiment of the invention is shown in FIG. 60. The example of FIG. 60- represents a IIR filter, although the invention is not limited to this example. The UDF module 6002 includes a frequency translator 6008, which preferably comprises a down-convert and delay module (DDM) 6010. The down-convert and delay module 6010 samples the input signal 6006. As further described below, the down-convert and delay module 6010 performs such sampling in a manner that operates to translate the frequency ofthe input signal 6006 to a lower frequency, such as IF or baseband. The input sample represents an instance of a down-converted image ofthe input signal 6006. Accordingly, the down-convert and delay module 6010 down-converts the input signal 6006 to a desired lower frequency. In some embodiments, the operation of the down- convert and delay module 6010 is sometimes referred to as "integrate and transfer," because the invention provides for a number of advantages, such as enhanced energy transfer during the frequency translation operation. Additional details regarding the manner in which the invention performs frequency down-conversion are provided below, and are further provided in pending U.S. application "Method and System for Down-Converting Electromagnetic Signals," referenced above, as well as other applications referenced above. The down-convert and delay module 6010 also holds (delays) the input sample for a period of time. As evident from the filtering transfer functions discussed herein, in order to perform filtering, it is necessary to hold or delay the input signal 6006 by various time units. As just described, the down-convert and delay module 6010 participates in this delaying operation. Therefore, the down-convert and delay module 6010 contributes to both the performance ofthe frequency selectivity operation 1202, as well as the frequency translation operation 1204. In fact, as apparent from the teachings contained herein, when performing the frequency translation operation 1204, the down-convert and delay module 6010 is also performing at least a portion of the frequency selectivity operation 1202, and vice versa. Thus, according to the invention, performance of the frequency selectivity operation 1202 is integrated with performance ofthe frequency translation operation 1204. This is further evident in FIG. 60, which shows the frequency translator 6008 (comprising the down-convert and delay module 6010) being a part ofthe filter 6004. In the example of FIG. 60, the down-convert and delay module 6010 is implemented using a switch and a capacitor. The invention is directed to other embodiments of the down- convert and delay module 6010. Such other embodiments are described herein, and are further described in pending U.S. application "Method and System for Down-Converting Electromagnetic Signals," referenced above, as well as the other applications referenced above. The example of FIG. 60 includes three additional delay modules 6012, 6014, 6016, although the invention is not limited to this embodiment. Different embodiments will include more than or less than three additional delay modules. As will be appreciated, the number of delay modules used will depend on the filter characteristics desired, the transfer function used, and the implementation thereof. It is noted that the control signals utilized in the UDF module 6002 are preferably ofthe same frequency, but having non-overlapping phases. Non-overlapping pulses prevent signal bleedthrough. Although not shown in FIG. 60, the samples and delayed samples can be weighted (and in embodiments the weights can be changed statically or dynamically), thereby allowing one to achieve different types of filters and filtering characteristics, and also allowing one to achieve amplification. 3.3.8 Oth er Embodiments The embodiments described above are provided for purposes of illustration. These embodiments are not intended to limit the invention. Alternate embodiments, differing slightly or substantially from those described herein, will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. One such embodiment is shown, for example, in FIG. 63. Such alternate embodiments include, but are not limited to, embodiments ofthe UDF module where the filtering function is performed according to transfer functions differing from those utilized above. Such alternate embodiments also include, but are not limited to, embodiments ofthe UDF module where the frequency selectivity operation comprises filtering types not discussed above, such as, but not limited to, high pass filtering, notch filtering, etc. Such alternate embodiments fall within the scope and spirit ofthe present invention. 3.4 Implementation Examples Exemplary operational and/or structural implementations related to the method(s), structure(s), and/or embodiments described above are presented in this section (and its subsections). These implementations are presented herein for purposes of illustration, and not limitation. The invention is not limited to the particular implementation examples described herein. Alternate implementations (including equivalents, extensions, variations, deviations, etc., of those described herein) will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. Such alternate implementations fall within the scope and spirit of the present invention. 3.4.1 Implementation Example of a Unified Downconverting and Filtering (UDF) Module FIG. 26 illustrates an example implementation of the unified down-converting and filtering (UDF) module 2622. The UDF module 2622 performs the frequency translation operation 1204 and the frequency selectivity operation 1202 in an integrated, unified manner as described above, and as further described below. In the example of FIG. 26, the frequency selectivity operation 1202 performed by the UDF module 2622 comprises a band-pass filtering operation. As noted above, EQ. 3 is an example representation of a band-pass filtering transfer function. EQ. 3 is presented below for convenience. As indicated above, EQ. 3 is described herein for illustrative purposes only, and is not limiting. VO = a λ z Λ VI - /?, z 1 VO - β 0 z "2 VO EQ. 3 In the example of FIG. 26, the UDF module 2622 performs band-pass filtering in accordance with the example band-pass filtering transfer function of EQ. 3. The UDF module 2622 includes a down-convert and delay module 2624, first and second delay modules 2628 and 2630, first and second scaling modules 2632 and 2634, an output sample and hold module 2636, and an (optional) output smoothing module 2638. Other embodiments of the UDF module will have these components in different configurations, and/or a subset of these components, and/or additional components. For example, and without limitation, in the configuration shown in FIG. 26, the output smoothing module 2638 is optional. Alternate embodiments ofthe UDF module will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. As further described below, in the example of FIG. 26, the down-convert and delay module 2624 and the first and second delay modules 2628 and 2630 include switches that are controlled by a clock having two phases, φ, and φ 2 . φ, and φ 2 preferably have the same frequency, and are non-overlapping (alternatively, a plurality such as two clock signals having these characteristics could be used). As used herein, the term "non-overlapping" is defined as two or more signals where only one of the signals is active at any given time. In some embodiments, signals are "active" when they are high. In other embodiments, signals are active when they are low. See, for example, FIGS. 33A and 33B. Preferably, each of these switches closes on a rising edge of φ, or φ 2 , and opens on the next corresponding falling edge of φ, or φ 2 . However, the invention is not limited to this example. As will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s), other clock conventions can be used to control the switches. In the example of FIG. 26, it is assumed that α, is equal to one. Thus, the output ofthe down-convert and delay module 2624 is not scaled. As evident from the embodiments described above, however, the invention is not limited to this example. The filter characteristics ofthe example UDF module 2622 are presented in FIGS. 27 A and 27B. The example UDF module 2622 has a filter center frequency of 900.2 MHZ and a filter bandwidth of 570 KHz. The pass band ofthe UDF module 2622 is on the order of 899.915 MHz to 900.485 MHz. The Q factor of the UDF module 2622 is approximately 1579 (i.e., 900.2 MHZ divided by 570 KFIz). Example waveforms present at nodes in the UDF module 2622 according to an example where the frequency of the input signal VI is 900.2 MHz and the frequency of the control or sample signal is 16 MHz, are presented in FIGS.28A-28E. FIG.28F illustrates VI corresponding to the example of FIGS. 28A-28E. FIGS. 28A-28F represent an in-band example, since the frequency ofthe input signal VI (i.e., 900.2 MHZ) is within the passband ofthe example UDF module 2622. As such, the UDF module 2622 amplifies the input signal by a factor of approximately 5, as predicted by the frequency response-of FIG. 27B. Another series of example waveforms present in the UDF module 2622 where the frequency ofthe input signal VI is 897 MHz and the frequency ofthe control or sampling signal is 16 MHz, are presented in FIGS. 29A-29E. FIG. 29F illustrates VI corresponding to-the example of FIGS. 29A-29E. FIGS. 29A-29F represent an out-of-band example, since the frequency ofthe input signal VI (i.e., 897 MHZ) is not within the passband ofthe example UDF module 2622. As such, the UDF module 2622 attentuates the input signal by a factor of approximately 0.57, as predicted by the frequency response of FIG. 27B. The operation ofthe UDF module 2622 shall now be described with reference to a Table 1502 (FIG. 15) that indicates example values at nodes in the UDF module 2622 at a number of consecutive time increments. It is assumed in Table 1502 that the UDF module 2622 begins operating at time t- 1. As indicated below, the UDF module 2622 reaches steady state a few time units after operation begins. The number of time units necessary for a given UDF module to reach steady state depends on the configuration of the UDF module, and will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. At the rising edge of φ, at time t-1 , a switch 2650 in the down-convert and delay module 2624 closes. This allows a capacitor 2652 to charge to the current value of an input signal, VI,,, such that node 2602 is at VI,,. This is indicated by cell 1504 in FIG. 15. In effect, the combination ofthe switch 2650 and the capacitor 2652 in the down-convert and delay module 2624 operates to translate the frequency ofthe input signal VI to a desired lower frequency, such as IF or baseband. Thus, the value stored in the capacitor 2652 represents an instance of a down- converted image ofthe input signal VI. This operation ofthe down-convert and delay module 2624 is further described below. Also at the rising edge of φ, at time t-1, a switch 2658 in the first delay module 2628 closes, allowing a capacitor 2660 to charge to VO,,, such that node 2606 is at VO,,. This is indicated by cell 1506 in Table 1502. (In practice, VO,, is undefined at this point. However, for ease of understanding, VO,_, shall continue to be used for purposes of explanation.) Also at the rising edge of φ, at time t-1, a switch 2666 in the second delay module 2630 closes, allowing a capacitor 2668 to charge to a value stored in a capacitor 2664. At this time, however, the value in capacitor 2664 is undefined, so the value in capacitor 2668 is undefined. This is indicated by cell 1507 in table 1502. At the rising edge of φ 2 at time t- 1 , a switch 2654 in the down-convert and delay module 2624 closes, allowing a capacitor 2656 to charge to the level ofthe capacitor 2652. Accordingly, the capacitor 2656 charges to VI,,, such that node 2604 is at VI,,. This is indicated by cell 1510 in Table 1502. The UDF module 2622 may optionally include a unity gain module 2690A between capacitors 2652 and 2656. The unity gain module 2690A operates as a current source to enable capacitor 2656 to charge without draining the charge from capacitor 2652. For a similar reason, the UDF module 2622 may include other unity gain modules 2690B-2690G. It should be understood that, for many embodiments and applications of the invention, these unity gain modules 2690A-2690G are optional. The structure and operation ofthe unity gain modules 2690 will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s). Also at the rising edge of φ 2 at time t- 1 , a switch 2662 in the first delay module 2628 closes, allowing a capacitor 2664 to charge to the level ofthe capacitor 2660. Accordingly, the capacitor 2664 charges to VO,,, such that node 2608 is at VO,,. This is indicated by cell 1514 in Table 1502. Also at the rising edge of φ 2 at time t-1, a switch 2670 in the second delay module 2630 closes, allowing a capacitor 2672 to charge to a value stored in a capacitor 2668. At this time, however, the value in capacitor 2668 is undefined, so the value in capacitor 2672 is undefined. This is indicated by cell 1515 in table 1502. At time t, at the rising edge of φ„ the switch 2650 in the down-convert and delay module 2624 closes. This allows the capacitor 2652 to charge to VI„ such that node 2602 is at VI,. This is indicated in cell 1516 of Table 1502. Also at the rising edge of φ, at time t, the switch 2658 in the first delay module 2628 closes, thereby allowing the capacitor 2660 to charge to VO,. Accordingly, node 2606 is at VO,. This is indicated in cell 1520 in Table 1502. Further at the rising edge of φ, at time t, the switch 2666 in the second delay module 2630 closes, allowing a capacitor 2668 to charge to the level of the capacitor 2664. Therefore, the capacitor 2668 charges to VO, , , such that node 2610 is at VO, , . This is indicated by cell 1524 in Table 1502. At the rising edge of φ 2 at time t, the switch 2654 in the down-convert and delay module 2624 closes, allowing the capacitor 2656 to charge to the level of the capacitor 2652. Accordingly, the capacitor 2656 charges to VI„ such that node 2604 is at VI,. This is indicated by cell 1528 in Table 1502. Also at the rising edge of φ 2 at time t, the switch 2662 in the first delay module 2628 closes, allowing the capacitor 2664 to charge to the level in the capacitor 2660. Therefore, the capacitor 2664 charges to VO„ such that node 2608 is at VO,. This is indicated by cell 1532 in Table 1502. Further at the rising edge of φ 2 at time t, the switch 2670 in the second delay module 2630 closes, allowing the capacitor 2672 in the second delay module 2630 to charge to the level ofthe capacitor 2668 in the second delay module 2630. Therefore, the capacitor 2672 charges to VO, ,, such that node 2612 is at VO,,. This is indicated in cell 1536 of FIG. 15. At time t+1, at the rising edge of φ,, the switch 2650 in the down-convert and delay module 2624 closes, allowing the capacitor 2652 to charge to VI,,. Therefore, node 2602 is at VI, + „ as indicated by cell 1538 of Table 1502. Also at the rising edge of φ, at time t+1 , the switch 2658 in the first delay module 2628 closes, allowing the capacitor 2660 to charge to VO, +1 . Accordingly, node 2606 is at VO, +1 , as indicated by cell 1542 in Table 1502. Further at the rising edge of φ, at time t+1, the switch 2666 in the second delay module 2630 closes, allowing the capacitor 2668 to charge to the level of the capacitor 2664. Accordingly, the capacitor 2668 charges to VO„ as indicated by cell 1546 of Table 1502. In the example of FIG. 26, the first scaling module 2632 scales the value at node 2608 (i.e., the output ofthe first delay module 2628) by a scaling factor of -0.1. Accordingly, the value present at node 2614 at time t+1 is -0.1 * VO,. Similarly, the second scaling module 2634 scales the value present at node 2612 (i.e., the output ofthe second scaling module 2630) by a scaling factor of -0.8. Accordingly, the value present at node 2616 is -0.8 * VO,, at time t+1. At time t+1 , the values at the inputs ofthe summer 2626 are: VI, at node 2604, -0.1 * VO, at node 2614, and -0.8 * VO, , at node 2616 (in the example of FIG.26, the values at nodes 2614 and 2616 are summed by a second summer 2625, and this sum is presented to the summer 2626). Accordingly, at time t+1, the summer generates a signal equal to VI, - 0.1 * VO, - 0.8 * VO,,. At the rising edge of φ , at time t+ 1 , a switch 2691 in the output sample and hold module 2636 closes, thereby allowing a capacitor 2692 to charge-to VO, +1 . Accordingly, the capacitor 2692 charges to VO t+1 , which is equal to the sum generated by the adder 2626. As just noted, this value is equal to: VI, - 0.1 * VO, - 0.8 * VO„. This is indicated in cell 1550 of Table 1502. This value is presented to the output smoothing module 2638, which smooths the signal to thereby generate the instance ofthe output signal VO, +1 . It is apparent from inspection that this value of VO, + , is consistent with the band pass filter transfer function of EQ. 3. 