GAMMA NiOOH NICKEL ELECTRODES

Abstract: Nickel-based battery electrodes comprise, when charged, stably cyclable gamma-nickel oxyhydroxide, and processes for the preparation of such electrodes that do not require expensive stabilising materials extraneous to the traditional electrode formation process.

Description: GAMMA NiOOH NICKEL ELECTRODES The present invention relates to Ni(OH)2-containing electrochemical cells, electrodes therefor and methods for their manufacture. Nickel-based electrodes are commonly used in rechargeable electrochemical cells. For example, nickel hydroxide particles, Ni(OH) 2 , usually constitute the positive electrode in both nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride cells. Ni(OH)2 is the material of choice for positive electrodes in both types of cells because it can offer high energy density as well as good rate capability, desirable properties in today's battery market. High energy density can be obtained through use of pasted electrodes in which a paste comprising high density spherical Ni(OH) 2 particles is applied to a foam substrate; high rate performance is typically obtained by using sintered Ni(OH) 2 electrodes. The crystal structure of Ni(OH) 2 is characterised by a hexagonal unit cell with a layered structure comprising one nickel, two oxygen, and two hydrogen atoms per cell, as illustrated in Figure 1. This "β-Ni(OH) 2 " layered, or lamellar, structure effectively consists of a system of lamellar plates comprising an arrangement of nickel and oxygen atoms. When the typical β-Ni(OH) 2 electrode is charged, the positive electrode is oxidised and the Ni(II) of β-Ni(OH) 2 releases one electron to become Ni(III) and form beta nickel oxyhydroxide, β-NiOOH. In β -NiOOH, the lamellar plates of the crystal become slightly displaced away from each other, changing the volume of the unit cell. Upon discharge, the positive electrode is reduced, the Ni(III) of β-NiOOH accepting one electron to convert back to Ni(II) and form β-Ni(OH) 2 , whereby the plates return to their initial positions. Because it is desirable to increase cell capacity, a number of approaches have been tried to facilitate or enhance electron-transfer in the positive electrode. One such method, described in US-A-5, 569,562, to Glemser et al. , involves the incorporation of Mn(III) into the positive material in order to facilitate complete discharge thereof by increasing the efficiency of the one-electron Ni(III) <→ Ni(II) conversion. US-A-5,569,563, to Ovshinsky et al. , employs carbon in the positive material, in a similar manner, to facilitate electron transfer. Another approach has been to increase the degree of electron exchange, to above one electron per nickel atom, by providing higher-oxidation state materials within the positive electrode. Such materials include γ-NiOOH, a material comprising both Ni(III) and Ni(IV), e.g. in the form of species including nickelate, (NiO 2 ) 3 " , in which the nickel atoms have fractional formal valences, such as 3 2 / 3 . Another such positive electrode material comprises regions of stable α-Ni(OH) 2 which convert to γ-NiOOH upon charging. In contrast to the single-electron Ni(III) <→ Ni(II) conversion of β-NiOOH to β-Ni(OH) 2 , the presence of γ-NiOOH within the charged electrode can increase the electron exchange to above 1 electron per nickel atom, through the participation of Ni(IV). Thus, in charged nickel electrodes containing γ-NiOOH, both Ni(III) and Ni(IV) are converted to Ni(II) upon discharge, thereby increasing the degree of electron exchange. However, the problem with these constructs is that more and more γ-NiOOH is formed during the life of the cell. When γ-NiOOH is formed, the lamellar plates of the crystal become significantly displaced away from each other, greatly expanding the crystal unit volume. Figure 2 illustrates the differences in crystal structure among β-Ni(OH) 2 , β-NiOOH, and γ-NiOOH. This expansion, which occurs by formation of γ-NiOOH on overcharge of the cell, cracks the crystals into smaller particles and greatly increases the total internal surface area and the porosity of the positive electrode. The greater surface area results in the creation of dry areas in the separator. Continued (over)charging results in greater and greater damage to the electrode structure. These dry areas are susceptible to oxidation which leads to the generation of gases within the cell and, overall, to variation in the electrode match. These effects cause cells to fail or radically shorten their life. Thus, γ-NiOOH formation is considered undesirable, even in the presence of excess electrolyte, since the accumulation of γ-NiOOH resulting from repeated overcharging-discharging would cause speedy disintegration of the electrode material, regardless of the environment surrounding the electrode. In response to these problems, manufacturers of rechargeable batteries regularly use Ni(OH) 2 which has been produced by co-precipitation with anti-γ additives, such as cadmium and/or zinc metals