SENSOR ARRAYS FOR THE MEASUREMENT AND IDENTIFICATION OF MULTIPLE ANALYTES IN SOLUTIONS

Abstract: A system for the rapid characterization of multi-analyte fluids, in one embodiment, includes a light source, a sensor array, and a detector. The sensor array is formed from a supporting member into which a plurality of cavitites may be formed. A series of chemically sensitive particles microspheres are, in one embodiment positioned within the cavities. The particles may be configured to produce a signal when a receptor coupled to the particle interacts with the analyte. Using pattern recognition techniques, the analytes within a multi-analyte fluid may be characterized.

Description: TITLE: SENSOR ARRAYS FOR THE MEASUREMENT AND IDENTIFICATION OF MULTIPLE ANALYTES IN SOLUTIONS STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Research leading to this invention was federally; supported, in part, by grant No. 1R01GM57306-01 entitled "The Development of an Electronic Tongue" from the National Institute of Health and the U.S. Government has certain rights to this invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a method and device for the detection of analytes in a fluid. More particularly, the invention relates to the development of a sensor array system capable of discriminating mixtures of analytes, toxins, and/or bacteria in medical, food/beverage, and environmental solutions. 2. Brief Description of the Related Art The development of smart sensors capable of discriminating different analytes, toxins, and bacteria has become increasingly important for clinical, environmental, health and safety, remote sensing, military, food/beverage and chemical processing applications. Although many sensors capable of high sensitivity and high selectivity detection have been fashioned for single analyte detection, only in a few selected cases have array sensors been prepared which display solution phase multi-analyte detection capabilities. The advantages of such array systems are their utility for the analysis of multiple analytes and their ability to be "trained" to respond to new stimuli. Such on site adaptive analysis capabilities afforded by the array structures make their utilization promising for a variety of future applications. Array based sensors displaying the capacity to sense and identify complex vapors have been demonstrated recently using a number of distinct transduction schemes. For example, functional sensors based on Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW), tin oxide (Sn0 2 ) sensors, conductive organic polymers, and carbon black polymer composites have been fashioned. The use of tin oxide sensors, for example, is described in U.S. Patent No. 5,654,497 to Hoffheins et al. These sensors display the capacity to identify and discriminate between a variety of organic vapors by virtue of small site-to-site differences in response characteristics. Pattern recognition of the overall fingerprint response for the array serves as the basis for an olfaction-like detection of the vapor phase analyte species. Indeed, several commercial "electronic noses" have been developed recently. Most of the well established sensing elements are based on Sn0 2 arrays which have been derivatized so as to yield chemically distinct response properties. Arrays based on SAW crystals yield extremely sensitive responses to vapor, however, engineering challenges have prevented the creation of large SAW arrays having multiple sensor sites. To our knowledge, the largest SAW device reported to date possesses only 12 sensor elements. Additionally, limited chemical diversity and the lack of understanding of the molecular features of such systems makes their expansion into more complex analysis difficult. Other structures have been developed that are capable of identifying and discriminating volatile organic molecules. One structure involves a senes of conductive polymer layers deposited onto metal contacting layers. When these sensors are exposed to volatile reagents, some of the volatile reagents adsorb mto the polymer layers, leading to small changes in the electrical resistance of these layers. It is the small differences m the behavior of the vaπous sites that allows for a discrimination, identification, and quantification of the vapors. The detection process takes only a few seconds, and sensitivities of part-per-bilhon can be achieved with this relatively simple approach. This "electromc nose" system is descπbed in U S. Patent No. 5,698,089 to Lewis et al which is incorporated by reference as if set forth herem. Although the above descπbed electronic nose provides an impressive capability for monitoring volatile reagents, the system possesses a number of undesirable characteπstics that warrant the development of alternative sensor array systems. For example, the electromc nose can be used only for the identification of volatile reagents. For many environmental, military, medical, and commercial applications, the identification and quantification of analytes present in liquid or solid-phase samples is necessary. Moreover, the electromc nose systems are expensive (e.g., the Aromascan system costs about $50,000/unιt) and bulky (> lft^). Furthermore, the functional elements for the currently available electromc nose are composed of conductive polymer systems which possess little chemical selectivity for many of the analytes which are of interest to the military and civilian cornmunities. One of the most commonly employed sensing techniques has exploited colloidal polymer microspheres for latex agglutination tests (LATs) in clinical analysis. Commercially available LATs for more than 60 analytes are used routinely for the detection of infectious diseases, illegal drugs, and early pregnancy tests. The vast majonty of these types of sensors operate on the principle of agglutination of latex particles (polymer microspheres) which occurs when the antibody-denvatized microspheres become effectively "cross-linked" by a foreign antigen resulting in the attachment to, or the inability to pass through a filter. The dye-doped microspheres are then detected coloπmetπcally upon removal of the antigen carrying solution. However, the LATs lack the ability to be utilized for multiple, real time analyte detection schemes as the nature of the response intrinsically depends on a cooperative effect of the entire collection of microspheres. Similar to the electronic nose, array sensors that have shown great analytical promise are those based on the "DNA on a chip" technology. These devices possess a high density of DNA hybπdizahon sites that are affixed in a two-dimensional pattern on a planar substrate. To generate nucleotide sequence information, a pattern is created from unknown DNA fragments binding to vaπous hybπdrzation sites. Both radiochermcal and optical methods have provided excellent detection limits for analysis of limited quantities of DNA. (Sampson, D. I.; Hoijer, J. V.; Hsieh, W.; Jou, C; Gardon, J , Theπault, T.; Gamble, R.; Baldeschwieler, J.D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 1995, 92, 6379). Although quite promising for the detection of DNA fragments, these arrays are generally not designed for non-DNA molecules, and accordingly show very little sensitivity to smaller organic molecules Many of the target molecules of interest to civilian and military communities, however, do not possess DNA components. Thus, the need for a flexible, non-DNA based sensor is still desired Moreover, while a number of prototype DNA chips containing up to a few thousand different nucleic acid probes have been descπbed, the existing technologies tend to be difficult to expand to a practical size As a result, DNA chips may be prohibitively expensive for practical uses A system of analyzing fluid samples using an aπay formed of heterogeneous, semi-selective thin films which function as sensing receptor units is descπbed m U.S. Patent No. 5,512,490 to Walt et al., which is incorporated by reference as if set forth herein. Walt appears to descπbe the use of covalently attached polymenc "cones" which are grown via photopolymenzation onto the distal face of fiber optic bundles. These sensor probes appear to be designed with the goal of obtaining unique, continuous, and reproducible responses from small localized regions of dye-doped polymer The polymer appears to serve as a solid support for mdicator molecules that provide information about test solutions through changes in optical properties. These polymer supported sensors have been used for the detection of analytes such as pH, metals, and specific biological entities. Methods for manufacturing large numbers of reproducible sensors, however, has yet to be developed. Moreover, no methods for acquisitions of data streams in a simultaneous manner are commercially available with this system. Optical alignment issues may also be problematic for these systems. A method of rapid sample analysis for use m the diagnostic microbiology field is also desirable. The techniques now used for rapid microbiology diagnostics detect either antigens or nucleic acids. Rapid antigen testing is based on the use of antibodies to recognize either the smgle cell orgamsm or the presence of infected cell mateπal. Inherent to this approach is the need to obtain and characterize the binding of the antibody to unique structures on the orgamsm bemg tested. Smce the identification and isolation of the appropπate antibodies is time consuming, these techniques are limited to a smgle agent per testing module and there is no opportunity to evaluate the amount of agent present. Most antibody methods are relatively insensitive and require the presence of 10 to 10 organisms. The response time of antibody-antigen reactions m diagnostic tests of this type ranges from 10 to 120 minutes, depending on the method of detection. The fastest methods are generally agglutination reactions, but these methods are less sensitive due to difficulties m visual interpretation of the reactions. Approaches with slower reaction times include antigen recognition by antibody conjugated to either an enzyme or chromophore. These test types tend to be more sensitive, especially when spectrophotometπc methods are used to determine if an antigen-antibody reaction has occurred. These detection schemes do not, however, appear to allow the simultaneous detection of multiple analytes on a smgle detector platform. The alternative to antigen detection is the detection of nucleic acids. An approach for diagnostic testing with nucleic acids uses hybridization to target unique regions of the target orgamsm. These techniques require fewer organisms (10 3 to 10 5 ), but require about five hours to complete. As with antibody-antigen reactions this approach has not been developed for the simultaneous detection of multiple analytes. The most recent improvement m the detection of microorganisms has been the use of nucleic acid amplification. Nucleic acid amplification tests have been developed that generate both qualitative and quantitative data. However, the current limitations of these testing methods are related to delays caused by specimen preparation, amplification, and detection. Currently, the standard assays require about five hours to complete. The ability to complete much faster detection for a vaπety of microorganisms would be of tremendous importance to military intelligence, national safety, medical, environmental, and food areas. It is therefore desirable that new sensors capable of discriminating different analytes, toxms, and bacteπa be developed for medical/clinical diagnostic, environmental, health and safety, remote sensing, military, food beverage, and chemical processing applications. It is further desired that the sensing system be adaptable to the simultaneous detection of a vaπety of analytes to improve throughput during vanous chemical and biological analytical procedures SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Here we describe a system and method for the analysis of a fluid containing one or more analytes. The system may be used for either liquid or gaseous fluids The system, m some embodiments, may generate patterns that are diagnostic for both the individual analytes and mixtures of the analytes The system m some embodiments, is made of a plurality of chemically sensitive particles, formed in an ordered aπay, capable of simultaneously detecting many different kmds of analytes rapidly An aspect of the system is that the array may be formed using a microfabπcation process, thus allowing the system to be manufactured m an inexpensive manner In an embodiment of a system for detecting analytes, the system, in some embodiments, includes a light source, a sensor array, and a detector The sensor aπay, m some embodiments, is formed of a supporting member which is configured to hold a vaπety of chemically sensitive particles (herem referred to as "particles") m an ordered aπay. The particles are, in some embodiments, elements which will create a detectable signal in the presence of an analyte. The particles may produce optical (e.g., absorbance or reflectance) or fluorescence/phosphorescent signals upon exposure to an analyte Examples of particles include, but are not limited to functionalized polymeπc beads, agarous beads, dextrose beads, polyacrylamide beads, control pore glass beads, metal oxides particles (e.g., silicon dioxide (Sι0 2 ) or alummum oxides (A1 2 0 3 )), polymer thin films, metal quantum particles (e g , silver, gold, platinum, etc.), and semiconductor quantum particles (e.g., Si, Ge, GaAs, etc.). A detector (e.g., a charge-coupled device "CCD") in one embodiment is positioned below the sensor array to allow for the data acquisition. In another embodiment, the detector may be positioned above the sensor aπay to allow for data acquisition from reflectance of the light off of the particles Light ongmating from the light source may pass through the sensor aπay and out through the bottom side of the sensor aπay Light modulated by the particles may pass through the sensor array and onto the proximally spaced detector Evaluation of the optical changes may be completed by visual inspection or by use of a CCD detector by itself or in combmation with an optical microscope. A microprocessor may be coupled to the CCD detector or the microscope. A fluid delivery system may be coupled to the supporting member of the sensor array. The fluid delivery system, m some embodiments, is configured to introduce samples into and out of the sensor array. In an embodiment, the sensor aπay system mcludes an aπay of particles The particles may mclude a receptor molecule coupled to a polymeπc bead The receptors, m some embodiments, are chosen for interacting with analytes This interaction may take the form of a binding/association of the receptors with the analytes. The supporting member may be made of any matenal capable of supporting the particles, while allowing the passage of the appropπate wavelengths of light. The supporting member may mclude a plurality of cavities. The cavities may be formed such that at least one particle is substantially contained within the cavity In an embodiment, the optical detector may be integrated within the bottom of the supporting member, rather than usmg a separate detecting device. The optical detectors may be coupled to a microprocessor to allow evaluation of fluids without the use of separate detecting components Additionally, a fluid delivery system may also be incorporated mto the supporting member. Integration of detectors and a fluid delivery system mto the supporting member may allow the formation of a compact and portable analyte sensing system A high sensitivity CCD array may be used to measure changes m optical characteπstics which occur upon bmdmg of the biological/chemical agents The CCD aπays may be interfaced with filters, light sources, fluid delivery and micromachrned particle receptacles, so as to create a functional sensor array Data acquisition and handling may be performed with existing CCD technology CCD detectors may be configured to measure white light, ultraviolet light or fluorescence Other detectors such as photomultiplier tubes, charge induction devices, photo diodes, photodiode aπays, and microchannel plates may also be used A particle, in some embodiments, possess both the ability to bind the analyte of mterest and to create a modulated signal The particle may mclude receptor molecules which posses the ability to bmd the analyte of mterest and to create a modulated signal Alternatively, the particle may mclude receptor molecules and indicators The receptor molecule may posses the ability to bmd to an analyte o f mterest Upon bmdmg the analyte of mterest, the receptor molecule may cause the mdicator molecule to produce the modulated signal. The receptor molecules may be naturally occurring or synthetic receptors formed by rational design or combrnatonal methods Some examples of natural receptors mclude, but are not limited to, DNA, RNA, proteins, enzymes, obgopeptides, antigens, and antibodies. Either natural or synthetic receptors may be chosen for then: ability to bmd to the analyte molecules m a specific manner In one embodiment, a naturally occurring or synthetic receptor is bound to a polymeπc bead m order to create the particle The particle, in some embodiments, is capable of both bmdmg the analyte(s) of mterest and creating a detectable signal In some embodiments, the particle will create an optical signal when bound to an analyte of mterest. A vaπety of natural and synthetic receptors may be used. The synthetic receptors may come from a vaπety of classes including, but not limited to, polynucleotides (e g , aptamers), peptides (e g., enzymes and antibodies), synthetic receptors, polymenc unnatural biopolymers (e.g., polythioureas, polygua diniums), and imprinted polymers Polynucleotides are relatively small fragments of DNA which may be deπved by sequentially building the DNA sequence Peptides include natural peptides such as antibodies or enzymes or may be synthesized from ammo acids Unnatural biopolymers are chemical structure which are based on natural biopolymers, but which are built from unnatural linking units For example, polythioureas and polyguamdmiums have a structure similar to peptides, but may be synthesized from diamines (i.e., compounds which mclude at least two amine functional groups) rather than ammo acids. Synthetic receptors are designed organic or inorganic structures capable of bmdmg vaπous analytes In an embodiment, a large number of chemical/biological agents of mterest to the military and civilian communities may be sensed readily by the descπbed array sensors Bacteπa may also be detected usmg a similar system To detect, sense, and identify intact bactena, the cell surface of one bactena may be differentiated from other bacteπa, or genomic mateπal may be detected usmg ohgonucleic receptors One method of accomplishmg this differentiation is to target cell surface ohgosacchaπdes (l e , sugar residues) The use of synthetic receptors which are specific for ohgosacchandes may be used to determine the presence of specific bactena by analyzing for cell surface ohgosacchandes BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above bnef descnption as well as further objects, features and advantages of the methods and apparatus of the present mvention will be more fully appreciated by reference to the following detailed descnption of presently prefeπed but nonetheless illustrative embodiments in accordance with the present mvention when taken m conjunction with the accompanying drawings m which: FIG. 1 depicts a schematic of an analyte detection system, FIG. 2 depicts a particle disposed in a cavity, FIG 3 depicts a sensor array; FIG 4A-F depicts the formation of a Fabry-Perot cavity on the back of a sensor aπay, FIG. 5 depicts the chemical constituents of a particle, FIG 6 depicts the chemical formulas of some receptor compounds; FIG. 7 depicts a plot of the absorbance of green light vs. concentration of calcium (Ca +2 ) for a particle which mcludes an o-cresolphthalein complexone receptor, FIG 8 depicts a schematic view of the transfer of energy from a first mdicator to a second mdicator m the presence of an analyte; FIG. 9 depicts a schematic of the interaction of a sugar molecule with a boromc acid based receptor. FIG. 10 depicts vaπous synthetic receptors, FIG 11 depicts a synthetic pathway for the synthesis of polythioureas; FIG. 12 depicts a synthetic pathway for the synthesis of polyguamdmiums; FIG. 13 depicts a synthetic pathway for the synthesis of diamines from ammo acids; FIG. 14 depicts fluorescent diamino monomers; FIG. 15 depicts a plot of counts/sec. (i.e., intensity) vs. time as the pH of a solution suπound g a particle coupled to o-cresolphthalein is cycled from acidic to basic conditions; FIG. 16 depicts the color responses of a vaπety of sensing particles to solutions of Ca +2 and vaπous pH levels, FIG. 17 depicts an analyte detection system which mcludes a sensor aπay disposed within a chamber; FIG. 18 depicts an integrated analyte detection system; FIG. 19 depicts a cross-sectional view of a cavity covered by a mesh cover; FIG. 20 depicts a top view of a cavity covered by a mesh cover, FIG. 21 A-G depicts a cross-sectional view of a senes of processmg steps for the formation of a sensor array which mcludes a removable top and bottom cover, FIG. 22A-G depicts a cross-sectional view of a senes of processmg steps for the formation of a sensor aπay which mcludes a removable top and a stationary bottom cover; FIG. 23 A-G depicts a cross-sectional view of a senes of processmg steps for the formation of a sensor aπay which mcludes a removable top, FIG. 24A-D depicts a cross-sectional view of a senes of processmg steps for the formation of a silicon based sensor aπay which mcludes a top and bottom cover with openings aligned with the cavity; FIG. 25A-D depicts a cross-sectional view of a senes of processmg steps for the formation of a photoresist based sensor aπay which mcludes a top and bottom cover with openings aligned with the cavity, FIG. 26A-E depicts a cross-sectional view of a senes of processmg steps for the formation of a plastic based sensor array which mcludes a top and bottom cover with openings aligned with the cavity; FIG. 27A-D depicts a cross-sectional view of a senes of processmg steps for the formation of a silicon based sensor aπay which mcludes a top cover with openings aligned with the cavity and a tapered cavity; FIG. 28 A-E depicts a cross-sectional view of a senes of processmg steps for the formation of a photoresist based sensor aπay which mcludes a top cover with openmgs aligned with the cavity and a tapered cavity; FIG. 29A-E depicts a cross-sectional view of a senes of processmg steps for the formation of a photoresist based sensor aπay which includes a top cover with openmgs aligned with the cavity and a bottom cover; FIG. 30A-D depicts a cross-sectional view of a senes of processmg steps for the formation of a plastic based sensor aπay which mcludes a top cover with openmgs aligned with the cavity and a bottom cover; FIG. 31 depicts a cross-sectional view of a schematic of a micropump; FIG. 32 depicts a top view of an electrohydrodynamic pump; FIG. 33 depicts a cross-sectional view of a sensor aπay which mcludes a micropump; FIG. 34 depicts a cross-sectional view of a sensor aπay which mcludes a micropump and channels which are coupled to the cavities; FIG. 35 depicts a cross-sectional view of a sensor aπay which mcludes multiple micropumps each micropump bemg coupled to a cavity; FIG. 36 depicts a top view of a sensor aπay which mcludes multiple electrohydrodynamic pumps; FIG. 37 depicts a cross-sectional view of a sensor aπay which mcludes a system for delivering a reagent from a reagent particle to a sensmg cavity. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Herem we descπbe a system and method for the simultaneous analysis of a fluid containing multiple analytes. The system may be used for either liquid or gaseous fluids. The system may generate patterns that are diagnostic for both mdividual analytes and mixtures of the analytes. The system, m some embodiments, is made of a combination of chemically sensitive particles, formed in an ordered array, capable of simultaneously detecting many different lands of analytes rapidly. An aspect of the system is that the aπay may be formed usmg a microfabπcation process, thus allowing the system to be manufactured in an inexpensive manner. SYSTEM FOR ANALYSIS OF ANALYTES Shown m FIG. 1 is an embodiment of a system for detecting analytes m a fluid. The system, m some embodiments, mcludes a light source 110, a sensor array 120 and a detector 130. The light source 110 may be a white light source or light emitting diodes (LED) In one embodiment, light source 110 may be a blue light emitting diode (LED) for use m systems relymg on changes m fluorescence signals. For coloπmetπc (e.g., absorbance) based systems, a white light source may be used. The sensor aπay 120, m some embodiments, is formed of a supporting member which is configured to hold a vaπety of particles 124. A detecting device 130 (e.g., a charge-coupled device "CCD") may be positioned below the sensor aπay to allow for data acquisition. In another embodiment, the detecting device 130 may be positioned above the sensor aπay. Light originating from the light source 110, in some embodiments, passes through the sensor aπay 120 and out through the bottom side of the sensor aπay. The supporting member and the particles together, in some embodiments, provide an assembly whose optical properties are well matched for spectral analyses. Thus, light modulated by the particles may pass through the sensor aπay and onto the proximally spaced detector 130. Evaluation of the optical changes may be completed by visual inspection (e.g., with a microscope) or by use of a microprocessor 140 coupled to the detector. For fluorescence measurements, a filter 135 may be placed between supporting member 120 and detector 130 to remove the excitation wavelength. A fluid delivery system 160 may be coupled to the supporting member. The fluid delivery system 160 may be configured to introduce samples into and out of the sensor aπay. In an embodiment, the sensor aπay system includes an aπay of particles. Upon the surface and within the interior region of the particles are, in some embodiments, located a variety of receptors for interacting with analytes. The supporting member, in some embodiments, is used to localize these particles as well as to serve as a microenvironment in which the chemical assays can be performed. For the chemicaL'biological agent sensor arrays, the particles used for analysis are about 0.05 - 500 microns in diameter, and may actually change size (e.g., swell or shrink) when the chemical environment changes. Typically, these changes occur when the aπay system is exposed to the fluid stream which includes the analytes. For example, a fluid stream which comprises a non-polar solvent, may cause non-polar particles to change in volume when the particles are exposed to the solvent. To accommodate these changes, it is prefeπed that the supporting member consist of an array of cavities which serve as micro test- tubes. The supporting member may be made of any material capable of supporting the particles, while allowing the passage of the appropriate wavelength of light. The supporting member is also made of a material substantially impervious to the fluid in which the analyte is present. A variety of materials may be used including plastics, glass, silicon based materials (e.g., silicon, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, etc.) and metals. In one embodiment, the supporting member includes a plurality of cavities. The cavities may be formed such that at least one particle is substantially contained within the cavity. Alternatively, a plurality of particles may be contained within a single cavity. In an embodiment, the supporting member may consist of a strip of plastic which is substantially transparent to the wavelength of light necessary for detection. A series of cavities may be formed within the strip. The cavities may be configured to hold at least one particle. The particles may be contained within the strip by a transparent cover which is configured to allow passage of the analyte containing fluid into the cavities. In another embodiment, the supporting member may be formed using a silicon wafer as depicted in FIG. 2. The silicon wafer 210 may include a substantially transparent layer 220 formed on the bottom surface of the wafer. The cavities 230, in one embodiment, are formed by an anisotropic etch process of the silicon wafer. In one embodiment, anisotropic etching of the silicon wafer is accomplished using a wet hydroxide etch. Photolithographic techniques may be used to define the locations of the cavities. The cavities may be formed such that the sidewalls of the cavities are substantially tapered at an angle of between about 50 to 60 degrees. Formation of such angled cavities may be accomplished by wet anisotropic etching of <100> silicon. The term "<100> silicon" refers to the crystal orientation of the silicon wafer. Other types of silicon, (e.g., <110> and <111> silicon) may lead to steeper angled sidewalls. For example, <111> silicon may lead to sidewalls formed at about 90 degrees The angled sides of the cavities m some embodiments, serve as "mirror layers" which may improve the light collection efficiency of