COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR PRODUCTION OF MALE-STERILE PLANTS

Abstract: The present invention provides compositions and methods for production of male-sterile plants by reducing levels of an anther-specific calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase in anthers of a plant. This can be accomplished, for example, by expressing in at least the anthers of a transgenic plant a CCaMK nucleic acid, preferably in antisense orientation.

Description: COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR PRODUCTION OF MALE-STERILE PLANTS Technical Field This invention relates to plant calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases, particularly anther-specific calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases Background of the Invention Calcium and calmodulin regulate diverse cellular processes in plants (Poovaiah and Reddy, CRC Crit Rev Plant Sci 6:47-103, 1987, and CRC Crit Rev Plant Sci 12: 185-21 1, 1993, Roberts and Harmon, Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 43.375-414, 1992, Gilroy and Trewavas, BioEssays 16:677-682, 1994). Transient changes in intracellular Ca 2+ concentration can affect a number of physiological processes through the action of calmodulin (CaM), a ubiquitous Ca 2+ - b ding protem Ca 2 calmoduIin-regulated protein phosphorylation plays a pivotal role in amplifying and diversifying the action of Ca + -mediated signals (Veluthambi and Poovaiah, Science 223.167-169, 1984; Schulman, Curr Opin in Cell Biol 5:247-253, 1993) Extracellular and intracellular signals regulate the activity of protein kinases, either directly or through second messengers These protein kinases in turn regulate the activity of their substrates by phosphorylation (Cohen, Trends Biochem Set 17 408-413, 1992; Stone and Walker, Plant Physiol 108 451-457, 1995). In animals, Ca 2 7calmodul in-dependent protein kinases play a pivotal role in cellular regulation (Colbran and Soderling, Current Topics in Cell Reg 31:181-221, 1990, Hanson and Schulman, Annu Rev Biochem 61:559-601, 1992; Mayford et l., CeU 81:891-904, 1995) Several types of CaM-dependent protein kinases (CaM kinases, phosphoryiase kinase, and myosin Iight chain kinase) have been well characterized in mammalian systems (Fujisawa, BioEssays 12.27-29, 1990; Colbran and Soderling, Current Topics tn Cell Reg 31:181-221,1990; Klee, Neurochem Res 16 1059-1065, 1991; Mochizuki et al, J Biol Chem 268:9143-9147, 1993). Although little is known about Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent protein kinases in plants (Poovaiah et al, in Progress in Plant Growth Regulation, Karssen et al , eds , Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992, pp. 691-702; Watillon et al, Plant Physiol 101:1381-1384, 1993), Ca 2+ -dependent, calmodulin-independent protein kinases (CDPKs) have been identified (Harper et al, Science 252:951 -954, 1991 ; Roberts and Harmon, Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 43.375-414, 1992) Male gametophyte formation in the anther is a complex developmental process involving many cellular events. During microsporogenesis, microsporocytes undergo meiosis to form tetrads of microspores that are surrounded by a callose wall composed of β-l,3-glucan The callose wall is subsequently degraded by callase, which is secreted by cells of the tapetum (Steightz, Dev Biol 57:87-97, 1977), a specialized anther tissue that produces a number of proteins and other substrates that aid in pollen development or become a component ofthe pollen outer wall (Paciani et al Plant Syst. Evol 149: 155-185, 1985; Bedinger, Plant Cell 4:879-887, 1992; Mariani et al, Nature 341:1 '37- 741, 1990). The timing of callase secretion is critical for microspore development. Male sterility has been shown to result from premature or delayed appearance of callase (Worral et al, Plant Cell 4:759-771, 1992; Tsuchiya et al., Plant Cell Physiol. 36:487-494, 1995). Induction of male sterility in plants can provide significant cost savings in hybrid plant production, enable production of hybrid plants where such production was previously difficult or impossible, and allow the production of plants with reduced pollen formation to reduced the tendency of such plants to elicit allergic reactions or to extend the life of flowers that senesce upon pollination (e.g., orchids). Several strategies have been developed for the production of male-sterile plants (Goldberg et al, Plant Cell 5: 1217-1229, 1993), including: selective destruction of the tapetum by fusing the ribonuclease gene to a tapetum-specific promoter, TA29 (Mariani et al, Nature 347:737- 741, 1990); premature dissolution of the callose wall in pollen tetrads by fusing glucanase gene to tapetum-specific A9 or OsgόB promoters (Worrall et al, Plant Cell 4:759-771 , 1992; Tsuchiya et al, Plant Cell Physiol. 36:487-494, 1995); antisense inhibition of flavonoid biosynthesis within tapetal cells (Van der Meer et ai, Plant Cell 4:253-262, 1992); tapetal-specific expression of the Agrobacterium rhizogenes rolB gene (Spena et al, Theor. Appl. Genet. 84:520-527, 1992); and overexpression ofthe mitochondrial gene atp9 (Hernould et al, Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 90:2370- 2374, 1993). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It has been discovered that reduction of the anther-specific calcium/calmodulin- dependent protein kinase (CCaMK) activity in anthers of a plant renders the plant male sterile. Genes encoding CCaMKs of lily and tobacco have been cloned and sequenced. Expression of the cloned CCaMK genes is highly organ- and developmental stage-specific. Transgenic plants in which anti¬ sense CCaMK constructs are expressed are male-sterile. CCaMK promoters are also useful for targeted expression of heterologous genes. According to one embodiment of the invention, a male-sterile plant is produced by reducing levels of an anther-specific CCaMK activity in anthers of the plant. In a preferred embodiment, cells of the plant include a vector that includes a transgene, and expression of the transgene in the anthers of the plant reduces expression of a gene encoding the CCaMK activity. The transgene preferably includes at least 15 contiguous nucleotides of a native CCaMK preferably includes at least 15 contiguous nucleotides of a native CCaMK nucleic acid, e.g., a native lily or tobacco CCaMK nucleic acid. For example, expression in anthers of a native CCaMK sequence in an anti-sense orientation with respect to an operably linked promoter (e.g., an anther-specific promoter such as the lily or tobacco CCaMK promoter discussed in detail below) has been shown to render plants male sterile. According to other embodiments, male-sterile plants produced by the above-described methods and vectors for producing such male-sterile plants are provided. The foregoing and other objects and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description and accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows the nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of lily CCaMK. Diagnostic sequences (GKGGFS, residues 20-25; DLKPEN, residues 167-172; and SIDYVSPE, residues 207-214) for serine/threonine kinases are underlined. Sequences corresponding to two PCR primers (DLKPEN and FNARRKL) are indicated by arrows. The calmodulin-binding domain is double-underlined, Ca 2+ -binding EF-hand motifs are boxed, the putative autophosphorylation sites (RXXS/T) are indicated by asterisks, and the hatched region indicates the putative biotin-binding site (LKAMKMNSLI, residues 