3.4.2 Implementation Examples of Components of he UDF Module Implementation examples of the components of the UDF module according to embodiments ofthe present invention are described in the following sections. These example implementations are provided for purposes of illustration only, and are not limiting. 3.4.2.1 Downconvert and Delay Module Referring to FIG. 17 only for illustrative purposes, the down-convert and delay module 1708 performs the frequency translation operation. In an embodiment, the down-convert and delay module 1708 under-samples the input signal VI such that the input under-samples form a down-converted signal. In an example implementation, the down-converted signal is an intermediate frequency (IF) representation of the input signal VI. In another example implementation, the down-converted signal is a demodulated baseband signal. The invention is not limited to these implementation examples. In addition to performing the frequency translation operation, the down-convert and delay module 1708 also delays the input samples for the frequency selectivity (filtering) operation. Thus, the down-convert and delay module 1708 contributes to both the frequency translation operation and the frequency selectivity operation. The down-convert and delay module is further described below. 3.4.2.1.1 Universal frequency down-conversion (UFD) Module In FIG. 26, the downconvert and delay module 2624 represents an example implementation ofthe down-convert and delay modules described herein, such as 1708 in FIG. 17, 1908 in FIG. 19, 2308 in FIG. 23, and 2514 in FIG. 25. The downconvert and delay module 2624 preferably includes the switch 2650 and the capacitor 2652. The switch 2650 and the capacitor 2652 operate to down-convert the input signal VI. This aspect of the invention is described in this section. In particular, the following discussion describes down-converting using a Universal Frequency Translation (UFT) Module. FIG.53A illustrates an aliasing module 5300 (also called in this context a universal frequency down-conversion module) for down-conversion using a universal frequency translation (UFT) module 5302 which down-converts an EM input signal 5304. In particular embodiments, aliasing module 5300 includes a switch 5308 and a capacitor 5310. The electronic alignment of the circuit components is flexible. That is, in one implementation, the switch 5308 is in series with input signal 5304 and capacitor 5310 is shunted to ground (although it may be other than ground in configurations such as differential mode). In a second implementation (see FIG. 53 A- 1), the capacitor 5310 is in series with the input signal 5304 and the switch 5308 is shunted to ground (although it may be other than ground in configurations such as differential mode). Aliasing module 5300 with UFT module 5302 can be easily tailored to down-convert a wide variety of electromagnetic signals using aliasing frequencies that are well below the frequencies ofthe EM input signal 5304. In one implementation, aliasing module 5300 down-converts the input signal 5304 to an intermediate frequency (IF) signal. In another implementation, the aliasing module 5300 down- converts the input signal 5304 to a demodulated baseband signal. In yet another implementation, the input signal 5304 is a frequency modulated (FM) signal, and the aliasing module 5300 down- converts it to a non-FM signal, such as a phase modulated (PM) signal or an amplitude modulated (AM) signal. Each ofthe above implementations is described below. In an embodiment, the control signal 5306 (which is an example of control signal φ, that controls switch 2650 in FIG. 26) includes a train of pulses that repeat at an aliasing rate that is equal to, or less than, twice the frequency of the input signal 5304 In this embodiment, the control signal 5306 is referred to herein as an aliasing signal because it is below the Nyquist rate for the frequency ofthe input signal 5304. Preferably, the frequency of control signal 5306 is much less than the input signal 5304. The train of pulses 5318 of FIG. 53D controls the switch 5308 to alias the input signal 5304 with the control signal 5306 to generate a down-converted output signal 5312. More specifically in an embodiment, switch 5308 closes on a first edge of each pulse 5320 of FIG. 53D and opens on a second edge of each pulse. When the switch 5308 is closed, the input signal 5304 is coupled to the capacitor 5310, and charge is transferred from the input signal to the capacitor 5310. The charge stored during successive pulses forms down-converted output signal 5312. Exemplary waveforms are shown in FIGS. 53B-53F. FIG. 53B illustrates an analog amplitude modulated (AM) carrier signal 5314 that is an example of input signal 5304. For illustrative purposes, in FIG. 53C, an analog AM carrier signal portion 5316 illustrates a portion of the analog AM carrier signal 5314 on an expanded time scale. The analog AM carrier signal portion 5316 illustrates the analog AM carrier signal 5314 from time t 0 to time t,. FIG.53D illustrates an exemplary aliasing signal 5318 that is an example of control signal 5306. Aliasing signal 5318 is on approximately the same time scale as the analog AM carrier signal portion 5316. In the example shown in FIG. 53D, the aliasing signal 5318 includes a train of pulses 5320 having negligible apertures that tend towards zero (the invention is not limited to this embodiment, as discussed below). The pulse aperture may also be referred to as the pulse width as will be understood by those skilled in the art(s). The pulses 5320 repeat at an aliasing rate, or pulse repetition rate of aliasing signal 5318. The aliasing rate is determined as described below. As noted above, the train of pulses 5320 (i.e., control signal 5306) control the switch 5308 to alias the analog AM carrier signal 5316 (i.e., input signal 5304) at the aliasing rate of the aliasing signal 5318. Specifically, in this embodiment, the switch 5308 closes on a first edge of each pulse and opens on a second edge of each pulse. When the switch 5308 is closed, input signal 5304 is coupled to the capacitor 5310, and charge is transferred from the input signal 5304 to the capacitor 5310. The charge transferred during a pulse is referred to herein as an under- sample. Exemplary under-samples 5322 form down-converted signal portion 5324 (FIG. 53E) that corresponds to the analog AM carrier signal portion 5316 (FIG. 53C) and the train of pulses 5320 (FIG. 53D). The charge stored during successive under-samples of AM carrier signal 5314 forms a down-converted signal 5324 (FIG. 53E) that is an example of down-converted output signal 5312 (FIG. 53A). In FIG. 53F a demodulated baseband signal 5326 represents the demodulated baseband signal 5324 after filtering on a compressed time scale. As illustrated, down-converted signal 5326 has substantially the same "amplitude envelope" as AM carrier signal 5314. Therefore, FIGS. 53B-53F illustrate down-conversion of AM carrier signal 5314. The waveforms shown in FIGS. 53B-53F are discussed herein for illustrative purposes only, and are not limiting. As indicated above, the aliasing rate of control signal 5306 determines whether the input signal 5304 is down-converted to an IF signal, down-converted to a demodulated baseband signal, or down-converted from an FM signal to a PM or an AM signal. Generally, relationships between the input signal 5304, the aliasing rate of the control signal 5306, and the down- converted output signal 5312 are illustrated below: (Freq. of input signal 5304) = ««(Freq. of control signal 5306) + (Freq. of down-converted output signal 5312) For the examples contained herein, only the "+" condition will be discussed. The value of n represents a harmonic or sub-harmonic of input signal 5304 (e.g., n = 0.5, 1, 2, 3, . . . ). When the aliasing rate of control signal 5306 is off-set from the frequency of input signal 5304, or off-set from a harmonic or sub-harmonic thereof, input signal 5304 is down-converted to an IF signal. This is because the under-sampling pulses occur at different phases of subsequent cycles of input signal 5304. As a result, the under-samples form a lower frequency oscillating pattern. If the input signal 5304 includes lower frequency changes, such as amplitude, frequency, phase, etc., or any combination thereof, the charge stored during associated under-samples reflects the lower frequency changes, resulting in similar changes on the down-converted IF signal. For example, to down-convert a 901 MHz input signal to a 1 MHz IF signal, the frequency ofthe control signal 5306 would be calculated as follows: (Freq ιnpu , - Freq ]F )/« = Freq contro , (901 MHz - 1 MHz)/« = 900/« For n = 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., the frequency ofthe control signal 5306 would be substantially equal to 1.8 GHz, 900 MHz, 450 MHz, 300 MHz, 225 MHz, etc. Alternatively, when the aliasing rate ofthe control signal 5306 is substantially equal to the frequency of the input signal 5304, or substantially equal to a harmonic or sub-harmonic thereof, input signal 5304 is directly down-converted to a demodulated baseband signal. This is because, without modulation, the under-sampling pulses occur at substantially the same point of subsequent cycles ofthe input signal 5304. As a result, the under-samples form a constant output baseband signal. If the input signal 5304 includes lower frequency changes, such as amplitude, frequency, phase, etc., or any combination thereof, the charge stored during associated under-samples reflects the lower frequency changes, resulting in similar changes on the demodulated baseband signal. For example, to directly down-convert a 900 MHz input signal to a demodulated baseband signal (i.e., zero IF), the frequency ofthe control signal 5306 would be calculated as follows: (Freq ιnput - Freq IF )/« = Freq control (900 MHz - 0 MHzYrc = 900 MHz/« For n = 0.5, 1 , 2, 3, 4, etc., the frequency ofthe control signal 5306 should be substantially equal to 1.8 GHz, 900 MHz, 450 MHz, 300 MHz, 225 MHz, etc. Alternatively, to down-convert an input FM signal to a non-FM signal, a frequency within the FM bandwidth must be down-converted to baseband (i.e., zero IF). As an example, to down- convert a frequency shift keying (FSK) signal (a sub-set of FM) to a phase shift keying (PSK) signal (a subset of PM), the mid-point between a lower frequency F, and an upper frequency F 2 (that is, [(F, + F 2 ) ÷ 2]) ofthe FSK signal is down-converted to zero IF. For example, to down- convert an FSK signal having F, equal to 899 MHz and F 2 equal to 901 MHz, to a PSK signal, the aliasing rate ofthe control signal 5306 would be calculated as follows: Frequency ofthe input = (F, + F 2 ) ÷ 2 = (899 MHz + 901 MHz) ÷ 2 = 900 MHz Frequency ofthe down-converted signal = 0 (i.e., baseband) (Freq lnput - Freq IF )/π = Freq contro , (900 MHz - 0 MHZ)/Λ = 900 MHz/« For n = 0.5, 1, 2, 3, etc., the frequency ofthe control signal 5306 should be substantially equal to 1.8 GHz, 900 MHz, 450 MHz, 300 MHz, 225 MHz, etc. The frequency of the down- converted PSK signal is substantially equal to one half the difference between the lower frequency F, and the upper frequency F 2 . As another example, to down-convert a FSK signal to an amplitude shift keying (ASK) signal (a subset of AM), either the lower frequency F, or the upper frequency F 2 of the FSK signal is down-converted to zero IF. For example, to down-convert an FSK signal having F, equal to 900 MHz and F 2 equal to 901 MHz, to an ASK signal, the aliasing rate ofthe control signal 5306 should be substantially equal to: (900 MHz - 0 MHz)/n = 900 MHZ Λ, or (901 MHz - 0 MHzYn = 901 MHZ Λ. For the former case of 900 MHzln, and for n = 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., the frequency ofthe control signal 5306 should be substantially equal to 1.8 GHz, 900 MHz, 450 MHz, 300 MHz, 225 MHz, etc. For the latter case of 901 MHz/rc, and for n = 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., the frequency ofthe control signal 5306 should be substantially equal to 1.802 GHz, 901 MHz, 450.5 MHz, 300.333 MHz, 225.25 MHz, etc. The frequency ofthe down-converted AM signal is substantially equal to the difference between the lower frequency F, and the upper frequency F 2 (i.e., 1 MHz). In an embodiment, the pulses ofthe control signal 5306 have negligible apertures that tend towards zero. This makes the UFT module 5302 a high input impedance device. This configuration is useful for situations where minimal disturbance of the input signal may be desired. In another embodiment, the pulses of the control signal 5306 have non-negligible apertures that tend away from zero. This makes the UFT module 5302 a lower input impedance device. This allows the lower input impedance of the UFT module 5302 to be substantially matched with a source impedance of the input signal 5304. This also improves the energy transfer from the input signal 5304 to the down-converted output signal 5312, and hence the efficiency and signal to noise (s/n) ratio of UFT module 5302. When the pulses ofthe control signal 5306 have non-negligible apertures, the aliasing module 5300 is referred to interchangeably herein as an energy transfer module or a gated transfer module, and the control signal 5306 is referred to as an energy transfer signal. Exemplary systems and methods for generating and optimizing the control signal 5306 and for otherwise improving energy transfer and/or signal to noise ratio in an energy transfer module are described below. 3.4.2.1.1.1 Optional Energy Transfer Signal Module FIG. 66 illustrates an energy transfer system 6601 that includes an optional energy transfer signal module 6602, which can perform any of a variety of functions or combinations of functions including, but not limited to, generating the energy transfer signal 6406. In an embodiment, the optional energy transfer signal module 6602 includes an aperture generator, an example of which is illustrated in FIG. 65J as an aperture generator 6520. The aperture generator 6520 generates non-negligible aperture pulses 6526 from an input signal 6524. The input signal 6524 can be any type of periodic signal, including, but not limited to, a sinusoid, a square wave, a saw-tooth wave, etc. Systems for generating the input signal 6524 are described below. The width or aperture ofthe pulses 6526 is determined by delay through the branch 6522 ofthe aperture generator 6520. Generally, as the desired pulse width increases, the difficulty in meeting the requirements ofthe aperture generator 6520 decrease. In other words, to generate non-negligible aperture pulses for a given EM input frequency, the components utilized in the example aperture generator 6520 do not require as fast reaction times as those that are required in an under-sampling system operating with the same EM input frequency. The example logic and implementation shown in the aperture generator 6520 are provided for illustrative purposes only, and are not limiting. The actual logic employed can take many forms. The example aperture generator 6520 includes an optional inverter 6528, which is shown for polarity consistency with other examples provided herein. An example implementation of the aperture generator 6520 is illustrated in FIG. 65K. Additional examples of aperture generation logic are provided in FIGS. 65H and 651. FIG. 65H illustrates a rising edge pulse generator 6540, which generates pulses 6526 on rising edges ofthe input signal 6524. FIG. 651 illustrates a falling edge pulse generator 6550, which generates pulses 6526 on falling edges ofthe input signal 6524. In an embodiment, the input signal 6524 is generated externally ofthe energy transfer signal module 6602, as illustrated in FIG. 66. Alternatively, the input signal 6624 is generated internally by the energy transfer signal module 6602. The input signal 6524 can be generated by an oscillator, as illustrated in FIG. 65L by an oscillator 6530. The oscillator 6530 can be internal to the energy transfer signal module 6602 or external to the energy transfer signal module 6602. The oscillator 6530 can be external to the energy transfer system 6601. The output ofthe oscillator 6530 may be any periodic waveform. The type of down-conversion performed by the energy transfer system 6601 depends upon the aliasing rate ofthe energy transfer signal 6406, which is determined by the frequency ofthe pulses 6526. The frequency ofthe pulses 6526 is determined by the frequency ofthe input signal 6524. For example, when the frequency of the input signal 6524 is substantially equal to a harmonic or a sub-harmonic of the EM signal 6404, the EM signal 6404 is directly down- converted to baseband (e.g. when the EM signal is an AM signal or a PM signal), or converted from FM to a non-FM signal. When the frequency ofthe input signal 6524 is substantially equal to a harmonic or a sub-harmonic of a difference frequency, the EM signal 6404 is down- converted to an intermediate signal. The optional energy transfer signal module 6602 can be implemented in hardware, software, firmware, or any combination thereof. 