or compounds. The additives interfere with γ-NiOOH formation, apparently by occupying the spaces between lamellar plates of the β crystal structures and interacting with the plates to prevent their extensive displacement to the γ structure. Without the anti-γ additives, residual charge remaining in the positive after incomplete discharge would accumulate, ultimately converting the β-NiOOH to γ-NiOOH as depicted in Figure 2. The following series of reactions illustrates the charge-discharge cycle relationships between the various forms of Ni(OH) 2 and NiOOH. β-Uncharged → Charged - Overcharged β-NiOOH <— Normal γ Charging Route β-Ni(OH) 2 < γ-NiOOH <— Major γ Discharging Route α-Ni(OH) 2 — Minor γ Discharging Route & Alternate γ Recharging Route α-Uncharged <→ Charged As shown, the most stable structure is the uncharged form, β-Ni(OH) 2 . With normal charging, β-Ni(OH) 2 , an Ni(II) form, converts to β-NiOOH, an Ni(III) form. In the traditional nickel electrode, this form is reduced back to β-Ni(OH)2 upon discharge. If instead, β-NiOOH is further charged, i.e. "overcharged," it converts to γ-NiOOH, which contains Ni(IV). When γ-NiOOH is discharged, it mainly reverts directly to β-Ni(OH>2, although a small percent may convert first to the unstable intermediate, α-Ni(OH)2. The previously suggested methods of solving the above-noted problems with the use of γ-NiOOH, or α-Ni(OH) 2 , involve incorporating relatively high concentrations of various metals, metal hydrides, oxides, and alloys in Ni(OH) 2 . For example US-A-5,384,822 and US-A-5,567,549, to Ovshinsky et al., describe the incorporation of compositional modifiers to create stable regions of γ-NiOOH and/or α-Ni(OH)2 within the positive. However, such methods require extra processing steps as well as the use of additional metals, such as caesium and cobalt, increasing the cost needed both to make positives containing regions of these higher oxidation state phases, and to manufacture cells therefrom. Moreover, these stable- region methods fail to maximise the formation of γ-NiOOH and present an inherent limit on the possible improvement in cell electrical capacity. There remains a desire to increase the electron transfer capacity in nickel hydroxide containing cells, without the problems identified above. It has now, surprisingly, been found that it is possible to provide such a cell by a protocol of overcharging that converts Ni(OH)2 to γ-NiOOH prior to the first discharge by the end user of the cell. The cell begins its useful life at a higher capacity than cells which increase in capacity with cycling from use. Thus, in a first aspect, the present invention provides an electrochemical cell comprising a nickel hydroxide electrode, characterised in that a portion of nickel hydroxide therein has been converted into γ-NiOOH, at least once prior to the first discharge by the end user by charging said electrode to a potential of at least .5V relative to Hg/HgO, and to a charge input level of at least about 125% of single electron capacity and maintaining said electrode at said potential and charge input level for at least about 15 minutes. The present invention further provides a method for the preparation of such a cell, comprising overcharging the nickel hydroxide under conditions sufficient to lead to the production of γ-NiOOH, and repeating said overcharging, if required. Thus, nickel-based electrodes of the present invention usefully comprise, upon charging, stably cyclable gamma-nickel oxy hydroxide. Preferred electrodes, and cells containing them, are those comprising: stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; β-NiOOH comprising stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; and/or β-Ni(OH>2 of which at least a portion has been converted, at least once, to stably cyclable γ-NiOOH. Also preferred are materials including: stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; β-NiOOH comprising stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; and β-Ni(OH>2 of which at least a portion has been converted, at least once, to stably cyclable γ-NiOOH. Methods for producing these materials are provided herein. The present invention further provides methods for forming electrodes which comprise, upon charging, stably cyclable gamma-nickel oxyhydroxide, which methods do not require the addition of stabilising materials extraneous to the traditional electrode formation process. Preferably, such methods do not require a significant increase in materials input or cost. Electrodes containing γ-NiOOH formed according to the methods of the preferred embodiments contain γ-NiOOH which is stably cyclable, and these electrodes may be repeatedly charged and discharged while utilising the higher capacity of the γ-NiOOH, even without the use of extraneous materials. The phrase "stably cyclable" indicates that γ-NiOOH is reliably formed in each charging cycle, preferably for at least about 150 cycles, whether such γ-NiOOH in a given electrode represents a relatively unchanging