389-398). FIG. 2 shows a comparison of the deduced amino-acid sequence of the C-terminal region (residues 342-520) of lily CCaMK to neural visinin-like Ca 2+ -binding proteins. Conserved amino acids are boxed; Ca 2+ -binding domains (I-III) are indicated by solid lines; putative autophosphorylation site is indicated by an asterisk; and the putative biotin-binding site (B) is indicated by a hatched box. Abbreviations: Lyckl, lily CCaMK; Rahcl, rat hippocalcin (Gen2:Ratp23K); Ravl3, rat neural visinin-like protein (Gen2:Ratnvp3); Bovll, bovine neurocalcin (Gen 1 :Bovpcaln); Ravll, rat neural visinin-like protein (Gen2:Ratnvpl); Chvll, chicken visinin-like protein (Gen2:Ggvilip); Ravl2, rat neural visinin-like protein (Gen2:Ratnvp2); Drfrl, Drosophila frequenin (Gen2:Drofteq). FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of structural features of the lily CCaMK polypeptide. FIG. 4A shows Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent phosphorylation of histone IIAS by lily CCaMK in the presence of 0.5 mM CaCl 2 and increasing amounts of calmodulin (μM). CCaMK activity is presented as nmol phosphate/min/mg CCaMK. FIG. 4B shows the time course of phosphorylation of histone IIAS by lily CCaMK in the presence of 2.5 mM EGTA (•) or 0.5 mM CaCl 2 (Δ) or 0.5 M CaCl 2 and 1 μM calmodulin (o). CCaMK activity is represented as nmol of phosphate per mg CCaMK. FIG. 5 shows a saturation curve of 35 S-calmodulin binding to lily CCaMK. The amount of bound calmodulin at each point is represented as percent of maximal binding. Inset: Scatchard plot analysis (bound/free and bound calmodulin are expressed as B F and B, respectively). FIG. 6A shows the results of calmodulin binding assays using wild-type and truncated forms of lily CCaMK in order to determine the calmodulin binding site. Schematic diagram of wild- type and truncation mutants of CCaMK used for 35 S-calmodulin binding assays. The mutants 1-356 and 1-322 represent CCaMK lacking the visinin-like domain and both visinin-like and calmodulin- binding domains. FIG. 6B shows a comparison of amino acid sequences surrounding the putative calmodulin-binding sites of lily CCaMK and α subunit of mammalian calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII). FIG. 7 shows a helical wheel projection of calmodulin-binding sequences in lily CCaMK (left) and animal CaMKIIα (right). Hydrophobic amino acid residues are boxed. Basic amino acid residues are marked with (+). FIG. 8 shows a time course of autophosphorylation of lily CCaMK in the presence of 2.5 M EGTA (•) or 0.5 mM CaCl 2 (Δ) or 0.5 mM CaCl 2 and 1 μM calmodulin (o). The autophosphorylation is presented as pmol 32 P incoφorated per 21.4 pmol of CCaMK. FIG. 9 shows amino acid sequences of the three EF-hand motifs in the visinin-like domain of lily CCaMK. Six Ca 2+ -ligating residues denoted as x, y, z, -y, -x, -z, respectively, are marked. Site-directed mutants were prepared by substituting the amino acid residues at the -x position with alanine (A). FIG. 10A shows the effect of increasing concentrations of calmodulin on the GS peptide phosphorylation by autophosphorylated lily CCaMK. FIG. 10B shows the effect of CCaMK autophosphorylation on Ca 2 7calmodulin- dependent and calmodulin-independent activity. Column 1, CCaMK autophosphorylated in the presence of 0.5 mM CaCl 2 and used for Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent GS peptide phosphorylation (hatched bar). Column 2, unphosphorylated enzyme used for Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent GS peptide phosphorylation (hatched bar). Solid bars represent the activity of autophosphorylated CCaMK (column 1) and unphosphorylated CCaMK (column 2) in the presence of 2.5 mM EGTA. FIG. 11 shows the effects of increasing amounts of synthetic peptides derived from the CCaMK autoinhibitory domain (amino acid residues 311-340) on the activity of the constitutive mutant 1-322. FIG. 12 shows models describing the regulation of CCaMK by Ca 2+ and Ca 2 7calmodulin (A) and the autoinhibitory domain (B). FIG. 13 shows the nucleotide sequence and deduced amino-acid sequence ofthe tobacco CCaMK cDNA. FIG. 14A shows a comparison of deduced amino acid sequences of tobacco and lily CCaMKs. Eleven major conserved subdomains of serine/threonine protein kinases are marked. Hatched region indicates calmodulin-binding domain, the three Ca 2+ -binding EF-hands are boxed. FIG, 14B is a diagram showing the kinase domain, calmodulin-binding domain, and visinin-like Ca 2+ -binding domain of the lily and tobacco CCaMK polypeptides. Three Ca 2+ -binding sites within the visinin-like binding domain are indicated by Roman numerals I, II, and III. FIG. 15 shows the nucleotide sequence of the promoter region of the tobacco CCaMK genomic clone. The putative TATA box is underlined and the start codon is boxed. FIG. 16 shows GUS and antisense CCaMK constructs for transformation of plants. I. Transcriptional fusion of the tobacco CCaMK promoter to the β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene. II. Transcriptional fusion of a truncated version of the tobacco CCaMK promoter to GUS. III. Translational fusion ofthe tobacco CCaMK promoter to the tobacco CCaMK coding region and GUS. IV. Transcriptional fusion of the CCaMK promoter to the tobacco CCaMK in an antisense orientation. V. Transcriptional fusion of the TA29 promoter to antisense tobacco CCaMK. VI. Transcriptional fusion of the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter to antisense tobacco CCaMK. All constructs include the Agrobacterium tumefaciens nopaline synthase terminator sequence (Nos-ter). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Definitions and Methods The following definitions and methods are provided to better define the present invention and to guide those of ordinary skill in the art in the practice of the present invention. Definitions of common terms in molecular biology may also be found in Rieger et al, Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th edition. Springer- Verlag: New York, 1991; and Lewin, Genes V, Oxford University Press: New York, 1994. The standard nomenclature for DNA bases and the conventional one- and three letter nomenclature for amino acid residues is used. Nucleic Acids "CCaMK Gene". The term "CCaMK gene" refers to a native CCaMK nucleic acid sequence or a fragment thereof, e.g., the native lily or tobacco CCaMK cDNA or genomic sequences and alleles and homologs thereof. The term also encompasses variant forms of a native CCaMK nucleic acid sequence or fragment thereof as discussed below, preferably a nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having CCaMK biological activity. Native CCaMK sequences include cDNA sequences and the corresponding genomic sequences (including flanking or internal sequences operably linked thereto, including regulatory elements and or intron sequences). "Native". The term "native" refers to a naturally-occurring ("wild-type") nucleic acid or polypeptide. "Homolog". A "homolog" of a lily or tobacco CCaMK gene is a gene sequence encoding a CCaMK polypeptide isolated from an organism other than lily or tobacco. "Isolated". An "isolated" nucleic acid is one that has been substantially separated or purified away from other nucleic acid sequences in the cell of the organism in which the nucleic acid naturally occurs, i.e., other chromosomal and extrachromosomal DNA and RNA, by conventional nucleic acid- purification methods. The term also embraces recombinant nucleic acids and chemically synthesized nucleic acids. Fragments, Probes, and