the cavities The etch process may be controlled so that the formed cavities extend through the silicon wafer to the upper surface of transparent layer 220 While depicted as pyramidal, the cavities may be formed m a number of shapes including but not limited to, sphencal, oval, cubic, or rectangular An advantage to usmg a silicon wafer for the support member, is that the silicon matenal is substantially opaque to the light produced from the light source Thus, the light may be inhibited from passing from one cavity to adjacent cavities In this manner, light from one cavity may be inhibited from influencing the spectroscopic changes produced m an adjacent cavity The silicon wafer, m some embodiments, has an area of approximately 1 cπr to about 100 cm 2 and mcludes about 10' to about 10 6 cavities In an embodiment, about 100 cavities are formed m a ten by ten matrix The center to center distance between the cavities, in some embodiments, is about 500 microns Each of the cavities may mclude at least one particle The transparent layer 220 may serve as a window, allowmg light of a vaπety of wavelengths to pass through the cavities 230 and to the detector Additionally, the transparent layer may serve as a platform onto which the mdividual particles 235 may be positioned The transparent layer may be formed of silicon dioxide (Sι0 2 ), silicon mtπde (Sι 3 N 4 ) or silicon dioxide/silicon nitnde multi-layer stacks The transparent layer, m some embodiments, is deposited onto the silicon wafer pπor to the formation of the cavities The cavities 230 may be sized to substantially contam a particle 235 The cavities are, m some embodiments, larger than a particle The cavities are, in some embodiments, sized to allow facile placement and removal of the particle within the cavities The cavity may be substantially larger than the particle, thus allowmg the particle to swell durmg use For example, a particle may have a size as depicted m FIG 2 by particle 235. During use, contact with a fluid (e g , a solvent) may cause the particle to swell, for example, to a size depicted as circle 236 In some embodiments, the cavity is sized to allow such swelling of the particle during use A particle may be positioned at the bottom of a cavity usmg, e g , a micromampulator After a particle has been placed within the cavity, a transparent cover plate 240 may be placed on top of the supporting member to keep the particle in place When forming an aπay which mcludes a plurality of particles, the particles may be placed m the aπay m an ordered fashion usmg the micromampulator In this manner, a ordered aπay havmg a predefined configuration of particles may be formed Alternatively, the particles may be randomly placed within the cavities The aπay may subsequently undergo a calibration test to determine the identity of the particle at any specified location m the supporting member The transparent cover plate 240, in some embodiments, is coupled to the upper surface of the silicon wafer 220 such that the particles are inhibited from becoming dislodged from the cavity The transparent cover plate, in some embodiments, is positioned a fixed distance above the silicon wafer, as depicted in FIG 2, to keep the particle m place, while allowmg the entrance of fluids mto the cavities The transparent cover plate, m some embodiments, is positioned at a distance above the substrate which is substantially less than a width of the particle The transparent cover plate may be made of any matenal which is substantially transparent to the wavelength of light bemg utilized by the detector The transparent cover plate may be made of plastic, glass, quartz, or silicon dioxide/silicon mtnde In one embodiment, the transparent cover plate 240, is a thin sheet of glass (e.g , a microscope slide cover shp). The slide may be positioned a fixed distance above the silicon wafer. Support structures 241 (See FIG. 2) may be placed upon the silicon wafer 210 to position the transparent cover plate 240. The support structures may be formed from a polymer or a silicon based matenal. In another embodiment, a polymenc substrate is coupled to the silicon wafer to form the support structures 241 for the transparent cover plate 240 In an embodiment, a plastic mateπal with an adhesive backmg (e.g., cellophane tape) is positioned on the silicon wafer 210 After the support structures 241 are placed on the wafer the transparent cover plate 240 is placed upon the support structures. The support structures inhibit the transparent cover sheet from contacting the silicon wafer 200. In this manner, a channel is formed between the silicon wafer and the transparent cover plate which allow the fluid to pass mto the cavity, while inhibiting displacement of the particle by the fluid. In another embodiment, the transparent cover plate 240 may be fastened to the upper surface of the silicon wafer, as depicted m FIG 3 In this embodiment, the fluid may be inhibited from entering the cavities 230 by the transparent cover plate 240 To allow passage of the fluid mto the cavities, a number of channels 250 may be formed m the silicon wafer The channels, in one embodiment, are onented to allow passage of the fluid mto substantially all of the cavities When contacted with the fluid, the particles may swell to a size which may plug the channels. To prevent this plugging, the channels may be formed near the upper portion of the cavities, as depicted m FIG 3 The channels, m one embodiment, are formed usmg standard photolithographic masking to define the regions where the trenches are to be formed, followed by the use of standard etching techniques. A depth of the cavity may be such that the particle resides substantially below the position of the channel. In this way, the pluggmg of the channels due to swelling of the particle may be prevented. The inner surfaces of the cavities may be coated with a matenal to aid the positioning of the particles within the cavities. In one embodiment, a thin layer of gold or silver may be used to line the inner surface of the cavities The gold or silver layer may act as an anchoring surface to anchor particles (e.g., via alkylthiol bondmg) In addition, the gold or silver layer may also mcrease the reflectivity of the inner surface of the cavities The increased reflectance of the surface may enhance the analyte detection sensitivity of the system Alternatively, polymer layers and self-assembled monolayers formed upon the inner surface of the cavities may be used to control the particle adhesion interactions Additional chemical anchoring methods may be used for silicon surfaces such as those based on siloxane type reagents, which may be attached to Si-OH functionalities. Similarly, monomeπc and polymenc reagents attached to an rntenor region of the cavities can be used to alter the local wetting characteπstics of the cavities. This type of methodology can be used to anchor the particles as well as to alter the fluid delivery characteπstics of the cavity Furthermore, amplification of the signals for the analytes may be accomplished with this type of strategy by causmg preconcentration of appropnate analytes in the appropπate type of chemical environment In another embodiment, the optical detector may be integrated within the bottom transparent layer 220 of the supportmg member, rather than usmg a separate detectmg device The optical detectors may be formed usmg a semiconductor-based photodetector 255 The optical detectors may be coupled to a microprocessor to allow evaluation of fluids without the use of separate detecting components. Additionally, the fluid delivery system may also be incorporated mto the supportmg member Micro-pumps and micro-valves may also be incorporated mto the silicon wafer to aid passage of the fluid through the cavities Integration of detectors and a fluid delivery system mto the supporting member may allow the formation of a compact and portable analyte sensmg system Optical filters may also be mtegrated mto the bottom membrane of the cavities These filters may prevent short wavelength excitation from producmg "false" signals m the optical detection system (e g , a CCD detector aπay) during fluorescence measurements A sensmg cavity may be formed on the bottom surface of the support substrate An example of a sensmg cavity that may be used is a Fabry-Perot type cavity Fabry-Perot cavity-based sensors may be used to detect changes m optical path length mduced by either a change m the refractive mdex or a change m physical length of the cavity Usmg micromachining techniques, Fabry-Perot sensors may be formed on the bottom surface of the cavity Figures 4A-F depict a sequence of processmg steps for the formation of a cavity and a planar top diaphragm Fabry-Perot sensor on the bottom surface of a silicon based supporting member A sacnficial barner layer 262a/b is deposited upon both sides of a silicon supporting member 260 The sihcon supporting member 260 may be a double-side polished silicon wafer havmg a thickness rangmg from about 100 μm to about 500 μm, preferably from about 200 μm to about 400 μm, and more preferably of about 300 μm The barrier layer 262a/b may be composed of silicon dioxide, silicon mtnde, or silicon oxynitπde In one embodiment, the barner layer 262a/b is composed of a stack of dielectric mateπals As depicted in FIG 4A, the barner layer 262 a/b is composed of a stack of dielectnc matenals which mcludes a silicon mtnde layer 271 a/b and a sihcon dioxide layer 272a/b Both layers may be deposited usmg a low pressure chemical vapor deposition ("LPCVD") process Silicon mtnde may be deposited usmg an LPCVD reactor by reaction of ammonia (NH 3 ) and dichlorosilane (SιCl 2 H 2 ) at a gas flow rate of about 3 5 1 , a temperature of about 800 DC, and a pressure of about 220 mToπ The silicon mtnde layer 271 a/b is deposited to a thickness m the range from about 100 A to about 500 A, preferably from 200 A to about 400 A, and more preferably of about 300 A Sihcon dioxide is may be deposited usmg an LPCVD reactor by reaction of silane (SιH 4 ) and oxygen (0 2 ) at a gas flow rate of about 3 4, a temperature of about 450 DC, and a pressure of about 110 mToπ The silicon dioxide layer 272a/b is deposited to a thickness m the range from about 3000 A to about 7000 A, preferably from 4000 A to about 6000 A, and more preferably of about 5000 A The front face silicon dioxide layer 272a, m one embodiment, acts as the mam barner layer The underlying silicon mtnde layer 271a acts as an intermediate barner layer to inhibit overetchmg of the mam barner layer during subsequent KOH wet anisotropic etchmg steps A bottom diaphragm layer 264a/b is deposited upon the barner layer 262a/b on both sides of the supporting member 260 The bottom diaphragm layer 264a/b may be composed of sihcon mtnde, silicon dioxide, or sihcon oxynitnde In one embodiment, the bottom diaphragm layer 264 a/b is composed of a stack of dielectnc matenals As depicted in FIG 4A, the bottom diaphragm layer 264a/b is composed of a stack of dielectnc matenals which mcludes a pair of silicon mtnde layers 273a/b and 275a/b surrounding a silicon dioxide layer 274ab All of the layers may be deposited usmg an LPCVD process The silicon mtnde layers 273a/b and 275a/b have a thickness in the range from about 500 A to about 1000 A, preferably from 700 A to about 800 A, and more preferably of about 750 A The silicon dioxide layer 274a/b has a thickness m the range from about 3000 A to about 7000 A, preferably from 4000 A to about 6000 A, and more preferably of about 4500 A A cavity which will hold the particle may now be formed m the supporting member 260 The bottom diaphragm layer 264b and the barner layer 262b formed on the back side 261 of the sihcon supportmg member 260 are patterned and etched usmg standard photolithographic techniques. In one embodiment, the layers are subjected to a plasma etch process. The plasma etchmg of silicon dioxide and silicon mtnde may be performed usmg a mixture of carbontetrafluoπde (CF 4 ) and oxygen (0 2 ). The patterned back side layers 262b and 264b may be used as a mask for anisotropic etchmg of the silicon supporting member 260 The silicon supporting member 260, in one embodiment, is amsotropically etched with a 40% potassium hydroxide ("KOH") solution at 80 DC to form the cavity The etch is stopped when the front side silicon mtnde layer 271a is reached, as depicted in FIG 4B. The sihcon mtnde layer 271a inhibits etchmg of the mam barner layer 272a during this etch process. The cavity 267 may be formed extending through the supporting member 260. After formation of the cavity, the remaining portions of the back side barner layer 262b and the diaphragm layer 264b may be removed. Etch wmdows 266 are formed through the bottom diaphragm layer 264a on the front side of the wafer. A masking layer (not shown) is formed over the bottom diaphragm layer 264a and patterned usmg standard photolithographic techniques. Usmg the masking layer, etch wmdows 266 may be formed usmg a plasma etch. The plasma etchmg of silicon dioxide and sihcon mtnde may be performed usmg a mixture of carbontetrafluonde (CF 4 ) and oxygen (0 2 ) The etchmg is continued through the bottom diaphragm layer 264a and partially mto the barner layer 262a In one embodiment, the etchmg is stopped at approximately half the thickness of the barner layer 262a. Thus, when the barner layer 262a is subsequently removed the etch wmdows 266 will extend through the bottom diaphragm layer 264a, communicating with the cavity 267 By stopp g the etchmg at a midpoint of the barner layer, voids or discontinuities may be reduced smce the bottom diaphragm is still continuous due to the remaining barner layer. After the etch windows 266 are formed, a sacnficial spacer layer 268a/b is deposited upon the bottom diaphragm layer 264a and within cavity 267, as depicted in FIG. 4C. The spacer layer may be formed from LPCVD polysihcon. In one embodiment, the front side deposited spacer layer 268a will also at least partially fill the etch wmdows 266 Polysihcon may be deposited usmg an LPCVD reactor usmg silane (SιH 4 ) at a temperature of about 650 DC. The spacer layer 268a/b is deposited to a thickness in the range from about 4000 A to about 10,000 A, preferably from 6000 A to about 8000 A, and more preferably of about 7000 A The prefeπed thickness of the spacer layer 268a is dependent on the desned thickness of the internal air cavity of the Fabry-Perot detector. For example, if a Fabry-Perot detector which is to mclude a 7000 A air cavity between the top and bottom diaphragm layer is desired, a spacer layer havmg a thickness of about 7000 A would be formed. After the spacer layer has been deposited, a maskmg layer for etchmg the spacer layer 268a (not shown) is used to define the etch regions of the spacer layer 268a. The etchmg may be performed usmg a composition of mtπc acid (HN0 3 ), water, and hydrogen fluonde (HF) m a ratio of 25 : 13 : 1 , respectively, by volume The lateral size of the subsequently formed cavity is determined by the masking pattern used to define the etch regions of the spacer layer 268a. After the spacer layer 268a has been etched, the top diaphragm layer 270a b is formed. The top diaphragm 270a/b, m one embodiment, is deposited upon the spacer layer 268a/b on both sides of the supporting member. The top diaphragm 270a/b may be composed of silicon mtnde, silicon dioxide, or silicon oxymtπde. In one embodiment, the top diaphragm 270a/b is composed of a stack of dielectnc matenals. As depicted m FIG. 4C, the top diaphragm 270a/b is composed of a stack of dielectnc materials which mcludes a pair of silicon mtnde layers 283a/b and 285a/b suπounding a silicon dioxide layer 284a/b. All of the layers may be deposited usmg an LPCVD process. The silicon mtnde layers 283a/b and 285a/b have a thickness in the range from about 1000 A to about 2000 A, preferably from 1200 A to about 1700 A, and more preferably of about 1500 A The silicon dioxide layer 284a/b has a thickness m the range from about 5000 A to about 15,500 A, preferably from 7500 A to about 12,000 A, and more preferably of about 10,500 A After depositing the top diaphragm 270a/b, all of the layers stacked on the bottom face of the supporting member (e.g., layers 268b, 283b, 284b, and 285b) are removed by multiple wet and plasma etchmg steps, as depicted m FIG. 4D. After these layers are removed, the now exposed portions of the barner layer 262a are also removed. This exposes the spacer layer 268a which is present in the etch wmdows 266. The spacer layer 268 may be removed from between the top diaphragm 270a and the bottom diaphragm 264a by a wet etch usmg a KOH solution, as depicted in FIG. 4D. Removal of the spacer mateπal 268a, forms a cavity 286 between the top diaphragm layer 270a and the bottom diaphragm layer 264a After removal of the spacer matenal, the cavity 286 may be washed usmg deionized water, followed by isopropyl alcohol to clean out any remaining etchmg solution. The cavity 286 of the Fabry-Perot sensor may be filled with a sensmg substrate 290, as depicted in FIG. 4E. To coat the cavity 286 with a sensmg substrate 290, the sensmg substrate may be dissolved m a solvent. A solution of the sensmg substrate is applied to the supporting member 260. The solution is beheved to rapidly enter the cavity 286 through the etched wmdows 266 m the bottom diaphragm 264a, aided m part by capillary action. As the solvent evaporates, a thin film of the sensmg substrate 290 coats the inner walls of the cavity 286, as well as the outer surface of the bottom diaphragm 264a. By repeated treatment of the supporting member with the solution of the sensmg substrate, the thickness of the sensmg substrate may be vaned. In one embodiment, the sensmg substrate 290 is poly(3-dodecylthιophene) whose optical properties change m response to changes m oxidation states. The sensmg substrate poly(3-dodecylthιophene) may be dissolved m a solvent such as chloroform or xylene. In one embodiment, a concentration of about 0.1 g of poly(3- dodecylthιophene)/mL is used. Application of the solution of poly(3-dodecylthιophene) to the supporting member causes a thm film of poly(3-dodecylthιophene) to be formed on the inner surface of the cavity In some instances, the sensmg substrate, when deposited within a cavity of a Fabry-Perot type detector, may cause stress m the top diaphragm of the detector. It is believed that when a sensmg polymer coats a planar top diaphragm, extra residual stress on the top diaphragm causes the diaphragm to become deflected toward the bottom diaphragm. If the deflection becomes to severe, sticking between the top and bottom diaphragms may occur. In one embodiment, this stress may be relieved by the use of supporting members 292 formed within the cavity 286, as depicted m FIG. 4F. The supporting members 292 may be formed without any extra processmg steps to the above descnbed process flow. The formation of supporting members may be accomplished by deliberately leavmg a portion of the spacer layer within the cavity This may be accomplished by underetching the spacer layer (e.g., terminating the etch process before the entire etch process is finished). The remaining spacer will behave as a support member to reduce the deflection of the top diaphragm member. The size and shape of the support members may be adjusted by altering the etch time of the spacer layer, or adjusting the shape of the etch wmdows 266. In another embodiment, a high sensitivity CCD aπay may be used to measure changes m optical charactenstics which occur upon bmdmg of the biological/chemical agents. The CCD arrays may be interfaced with filters, light sources, fluid delivery and micromachrned particle receptacles, so as to create a functional sensor aπay. Data acquisition and handlmg may be performed with existing CCD technology. Data streams (e.g., red, green, blue for colorrmetnc assays; gray intensity for fluorescence assays) may be transfeπed from the CCD to a 5 computer via a data acquisition board Cuπent CCDs may allow for read-out rates of 10 pixels per second Thus, the entire aπay of particles may be evaluated hundreds of times per second allowing for studies of the dynamics of the vanous host-guest interaction rates as well as the analyte/polymer diffusional characteπstics. Evaluation of this data may offer a method of identifying and quantifying the chemical/biological composition of the test samples. CCD detectors may be configured to measure white hght, ultraviolet light or fluorescence Other detectors such as photomultipher tubes, charge induction devices, photodiode, photodiode arrays, and microchannel plates may also be used It should be understood that while the detector is depicted as bemg positioned under the supporting member, the detector may also be positioned above the supporting member It should also be understood that the detector typically includes a sensmg element for detecting the spectroscopic events and a component for displaying the detected events The display component may be physically separated from the sensmg element The sensmg element may be positioned above or below the sensor aπay while the display component is positioned close to a user In one embodiment, a CCD detector may be used to record color changes of the chemical sensitive particles during analysis As depicted in FIG 1, a CCD detector 130 may be placed beneath the supporting member 120 The light transmitted through the cavities is captured and analyzed by the CCD detector In one embodiment, the light is broken down mto three color components, red, green and blue To simplify the data, each color is recorded usmg 8 bits of data. Thus, the data for each of the colors will appear as a value between 0 and 255. The color of each chemical sensitive element may be represented as a red, blue and green value. For example, a blank particle (l e., a particle which does not mclude a receptor) will typically appear white. For example, when broken down mto the red, green and blue components, it is found that a typical blank particle exhibits a red value of about 253, a green value of about 250, and a blue value of about 222 This signifies that a blank particle does not significantly absorb red, green or blue light When a particle with a receptor is scanned, the particle may exhibit a color change, due to absorbance by the receptor For example, it was found that when a particle which mcludes a 5-carboxyfluorescern receptor is subjected to white light, the particle shows a strong absorbance of blue light The CCD detector values for the 5-carboxyfluorescern particle exhibits a red value of about 254, a green value of about 218, and a blue value of about 57 The decrease m transmittance of blue hght is believed to be due to the absorbance of blue light by the 5-carboxyfluorescern In this manner, the color changes of a particle may be quantitatively characterized An advantage of usmg a CCD detector to monitor the color changes is that color changes which may not be noticeable to the human eye may now be detected The support aπay may be configured to allow a vaπety of detection modes to be practiced In one embodiment, a light source is used to generate light which is directed toward the particles. The particles may absorb a portion of the light as the light illuminates the particles The light then reaches the detector, reduced m intensity by the absorbance of the particles The detector may be configure to measure the reduction m hght intensity (i.e., the absorbance) due to the particles In another embodiment, the detector may be placed above the supporting member The detector may be configured to measure the amount of light reflected off of the particles The absorbance of light by the particles is manifested by a reduction m the amount of light bemg reflected from the cavity. The light source m either embodiment may be a white light source or a fluorescent light source CHEMICALLY SENSITIVE PARTICLES A particle, in some embodiments, possess both the ability to bmd the analyte of mterest and to create a modulated signal The particle may include receptor molecules which posses the ability to bmd the analyte of mterest and to create a modulated signal Alternatively, the particle may mclude receptor molecules and indicators. The receptor molecule may posses the ability to bmd to an analyte o f mterest. Upon bmdmg the analyte of mterest, the receptor molecule may cause the mdicator molecule to produce the modulated signal. The receptor molecules may be naturally occurring or synthetic receptors formed by rational design or combmatoπal methods. Some examples of natural receptors mclude, but are not limited to, DNA, RNA, proteins, enzymes, obgopeptides, antigens, and antibodies. Either natural or synthetic receptors may be chosen for their ability to bmd to the analyte molecules m a specific manner. The forces which dnve association/recognition between molecules mclude the hydrophobic effect, anion-cation attraction, and hydrogen bondmg. The relative strengths of these forces depend upon factors such as the solvent dielectnc properties, the shape of the host molecule, and how it complements the guest. Upon host-guest association, attractive mteractions occur and the molecules stick together. The most widely used analogy for this chemical interaction is that of a "lock and key" The fit of the key molecule (the guest) mto the lock (the host) is a molecular recognition event. A naturally occurring or synthetic receptor may be bound to a polymenc resm m order to create the particle The polymeric resm may be made from a vaπety of polymers mcludmg, but not limited to, agarous, dextrose, acrylamide, control pore glass beads, polystyrene-polyethylene glycol resm, polystyrene-divinyl benzene resm, formylpolystyrene resm, tπtyl-polystyrene resm, acetyl polystyrene resm, chloroacetyl polystyrene resin, aminomethyl polystyrene-divmylbenzene resm, carboxypolystyrene resin, chloromethylated polystyrene- divinylbenzene resm, hydroxymethyl polystyrene-divmylbenzene resm, 2-chlorotiιtyl chlonde polystyrene res , 4- benzyloxy-2'4'- drmethoxybenzhydrol resm (Rink Acid resm), tπphenyl methanol polystyrene resm, diphenylmethanol resm, benzhydrol resm, succinrmidyl carbonate resm, p-mtrophenyl carbonate resm, imidazole carbonate resm, polyacrylamide resm, 4-sulfamylbenzoyl-4'- methylbenzhydrylamine-resin (Safety-catch resm), 2- ammo-2-(2'-nιtrophenyl) propionic acid-aminomethyl resm (ANP Resm), p-benzyloxybenzyl alcohol- divinylbenzene resm (Wang resm), p-methylbenzhydrylarmne-divmylbenzene resm (MBHA resm), Fmoc-2,4- drmethoxy-4'-(carboxymethyloxy)-benzhydrylarmne linked to resm (Knoπ resm), 4-(2',4 , -Drmethoxyphenyl-Fmoc- aminomethyl)-phenoxy resm (Rink resm), 4-hydroxymethyl-benzoyl-4'- methylbenzhydrylamme resm (HMBA- MBHA Resm), p-nitrobenzophenone oxrme resm (Kaiser oxime resm), and amιno-2,4-dιmethoxy-4'- (carboxymethyloxy)-benzhydrylamme handle linked to 2-chlorotπtyl resm (Knoπ-2-chlorotntyl resm) In one embodiment, the material used to form the polymeπc resm is compatible with the solvent in which the analyte is dissolved. For example, polystyrene-divmyl benzene resm will swell within non-polar solvents, but does not significantly swell within polar solvents. Thus, polystyrene-divmyl benzene resm may be used for the analysis of analytes within non-polar solvents Alternatively, polystyrene-polyethylene glycol resm will swell with polar solvents such as water. Polystyrene-polyethylene glycol resm may be useful for the analysis of aqueous fluids. In one embodiment, a polystyrene-polyethylene glycol-divmyl benzene mateπal is used to form the polymeπc resm The polystyrene-polyethylene glycol-divmyl benzene resm is formed from a mixture of polystyrene 375, divmyl benzene 380 and polystyrene-polyethylene glycol 385, see FIG 5. The polyethylene glycol portion of the polystyrene-polyethylene glycol 385, m one embodiment, may be terminated with an amine. The amine serves as a chemical handle to anchor both receptors and mdicator dyes Other chemical functional groups may be positioned at the terminal end of the polyethylene glycol to allow appropπate couplmg of the polymeπc resm to the receptor molecules or indicators The chemically sensitive particle, in one embodiment, is capable of both bmdmg the analyte(s) of mterest and creating a detectable signal In one embodiment, the particle will create an optical signal when bound to an analyte of mterest The use of such a polymeπc bound receptors offers advantages both m terms of cost and configurability Instead of having to synthesize or attach a receptor drrecdy to a supporting member, the polymeπc bound receptors may be synthesized en masse and distnbuted to multiple different supporting members This allows the cost of the sensor aπay, a major hurdle to the development of mass-produced environmental probes and medical diagnostics, to be reduced Additionally, sensor aπays which mcorporate polymeπc bound receptors may be reconfigured much more quickly than aπay systems m which the receptor is attached directly tot he supporting member For example, if a new vanant of a pathogen or a pathogen that contains a genetically engmeered protein is a threat, then a new sensor aπay system may be readily created to detect these modified analytes by simply adding new sensor elements (e g , polymenc bound receptors) to a previously formed supporting member In one embodiment, a receptor, which is sensitive to changes m the pH of a fluid sample is bound to a polymenc resm to create a particle That is, the receptor is sensitive to the concentration of hydrogen cations (IT) The receptor m this case is typically sensitive to the concentration of H * in a fluid solution The analyte of mterest may therefore be H + There are many types of molecules which undergo a color change when the pH of the fluid is changed For example, many types of dyes undergo significant color changes as the pH of the fluid medium is altered Examples of receptors which may be used to momtor the pH of a fluid sample mclude 5- carboxyfluorescein and alizarin complexone, depicted m FIG 6 Each of these receptors undergoes significant color changes as the pH of the fluid is altered 5-carboxyfluorescern undergoes a change from yellow to orange as the pH of the fluid is increased Alizarin complexone undergoes two color changes, first from yellow to red, then from red to blue as the pH of the fluid mcreases By monitoring the change m color caused by dyes attached to a polymenc particle, the pH of a solution may be qualitatively and, with the use of a detector (e g , a CCD detector), quantitatively monitored In another embodiment, a receptor which is sensitive to presence of metal cations is bound to a polymeπc particle to create a particle The receptor m this case is typically sensitive to the concentration of one or more metal cations present m a fluid solution In general, colored molecules which will bmd cations may be used to determine the presence of a metal cation m a fluid solution Examples of receptors which may be used to momtor the presence of cations m a fluid sample mclude alizarin complexone and o-cresolphthalein complexone, see FIG 6 Each of these receptors undergoes significant color changes as the concentration of a specific metal ion m the fluid is altered Alizarin complexone is particularly sensitive to lanthanum ions In the absence of lanthanum, alizarin complexone will exhibit a yellow color As the concentration of lanthanum is increased, alizarin complexone will change to a red color o-Cresolphthalem complexone is particularly sensitive to calcium ions In the absence of calcium, o-cresolphthalem complexone is colorless As the concentration of calcium is mcreased, o-cresolphthalem complexone will change to a blue color By monitoring the change m color of metal cation sensitive receptors attached to a polymenc particle, the presence of a specific metal ion may be qualitatively and, with the use of a detector (e g , a CCD detector), quantitatively monitored Referring to FIG. 7, a graph of the absorbance of green light vs. concentration of calcium (Ca +2 ) is depicted for a particle which includes an o-cresolphthalein complexone receptor. As the concentration of calcium is increased, the absorbance of green light increases in a linear manner up to a concentration of about 0.0006 M. A concentration of 0.0006 M is the solubility limit of calcium in the fluid, thus no significant change in absorbance is noted after this point. The linear relationship between concentration and absorbance allows the concentration of calcium to be determined by measuring the absorbance of the fluid sample. In one embodiment, a detectable signal may be caused by the altering of the physical properties of an indicator ligand bound to the receptor or the polymeric resin. In one embodiment, two different indicators are attached to a receptor or the polymeric resin. When an analyte is captured by the receptor, the physical distance between the two indicators may be altered such that a change in the spectroscopic properties of the indicators is produced. A variety of fluorescent and phosphorescent indicators may be used for this sensing scheme. This process, known as Forster energy transfer, is extremely sensitive to small changes in the distance between the indicator molecules. For example, a first fluorescent indicator 320 (e.g., a fluorescein derivative) and a second fluorescent indictor 330 (e.g., a rhodamine derivative) may be attached to a receptor 300, as depicted in FIG. 8. When no analyte is present short wavelength excitation 310 may excite the first fluorescent indicator 320, which fluoresces as indicated by 312. The short wavelength excitation, however, may cause little or no fluorescence of the second fluorescent indicator 330. After binding of analyte 350 to the receptor, a structural change in the receptor molecule may bring the first and second fluorescent indicators closer to each other. This change in intermolecular distance may allow the excited first indicator 320 to transfer a portion of its fluorescent energy 325 to the second fluorescent indicator 330. This transfer in energy may be measured by either a drop in energy of the fluorescence of the first indicator molecule 320, or the detection of increased fluorescence 314 by the second mdicator molecule 330. Alternatively, the first and second fluorescent indicators may initially be positioned such that short wavelength excitation, may cause fluorescence of both the first and second fluorescent indicators, as described above. After binding of analyte 350 to the receptor, a structural change in the receptor molecule may cause the first and second fluorescent indicators to move further apart. This change in intermolecular distance may inhibit the transfer of fluorescent energy from the first indicator 320 to the second fluorescent indicator 330. This change in the transfer of energy may be measured by either a drop in energy of the fluorescence of the second indicator molecule 330, or the detection of increased fluorescence by the first indicator molecule 320. In another embodiment, an indicator ligand may be preloaded onto the receptor. An analyte may then displace the indicator ligand to produce a change in the spectroscopic properties of the particles. In this case, the initial background absorbance is relatively large and decreases when the analyte is present. The indicator ligand, in one embodiment, has a variety of spectroscopic properties which may be measured. These spectroscopic properties include, but are not limited to, ultraviolet absorption, visible absorption, infrared absorption, fluorescence, and magnetic resonance. In one embodiment, the indicator is a dye having either a strong fluorescence, a strong ultraviolet absorption, a strong visible absorption, or a combination of these physical properties. Examples of indicators include, but are not limited to, carboxyfluorescein, ethidium bromide, 7-dimethylamino-4- methylcoumarin, 7-diemylaιnino-4-methylcoumarin, eosin, erythrosin, fluorescein, Oregon Green 488, pyrene, Rhodamine Red, tettame yhhodamine, Texas Red, Methyl Violet, Crystal Violet, Ethyl Violet, Malachite green, Methyl Green, Alizarin Red S, Methyl Red, Neutral Red, o-cresolsulfonephthalern, o-cresolphthalem, phenolphthalein, Acndme Orange, 5-naphthol, coumaπn, and α-naphthionic acid. When the mdicator is mixed with the receptor, the receptor and mdicator mteract with each other such that the above mentioned spectroscopic properties of the indicator, as well as other spectroscopic properties may be altered. The nature of this mteraction may be a bmdmg mteraction, wherein the mdicator and receptor are attracted to each other with a sufficient force to allow the newly formed receptor-indicator complex to function as a smgle unit The bmdmg of the mdicator and receptor to each other may take the form of a covalent bond, an ionic bond, a hydrogen bond, a van der Waals mteraction, or a combination of these bonds. The mdicator may be chosen such that the bmdmg strength of the mdicator to the receptor is less than the bindmg strength of the analyte to the receptor. Thus, m the presence of an analyte, the bmdmg of the mdicator with the receptor may be disrupted, releasmg the mdicator from the receptor. When released, the physical properties of the mdicator may be altered from those it exhibited when bound to the receptor. The mdicator may revert back to its oπgmal structure, thus regammg its ongrnal physical properties. For example, if a fluorescent mdicator is attached to a particle that mcludes a receptor, the fluorescence of the particle may be strong before treatment with an analyte containing fluid. When the analyte interacts with the particle, the fluorescent mdicator may be released Release of the mdicator may cause a decrease m the fluorescence of the particle, smce the particle now has less mdicator molecules associated with it. An example of this type of system is illustrated by the use of a boronic acid substituted resm 505 as a particle. Pnor to testmg, the boronic acid substituted resm 505 is treated with a sugar 510 which is tagged with an mdicator (e.g., resorufin) as depicted m FIG. 9. The sugar 510 bmds to the boronic acid receptor 500 imparting a color change to the boronic substituted resm 505 (yellow for the resorufin tagged sugar). When the boromc acid resm 505 is treated with a fluid sample which mcludes a sugar 520, the tagged sugar 510 may be displaced, causmg a decrease in the amount of color produced by the boromc acid substituted resm 505. This decrease may be qualitatively or, with the use of a detector (e.g., a CCD detector), quantitatively momtored. In another embodiment, a designed synthetic receptor may be used. In one embodiment, a polycarboxylic acid receptor may be attached to a polymenc resm. The polycarboxylic receptors are discussed in U.S. patent application senal no. 08/950,712 which is incorporated herem by reference. In an embodiment, the analyte molecules m the fluid may be pretreated with an mdicator ligand. Pretreatment may mvolve covalent attachment of an mdicator ligand to the analyte molecule. After the mdicator has been attached to the analyte, the fluid may be passed over the sensmg particles. Interaction of the receptors on the sensmg particles with the analytes may remove the analytes from the solution. Smce the analytes mclude an mdicator, the spectroscopic properties of the mdicator may be passed onto the particle. By analyzing the physical properties of the sensmg particles after passage of an analyte stream, the presence and concentration of an analyte may be determined For example, the analytes within a fluid may be deπvatized with a fluorescent tag before introducing the stream to the particles. As analyte molecules are adsorbed by the particles, the fluorescence of the particles may mcrease. The presence of a fluorescent signal may be used to determine the presence of a specific analyte. Additionally, the strength of the fluorescence may be used to determine the amount of analyte within the stream. RECEPTORS A vanety of natural and synthetic receptors may be used. The synthetic receptors may come from a vanety of classes mcludmg, but not limited to, polynucleotides (e.g., aptamers), peptides (e.g., enzymes and antibodies), synthetic receptors, polymenc unnatural biopolymers (e.g., polythioureas, polyguamdmiums), and imprinted polymers., some of which are generally depicted m FIG. 10. Natural based synthetic receptors mclude receptors which are structurally similar to naturally occurring molecules. Polynucleotides are relatively small fragments of DNA which may be deπved by sequentially building the DNA sequence. Peptides may be synthesized from ammo acids. Unnatural biopolymers are chemical structure which are based on natural biopolymers, but which are built from unnatural linking units Unnatural biopolymers such as polythioureas and polyguamdmiums may be synthesized from diammes (I e , compounds which mclude at least two amine functional groups) These molecules are structurally similar to naturally occurring receptors, (e.g., peptides). Some diammes may, m turn, be synthesized from amino acids The use of ammo acids as the building blocks for these compounds allow a wide vaπety of molecular recognition units to be devised. For example, the twenty natural ammo acids have side chams that possess hydrophobic residues, cationic and anionic residues, as well as hydrogen bonding groups. These side chams may provide a good chemical match to bmd a large number of targets, from small molecules to large ohgosacchandes Ammo acid based peptides, polythioureas, and polyguamdmiums are depicted m FIG. 10 Techniques for the building of DNA fragments and polypeptide fragments on a polymer particle are well known. Techniques for the immobilization of naturally occurring antibodies and enzymes on a polymeπc resm are also well known. The synthesis of polythioureas upon a resm particle may be accomplished by the synthetic pathway depicted m FIG. 11. The procedure may begm by deprotection of the terminal tBoc protecting group on an ammo acid coupled to a polymeπc particle. Removal of the protecting group is followed by couplmg of the πgid spacer 410 to the resulting amine 405 usmg diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIC) and 1-hydroxybenzotnazole hydrate (HOBT) The spacer group may inhibit formation of a thiazolone by reaction of the first ammo acids with subsequently formed thioureas After the spacer group is coupled to the ammo acid, another tBoc deprotection is performed to remove the spacer protecting group, givmg the amine 415 At this point, monomer may be added incrementally to the growmg cham, each time followed by a tBoc deprotection. The addition of a denvative of the diamine 420 (e.g , an lsothiocyanate) to amine 415 gives the mono-thiourea 425. The addition of a second thiourea substituent is also depicted. After the addition of the desired number of monomers, a solution of benzyhsothiocyanate or acetic anhydride may be added to cap any remaining amines on the growmg oligomers Between 1 to 20 thioureas groups may be formed to produce a synthetic polythiourea receptor. The synthesis of polyguamdmiums may be accomplished as depicted m FIG. 12. In order to mcorporate these guanidinium groups mto the receptor, the couplmg of a thiourea with a terminal amine m the presence of Mukaryama's reagent may be utilized The couplmg of the first thiourea diamine 430 with an ammo group of a polymenc particle gives the mono-guanidrnium 434 Couplmg of the resulting mono-guanidinium with a second thiourea diamine 436 gives a di-guanidinium 438. Further couplmg may create a tn-guanidrnium 440. Between 1 to 20 guanidinium groups may be formed to produce a synthetic polyguanidinium receptor The above descnbed methods for making polythioureas and polyguamdmiums are based on the incorporation of diammes (l e , molecules which mclude at least two amine functional groups) mto the ohgomenc receptor. The method may be general for any compound having at least two amino groups. In one embodiment, the diamine may be derived from amino acids. A method for forming diamines from amino acids is shown in FIG. 13. Treatment of a protected amino acid 450 with borane-THF reduces the carboxylic acid portion of the amino acid to the primary alcohol 452. The primary alcohol is treated with phmalimide under Mitsunobu conditions (PPh 3 /DEAD). The resulting compound 454 is treated with aqueous methylamine to form the desired monoprotected diamine 456. The process may be accomplished such that the enantiomeric purity of the starting amino acid is maintained. Any natural or synthetic amino acid may be used in the above described method. The three coupling strategies used to form the respective functional groups may be completely compatible with each other. The capability to mix linking groups (amides, thioureas, and guanidiniums) as well as the side chains (hydrophobic, cationic, anionic, and hydrogen bonding) may allow the creation of a diversity in the oligomers that is beyond the diversity of receptors typically found with natural biological receptors. Thus, we may produce ultra-sensitive and ultra-selective receptors which exhibit interactions for specific toxins, bacteria, and environmental chemicals. Additionally, these synthetic schemes may be used to build combinatorial libraries of particles for use in the sensor aπay. In an embodiment, the indicator ligand may be incorporated into synthetic receptors during the synthesis of the receptors. The ligand may be incorporated into a monomeric unit, such as a diamine, that is used during the synthesis of the receptor. In this manner, the indicator may be covalently attached to the receptor in a controlled position. By placing the indicator within the receptor during the synthesis of the receptor, the positioning of the indicator ligand within the receptor may be controlled. This control may be difficult to achieve after synthesis of the receptor is completed. In one embodiment, a fluorescent group may be incorporated into a mamine monomer for use in the synthetic sequences. Examples of monomeric units which may be used for the synthesis of a receptor are depicted in FIG. 14. The depicted monomers include fluorescent indicator groups. After synthesis, the interaction of the receptor with the analyte may induce changes in the spectroscopic properties of the molecule. Typically, hydrogen bonding or ionic substituents on the fluorescent monomer involved in analyte binding have the capacity to change the electron density and/or rigidity of the fluorescent ring system, thereby causing observable changes in the spectroscopic properties of the indicator. For fluorescent indicators such changes may be exhibited as changes in the fluorescence quantum yield, maximum excitation wavelength, and/or maximum emission wavelength. This approach does not require the dissociation of a preloaded fluorescent ligand, which may be limited in response time by I ^ ff) ). While fluorescent ligands are shown here, it is to be understood that a variety of other ligand may be used including colorimetric ligands. In another embodiment, two fluorescent monomers for signaling may be used for the synthesis of the receptor. For example, compound 470 (a derivative of fluorescein) and compound 475 (a derivative of rhodamine), depicted in FIG. 14, may both be incorporated into a synthetic receptor. Compound 470 contains a common colorimetric/fluorescent probe that will, in some embodiments, send out a modulated signal upon analyte binding. The modulation may be due to resonance energy transfer to compound 475. When an analyte binds to the receptor, structural changes in the receptor may alter the distance between monomeric units 470 and 475. It is well known that excitation of fluorescein can result in emission from rhodamine when these molecules are oriented coπectly. The efficiency of resonance energy transfer from monomers 470 to 475 will depend strongly upon the presence of analyte binding; thus, measurement of rhodamine fluorescence intensity (at a substantially longer wavelength than fluorescein fluorescence) may serve as an indicator of analyte binding. To greatly improve the likelihood of a modulatory fluorescein-rhodamine interaction, multiple rhodamine tags may be attached at different sites along a receptor molecule without substantially increasing background rhodarnine fluorescence (only rhodamine very close to fluorescein will yield appreciable signal). This methodology may be applied to a number of alternate fluorescent pairs. In an embodiment, a large number of chemical/biological agents of interest to the military and civilian communities may be sensed readily by the described aπay sensors including both small and medium size molecules. For example, it is known that nerve gases typically produce phosphate structures upon hydrolysis in water. The presence of molecules which contain phosphate functional groups may be detected using polyguanidiniums. Nerve gases which have contaminated water sources may be detected by the use of the polyguanidinium receptors described above. In order to identify, sense, and quantitate the presence of various bacteria using the proposed micro- machined sensor, two strategies may be used. First, small molecule recognition and detection may be exploited. Since each bacteria possesses a unique and distinctive concentration of the various cellular molecules, such as DNA, proteins, metabolites, and sugars, the fingerprint (i.e., the concentration and types of DNA, proteins, metabolites, and sugars) of each organism is expected to be unique. Hence, the analytes obtained from whole bacteria or broken down bacteria may be used to determine the presence of specific bacteria. A series of receptors specific for DNA molecules, proteins, metabolites, and sugars may be incorporated into an aπay. A solution containing bacteria, or more preferably broken down bacteria, may be passed over the array of particles. The individual cellular components of the bacteria may interact in a different manner with each of the particles. This interaction will provide a pattern within the array which may be unique for the individual bacteria. In this manner, the presence of bacteria within a fluid may be determined. In another embodiment, bacteria may be detected as whole entities, as found in ground water, aerosols, or blood. To detect, sense, and identify intact bacteria, the cell surface of one bacteria may be differentiated from other bacteria. One method of accomplishing this differentiation is to target cell surface oligosaccharides (i.e. sugar residues). Each bacterial class (gram negative, gram positive, etc.) displays a different oligosaccharide on their cell surfaces. The oligosaccharide, which is the code that is read by other cells giving an identification of the cell, is part of the cell-cell recognition and communication process. The use of synthetic receptors which are specific for oligosaccharides may be used to determine the presence of specific bacteria by analyzing for the cell surface oligosaccharides. In another embodiment, the sensor aπay may be used to optimize which receptor molecules should be used for a specific analyte. An aπay of receptors may be placed within the cavities of the supporting member and a stream containing an analyte may be passed over the aπay. The reaction of each portion of the sensing aπay to the known analyte may be analyzed and the optimal receptor determined by determining which particle, and therefore which receptor, exhibits the strongest reaction toward the analyte. In this manner, a large number of potential receptors may be rapidly scanned. The optimal receptor may then be incorporated into a system used for the detection of the specific analyte in a mixture of analytes. It should be emphasized that although some particles may be purposefully designed to bmd to important species (biological agents, toxms, nerve gasses, etc ), most structures will possess nonspecific receptor groups One of the advantages associated with the proposed sensor array is the capacity to standardize each aπay of particles via exposure to vanous analytes, followed by storage of the patterns which aπse from mteraction of the analytes with the particles Therefore, there may not be a need to know the identity of the actual receptor on each particle Only the charactenstic pattern for each aπay of particles is important In fact, for many applications it may be less fame consuming to place the vanous particles mto their respective holders without taking precautions to characterize the location associated with the specific particles When used m this manner, each mdividual sensor aπay may require standardization for the type of analyte to be studied On-site calibration for new or unknown toxins may also be possible with this type of aπay Upon complexation of an analyte, the local microenvironment of each mdicator may change, resulting m a modulation of the light absorption and/or emission properties The use of standard pattern recognition algonthms completed on a computer platform may serves as the intelligence factor for the analysis The "fingerprint" like response evoked from the simultaneous mteractions occurring at multiple sites within the substrate may be used to identify the species present m unknown samples The above descnbed sensor aπay system offers a number of distinct advantages over exiting technologies One advantage is that "real time" detection of analytes may be performed Another advantage is that the simultaneous detection of multiple analytes may be realized Yet another advantage is that the sensor aπay system allows the use of synthetic reagents as well as biologically produced reagents Synthetic reagents typically have supeπor sensitivity and specificity toward analytes when compared to the biological reagents Yet another advantage is that the sensor aπay system may be readily modified by simply changing the particles which are placed within the sensor aπay This lnterchangability may also reduce production costs EXAMPLES 1 The determination of pH usmg a chemically sensitive particle Shown in FIG 15 is the magnitude of the optical signal transmitted through a smgle polymer particle deπvatized with o-cresolphthalem Here, a filter is used to focus the analysis on those wavelengths which the dye absorbs most strongly (I e , about 550 nm) Data is provided for the particle as the pH is cycled between acid and basic environments In acidic media (I e , at times of 100-150 seconds and 180-210 seconds), the particle is clear and the system yields large signals (up to greater than 300,000 counts) at the optical detector Between times of 0- 100 and 150-180 seconds, the solution was made basic Upon raising the pH (I e , making the solution more basic), the particle turns purple m color and the transmitted green light is greatly diminished. Large signal reductions are recorded under such circumstances The evolution of the signal changes show that the response time is quite rapid, on the order of 10 seconds Furthermore, the behavior is highly reproducible 2 The simultaneous detection of Ca* 2 , Ce *3 , and pH by a sensor aπay system The synthesis of four different particles was accomplished by couplmg a vaπety of mdictor ligands to a polyethylene glycol-polystyrene ("PEG-PS") resm particle The PEG-PS resm particles were obtamed from Novabiochem Corp , La Jolla, Ca The particles have an average diameter of about 130 μm when dry and about 250 μm when wet The indicator ligands of fluorescein, o-cresolphthalem complexone, and alizarin complexone were each attached to PEG-PS resm particles usmg a dicyclohexylcarbodnmide (DCC) couplmg between a terminal resm bound amine and a carboxylic acid on the mdicator ligand These synthetic receptors, localized on the PEG-PS resm to create sensmg particles, were positioned within micromachrned wells formed m silicon/silicon mtnde wafers, thus confinmg the particles to individually addressable positions on a multicomponent chip These wells were sized to hold the particles m both swollen and unswollen states Rapid introduction of the test fluids can be accomplished usmg these structures while allowmg spectrophotometπc assays to probe for the presence of analytes For the identification and quantification of analyte species, changes m the light absorption and light emission properties of the immobilized resm particles can be exploited, although only identification based upon absorption properties are discussed here Upon exposure to analytes, color changes for the particles were found to be 90% complete within one minute of exposure, although typically only seconds were required To make the analysis of the coloπmetπc changes efficient, rapid, and sensitive, a charge-coupled-device (CCD) was directly interfaced with the sensor array Thus, data streams composed of red, green, and blue (RGB) light intensities were acquired and processed for each of the mdividual particle elements The red, blue, and green responses of the particles to vaπous solutions are graphically depicted m FIG. 16 The true power of the descπbed bead sensor aπay occurs when simultaneous evaluation of multiple chemically distinct bead structures is completed A demonstration of the capacity of five different beads is provided m FIG 16 In this case, blank, alizarin, o-cresol phthalein, fluorescein, and alιzaπn-Ce3+ complex deπvatized beads serve as a matπx for subtle differentiation of chemical environments The blank bead is simply a polystyrene sphere with no chemical deπvaπzation The bead deπvatized with o-cresolphthalem responds to Ca+2 at pHs values around 100 The bmdmg of calcium is noted from the large green color attenuation noted for this dye while exposed to the cation Similarly, the fluorescein denvaπzed bead acts as a pH sensor At pHs below 74 it is light yellow, but at higher pHs it turns dark orange Interesting, the ahzaπn complexone plays three distinct roles First, it acts as a proton sensor yieldmg a yellow color at pHs below 4 5, orange is noted at pHs between 45 and 11 5, and at pHs above 11 5 a blue hue is observed Second, it functions as a sensor for lanthanum ions at lower pHs by turning yellow to orange Third, the combination of both fluonde and lanthanum ions results in yellow/orange coloration The analysis of solutions contammg vaπous amount of Ca +2 or F at vaπous pH levels was performed usmg alizarin complexone, o-cresolphthalem complexone, 5-carboxy fluorescein, and alιzann-Ce 3+ complex. A blank particle m which the terminal amines of a PEG-PS resm particle have been acylated was also used In this +2 example, the presence of Ca (0 1 M Ca(N0 3 ) 2 ) was analyzed under conditions of varying pH The pH was vaπed to values of 2, 7, and 12, all buffered by a mixture of 0 04 M phosphate, 0 04 M acetate, and 0 04 M borate The RGB patterns for each sensor element m all environments were measured The bead deπvatized with o- cresolphthalein responds to Ca +2 at pH values around 12 Similarly, the 5-carboxy fluorescein deπvatized bead acts as a pH sensor At pHs below 7 4 it is light yellow, but