fraction (on average) of the available nickel species, or a fraction thereof that increases with each charging cycle; if it represents a growing fraction, then the size of this fraction ultimately stabilises in an average amount not exceeding 100 mole% of the available nickel species. Therefore, within the scope of the present invention are materials, among which are: stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; β-NiOOH comprising stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; and β-Ni(OH) 2 comprising β-Ni(OH)2 which has been converted, at least once, to stably cyclable γ-NiOOH. Preferably, the β-Ni(OH>2 material is suitable for use in an electrode of an electrochemical cell. More preferably the β-Ni(OH) 2 material comprises β-Ni(OH)2 of which at least about 5 % has been converted, at least once, to stably cyclable γ-NiOOH, even more preferably at least about 10% , still more preferably at least about 15% , yet more preferably at least about 20%, more preferably still at least about 25%, further preferably at least about 50%, even further preferably at least about 75%, yet further preferably at least about 90% , still further preferably at least about 95%, even further preferably still at least about 98%, and most preferably about 100% of which has been converted, at least once, to stably cyclable γ-NiOOH. Also within the scope of the present invention are electrodes comprising one or more of these materials and cells comprising such electrodes. Electrode materials of the present invention may be prepared by the use of novel, defined sequences of charging and overcharging steps. These first convert nearly all of the β-Ni(OH) 2 to β-NiOOH, followed by converting β-NiOOH to γ-NiOOH, thereby to achieve anywhere from about 5% to in excess of 95% stably cyclable γ-NiOOH formation. This results in the formation of stably cyclable γ-NiOOH without any need to use materials extraneous to traditional Ni(OH) 2 manufacture. This has two advantages. The first is that it permits formation of much higher concentrations of γ-NiOOH than those concentrations causing failure of cells containing traditional Ni(OH) 2 -based positive electrodes. The second is that formation of γ-NiOOH during charging is no longer a problem, as the disruption to the structure of the electrode material has already happened, so that areas do not become more porous, and dry out. It is a further advantage of the processes of the present invention that it is possible to convert substantially all of the electrode material into γ-NiOOH in a single process, thereby ensuring that effectively no γ-NiOOH is formed during the life of the cell which had not already been formed before, so preventing further disruption of the electrode structure. These methods may be practised on free sintered or foam electrodes, which have not yet been incorporated into cells, as well as on in-cell electrodes. These methods may also be practised on free β-Ni(OH) 2 itself, t.e. β-Ni(OH) 2 that is not part of an electrode. It will be appreciated that there is no specific order for obtaining the cells and/or electrode materials of the present invention. All that is required is for a substantial proportion of the nickel hydroxide of the electrode material that would, at some time during the lifetime of the cell be expected to form γ-NiOOH, to have already formed γ-NiOOH, prior to substantial use. Preferably, the electrode is subjected to the overcharge regimen after the cell has been assembled and prior to the initial discharge by the end user. Cell design will dictate the appropriate amount of electrolyte to incorporate into the cell prior to application of the overcharging protocol. In a preferred embodiment, the nickel-based electrodes of the present invention comprise (upon charging) stably cyclable gamma-nickel oxyhydroxide. Preferred electrodes comprise: stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; and/or β-NiOOH comprising stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; and/or β-Ni(OH) 2 of which at least a portion has been converted, at least once, to stably cyclable γ-NiOOH. The preferred methods of the present invention employ defined sequences of charging steps to preferably convert at least about 5%, and more preferably up to about 100% , of β-Ni(OH)2 to γ-NiOOH, where the γ-NiOOH is stably cyclable. These methods may be practised on either "free", by which is meant not yet incorporated into cells, or on in-cell sintered nickel positive electrodes, or on the more flexible foam electrodes, whether free or in-cell, or on β-Ni(OH)2 which is not yet part of an electrode. In a preferred method for forming an electrode of the present invention, a Ni(OH) 2 electrode is overcharged, relative to its single-electron capacity, to effect conversion of Ni(OH) 2 to γ-NiOOH. This is preferably accomplished via one of two routes. In a first preferred method, the conversion of Ni(OH) 2 to γ-NiOOH is effected by a preferably identically repeated overcharge-discharge step. The electrode