Primers. A fragment of a CCaMK nucleic acid is a portion of a CCaMK nucleic acid that is less than full-length and comprises at least a minimum length capable of hybridizing specifically with a native CCaMK nucleic acid under stringent hybridization conditions. The length of such a fragment is preferably at least 15 nucleotides, more preferably at least 20 nucleotides, and most preferably at least 30 nucleotides of a native CCaMK nucleic acid sequence. Nucleic acid probes and primers can be prepared based on a native CCaMK gene sequence. A "probe" is an isolated DNA or RNA attached to a detectable label or reporter molecule, e.g., a radioactive isotope, ligand, chemiluminescent agent, or enzyme. "Primers" are isolated nucleic acids, generally DNA oligonucleotides 15 nucleotides or more in length, preferably 20 nucleotides or more, and more preferably 30 nucleotides or more, that are annealed to a complementary target DNA strand by nucleic acid hybridization to form a hybrid between the primer and the target DNA strand, then extended along the target DNA strand by a polymerase, e.g., a DNA polymerase. Primer pairs can be used for amplification of a nucleic acid sequence, e.g., by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or other conventional nucleic-acid amplification methods. Methods for preparing and using probes and primers are described, for example, in Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed., vol. 1-3, ed. Sambrook et al., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 1989 (hereinafter, "Sambrook et al., 1989"); Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, ed. Ausubel et al., Greene Publishing and Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1987 (with periodic updates) (hereinafter, "Ausubel et al., 1987); and Innis et al., PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications, Academic Press: San Diego, 1990. PCR-primer pairs can be derived from a known sequence, for example, by using computer programs intended for that puφose such as Primer (Version 0.5, © 1991, Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA). Operably Linked. A first nucleic-acid sequence is "operably" linked with a second nucleic-acid sequence when the first nucleic-acid sequence is placed in a functional relationship with the second nucleic-acid sequence. For instance, a promoter is operably linked to a coding sequence if the promoter affects the transcription or expression of the coding sequence. Generally, operably linked DNA sequences are contiguous and, where necessary to join two protein coding regions, in reading frame. "Recombinant". A "recombinant" nucleic acid is made by an artificial combination of two otherwise separated segments of sequence, e.g., by chemical synthesis or by the manipulation of isolated segments of nucleic acids by genetic engineering techniques. Techniques for nucleic-acid manipulation are well-known (see, e.g., Sambrook et al, 1989, and Ausubel et al, 1987). Methods for chemical synthesis of nucleic acids are discussed, for example, in Beaucage and Carruthers, Tetra. Letts. 22: 1859-1862, 1981, and Matteucci et al, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 103:3185, 1981. Chemical synthesis of nucleic acids can be performed, for example, on commercial automated oligonucleotide synthesizers. Preparation of Recombinant or Chemically Synthesized Nucleic acids; Vectors. Transformation. Host cells. Natural or synthetic nucleic acids according to the present invention can be incoφorated into recombinant nucleic-acid constructs, typically DNA constructs, capable of introduction into and replication in a host cell. Such a construct preferably is a vector that includes a replication system and sequences that are capable of transcription and translation of a polypeptide- encoding sequence in a given host cell. For the practice of the present invention, conventional compositions and methods for preparing and using vectors and host cells are employed, as discussed, inter alia, in Sambrook et al, 1989, or Ausubel et al, 1987. A variety of well-known promoters or other sequences useful in constructing expression vectors are available for use in bacterial, yeast, mammalian, insect, amphibian, avian, or other host cells. A cell, tissue, organ, or organism into which has been introduced a foreign nucleic acid, such as a recombinant vector, is considered "transformed", "transfected", or "transgenic." A "transgenic" or "transformed" cell or organism also includes (1) progeny ofthe cell or organism and (2) progeny produced from a breeding program employing such a "transgenic" plant as a parent in a cross and exhibiting an altered phenotype resulting from the presence of the recombinant CCaMK DNA construct. Nucleic- Acid Hybridization; "Stringent Conditions"; "Specific". The nucleic-acid probes and primers of the present invention hybridize under stringent conditions to a target DNA sequence, e.g., to a CCaMK gene. The term "stringent conditions" is functionally defined with regard to the hybridization of a nucleic-acid probe to a target nucleic acid (i.e., to a particular nucleic-acid sequence of interest) by the hybridization procedure discussed in Sambrook et al, 1989, at 9.52-9.55. See also, Sambrook et al, 1989 at 9.47-9.52, 9.56-9.58; Kanehisa, Nucl. Acids Res. 12:203-213, 1984; and Wetmur and Davidson, J. Mol Biol 31:349-370, 1968. Regarding the amplification of a target nucleic- acid sequence (e.g., by PCR) using a particular amplification primer pair, "stringent conditions" are conditions that permit the primer pair to hybridize only to the target nucleic-acid sequence to which a primer having the corresponding wild¬ type sequence (or its complement) would bind and preferably to produce a unique amplification product. The term "specific for (a target sequence)" indicates that a probe or primer hybridizes under stringent conditions only to the target sequence in a sample comprising the target sequence. Nucleic-Acid Amplification. As used herein, "amplified DNA" refers to the product of nucleic-acid amplification of a target nucleic-acid sequence. Nucleic-acid amplification can be accomplished by any of the various nucleic-acid amplification methods known in the art, including the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A variety of amplification methods are known in the art and are described, inter alia, in U.S. Patent Nos.4,683, 195 and 4,683,202 and in PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications, ed. Innis et al, Academic Press, San Diego, 1990. Methods of Obtaining Alleles and Homologs of Lily and Tobacco CCaMK. Based upon the availability of the lily CCaMK cDNA and tobacco CCaMK cDNA and genomic sequences disclosed herein, alleles and homologs can be readily obtained from a wide variety of plants by cloning methods known in the art, e.g., by screening a cDNA or genomic library with a probe that specifically hybridizes to a native CCaMK sequence under stringent conditions or by PCR or another amplification method using a primer or primers that specifically hybridize to a native CCaMK sequence under stringent conditions. Cloning of a CCaMK -Genomic Sequence. The availability of a CCaMK cDNA sequence enables the skilled artisan to obtain a genomic clone corresponding to the cDNA (including the promoter and other regulatory regions and intron sequences) and the determination of its nucleotide sequence by conventional methods. Both monocots and dicots possess CCaMK genes. Primers and probes based on the native lily and tobacco CCaMK sequences disclosed herein can