at higher pHs it turns dark orange Interesting, the alizarin complexone plays three distinct roles First, it acts as a proton sensor yielding a yellow color at pHs below 4 5, orange is noted at pHs between 4 5 and 11 5, and at pHs above 11 5 a blue hue is observed Second, it functions as a sensor for lanthanum ions at lower pHs by turning yellow to orange. Third, the combination of both fluoride and lanthanum ions results in yellow/orange coloration. This example demonstrates a number of important factors related to the design, testing, and functionality of micromachined aπay sensors for solution analyses. First, derivatization of polymer particles with both 2+ colorimetric and fluorescent dyes was completed. These structures were shown to respond to pH and Ca . Second, response times well under 1 minute were found. Third, micromachined arrays suitable both for confinement of particles, as well as optical characterization of the particles, have been prepared. Fourth, integration of the test bed aπays with commercially available CCD detectors has been accomplished. Finally, simultaneous detection of several analytes in a mixture was made possible by analysis of the RGB color patterns created by the sensor aπay. 3. The detection of sugar molecules using a boronic acid based receptor. A series of receptors were prepared with functionalities that associate strongly with sugar molecules, as depicted in FIG. 9. In this case, a boronic acid sugar receptor 500 was utilized to demonstrate the functionality of a new type of sensing scheme in which competitive displacement of a resorufin derivatized galactose sugar molecule was used to assess the presence (or lack thereof) of other sugar molecules. The boromc acid receptor 500 was formed via a substitution reaction of a benzylic bromide. The boronic acid receptor was attached to a polyethylene glycol-polystyrene ("PEG-PS") resin particle at the "R" position. Initially, the boronic acid derivatized particle was loaded with resorufin derivatized galactose 510. Upon exposure of the particle to a solution containing glucose 520, the resorufin derivatized galactose molecules 510 are displaced from the particle receptor sites. Visual inspection of the optical photographs taken before and after exposure to the sugar solution show that the boron substituted resin is capable of sequestering sugar molecules from an aqueous solution. Moreover, the subsequent exposure of the colored particles to a solution of a non-tagged sugar (e.g., glucose) leads to a displacement of the bound colored sugar reporter molecule. Displacement of this molecule leads to a change in the color of the particle. The sugar sensor turns from dark orange to yellow in solutions containing glucose. The particles were also tested in conditions of varying pH. It was noted that the color of the particles changes from dark orange to yellow as the pH is varied from low pH to high pH. FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS Shown in FIG. 17 is an embodiment of a system for detecting analytes in a fluid. In one embodiment, the system includes a light source 512, a sensor aπay 522, a chamber 550 for supporting the sensor aπay and a detector 530. The sensor aπay 522 may include a supporting member which is configured to hold a variety of particles. In one embodiment, light originating from the light source 512 passes through the sensor array 522 and out through the bottom side of the sensor aπay. Light modulated by the particles may be detected by a proximally spaced detector 530. While depicted as being positioned below the sensor aπay, it should be understood that the detector may be positioned above the sensor aπay for reflectance measurements. Evaluation of the optical changes may be completed by visual inspection (e.g., by eye, or with the aid of a microscope) or by use of a microprocessor 540 coupled to the detector. In this embodiment, the sensor array 522 is positioned within a chamber 550. The chamber 550, may be configured to allow a fluid stream to pass through the chamber such that the fluid stream interacts with the sensor array 522. The chamber may be constructed of glass (e.g, borosihcate glass or quartz) or a plastic mateπal which is transparent to a portion of the light from the light source. If a plastic mateπal is used, the plastic mateπal should also be substantially unreactive toward the fluid. Examples of plastic matenals which may be used to form the chamber mclude, but are not limited to, acrylic resins, polycarbonates, polyester resins, polyethylenes, polyimides, polyvinyl polymers (e g , polyvinyl chlonde, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl dichlonde, polyvinyl fluonde, etc.), polystyrenes, polypropylenes, polytetrafluoroethylenes, and polyurethanes An example of such a chamber is a Sykes-Moore chamber, which is commercially available from Bellco Glass, Inc , m New Jersey Chamber 550, m one embodiment, mcludes a fluid mlet port 552 and a fluid outlet port 554. The fluid inlet 552 and outlet 554 ports are configured to allow a fluid stream to pass mto the mtenor 556 of the chamber during use The inlet and oudet ports may be configured to allow facile placement of a conduit for transferring the fluid to the chamber. In one embodiment, the ports may be hollow conduits. The hollow conduits may be configured to have an outer diameter which is substantially equal to the inner diameter of a tube for transferring the fluid to or away from the chamber. For example, if a plastic or rubber tube is used for the transfer of the fluid, the internal diameter of the plastic tube is substantially equal to the outer diameter of the inlet and outlet ports. In another embodiment, the inlet and oudet ports may be Luer lock style connectors. Preferably, the inlet and outlet ports are female Luer lock connectors. The use of female Luer lock connectors will allow the fluid to be introduced via a syringe. Typically, syringes mclude a male Luer lock connector at the dispensing end of the syringe. For the introduction of liquid samples, the use of Luer lock connectors may allow samples to be transfeπed directly from a syringe to the chamber 550. Luer lock connectors may also allow plastic or rubber tubing to be connected to the chamber usmg Luer lock tubing connectors. The chamber may be configured to allow the passage of a fluid sample to be substantially confined to the mtenor 556 of the chamber. By confining the fluid to a small mtenor volume, the amount of fluid required for an analysis may be minimized The mtenor volume may be specifically modified for the desired application. For example, for the analysis of small volumes of fluid samples, the chamber may be designed to have a small mtenor chamber, thus reducmg the amount of fluid needed to fill the chamber. For larger samples, a larger mtenor chamber may be used. Larger chambers may allow a faster throughput of the fluid during use In another embodiment, depicted in FIG. 18, a system for detecting analytes in a fluid mcludes a light source 512, a sensor aπay 522, a chamber 550 for supporting the sensor aπay and a detector 530, all enclosed within a detection system enclosure 560. As descπbed above, the sensor aπay 522 is preferably formed of a supporting member which is configured to hold a vaπety of particles. Thus, m a smgle enclosure, all of the components of an analyte detection system are mcluded. The formation of an analyte detection system m a smgle enclosure may allow the formation of a portable detection system. For example, a small controller 570 may be coupled to the analyte detection system. The controller 570 may be configured to mteract with the detector and display the results from the analysis. In one embodiment, the controller mcludes a display device 572 for displaying information to a user. The controller may also mclude mput devices 574 (e.g., buttons) to allow the user to control the operation of the analyte detection system. For example, the controller may control the operation of the light source 512 and the operation of the detector 530. The detection system enclosure 560, may be interchangeable with the controller. Coupling members 576 and 578 may be used to remove the detection system enclosure 560 from the controller 570. A second detection system enclosure may be readily coupled to the controller using coupling members 576 and 578. In this manner, a variety of different types of analytes may be detecting using a variety of different detection system enclosures. Each of the detection system enclosures may include different sensor arrays mounted within their chambers. Instead of having to exchange the sensor array for different types of analysis, the entire detection system enclosure may be exchanged. This may prove advantageous, when a variety of detection schemes are used. For example a first detection system enclosure may be configured for white light applications. The first detection system enclosure may include a white light source, a sensor that includes particles that produce a visible light response in the presence of an analyte, and a detector sensitive to white light. A second detection system enclosure may be configured for fluorescent applications, including a fluorescent light source, a sensor array which includes particles which produce a fluorescent response on the presence of an analyte, and a fluorescent detector. The second detection system enclosure may also include other components necessary for producing a proper detection system. For example, the second detection system may also include a filter for preventing short wavelength excitation from producing "false" signals in the optical detection system during fluorescence measurements. A user need only select the proper detection system enclosure for the detection of the desired analyte. Since each detection system enclosure includes many of the required components, a user does not have to make light source selections, sensor array selections or detector arrangement selections to produce a viable detection system. In another embodiment, the individual components of the system may be interchangeable. The system may include coupling members 573 and 575 that allow the light source and the detector, respectively, to be removed from the chamber 550. This may allow a more modular design of the system. For example, an analysis may be first performed with a white light source to give data coπesponding to an absorbance/reflectance analysis. After this analysis is performed the light source may be changed to a ultraviolet Ught source to allow ultraviolet analysis of the particles. Since the particles have already been treated with the fluid, the analysis may be preformed without further treatment of the particles with a fluid. In this manner a variety of tests may be performed using a single sensor array. In one embodiment, the supporting member is made of any material capable of supporting the particles, while allowing the passage of the appropriate wavelength of light. The supporting member may also be made of a material substantially impervious to the fluid in which the analyte is present. A variety of materials may be used including plastics (e.g., photoresist materials, acrylic polymers, carbonate polymers, etc.), glass, silicon based materials (e.g., silicon, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, etc.) and metals. In one embodiment, the supporting member includes a plurality of cavities. The cavities are preferably formed such that at least one particle is substantially contained within the cavity. Alternatively, a plurality of particles may be contained within a single cavity. In some embodiments, it will be necessary to pass liquids over the sensor array. The dynamic motion of liquids across the sensor aπay may lead to displacement of the particles from the cavities. In another embodiment, the particles are preferably held within cavities formed in a supporting member by the use of a transmission electron microscope ("TEM") grid. As depicted in FIG. 19, a cavity 580 is formed in a supporting member 582. After placement of a particle 584 within the cavity, a TEM grid 586 may be placed atop the supporting member 582 and secured into position. TEM grids and adhesives for securing TEM grids to a support are commercially available from Ted Pella, Inc., Redding, CA. The TEM grid 586 may be made from a number of materials including, but not limited to, copper, nickel, gold, silver, aluminum, molybdenum, titanium, nylon, beryllium, carbon, and beryllium-copper. The mesh structure of the TEM grid may allow solution access as well as optical access to the particles that are placed in the cavities. FIG. 20 further depicts a top view of a sensor aπay with a TEM grid 586 formed upon the upper surface of the supportmg member 582. The TEM grid 586 may be placed on the upper surface of the supporting member, trapping particles 584 within the cavities 580. As depicted, the openings 588 in the TEM grid 586 may be sized to hold the particles 584 within the cavities 580, while allowing fluid and optical access to cavities 580. In another embodiment, a sensor array includes a supporting member configured to support the particles, while allowing the passage of the appropriate wavelength of light to the particle. The supporting member, in one embodiment, includes a plurality of cavities. The cavities may be formed such that at least one particle is substantially contained within the cavity. The supporting member may be configured to substantially inhibit the displacement of the particles from the cavities during use. The supporting member may also be configured to allow the passage of the fluid through cavities, e.g., the fluid may flow from the top surface of the supporting member, past the particle, and out the bottom surface of the supporting member. This may increase the contact time between the particle and the fluid. Figures 21 A-G depict a sequence of processing steps for the formation of a sihcon based supporting member which includes a removable top cover and bottom cover. The removable top cover may be configured to allow fluids to pass through the top cover and into the cavity. The removable bottom cover may also be configured to allow the fluid to pass through the bottom cover and out of the cavity. As depicted in FIG. 21 A, a series of layers may be deposited upon both sides of a sihcon substrate 610. First removable layers 612 may be deposited upon the silicon substrate. The removable layers 612 may be sihcon dioxide, silicon nitride, or photoresist material. In one embodiment, a layer of silicon dioxide 612 is deposited upon both surfaces of the silicon substrate 610. Upon these removable layers, covers 614 may be formed. In one embodiment, covers 614 are formed from a material that differs from the material used to form the removable layers 612 and which is substantially transparent to the light source of a detection system. For example, if the removable layers 612 are formed from silicon dioxide, the cover may be formed from silicon nitride. Second removable layers 616 may be formed upon the covers 614. Second removable layers 616 may be formed from a material that differs from the material used to form the covers 614. Second removable layers 616 may be formed from a material similar to the material used to form the first removable layers 612. In one embodiment, first and second removable layers 612 and 616 are formed from silicon dioxide and covers 614 are formed from sihcon nitride. The layers are patterned and etched using standard photolithographic techniques. In one embodiment, the remaining portions of the layers are substantially aligned in the position where the cavities are to be formed in the silicon substrate 610. After the layers have been etched, spacer structures may be formed on the sidewalls of the first removable layers 612, the covers 614, and the second removable layers 616, as depicted in FIG. 21B. The spacer structures may be formed from the same material used to form the second removable layers 616. In one embodiment, depositing a spacer layer of the appropriate material and subjecting the material to an anisotropic etch may form the spacer structures. An anisotropic etch, such as a plasma etch, employs both physical and chemical removal mechanisms. Ions are typically bombarded at an angle substantially perpendicular to the semiconductor substrate upper surface. This causes substantially horizontal surfaces to be removed faster than substantially vertical surfaces. During this etching procedure the spacer layers are preferably removed such that the only regions of the spacer layers that remain may be those regions near substantially vertical surfaces, e.g., spacer structures 618. After formation of the spacer structures 618, cover support structures 620, depicted in FIG. 21C, may be formed. The cover support structures may be initially formed by depositing a support structure layer upon the second removable layer 616 and spacer structures 618. The support structure layer is then patterned and etched, using standard photolithography, to form the support structures 620. In one embodiment, the support structures are formed from a material that differs from the removable layers material. In one embodiment, the removable layers may be formed from silicon dioxide while the support structures and covers may be formed from silicon nitride. Turning to FIG. 21 D, the second removable layers 616 and an upper portion of the spacer structures 618 are preferably removed using a wet etch process. Removal of the second removable layers leaves the top surface of the covers 614 exposed. This allows the covers to be patterned and etched such that openings 622 are formed extending through the covers. These openings 622 may be formed in the covers 614 to allow the passage of fluid through the cover layers. In one embodiment, the openings 622 are formed to allow fluid to pass through, while inhibiting displacement of the particles from the subsequently formed cavities. After the openings 622 have been formed, the remainder of the first removable layers 612 and the remainder of the spacer structures 618 may be removed using a wet etch. The removal of the removable layers and the spacer structures creates "floating" covers 614, as depicted in FIG. 21E. The covers 614 may be held in proximity to the silicon substrate 610 by the support structures 620. The covers 614 may now be removed by sliding the covers away from the support structures 620. In this manner removable covers 614 may be formed. After the covers 614 are removed, cavities 640 may be formed in the silicon substrate 610, as depicted in FIG. 2 IF. The cavities 640 may be formed by, initially patterning and etching a photoresist material 641 to form a masking layer. After the photoresist material 641 is patterned, the cavities 640 may be etched into the sihcon substrate 610 using a hydroxide etch, as described previously. After the cavities 640 are formed, the photoresist material may be removed and particles 642 may be placed within the cavities, as depicted in FIG. 21G. The particles 642, may be inhibited from being displaced from the cavity 640 by placing covers 614 back onto the upper and lower faces of the sihcon substrate 610. In another embodiment, a sensor aπay may be formed using a supporting member, a removable cover, and a secured bottom layer. FIGS. 22 A-G depict a series of processing steps for the formation of a silicon based supporting member which includes a removable top cover and a secured bottom layer. The removable top cover is preferably configured to allow fluids to pass through the top cover and into the cavity. As depicted in FIG. 22A, a series of layers may be deposited upon both sides of a silicon substrate 610. A first removable layer 612 may be deposited upon the upper face 611 of the silicon substrate 610. The removable layer 612 may be silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, or photoresist material. In one embodiment, a layer of silicon dioxide 612 is deposited upon the silicon substrate 610. A cover 614 may be formed upon the removable layer 612 of the silicon substrate 610. In one embodiment, the cover 614 is formed from a material that differs from the material used to form the removable layer 612 and is substantially transparent to the light source of a detection system. For example, if the removable layer 612 is formed from silicon dioxide, the cover layer 614 may be formed from sihcon nitride. In one embodiment, a bottom layer 615 is formed on the bottom surface 613 of the silicon substrate 610. In one embodiment, the bottom layer 615 is formed from a material that is substantially transparent to the light source of a detection system. A second removable layer 616 may be formed upon the cover 614. Second removable layer 616 may be formed from a material that differs from the material used to form the cover layer 614. Second removable layer 616 may be formed from a material similar to the material used to form the first removable layer 612. In one embodiment, first and second removable layers 612 and 616 are formed from silicon dioxide and cover 614 is formed from silicon nitride. The layers formed on the upper surface 611 of the sihcon substrate may be patterned and etched using standard photolithographic techniques. In one embodiment, the remaining portions of the layers formed on the upper surface are substantially aligned in the position where the cavities are to be formed in the silicon substrate 610. After the layers have been etched, spacer structures may be formed on the side walls of the first removable layer 612, the cover 614, and the second removable layer 616, as depicted in FIG. 22B. The spacer structures may be formed from the same material used to form the second removable layer 616. In one embodiment, the spacer structures may be formed by depositing a spacer layer of the appropriate material and subjecting the spacer layer to an anisotropic etch. During this etching procedure the spacer layer is preferably removed such that the only regions of the spacer layer which remain may be those regions near substantially vertical surfaces, e.g., spacer structures 618. After formation of the spacer structures 618, cover support structures 620, depicted in FIG. 22C, may be formed upon the removable layer 616 and the spacer structures 618. The cover support structures 620 may be formed by depositing a support structure layer upon the second removable layer 616 and spacer structures 618. The support structure layer is then patterned and etched, using standard photolithography, to form the support structures 620. In one embodiment, the support structures are formed from a material that differs from the removable layer materials. In one embodiment, the removable layers may be formed from sihcon dioxide while the support structures and cover may be formed from sihcon nitride. Turning to FIG. 22 D, the second removable layer 616 and an upper portion of the spacer structures 618 may be removed using a wet etch process. Removal of the second removable layer leaves the top surface of the cover 614 exposed. This allows the cover 614 to be patterned and etched such that openings 622 are formed extending through the cover 614. These openings 622 may be formed in the cover 614 to allow the passage of fluid through the cover. In one embodiment, the openings 622 are formed to allow fluid to pass through, while inhibiting displacement of the particle from a cavity. The bottom layer 615 may also be similarly patterned and etched such that openings 623 may be formed extending thorough the bottom layer 615. After the openings 622 and 623 are formed, the first removable layer 612 and the remainder of the spacer structures 618 may be removed using a wet etch. The removal of the removable layers and the spacer structures creates a "floating" cover 614, as depicted in FIG. 22E. The cover 614 may be held in proximity to the sihcon substrate 610 by the support structures 620. The cover 614 may now be removed by sliding the cover 614 away from the support structures 620. In this manner a removable cover 614 may be formed. After the cover 614 is removed, cavities 640 may be formed in the silicon substrate 610, as depicted in FIG. 22F. The cavities 640 may be formed by, initially patterning and etching a photoresist material 641 to form a masking layer. After the photoresist material 614 is patterned, the cavities 640 may be etched into the silicon substrate 610 using a hydroxide etch, as described previously. After the cavities 640 are formed, the photoresist material may be removed and particles 642 may be placed within the cavities, as depicted in FIG. 22G. The particles 642, may be inhibited from being displaced from the cavity 640 by placing cover 614 back onto the upper face 611 of the sihcon substrate 610. The bottom layer 615 may also aid in inhibiting the particle 642 from being displaced from the cavity 640. Openings 622 in cover 614 and openings 623 in bottom layer 615 may allow fluid to pass through the cavity during use. In another embodiment, a sensor array may be formed using a supporting member and a removable cover. FIGS. 23 A-G depict a series of processing steps for the formation of a silicon based supporting member which includes a removable cover. The removable cover is preferably configured to allow fluids to pass through the cover and into the cavity. As depicted in FIG. 23 A, a series of layers may be deposited upon the upper surface 611 of a silicon substrate 610. A first removable layer 612 may be deposited upon the upper face 611 of the silicon substrate 610. The removable layer 612 may be sihcon dioxide, silicon nitride, or photoresist material. In one embodiment, a layer of silicon dioxide 612 is deposited upon the silicon substrate 610. A cover 614 may be formed upon the removable layer 612. In one embodiment, the cover is formed from a material which differs from the material used to form the removable layer 612 and which is substantially transparent to the light source of a detection system. For example, if the removable layer 612 is formed from sihcon dioxide, the cover 614 may be formed from silicon nitride. A second removable layer 616 may be formed upon the cover 614. Second removable layer 616 may be formed from a material that differs from the material used to form the cover 614. Second removable layer 616 may be formed from a material similar to the material used to form the first removable layer 612. In one embodiment, first and second removable layers 612 and 616 are formed from silicon dioxide and cover 614 is formed from silicon nitride. The layers formed on the upper surface 611 of the sihcon substrate may be patterned and etched using standard photolithographic techniques. In one embodiment, the remaining portions of the layers formed on the upper surface are substantially aligned in the position where the cavities are to be formed in the silicon substrate 610. After the layers have been etched, spacer structures 618 may be formed on the side walls of the first removable layer 612, the cover layer 614, and the second removable layer 616, as depicted in FIG. 23B. The spacer structures 618 may be formed from the same material used to form the second removable layer 616. In one embodiment, the spacers may be formed by depositing a spacer layer of the appropriate material upon the second removable layer and subjecting the material to an anisotropic etch. During this etching procedure the spacer layer is preferably removed such that the only regions of the spacer layer which remain may be those regions near substantially vertical surfaces, e.g., spacer structures 618. After formation of the spacer structures 618, cover support structures 620, depicted in FIG. 23C, may be formed upon the removable layer 616 and the spacer structures 618. The cover support structure may be formed by initially depositing a support structure layer upon the second removable layer 616 and spacer structures 618. The support structure layer is then patterned and etched, using standard photolithography, to form the support structures 620. In one embodiment, the support structures 620 are formed from a material that differs from the removable layer materials. In one embodiment, the removable layers may be formed from sihcon dioxide while the support structure and cover layer may be formed from sihcon nitride. Turning to FIG. 23D, the second removable layer 616 and an upper portion of the spacer structures 618 may be removed usmg a wet etch process Removal of the second removable layer leaves the top surface of the cover 614 exposed This allows the cover 614 to be patterned and etched such that openmgs 622 are formed extendmg through the cover 614 These openmgs 622 may be formed m the cover 614 to allow the passage of flmd through the cover 614 After the openmgs 622 are formed, the remainder of the first removable layer 612 and the remainder of the spacer structures 618 may be removed usmg a wet etch The removal of the removable layers and the spacer structures creates a "floating" cover 614, as depicted in FIG. 23E The cover 614 is preferably held in proximity to the sihcon substrate 610 by the support structures 620. The cover 614 may now be removed by sliding the cover 614 away from the support structures 620 In this manner a removable cover 614 may be formed After the cover 614 is removed, cavities 640 may be formed m the silicon substrate 610, as depicted in FIG. 23F The cavities 640 may be formed by initially depositing and patterning a photoresist mateπal 