3.4.2.1.1.2 Smoothing the Down-Converted Signal Referring back to FIG. 53 A, the down-converted output signal 5312 may be smoothed by filtering as desired. 3.4.2.1.1.3 Impedance Matching The energy transfer module 5300 has input and output impedances generally defined by (1) the duty cycle of the switch module (i.e., UFT 5302), and (2) the impedance ofthe storage module (e.g., capacitor 5310), at the frequencies of interest (e.g. at the EM input, -and intermediate/baseband frequencies). Starting with an aperture width of approximately Vi the period of the EM signal being down-converted as a preferred embodiment, this aperture width (e.g. the "closed time") can be decreased. As the aperture width is decreased, the characteristic impedance at the input and the output of the energy transfer module increases. Alternatively, as the aperture width increases from Vi the period ofthe EM signal being down-converted, the impedance ofthe energy transfer module decreases. One ofthe steps in determining the characteristic input impedance ofthe energy transfer module could be to measure its value. In an embodiment, the energy transfer module's characteristic input impedance is 300 ohms. An impedance matching circuit can be utilized to efficiently couple an input EM signal that has a source impedance of, for example, 50 ohms, with the energy transfer module's impedance of, for example, 300 ohms. Matching these impedances can be accomplished in various manners, including providing the necessary impedance directly or the use of an impedance match circuit as described below. Referring to FIG.67, a specific embodiment using an RF signal as an input, assuming that the impedance 6712 is a relatively low impedance of approximately 50 Ohms, for example, and the input impedance 6716 is approximately 300 Ohms, an initial configuration for the input impedance match module 6706 can include an inductor 6906 and a capacitor 6908, configured as shown in FIG. 69. The configuration ofthe inductor 6906 and the capacitor 6908 is a possible configuration when going from a low impedance to a high impedance. Inductor 6906 and the capacitor 6908 constitute an L match, the calculation ofthe values which is well known to those skilled in the relevant arts. The output characteristic impedance can be impedance matched to take into consideration the desired output frequencies. One ofthe steps in determining the characteristic output impedance of the energy transfer module could be to measure its value. Balancing the very low impedance ofthe storage module at the input EM frequency, the storage module should have an impedance at the desired output frequencies that is preferably greater than or equal to the load that is intended to be driven (for example, in an embodiment, storage module impedance at a desired 1MHz output frequency is 2K ohm and the desired load to be driven is 50 ohms). An additional benefit of impedance matching is that filtering of unwanted signals can also be accomplished with the same components. In an embodiment, the energy transfer module's characteristic output impedance is 2K ohms. An impedance matching circuit can be utilized to efficiently couple the down-converted signal with an output impedance of, for example, 2K ohms, to a load of, for example, 50 ohms. Matching these impedances can be accomplished in various manners, including providing the necessary load impedance directly or the use of an impedance match circuit as described below. When matching from a high impedance to a low impedance, a capacitor 6914 and an inductor 6916 can be configured as shown in FIG. 69. The capacitor 6914 and the inductor 6916 constitute an L match, the calculation ofthe component values being well known to those skilled in the relevant arts. The configuration ofthe input impedance match module 6706 and the output impedance match module 6708 are considered to be initial starting points for impedance matching, in accordance with the present invention. In some situations, the initial designs may be suitable without further optimization. In other situations, the initial designs can be optimized in accordance with other various design criteria and considerations. As other optional optimizing structures and/or components are utilized, their affect on the characteristic impedance ofthe energy transfer module should be taken into account in the match along with their own original criteria. 3.4.2.1.1.4 Tanks and Resonant Structures Resonant tank and other resonant structures can be used to further optimize the energy transfer characteristics of the invention. For example, resonant structures, resonant about the input frequency, can be used to store energy from the input signal when the switch is open, a period during which one may conclude that the architecture would otherwise be limited in its maximum possible efficiency. Resonant tank and other resonant structures can include, but are not limited to, surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters, dielectric resonators, diplexers, capacitors, inductors, etc. An example embodiment is shown in FIG. 79A. Two additional embodiments are shown in FIG. 74 and FIG. 82. Alternate implementations will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. Alternate implementations fall within the scope and spirit ofthe present invention. These implementations take advantage of properties of series and parallel (tank) resonant circuits. FIG. 79A illustrates parallel tank circuits in a differential implementation. A first parallel resonant or tank circuit consists of a capacitor 7938 and an inductor 7920 (tankl). A second tank circuit consists of a capacitor 7934 and an inductor 7936 (tank2). As is apparent to one skilled in the relevant art(s), parallel tank circuits provide: low impedance to frequencies below resonance; low impedance to frequencies above resonance; and high impedance to frequencies at and near resonance. In the illustrated example of FIG. 79 A, the first and second tank circuits resonate at approximately 920 Mhz. At and near resonance, the impedance of these circuits is relatively high. Therefore, in the circuit configuration shown in FIG 79 A, both tank circuits appear as relatively high impedance to the input frequency of 950 Mhz, while simultaneously appearing as relatively low impedance to frequencies in the desired output range of 50 Mhz. An energy transfer signal 7942 controls a switch 7914. When the energy transfer signal 7942 controls the switch 7914 to open and close, high frequency signal components are not allowed to pass through tankl or tank2. However, the lower signal components (50Mhz in this embodiment) generated by the system are allowed to pass through tankl and tank2 with little attenuation. The effect of tankl and tank2 is to further separate the input and output signals from the same node thereby producing a more stable input and output impedance. Capacitors 7918 and 7940 act to store the 50 Mhz output signal energy between energy transfer pulses. Further energy transfer optimization is provided by placing an inductor 7910 in series with a storage capacitor 7912 as shown. In the illustrated example, the series resonant frequency of this circuit arrangement is approximately 1 GHz. This circuit increases the energy transfer characteristic ofthe system. The ratio ofthe impedance of inductor 7910 and the impedance of the storage capacitor 7912 is preferably kept relatively small so that the majority ofthe energy available will be transferred to storage capacitor 7912 during operation. Exemplary output signals A and B are illustrated in FIGs. 79B and 79C, respectively. In FIG. 79A, circuit components 7904 and 7906 form an input impedance match. Circuit components 7932 and 7930 form an output impedance match into a 50 ohm resistor 7928. Circuit components 7922 and 7924 form a second output impedance match into a 50 ohm resistor 7926. Capacitors 7908 and 7912 act as storage capacitors for the embodiment. Voltage source 7946 and resistor 7902 generate a 950 Mhz signal with a 50 ohm output impedance, which are used as the input to the circuit. Circuit element 7916 includes a 150 Mhz oscillator and a pulse generator, which are used to generate the energy transfer signal 7942. FIG. 74 illustrates a shunt tank circuit 7410 in a single-ended to-single-ended system 7412. Similarly, FIG. 82 illustrates a shunt tank circuit 8210 in a system 8212. The tank circuits 7410 and 8210 lower driving source impedance, which improves transient response. The tank circuits 7410 and 8210 are able store the energy from the input signal and provide a low driving source impedance to transfer that energy throughout the aperture of the closed switch. The transient nature of the switch aperture can be viewed as having a response that, in addition to including the input frequency, has large component frequencies above the input frequency, (i.e. higher frequencies than the input frequency are also able to effectively pass through the aperture). Resonant circuits or structures, for example resonant tanks 7410 or 8210, can take advantage of this by being able to transfer energy throughout the switch's transient frequency response (i.e. the capacitor in the resonant tank appears as a low driving source impedance during the transient period ofthe aperture). The example tank and resonant structures described above are for illustrative purposes and are not limiting. Alternate configurations can be utilized. The various resonant tanks and structures discussed can be combined or utilized independently as is now apparent. 3.4.2.1.1.5 Charge and Power Transfer Concepts Concepts of charge transfer are now described with reference to FIGS. 90A-F. FIG. 90A illustrates a circuit 9002, including a switch S and a capacitor 9006 having a capacitance C. The switch S is controlled by a control signal 9008, which includes pulses 19010 having apertures T. In FIG. 90B, Equation 29 illustrates that the charge q on a capacitor having a capacitance C, such as the capacitor 9006, is proportional to the voltage V across the capacitor, where: q = Charge in Coulombs C = Capacitance in Farads V = Voltage in Volts A = Input Signal Amplitude Where the voltage V is represented by Equation 30, Equation 29 can be rewritten as Equation 31. The change in charge Δq over time t is illustrated as in Equation 32 as Δq(t), which can be rewritten as Equation 33. Using the sum-to-product trigonometric identity of Equation 34, Equation 33 can be rewritten as Equation 35, which can be rewritten as equation 36. Note that the sin term in Equation 30 is a function ofthe aperture T only. Thus, Δq(t) is at a maximum when T is equal to an odd multiple of π (i.e., π, 3π, 5π, . . . ). Therefore, the capacitor 9006 experiences the greatest change in charge when the aperture T has a value of π or a time interval representative of 180 degrees of the input sinusoid. Conversely, when T is equal to 2π, 4π, 6π, . . ., minimal charge is transferred. Equations 37, 38, and 20 solve for q(t) by integrating Equation 29, allowing the charge on the capacitor 9006 with respect to time to be graphed on the same axis as the input sinusoid sin(t), as illustrated in the graph of FIG. 90C. As the aperture T decreases in value or tends toward an impulse, the phase between the charge on the capacitor C or q(t) and sin(t) tend toward zero. This is illustrated in the graph of FIG. 90D, which indicates that the maximum impulse charge transfer occurs near the input voltage maxima. As this graph indicates, considerably less charge is transferred as the value of T decreases. Power/charge relationships are illustrated in Equations 21-26 of FIG. 90E, where it is shown that power is proportional to charge, and transferred charge is inversely proportional to insertion loss. Concepts of insertion loss are illustrated in FIG. 90F. Generally, the noise figure of a lossy passive device is numerically equal to the device insertion loss. Alternatively, the noise figure for any device cannot be less that its insertion loss. Insertion loss can be expressed by Equation 27 or 28. From the above discussion, it is observed that as the aperture T increases, more charge is transferred from the input to the capacitor 9006, which increases power transfer from the input to the output. It has been observed that it is not necessary to accurately reproduce the input voltage at the output because relative modulated amplitude and phase information is retained in the transferred power. 3.4.2.1.1.6 Optimizing and Adjusting the Non- Negligible Aperture Width/Duration 3.4.2.1.1.6.1 Varying Input and Output Impedances In an embodiment of the invention, the energy transfer signal (i.e., control signal 5306 in FIG. 53A), is used to vary the input impedance seen by the EM Signal 5304 and to vary the output impedance driving a load. An example of this embodiment is described below using a gated transfer module 7001 shown in FIG. 70 A. The method described below is not limited to the gated transfer module 7001. In FIG. 70A, when switch 7006 is closed, the impedance looking into circuit 7002 is substantially the impedance of a storage module, illustrated here as a storage capacitance 7008, in parallel with the impedance of a load 7012. When the switch 7006 is open, the impedance at point 7014 approaches infinity . It follows that the average impedance at point 7014 can be varied from the impedance of the storage module illustrated in parallel with the load 7012, to the highest obtainable impedance when switch 7006 is open, by varying the ratio of the time that switch 7006 is open to the time switch 7006 is closed. The switch 7006 is controlled by an energy transfer signal 7010. Thus the impedance at point 7014 can be varied by controlling the aperture width ofthe energy transfer signal in conjunction with the aliasing rate. An example method of altering the energy transfer signal 7006 of FIG. 70A is now described with reference to FIG. 68A, where a circuit 6802 receives an input oscillating signal 6806 and outputs a pulse train shown as doubler output signal 6804. The circuit 6802 can be used to generate the energy transfer signal 7006. Example waveforms of 6804 are shown on FIG. 68C. It can be shown that by varying the delay ofthe signal propagated by the inverter 6808, the width ofthe pulses in the doubler output signal 6804 can be varied. Increasing the delay of the signal propagated by inverter 6808, increases the width ofthe pulses. The signal propagated by inverter 6808 can be delayed by introducing a R/C low pass network in the output of inverter 6808. Other means of altering the delay ofthe signal propagated by inverter 6808 will be well known to those skilled in the art. 3.4.2.1.1.6.2 Real Time Aperture Control In an embodiment, the aperture width/duration is adjusted in real time. For example, referring to the timing diagrams in FIGS. 83B-F, a clock signal 8314 (FIG. 83B) is utilized to generate an energy transfer signal 8316 (FIG. 83F), which includes energy transfer pluses 8318, having variable apertures 8320. In an embodiment, the clock signal 8314 is inverted as illustrated by inverted clock signal 8322 (FIG. 83D). The clock signal 8314 is also delayed, as illustrated by delayed clock signal 8324 (FIG. 83E). The inverted clock signal 8314 and the delayed clock signal 8324 are then ANDed together, generating an energy transfer signal 8316, which is active - energy transfer pulses 8318 - when the delayed clock signal 8324 and the inverted clock signal 8322 are both active. The amount of delay imparted to the delayed clock signal 8324 substantially determines the width or duration ofthe apertures 8320. By varying the delay in real time, the apertures are adjusted in real time. In an alternative implementation, the inverted clock signal 8322 is delayed relative to the original clock signal 8314, and then ANDed with the original clock signal 8314. Alternatively, the original clock signal 8314 is delayed then inverted, and the result ANDed with the original clock signal 8314. FIG. 83A illustrates an exemplary real time aperture control system 8302 that can be utilized to adjust apertures in real time. The example real time aperture control system 8302 includes an RC circuit 8304, which includes a voltage variable capacitor 8312 and a