be used to confirm (and, if necessary, to correct) the CCaMK sequences by conventional methods. "CCaMK (Biological) Activity". The terms "biological activity", "biologically active", "activity" and "active" refer primarily to the characteristic enzymatic activity or activities of a native ("wild-type") CCaMK polypeptide, including, but not limited to, Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent kinase activity. Plant Transformation and Regeneration Various nucleic acid constructs that include a CCaMK nucleic acid are useful for producing male-sterile plants. As detailed in the Examples below, transgenic plants containing as a transgene a nucleic acid construct in which a CCaMK nucleic acid is expressed in an antisense orientation are male sterile. CCaMK nucleic acids can be expressed in plants or plant cells in a sense or antisense orientation under the control of an operably linked promoter that is capable of expression in a cell of a particular plant. Various promoters suitable for expression of heterologous genes in plant cells are well known, including constitutive promoters (e.g. the CaMV 35S promoter), organ- or tissue-specific promoters (e.g., the tapetum-specific TA29, A9 or Osg6B promoters), and promoters that are inducible by chemicals such as methyl jasminate, salicylic acid, or Safener, for example. In addition to antisense expression of CCaMK in transgenic plants, as discussed below (see also, U.S. Patent No. 5,283,184), the availability of CCaMK genes permits the use of other conventional methods for interfering with CCaMK gene expression, including triplex formation, production of an untranslatable plus-sense CCaMK RNA, etc. A CCaMK promoter can be used to drive the expression of a CCaMK antisense transgene and also to express other nucleic acids in transgenic plants in an organ- and developmental stage-specific manner. For example, a CCaMK promoter can be used to drive the expression in transcriptional or translational fusions of antisense versions of nucleic acids encoding polypeptides necessary for male fertility, e.g., antisense inhibition of flavonoid biosynthesis (Van der Meer et al, Plant Cell 4:253-262, 1992), or to express, in a sense orientation, genes that interfere with male fertility, e.g., ribonuclease (Mariani et al, Nature 347:737-741, 1990); glucanase (Worτall er α/., Plant Cell 4:759-771, 1992; Tsuchiya et al. Plant Cell Physiol 36:487-494, 1995); Agrobacterium rhizogenes rolB (Spena et al., Theor. Appl Genet. 84:520-527, 1992); and mitochondrial gene atp9 (Hemould et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:2370-2374, 1993). Any well-known method can be employed for plant cell transformation, culture, and regeneration in the practice ofthe present invention with regard to a particular plant species. Methods for introduction of foreign DNA into plant cells include, but are not limited to: transfer involving the use of Agrobacterium tumefaciens and appropπate Ti vectors, including binary vectors; chemically induced transfer (e.g., with polyethylene glycol); biolistics; and microinjection. See, e.g., An et al , Plant Molecular Biology Manual A3: 1-19, 1988. The term "plant" encompasses any higher plant and progeny thereof, including monocots (e.g., lily, corn, rice, wheat, etc.), dicots (e.g., tobacco, potato, apple, tomato, etc.), gymnosperms, etc., and includes parts of a plant, including fruit, flowers, wood, seeds, cuttings, tubers, buds, bulbs, somatic embryos, cultured cell (e.g., callus or suspension cultures), etc. The invention will be better understood by reference to the following Examples, which are intended to merely illustrate the best mode now known for practicing the invention. The scope of the invention is not to be considered limited thereto, however. EXAMPLES EXAMPLE 1: Identification of Plant Calcium/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase Gene Materials and Methods Plant Material. Lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb cv. Nellie White) plants were grown under greenhouse conditions and various parts were excised and frozen in liquid nitrogen. PCR and cDNA Library Screening. Three different lily cDNA libraries made from developing anthers, mature and germinating pollen were used for PCR. Degenerate oligonucleotides corresponding to two highly conserved regions of mammalian Ca 2 7calmodulin- dependent protein kinases, DLKPEN and FNARRKL, were used as primers for PCR (Hunter, Cell 50:823-829, 1987). The amplification reaction contained lx PCR buffer (Cetus Coφ.), 200 μM dNTPs, 50 pmoles of each primer, 1.5 mM MgCl 2 , 2 μl cDNA library (IO 9 pfu/ml), and 2.5 units of Taq DNA polymerase in a 100 μl total reaction volume. The cycling profile was 30 cycles, each cycle including 94°C for 1 min, 48°C for 1 min, and 72°C for 1 min. The specific PCR product of the expected size (471 bp) was subcloned into pBluescriptll KS * (Stratagene) and sequenced. This fragment was used to screen the cDNA library (Sambrook et al, 1989) from developing anthers (Kim et al, Plant Mol. Biol 21:39-45, 1993) to obtain the lily CCaMK cDNA clone. Sequence Analysis. The sequencing of the lily CCaMK cDNA was carried out using the Sanger dideoxy-nucleotide chain-termination method (Sanger et al, Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 74 5463-5467, 1977) A search of the GenBank EMBL databases (March, 1994) was done using GCG version 7 0 software (Devereaux et al , Nucl Acids Res 12 387-395, 1984) Expression of the CCaMK Gene An RNase protection assay (Sambrook et al , 1989) was performed using total RNA (20 μg) from various parts of lily Total RNA was isolated from leaf, stem, and various organs from immature flower (Verwoerd et al , Nucl Acids Res 17 2362, 1989) A 612 bp fragment of the CCaMK coding region (nucleotides 1010-1621) was subcloned into pBluescπptll KS + plasmid (Stratagene) and used as a template for makmg the J2 P- labeled RNA probe Southern Analysis 5 μg of lily genomic DNA was digested with different restriction enzymes and transferred to a nylon membrane, followed by Southern analysis usmg standard protocols (Sambrook et al , 1989) Expression of CCaMK in E coli The CCaMK protein was expressed in E coli using pET3b vector (Studier et al , Meth Enzymol 185 60-89, 1990, Novagen, Inc.) E coli strain BL21 (DE3)-pLysS was transformed with the pET3b expression vector containing CCaMK cDNA Bacteria were grown at 35°C in M9 minimal medium supplemented with 2 g L casamino acid, 100 mg/L ampicillm, 25 mg/L chloramphenicol The protein was induced by add g 0 5 mM isopropylthiogalactoside (IPTG) when the OD 6M reached 0 5 - 0 7 Three hours after mduction, cells were collected by centrifugation, the protein was then extracted and purified by usmg calmodulm-affinity Sepharose 4B column according to Hagiwara et al (J Biol Chem 266, 16401-16408, 1991) The quality of the purified protein was checked by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis Preparation of 35 S-Labeled Calmodulin and Calmodu n-Binding Assay "S-labeled calmodulin was prepared as described by Fromm and Chua (Plant Mol Biol Rep 10 199-206, 1992) using a calmodulin cDNA (Jena et al , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86.3644-3648, 1989) cloned into pET3b expression vector. The CCaMK protein (250 ng) was electrophoretically transferred to a nitrocellulose filter and incubated in a solution containing 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7 5), 150 mM NaCl, 1 % (w/v) nonfat dry milk, and 50 nM 3S S-calmodulιn (0 5x IO 6 cpm/μg) plus either 1 mM CaCl 2 or 5 mM EGTA (Sikela and Hahn, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84 3038- 3042, 1987). A 50-fold excess of unlabeled calmodulin was used as a competitor to show specific binding of calmodulin to CCaMK. Calmodulin binding to CCaMK was quantified by measuring radioactivity in each slot using a liquid scintillation counter. 