is preferably overcharged both to a potential of at least about 0.5 volts relative to a Hg/HgO reference electrode ("Hg/HgO"), more preferably at least about 0.55V relative to Hg/HgO, generally to at least about 125% of the electrode's single-electron capacity, preferably to at least about 150%, more preferably to at least about 200%, with at least about 300% being even more preferred. The electrode is then held in this highly charged state for a period of time, preferably for at least about 15 minutes, more preferably for at least about 30 minutes, and still more preferably for at least about 60 minutes. After this time, the electrode is allowed to discharge to a potential of about 0 volts relative to Hg/HgO. It is preferred that this charging step be repeated. Thus, there is provided a method of producing a positive electrode which will contain, upon charging, stably cyclable γ-NiOOH, comprising the steps of: providing a Ni(OH) 2 electrode, charging the electrode both to a potential of at least about 0.5V, relative to Hg/HgO, and to a charge input level of at least about 125% of single electron capacity, and maintaining the electrode at the potential and charge input level for at least about 15 minutes, discharging the electrode to a potential of about 0V, relative to Hg/HgO, and repeating the charging and discharging steps as a cycle in order at least two more times for a total of at least three complete cycles. In particular, it is preferred to repeat the charge-discharge procedure for a total of at least three cycles, more preferably at least 7 cycles, with at least 11 cycles being particularly preferred. In this process, 20, 50, 100, and even hundreds of cycles may be employed, the only limitation being that of the available time. This ensures a maximum of the electrode material has formed γ-NiOOH at least once. Accordingly, as a result of these charge-discharge cycles, at least about 5 mole% of the Ni(OH)2 is converted to γ-NiOOH. It is generally preferred that this level is at least about 7%, with 10% being more preferred, at least about 25% being still more preferred, and, respectively, at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 90% , and at least about 95% being even more preferred, about 100% being the most preferred. Any β-Ni(OH)2 electrode may be used in this process. Preferred electrodes include foam electrodes and sintered electrodes, either free or in-cell. In a particularly preferred embodiment, this method is practised on a free sintered Ni(OH)2 electrode and the overcharge potential is maintained for at least about 60 minutes in at least eleven charge-discharge cycles. Sintered nickel electrodes may be produced by such methods as are known in the art. A preferred method of preparing a sintered nickel electrode comprises providing a conductive metal sintered plaque substrate and putting the substrate through at least one impregnation-cleaning series. The impregnation-cleaning series involves impregnating the substrate with Ni(OH)2 by means of a loading-conversion cycle, followed by electrochemically cleaning of the impregnated substrate. Preferably, at least about two cycles of impregnation are employed, more preferably a total of about three to about ten cycles, and yet more preferably about five to about seven cycles. In an especially preferred embodiment, the substrate undergoes three cycles of impregnation, one cycle of electrochemical cleaning, then another three cycles of impregnation, followed by another cycle of electrochemical cleaning. Each impregnation cycle typically comprises at least two steps. In a first, loading step, the substrate is loaded by dipping it in an acidic preparation, which is typically a solution but which may also be a suspension, for example, comprising a nickel salt, preferably Ni(NO 3 )2. This preparation may also comprise one or more other metal compounds, such as cadmium compounds, cobalt compounds, copper compounds, bismuth compounds, indium compounds, magnesium compounds, manganese compounds, vanadium compounds, yttrium compounds, zinc compounds, or other nickel compounds. Suitable examples are metal nitrates, such as Cd(NO 3 ) 2 and/or Co(NO 3 ) 2 . To render the solution acidic, any acid may be employed, although sulphuric, acetic, and/or nitric acid are preferred. More preferred is nitric acid. In a second, conversion step, performed after the loading step, the substrate- borne Ni(NO 3 )2 is converted to Ni(OH) 2 by dipping in a solution comprising at least one caustic base, most preferably NaOH, although, for example, KOH and/or LiOH, or mixtures thereof with NaOH, are also preferred. These two steps are not exclusive of others, as one or more of the impregnation cycles may also comprise further steps wherein, e.g., other metal(s) or metal compound(s) are incorporated into or upon the surface of the Ni(OH)2. After at least 1 impregnation cycle has been completed, the Ni(OH)2- impregnated substrate is electrochemically cleaned in a solution comprising at least one caustic