641 upon the silicon support 610 After the photoresist matenal 614 is patterned, the cavities 640 may be etched mto the sihcon substrate 610 usmg a hydroxide etch, as descπbed previously The etchmg of the cavities may be accomphshed such that a bottom width of the cavity 643 is less than a width of a particle 642. In one embodiment, the width of the bottom of the cavity may be controlled by varying the etch time. Typically, longer etchmg times result m a larger openmg at the bottom of the cavity. By forming a cavity m this manner, a particle placed m the cavity may be too large to pass through the bottom of the cavity Thus, a supporting member that does not mclude a bottom layer may be formed An advantage of this process is that the processmg steps may be reduced making production simpler. After the cavities 640 are formed, the photoresist mateπal may be removed and particles 642 may be placed within the cavities, as depicted m FIG.23G The particles 642, may be inhibited from bemg displaced from the cavity 640 by placing cover 614 back onto the upper face 611 of the sihcon substrate 610 The naπow bottom portion of the cavity may also aid m inhibiting the particle 642 from bemg displaced from the cavity 640 Figures 24A-d depict a sequence of processmg steps for the formation of a sihcon based supporting member which mcludes a top partial cover and a bottom partial cover The top partial cover and bottom partial covers are, m one embodiment, configured to allow fluids to pass mto the cavity and out through the bottom of the cavity. As depicted m FIG 24A, a bottom layer 712 may be deposited onto the bottom surface of a sihcon substrate 710. The bottom layer 712 may be sihcon dioxide, silicon mtnde, or photoresist mateπal In one embodiment, a layer of silicon mtnde 712 is deposited upon the silicon substrate 710. In one embodiment, openmgs 714 are formed through the bottom layer as depicted m FIG 24A. Openmgs 714, in one embodiment, are substantially aligned with the position of the cavities to be subsequently formed. The openmgs 714 may have a width that is substantially less than a width of a particle. Thus a particle will be inhibited from passmg through the openmgs 714. Cavities 716 may be formed m the sihcon substrate 710, as depicted m FIG.24B The cavities 716 may be formed by initially depositing and patterning a photoresist layer upon the sihcon substrate 710 After the photoresist mateπal is patterned, cavities 716 may be etched mto the silicon substrate 710 usmg a number of etchmg techniques, including wet and plasma etches The width of the cavities 716 is preferably greater than the width of a particle, thus allowmg a particle to be placed within each of the cavities. The cavities 716, m one embodiment, are preferably formed such that the cavities are substantially aligned over the openings 714 formed in the bottom layer. After the cavities have been formed, particles 718 may be inserted into the cavities 716, as depicted in FIG. 24C. The etched bottom layer 712 may serve as a support for the particles 718. Thus the particles 718 may be inhibited from being displaced from the cavities by the bottom layer 712. The openings 714 in the bottom layer 712 may allow fluid to pass through the bottom layer during use. After the particles are placed in the cavities, a top layer 720 may be placed upon the upper surface 717 of the sihcon substrate. In one embodiment, the top layer 720 is formed from a material is substantially transparent to the Ught source of a detection system. The top layer may be formed from siUcon nitride, sihcon dioxide or photoresist material. In one embodiment, a sheet of photoresist material is used. After the top layer 620 is formed, openings 719 may be formed in the top layer to aUow the passage of the fluid into the cavities. If the top layer 720 is composed of photoresist material, after depositing the photoresist material across the upper surface of the silicon substrate, the openings may be initially formed by exposing the photoresist material to the appropriate wavelength and pattern of light. If the top layer is compose of siUcon dioxide or silicon nitride the top layer 720 may be developed by forming a photoresist layer upon the top layer, developing the photoresist, and using the photoresist to etch the underlying top layer. Similar sensor aπays may be produced using materials other than siUcon for the supporting member. For example, as depicted in FIG 25 A-D, the supporting member may be composed of photoresist material. In one embodiment, sheets of photoresist film may be used to form the supporting member. Photoresist film sheets are commercially available from E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Wilmington, DE under the commercial name RISTON. The sheets come in a variety of sizes, the most common having a thickness ranging from about 1 mil. (25 μm) to about 2 mil. (50 μm). In an embodiment, a first photoresist layer 722 is developed and etched such that openings 724 are formed. The openings may be formed proximate the location of the subsequently formed cavities. Preferably, the openings have a width that is substantially smaUer than a width of the particle. The openings may inhibit displacement of the particle from a cavity. After the first photoresist layer 720 is patterned and etched, a main layer 726 is formed upon the bottom layer. The main layer 720 is preferably formed from a photoresist film that has a thickness substantially greater than a typical width of a particle. Thus, if the particles have a width of about 30 μm, a main layer may be composed of a 50 μm photoresist material. Alternatively, the photoresist layer may be composed of a multitude of photoresist layers placed upon each other until the desired thickness is achieved, as will be depicted in later embodiments. The main photoresist layer may be patterned and etched to form the cavities 728, as depicted in FIG. 25B. The cavities, in one embodiment, are substantially aligned above the previously formed openings 724. Cavities 728, in one embodiment, have a width which is greater than a width of a particle. For many types of analysis, the photoresist material is substantially transparent to the light source used. Thus, as opposed to a silicon supporting member, the photoresist material used for the main supporting layer may be substantially transparent to the light used by the light source. In some circumstances, the transparent nature of the supporting member may allow light from the cavity to migrate, through the supporting member, into a second cavity. This leakage of light from one cavity to the next may lead to detection problems. For example, if a first particle in a first cavity produces a fluorescent signal in response to an analyte, this signal may be transmitted through the supporting member and detected in a proximate cavity. This may lead to inaccurate readings for the proximately spaced cavities, especially if a particularly strong signal is produced by the interaction of the particle with an analyte. To reduce the occuπence of this "cross-talk", a substantially reflective layer 730 may be formed along the inner surface of the cavity. In one embodiment, the reflective layer 730 is composed of a metal layer which is formed on the upper surface of the main layer and the inner surface of the cavity. The metal layer may be deposited using chemical vapor deposition or other known techniques for depositing thin metal layers. The presence of a reflective layer may inhibit "cross-talk" between the cavities. After the cavities 728 have been formed, particles 718 may be inserted into the cavities 728, as depicted in FIG. 25C. The first photoresist layer 722 may serve as a support for the particles 718. The particles may be inhibited from being displaced from the cavities by the first photoresist layer 722. The openings 724 in the first photoresist layer 722 may allow fluid to pass through the bottom layer during use. After the particles 728 are placed in the cavities 728, a top photoresist layer 732 may be placed upon the upper surface of the silicon substrate. After the cover layer is formed, openings 734 may be formed in the cover layer to allow the passage of the fluid into the cavities. In another embodiment, the supporting member may be formed from a plastic substrate, as depicted in FIG. 26A-D. In one embodiment, the plastic substrate is composed of a material which is substantially resistant to the fluid which includes the analyte. Examples of plastic materials which may be used to form the plastic substrate include, but are not limited to, acrylic resins, polycarbonates, polyester resins, polyethylenes, polyimides, polyvinyl polymers (e.g., polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl dichloride, polyvinyl fluoride, etc.), polystyrenes, polypropylenes, polytetrafluoroethylenes, and polyurethanes. The plastic substrate may be substantially transparent or substantially opaque to the light produced by the Ught source. After obtaining a suitable plastic material 740, a series of cavities 742 may be formed in the plastic material. The cavities 740 may be formed by driUing (either mechanically or with a laser), transfer molding (e.g., forming the cavities when the plastic material is formed using appropriately shaped molds), or using a punching apparatus to punch cavities into the plastic material. In one embodiment, the cavities 740 are formed such that a lower portion 743 of the cavities is substantially naπower than an upper portion 744 of the cavities. The lower portion 743 of the cavities may have a width substantially less than a width of a particle. The lower portion 743 of the cavities 740 may inhibit the displacement of a particle from the cavity 740. While depicted as rectangular, with a naπower rectangular opening at the bottom, it should be understood that the cavity may be formed in a number of shapes including but not limited to pyramidal, triangular, trapezoidal, and oval shapes. An example of a pyramidal cavity which is tapered such that the particle is inhibited from being displaced from the cavity is depicted in FIG. 25D. After the cavities 742 are formed, particles 718 may be inserted into the cavities 742, as depicted in FIG. 26B. The lower portion 743 of the cavities may serve as a support for the particles 718. The particles 718 may be inhibited from being displaced from the cavities 742 by the lower portion 743 of the cavity. After the particles are placed in the cavities 740, a cover 744 may be placed upon the upper surface 745 of the plastic substrate 740, as depicted in FIG. 26C. In one embodiment, the cover is formed from a film of photoresist material. After the cover 744 is placed on the plastic substrate 740, openings 739 may be formed in the cover layer to allow the passage of the fluid into the cavities. In some circumstances a substantially transparent plastic material may be used. As described above, the use of a transparent supporting member may lead to "cross-talk" between the cavities. To reduce the occurrence of this "cross-talk", a substantially reflective layer 748 may be formed on the inner surface 746 of the cavity, as depicted in FIG. 26E. In one embodiment, the reflective layer 748 is composed of a metal layer which is formed on the inner surface of the cavities 742. The metal layer may be deposited using chemical vapor deposition or other techniques for depositing thin metal layers. The presence of a reflective layer may inhibit cross-talk between the cavities. In another embodiment, a silicon based supporting member for a sensing particle may be formed without a bottom layer. In this embodiment, the cavity may be tapered to inhibit the passage of the particle from the cavity, through the bottom of the supporting member. FIG. 27A-D, depicts the formation of a supporting member from a silicon substrate. In this embodiment, a photoresist layer 750 is formed upon an upper surface of a silicon substrate 752, as depicted in FIG. 27A. The photoresist layer 750 may be patterned and developed such that the regions of the silicon substrate in which the cavities will be formed are exposed. Cavities 754 may now be formed, as depicted in FIG. 27B, by subjecting the silicon substrate to an anisotropic etch. In one embodiment, a potassium hydroxide etch is used to produced tapered cavities. The etching may be controlled such that the width of the bottom of the cavities 750 is less than a width of the particle. After the cavities have been etched, a particle 756 may be inserted into the cavities 754 as depicted in FIG. 27C. The particle 756 may be inhibited from passing out of the cavities 754 by the naπower bottom portion of the cavities. After the particle is positioned within the cavities 754, a cover 758 may be formed upon the siUcon substrate 752, as depicted in FIG. 27D. The cover may be formed of any material substantially transparent to the light produced by the Ught source used for analysis. Openings 759 may be formed in the cover 758 to aUow the fluid to pass into the cavity from the top face of the supporting member 752. The openings 759 in the cover and the opening at the bottom of the cavities 754 together may allow fluid to pass through the cavity during use. In another embodiment, a supporting member for a sensing particle may be formed from a plurality of layers of a photoresist material. In this embodiment, the cavity may be tapered to inhibit the passage of the particle from the cavity, through the bottom of the supporting member. FIGS. 28A-E depict the formation of a supportmg member from a plurality of photoresist layers. In an embodiment, a first photoresist layer 760 is developed and etched to form a series of openings 762 which are positioned at the bottom of subsequently formed cavities, as depicted in FIG. 28A. As depicted in FIG. 28B, a second layer of photoresist material 764 may be formed upon the first photoresist layer 760. The second photoresist layer may be developed and etched to form openings substantially aligned with the openings of the first photoresist layer 760. The openings formed in the second photoresist layer 764, in one embodiment, are substantially larger than the layers formed in the first photoresist layer 760. In this manner, a tapered cavity may be formed while using multiple photoresist layers. As depicted in FIG. 28C, additional layers of photoresist material 766 and 768 may be formed upon the second photoresist layer 764. The openings of the additional photoresist layers 766 and 768 may be progressively larger as each layer is added to the stack. In this manner, a tapered cavity may be formed. Additional layers of photoresist material may be added until the desired thickness of the supporting member is obtained. The thickness of the supporting member, in one embodiment, is greater than a width of a particle. For example, if a layer of photoresist material has a thickness of about 25 μm and a particle has a width of about 100 μm, a supporting member may be formed from four or more layers of photoresist material. While depicted as pyramidal, the cavity may be formed in a number of different shapes, including but not limited to, rectangular, circular, oval, triangular, and trapezoidal. Any of these shapes may be obtained by appropriate patterning and etching of the photoresist layers as they are formed. In some instances, the photoresist material may be substantially transparent to the light produced by the light source. As described above, the use of a transparent supporting member may lead to "cross-talk" between the cavities. To reduce the occuπence of this "cross-talk", a substantially reflective layer 770 may be formed along the inner surface of the cavities 762, as depicted in FIG. 28D. In one embodiment, the reflective layer is composed of a metal layer which is formed on the inner surface of the cavities 762. The metal layer may be deposited using chemical vapor deposition or other techniques for depositing thin metal layers. The presence of a reflective layer may inhibit "cross-talk" between the cavities. After the cavities 762 are formed, particles 772 may be inserted into the cavities 762, as depicted in FIG. 28D. The naπow portions of the cavities 762 may serve as a support for the particles 772. The particles 772 may be inhibited from being displaced from the cavities 762 by the lower portion of the cavities. After the particles 772 are placed in the cavities 762, a cover 774 may be placed upon the upper surface of the top layer 776 of the supporting member, as depicted in FIG. 28E. In one embodiment, the cover 774 is also formed from a film of photoresist material. After the cover layer is formed, openings 778 may be formed in the cover 774 to allow the passage of the fluid into the cavities. In another embodiment, a supporting member for a sensing particle may be formed from photoresist material which includes a particle support layer. FIGS. 29A-E depict the formation of a supporting member from a series of photoresist layers. In an embodiment, a first photoresist layer 780 is developed and etched to form a series of openings 782 which may become part of subsequently formed cavities. In another embodiment, a cavity having the appropriate depth may be formed by forming multiple layers of a photoresist material, as described previously. As depicted in FIG. 29B, a second photoresist layer 784 may be formed upon the first photoresist layer 780. The second photoresist layer 784 may be patterned to form openings substantially aligned with the openings of the first photoresist layer 782. The openings formed in the second photoresist layer 784 may be substantially equal in size to the previously formed openings. Alternatively, the openings may be variable in size to form different shaped cavities. For reasons described above, a substantially reflective layer 786 may be formed along the inner surface of the cavities 782 and the upper surface of the second photoresist layer 784, as depicted in FIG. 29C. In one embodiment, the reflective layer is composed of a metal layer. The metal layer may be deposited using chemical vapor deposition or other techniques for depositing thin metal layers. The presence of a reflective layer may inhibit "cross-talk" between the cavities. After the metal layer is deposited, a particle support layer 788 may be formed on the bottom surface of the first photoresist layer 780, as depicted in FIG. 29D. The particle support layer 788 may be formed from photoresist material, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, glass or a substantially transparent plastic material. The particle support layer 788 may serve as a support for the particles placed m the cavities 782. The pamcle support layer, m one embodiment, is formed from a matenal that is substantially transparent to the light produced by the hght source. After the particle supporting layer 788 is formed, particles 785 may be inserted mto the cavities 782, as depicted m FIG. 29E The particle support layer 788 may serve as a support for the particles Thus the particles 785 may be inhibited from bemg displaced from the cavities by the particle support layer 788 After the particles 785 are placed m the cavities 782, a cover 787 may be placed upon the upper surface of the second photoresist layer 784, as depicted in FIG 29E In one embodiment, the cover is also formed from a film of photoresist mateπal After the cover is formed, openmgs 789 may be formed m the cover 787 to aUow the passage of the fluid mto the cavities In this embodiment, the fluid is inhibited from flowing through the supporting member. Instead, the fluid may flow mto and out of the cavities via the openmgs 789 formed m the cover 787 A similar supporting member may be formed from a plastic mateπal, as depicted m FIGS. 30A-D The plastic matenal may be substantially resistant to the fluid which mcludes the analyte The plastic mateπal may be substantially transparent or substantially opaque to the light produced by the light source After obtaining a suitable plastic substrate 790, a senes of cavities 792 may be formed m the plastic substrate 790 The cavities may be formed by dπlling (either mechanically or with a laser), transfer moldmg (e.g , forming the cavities when the plastic substrate is formed usmg appropnately shaped molds), or usmg a punching machine to form the cavities. In one embodiment, the cavities extend through a portion of the plastic substrate, terminating proximate the bottom of the plastic substrate, without passmg through the plastic substrate. After the cavities 792 are formed, particles 795 may be inserted mto the cavities 792, as depicted m FIG. 30B. The bottom of the cavity may serve as a support for the particles 795 After the particles are placed m the cavities, a cover 794 may be placed upon the upper surface of the plastic substrate 790, as depicted m FIG. 30C. In one embodiment, the cover may be formed from a film of photoresist mateπal. After the cover 794 is formed, openmgs 796 may be formed m the cover to allow the passage of the fluid mto the cavities While depicted as rectangular, is should be understood that the cavities may be formed m a vanety of different shapes, including tnangular, pyramidal, pentagonal, polygonal, oval, or circular. It should also be understood that cavities havmg a vaπety of different shapes may be formed mto the same plastic substrate, as depicted m FIG. 30D In one embodiment, a senes of channels may be formed m the supporting member interconnecting some of the cavities, as depicted m FIG. 3 Pumps and valves may also be incorporated mto the supporting member to aid passage of the fluid through the cavities A schematic figure of a diaphragm pump 800 is depicted m FIG. 31 Diaphragm pumps, m general, mclude a cavity 810, a flexible diaphragm 812, an mlet valve 814, and an outlet valve 816. The flexible diaphragm 812, durmg use, is deflected as shown by aπows 818 to create a pumping force As the diaphragm is deflected toward the cavity 810 it may cause the mlet valve 814 to close, the outlet valve 816 to open and any liquid which is m the cavity 810 will be forced toward the outlet 816. As the diaphragm moves away from the cavity 810, the outlet valve 816 may be pulled to a closed position, and the mlet valve 814 may be opened, allowmg additional fluid to enter the cavity 810 In this manner a pump may be used to pump fluid through the cavities. It should be understood that the pump depicted m FIG 31 is a generalized version of a diaphragm based pump. Actual diaphragm pumps may have different shapes or may have inlet and oudet valves which are separate from the pumping device. In one embodiment, the diaphragm 810 may be made from a piezoelectric material. This material will contract or expand when an appropriate voltage is applied to the diaphragm. Pumps using a piezoelectric diaphragms are described in U.S. Patent Nos. 4,344,743, 4,938,742, 5,611,676, 5,705,018, and 5,759,015, all of which are incorporated by reference. In other embodiments, the diaphragm may be activated using a pneumatic system. In these systems, an air system may be coupled to the diaphragm such that changes in air density about the diaphragm, induced by the pneumatic system, may cause the diaphragm to move toward and away from the cavity. A pneumatically controlled pump is described in United States Patent No. 5,499,909 which is incorporated by reference. The diaphragm may also be controlled using a heat activated material. The diaphragm may be formed from a temperature sensitive material. In one embodiment, the diaphragm may be formed from a material which is configured to expand and contract in response to temperature changes. A pump system which relies on temperature activated diaphragm is described in United States Patent No. 5,288,214 which is incorporated by reference. In another embodiment, an electrode pump system may be used. FIG. 32 depicts a typical electrode based system. A series of electrodes 820 may be aπanged along a channel 822 which may lead to a cavity 824 which includes a particle 826. By varying the voltage in the electrodes 820 a current flow may be induced in the fluid within the channel 822. Examples of electrode based systems include, but are not limited to, electroosmosis systems, electrohydrodynamic systems, and combinations of electroosmosis and electrohydrodynamic systems. Electrohydrodynamic pumping of fluids is known and may be appUed to smaU capillary channels. In an electtohydrodynamic system electrodes are typically placed in contact with the fluid when a voltage is applied. The applied voltage may cause a transfer in charge either by transfer or removal of an electron to or from the fluid. This electron transfer typically induces liquid flow in the direction from the charging electrode to the oppositely charged electrode. Electrohydrodynamic pumps may be used for pumping fluids such as organic solvents. Electroosmosis, is a process which involves applying a voltage to a fluid in a small space, such as a capillary channel, to cause the fluid to flow. The surfaces of many solids, including quartz, glass and the like, become variously charged, negatively or positively, in the presence of ionic materials, such as for example salts, acids or bases. The charged surfaces will attract oppositely charged (positive or negative) counterions in aqueous solutions. The application of a voltage to such a solution results in a migration of the counterions to the oppositely charged electrode, and moves the bulk of the fluid as well. The volume flow rate is proportional to the cuπent, and the volume flow generated in the fluid is also proportional to the applied voltage. An electroosmosis pump system is described in United States Patent No. 4,908,112 which is incorporated by reference. In another embodiment, a combination of electroosmosis pumps and electrohydrodynamic pumps may be used. Wire electrodes may be inserted into the walls of a channel at preselected intervals to form alternating electroosmosis and electrohydrodynamic devices. Because electroosmosis and electrohydrodynamic pumps are both present, a plurality of different solutions, both polar and non-polar, may be pump along a single channel. Alternatively, a plurality of different solutions may be passed along a plurality of different channels connected to a cavity. A system which includes a combination of electroosmosis pumps and electrohydrodynamic pumps is described in United States Patent No. 5,632,876 which is incorporated by reference. In an embodiment, a pump may be incorporated into a sensor array system, as depicted in FIG. 32. A sensor aπay 830 includes at least one cavity 832 in which a particle 834 may be placed. The cavity 832 may be configured to allow fluid to pass through the cavity during use. A pump 836 may be incorporated onto a portion of the supporting member 838 A channel 831 may be formed m the supporting member 838 couplmg the pump 836 to the cavity 832 The channel 831 may be configured to allow the fluid to pass from the pump 836 to the cavity 832 The pump 836 may be positioned away from the cavity 832 to allow light to be directed through the cavity durmg use The supporting member 838 and the pump 836 may be formed from a sihcon substrate, a plastic mateπal, or photoresist matenal The pump 836 may be configured to pump fluid to the cavity via the channel, as depicted by the aπows m FIG 32 When the fluid reaches the cavity 832, the fluid may flow past the particle 834 and out through the bottom of the cavity An advantage of usmg pumps is that better flow through the channels may be achieved Typically, the channels and cavities may have a small volume The small volume of the cavity and channel tends to inhibit flow of the fluid through the cavity By incorporating a pump, the flow of fluid to the cavity and through the cavity may be increased, allowmg more rapid testing of the flmd sample While a diaphragm based pump system is depicted m FIG 33, it should be understood that electrode based pumping systems may also be incorporated into the sensor aπay to produce fluid flows In another embodiment, a pump may be coupled to a supporting member for analyzing analytes m a flmd stream, as depicted in FIG 34 A channel 842 may couple a pump 846 to multiple cavities 844 formed m a supporting member 840 The cavities 842 may mclude sensmg particles 848 The pump may be configured to create a flow of the fluid through the channel 842 to the cavities 848 In one embodiment, the cavities may inhibit the flow of the fluid through the cavities 844 The fluid may flow mto the cavities 844 and past the particle 848 to create a flow of fluid through the sensor aπay system In this manner a smgle pump may be used to pass the fluid to multiple cavities While a diaphragm pump system is depicted m FIG 33, it should be understood that electrode pumping systems may also be incorporated mto the supporting member to create similar fluid flows In another embodiment, multiple pumps may be coupled to a supporting member of a sensor aπay system In one embodiment, the pumps may be coupled m senes with each other to pump flmd to each of the cavities. As depicted m FIG 35, a first pump 852 and a second pump 854 may be coupled to a supporting member 850 The first pump 852 may be coupled to a first cavity 856 The first pump may be configured to transfer fluid to the first cavity 856 durmg use The cavity 856 may be configured to allow the fluid to pass through the cavity to a first cavity outlet channel 858 A second pump 854 may also be coupled to the supporting member 850 The second pump 