45 Ca-Binding Assay. Calcium binding to CCaMK was studied as described by Maruyama et al. (J. Biochem. 95:51 1-519, 1984). Purified CCaMK protein was transferred to Zeta-probe membrane (Bio-Rad) using slot blot apparatus (Millipore) and incubated with buffer containing 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 100 mM KCl, 5 mM MgCl 2 , and 10 μCi/ml " 5 Ca for 20 min. The membrane was washed for 5 min in the same buffer without 4S Ca and exposed to X-ray film. Results and Discussion A partial clone of lily CCaMK (471 bp) was obtained from developing anthers of lily by PCR using degenerate oligonucleotide primers corresponding to two highly conserved regions of mammalian Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent protein kinases. This fragment was not amplified when the cDNA libraries made from mature and germinating pollens were used. The nucleotide sequence of the PCR-amplified fragment contained conserved sequences corresponding to catalytic subdomains VI-XI and part of the calmodulin-binding domain of mammalian CaM KII (Hanks et al, Science 241:42-52, 1988). A 2514 bp lily cDNA clone was obtained by screening the cDNA library using the PCR amplified fragment as a probe and its nucleotide sequence was determined (FIG. 1). The cDNA codes for a polypeptide of 520 amino acids flanked by a 634 bp 5' -untranslated region and a 317 bp 3 '-untranslated region. The lily CCaMK polypeptide contains all eleven major conserved subdomains of the catalytic domain of serine/threonine kinases (Hanks et al, Science 241:42-52, 1988). Sequence comparisons revealed that CCaMK has high homology to Ca 2 7calmodulin- dependent protein kinases, especially in the kinase and the calmodulin-binding domains (amino acid residues 1 -338). This region of CCaMK has highest homology to kinases from apple (Gen3:Mdstpkn), rat (Gen2:Ratpk2g), human (Genl :Humccdpkb), and fruitfly (Gen2:Drocdpkb, Gen2:Drocdpkd). The calmodulin-binding region of CCaMK (ARRKLRAAAIASVL. residues 325- 338) has 79% similarity to the calmodulin-binding domain (ARRKLKGAILTTML, residues 295- 308) of α-subunit of mammalian CaM KII, a well characterized Ca 7calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (Colbran et al, Biochem. J. 258:313-325, 1989) and 43% and 50% similarity to the calmodulin-binding domains of CaM KII homologs of yeast and Aspergillus, respectively (Pausch et al, EMBO J. 10: 1511-1522, 1991 ; Komstein et al, Gene 113, 75-82, 1992). The helical wheel projection of the calmodulin-binding domain (amino acid residues 325-338) of CCaMK formed a basic amphipathic alpha helix (O'Neill et al, Trends in Biochem. Sci. 15:59-64, 1990), a characteristic feature of calmodulin-binding sites. The sequence downstream of the calmodulin-binding region of CCaMK (amino acid residues 339-520) does not have significant homology to known Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent protein kinases. Further analysis of this region revealed the presence of three Ca 2+ -binding EF-hand motifs that had the highest homology (52-54% similarity; 32-35% identity) to a family of genes belonging to visinin-like Ca 2+ -binding proteins (FIG. 2), which are found mainly in neural tissue (Kuno et al, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 184:1219-1225, 1992; Kobayashi et al, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 189:51 1-517, 1992; Lenz et al, Mol Brain Res. 15: 133-140, 1992; Okazaki et al, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 185: 147-153, 1992; Pongs et al, Neuron 11: 15- 28, 1993). Even though four EF-hand motifs are present in the calmodulin-like domain of CDPKs, this domain shared only 25% identity with the visinin-like domain of CCaMK. Out of the six residues of the EF-hand [positions 1(X), 3(Y), 5(Z), 7(-Y), 9(-X), and 12(-Z)] involved in Ca 2+ -binding, position 7(-Y) is not conserved in CCaMK. A similar deviation is also observed in visinin-like proteins, wherein the residue at position 9(-X) of the EF-hand motifs of visinin-like proteins (FIG. 2) is not conserved. These differences between the EF-hands of the visinin-like domain of CCaMK and other Ca 2+ -binding proteins may affect Ca 2+ -binding and protein-protein interactions. Frequenin, neurocalcin, hippocalcin, and visinin-like neural Ca 2+ -binding proteins are members of a novel family of Ca 2+ sensitive regulators, each with three Ca + -binding EF-hand motifs. The presence of such proteins has not been reported in plants. These proteins are activated at nanomolar concentrations of Ca 2 7 At such low levels, calmodulin-dependent pathways are not activated. Frequenin acts as a Ca 2+ -sensitive activator of photoreceptor particulate guanylyl cyclase (Pongs et al, Neuron 11 : 15-28, 1993) and may be involved m activating protein kinases and phosphatases in response to changes in intracellular Ca 2 \ similar to the action of calmodulin (Pongs et al. Neuron 11: 15-28, 1993). An unusual feature of CCaMK is the presence of a putative biotin-binding site (LKAMKMNSLI) within the visinin-like domain (FIG. 2). Such a biotin-binding site has not been observed in neural visinin-like proteins. Biotin plays a catalytic role in several essential metabolic carboxylation and decarboxylation reactions (Chandler et al, J Biol. Chem 263: 1013- 1016, 1988). CCaMK also contains two consensus motifs, RXXT/S (FIGS. 1 and 2), analogous to the autophosphorylation site of mammalian CaM KII and its homologs (Colbran et al, Curr Top Cell Regul 31:181-221, 1990). The structural features of the CCaMK gene indicate that it is a novel chimeric Ca 24 - and Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent protein kinase with two discrete regulatory domains, a calmodulin- binding domain and a visinin-like Ca 2+ -binding domain (FIG. 3). The presence of these distinct domains suggest dual modes of regulation. Furthermore, the presence of a putative biotin-binding site suggests yet another mode of regulation, adding to the functional diversity of CCaMK. The chimeric feature of the CCaMK gene suggests that it has evolved from a fusion of two genes that are functionally different and phylogenetically diverse in origin. The functional role of the predicted structural motifs of CCaMK was studied using Ca 2+ and calmodulin-binding assays. Recombinant lily CCaMK protein was produced in transformed E. coli and purified by calmodulin-affinity chromatography to near homogeneity, as judged by SDS-PAGE. Lily CCaMK protein (250 ng) was transferred to a nitrocellulose filter and incubated with 35 S-Iabeled calmodulin in a buffer containing either 5 mM EGTA or 1 mM CaCl 2 . It was found that calmodulin binds to CCaMK only in the presence of Ca 2+ . To determine the functional role of the EF-hand motifs within the visinin-like domain, 45 Ca-binding assays were carried out. It was found that 45 Ca binds directly to lily CCaMK protein transferred to a Zeta-probe membrane. When incubated with excess amounts (50- fold) of unlabeled calmodulin, the binding of 3s S-labeled calmodulin to CCaMK was effectively reduced, suggesting that calmodulin binding to CCaMK was specific. Moreover, CCaMK showed a Ca 2' -dependent shift in mobility, as revealed by SDS-PAGE These results suggest that CCaMK has some of the structural