base, most preferably NaOH, although, as above, other bases, such as KOH and/or LiOH, or mixtures thereof with NaOH are also preferred. While the impregnated plaque is immersed in this solution, a charge is applied thereto, which is typically about 60% of capacity, as based on a single-electron exchange, given the mass of Ni(OH)2 thereon, i.e. 60% of "single electron capacity" . However, other charge levels, including zero charge, may also be used. After cleaning, the impregnated substrate may then be incorporated into a cell as the positive electrode, according to any procedures such as are known in the art. In a second preferred method, the conversion of Ni(OH)2 to γ-NiOOH takes place in two stages. In the first stage, substantially all the Ni(OH) 2 is converted to β-NiOOH; in the second stage, β-NiOOH is converted to γ-NiOOH. In this method, a Ni(OH)2 electrode is charged to full, theoretical single-electron capacity at a moderate rate of charge of about C to about C/5. Then, the electrode is overcharged preferably to at least about 125% of full, theoretical, single-electron capacity at a generally slower rate of charge of about C/5 to about C/10. The overcharge is more preferably to at least about 150% of single electron capacity, yet more preferably to at least about 200%, and still more preferably to at least about 300% . Thus, there is further provided a method of producing a positive electrode which will, upon charging, contain stably cyclable γ-NiOOH, comprising the steps of: providing a Ni(OH) 2 electrode, charging the electrode to at least about 100% of its single-electron capacity at a rate of about C to about C/5, and overcharging the electrode to at least about 125 % of its single electron capacity at a rate of about C/5 to about C/10. These two steps may be preceded by an initial, pre-charging step comprising charging the electrode for an extended time period of at least about 2 hours, more preferably at least about 5 hours. A preferred rate for this pre-charging step is about 1/20 to about 1/100 of C, more preferably about 1/50 of C. It is most preferred, if used, for the pre-charging step to be applied for long enough to charge the electrode to single electron capacity. Use of a pre-charging step is especially preferred when the electrode contains a conductive additive, such a cobalt-based additive. The electrode is then discharged prior to carrying out the charging step. In one preferred embodiment, the above steps, including the pre-charging step, are applied only once to the electrode. However, the charging and overcharging steps are preferably repeated in order as a cycle, optionally including the pre-charging step before the charging cycle. When these steps are cycled, preferably a total of at least two cycles, more preferably of at least 10 cycles and, still more preferably, of at least 20 cycles, is performed. Fifty, 100, or even many more cycles may be employed, subject to similar considerations as for the first preferred method. As a result of this process, preferably at least about 5 mole% of the Ni(OH) 2 is converted to γ-NiOOH. It is generally preferred that this level is at least about 7%, with 10% being more preferred, at least about 25% being still more preferred, and, respectively, at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 90%, and at least about 95% being even more preferred, about 100% being the most preferred. Any β-Ni(OH)2 electrode may be used in this process. Preferred electrodes include foam electrodes and sintered electrodes, either free or in-cell. In an especially preferred embodiment, this method is practised on a foam electrode, either free or in-cell, and the overcharging step comprises charging the electrode to at least about 200% , and more preferably at least about 300% of full, theoretical single-electron capacity. Again, as a result of these two charging steps, at least about 5 mole%, more preferably at least about 7%, and as for the process described above, even more preferably up to about 100% of the Ni(OH)2 is converted to γ-NiOOH. Foam electrodes may be produced by methods such as are known in the art. A preferred method of making a foam electrode comprises pasting a slurry of Ni(OH) 2 particles onto the surface of, and into the pores of, a conductive metal substrate having a foam-type structure or a sponge-like structure, and then drying the paste. Preferably, the Ni(OH) 2 particles are approximately spherical in shape, t.e. their outer surfaces approximate spheres, spheroids, or ellipsoids. Such Ni(OH)2 particles may be obtained from various metals manufacturers including Inco. Ltd. (Toronto, Ont., CAN), Tanaka Chem. Corp. (Osaka, JAP), H. C. Starck (Goslar, DE), and Nichimen Corp. (Tokyo, JAP). In a preferred embodiment, the Ni(OH) 2 particles may also contain co- precipitates such as other metals and/or metal compounds such as cadmium, calcium, cobalt, copper, bismuth, indium, magnesium, manganese, vanadium, yttrium, or zinc metal(s) or compound(s), or nickel metal or