854 may be coupled to a second cavity 860 and the first cavity outlet channel 858 The second pump 854 may be configured to transfer fluid from the first cavity outlet channel 858 to the second cavity 860 The pumps may be synchronized such that a steady flow of fluid through the cavities is obtamed Additional pumps may be coupled to the second cavity outlet channel 862 such that the fluid may be pumped to additional cavities In one embodiment, each of the cavities in the supporting member is coupled to a pump configured to pump the fluid stream to the cavity In another embodiment, multiple electrode based pumps may be incorporated mto the sensor aπay system The pumps may be formed along the channels which couple the cavities As depicted m FIG 36, a plurality of cavities 870 may be formed in a supportmg member 872 of a sensor array Channels 874 may also be formed the supporting member 872 interconnecting the cavities 870 with each other An inlet channel 876 and an outlet channel 877, which allow the fluid to pass mto and out of the sensor aπay, respectively, may also be formed A senes of electrodes 878 may be positioned over the channels 874, 876, and 877 The electrodes may be used to form an electroosmosis pumpmg system or an electrohydrodynamic pumping system The electrodes may be coupled to a controller 880 which may apply the appropπate voltage to the appropnate electrodes to produce a flow of the fluid through the channels The pumps may be synchronized such that a steady flow of fluid through the cavities is obtamed The electrodes may be positioned between the cavities such that the electrodes do not significantly mterfere with the application of hght to the cavities In some mstances it may be necessary to add a reagent to a particle before, during or after an analysis process Reagents may mclude receptor molecules or mdicator molecules Typically, such reagents may be added by passmg a fluid stream which mcludes the reagent over the sensor aπay In an embodiment, the reagent may be incorporated mto the sensor aπay system which mcludes two particles In this embodiment, a sensor aπay system 900 may mclude two particles 910 and 920 for each sensmg position of the sensor array, as depicted m FIG 37 The first particle 910 may be positioned m a first cavity 912 The second particle 920 may be positioned m a second cavity 922 In one embodiment, the second cavity is coupled to the first cavity via a channel 930 The second particle includes a reagent which is at least partially removable from the second particle 920 The reagent may also be configured to modify the first particle 910, when the reagent is contacted with the first particle, such that the first particle will produce a signal when the first particle interacts with an analyte durmg use The reagent may be added to the first cavity before, during or after a fluid analysis The reagent is preferably coupled to the second particle 920 The a portion of the reagent coupled to the second particle may be decoupled from the particle by passmg a decoupling solution past the second particle The decouplmg solution may mclude a decouplmg agent which will cause at least a portion of the reagent to be at released by the particle A reservoir 940 may be formed on the sensor aπay to hold the decouplmg solution A first pump 950 and a second pump 960 may also be coupled to the supporting member 915 The first pump 950 may be configured to pump fluid from a fluid mlet 952 to the first cavity 912 via channel 930 The fluid mlet 952 is the location where the fluid, which mcludes the analyte, is introduced mto the sensor aπay system A second pump 950 may be coupled to the reservoir 940 and the second cavity 922 The second pump 960 may be used to transfer the decouplmg solution from the reservoir to the second cavity 922 The decoupling solution may pass through the second cavity 922 and mto first cavity 912 Thus, as the reagent is removed the second particle it may be transfeπed to the first cavιty912, where the reagent may mteract with the first particle 910 The reservoir may be refilled by removing the reservoir outlet 942, and addmg additional fluid to the reservoir 940 While diaphragm based pump systems are depicted m FIG 37, it should be understood that electrode based pumpmg systems may also be incorporated mto the sensor aπay to produce fluid flows The use of such a system is descπbed by way of example In some mstances it may be desirable to add a reagent to the first particle prior to passmg the fluid which mcludes the analyte to the first particle The reagent may be coupled to the second particle and placed m the sensor aπay pπor to use, typically during construction of the aπay A decouplmg solution may be added to the reservoir before use A controller 970 may also be coupled to the system to allow automatic operation of the pumps The controller 970 may be configured to initiate the analysis sequence by activating the second pump 960, causmg the decouphng solution to flow from the reservoir 940 to the second cavity 922 As the fluid passes through the second cavity 922, the decouplmg solution may cause at least some of the reagent molecules to be released from the second particle 920 The decouplmg solution may be passed out of the second cavity 922 and mto the first cavity 912 As the solution passes through the first cavity, some of the reagent molecules may be captured by the first particle 910 After a sufficient number of molecules have been captured by the first particle 910, flow of fluid thorough the second cavity 922 may be stopped. Durmg this initialization of the system, the flow of fluid through the first pump may be inhibited. After the system is initialized, the second pump may be stopped and the fluid may be introduced to the first cavity The first pump may be used to transfer the fluid to the first cavity. The second pump may remam off, thus inhibiting flow of fluid from the reservoir to the first cavity. It should be understood that the reagent solution may be added to the first cavity while the fluid is added to the first cavity In this embodiment, both the first and second pumps may be operated substantially simultaneously. Alternatively, the reagent may be added after an analysis. In some instances, a particle may mteract with an analyte such that a change m the receptors attached to the first particle occurs. This change may not, however produce a detectable signal. The reagent attached to the second bead may be used to produce a detectable signal when it interacts with the first particle, if a specific analyte is present. In this embodiment, the fluid is introduced mto the cavity first. After the analyte has been given time to react with the particle, the reagent may be added to the first cavity. The mteraction of the reagent with the particle may produce a detectable signal For example, an mdicator reagent may react with a particle which has been exposed to an analyte to produce a color change on the particle Particle which have not been exposed to the analyte may remain unchanged or show a different color change. As shown m FIG. 1, a system for detecting analytes m a fluid may mclude a light source 110, a sensor aπay 120 and a detector 130. The sensor aπay 120 is preferably formed of a supporting member which is configured to hold a vanety of particles 124 m an ordered aπay A high sensitivity CCD aπay may be used to measure changes m optical characteπstics which occur upon bmdmg of the biological/chemical agents. Data acquisition and handling is preferably performed with existing CCD technology. As descπbed above, coloπmetnc analysis may be performed usmg a white light source and a color CCD detector. However, color CCD detectors are typically more expensive than gray scale CCD detectors. In one embodiment, a gray scale CCD detector may be used to detect coloπmetnc changes. In one embodiment, a gray scale detector may be disposed below a sensor aπay to measure the intensity of light bemg transmitted through the sensor aπay. A senes of lights (e g., light emitting diodes) may be aπanged above the sensor aπay. In one embodiment, groups of three LED lights may be aπanged above each of the cavities of the aπay. Each of these groups of LED lights may mclude a red, blue and a green light. Each of the lights may be operated individually such that one of the lights may be on while the other two lights are off. In order to provide color information while usmg a gray scale detector, each of the lights is sequentiaUy tumed on and the gray scale detector is used to measure the intensity of the hght passmg through the sensor aπay After information from each of the lights is collected, the information may be processed to denve the absorption changes of the particle In one embodiment, the data collected by the gray scale detector may be recorded usmg 8 bits of data. Thus, the data will appear as a value between 0 and 255 The color of each chemical sensitive element may be represented as a red, blue and green value. For example, a blank particle (i.e., a particle which does not mclude a receptor) will typically appear white. When each of the LED lights (red, blue and green) are operated the CCD detector will record a value coπespondmg to the amount of light transmitted through the cavity. The intensity of the light may be compared to a blank particle, to determine the absorbance of a particle with respect to the LED light which is used. Thus, the red, green and blue components may be recorded individually without the use of a color CCD detector In one embodiment, it is found that a blank particle exhibits an absorbance of about 253 when illuminated with a red LED, a value of about 250 when illuminated by a green LED, and a value of about 222 when illuminated with a blue LED This signifies that a blank particle does not significantiy absorb red, green or blue light When a particle with a receptor is scanned, the particle may exhibit a color change, due to absorbance by the receptor For example, it was found that when a particle which mcludes a 5-carboxyfTuoresceιn receptor is subjected to white light, the particle shows a strong absorbance of blue light When a red LED is used to illuminate the particle, the gray scale CCD detector may detect a value of about 254 When the green LED is used, the gray scale detector may detect a value of about 218 When a blue LED light is used, a gray scale detector may detect a value of about 57 The decrease in transmittance of blue light is believed to be due to the absorbance of blue light by the 5-carboxyfluorescern In this manner the color changes of a particle may be quantitatively characterized usmg a gray scale detector As descnbed above, after the cavities are formed m the supporting member, a particle may be positioned at the bottom of a cavity usmg a micromampulator This allows the location of a particular particle to be precisely controlled durmg the production of the aπay The use of a micromampulator may, however, be impractical for production of sensor aπay systems An alternate method of placmg the particles mto the cavities may mvolve the use of a silk screen like process A senes of masking matenals may be placed on the upper surface of the sensor aπay pπor to filling the cavities The masking matenals may be composed of glass, metal or plastic matenals A collection of particles may be placed upon the upper surface of the masking matenals and the particles may be moved across the surface When a cavity is encountered, a particle may drop mto the cavity if the cavity is unmasked Thus particles of known composition are placed m only the unmasked regions After the unmasked cavities are filled, the masking pattern may be altered and a second type of particles may be spread across the surface Preferably, the maskmg mateπal will mask the cavities that have already been filled with particle The masking matenal may also mask other non-filled cavities This technique may be repeated until all of the cavities are fined After filling the cavities, a cover may be placed on the support member, as descnbed above, to inhibit the displacement and mixing of the particles An advantage of such a process is that it may be more amenable to lndustnal production of supportmg members Further modifications and alternative embodiments of vanous aspects of the mvention will be apparent to those skilled m the art m view of this descnption Accordmgly, this descnption is to be construed as illustrative only and is for the purpose of teaching those skilled m the art the general manner of carrying out the mvention It is to be understood that the forms of the mvention shown and descnbed herem are to be taken as the presently prefeπed embodiments Elements and matenals may be substituted for those illustrated and descnbed herem, parts and processes may be reversed, and certain features of the mvention may be utilized mdependently, all as would be apparent to one skilled m the art after havmg the benefit of this descnption of the mvention Changes may be made m the elements descnbed herem without departing from the spiπt and scope of the mvention as descnbed m the following claims

Claims: What is claimed is 1 A system for detecting an analyte m a fluid compnsmg a light source, a sensor aπay, the sensor aπay compnsmg a supporting member compnsmg at least one cavity formed within the supportmg member, a particle, the particle positioned within the cavity, wherem the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle mteracts with the analyte durmg use, and a detector, the detector being configured to detect the signal produced by the mteraction of the analyte with the particle durmg use, wherem the light source and detector are positioned such that hght passes from the light source, to the particle, and onto the detector durmg use 2 The system of claim 1, wherem the system compπses a plurality of particles positioned within a plurality of cavities, and wherem the system is configured to substantially simultaneously detect a plurality of analytes m the fluid 3 The system of claim 1, wherem the system compπses a plurality of particles positioned within the cavity 4 The system of claim 1 , wherem the light source compnses a light emitting diode 5 The system of claim 1, wherem the light source compnses a white light source 6 The system of claim 1 , wherem the sensor aπay further compπses a bottom layer and a top cover layer, wherem the bottom layer is positioned below a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherem the top cover layer is positioned above the upper surface of the supporting member, and wherem the bottom layer and the top cover layer are positioned such that the particle is substantially contamed within the cavity by the bottom layer and the top cover layer 7 The system of claim 6, wherem the bottom layer and the top cover layer are substantially transparent to hght produced by the light source 8 The system of claim 1 , wherem the sensor aπay further compπses a bottom layer and a top cover layer, wherem the bottom layer is coupled to a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherem the top cover layer is coupled to a top surface of the supporting member, and wherem both the bottom layer and the top cover layer are coupled to the supportmg member such that the particle is substantially contamed withm the cavity by bottom layer and the top cover layer The system of claim 8, wherem the bottom layer and the top cover layer are substantially transparent to light produced by the light source The system of claim 1, wherein the sensor aπay further compnses a bottom layer coupled to the supportmg member, and wherem the supportmg member compnses silicon, and wherem the bottom layer compnses silicon mtnde The system of claim 1 , wherem the sensor aπay further compπses a sensmg cavity formed on a bottom surface of the sensor aπay The system of claim 1, wherem the supporting member is formed from a plastic matenal, and wherem the sensor aπay further compnses a top cover layer, the top cover layer bemg coupled to the supporting member such that the particle is substantially contamed within the cavity, and wherem the top cover layer is configured to allow the fluid to pass through the top cover layer to the particle, and wherein both the supportmg member and the top cover layer are substantially transparent to light produced by the light source The system of claim 1, further compnsmg a fluid delivery system coupled to the supportmg member The system of claim 1, wherem the detector compnses a charge-coupled device The system of claim 1, wherem the detector compnses an ultraviolet detector The system of claim 1, wherem the detector compπses a fluorescence detector The system of claim 1, wherem the detector compπses a semiconductor based photodetector, and wherem the detector is coupled to the sensor aπay The system of claim 1, wherem the particle ranges from about 0 05 micron to about 500 microns The system of claim 1, wherem a volume of the particle changes when contacted with the fluid The system of claim 1 , wherem the particle compπses a metal oxide particle The system of claim 1 , wherem the particle compnses a metal quantum particle The system of claim 1 , wherem the particle compnses a semiconductor quantum particle 23. The system of claim 1, wherem the particle compnses a receptor molecule coupled to a polymeπc resm. 24. The system of claim 23, wherem the polymeπc resm compnses polystyrene-polyethylene glycol- divmyl benzene. 25 The system of claim 23, wherem the receptor molecule produces the signal m response to the pH of the fluid. 26 The system of claim 23, wherein the analyte compnses a metal ion, and wherem the receptor produces the signal m response to the presence of the metal ion 27. The system of claim 23, wherem the analyte compπses a carbohydrate, and wherem the receptor produces a signal m response to the presence of a carbohydrate. 28. The system of claim 23, wherem the particles further compπses a first mdicator and a second mdicator, the first and second mdicators bemg coupled to the receptor, wherem the mteraction of the receptor with the analyte causes the first and second mdicators to mteract such that the signal is produced 29. The system of claim 23, wherem the particles further compπses an mdicator, wherem the mdicator is associated with the receptor such that m the presence of the analyte the mdicator is displaced from the receptor to produce the signal. 30 The system of claim 23, wherein the receptor compnses a polynucleotide 31 The system of claim 23, wherem the receptor compnses a peptide. 32. The system of claim 23, wherem the receptor compnses an enzyme. 33. The system o f claim 23, wherem the receptor compπses a synthetic receptor. 34. The system of claim 23, wherem the receptor compnses an unnatural biopolymer 35. The system of claim 23, wherem the receptor compnses an antibody 36. The system of claim 23, wherem the receptor compnses an antigen 37 The system of claim 1, wherein the analyte compnses phosphate functional groups, and wherem the particle is configured to produce the signal m the presence of the phosphate functional groups 38 The system of claim 1, wherem the analyte compπses bactena, and wherem the particle is configured to produce the signal m the presence of the bactena. 39 The system of claim 1, wherem the system compπses a plurality of particles positioned within a plurality of cavities, and wherem the plurality of particles produce a detectable pattern m the presence of the analyte 40. A system for detectmg an analyte m a fluid compnsmg: a light source; a sensor aπay, the sensor aπay compnsmg a supporting member compnsmg a plurality of cavities formed within the supportmg member, wherem the supportmg member compnses silicon; a plurality of particles, the particles compnsmg a receptor molecule covalently linked to a polymeπc resm, wherem the particles are positioned within the cavities, and wherem each of the particles is configured to produce a signal when the particle interacts with the analyte durmg use; and a detector configured to detect the signal produced by the mteraction of the analyte with the particle durmg use; wherein the light source and detector are positioned such that light passes from the light source, to the particle, and onto the detector during use. 41 The system of claim 40, wherem the system is configured to substantially simultaneously detect a plurality of analytes in the fluid. 42. The system of claim 40, wherem each cavity is configured to hold a smgle particle. 43. The system of claim 40, wherem each cavity is configured to hold a plurality of particles 44 The system of claim 40, wherem the sensor aπay further compπses a bottom layer and a top cover layer, wherem the bottom layer is positioned below a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherem the top cover layer is positioned above the upper surface of the supporting member, and wherem the bottom layer and the top cover layer are positioned such that the particle is substantially contamed within the cavity by the bottom layer and the top cover layer. 45. The system of claim 44, wherem the bottom layer and the top cover layer are substantially transparent to light produced by the light source. 46. The system of claim 40, wherem the sensor aπay further compnses a bottom layer and a top cover layer, wherem the bottom layer is coupled to a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherem the top cover layer is coupled to a top surface of the supporting member; and wherem both the bottom layer and the top cover layer are coupled to the supporting member such that the particle is substantially contamed within the cavity by bottom layer and the top cover layer. 47. The system of claun 46, wherem the bottom layer and the top cover layer are substantially transparent to light produced by the light source 48 The system of claim 40, wherein the sensor aπay further compπses a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, and wherem the bottom layer compnses sihcon mtnde. 49. The system of claim 40, wherem the sensor aπay further compnses a sensmg cavity formed on a bottom surface of the sensor aπay. 50 The system of claim 40, further compnsmg a fluid delivery system coupled to the supportmg member 51 The system of claim 40, wherem the detector compnses a charge-coupled device. 52. The system of claun 40, wherem the detector compnses a semiconductor based photodetector, and wherem the detector is coupled to the sensor aπay 53. The system of claim 40, wherein the particle ranges from about 0.05 micron to about 500 microns. 54 The system of claim 40, wherem a volume of the particle changes when contacted with the fluid. 55. The system of claun 40, wherem the polymenc bead compnses a polystyrene-polyethylene glycol- divmyl benzene resm. 56 The system of claim 40, wherem the receptor molecule produces the signal m response to the pH of the fluid. 57. The system of claim 40, wherem the analyte compnses a metal ion, and wherem the receptor produces the signal m response to the presence of the metal ion. 58. The system of claim 40, wherem the analyte compnses a carbohydrate, and wherem the receptor produces a signal in response to the presence of the carbohydrate 59 The system of claim 40, wherem the particles further compnses a first mdicator and a second mdicator, the first and second mdicators bemg coupled to the receptor, wherem the mteraction of the receptor with the analyte causes the first and second mdicators to mteract such that the signal is produced. 60 The system of claun 40, wherem the particles further compnses an mdicator, wherem the indicator is associated with the receptor such that m the presence of the analyte the mdicator is displaced from the receptor to produce the signal 61 The system of claim 40, wherem the receptor compnses a polynucleotide. 62 The system of claim 40, wherein the receptor comprises a peptide. 63 The system of claim 40, wherem the receptor compnses an enzyme. 64 The system o f claun 40, wherem the receptor compnses a synthetic receptor 65 The system of claim 40, wherem the receptor compnses an unnatural biopolymer 66. The system of claim 40, wherem the receptor compnses an antibody 67. The system of claim 40, wherem the receptor compnses an antigen. 68 The system of claun 40, wherem the particles produce a detectable pattern m the presence of the analyte. 69. A sensor aπay for detectmg an analyte m a fluid compnsmg: a supporting member; wherem at least one cavity is formed within the supporting member, a particle positioned within the cavity, wherem the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle interacts with the analyte 70 The sensor aπay of claim 69, further compnsmg a plurality of particles positioned withm the cavity. 71 The sensor aπay of claun 69, wherem the particle comprises a receptor molecule coupled to a polymenc resm. 72 The sensor aπay of claun 69, wherem the particle has a size rangmg from about 0 05 micron to about 500 microns in diameter. 73 The sensor aπay of claim 69, wherem the particle has a size rangmg from about 0 05 micron to about 500 microns in diameter, and wherem the cavity is configured to substantially contam the particle. 74 The sensor aπay of claim 69, wherem the supporting member compnses a plastic matenal. 75 The sensor aπay of claim 69, wherem the supporting member compnses a sdicon wafer 76 The sensor aπay of claim 75, wherem the cavity extends through the silicon wafer 77. The sensor aπay of claim 75, wherem the cavity is substantially pyramidal m shape and wherem the sidewalls of the cavity are substantially tapered at an angle of between about 50 to about 60 degrees. 78 The sensor aπay of claun 75, further compnsmg a substantially transparent layer positioned on a bottom surface of the silicon wafer. 79. The sensor aπay of claim 75, further compnsmg a substantially transparent layer positioned on a bottom surface of the silicon wafer, wherem the substantially transparent layer compnses silicon dioxide, silicon tnde, or silicon oxide/silicon mtnde multilayer stacks 80 The sensor aπay of claun 75, further compnsmg a substantially transparent layer positioned on a bottom surface of the silicon wafer, wherem the substantially transparent layer compnses silicon mtnde 81 The sensor aπay of claim 75, wherem the silicon wafer has an area of about 1 cm 2 to about 100 cm 2 . 82. The sensor aπay of claim 75, further compnsmg a plurality of cavities formed m the silicon wafer, and wherem from about 10 to about 10 6 cavities are formed m the silicon wafer. 83. The sensor aπay of claun 69, further compnsmg channels m the supporting member, wherem the channels are configured to allow the fluid to flow through the channels mto and away from the cavity 84. The sensor aπay of claun 69, further compnsmg an inner surface coating, wherem the inner surface coating is configured to inhibit dislodgment of the particle 85. The sensor aπay of claun 69, further compnsmg a detector coupled to the bottom surface of the supporting member, wherem the detector is positioned below the cavity. 86. The sensor aπay of claim 85, wherem the detector is a semiconductor based photodetector. 87. The sensor aπay of claim 85, wherem the detector is a Fabry-Perot type detector. 88. The sensor aπay of claun 85, further compnsmg an optical fiber coupled to the detector, wherem the optical fiber is configured to transmit optical data to a microprocessor. 89 The sensor aπay of claun 69, further compnsmg an optical filters coupled to a bottom surface of the sensor aπay. 90 The sensor aπay of claun 69, further compnsmg a barner layer positioned over the cavity, the barner layer bemg configured to inhibit dislodgment of the particle durmg use. 1. The sensor aπay of claim 90, wherem the barner layer compnses a substantiauy transparent cover plate positioned over the cavity, and wherem the cover plate is positioned a fixed distance over the cavity such that the fluid can enter the cavity 92 The sensor aπay of claim 91, wherem the barner layer compnses plastic, glass, quartz, silicon oxide, or silicon mtnde. 93. The sensor aπay of claun 69, further compnsmg a plurality of particles positioned withm a plurality of cavities formed m the supportmg member. 94. The sensor aπay of claim 69, wherem the system compπses a plurality of particles positioned within a plurality of cavities, and wherein the plurality of particles produce a detectable pattern m the presence of the analyte. 95 A sensor aπay for detecting an analyte m a fluid compnsmg: a supporting member, wherem the supporting member compnses a silicon wafer, and wherem a plurality of cavities are formed withm the supporting member; a plurality of particles, at least one particle bemg positioned m each of the cavities, wherem the particles are configured to produce a signal when the particles mteract with the analyte. 96. The sensor aπay of claun 95, wherem a plurality of particles is positioned withm each of the cavities. 97. The sensor aπay of claim 95, wherem the particles compπse a receptor molecule coupled to a polymenc bead. 98. The sensor aπay of claun 95, wherem the cavity extends through the supporting member 99 The sensor aπay of claun 95,wherern the cavity is substantially pyramidal m shape and wherem the sidewalls of the cavity are substantially tapered at an angle of between about 50 to about 60 degrees. 100 The sensor aπay of claim 95, further compnsmg a substantially transparent layer positioned on a bottom surface of the supportmg member 101 The sensor aπay of claim 95, further compnsmg a substantially transparent layer positioned on a bottom surface of the silicon wafer, wherem the substantially transparent layer compπses silicon dioxide, silicon mtnde, or silicon oxide/silicon mtnde multilayer stacks. 