resistor 8326. The real time aperture control system 8302 also includes an inverter 8306 and an AND gate 8308. The AND gate 8308 optionally includes an enable input 8310 for enabling/disabling the AND gate 8308. The RC circuit 8304. The real time aperture control system 8302 optionally includes an amplifier 8328. Operation ofthe real time aperture control circuit is described with reference to the timing diagrams of FIGS. 83B-F. The real time control system 8302 receives the input clock signal 8314, which is provided to both the inverter 8306 and to the RC circuit 8304. The inverter 8306 outputs the inverted clock signal 8322 and presents it to-the AND gate 8308. The RC circuit 8304 delays the clock signal 8314 and outputs the delayed clock signal 8324. The delay is determined primarily by the capacitance ofthe voltage variable capacitor 8312. Generally, as the capacitance decreases, the delay decreases. The delayed clock signal 8324 is optionally amplified by the optional amplifier 8328, before being presented to the AND gate 8308. Amplification is desired, for example, where the RC constant ofthe RC circuit 8304 attenuates the signal below the threshold ofthe AND gate 8308. The AND gate 8308 ANDs the delayed clock signal 8324, the inverted clock signal 8322, and the optional Enable signal 8310, to generate the energy transfer signal 8316. The apertures 8320 are adjusted in real time by varying the voltage to the voltage variable capacitor 8312. In an embodiment, the apertures 8320 are controlled to optimize power transfer. For example, in an embodiment, the apertures 8320 are controlled to maximize power transfer. Alternatively, the apertures 8320 are controlled for variable gain control (e.g. automatic gain control - AGC). In this embodiment, power transfer is reduced by reducing the apertures 8320. As can now be readily seen from this disclosure, many ofthe aperture circuits presented, and others, can be modified as in circuits illustrated in FIGS. 65 H-K. Modification or selection of the aperture can be done at the design level to remain a fixed value in the circuit, or in an alternative embodiment, may be dynamically adjusted to compensate for, or address, various design goals such as receiving RF signals with enhanced efficiency that are in distinctively different bands of operation, e.g. RF signals at 900 MHz and 1.8 GHz. 3.4.2.1.1.7 Adding a Bypass Network In an embodiment ofthe invention, a bypass network is added to improve the efficiency of the energy transfer module. Such a bypass network can be viewed as a means of synthetic aperture widening. Components for a bypass network are selected so that the bypass network appears substantially lower impedance to transients ofthe switch module (i.e., frequencies greater than the received EM signal) and appears as a moderate to high impedance to the input EM signal (e.g., greater that 100 Ohms at the RF frequency). The time that the input signal is now connected to the opposite side ofthe switch module is lengthened due to the shaping caused by this network, which in simple realizations may be a capacitor or series resonant inductor-capacitor. A network that is series resonant above the input frequency would be a typical implementation. This shaping improves the conversion efficiency of an input signal that would otherwise, if one considered the aperture of the energy transfer signal only, be relatively low in frequency to be optimal. For example, referring to FIG. 80 a bypass network 8002 (shown in this instance as capacitor 8012), is shown bypassing switch module 8004. In this embodiment the bypass network increases the efficiency of the energy transfer module when, for example, less than optimal aperture widths were chosen for a given input frequency on the energy transfer signal 8006. The bypass network 8002 could be of different configurations than shown in FIG 80. Such an alternate is illustrated in FIG.76. Similarly, FIG. 81 illustrates another example bypass network 8102, including a capacitor 8104. The following discussion will demonstrate the effects of a minimized aperture and the benefit provided by a bypassing network. Beginning with an initial circuit having a 550ps aperture in FIG. 84, its output is seen to be 2.8mVpp applied to a 50 ohm load in FIG. 88A. Changing the aperture to 270ps as shown in FIG. 85 results in a diminished output of 2.5Vpp applied to a 50 ohm load as shown in FIG. 88B. To compensate for this loss, a bypass network may be added, a specific implementation is provided in FIG. 86. The result of this addition is that 3.2Vpp can now be applied to the 50 ohm load as shown in FIG. 89A. The circuit with the bypass network in FIG. 86 also had three values adjusted in the surrounding circuit to compensate for the impedance changes introduced by the bypass network and narrowed aperture. FIG. 87 verifies that those changes added to the circuit, but without the bypass network, did not themselves bring about the increased efficiency demonstrated by the embodiment in FIG. 86 with the bypass network. FIG. 89B shows the result of using the circuit in FIG. 87 in which only 1.88Vpp was able to be applied to a 50 ohm load. 3.4.2.1.1.8 Modifying the Energy Transfer Signal Utilizing Feedback FIG. 66 shows an embodiment of a system 6601 which uses down-converted signal 6608B as feedback 6606 to control various characteristics ofthe energy transfer module 6604 to modify the down-converted signal 6608B. Generally, the amplitude ofthe down-converted signal 6608B varies as a function ofthe frequency and phase differences between the EM signal 6404 and the energy transfer signal 6406. In an embodiment, the down-converted signal 6608B is used as the feedback 6606 to control the frequency and phase relationship between the EM signal 6404 and the energy transfer signal 6406. This can be accomplished using the example logic in FIG 71 A. The example circuit in FIG. 71 A can be included in the energy transfer signal module 6602. Alternate implementations will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. Alternate implementations fall within the scope and spirit of the present invention. In this embodiment a state-machine is used as an example. In the example of FIG. 71 A, a state machine 7104 reads an analog to digital converter, A/D 7102, and controls a digital to analog converter, DAC 7106. In an embodiment, the state machine 7104 includes 2 memory locations, Previous and Current, to store and recall the results of reading A/D 7102. In an embodiment, the state machine 7104 utilizes at least one memory flag. The DAC 7106 controls an input to a voltage controlled oscillator, VCO 7108. VCO 7108 controls a frequency input of a pulse generator 7110, which, in an embodiment, is substantially similar to the pulse generator shown in FIG. 65 J. The pulse generator 7110 generates energy transfer signal 6406. In an embodiment, the state machine 7104 operates in accordance with a state machine flowchart 7119 in FIG. 71B. The result of this operation is to modify the frequency and phase relationship between the energy transfer signal 6406 and the EM signal 6404, to substantially maintain the amplitude ofthe down-converted signal 6608B at an optimum level. The amplitude of the down-converted signal 6608B can be made to vary with the amplitude ofthe energy transfer signal 6406. In an embodiment where the switch module 6502 is a FET as shown in FIG 64A, wherein the gate 6418 receives the energy transfer signal 6406, the amplitude ofthe energy transfer signal 6406 can determine the "on" resistance ofthe FET, which affects the amplitude of the down-converted signal 6608B. The energy transfer signal module 6602, as shown in FIG. 71C, can be an analog circuit that enables an automatic gain control function. Alternate implementations will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. Alternate implementations fall within the scope and spirit ofthe present invention. 3.4.2.1.1.9 Other Implementations The implementations described above are provided for purposes of illustration. These implementations are not intended to limit the invention. Alternate implementations, differing slightly or substantially from those described herein, will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. Such alternate implementations fall within the scope and spirit ofthe present invention. 3.4.2.1.1.10 Example Energy Transfer Down- Converters Example implementations are described below for illustrative purposes. The invention is not limited to these examples. FIG. 72 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary circuit to down convert a 915 MHz signal to a 5 MHz signal using a 101.1 MHz clock. FIG. 73 shows example simulation waveforms for the circuit of figure 72. Waveform 7202 is the input to the circuit showing the distortions caused by the switch closure. Waveform 7204 is the unfiltered output at the storage unit. Waveform 7206 is the impedance matched output ofthe downconverter on a different time scale. FIG. 74 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary circuit to downconvert a 915 MHz signal to a 5 MHz signal using a 101.1 MHz clock. The circuit has additional tank circuitry to improve conversion efficiency. FIG. 75 shows example simulation waveforms for the circuit of figure 74. Waveform 7402 is the input to the circuit showing the distortions caused by the switch closure. Waveform 7404 is the unfiltered output at the storage unit. Waveform 7406 is the output of the downconverter after the impedance match circuit. FIG. 76 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary circuit to downconvert a 915 MHz signal to a 5 MHz signal using a 101.1 MHz clock. The circuit has switch bypass circuitry to improve conversion efficiency. FIG. 77 shows example simulation waveforms for the circuit of figure 76. Waveform 7602 is the input to the circuit showing the distortions caused by the switch closure. Waveform 7604 is the unfiltered output at the storage unit. Waveform 7606 is the output of the downconverter after the impedance match circuit. FIG. 78 shows a schematic ofthe example circuit in FIG. 72 connected to an FSK source that alternates between 913 and 917 MHz, at a baud rate of 500 Kbaud. FIG. 91 shows the original FSK waveform 7802 and the downconverted waveform 7804 at the output ofthe load impedance match circuit. 3.4.2.2 Delay Modules As indicated above, a delay module operates to delay samples/instances of a signal presented at its input by a known amount. For example, in the embodiment ofthe UDF module 2622 shown in FIG.26, the first and second delay modules 2628 and 2630 operate to delay instances of the output signal VO. Specifically, the first delay module 2628 delays instances ofthe output signal VO by one time unit. The second delay module 2630 also delays instances ofthe output signal VO by one time unit. However, the second delay module 2630 receives its input from the first delay module 2628. Accordingly, the effect ofthe second delay module 2630 (in combination with the first delay module 2628) is to delay instances of the output signal VO by two time units. This is required, for example, by the second and third components ofthe example band-pass filtering transfer function of EQ. 3. In the embodiment of the UDF module 2622 shown in FIG. 26, the first delay module 2628 and the second delay module 2630 are each implemented using a sample and hold circuit. For ease of presentation and illustration, such sample and hold circuits are depicted in FIG. 45. (As apparent from the discussion contained herein, other embodiments of the UDF module include delay modules. Such delay modules can also be implemented using sample and hold circuits. Alternatively, well known delay circuits or processors/software can be utilized, as will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based-on the teachings contained herein.) More particularly, FIG. 45 shows two sample and hold circuits 4501 and 4503. The sample and holds 4501 and 4503 are similar in structure and operation. Generally, the first delay module 2628 and the second delay module 2630 can each be implemented using either ihe sample and hold 4501 or the sample and hold 4503. Preferably, the first delay module 2628 and the second delay module 2630 are generally implemented in the example configuration shown in FIG. 45. Each sample and hold 4501 , 4503 includes a first switch 4508, 4524 and a second switch 4512, 4528, respectively. The first switches 4508, 4524, and the second switches 4512, 4528 are controlled by a clock signal 4550. Preferably, the clock signal 4550 has two phases, φ, and φ 2 . Preferably, φ, and φ 2 have the same frequency, but are non-overlapping. The first switches 4508, 4524 are controlled by φ,. Preferably, the first switches 4508 and 4524 close on rising edges of φ, , and open on the following falling edges of φ, . The second switches 4512,4528 are controlled by φ 2 . Preferably, the second switches 4512 and 4528 close on rising edges of φ 2 , and open on the following falling edges of φ 2 . Example representations of φ, and φ 2 are shown in FIG. 48. It is noted that the invention is not limited to this switching convention. In other embodiments, other switching conventions are used. Further, other circuit configurations could be used. The sample and holds 4501, 4503 also each include a first capacitor 4510, 4526 and a second capacitor 4514, 4530, respectively. The sample and holds 4501, 4503 optionally include unity gain modules 4520, 4522, 4532, 4534 which operate in the manner described above. The operation ofthe sample and holds 4501, 4503 is now described with reference to a flowchart 4602 shown in FIG. 46. Reference shall also be made to a Table 4702 that indicates example values at particular nodes in the sample and holds 4501 and 4503 at a number of consecutive time increments. In the example of Table 4702, it is assumed that operation ofthe sample and holds 4501 , 4503 begins at time t. One or more cycles are required for the sample and holds 4501, 4503 to reach steady state. The number of cycles required to reach steady state will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. In step 4604, at the rising edge of φ, during a time t, the switch 4508 closes. Upon the closing ofthe first switch 4508, the first capacitor 4510 charges to VI, such that node 4516 is at VI,. This is indicated in cell 4704 of Table 4702. Note that the first switch 4524 in the sample and hold 4503 also closes upon the rising edge of φ, during t. This causes the first capacitor 4526 in the sample and hold 4503 to charge to the level stored in the second capacitor 4514 in the sample and hold 4501. However, in the example currently being discussed, the value ofthe second capacitor 4514 at the rising edge of φ, during time t is undefined. Accordingly, the charge in the first capacitor 4526 at this time t is undefined, as indicated in cell 4705 in Table 4702. In step 4606, at the rising edge of φ 2 during time t, the second switch 4512 in the sample and hold 4501 closes. This causes the second capacitor 4514 to charge to the level ofthe first capacitor 4510. Accordingly, the second capacitor 4514 charges to VI t . This causes the value at node 4518 to become VI,. This is indicated in cell 4708 of table 4702. Also upon the rising edge of φ 2 during time t, the second switch 4528 in the sample and hold 4503 closes, such that the second capacitor 4530 charges to the level ofthe first capacitor 4526 in the sample and hold 4503. However, as described above, the charge in the first capacitor 4526 at this time is undefined. Accordingly, the charge in the second capacitor 4530 at this time is undefined, as indicated by cell 4709 in Table 4702. In step 4608, at the rising edge of φ, during time t+1 , the first switch 4508 in the sample and hold 4501 closes. This causes the first capacitor 4510 to charge to VI t+ „ such that node 4516 is at VI, ,. This is indicated in cell 4710 in Table 4702. Also on the rising edge of φ, during time t+1 , the first switch 4524 in the sample and hold 4503 closes. This causes the first capacitor 4526 in the sample and hold 4503 to charge to the level ofthe second capacitor 4514 in the sample and hold 4501. Accordingly, the first capacitor 4526 charges to VI„ such that node 4536 is at VI,. This is indicated in cell 4714 of Table 4702. In step 4610, at the rising edge of φ 2 during time t+1, the second switch 4512 in the sample and hold 4501 closes. This causes the second capacitor 4514 in the sample and hold 4501 to charge to the level of the first capacitor 4510. In other words, the second capacitor 4514 charges to VI, +1 , such that node 4518 is at VI, +] . This is indicated by cell 4718 in Table 4702. Also at the rising edge of φ 2 during time t+1, the second switch 4528 in the sample and hold 4503 closes. This causes the second capacitor 