properties-of both Ca + -dependent and Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent protein kinases (FIG. 3). The intensity of a calmodulin control was less than CCaMK, possibly as a result of inefficient binding of calmodulin to the membrane (Van Eldik and Wolchok, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 124:752-759, 1984)). The CCaMK gene was preferentially expressed during phase III (Wang et al, Am. J. Bot. 79: 1 18- 127, 1992) of anther development, as revealed by a ribonuclease protection assay. Phases II and III correspond to stages of anther development as described by Wang et al. (Am. J. Bot. 79: 1 18-127, 1992). The expression of lily CCaMK during phase III suggests the involvement of CCaMK in microsporogenesis. Some EF-hand proteins like calmodulin (Moncrief et al, J. Mol. Evol 30:522-562, 1990) are ubiquitous and are active in diverse tissues. However, visinin- like proteins are restricted to specialized tissues such as neurons. CCaMK, which has a visinin- like domain, is also expressed in an organ-specific manner. Genomic Southern analysis revealed that CCaMK is encoded by a single gene. Hybridization at low stringency using the lily CCaMK cDNA probe indicated the presence of a CCaMK homolog in other plants, such as Arabidopsis, apple and tobacco. The tobacco homolog to lily CCaMK has been cloned and its deduced polypeptide displays structural components similar to lily CCaMK, including calmodulin-binding and visinin-like domains. The CCaMK-like gene is present in both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. The Ca + -signaling pathway mediated through Ca 7calmodulin-dependent protein phosphorylation is well established in animals. This report confirms the presence of a novel Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent protein kinase in plants. However, the presence of a visinin-like Ca 2+ - binding domain in CCaMK adds an additional Ca 2+ sensing mechanism and distinguishes CCaMK from all other known Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent protein kinases. The discovery of the CCaMK gene adds a new dimension to the understanding of Ca 2+ -mediated signal transduction in plants. EXAMPLE 2: Biochemical Properties of Lily CCaMK Materials and Methods Materials. Proteinase inhibitors, histone IIAS, HIS, myelin basic protein (MBP), syntide-2, GS peptide (PLSRTLSVAAKK), MBP peptide (QKRPSQRSKYL) and spinach calmodulin were purchased from Sigma. [γ- 3 P]ATP was obtained from DuPont NEN. Calmodulin-Sepharose 4B and Klenow enzyme were obtained from Pharmacia. Restriction enzymes and biotinylated calmodulin were from Bethesda Research Laboratory. Expression and Purification of CCaMK. E. coli cells carrying plasmid pET3b (Novagen, Inc.) containing CCaMK cDNA were induced by IPTG as described earlier (Patii et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:4797-4801, 1995). IPTG-induced E. coli cells were harvested and suspended in a homogenization buffer (40 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 1 mM DTT, 2 mM EDTA, 0.1% Triton-X 100, 1 mM PMSF and 10 μg/ml each of leupeptin, pepstatin and antipain). Cells were broken by freeze-thawing followed by sonication. Subsequent procedures were carried out at 4°C. The cell extract was clarified by centrifugation at 12,000 g for 30 min. Solid ammonium sulfate (50% saturation) was added to the supernatant and incubated on ice for 1 -4 hr. The enzyme was recovered by centrifugation for 30 min at 12,000 g. The pellet was solubilized in column buffer (40 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 1 mM CaCl 2 , 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), 10% ethylene glycol, 0.05% Tween-20, 50 mM NaCl, 1 mM PMSF and 10 μg/ml each of leupeptin, pepstatin and antipain) and applied onto a calmodulin-Sepharose column, which was previously equilibrated with the column buffer. The column was washed first with column buffer, then with column buffer containing 1 M NaCl. CCaMK was eluted from the column with buffer containing 40 mM Tris (pH 7.6), 1.5 mM EGTA, 10 % ethylene glycol, 0.05 % Tween-20, 200 mM NaCl and 1 mM PMSF. Fractions containing CCaMK were pooled and thoroughly dialyzed against buffer containing 40 mM Tris (pH 7.6), 1 mM DTT, 1 M EDTA and 10% ethylene glycol. Gel Electrophoresis. SDS-PAGE was performed according to Laemmli (Nature 237:680-685, 1970). Non-denaturing gel electrophoresis was performed using a 14% separating gel in 375 mM Tris-Cl (pH 8.8), 5% stacking gel in 125 mM Tris-Cl (pH 6.8) and 25 M Tris- 192 mM glycine electrophoresis buffer (pH 8.3), at 80 V for 8 h. Protein bands were visualized by staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue. Calmodulin-Binding Assays. The potato calmodulin PCM6 cDNA (Takezawa et al, Plant Mol. Biol 27:693-703, 1995) was cloned into the pET3b expression vector, and 3S S-labeled calmodulin was prepared as described by Fromm and Chua (Plant Mol. Biol Rep. 10: 199-206, 1992). Wild-type and mutant CCaMK proteins were electrophoretically transferred to nitrocellulose filters and incubated in binding buffer (10 mM Tris-Cl, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, and 1% (w/v) non-fat dry milk) containing 35 S-calmodulin (0.5 x 10 6 cpm/μg) plus either 1 M CaCl, or 5 M EGTA as previously described by Patii et al. (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:4797-4801 , 1995). Binding assays using biotinylated calmodulin were performed as previously described by Reddy et al. (Plant Sci. 94: 109-117, 1993). Assay for Peptide Binding to Calmodulin. Synthetic peptides were prepared using an Applied Biosystems peptide synthesizer 431 A. Different lengths of synthetic peptides were incubated with 100 pmol (1.7 μg) of calmodulin in 10 μL of 20 mM Hepes (pH 7.5) for 5 min and analyzed by non-denaturing PAGE. Deletion Mutants of CCaMK. The mutant construct 1-356 was created by removing a 0.9 kb BamHI fragment containing the visinin-like domain from the original CCaMK expression plasmid pNYlO. The mutant construct 1-322 was created by partial digestion of pNYlO with Xbal and filling the site with the Klenow fragment of DNA polymerase I. The resulting construct was then inserted into the pET14b expression vector. The mutant proteins were expressed in E. coli and purified using either a calmodulin-Sepharose column (Pharmacia) or a Ni 2+ -resin column (Novagen) following manufacturer's instructions. Site-Directed Mutagenesis and Expression of the Visinin-Like Domain. A 0.9 kb BamHI fragment containing the visinin-like domain of CCaMK was subcloned into M13mpl8 RF and site-directed mutagenesis was performed (Kunkel et al, Meth. Enzymol. 154:367-382, 1987). Oligonucleotide primers used for the site- directed mutagenesis were 5'-CTCTCATGGCTATAGTTCC-3'for EF-hand I mutation, 5'- CCTCCTTGGCGATACATCC-3' for EF-hand II mutation, and 5'-GTCGAACGCGACAACTCC- 3'for EF-hand III mutation. An Nde I site was created at the position of amino acid residue 358 (Met) using 5'-GGATCCCATCATATGAAATCG-3'. Wild-type and the mutant constructs were then inserted into the pET14b expression vector. All mutant sequences were confirmed by DNA sequencing using the fmol PCR sequencing kit (Promega). Protein Kinase Assay. Phosphorylation assays (25 μL) were carried out at 30°C in 50 mM Hepes (pH 7.6), 1 mM DTT, 10 mM magnesium acetate, 200 μM [γ- 32 P]ATP, (1,500 to 2000 cpm/pmol) in the presence of either 2.5 mM EGTA or indicated amounts of Ca 2+ and calmodulin. Protein (0.2 mg/ml), and synthetic peptides (100 μM) were added in the reaction mixture to study substrate phosphorylation. When protein substrates were used, the reaction was terminated by adding SDS-PAGE sample buffer (Laemmli, Nature 237:680-685, 1970) and analyzed after electrophoresis on 12% SDS polyacrylamide gels. Proteins were visualized by staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue. The gels were dried and subjected to autoradiography. Incoφoration of 32 P into the substrate was determined by counting the excised protein bands in a liquid scintillation counter. When peptide substrates were used the reaction was terminated by spotting the reaction mixture on P81 phosphocellulose filters (Whatman). The filters were washed in 75 M phosphoric acid and 32 P incoφoration was determined (Roskoski, Jr., Meth. Enzymol. 