102 The sensor aπay of claim 95, further compnsmg a substantiaUy transparent layer positioned on a bottom surface of the silicon wafer, wherem the substantially transparent layer compnses silicon mtnde. 103 The sensor aπay of claim 95, wherem the silicon wafer has an area of about 1 cm 2 to about 100 cm 2 . 104 The sensor aπay of claun 95, further compnsmg a plurality of cavities formed m the silicon wafer, and wherein from about 10 to about 10 6 cavities are formed in the sihcon wafer 105 The sensor aπay of claun 95, further compnsmg channels m the supporting member, wherem the channels are configured to allow the fluid to flow through the channels mto and away from the cavities 106 The sensor aπay of claim 95, further compnsmg an inner surface coating, wherem the inner surface coating is configured to inhibit dislodgment of the particle 107 The sensor aπay of claim 95, further compnsmg a detector coupled to the bottom surface of the supporting member, wherem the detector is positioned below the cavity 108 The sensor aπay of claim 107, wherem the detector is a semiconductor based photodetector. 109 The sensor aπay of claun 107, wherem the detector is a Fabry-Perot type detector 110. The sensor aπay of claun 107, further compnsmg an optical fiber coupled to the detector, wherem the optical fiber is configured to transmit optical data to a microprocessor 111 The sensor aπay of claim 95, further compnsmg a barner layer positioned over the cavity, the barner layer bemg configured to inhibit dislodgment of the particle during use. 112. The sensor aπay of claun 111, wherem the barner layer compπses a cover plate positioned over the cavity, and wherem the cover plate is positioned a fixed distance over the cavity such that the fluid can enter the cavity. 113. The sensor aπay of claun 111, further compnsmg channels m the supporting member, wherem the channels are configured to allow the fluid to flow through the channels mto and away from the cavities, and wherem the barner layer compnses a cover plate positioned upon an upper surface of the supportmg member, and wherem the cover plate inhibits passage of the fluid mto the cavities such that the fluid enters the cavities via the channels 114. The sensor aπay of claun 111, wherem the barner layer compnses plastic, glass, quartz, silicon oxide, or silicon mtnde 115. A method for formmg a sensor array configured to detect an analyte m a flmd, compnsmg: forming a cavity in a supportmg member, wherem the supporting member compnses a silicon wafer; placmg a particle m the cavity, wherem the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle interacts with the analyte; and formmg a cover upon a portion of the supporting member, wherem the cover is configured to inhibit dislodgment of the particle from the cavity 116. The method of claim 115, wherem formmg the cavity compπses anisotropically etchmg the silicon wafer. 117. The method of claim 115, wherem formmg the cavity compnses amsotropicaUy etchmg the silicon wafer with a wet hydroxide etch 118. The method of claun 115, wherem formmg the cavity compnses amsotropicaUy etchmg the silicon wafer such that sidewalls of the cavity are tapered at an angle from about 50 degrees to about 60 degrees. 119. The method of claim 115, wherem the silicon wafer has an area of about 1 cm 2 to about 100 cm 2 . 120 The method of claim 115, further compnsmg formmg a substantially transparent layer upon a bottom surface of the silicon wafer below the cavity. 121 The method of claim 115, further compnsmg forming a substantially transparent layer upon a bottom surface of the silicon wafer, wherem the cavity extends through the silicon wafer and wherem the substantially transparent layer is positioned to support the particle. 122. The method of claim 115, wherem the substantially transparent layer compπses silicon mtnde. 123. The method of claim 115, wherem the cover compnses plastic, glass, quartz, silicon mtnde, or silicon oxide. 124 The method of claim 115, wherem formmg the cover compπses couplmg the cover to the silicon wafer at a distance above the silicon wafer substantially less than a width of the particle 125 The method of claun 115, further compnsmg etchmg channels m the silicon wafer pnor to formmg the cover on the silicon wafer, wherem formmg the cover compπses placmg the cover agamst the upper surface of the silicon wafer, and wherem the channels are configured to allow the fluid to pass through the silicon wafer to and from the cavities. 126. The method of claim 115, further compnsmg coating an inner surface of the cavity with a matenal to mcrease adhesion of the particle to the inner surface of the cavity. 127 The method of claim 115, further compnsmg coating an inner surface of the cavity with a matenal to mcrease reflectivity of the inner surface of the cavity. 128. The method of claun 115, further compnsmg forming an optical detector upon a bottom surface of the supporting member below the cavity. 129. The method of claim 115, further compnsmg forming a sensmg cavity upon a bottom surface of the supportmg member below the cavity. 130. The method of claim 129, wherem formmg the sensmg cavity compπses: formmg a barner layer upon a bottom surface of the silicon wafer; formmg a bottom diaphragm layer upon the barner layer; formmg etch wmdows extendmg through the bottom diaphragm layer; formmg a sacnficial spacer layer upon the bottom diaphragm layer; removmg a portion of the spacer layer; formmg a top diaphragm layer; and removmg a remaining portion of the spacer layer. 131. The method of claim 130, further compnsmg filling a portion of the sensmg cavity with a sensmg substrate. 132. The method of claim 115, further compnsmg forming an optical filter upon the bottom surface of the supporting member. 133. The method of claim 115, further compnsmg formmg a plurality of cavities m the sihcon wafer. 134. The method of claim 115, wherem from about 10 to about 10 6 cavities are formed m the silicon wafer. 135. A sensor aπay produced by the method of claim 115. 136. A method of sensmg an analyte m a fluid compnsmg: passmg a fluid over a sensor aπay, the sensor aπay compnsmg at least one particle positioned withm a cavity of a supportmg member; momtormg a spectroscopic change of the particle as the fluid is passed over the sensor aπay, wherem the spectroscopic change is caused by the mteraction of the analyte with the particle. 137. The method of claun 136, wherem the spectroscopic change compπses a change m absorbance of the particle. 138 The method of claim 136, wherem the spectroscopic change compnses a change m fluorescence of the particle. 139. The method of claim 136, wherem the spectroscopic change compnses a change m phosphorescence of the particle. 140. The method of claim 136, wherem the analyte is a proton atom, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced when the pH of the fluid is vaned, and wherem momtormg the spectroscopic change of the particle allows the pH of the fluid to be determined. 141 The method of claun 136, wherem the analyte is a metal cation, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced m response to the presence of the metal cation m the fluid. 142. The method of claim 136, wherem the analyte is an anion, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced m response to the presence of the anion m the fluid. 143. The method of claim 136, wherem the analyte is a DNA molecule, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced m response to the presence of the DNA molecule m the fluid. 144. The method of claim 136, wherem the analyte is a protein, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced in response to the presence of the protem m the fluid. 145. The method of claim 136, wherem the analyte is a metabolite, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced m response to the presence of the metabolite m the flmd. 146. The method of claim 136, wherem the analyte is a sugar, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced m response to the presence of the sugar m the fluid. 147. The method of claim 136, wherem the analyte is a bactena, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced in response to the presence of the bactena m the fluid. 148. The method of claim 136, wherem the particle compnses a receptor coupled to a polymeπc resm, and further compnsmg exposmg the particle to an mdicator pnor to passmg the fluid over the sensor aπay 149 The method of claim 148, wherem a bmdmg strength of the mdicator to the receptor is less than a bmdmg strength of the analyte to the receptor. 150. The method of claim 148, wherem the mdicator is a fluorescent mdicator. 151 The method of claim 136, further compnsmg treating the flmd with an mdicator pnor to passmg the fluid over the sensor aπay, wherem the mdicator is configured to couple with the analyte 152. The method of claun 136, wherem the analyte is bactena and further compnsmg breakmg down the bactena pnor to passmg the fluid over the sensor aπay. 153 The method of claun 136, wherem momtormg the spectroscopic change is performed with a CCD device. 154 The method of claim 136, further compnsmg measuring the mtensity of the spectroscopic change, and further compnsmg calculating the concentration of the analyte based on the mtensity of the specttoscopic change. 155. A sensor aπay for detecting an analyte m a fluid compnsmg: a supporting member, wherem the supporting member compnses a silicon wafer, and wherem a plurality of cavities are formed within the supportmg member; a plurality of particles, at least one particle bemg positioned m each of the cavities, wherem the particles are configured to produce a signal when the particles mteract with the analyte 156 A method of sensmg an analyte m a fluid compnsmg: passmg a fluid over a sensor aπay, the sensor aπay compnsmg- a supportmg member, wherem the supportmg member compnses a silicon wafer, and wherem a plurality of cavities are formed withm the supporting member; and a plurality of particles, at least one particle bemg positioned m each of the cavities, wherem the particles are configured to produce a signal when the particles mteract with the analyte at least one particle positioned withm a cavity of a supporting member; momtormg a spectroscopic change of the particle as the fluid is passed over the sensor aπay, wherem the specttoscopic change is caused by the mteraction of the analyte with the particle. 157. The method of claun 156, wherem the spectroscopic change compnses a change m absorbance of the particle. 158. The method of claim 156, wherem the specttoscopic change compnses a change m reflectance of the particle 159 The method of claun 156, wherem the spectroscopic change compnses a change m fluorescence of the particle 160 The method of claim 156, wherem the specttoscopic change compnses a change m phosphorescence of the particle 161 The method of claim 156, wherem the analyte is a proton atom, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced when the pH of the fluid is vaned, and wherem momtormg the specttoscopic change of the particle allows the pH of the fluid to be determined 162 The method of claim 156, wherem the analyte is a metal cation, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced m response to the presence of the metal cation m the fluid 163 The method of claim 156, wherem the particle compnses a receptor coupled to a polymenc resm, and further compnsmg exposmg the particle to an mdicator prior to passmg the fluid over the sensor aπay 164 The method of claim 156, wherem a bmdmg strength of the mdicator to the receptor is less than a bmdmg strength of the analyte to the receptor 165 The method of claim 156, wherem the mdicator is a fluorescent mdicator 166 The method of claim 156, further compnsmg treating the fluid with an mdicator pnor to passmg the fluid over the sensor aπay, wherem the mdicator is configured to couple with the analyte 167 The method of claim 156, wherem the analyte is bactena and further compnsmg breakmg down the bactena pnor to passmg the fluid over the sensor aπay 168 The method of claun 156, wherem momtormg the specttoscopic change is performed with a CCD device 169 The method of claim 156, further compnsmg measuring the mtensity of the spectroscopic change, and further compnsmg calculating the concentration of the analyte based on the mtensity of the specttoscopic change 170 A system for detecting an analyte m a fluid compnsmg a light source, a sensor aπay, the sensor aπay compnsmg at least one particle coupled to the sensor aπay, wherem the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle mteracts with the analyte, and a detector configured to detect the signal produced by the mteraction of the analyte with the particle, wherein the light source and detector are positioned such that light passes from the light source, to the particle, and onto the detector during use. 171. A sensor aπay for detecting an analyte in a fluid comprising: at least one particle coupled to the sensor array, wherein the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle interacts with the analyte. 172. A method of sensing an analyte in a fluid comprising: passing a fluid over a sensor aπay, the sensor aπay comprising at least one particle coupled to a supporting member; monitoring a spectroscopic change of the particle as the fluid is passed over the sensor aπay, wherein the spectroscopic change is caused by the interaction of the analyte with the particle. 173. A sensor aπay for detecting an analyte in a fluid comprising: a supporting member; wherein at least one cavity is formed within the supporting member; a particle positioned within the cavity, wherein the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle interacts with the analyte; wherein the cavities are configured to allow the fluid to pass through the supporting member during use. 174. The sensor aπay of claim 173, further comprising a plurality of particles positioned within the cavity. 175. The sensor aπay of claim 173, wherein the particle comprises a receptor molecule coupled to a polymeric resin. 176. The sensor aπay of claim 173, wherein the particle has a size ranging from about 0.05 micron to about 500 microns in diameter. 177. The sensor aπay of claim 173, wherein the cavity is configured to substantially contain the particle. 178. The sensor aπay of claim 173, further comprising a cover layer coupled to the supporting member and a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, wherein the cover layer and the bottom layer are removable. 179. The sensor aπay of claim 173, further comprising a cover layer coupled to the supporting member and a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, wherein the cover layer and the bottom layer are removable, and wherein the cover layer and the bottom layer include openings that are substantially aligned with the cavities during use. 180. The sensor aπay of claim 173, further comprising a cover layer coupled to the supporting member and a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, wherein the bottom layer is coupled to a bottom surface of the supporting member and wherein the cover layer is removable, and wherein the cover layer and the bottom layer include openings that are substantially aligned with the cavities during use. 181. The sensor aπay of claim 173, further comprising a cover layer coupled to the supporting member and a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, wherein an opening is formed in the cover layer substantially aligned with the cavity, and wherein an opening is formed in the bottom layer substantially aligned with the cavity. 182. The sensor aπay of claim 173, wherein the cavity is substantially tapered such that the width of the cavity naπows in a direction from a top surface of the supporting member toward a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherein a minimum width of the cavity is substantially less than a width of the particle. 183. The sensor aπay of claim 173, wherein a width of a bottom portion of the cavity is substantially less than a width of a top portion of the cavity, and wherein the width of the bottom portion of the cavity is substantially less than a width of the particle. 184. The sensor aπay of claim 173, further comprising a cover layer coupled to the supporting member and a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, wherein the bottom layer is configured to support the particle, and wherein an opening is formed in the cover layer substantiaUy aligned with the cavity. 185. The sensor aπay of claim 173, further comprising a removable cover layer coupled to the supporting member. 186. The sensor aπay of claim 173, wherein the supporting member comprises a plastic material. 187. The sensor aπay of claim 173, wherein the supporting member comprises a sUicon wafer. 188. The sensor aπay of claim 173, wherein the supporting member comprises a dry film photoresist material. 189. The sensor aπay of claim 173, wherein the supporting member comprises a plurality of layers of a dry film photoresist material. 190. The sensor aπay of claim 173, wherein an inner surface of the cavity is coated with a reflective material. 191. The sensor aπay of claim 173, further comprising channels in the supporting member, wherein the channels are configured to allow the fluid to flow through the channels mto and away from the cavity 192 The sensor aπay of claim 173, further compnsmg a plurality of additional particles positioned withm a plurality of additional cavities formed m the supporting member 193 A system for detectmg an analyte m a fluid compnsmg a light source, a sensor aπay, the sensor aπay compnsmg a supporting member compnsmg at least one cavity formed withm the supporting member, wherem the cavity is configured such that the fluid entering the cavity passes through the supporting member durmg use, a particle, the particle positioned withm the cavity, wherem the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle mteracts with the analyte durmg use, and a detector, the detector bemg configured to detect the signal produced by the mteraction of the analyte with the particle durmg use, wherem the light source and detector are positioned such that light passes from the light source, to the particle, and onto the detector durmg use 194 The system of claim 193, wherem the system compnses a plurality of particles positioned withm a plurality of cavities, and wherem the system is configured to substantially simultaneously detect a plurality of analytes m the fluid 195 The system of claim 193, wherem the system compnses a plurality of particles positioned withm the cavity 196 The system of claim 193, wherem the light source compnses a hght emitting diode 197 The system of claim 193, wherem the light source comprises a red light emitting diode, a blue light emitting diode, and a green light emitting diode 198 The system of claun 193, wherem the light source compnses a white light source 199 The system of claim 193, wherem the sensor aπay further compπses a cover layer coupled to the supportmg member and a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, wherem the cover layer and the bottom layer are removable 00 The system of claun 193, wherem the sensor aπay further compnses a cover layer coupled to the supporting ,member and a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, wherem the cover layer and the bottom layer are removable, and wherem the cover layer and the bottom layer mclude openmgs that are substantially aligned with the cavities durmg use 201 The system of claim 193, wherem the sensor aπay further compπses a cover layer coupled to the supporting member and a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, wherem the bottom layer is coupled to a bottom surface of the supporting member and wherem the cover layer is removable, and wherein the cover layer and the bottom layer include openings that are substantially aligned with the cavities dunng use 202 The system of claim 193, wherem the sensor aπay further compnses a cover layer coupled to the supportmg member and a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, wherem an openmg is formed m the cover layer substantiaUy aligned with the cavity, and wherem an openmg is formed m the bottom layer substantially aligned with the cavity 203 The system of claim 193, wherem the cavity is substantially tapered such that the width of the cavity naπows in a direction from a top surface of the supporting member toward a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherem a minimum width of the cavity is substantiaUy less than a width of the particle 204 The system of claim 193, wherem a width of a bottom portion of the cavity is substantially less than a width of a top portion of the cavity, and wherem the width of the bottom portion of the cavity is substantially less than a width of the particle 205 The system of claim 193, wherem the sensor aπay further compnses a cover layer coupled to the supporting member and a bottom layer coupled to the supporting member, wherem the bottom layer is configured to support the particle, and wherem an openmg is formed m the cover layer substantiaUy aligned with the cavity 206 The system of claim 193, further compnsmg a removable cover layer 207 The system of claim 193, wherem the supportmg member compnses a plastic matenal 208 The system of claim 193, wherem the supporting member compnses a silicon wafer 209 The system of claim 193, wherem the supporting member compnses a dry film photoresist matenal 210 The system of claim 193, wherem the supportmg member compnses a plurality of layers of a dry film photoresist material 211 The system of claim 193, wherem an inner surface of the cavity is coated with a reflective matenal 212 The system of claun 193, further compnsmg channels m the supporting member, wherem the channels are configured to allow the fluid to flow through the channels mto and away from the cavity 213. The system of claim 193, wherem the detector compnses a charge-coupled device. 214 The system of claun 193, wherem the detector compnses a semiconductor based photodetector, and wherein the detector is coupled to the sensor aπay. 215. The system of claim 193, wherem the particle compnses a receptor molecule coupled to a polymenc resm. 216. The system of claun 215, wherem the polymenc resm compnses polystyrene-polyethylene glycol- divmyl benzene. 217 The system of claun 215, wherem the receptor molecule produces the signal m response to the pH of the fluid 218. The system of claim 215, wherem the analyte compnses a metal ion, and wherem the receptor produces the signal m response to the presence of the metal ion. 219. The system of claim 215, wherem the analyte compnses a carbohydrate, and wherem the receptor produces a signal m response to the presence of a carbohydrate. 220. The system of claim 215, wherem the particles further compπses a first mdicator and a second mdicator, the first and second mdicators bemg coupled to the receptor, wherem the mteraction of the receptor with the analyte causes the first and second mdicators to mteract such that the signal is produced 221. The system of claim 215 , wherem the particles further compnses an mdicator, wherem the mdicator is associated with the receptor such that m the presence of the analyte the mdicator is displaced from the receptor to produce the signal. 222. The system of claim 215, wherem the receptor compnses a polynucleotide. 223. The system of claim 215, wherem the receptor compπses a peptide. 224 The system of claim 215, wherem the receptor compπses an enzyme. 225. The system o f claun 215, wherem the receptor compπses a synthetic receptor 226 The system of claim 215, wherem the receptor compπses an unnatural biopolymer 227 The system of claim 215, wherem the receptor compnses an antibody 228 The system of claim 215, wherem the receptor compnses an antigen. 229 The system of claim 193, wherem the analyte compnses phosphate functional groups, and wherem the particle is configured to produce the signal m the presence of the phosphate functional groups. 230 The system of claun 193, wherem the analyte compπses bactena, and wherem the particle is configured to produce the signal m the presence of the bactena. 231 The system of claim 193, wherem the system compnses a plurality of particles positioned withm a plurality of cavities, and wherem the plurality of particles produce a detectable pattern m the presence of the analyte 232 A sensor aπay for detectmg an analyte m a fluid compnsmg a supportmg member; wherem at least one cavity is formed within the supportmg member, a particle positioned withm the cavity, wherem the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle interacts with the analyte; and a pump coupled to the supporting member, wherem the pump is configured to direct the fluid towards the cavity; wherem a channel is formed m the supporting member, the channel couplmg the pump to the cavity such that the fluid flows through the channel to the cavity durmg use. 233 The sensor aπay of claun 232, wherem the particle compπses a receptor molecule coupled to a polymenc resm 234 The sensor aπay of claim 232, wherem the supporting member compnses a plastic matenal 235 The sensor aπay of claun 232, wherem the supportmg member compnses a silicon wafer. 236. The sensor aπay of claim 232, wherem the supportmg member compnses a dry film photoresist matenal. 237 The sensor aπay of claun 232, wherem the supporting member compπses a plurality of layers of a dry film photoresist matenal 238 The sensor aπay of claim 232, wherem an inner surface of the cavity is coated with a reflective mateπal 239 The sensor aπay of claim 232, further compnsmg a detector coupled to the bottom surface of the supporting member, wherem the detector is positioned below the cavity 240 The sensor aπay of claun 232, further compnsmg a baπier layer positioned over the cavity, the barner layer bemg configured to inhibit dislodgment of the particle during use 241 The sensor aπay of claim 232, further compnsmg a baπier layer positioned over the cavity, the barner layer bemg configured to inhibit dislodgment of the particle during use, wherem the barner layer comprises a transmission electron microscope gnd 242 The sensor aπay of claim 232, further compnsmg a plurality of particles positioned withm a plurality of cavities formed m the supporting member 243 The sensor aπay of claim 232, wherein the system compπses a plurality of particles positioned withm a plurality of cavities, and wherem the plurality of particles produce a detectable pattern m the presence of the analyte 244 The sensor aπay of claim 232, wherem the pump compnses a diaphragm pump 245 The sensor aπay of claun 232, wherem the pump compnses an electrode pump 246 The sensor aπay of claim 232 wherem the pump compnses a piezoelectπc pump 247 The sensor aπay of claun 232, wherem the pump compnses a pneumatic activated pump 248 The sensor aπay of claim 232, wherem the pump compπses a heat activated pump 249 The sensor aπay of claun 232, wherem the pump compnses a penstaltic pump 250 The sensor aπay of claun 232, wherem the pump comprises an electroosmosis pump 251 The sensor aπay of claim 232, wherem the pump compnses an electrohydrodynamic pump 252 The sensor aπay of claim 232, wherem the pump compnses an electroosmosis pump and an electrohydrodynamic pump 253 The sensor aπay of claim 232, wherem the cavity is substantially tapered such that the width of the cavity naπows m a direction from a top surface of the supporting member toward a bottom surface of the supportmg member, and wherem a minimum width of the cavity is substantially less than a width of the particle 254 The sensor aπay of claim 232, wherem a width of a bottom portion of the cavity is substantially less than a width of a top portion of the cavity, and wherem the width of the boπom portion of the cavity is substantially less than a width of the particle 255 A system for detectmg an analyte m a fluid compnsmg a light source, a sensor aπay, the sensor aπay compnsmg a supporting member compnsmg at least one cavity formed withm the supportmg member, a pump coupled to the supporting member, wherem the pump is configured to direct the fluid towards the cavity, and wherem a channel is formed m the supporting member, the channel couplmg the pump to the cavity such that the fluid flows through the channel to the cavity durmg use, a particle, the particle positioned withm the cavity, wherem the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle mteracts with the analyte duπng use, and a detector, the detector bemg configured to detect the signal produced by the mteraction of the analyte with the particle durmg use, wherem the light source and detector are positioned such that hght passes from the light source, to the particle, and onto the detector durmg use 256 The system of claim 255, wherem the system compnses a plurality of parades positioned withm a plurality of cavities, and wherem the system is configured to substantially simultaneously detect a plurality of analytes m the fluid 257 The system of claim 255, wherem the light source compnses a light emitting diode 258 The system of claim 255, wherem the hght source compnses a red light emitting diode, a blue light emitting diode, and a green light emitting diode 259 The system of claim 255, wherem the hght source compnses a white light source 260 The system of claim 255, wherem the supporting member compnses a plastic matenal 261 The system of claim 255, wherem the supporting member compnses a silicon wafer 262 The system of claim 255, wherem the supportmg member compnses a dry film photoresist matenal 263 The system of claim 255, wherem the supportmg member compnses a plurahty of layers of a dry film photoresist material 264 The system of claim 255, wherem an inner surface of the cavity is coated with a reflective mateπal 265 The system of claim 255, further compnsmg a barner layer coupled to the supporting member, wherem the barner layer is positioned over the cavity, the barner layer bemg configured to inhibit dislodgment of the particle durmg use 266 The system of claim 255, wherem the pump compnses a diaphragm pump 267 The system of claim 255, wherem the pump compnses an electrode pump 268 The system of claun 255 wherem the pump compnses a piezoelectnc pump 269 The system of claim 255, wherem the pump compnses a pneumatic activated pump 270 The system of claim 255, wherem the pump compnses a heat activated pump 271 The system of claun 255, wherem the pump compnses a penstaltic pump 272 The system of claun 255, wherem the pump compnses an electroosmosis pump 273 The system of claim 255, wherem the pump compπses an electrohydrodynamic pump 274 The system of claun 255, wherem the pump compnses an electroosmosis pump and an electrohydrodynamic pump 275 The system of claim 255, wherem the cavity is substantially tapered such that the width of the cavity naπows m a direction from a top surface of the supportmg member toward a bottom surface of the supportmg member, and wherem a minimum width of the cavity is substantially less than a width of the particle 276 The system of claim 255, wherem a width of a bottom portion of the cavity is substantially less than a width of a top portion of the cavity, and wherem the width of the bottom portion of the cavity is substantially less than a width of the particle 277 The system of claim 255, wherem the detector compnses a charge-coupled device 278 The system of claim 255, wherem the particle compπses a receptor molecule coupled to a polymeπc resm. 279 The system of claim 278, wherem the polymeπc resin compnses polystyrene-polyethylene glycol- divmyl benzene. 