4530 to charge to the level of the first capacitor 4526 in the sample and hold 4503. In other words, the second capacitor 4530 charges to VI, such that node 4538 is at VI,. This is indicated in cell 4722 of Table 4702. FIG.48 illustrates another representation ofthe operation ofthe sample and holds 4501 , 4503. FIG. 48 illustrates φ, and φ 2 of the clock signal-4550. As discussed above, the first switches 4508, 4524 close at rising edges of φ,, and open at falling edges of φ,. The second switches 4512, 4528 close at rising edges of φ 2 , and open at falling edges of φ 2 . Consider now the sample and hold 4501. When the first switch 4508 closes, the first capacitor 4510 begins to charge to the input signal VI and continues to charge until the first switch 4508 opens. The first switch 4508 is closed while φ, is high. Accordingly, while φ, is high, the sample and hold 4501 samples the input signal VI. This is indicated in FIG. 48 by a sample period 4802. FIG. 48 also indicates a hold period 4804. During this hold period 4804, the sample ofthe input signal VI that is stored in the first capacitor 4510 is held in the sample and hold 4501. Specifically, this input sample is held in the first capacitor 4510 until the next rising edge of φ, (during time t+1). Also, at the rising edge of φ 2 during time t, the second switch 4512 closes and the second capacitor 4514 charges to this input sample. This value is held in the second capacitor 4514 until the next rising edge of φ 2 at time t+1. Accordingly, in sample and hold 4501 , VI is sampled at the beginning oft, and is held in the sample and hold 4501 until after time period t expires (i.e., for greater than a full period ofthe clock signal 4550). Note, however, that the next sample and hold 4503 does not sample the output of the first sample and hold 4501 until the next rising edge of φ, (that is, the rising edge of φ, during time t+1). Thus, the first sample and hold 4501 samples VI at time t; this sample VI, does not propagate to the next sample and hold 4503 until time t+ 1. Accordingly, the sample and hold 4501 effectively holds or delays the sample ofthe input signal VI for one time period. This delay period is denoted as 4806 in FIG. 48. In practice, the charge in the first capacitor 4510 tracks the input signal VI while the first switch 4508 is closed (i.e., during the sample period 4802 of time t). The charge stored in the first capacitor 4510 at the falling edge of φ, of time t constitutes the input sample VI,. In other words, the input sample VI, is defined in the sample and hold 4501 at the falling edge of φ, of time t. The input sample in the sample and hold 4501 is not re-defined until the next falling edge of φ, (i.e., the falling edge of φ, of time t+1). Accordingly, the delay of the sample and hold 4501 can be considered to be delay 4807 shown in FIG. 48. The discussion in this section has thus far focused on the delay modules 2628, 2630 implemented using sample and hold circuits, as in the example UDF module 2622 of FIG. 26. However, the invention is not limited to this implementation example. Instead, the delay modules in the UDF module can be implemented using any apparatus or circuit that operates to delay an incoming signal by a predetermined amount. For example, referring for illustrative purposes only to FIG. 17, the delay modules 1710, 1722 can each be implemented using a switched capacitor topology 3204, such as that shown in FIG. 32. The switch capacitor topology 3204 includes two switches 3208 and 3206 which operate according to φ, and φ 2 of a clock signal. An example representation of φ, and φ 2 is shown in FIGS. 33A and 33B. In addition to delaying an input signal VI, the particular switch capacitor shown in FIG. 32 also scales the input signal as follows: Cl V2 = — * V 1 C2 Accordingly, when using a switched capacitor such as that shown in FIG. 32, the switch capacitor performs the function of both the delay module 1710, 1722 and the associated scaling module 1716, 1724. The delay modules 1710, 1722 can also each be implemented using an analog delay line, such as the analog delay line 3404 in FIG. 34, for example. As will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s), an analog delay line 3404 is constructed using a combination of capacitors, inductors, and/or resistors. The analog delay line 3404 operates to delay an input signal by a known amount. In some embodiments, the analog delay line 3404 is combined with other components to achieve this function, such as samplers. The above implementation examples are provided for illustrative purposes only, and are not limiting. Other implementation examples will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. 3.4.2.3 Scaling Modules The scaling modules in the UDF module operate to scale signals present at their respective inputs. Such scaling contributes to the filter characteristics (such as the filter center frequency and bandwidth) ofthe UDF module. Referring for illustrative purposes only to the UDF module 1702 in FIG. 17, the scaling modules 1716, 1724 can be implemented using any apparatus or circuit that scales an input signal by a known amount. The scaling factor may be less than 1 (in the case of attenuation) or greater than 1 (in the case of amplification). More generally, the scaling factor may be any real number, including but not limited to zero. For example, each scaling module 1716,1724 can be implemented using a resistor attenuater 3504, as shown in FIG. 35. As will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), there are many types and configurations of resistor attenuaters. FIG. 36 illustrates an example resistor attenuater 3602. This example resistor attenuater 3602 scales an input VI by: Other circuit diagrams for resistor attenuaters suitable for use as the scaling modules 1716, 1724 in the UDF module 1702 will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s). An amplifier/attenuater 3704 can also be used to implement the scaling modules 1716, 1724. An example amplifier 3704 is shown in FIG. 37. As will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), amplifiers suitable for use as scaling modules 1716, 1724 in the UDF module 1702 can be implemented using a variety of circuit components, such as, but not limited to, operational amplifiers (OP AMPS), transistors, FETS, etc. The above implementation examples are provided for illustrative purposes only, and are not limiting. Other implementation examples will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. 3.4.2.4 Adder Referring for illustrative purposes only to FIG. 17, the adder 1720 (also called the summer herein) sums the signals presented at its inputs. The adder 1720 can be implemented using any apparatus or circuit that sums a plurality of input signals. For example, the adder 1720 can be implemented using a resistive summer 3804 (FIG. 38). As will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), there are many configurations of resistive summers. FIG. 39 illustrates an example resistive summer 3902 that can be used to implement the adder 1720. However, the invention is not limited by this example. The adder 1720 could also be implemented using an OP AMP summer 4004 (FIG. 40). As will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), there are many types and configurations of OP AMP summers. For illustrative purposes, an example OP AMP summer 4102 is provided in FIG. 41. The structure and operation ofthe OP AMP summer 4102 will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s). It should be understood that the invention is not limited by the example OP AMP summer 4102 provided in FIG. 41. The adder 1720 can also be implemented using a combination of summer components. This is shown, for example, in the embodiment of FIG. 26. The above implementation examples are provided for illustrative purposes only, and are not limiting. Other implementation examples will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. 3.4.2.5 Control Signal Generator Referring for illustrative purposes only to the UDF module 1702 in FIG. 17, the down- convert and delay module 1708 and the delay modules 1710, 1722 preferably operate according to control signals 1734A-1734F. Preferably, the control signals 1734A-1734F represent a biphase control signal, that is, a control signal with two phases, φ, and φ 2 . Preferably, φ, and φ 2 have the same frequency and are not overlapping. An example representation of φ, and φ 2 is shown in FIGS. 43B and 43D. Any apparatus and circuit for generating such a bi-phase control signal can be utilized with the present invention. An example implementation of a control signal generator 1790 is presented in FIG. 42. The control signal generator 1790 includes an oscillator 4204 and optionally a signal shaper 4205 that generate a series of pulses at a sampling frequency f s . This is represented in FIG. 43A. A signal splitter 4206 splits this oscillating signal into two identical signals. An example representation of these two signals is shown in FIGS. 43B and 43C. These two signals are present at nodes 4216 and 4214, respectively, in the control signal generator 4202. The signal splitter 4206 may cause some attenuation in the signals. Consequently, some embodiments ofthe invention may include amplifiers. A delay module 4208 operates to delay one ofthe signals so as to generate φ 2 present at node 4218. This is shown in FIG.- 43D. As noted above, in some embodiments, it is useful to adjust the aperture (width) ofthe pulses in one or more of the control signals φ, and/or φ 2 In such embodiments, an optional aperture optimizing module 4210 performs the task of adjusting the aperture (width) ofthe pulses ofthe control signals φ, and/or φ 2 The structure and operation of an embodiment ofthe aperture optimizing module 4210 is described in detail in co-pending U.S. Patent Application titled, "Methods and Systems for Down-Converting Electromagnetic Signals," referenced above. The above implementation examples are provided for illustrative purposes only, and are not limiting. Other implementation examples will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. 3.4.2.6 Output Sample and Hold Module Some embodiments ofthe UDF module may include an output sample and hold module. For example, the example UDF module 2622 in FIG. 26 includes an output sample and hold module 2636. Preferably, the output sample and hold module 2636 is positioned at the output ofthe adder 2626. As evident from the embodiments discussed above, the output signal VO generated by the UDF module is typically represented by the output of the adder (although there are some embodiments and applications where this is not the case). See, for example, the UDF module 1702 in FIG. 17. In some implementations ofthe UDF module, such as that shown in FIG. 26, the value present at the output ofthe adder 2626 may not always represent a valid instance ofthe output signal VO. This is due, for example, to the propagation of signals through the UDF module. The output sample and hold module 2636 ensures that only valid values ofthe output ofthe adder 2626 (i.e., only valid instances ofthe output signal VO) are presented to downstream devices external to the UDF module. In the example of FIG. 26, the value at the output ofthe adder 2626 is guaranteed to be valid only at rising edges of φ,. Accordingly, a switch 2691 in the output sample and hold module 2636 closes upon rising edges of φ„ thereby allowing the capacitor 2692 in the output sample and hold module 2636 to charge to the value at the output ofthe adder 2626. This value in the capacitor 2692 is presented to an output smoothing module 2638. The signal generated by the output smoothing module 2638 represents the output signal VO. See, for example, cell 1550 in Table 1502, and the accompanying description provided above. The above implementation examples are provided for illustrative purposes only, and are not limiting. Other implementation examples will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. 3.4.2.7 Output Smoothing Module Some embodiments ofthe UDF module may include an output smoothing module. For example, the example UDF module 2622 of FIG.26 includes an output smoothing module 2636. The output smoothing module 2638 operates to smooth the signal generated by the output sample and hold module 2636. It is noted that the output smoothing module is an optional component. The above implementation example is provided for illustrative purposes only, and is not limiting. Other implementation examples will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. 3.4.2.8 Mid-Point Injection Embodiment: High Frequency Delay Module Referring to FIG. 25, the high frequency delay module 2506 utilized in the UDF module 2502 ofthe mid-point injection embodiments ofthe present invention can be implemented using any apparatus that delays a relatively high frequency signal, or instances ofthe signal, for a given amount of time. The frequency of the signal may be, for example, RF or greater (but the invention is not limited to these frequencies — the frequency ofthe signal may be less than RF). Any well known delay lines and/or transmission structures can be used to implement the high frequency delay module 2506. For example, a transmission line of known length can be used to implement the high frequency delay module 2506. As will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s), a particular delay can be obtained using a transmission line of known length. Other apparatuses or structures for implementing- the high frequency delay module 2506 will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. 3.4.2.9 Mid-Point Injection Embodiment: Optional Filter Referring to FIG. 25, the filter 2508 optionally utilized in the UDF module 2502 ofthe mid-point injection embodiments of the present invention can be implemented using any appropriate filtering apparatus. Preferably, the filter 2508 represents a high frequency, wideband filter. Any appropriate known filter topology can be employed, such as an LC configuration, strip lines, and/or a saw filter. Many apparatuses or structures for implementing the filter 2508 will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. 3.4.2.10 Mid-Point Injection Embodiment: Downconvert Module Referring to FIG. 25, the downconvert module 2526 utilized in the UDF module 2502 of the mid-point injection embodiments of the present invention can be implemented using any apparatus that performs frequency down-conversion. For example, any well known frequency down-conversion apparatus employing a mixer and an oscillator can be used. Other well known apparatuses that perform frequency down-conversion suitable for use with the present invention will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. According to embodiments of the invention, the downconvert module 2526 is alternatively implemented using the universal frequency down-conversion (UFD) module. The UFD module is described above. 3.4.2.11 Mid-Point Injection Embodiment: Upconvert Module Referring to FIG.25, the upconvert module 2524 utilized in the UDF module 2502 ofthe mid-point injection embodiments of the present invention can be implemented using any apparatus that performs frequency upconversion that retains amplitude and phase information. For example, any well known frequency upconversion apparatus employing a mixer and an oscillator can be used. Other well known apparatuses that perform frequency upconversion suitable for use with the present invention will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the discussion contained herein. 