other, non-Ni(OH)2 nickel compound(s), or mixtures of any of the aforementioned. Especially preferred co-precipitates include zinc, cadmium, and/or manganese metal(s) or compound(s). Preferred additives for imparting added conductivity to the Ni(OH)2 are selected from among the group consisting of CoO, Co(OH)2, Co(OH) 3 , CoOOH, C0O2, (C0O2) " , (Coθ2)2 " , elemental cobalt, and cobalt alloys; with CoO being especially preferred. Preferably the cobalt-based additive originates as at least one cobalt source added to the Ni(OH) 2 which is selected from elemental cobalt, cobalt alloys, cobalt salts, and other cobalt compounds. In general, the Ni(OH) 2 particles are used to form a slurry comprising these particles along with a solvent, a viscosity increasing agent (such as a binder), and a conductor. A preferred slurry comprises the approximately spherical Ni(OH)2 particles in an aqueous mixture comprising water as the solvent, a hydrophilic binder, and a conductor. The hydrophilic binder will preferably comprise any hydrophilic polymer(s), preferred examples of which include methyl cellulose, hydroxymethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, and mixtures thereof. The conductor is preferably one of the metals and/or metal compounds (or mixtures thereof) mentioned above as useful additives to the Ni(OH)2 particles. A preferred conductor is CoO. After the pasted substrate is dried, it may be incorporated into a cell as its positive electrode, according to any procedures such as are known in the art, such as by: providing a cell housing, an electrolyte, a separator, and a negative electrode; inserting the positive and negative electrodes into the cell housing along with the electrolyte and separator, ensuring that the separator separates the positive from the negative electrode; and then sealing the cell housing. In other preferred embodiments, there are also severally and independently provided: β-Ni(OH)2 material which comprises β-Ni(OH)2 which has been converted, at least once, to stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; The above β-Ni(OH)2 material, wherein the β-Ni(OH) 2 material is suitable for use in an electrode of an electrochemical cell, and wherein at least about 5% of the β-Ni(OH) 2 has been converted, at least once, to stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; Stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; An electrode comprising β-Ni(OH) 2 which has been converted, at least once, to stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; An electrode comprising stably cyclable γ-NiOOH; and Electrochemical cells comprising such electrodes. The present invention will now be illustrated further with respect to the accompanying Examples and drawings, in which: Figure 1 illustrates the unit cell of a typical β-Ni(OH)2 crystal, with its lamellar plate crystal structure; Figure 2 is a Bode's Diagram illustrating the changes in crystal structure that occur as β-Ni(OH)2 converts to β-NiOOH and as β-NiOOH converts to γ-NiOOH; Figure 3 presents an X-ray diffraction analysis of the γ-NiOOH electrode of the present invention; Figure 4 presents a tracing for the charging and discharging processes involved in the traditional β -NiOOH electrode and the γ-NiOOH electrode of the present invention; Figure 5 presents a tracing for the traditional β-NiOOH electrode charging process; Figure 6 presents a discharge curve for the charged, traditional β-NiOOH electrode; Figure 7 presents a tracing for the γ-NiOOH electrode charging process; Figure 8 presents a discharge curve for the charged γ-NiOOH electrode; Figure 9 presents a bar chart of the discharge capacities of various overcharged versions of the stably cyclable γ-NiOOH foam electrodes of the present invention; Figure 10 presents a comparison of the capacities of the traditional β-NiOOH electrode and the 300% overcharged foam γ-NiOOH electrode of the present invention, where both samples were discharged at C rate; and Figure 11 presents a comparison of the capacities of the traditional β-NiOOH electrode and the 300% overcharged foam γ-NiOOH electrode of the present invention, where both samples were discharged at a rate of 1/2 of C. Example 1 Two groups of sintered Ni(OH)2 positive electrodes were produced, as described above, by putting sintered nickel substrates through six impregnation cycles, then one electrochemical cleaning with a charge of about 60% of single electron capacity. Group 1 electrodes were cycled 11 times using a charge- discharge regimen consisting of charging at a voltage scan rate of 0.05 mV/s up to both a constant, non-pulsed potential of 0.5 volts (relative to Hg/HgO, i.e. an Hg/HgO reference electrode) and a total charge of about 200% of single electron capacity. This potential/charge state was maintained for 60 minutes and then the electrodes were discharged to about 0 volts. Group 2 electrodes were put through the same regimen, but for the use of a constant charging voltage of 0.6V. Group 1 and 2 electrodes were analysed, in