280 The system of claim 278, wherem the particles further compπses a first mdicator and a second indicator, the first and second indicators bemg coupled to the receptor, wherem the mteraction of the receptor with the analyte causes the first and second mdicators to mteract such that the signal is produced. 281 The system of claim 278, wherem the particles further compπses an mdicator, wherem the mdicator is associated with the receptor such that m the presence of the analyte the mdicator is displaced from the receptor to produce the signal 282 The system of claim 278, wherem the receptor compπses a polynucleotide 283 The system of claun 278, wherem the receptor comprises a peptide. 284. The system of claim 278, wherem the receptor compnses an enzyme. 285 The system o f claim 278, wherem the receptor compnses a synthetic receptor 286. The system of claim 278, wherem the receptor compnses an unnatural biopolymer. 287. The system of claim 278, wherem the receptor compnses an antibody. 288. The system of claim 278, wherem the receptor compnses an antigen. 289. The system of claim 255, wherem the analyte compnses bacteπa, and wherem the particle is configured to produce the signal m the presence of the bactena. 290 The system of claim 255, wherem the system compnses a plurahty of particles positioned within a plurality of cavities, and wherem the plurality of particles produce a detectable pattern m the presence of the analyte 291. A sensor aπay for detecting an analyte in a fluid comprising: a supporting member; wherein a first cavity and a second cavity are formed within the supporting member; a first particle positioned within the first cavity; a second particle positioned within the second cavity, wherein the second particle comprises a reagent, wherein a portion of the reagent is removable from the second particle when contacted with a decoupling solution, and wherein the reagent is configured to modify the first particle, when the reagent is contacted with the first particle, such that the first particle will produce a signal when the first particle interacts with the analyte during use; a first pump coupled to the supporting member, wherein the pump is configured to direct the fluid towards the first cavity; a second pump coupled to the supporting member, wherein the second pump is configured to direct the decoupling solution towards the second cavity; wherein a first channel is formed in the supporting member, the first channel coupling the first pump to the first cavity such that the fluid flows through the first channel to the first cavity during use, and wherein a second channel is formed in the supporting member, the second channel coupling the second cavity to the first cavity such that the decoupling solution flows from the second cavity through the second channel to the first cavity during use. 292. The sensor aπay of claim 2 1 , wherein the first particle comprises a receptor molecule coupled to a first polymeric resin, and wherein the second particle comprises an indicator molecule coupled to a second polymeric resin. 293. The sensor aπay of claim 291 , wherein the first particle comprises an indicator molecule coupled to a first polymeric resin, and the second particle comprises a receptor molecule coupled to a second polymeric resin. 294. The sensor aπay of claim 291 , wherein the first particle comprises a first polymeric resin configured to bind to the receptor molecule, and wherein the second particle comprises the receptor molecule coupled to a second polymeric resin. 295. The sensor aπay of claim 291, wherein the supporting member comprises a plastic material. 296. The sensor aπay of claim 291, wherein the supporting member comprises a sihcon wafer. 297. The sensor aπay of claim 291 , wherein the supporting member comprises a dry film photoresist material. 298. The sensor aπay of claim 291, wherein the supporting member comprises a plurality of layers of a dry film photoresist matenal 299 The sensor aπay of claim 291, wherem an inner surface of the first cavity is coated with a reflective mateπal 300 The sensor aπay of claim 291, further compnsmg a detector coupled to the bottom surface of the supporting member, wherem the detector is positioned below the first cavity 301 The sensor aπay of claun 291 , further compnsmg a plurality of additional particles positioned withm a plurality of additional cavities formed m the supporting member, and wherem the second cavity is coupled to the additional cavities such that the reagent may be transfeπed from the second particle to the additional cavities durmg use 302 The sensor aπay of claim 291 , wherem the first and second pumps comprise a diaphragm pump 303 The sensor aπay of claim 291, wherem the first and second pumps comprise an electrode pump 304 The sensor aπay of claim 291, wherem the first pump compnses a diaphragm pump or an electrode pump and wherem the second pump compnses a diaphragm pump or an electrode pump. 305 The sensor aπay of claun 291, wherem the first cavity is substantiaUy tapered such that the width of the first cavity narrows m a direction from a top surface of the supporting member toward a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherem a mmimum width of the first cavity is substantiaUy less than a width of the first particle, and wherem the second cavity is substantiaUy tapered such that the width of the second cavity naπows m a duection from a top surface of the supporting member toward a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherem a minimum width of the second cavity is substantially less than a width of the second particle 306 The sensor aπay of claun 291, wherem a width of a bottom portion of the first cavity is substantially less than a width of a top portion of the first cavity, and wherem the width of the bottom portion of the first cavity is substantially less than a width of the first particle, and wherem a width of a bottom portion of the second cavity is substantially less than a width of a top portion of the second cavity, and wherem the width of the bottom portion of the second cavity is substantiaUy less than a width of the second particle 307 The sensor aπay of claim 291, further compnsmg a reservoir coupled to the second pump, the reservoir configured to hold the decouplmg solution 308. A system for detectmg an analyte m a fluid compnsmg. a light source; a sensor aπay, the sensor aπay compnsmg: a supporting member; wherem a first cavity and a second cavity are formed withm the supporting member, a first particle positioned withm the first cavity; a second particle positioned withm the second cavity, wherem the second particle compnses a reagent, wherem a portion of the reagent is removable from the second particle when contacted with a decouplmg solution, and wherem the reagent is configured to modify the first particle, when the reagent is contacted with the first particle, such that the first particle will produce a signal when the first particle interacts with the analyte durmg use; a first pump coupled to the supporting member, wherem the pump is configured to direct the fluid towards the first cavity; a second pump coupled to the supporting member, wherem the second pump is configured to direct the decouplmg solution towards the second cavity; wherem a first channel is formed m the supporting member, the first channel couplmg the first pump to the first cavity such that the fluid flows through the first channel to the first cavity durmg use, and wherem a second channel is formed m the supporting member, the second channel couplmg the second cavity to the first cavity such that the decouplmg solution flows from the second cavity through the second channel to the first cavity durmg use; and a detector, the detector bemg configured to detect the signal produced by the mteraction of the analyte with the particle durmg use; wherem the light source and detector are positioned such that light passes from the hght source, to the particle, and onto the detector durmg use. 309 The system of claim 308, wherem the sensor aπay further compnses a plurahty of additional particles positioned withm a plurality of additional cavities, and wherem the system is configured to substantially simultaneously detect a plurahty of analytes m the fluid, and wherem the second cavity is coupled to the additional cavities such that the reagent may be transfeπed from the second particle to the additional cavities durmg use. 310. The system of claun 308, wherem the light source compnses a light emitting diode 311 The system of claim 308, wherem the light source compnses a red light emitting diode, a blue light emitting diode, and a green light emitting diode. 312. The system of claim 308, wherem the light source compnses a white light source. 313 The system of claim 308, wherem the first particle compnses a receptor molecule coupled to a first polymeπc resm, and wherem the second particle compnses an mdicator molecule coupled to a second polymenc resm. 314 The system of claun 308, wherem the first particle compπses an mdicator molecule coupled to a first polymeric resm, and the second particle compπses a receptor molecule coupled to a second polymenc resm 315. The system of claim 308, wherem the first particle compnses a first polymenc resm configured to bmd to the receptor molecule, and wherem the second particle compnses the receptor molecule coupled to a second polymeπc resm. 316 The system of claim 308, wherem the supporting member compπses a plastic matenal 317. The system of claim 308, wherem the supporting member compnses a sihcon wafer. 318 The system of claim 308, wherem the supporting member compnses a dry film photoresist matenal. 319. The system of claim 308, wherem the supporting member compnses a plurality of layers of a dry film photoresist matenal. 320. The system of claun 308, wherem an inner surface of the first cavity is coated with a reflective matenal. 321 The system of claun 308, wherem the first and second pumps compnse a diaphragm pump 322 The system of claim 308, wherem the first and second pumps compnse an electrode pump. 323 The system of claim 308, wherem the first pump compnses a diaphragm pump or an electrode pump and wherem the second pump compnses a diaphragm pump or an electrode pump. 324. The system of claim 308, wherem the first cavity is substantially tapered such that the width of the first cavity naπows m a direction from a top surface of the supporting member toward a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherem a minimum width of the first cavity is substantially less than a width of the first particle, and wherem the second cavity is substantiaUy tapered such that the width of the second cavity naπows m a dnection from a top surface of the supporting member toward a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherem a mmimum width of the second cavity is substantiaUy less than a width of the second particle. 325. The system of claun 308, wherem a width of a bottom portion of the first cavity is substantially less than a width of a top portion of the first cavity, and wherein the width of the bottom portion of the first cavity is substantially less than a width of the first particle, and wherein a width of a bottom portion of the second cavity is substantially less than a width of a top portion of the second cavity, and wherein the width of the bottom portion of the second cavity is substantiaUy less than a width of the second particle. 326. The system of claim 308, wherein the sensor aπay further comprises a reservoir coupled to the second pump, the reservoir configured to hold the decoupling solution. 327. The system of claim 308, wherein the analyte comprises bacteria, and wherein the first particle is configured to produce the signal in the presence of the bacteria. 328. A method for forming a sensor array configured to detect an analyte in a fluid, comprising: forming a cavity in a supporting member, wherein the cavity is configured to allow the fluid to pass through the supporting member; placing a particle in the cavity, wherein the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle interacts with the analyte; and placing a cover upon a portion of the supporting member, wherein the cover is configured to inhibit dislodgment of the particle from the cavity. 329. The method of claim 328, further comprising forming a substantially transparent layer upon a bottom surface of the supporting member below the cavity, wherein the bottom layer is configured to inhibit the displacement of the particle from the cavity while allowing the fluid to pass through the supporting member. 330. The method of claim 328, further comprising forming an optical detector upon a bottom surface of the supporting member below the cavity. 331. The system of claim 328, wherein a width of a bottom portion of the cavity is substantially less than a width of a top portion of the cavity, and wherein the width of the bottom portion of the cavity is substantially less than a width of the particle. 332. The method of claim 328, further comprising forming channels in the supporting member wherein the channels are configured to allow the fluid to pass through the supporting member to and from the cavity. 333. The method of claim 328, further comprising forming a pump on the supporting member, the pump being configured to pump the fluid to the cavity. 334. The method of claim 328, further comprising forming additional cavities in the supporting member and further comprising placing additional particles in the additional cavities. 335. The method of claim 328, further comprising forming a cover, wherein forming the cover comprises: forming a removable layer upon the upper surface of the supporting member, forming a cover upon the removable layer; forming support structures upon the supporting member, the support structures covering a portion of the cover; and dissolving the removable layer. 336. The method of claim 335, wherein the cover layer is formed prior to forming the cavity. 337. The method of claim 335, wherein forming the cover further comprises forming openings in the cover, wherein the openings are substantiaUy aligned with the cavity. 338. The method of claim 328, wherein the particles are placed in the cavities using a micromanipulator. 339. The method of claim 328, further comprising forming additional cavities within the supporting member, and further comprising placing additional particles in the additional cavities, wherein placing the additional particles in the additional cavities comprises: placing a first masking layer on the supporting member, wherein the first masking layer covers a first portion of the additional cavities such that passage of a particle into the first portion of the additional cavities is inhibited, and wherein the first masking layer a second portion of the cavities substantiaUy unmasked,; placing the additional particles on the supporting member; and moving the additional particles across the supporting member such that the particles fall into the second portion of the cavities. 340. The method of claim 339, further comprising: removing the first masking layer; placing a second masking layer upon the supporting member, wherein the second masking layer covers the second portion of the cavities and a portion of the first portion of the cavities while leaving a third portion of the cavities unmasked; placing additional particles on the supporting member; and moving the additional particles across the supporting member such that the particle fall into the third portion of the cavities. 341. The method of claim 328, wherein forming the cover comprises coupling the cover to the supporting member at a distance above the supporting member substantially less than a width of the particle. 342. The method of claim 328, wherein the supporting member comprises a sihcon wafer. 343. The method of claim 342, wherein forming the cavity comprises amsotropicaUy etching the silicon wafer. 344. The method of claim 342, wherein forming the cavity comprises anisotropicaϋy etching the silicon wafer such that the width of the cavity naπows in a direction from a top surface of the supporting member toward a bottom surface of the supporting member, and wherein a minimum width of the cavity is substantially less than a width of the particle. 345. The method of claim 328, wherein the supporting member comprises a dry film photoresist material. 346. The method of claim 328, wherein the supporting member comprises a plurahty of layers of a dry film photoresist material. 347. The method of claim 346, wherein forming the cavity comprises: etching a first opening through a first dry film photoresist layer, the first opening having a width substantially less than a width of the particle; placing a second dry film photoresist layer upon the first dry film photoresist layer; etching a second opening through the second dry film photoresist layer, the second opening being substantially aligned with the first opening, wherein a width of the second opening is substantiaUy greater than the width of the first opening. 348. The method of claim 347, wherein the second dry film photoresist layer comprises a thickness substantially greater than a width of the particle. 349. The method of claim 345, further comprising forming a reflective layer upon the inner surface of the cavity. 350. The method of claim 328, wherein the supporting material comprises a plastic material. 351. The method of claim 350, wherein the cavity is formed by drilling the supporting material. 352. The method of claim 350, wherein the cavity is formed by transfer molding the supporting member. 353. The method of claim 350, wherein the cavity is formed by a punching device. 354. A sensor aπay produced by the method of claim 328. 355. A sensor aπay produced by the method of claim 342. 356. A sensor aπay produced by the method of claim 345. 357 A sensor aπay produced by the method of claim 346 358. A sensor aπay produce by the method of claim 350. 359. A method of sensmg an analyte m a fluid compnsmg: passmg a fluid over a sensor array, the sensor array compnsmg at least one particle positioned withm a cavity of a supporting member, wherem the cavity is configured such that the fluid entering the cavity passes through the supportmg member; momtormg a specttoscopic change of the particle as the flmd is passed over the sensor aπay, wherem the specttoscopic change is caused by the mteraction of the analyte with the particle 360. The method of claim 359, wherem the spectroscopic change compπses a change m absorbance of the particle. 361. The method of claim 359, wherem the spectroscopic change compnses a change m fluorescence of the particle. 362. The method of claim 359, wherem the spectroscopic change compπses a change m phosphorescence of the particle. 363. The method of claim 359, wherem the analyte is a proton atom, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced when the pH of the fluid is vaned, and wherem momtormg the spectroscopic change of the particle allows the pH of the fluid to be determined. 364. The method of claim 359, wherem the analyte is a metal cation, and wherem the specttoscopic change is produced m response to the presence of the metal cation m the flmd. 365. The method of claim 359, wherem the analyte is an anion, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced in response to the presence of the amon m the fluid. 366. The method of claim 359, wherem the analyte is a DNA molecule, and wherem the spectroscopic change is produced m response to the presence of the DNA molecule m the fluid. 367. The method of claim 359, wherem the analyte is a protem, and wherem the specttoscopic change is produced m response to the presence of the protem m the flmd. 368. The method of claim 359, wherein the analyte is a metabolite, and wherein the specttoscopic change is produced in response to the presence of the metabolite in the fluid. 369. The method of claim 359, wherein the analyte is a sugar, and wherein the spectroscopic change is produced in response to the presence of the sugar in the fluid. 370. The method of claim 359, wherein the analyte is a bacteria, and wherein the specttoscopic change is produced in response to the presence of the bacteria in the fluid. 371. The method of claim 359, wherein the particle comprises a receptor coupled to a polymeric resin, and further comprising exposing the particle to an indicator prior to passing the fluid over the sensor array. 372. The method of claim 371, wherein a binding strength of the indicator to the receptor is less than a binding strength of the analyte to the receptor. 373. The method of claim 371, wherein the indicator is a fluorescent indicator. 374. The method of claim 359, further comprising treating the fluid with an indicator prior to passing the fluid over the sensor aπay, wherein the indicator is configured to couple with the analyte. 375. The method of claim 359, wherein the analyte is bacteria and further comprising breaking down the bacteria prior to passing the fluid over the sensor aπay. 376. The method of claim 359, wherein monitoring the spectroscopic change is performed with a CCD device. 377. The method of claim 359, further comprising measuring the intensity of the spectroscopic change, and further comprising calculating the concentration of the analyte based on the intensity of the specttoscopic change. 378. The method of claim 359, wherein monitoring the specttoscopic change comprises: directing a red light source at the particle; detecting the absorbance of red light by the particle; directing a green light source at the particle; detecting the absorbance of green light by the particle; directing a blue light source at the particle; and detecting the absorbance of blue light by the particle. 379 A sensor aπay for detecting an analyte m a fluid compnsmg' at least one particle coupled to a supporting member, wherem the panicle is configured to produce a signal when the particle interacts with the analyte. 380. The sensor aπay of claun 379, wherem the particle is coupled to the supporting member with via an adhesive mateπal. 381. The sensor aπay of claun 379, wherem the particle are coupled to the supportmg member via a gel matenal. 382. The sensor aπay of claun 379, wherem the particle is suspended m a gel mateπal, the gel mateπal covering a portion of the supporting member, and wherem a portion of the particle extends from the upper surface of the gel. 383. The sensor aπay of claim 379, further compnsmg a cover positioned above the particle. 384. The sensor aπay of claim 379, further comprising a cover coupled to the supporting member, positioned above the particle, wherem a force exerted by the cover on the particle inhibits the displacement of the particle from the supporting member. 385. The sensor array of claun 379, wherem the particle compπses a receptor molecule coupled to a polymeπc resm. 386. The sensor aπay of claun 379, wherem the supporting member compπses a plastic mateπal. 387. The sensor aπay of claun 379, wherem the supporting member compnses a dry film photoresist matenal. 388. The sensor aπay of claim 379, wherem the supporting member compπses a plurality of layers of a dry film photoresist mateπal. 389. The sensor aπay of claim 379, wherem the supporting member compπses glass. 390. The sensor aπay of claun 379, further compnsmg a detector coupled to the bottom surface of the supporting member, wherem the detector is positioned below the particle. 391. The sensor aπay of claim 379, further compnsmg a plurality of particles coupled to the supporting member. 392. The sensor aπay of claim 379, wherein the supporting member is composed of a material substantiaUy transparent to visible light. 393. The sensor aπay of claim 379, wherein the supporting member is composed of a material substantially transparent to ultraviolet light. 394. A system for detecting an analyte in a fluid comprising: a light source; a sensor aπay, the sensor aπay comprising at least one particle coupled to a supporting member, wherein the particle is configured to produce a signal when the particle interacts with the analyte, and wherein the supporting member is substantiaUy ttansparent to a portion of hght produced by the light source; and a detector configured to detect the signal produced by the interaction of the analyte with the particle; wherein the light source and detector are positioned such that hght passes from the hght source, to the particle, and onto the detector during use. 395. The system of claim 394, wherein the system comprises a plurality of additional particles coupled to the supporting member, and wherein the system is configured to substantiaUy simultaneously detect a plurality of analytes in the fluid. 396. The system of claim 394, wherein the hght source comprises a hght emitting diode. 397. The system of claim 394, wherein the light source comprises a red light emitting diode, a blue light emitting diode, and a green light emitting diode. 398. The system of claim 394, wherein the light source comprises a white light source. 399. The system of claim 394, wherem the particle is coupled to the supporting member with via an adhesive material. 400. The system of claim 394, wherein the particle are coupled to the supporting member via a gel material. 401. The system of claim 394, wherein the particle is suspended in a gel material, the gel material covering a portion of the supporting member, and wherein a portion of the particle extends from the upper surface of the gel. 402. The system of claim 394, wherein the sensor aπay further comprises a cover positioned above the particle. 403. The system of claim 394, wherein the sensor array further comprises a cover coupled to the supporting member, positioned above the particle, wherein a force exerted by the cover on the particle inhibits the displacement of the particle from the supporting member. 404. The system of claim 394, wherein the particle comprises a receptor molecule coupled to a polymeric resin. 405. The system of claim 394, wherein the supporting member comprises a plastic material. 406. The system of claim 394, wherein the supporting member comprises a dry film photoresist material. 407. The system of claim 394, wherein the supporting member comprises a plurality of layers of a dry film photoresist material. 408. The system of claim 394, wherein the supporting member comprises glass. 409. The system of claim 394, wherein the supporting member is composed of a material substantially transparent to ultraviolet light. 410. The system of claim 394, wherein the detector comprises a charge-coupled device. 411. The system of claim 394, wherein the particle comprises a receptor molecule coupled to a polymeric resin. 412. The system of claim 394, wherein the system comprises a plurality of particles coupled to the supporting member, and wherein the plurahty of particles produce a detectable pattern in the presence of the analyte.

Inventors: ANSLYN ERIC V, MCDEVITT JOHN T, NEIKIRK DEAN P, SHEAR JASON B, ANSLYN, ERIC, V., MCDEVITT, JOHN, T., NEIKIRK, DEAN, P., SHEAR, JASON, B.
Applicants: UNIV TEXAS, THE BOARD OF REGENTS, THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SYSTEM
Application year: 1999
Main classification: G01N21
IPC codes: C40B60, G01N21