3.4.3 Implementing the UDF Module as an Integrated Circuit (IC) The invention is direct to the UDF module implemented on an integrated circuit (IC). Understanding of this aspect of the invention may be facilitated by considering IC fabrication technology. The fabrication of filters typically requires very tight tolerances on component parts of the filters, such as capacitors, inductors, resistors, etc. In contrast, the UDF module ofthe present invention does not require a high degree of accuracy on the values of elements used therein. More particularly, the UDF module does not require a high degree of accuracy on the value of any given individual circuit element used therein. Instead, according to the invention, the parameters of the filters depend on the ratio of element values. This is illustrated, for example, by the above description of the switched capacitor of FIG. 32, where the scaling factor depended on the ratio of Cl to C2. As will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), it is difficult with present day fabrication technology to achieve tight tolerances on individual circuit component values, especially when operating at high frequencies (such as RF and above). However, current technology allows for tight tolerances on the ratios of circuit component values. This is generally the case for all operating frequencies. Thus, the invention facilitates the IC fabrication process. This aspect of the present invention is one factor that enables the UDF module to be implemented as an IC. There are a number of additional aspects of the UDF module that enable it to be implemented as an IC. For example, the component ofthe UDF module that preferably performs the frequency translation operation, i.e., the universal frequency down-conversion module, is achieved using a limited number of components. See, for example, the embodiment of FIG. 26, where the frequency down-conversion operation is being performed essentially by a switch 2650 and a capacitor 2652. Also, according to the present invention, input filtering is preferably achieved using a limited number of components. Again, for example, see the example UDF module 2622 of FIG. 26. Further, the goals of the invention (input filtering and frequency translation) are preferably achieved without the use of large capacitors, inductors, or resistors. These aspects of the invention are discussed above. Thus, the architecture ofthe invention is friendly to integrated circuit design techniques and processes. Consequently, as will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein, any of the embodiments of the UDF module can be implemented on an integrated circuit using existing fabrication technology. 3.4.4 Oth er Implementations The implementations described above are provided for purposes of illustration. These implementations are not intended to limit the invention. Alternate implementations, differing slightly or substantially from those described herein, will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. Such alternate implementations fall within the scope and spirit ofthe present invention. 4 Designing a Unified Downconverting and Filtering (UDF) Module A methodology for designing a unified downconverting and filtering (UDF) module according to an embodiment of the invention shall now be described. This methodology is applicable to any ofthe embodiments ofthe UDF module discussed or contemplated herein. It should be understood that this methodology is provided for purposes of illustration, and is not intended to limited the invention. Alternate design methodologies, differing slightly or substantially from those described herein, will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. Such alternate design methodologies fall within the scope and spirit ofthe present invention. Referring now to a flowchart 4902 in FIG. 49, in step 4904, the UDF module is designed so as to exhibit desired frequency translation characteristics. Such characteristics may include, for example and without limitation, the expected frequency of the input signal and the desired frequency ofthe output signal. Such characteristics may also include, for example and without limitation, whether the input signal is down-converted to an IF signal, down-converted to a demodulated baseband signal, down-converted from an FM signal to a PM or an AM signal, etc. Such characteristic may also include, for example and without limitation, whether energy transfer should be augmented during the frequency translation process. In step 4906, the UDF module is designed so as to exhibit desired frequency selectivity characteristics. Such characteristics may include, for example and without limitation, the type of filtering to be performed by the UDF module (low pass, high pass, band pass, all pass, band stop, notch, etc.), the filtering center frequency, the filtering bandwidth, the filtering passband, etc. It is noted that steps 4904 and 4906 may be performed in any order. In step 4908, the UDF module is constructed in accordance with the design considerations of steps 4904 and 4906. The operation ofthe steps of flowchart 4902 shall now be described in greater detail with reference to a flowchart 5002 in FIG. 50. Step 4904 (designing the UDF module so as to exhibit desired frequency translation characteristics) is represented by step 5004 in FIG. 50. Preferably, the desired frequency translation characteristics ofthe UDF module is established by selecting the sampling rate. There may be other considerations, as described above, and further described in co-pending U.S. Patent Application titled, "Methods and Systems for Down-Converting Electromagnetic Signals," referenced above. Step 4906 (designing the UDF module so as to exhibit desired frequency selectivity characteristics) is represented by steps 5006-5010 in FIG. 50, which are now described. In step 5006, a low pass transfer function in the S plane is obtained/selected. As will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), it is common practice to design a filter by starting with a lowpass filter at a desired cutoff frequency. As will be further appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), there are numerous formulas and/or design tables for low pass transfer functions, including Butterworth, Chebyshev, elliptic filters, etc. Any of these may be utilized as the S plane low pass transfer function obtained/selected in step 5006. In step 5008, the S plane low pass transfer function obtained in step 5006 is converted to a Z plane low pass transfer function. Step 5008 is preferably performed by substituting S variables in the S plane low pass transfer function with the expression provided in EQ. 8. As will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), other S plane to Z plane transformations exist. Any of these transformations may be used in the present invention. s = 2(1 - z 1 ) EQ. 8 In EQ. 8, T represents the inverse ofthe sampling rate (determined in step 5004). In other words, T is equal to 1 /(sampling rate). In step 5010, if necessary, the Z plane low pass transfer function is modified to obtain desired filtering characteristics. Preferably, the modifications of step 5010 are performed using any well known transformation expressions. Examples of such well known transformation expressions are provided, without limitation, in FIG. 51 (the transformation expressions of FIG. 51 are independent ofthe manner in which the S plane to Z plane conversion was performed in step 5008). In these expressions, θ p represents the cutoff frequency of the S low pass transfer function obtained and modified in steps 5006 and 5008. The table 5102 in FIG. 51 is from Oppenheim and Schafer, Digital Signal Processing, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1975, page 230. As will be appreciated by persons skilled in the relevant art(s), other transformation expressions exist. Any such transformations can be used by the present invention. When using the example transformations of table 5102, it is possible to obtain a Z plane high pass transfer function from the Z plane low pass transfer function of step 5008 by using the transformation and formulas of cells 5106 and 5114. It is possible to obtain a Z plane bandpass transfer function from the Z plane low pass transfer function of step 5008 by using the transformation and formulas of cells 5108 and 5116. It is possible to obtain a Z plane bandstop transfer function from the Z plane low pass transfer function of step 5008 by using the transformation and formulas of cells 5110 and 5118. It is possible to obtain a modified Z plane lowpass transfer function from the Z plane low pass transfer function of step 5008 by using the transformation and formulas of cells 5104 and 5112. The equations and transformations of FIG. 51 establish filtering characteristics such as the center frequency and the passband. For example, with regard to the bandpass filter, once the transformation in cell 5108 has been applied to the Z plane low pass transfer function generated in step 5008, the original low pass cutoff frequency θ p represents the center frequency ofthe band pass filter. The passband ofthe band pass filter is defined by ω, and ω 2 . It is noted that Z plane transfer functions generated as described above with reference to steps 5006, 5008, and 5010 may differ in form and/or content from the transfer functions of EQS. 1-6. This illustrates the great flexibility, broad scope, and wide applicability of the present invention. In particular, the present invention is operable according to (i.e., the invention can be implemented in accord with) any or at least a large number of filtering transfer functions generated using any or at least a large number of procedures, as will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. Still referring to FIG. 50, in step 4908, the UDF module is constructed in accordance with the design considerations of steps 5004-5010. Consider, for example, the UDF module 1702 in FIG. 17. The number of delay elements and the arrangement ofthe delay elements in the UDF module 1702 (such as the downconvert and delay module 1708 and the delay modules 1710, 1722) are dictated by the delay factors in the filter transfer function produced after operation of steps 5006, 5008, and 5010. This is apparent from the discussion in prior sections. The sampling rate selected in step 5004 corresponds to the control signal 1734. The constants in the filter transfer function (produced after operation of steps 5006, 5008, and 5010) are achieved by the scaling modules 1716, 1724 (and optionally 1790). 5 Adjustable UDF Module As noted above, and referring to FIG. 17 for illustrative purposes only, the frequency translation and selectivity characteristics ofthe UDF module 1702 are established in large part by the control signal 1734 (including the sample clock) and the scaling modules 1716, 1724. In embodiments ofthe UDF module, various parameters are adjustable, including but not limited to the control signal 1734 and the scaling modules 1716, 1724. Accordingly, frequency translation and selectivity characteristics ofthe UDF module that depend on the control signal 1734 and the scaling modules 1716, 1724 are adjustable. In some embodiments, such characteristics (and perhaps others) are electronically adjustable. Frequency translation characteristics, including but not limited to the desired frequency ofthe output signal, whether the input signal is down-converted to an IF signal, down-converted to a demodulated baseband signal, down-converted from an FM signal to a PM or an AM signal, etc., and whether energy transfer should be augmented during the frequency translation process, can be adjusted by adjusting, for example and without limitation, characteristics ofthe control signal 1734 (such as rate and/or pulse aperature). Frequency selectivity characteristics, including but not limited to the filter center frequency, the filter bandwidth, the filter passband, the filter type, etc., can be adjusted by adjusting, for example and without limitation, the scaling factors ofthe scaling modules 1716, 1722 and/or the control signal 1734 (such as rate and/or pulse aperature). The control signal can be adjusted, for example, by implementing the control signal generator 4202 (FIG. 42) using a tunable oscillator, and implementing the aperature optimizing module 4210 using tunable components (such as tunable resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc.). Such tunable elements may be electrically tunable. The scaling factors can be adjusted by implementing the scaling modules 1716, 1722 using adjustable components, such as tunable resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc. Such tunable elements may be electrically tunable. The tunable devices may be manually controlled. Alternatively, embodiments ofthe UDF module include control modules to automatically control such tunable devices (in some embodiments, the control modules operate according to user input and/or commands). The control modules may operate in real time, such that the UDF module is dynamically tunable. The control modules may be implemented as a software controlled processor, a state machine, etc., or combinations thereof. 6 Amplification As described above, unified down-converting and filtering according to embodiments of the present invention involves both frequency down-conversion and filtering. According to embodiments ofthe invention, unified down-converting and filtering ofthe present invention also includes signal amplification. This feature of the invention is discussed in this section. Recall, for example purposes only, EQ. 2 that represents an example transfer function of a band-pass filter. (It is noted that EQ. 2 is referred to for illustrative purposes. This aspect of the invention is applicable to other transfer functions and other filter types.) VO , z = — = EQ. 2 VI z 2 + β x z + β 0 It is possible to achieve amplification or attenuation by a factor K by scaling the numerator by K. K is a real number. Doing this for EQ. 2 yields the following: VO Ka z EQ. 9 VI z 2 + β z + β 0 Solving for VO yields the following: VO = Ka, z- 1 VI - β x z "1 VO - β 0 z 2 VO EQ. 10 In embodiments ofthe invention, such amplification is achieved as specified by EQS. 9 and 10 by inserting a scaling module having a scale factor K in each feedforward path ofthe UDF module. Consider, for example, UDF module 1702 in FIG. 17. A scaling module 1790 having scale factor K is inserted into each feedforward path to thereby achieve an amplification or attenuation factor of K. The scaling modules 1790 may be electrically adjustable/tunable. Alternatively, the scale factors of scaling modules 1716 are adjusted to incorporate the amplification/attentuation scale factor K. In such embodiments, the scale factors ofthe scaling modules 1716 affect both the filtering operation and the amplification/attentuation operation. It is noted that this feature of the invention is optional. Where amplification is not required, the scaling modules 1790 can be omitted (or their scale factors can be set to 1). The invention supports amplification adjustment. That is, the amplification achieved by the UDF module 1702 can be adjusted by adjusting the scale factors ofthe scaling modules 1716. Such amplification adjustment can be performed statically or dynamically, and can also be performed electronically. Such adjustment can be manually controlled, or can be automatically controlled using a processor operating according to control modules that comprise software, a hardware state machine, etc., or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the control modules operate according to user input and/or commands. This amplification feature of the invention has been described in the context of the example UDF module 1702 of FIG. 17 for illustrative purposes only. The amplification feature as described herein is equally applicable to other UDF modules. 7 Example Applications The following sections describe applications involving the UDF module ofthe present invention. The invention includes these applications. It should be understood that the invention is not limited to the particular applications described below. Equivalents, extensions, variations, deviations, etc., of the following will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. In particular, any application requiring the performance of at least a frequency translation operation and a frequency selectivity operation may utilize the UDF module described herein. Such applications are within the scope and spirit of the present invention. 