the fully charged state, by X-ray diffraction to verify the presence of β and/or γ crystal forms. Finally, charged Group 1 and Group 2 electrodes were discharged at a current of 20mA and their discharge curves were recorded. The results are presented in Figures 3-8. The X-ray diffraction analysis presented in Figure 3 shows that the non-substrate nickel content of the sintered NiOOH electrode of the present invention comprises nearly 100% γ-NiOOH. In Figure 4, there are two tracings, one representing the charging and discharging taking place in Group 1 electrodes and one representing that taking place in the Group 2 electrodes (the curves shown in Figures 4-8 were generated in a single electrode which was charged to β -NiOOH and discharged to Ni(OH)2 and then overcharged to γ-NiOOH and discharged to Ni(OH)2; these curves are representative of those obtained for Group 1 and 2 electrodes). The first tracing comprises peaks 1 and 3, connected by a dashed tracing. Figure 5 presents a close- up view of peak 1. Peak 1 marks the voltage at which Ni(OH)2 converts to β-NiOOH and peak 3 marks the discharge transition from β-NiOOH to Ni(OH) 2 . The second tracing comprises the entirely solid tracing constituting peaks 2 and 4. Peak 2 indicates the voltage at which γ-NiOOH forms from β-NiOOH, and peak 4 shows that for the reverse or discharging reaction. Figure 7 presents a close-up view of peak 2. These tracings demonstrate that γ-NiOOH begins forming at slightly above 0.55 volts in contrast to β-NiOOH which completes formation at or slightly below 0.55 volts; also, γ-NiOOH reaches a maximum discharge rate at or slightly above 0.25 volts, a voltage somewhat lower than that for β-NiOOH. These discharge voltages are further confirmed by the discharge curves shown in Figure 6, for β-NiOOH, and Figure 8, for γ-NiOOH. These two figures also serve as a measure of cell capacity: at the constant 20mA discharge current, the β-NiOOH electrode took about 1.9 hours to fully discharge, while the γ-NiOOH electrode took about 2.3 hours. The electrode as prepared according to the methods of the present invention had a 46 mAh capacity, a more than 20% increase in capacity over the 38 mAh β -NiOOH electrode, yet using the same amount of material from the same source. Example 2 Three groups of 4/3A-size cells were prepared using foam Ni(OH) 2 positive electrodes produced, as described above, by pasting a slurry of spherical Ni(OH)2 particles — which were obtained as a co-precipitate containing zinc and cobalt — onto a nickel foam substrate. These cells had single-electron capacity ratings of 2800 milliamp-hours (mAh). Group 1 cells were put through a single charge regimen consisting of charging at a rate of 1/50 of C for 5 hours, then charging at a rate of C/5 for a period of 6 hours, and finally charging at a rate of C/10 until a 150% overcharge was achieved. Group 2 and Group 3 cells were put through the same regimen except that, in the final, C/10 charging step, they were overcharged to 200% and 300%, respectively. Cells were then discharged at a constant current of 2800mA and their discharge capacities were calculated. Results are presented in Figure 9. As shown, the 150% (Group 1) overcharged electrodes had a capacity of over 2900 mAh, those overcharged to 200% (Group 2) had above a 3000 mAh capacity, and those overcharged to 300% (Group 3) had a 3,100 mAh capacity. The Group 3 γ-NiOOH electrodes were further compared with β -NiOOH control electrodes in two tests of discharge capacity over time. In the first test, electrodes were charged and discharged at C rate; in the second test, at 1/2 of C rate. Results are presented in Figures 10 and 11. In both tests, the γ-NiOOH electrodes of the present invention outperformed the β-NiOOH controls. As shown in the figures, the Group 3 electrodes retained a capacity of 3100 mAh for over 90 charge-discharge cycles at C rate, a 250 mAh improvement over the β -NiOOH electrode. Likewise, at 1/2 of C rate, the γ-NiOOH electrodes achieved an approximate 200 mAh improvement over β-NiOOH. Accordingly, it can be seen that electrodes prepared in accordance with the methods of the present invention are able to cycle stably and at higher capacities than conventional β-Ni(OH) 2 cells. It is believed that electrodes formed by the preferred methods contain stably cyclable γ-NiOOH as a result of treatment with such charging regimens. This finding is quite surprising in light of the prevalent understanding in the art that γ-NiOOH formation is undesirable, even in the presence of excess electrolyte, since it was previously believed that accumulation of γ-NiOOH resulting from repeated overcharging-discharging would cause speedy disintegration of the electrode material, regardless of the environment surrounding the electrode. This prevalent understanding explains the prior art attempts to stabilise γ-NiOOH regions using materials extraneous to the traditional electrode formation process. See, e.g. , U.S. 5,384,822 and 5,567,549 to Ovshinsky et al.