99:3-6, 1983). Autophosphorylation Assay. The autophosphorylation assay was carried out at 30°C in the presence of 50 mM Hepes, pH 7.5 containing 10 mM magnesium acetate, 1 mM DTT, 1 M [y- 3 P]ATP (300 to 400 cpm/pmol) and either EGTA (2.5 mM), CaCl 2 (0.5 M), or CaCl 2 (0.5 mM) plus calmodulin (1 μM). For time course assays (100 μL), 1.2 μg (21.4 pmol) of CCaMK and 1 M [γ- 32 P]ATP (2,000-3,000 cpm/pmol) were used. Aliquots (10 μL) were transferred at indicated time points into SDS-PAGE sample buffer to stop the reaction. Aliquots for the zero time point were taken immediately after the addition of CCaMK. The samples were then analyzed by electrophoresis on a 12% SDS polyacrylamide gel. The amount of phosphate transferred to the enzyme was determined by counting the radioactivity of the excised CCaMK bands in a liquid scintillation counter. Phosphoamino Acid Analysis. The purified CCaMK (200 ng) was autophosphorylated in the presence of EGTA (2.5 mM), or CaCI 2 (0.5 mM) or CaCl 2 (0.5 mM) plus 1 μM calmodulin, and subjected to SDS-PAGE. The gel was briefly stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue, and CCaMK bands were excised and the protein was eluted from the gel. The eluted protein was hydrolyzed with 6 N HCl for 2 h at 110°C and subjected to paper chromatography using propionic acid : 1 M NH 4 OH : isopropyl alcohol (45: 17.5: 17.5) as a solvent (Cooper, Meth. Enzymol 99:387-402, 1983). Phosphoserine and phosphothreonine standards (50 mg/ml in 10% w/v isopropyl alcohol) were visualized by ninhydrin reagent. Results To study the Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent kinase activity of lily CCaMK, the E. coli- expressed protein was purified. The protein was essentially pure as revealed by SDS-PAGE and was stable at 4°C for a few days. The purified protein was used to phosphorylate different substrates such as casein, histones, myelin basic protein, and synthetic peptides. Histone IIAS was found to be the most reactive protein substrate for CCaMK, and was used for studying calmodulin concentration-dependent protein kinase activity. The addition of increasing amounts of calmodulin in the presence of 0.5 M Ca + stimulated CCaMK activity (FIG. 4 A). Kinase activity was saturated at calmodulin concentrations around 1.0 μM. The concentration of calmodulin required for half-maximal activity (Ka) of CCaMK was approximately 0.2 μM. Time course studies revealed that histone IIAS phosphorylation was saturated after 10 min in the presence of Ca 7calmodulin (FIG. 4B). In the presence of 2.5 mM EGTA or 0.5 mM Ca 2+ alone, the enzyme has a basal activity that is ten- to fifteen-fold lower than the maximal activity achieved with Ca 2 7calmodulin. Among other protein substrates tested, CCaMK phosphorylated histone HIS and myelin basic protein, but it did not phosphorylate phosvitin, PEP carboxylase, synapsin I, and casein. CCaMK also phosphorylated synthetic peptides such as GS peptide, MBP peptide, and syntide-2. Among these peptides, GS peptide was most efficiently phosphorylated by CCaMK in the presence of Ca 2 7calmodulin. FIG. 5 shows a saturation curve of 35 S-calmodulin binding to purified CCaMK to determine the calmodulin-binding affinity of CCaMK. Upon induction of CCaMK expression in E. coli, 4 pmol of protein was separated by SDS-PAGE, electrophoretically transferred to a nitrocellulose filter, and incubated with different amounts of 35 S-labeled calmodulin. After washing in buffer without 35 S-calmodulin, the radioactivity of the filter was measured using a liquid scintillation counter. Binding of calmodulin to CCaMK saturated at concentrations above 300 nM. From the saturation curve, the dissociation constant (Kd) of calmodulin for CCaMK was estimated to be approximately 55 nM. The binding of calmodulin to CCaMK was completely blocked in the presence of 5 mM EGTA. A Scatchard plot of the binding data shows that the binding ratio of calmodulin to CCaMK is 1 : 1 (FIG. 5, inset), indicating that CCaMK has a single calmodulin-binding site. - To identify the calmodulin-binding region of CCaMK, truncated mutant constructs were prepared (FIG. 6A). The CCaMK mutant 1-356 lacks the C-terminal domain which has high homology to visinin-like proteins. Another mutant, CCaMK 1-322, is further truncated but retains all eleven domains conserved in serine/threonine protein kinases (Hanks et al, Science 241:42-52, 1988). Wild-type CCaMK (1-520), and truncated mutants 1-356 and 1-322 were expressed in E coli, subjected to SDS-PAGE, and transferred to nitrocellulose filter. Excised bands containing the expressed proteins were assayed for binding to 35 S-calmodulin in the presence of Ca 2* . The radioactivity of bound 35 S-calmodulin was 1 1,600 cpm for wild-type CCaMK, 12,500 cpm for the mutant 1-356, and 99 cpm for the mutant 1-322, respectively. Thus, binding of calmodulin to wild-type and mutant 1 -356 CCaMKs were similar; calmodulin did not bind to the mutant CCaMK 1-322, indicating that amino acid residues 322-356 (FIG. 6A) are essential for calmodulin-binding to CCaMK. Another mutant, CCaMK 1-341, also bound to calmodulin in the presence of Ca 2* . Similar results were obtained when biotinylated calmodulin was used instead of 35 S-calmodulin. Calmodulin binding to wild-type and mutant CCaMKs was prevented by the addition of 5 mM EGTA, indicating that Ca 2* is required for calmodulin binding. Comparison of amino acid residues of this region of CCaMK corresponding to regions of animal CaMKIIα revealed high homology (FIG. 6B). Synthetic peptides from the calmodulin-binding region (amino acid residues 311- 340) were used to identify amino acid residues necessary for calmodulin-binding by a gel mobility-shift assay using non-denaturing PAGE in the presence of 0.5 mM CaCl 2 . The bands of calmodulin and caimodulin-peptide complex were visualized by staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue. Calmodulin mixed with peptides 31 1-340, 317-340, and 322-340 migrated above the position of calmodulin alone. Peptide 328-340 did not affect the mobility of calmodulin, suggesting that the calmodulin-binding site exists between amino acid residues 322-340. Addition of these peptides to calmodulin in the presence of 2.5 mM EGTA did not affect the mobility of calmodulin, suggesting that peptide binding to calmodulin is Ca 2+ -dependent. Increasing amounts of peptide 322-340 facilitates the gel mobility shift towards the upper, higher molecular weight position. Similar results were obtained when peptides 317-340 and 311-340 were used, suggesting that amino acid residues 322-340 have a pivotal role in CCaMK calmodulin binding. The helical wheel projection revealed that amino acid residues 325-338 of CCaMK form a basic amphiphilic α helix (O'Neil and DeGrado, Trends Biochem. Sci. 15:59-64, 1990) similar to CaMKIIα (FIG. 7). To study