7.1 Receiver As noted above with reference to FIG. 8, a receiver performs three primary functions: frequency translation 808, frequency selection 810, and amplification 812. Embodiments ofthe unified down-converting and filtering (UDF) module perform the frequency translation operation 808 and the frequency selection module 810. In some embodiments, the frequency selection operation 810 performed by the UDF module represents input filtering at any frequency, including RF and greater frequencies. Accordingly, such embodiments of the UDF module perform the primary- functions of a receiver, except for amplification. Therefore, it is possible to form a receiver in accordance with the present invention by combining the UDF module 1102 with an amplifier. This is shown in FIG. 30. According to this receiver 3002, the UDF module 3006 performs unified frequency selection and conversion operations on an input signal 3004 in the manner described herein. The amplifier 3008 amplifies the output ofthe UDF module 1102 to thereby generate an output signal 3010. This operation ofthe receiver 3002 is represented in a flowchart 3102 in FIG. 31. In some applications, the level ofthe output signal generated by the UDF module 3006 is sufficient for downstream processing. In such cases, an amplifier is not necessary. In this case, the embodiment ofthe UDF module 3006 shown in FIG. 30 (that performs frequency selection and translation, but not amplification) is sufficient to act as a receiver. As noted above, some UDF embodiments also perform amplification. In such embodiments, the UDF module performs the primary functions of a receiver, i.e., frequency translation 808, frequency selection 810, and amplification 812. In such embodiments, the UDF module alone is sufficient to act as a receiver. As will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s), the receiver 3002 can be implemented on an integrated circuit (IC). As discussed above, the UDF module can be implemented on an IC. Depending on the application, the UDF module performs most, if not all, ofthe functions required of a receiver. Accordingly, it follows that any receiver implemented using an embodiment ofthe UDF module can be implemented on an IC. Embodiments ofthe present invention are directed to such receivers implemented on an IC. 7.2 Other Application Examples The applications described above are provided for purposes of illustration. These applications are not intended to limit the invention. Alternate applications, differing slightly or substantially from those described herein, will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. Such alternate applications fall within the scope and spirit ofthe present invention. For example, and without limitation, UDF embodiments can be utilized in applications that involve filtering and frequency translation (in any combination or order), as illustrated in FIGS. 52A-52C. Also, UDF embodiments can be utilized in applications that involve filtering with or without down-conversion (in the latter case, the extent of frequency down-conversion by such UDF embodiments is minimized), as shown in FIG. 52D. Further, UDF embodiments can be utilized in applications that involve down-conversion with or without filtering (in the latter case, such UDF embodiments pass substantially all frequencies), as shown in FIG. 52E. Additionally, UDF embodiments can be utilized in applications that involve amplification or attentuation, as shown in FIG. 52F. It is noted that these features of the invention can be combined. Specifically, depending on the application, one or more of filtering, frequency translation, and amplification/attentuation can be arranged in desired combinations. 8 Conclusion Example implementations of the systems and components of the invention have been described herein. As noted elsewhere, these example implementations have been described for illustrative purposes only, and are not limiting. Other implementation embodiments are possible and covered by the invention, such as but not limited to software and software/hardware implementations of the systems and components of the invention. Such implementation embodiments will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) based on the teachings contained herein. While various application embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Thus, the breadth and scope ofthe present invention should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents.

Claims: What Is Claimed Is: 1. An apparatus for filtering and down-converting, comprising: (1) a frequency translator, comprising a down-convert and delay module to under- sample an input signal to produce an input sample of a down-converted image of said input signal, and to delay said input sample; and (2) a filter, comprising: (a) at least a portion of said down-convert and delay module; (b) at least one delay module to delay instances of an output signal; and (c) an adder to combine at least said delayed input sample with at least one of said delayed instances of said output signal to generate an instance of said output signal. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said down-convert and delay module under-samples said input signal according to a control signal, wherein a frequency of said control signal is equal to a frequency of said input signal plus or minus a frequency of said down-converted image, divided by n, where n represents a harmonic or sub-harmonic of said input signal. 3. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said control signal comprises a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from said input signal to said down- converted image. 4. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein said down-convert and delay module comprises a switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said storage element is coupled to a node of said switch, and a second node of said storage element is coupled to a reference potential. 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said down-convert and delay module comprises a switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said switch is coupled to a node of said storage element, and a second node of said switch is coupled to a reference potential. 6. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein said frequency translator is at least partially integral with said filter. 7. An apparatus for filtering and down-converting, comprising: (1) a frequency translator, comprising: (a) means for under-sampling an input signal to produce an input sample of a down-converted image of said input signal; and (b) first delaying means for delaying said input sample; and (2) a filter, comprising: (a) said first delaying means; (b) second delaying means for delaying instances of an output signal; and (c) means for combining at least said delayed input sample with at least one of said delayed instances of said output signal to generate an instance of said output signal. 8. An apparatus for filtering and down-converting, comprising: a down-convert and delay module to under-sample an input signal to produce an input sample of a down-converted image of said input signal, and to delay said input sample; at least one delay module to delay instances of an output signal; and an adder to combine at least said delayed input sample with at least one of said delayed instances of said output signal to generate a instance of said output signal. 9. A method of filtering and down-converting, comprising the steps of: (1) under-sampling an input signal to produce input samples of a down-converted image of said input signal; (2) delaying said down-converted input samples; and (3) generating a down-converted and filtered output signal from said delayed and down-converted input samples and delayed instances ofthe output signal. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein step (1) comprises the step of: under-sampling said input signal according to a control signal to produce said down- converted input samples. 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising the step of: (4) scaling said delayed and down-converted input samples and said delayed instances of the output signal; wherein step (3) comprises the step of generating said down-converted and filtered output signal from said scaled, delayed, and down-converted input samples and said scaled and delayed instances of the output signal. 12. The method of claim 1 1, further comprising the step of: (5) tuning one or more filter parameters. 13. The method of claim 12, wherein step (5) comprises the step of: tuning at least one of a filter center frequency, a filter bandwidth, and a filter passband. 14. The method of claim 12, wherein step (5) comprises the step of: performing at least one of steps (i) and (ii) to tune said one or more filter parameters: (i) adjusting at least one scale factor; and (ii) adjusting one or more characteristics of said control signal. 15. The method of claim 9, further comprising the step of: (4) tuning at least one frequency translation parameters. 16. The method of claim 9, further comprising the step of: (4) amplifying said output signal. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein step (4) comprises the step of: scaling at least one of said delayed and down-converted input samples and delayed instances ofthe output signal to achieve amplification. 18. The method of claim 9, wherein step (2) is at least partially integral with step (1). 19. The method of claim 9, wherein step (1) comprises the step of: under-sampling said input signal according to a control signal, wherein a frequency of said control signal is equal to a frequency of said input signal plus or minus a frequency of said down-converted image, divided by n, where n represents a harmonic or sub-harmonic of said input signal. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein said control signal comprises a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from said input signal to said down- converted image. 21. A method of filtering and down-converting, comprising the steps of: (1) filtering and down-converting an input signal in an integrated manner; and (2) tuning one or more parameters of said filtering operation of step (1). 22. The method of claim 21 , wherein step (2) comprises the step of: tuning at least one of a filter center frequency, a filter bandwidth, and a filter passband. 23. The method of claim 21, wherein step (2) comprises the step of: performing at least one of steps (i) and (ii) to tune said one or more filtering parameters: (i) adjusting at least one scale factor; and (ii) adjusting one or more characteristics of a control signal. 24. The method of claim 23, further comprising the step of: (3) amplifying an output signal resulting from said filtering and down-converting operations of step (1), comprising the step of modifying said at least one scale factor. 25. The method of claim 21, wherein step (2) comprises the step of: dynamically tuning said one or more parameters of said filtering operation of step (1). 26. The method of claim 21 , further comprising the step of: (3) tuning at least one frequency translation parameter. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein step (3) comprises the step of: adjusting one or more characteristics of a control signal. 28. The method of claim 21 , wherein said down-converting operation is performed so as to improve energy transfer from said input signal to a down-converted image. 29. The method of claim 21, wherein said filtering operation effectively represents input filtering, and said input signal is a radio frequency (RF) signal. 30. An apparatus to filter and down-convert, comprising: an integral filter/frequency translator to filter and down-convert an input signal; and a module to tune at least one of said filtering operation and said down-conversion operation. 31. The apparatus of claim 30, wherein said filtering operation effectively represents input filtering, and said input signal is a radio frequency (RF) signal. 32. A method of filtering and down-converting, comprising the steps of: ( 1 ) filtering and down-converting an input signal in an integrated manner, comprising at least adjusting scale factors; and (2) amplifying an output signal resulting from said filtering and down-converting operations of step (1), comprising the step of modifying said scale factors to achieve a desired amplification level. 33. The method of claim 32, wherein step (1) comprises the steps of: (a) under-sampling said input signal to produce input samples of a down-converted image of said input signal; (b) delaying said down-converted input samples; and (c) generating a down-converted and filtered output signal from said delayed and down-converted input samples and delayed instances ofthe output signal. 34. The method of claim 33, wherein step (a) comprises the step of: under-sampling said input signal according to a control signal to produce said down- converted input samples. 35. The method of claim 34, wherein said control signal is established to improve energy transfer from said input signal to said down-converted image. 36. An apparatus to filter and down-convert, comprising: (1 ) a frequency translator to produce a sample of a down-converted image of an input signal, and to delay said sample; and (2) a filter, comprising: (a) at least a portion of said frequency translator; (b) at least one delay module to delay an output signal; and (c) an adder to combine at least said delayed sample with at least a portion of said delayed output signal to generate at least a part of said output signal. 37. An apparatus for down-converting and filtering, comprising: (1) a frequency translator comprising a down-convert and delay module to under sample an input signal to produce an input sample of a down-converted image of said input signal and to delay said input sample; and (2) a filter, comprising 14. at least a portion of said down-convert and delay module, (b) at least one delay module to delay instances of said delayed input sample, and (c) an adder to combine at least said delayed input sample with at least one of said delayed instances of said delayed input sample to generate an instance of an output signal. 38. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein said down-convert and delay module under-samples said input signal according to a control signal. 39. The apparatus of claim 38, wherein said control signal comprises a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from said input signal to said down- converted image. 40. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein said down-convert and delay module comprises a switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said storage element is coupled to a node of said switch, and a second node of said storage element is coupled to a reference potential. 41. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein said down-convert and delay module comprises a switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said switch is coupled to a node of said storage element, and a second node of said switch is coupled to a reference potential. 42. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein said frequency translator is at least partially integral with said filter. 43. A method of filtering and down-converting, comprising the steps of: (1) under-sampling an input signal to produce input samples of a down-converted image ofthe input signal; (2) delaying the down-converted input samples; and (3) generating a down-converted and filtered output signal from the delayed and down-converted input samples. 44. The method of claim 43, wherein step (1) comprises the step of: (a) under-sampling the input signal according to a control signal to produce the down- converted input samples. 45. The method of claim 44, further comprising the step of: (4) scaling the delayed and down-converted input samples; wherein step (3) comprises the step of generating the down-converted and filtered output signal from the scaled, delayed, and down-converted input samples. 46. The method of claim 45, further comprising the step of: (5) tuning one or more filter parameters. 47. The method of claim 46, wherein step (5) comprises the step of: (a) tuning at least one of a filter center frequency, a filter bandwidth, and a filter passband. 48. The method of claim 46, wherein step (5) comprises the step of: performing at least one of steps (a) and (b) to tune the one or more filter parameters: (a) adjusting at least one scale factor; and (b) adjusting one or more characteristics ofthe control signal. 49. The method of claim 43, further comprising the step of: (4) tuning at least one frequency translation parameters. 50. The method of claim 43, further comprising the step of: (4) amplifying the output signal. 51. The method of claim 50, wherein step (4) comprises the step of: (a) scaling at least one ofthe delayed and down-converted input samples to achieve amplification. 52. The method of claim 43, wherein step (2) is at least partially integral with step (1). 53. The method of claim 44, wherein the control signal comprises a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from the input signal to the down- converted image. 54. An apparatus for down-converting and filtering, comprising: (1) a frequency translator comprising a down-convert and delay module to under sample an input signal to produce input samples of a down-converted image of said input signal and to delay said input sample, wherein said down-convert and delay module under-samples said input signal according to a first control signal, wherein a frequency of said first control signal is equal to a first frequency; and (2) a filter, comprising (a) at least a portion of said down-convert and delay module, and (b) an output module that receives a second control signal, wherein a frequency of said second control signal is equal to a second frequency, wherein said down- convert and delay module accumulates charge from said input samples until discharged by said output module according to said second control signal. 55. The apparatus of claim 54, wherein said first frequency is greater than said second frequency. 