Claims: Claims: 1. An electrochemical cell comprising a nickel hydroxide electrode, characterised in that a portion of nickel hydroxide therein has been converted into γ-NiOOH, at least once prior to the initial discharge by the end user by charging said electrode to a potential of at least .5V relative to Hg/HgO, and to a charge input level of at least about 125% of single electron capacity and maintaining said electrode at said potential and charge input level for at least about 15 minutes. 2. A cell according to claim 1 , wherein at least 5 % of the nickel hydroxide has been converted into γ-NiOOH at least once. 3. A cell according to claim 2, wherein at least 50% of the nickel hydroxide has been converted into γ-NiOOH at least once. 4. A cell according to claim 3, wherein at least 95 % of the nickel hydroxide has been converted into γ-NiOOH at least once. 5. A cell according to claim 4, wherein about 100% of the nickel hydroxide has been converted into γ-NiOOH at least once. 6. A method for the preparation of a cell according to any of claims 1 to 5, comprising overcharging the nickel hydroxide under conditions sufficient to lead to the production of γ-NiOOH, and repeating said overcharging, if required. 7. A method of producing a positive electrode which will contain, upon charging, a proportion of γ-NiOOH of at least about 5%, comprising the steps of: providing a Ni(OH)2 electrode, charging the electrode both to a potential of at least about 0.5V, relative to Hg/HgO, and to a charge input level of at least about 125 % of single electron capacity, and maintaining the electrode at the potential and charge input level for at least about 15 minutes, and discharging the electrode to a potential of about 0V, relative to Hg/HgO. 8. A method according to claim 7, wherein, the charging and discharging steps are repeated as a cycle, in order, at least two more times for a total of at least three complete cycles. 9. A method according to claim 7 or 8, wherein the charging step comprises charging the positive electrode both to an overcharge potential of at least about 0.55V, relative to Hg/HgO, and to a charge input level of at least about 150% of single electron capacity, and maintaining the positive electrode at the potential and charge input level for at least about 60 minutes. 10. A method according to any of claims 7 to 9, wherein the charge input level is at least about 200% of single electron capacity. 11. A method according to claim 10, wherein the charge input level is at least about 300 % of single electron capacity . 12. A method of producing a positive electrode which will contain, upon charging, a proportion of γ-NiOOH of at least about 5 % , comprising the steps of: providing a Ni(OH)2 electrode, charging the electrode to at least about 100% of its single-electron capacity at a rate of about C to about C/5, and overcharging the electrode to at least about 125% of its single electron capacity at a rate of about C/5 to about C/10. 13. A method according to claim 12, wherein the charging and overcharging steps are repeated in order, as a cycle, at least one more time for a total of at least two complete cycles. 14. A method according to claim 12 or 13, wherein the step of charging comprises charging the positive electrode to about 100% of its single-electron capacity at a rate of about 1/5 of C, and the step of overcharging comprises charging the positive electrode to at least about 150% of its single electron capacity at a rate of about 1/10 of C. 15. A method according to any of claims 12 to 14, wherein the overcharging step comprises charging the electrode to at least about 200% of its single electron capacity. 16. A method according to claim 15, wherein the overcharging step comprises charging the electrode to at least about 300% of its single electron capacity. 17. A method according to any of claims 12 to 16, wherein the method further comprises a pre-charging step comprising charging the electrode at a rate of about 1/20 of C to about 1/100 of C for at least about 2 hours before the charging step. 18. A method according to claim 17, wherein the pre-charging step is performed for a sufficient time to charge the electrode to about full, single electron capacity. 19. A method according to claim 17 or 18, wherein the pre-charging step comprises charging the electrode at a rate of about 1/50 of C for at least about 5 hours before the charging step. 20. A method according to any of claims 17 to 19, wherein the pre-charging, charging, and overcharging steps are repeated in order, as a cycle, at least one more time for a total of at least two complete cycles. 21. A method according to any of claims 7 to 20, wherein the electrode is already incorporated into the cell. 22. A cell or method according to any preceding claim, wherein the Ni(OH) 2 electrode is a sintered Ni(OH)2 electrode. 23. A cell or method according to any of claims 1 to 21, wherein the Ni(OH)2 electrode is a foam Ni(OH) 2 electrode. 24. An electrode defined, or prepared as defined, in any preceding claim. 25. β-Ni(OH) 2 material which comprises β-Ni(OH)2 which has been converted, at least once, to stably cyclable γ-NiOOH. 26. Stably cyclable γ-NiOOH . 27. An electrode comprising a material according to claim 25 or claim 26. 28. An electrochemical cell comprising an electrode according to Claim 27.

Inventors: SINGH DEEPIKA B, SINGH, DEEPIKA, B.
Applicants: EVEREADY BATTERY INC, EVEREADY BATTERY COMPANY, INC.
Application year: 1998
Main classification: H01M4
IPC codes: H01M4, H01M10