56. The apparatus of claim 55, wherein said first control signal comprises a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from said input signal to said down-converted image. 57. The apparatus of claim 55, wherein said down-convert and delay module comprises a first switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said storage element is coupled to a node of said first switch, and a second node of said storage element is coupled to a first reference potential. 58. The apparatus of claim 57, wherein said output module comprises a second switch and an impedance, wherein a first node of said second switch is coupled to said first node of said storage element, and a second node of said second switch is coupled through said impedance to a second reference potential. 59. The apparatus of claim 55, wherein said frequency translator is at least partially integral with said filter. 60. A method of filtering and down-converting, comprising the steps of: (1) under-sampling an input signal according to a first control signal to produce input samples of a down-converted image ofthe input signal; - (2) delaying the down-converted input samples; (3) accumulating charge from the delayed and down-converted input samples; (4) discharging the accumulated charge according to a second control signal; and (5) generating a down-converted and filtered output signal from the accumulated charge. 61. The method of claim 60, wherein step (3) comprises the step of: (a) averaging the delayed and down-converted input signals. 62. The method of claim 60, wherein step (4) comprises the step of : (a) discharging the accumulated charge according to the second control signal that has a frequency less than a frequency ofthe first control signal. 63. The method of claim 60, further comprising the steps of: (6) scaling the delayed and down-converted input samples; wherein step (3) comprises the step of accumulating charge from the scaled, delayed, and down-converted input samples; and wherein step (5) comprises the step of generating the down-converted and filtered output signal from the accumulated charge from the scaled, delayed, and down-converted input samples. 64. The method of claim 63, further comprising the step of: (7) tuning one or more filter parameters. 65. The method of claim 64, wherein step (7) comprises the step of: (a) tuning at least one of a filter center frequency, a filter bandwidth, and a filter passband. 66. The method of claim 64, wherein step (7) comprises the step of: performing at least one of steps (a) and (b) to tune the one or more filter parameters: (a) adjusting at least one scale factor; and (b) adjusting one or more characteristics of at least one ofthe first and second control signals. 67. The method of claim 60, further comprising the step of: (6) tuning at least one frequency translation parameters. 68. The method of claim 60, further comprising the step of: (6) amplifying the output signal. 69. The method of claim 68, wherein step (6) comprises the step of: (a) scaling at least one ofthe delayed and down-converted input samples to achieve amplification. 70. The method of claim 60, wherein step (2) is at least partially integral with step (1). 71. The method of claim 60, wherein the first control signal comprises a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from the input signal to the down-converted image. 72. An apparatus for down-converting and filtering, comprising: (1) a plurality of frequency translators comprising a plurality of down-convert and delay modules to under sample an input signal to produce a plurality of input samples of a down- converted image of said input signal and to delay said plurality of input samples, wherein said plurality of down-convert and delay modules under-sample said input signal according to a plurality of control signals; and (2) a filter, comprising (a) at least a portion of said plurality of down-convert and delay modules, and (b) a summer to combine at least said delayed plurality of input samples to generate an instance of an output signal. 73. The apparatus of claim 72, wherein said plurality of control signals have substantially the same frequency and non-overlapping phases 74. The apparatus of claim 72, wherein each of said plurality of control signals comprises a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from said input signal to said down-converted image. 75. The apparatus of claim 72, wherein each of said plurality of down-convert and delay modules comprises a switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said storage element is coupled to a node of said switch, and a second node of said storage element is coupled to a reference potential. 76. The apparatus of claim 72, wherein each of said plurality of down-convert and delay modules comprises a switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said switch is coupled to a node of said storage element, and a second node of said switch is coupled to a reference potential. 77. The apparatus of claim 72, wherein said plurality of frequency translators are at least partially integral with said filter. 78. A method of filtering and down-converting, comprising the steps of: (1) under-sampling an input signal according to a plurality of control signals to produce input samples of a down-converted image ofthe input signal; (2) delaying the down-converted input samples; and (3) generating a down-converted and filtered output signal from the delayed and down-converted input samples. 79. The method of claim 78, wherein step (1) comprises the step of: (a) under-sampling the input signal according to a plurality of control signals that have substantially the same frequency and non-overlapping phases to produce the down- converted input samples. 80. The method of claim 79, further comprising the step of: (4) scaling the delayed and down-converted input samples; wherein step (3) comprises the step of generating the down-converted and filtered output signal from the scaled, delayed, and down-converted input samples. 81. The method of claim 80, further comprising the step of: (5) tuning one or more filter parameters. 82. The method of claim 81, wherein step (5) comprises the step of: (a) tuning at least one of a filter center frequency, a filter bandwidth, and a filter passband. 83. The method of claim 81 , wherein step (5) comprises the step of: performing at least one of steps (a) and (b) to tune the one or more filter parameters: (a) adjusting at least one scale factor; and (b) adjusting one or more characteristics of at least one of the plurality of control signals. 84. The method of claim 78, further comprising the step of: (4) tuning at least one frequency translation parameters. 85. The method of claim 78, further comprising the step of: (4) amplifying the output signal. 86. The method of claim 85, wherein step (4) comprises the step of: (a) scaling at least one ofthe delayed and down-converted input samples to achieve amplification. 87. The method of claim 78, wherein step (2) is at least partially integral with step (1). 88. The method of claim 78, wherein each ofthe plurality of control signals comprises attain of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from the input signal to the down-converted image. 89. An apparatus for down-converting and filtering, comprising: (1 ) a plurality of frequency translators comprising a plurality of down-convert and delay modules to under sample an input signal to produce a plurality of input samples of a down- converted image of said input signal and to delay said plurality of input samples, wherein said plurality of down-convert and delay modules under-sample said input signal according to a plurality of control signals; and (2) a filter, comprising (a) at least a portion of said plurality of down-convert and delay modules, (b) at least one delay module to delay instances of an output signal, and (c) a summer to combine at least said delayed plurality of input samples with at least one of said delayed instances of said output signal to generate an instance of an output signal. 90. The apparatus of claim 89, wherein said plurality of control signals have substantially the same frequency and non-overlapping phases 91. The apparatus of claim 89, wherein each of said plurality of control signals comprise a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from said input signal to said down-converted image. 92. The apparatus of claim 89, wherein each of said plurality of down-convert and delay modules comprises a switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said storage element is coupled to a node of said switch, and a second node of said storage element is coupled to a reference potential. 93. The apparatus of claim 89, wherein each of said plurality of down-convert and delay modules comprises a switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said switch is coupled to a node of said storage element, and a second node of said switch is coupled to a reference potential. 94. The apparatus of claim 89, wherein said plurality of frequency translators are at least partially integral with said filter. 95. A method of filtering and down-converting, comprising the steps of: (1) under-sampling an input signal according to a plurality of control signals to produce input samples of a down-converted image ofthe input signal; (2) delaying the down-converted input samples; and (3) generating a down-converted and filtered output signal from the delayed and down-converted input samples and delayed instances ofthe output signal. 96. The method of claim 95, wherein step (1) comprises the step of: (a) under-sampling the input signal according to a plurality of control signals that have substantially the same frequency and non-overlapping phases to produce the down- converted input samples. 97. The method of claim 96, further comprising the step of: (4) scaling the delayed and down-converted input samples and the delayed instances ofthe output signal; wherein step (3) comprises the step of generating the down-converted and filtered output signal from the scaled, delayed, and down-converted input samples and the scaled and delayed instances ofthe output signal. 98. The method of claim 97, further comprising the step of: (5) tuning one or more filter parameters. 99. The method of claim 98, wherein step (5) comprises the step of: (a) tuning at least one of a filter center frequency, a filter bandwidth, and a filter passband. 100. The method of claim 98, wherein step (5) comprises the step of: performing at least one of steps (a) and (b) to tune the one or more filter parameters: (a) adjusting at least one scale factor; and (b) adjusting one or more characteristics of at least one of the plurality of control signals. 101. The method of claim 95 , further comprising the step of: (4) tuning at least one frequency translation parameters. 102. The method of claim 95, further comprising the step of: (4) amplifying the output signal. 103. The method of claim 102, wherein step (4) comprises the step of: (a) scaling at least one ofthe delayed and down-converted input samples and delayed instances ofthe output signal to achieve amplification. 104. The method of claim 95, wherein step (2) is at least partially integral with step (1). 105. The method of claim 95 , wherein each ofthe plurality of control signals comprises a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from the input signal to the down-converted image. 106. An apparatus for down-converting and filtering, comprising: ( 1 ) a frequency translator, comprising a passively configured down-convert and delay module to passively under sample an input signal to produce an input sample of a down- converted image of said input signal and to passively delay said input sample; and (2) a filter, comprising (a) at least a portion of said passively configured down-convert and delay module, (b) at least one passively configured delay module to passively delay instances of said passively delayed input sample, and (c) an adder to combine at least said passively delayed input sample with at least one of said passively delayed instances of said passively delayed input sample to generate an instance of an output signal. 107. The apparatus of claim 106, wherein said passively configured down-convert and delay module performs said passive under sampling operation without amplification. 108. The apparatus of claim 106, wherein said at least one passively configured delay module performs said passive delay operation without amplification. 109. The apparatus of claim 106, wherein said passively configured down-convert and delay module passively under-samples the input signal and said at least one passively configured delay module passively delays instances of said passively delayed input sample according to a plurality of control signals. 110. The apparatus of claim 109, wherein said plurality of control signals have substantially the same frequency and non-overlapping phases. 111. The apparatus of claim 109, wherein each of said plurality of control signals comprises a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from said input signal to said down-converted image. 112. The apparatus of claim 106, wherein said passively configured down-convert and delay module comprises a switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said storage element is coupled to a node of said switch, and a second node of said storage element is coupled to a reference potential. 113. The apparatus of claim 106, wherein said passively configured down-convert and delay module comprises a switch and a storage element, wherein a first node of said switch is coupled to a node of said storage element, and a second node of said switch is coupled to a reference potential. 114. The apparatus of claim 106, wherein said frequency translators is at least partially integral with said filter. 115. A method of filtering and down-converting, comprising the steps of: (1) passively under-sampling an input signal to produce input samples of a down- converted image ofthe input signal; (2) passively delaying the down-converted input samples; and (3 ) generating a down-converted and filtered output signal from the passively delayed and down-converted input samples. 116. The method of claim 115, wherein step (1) comprises the step of: (a) passively under-sampling the input signal according to one of a plurality of control signals to produce input samples of a down-converted image ofthe input signal. 117. The method of claim 116, wherein step (2) comprises the step of: (a) passively delaying the down-converted input samples according to the plurality of control signals. 118. The method of claim 117, where step (a) comprises the step of: (i) passively delaying the down-converted input samples according to the plurality of control signals, wherein the plurality of control signals have substantially the same frequency and non-overlapping phases. 119. The method of claim 118, further comprising the step of: (4) scaling the passively delayed and down-converted input samples; wherein step (3) comprises the step of generating the down-converted and filtered output signal from the scaled passively delayed and down-converted input samples. 120. The method of claim 119, further comprising the step of: (5) tuning one or more filter parameters. 121. The method of claim 120, wherein step (5) comprises the step of: (a) tuning at least one of a filter center frequency, a filter bandwidth, and a filter passband. 122. The method of claim 120, wherein step (5) comprises the step of: performing at least one of steps (a) and (b) to tune the one or more filter parameters: (a) adjusting at least one scale factor; and (b) adjusting one or more characteristics of at least one of the plurality of control signals. 123. The method of claim 115, further comprising the step of: (4) tuning at least one frequency translation parameters. 124. The method of claim 115, further comprising the step of: (4) amplifying the output signal. 125. The method of claim 124, wherein step (4) comprises the step of: (a) scaling at least one ofthe passively delayed and down-converted input samples to achieve amplification. 126. The method of claim 115, wherein step (2) is at least partially integral with step (1). 127. The method of claim 115, wherein each ofthe plurality of control signals comprises a train of pulses having pulse widths that are established to improve energy transfer from the input signal to the down-converted image.

Inventors: BULTMAN MICHAEL J, COOK ROBERT W, LOOKE RICHARD C, MOSES CHARLEY D JR, RAWLINS GREGORY S, RAWLINS MICHAEL W, SORRELLS DAVID F, BULTMAN, MICHAEL, J., COOK, ROBERT, W., LOOKE, RICHARD, C., MOSES, CHARLEY, D., JR., RAWLINS, GREGORY, S., RAWLINS, MICHAEL, W., SORRELLS, DAVID, F.
Applicants: PARKERVISION INC, PARKERVISION, INC.
Application year: 1999
Main classification: H03D7
IPC codes: H03D7, H03H15, H03H17, H04B1