autophosphorylation, CCaMK was incubated at 30 C C with 10 mM magnesium acetate, 1 mM [γ- 32 P] ATP and 2.5 M EGTA. In 30 min, approximately 0.098 mol 32 P/mol of CCaMK was incoφorated. This basal autophosphorylation was induced approximately 3.4 fold in the presence of 0.5 mM CaCi 2 (0.339 mol 32 P/mol of CCaMK) (FIG. 8). Increasing the incubation time to 60 min did not improve the stoichiometry of Ca 2* -dependent autophosphorylation. Ca 2+ -dependent autophosphorylation was inhibited to basal levels (0.061 mol 32 P/mol of CCaMK) by the addition of 1 μM calmodulin (FIG. 8). Calmodulin inhibited Ca 2* - stimulated autophosphorylation in a concentration-dependent manner. These results indicate that Ca 2* and calmodulin have opposite effects on autophosphorylation of CCaMK. Phosphoamino acid analysis revealed that CCaMK autophosphorylates at the threonine residue(s) and that autophosphorylation was stimulated by Ca 2* and inhibited by Ca 2 7calmodulin. Apart from the calmodulin-binding domain, CCaMK has another regulatory domain nearer the C-terminus that has high homology to animal visinin-like proteins. The visinin-like domain of CCaMK contains three EF-hand motifs with conserved Ca 2* -ligating amino acid residues (FIG. 9A). To study Ca 2* -binding properties of the visinin-like domain of CCaMK, recombinant visinin-like domain protein was expressed in £. coli, using the pET14b expression veαor. The visinin-like domain protein was expressed at high levels upon induction with 0.5 mM IPTG. Most of the protein was present in the soluble fraction. The expressed protein was purified using a Ni 2* resin column. Protein eluted from the column with IM imidazole buffer was dialyzed in 50 mM Tris-Cl (pH 7.5) and used in a Ca 2* -dependent mobility shift assay. Electrophoretic mobility of the recombinant visinin-like domain protein on a 14% SDS- polyacrylamide gel was just above the 20.1 kDa molecular-weight marker in the presence of 2.5 mM EGTA. Addition of Ca 2* shifted the electrophoretic mobility toward a lower molecular weight (FIG. 9B), suggesting that Ca 2* binding to the recombinant visinin-like domain protein induces a conformational change. To verify that the EF-hand motifs in the visinin-like domain are responsible for the Ca 2 '-dependent mobility shift, site-directed mutants of the visinin-like domain protein were created. Each of the EF-hands (I, II, and III) were mutated by replacing the amino acid residue at the -x position (D417 to A, S453 to A, and T495 to A) in the EF-hands (FIG. 9A), which are known to be primary determinants of the Ca 2* dissociation rate (Renner et al., J. Biol Chem. 90:6493-6497, 1993). A mutant in which all three EF-hands are mutated was expressed in E. coli, purified, and analyzed by SDS-PAGE in the presence of Ca 2* . The visinin-like protein mutated in the EF hand I migrated at a similar position to the wild-type protein, suggesting that this site may not be functional. However, mutations in EF-hands II and III shifted the mobility of the protein toward the higher molecular weight. The mutant of the EF-hand III migrated to a similar position to the protein in which all three EF hands are mutated (FIG. 9B). The migration of EF-hand III mutant in the presence of Ca 2* was also similar to the wild-type protein in the absence of Ca 2* . These results suggest that Ca 2* binding to the EF-hands II and III contribute to the Ca 2* -dependent mobility shift of the visinin-like domain protein. Removal of Ca 2* by EGTA causes the mobility of all the mutant proteins to shift upward to similar higher molecular weight positions. To study the role of the visinin-like domain in Ca 2* -stimulated autophosphorylation, CCaMK mutant 1-356, which lacks the visinin-like domain, was used for autophosphorylation and substrate phosphorylation studies. Autophosphorylation of mutant 1-356 was not stimulated by Ca 2* but retained Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent kinase activity at a substantially reduced level. This result indicates that the visinin-like domain is required for Ca 2+ -stimulated autophosphorylation as well as for maximal substrate phosphorylation. The significance of Ca 2* -stimulated autophosphorylation on substrate phosphorylation by CCaMK was studied using histone IIAS and GS peptide as substrates. In the presence of histone IIAS, calmodulin did not suppress the Ca 2* -dependent autophosphorylation of CCaMK, probably due to interaction of histone IIAS with acidic proteins such as calmodulin and the visinin-like domain of CCaMK. FIG. 10A shows the effect of increasing concentrations of calmodulin on the GS peptide phosphorylation by autophosphorylated CCaMK. The rate of phosphorylation of the GS peptide by unphosphorylated CCaMK was stimulated by increasing concentrations of calmodulin, but the maximal stimulation was only 3- to 4-fold as compared to the basal activity. However, when autophosphorylated CCaMK was used, calmodulin stimulated the rate of phosphorylation of the GS peptide with kinetics similar to histone HAS (FIG. 10A). To study the effect of autophosphorylation on kinase activity, the Ca 2 7calmodulin- dependent and Ca 2 7calmodulin-independent activities of autophosphorylated and unphosphorylated CCaMKs were compared using GS peptide as substrate. Autophosphorylated CCaMK exhibited approximately five-fold greater Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent kinase activity than unphosphorylated CCaMK. The maximal stimulation of autophosphorylated CCaMK by Ca 2 7calmodulin was 20- fold to 25-fold compared to the EGTA control (FIG. 10B). Ca 2 7calmodulin-independent activity was not significantly affected by autophosphorylation. These results show that Ca 2* -induced autophosphorylation stimulates Ca 2 7calmodulin dependent activity of CCaMK. A deletion mutant lacking both calmodulin-binding and visinin-like domains ( 1 -322) showed constitutive activity (Ca 2 7calmodulin-independent), suggesting the presence of an autoinhibitory domain. Synthetic peptides derived from the putative autoinhibitory domain (amino acid residues 311-340) inhibited the activity of the constitutive mutant 1-322 (FIG. 11). Models describing the regulation of CCaMK by Ca 2* and Ca 2 7calmodulin and the autoinhibitory domain are shown in FIG. 12. The autoinhibitory domain of CCaMK has similarity to the autoinhibitory domain of mammalian calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII) (Brickey et al, J. Biol Chem. 269:29047- 29054, 1994). Discussion These studies provide biochemical evidence for a Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent protein kinase in plants. Although several Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent kinases have been characterized from animal systems (Nairn and Picciotto, Semin. Cancer Biol. 5:295-303, 1994), CCaMK is the only plant kinase whose activity is regulated by both Ca 2* and Ca 2 7calmodulin. Among the substrates tested, histone IIAS and synthetic GS peptide are the most efficient phosphate acceptors. CCaMK exhibits a higher Ka value (150-200 nM) for calmodulin compared to CaMKII (20-100 nM) (Schulman, Adv. Second Messenger Phosphoprotein Res. 22:39-112, 1988) and CaMKIV (26- 150 nM) (Kameshita and Fujisawa, J. Biochem. (Tokyo) 113:583-590, 1993; Enslen et al, J. Biol Chem. 269:15520-15527, 1994), indicating that plant kinase requires a higher concentration of calmodulin for its activity. This is probably due to a higher dissociation constant of calmodulin for CCaMK (55 nM) than for animal Ca 2 7calmoduIin-dependent protein kinases (1-10 nM) (Sikela and Hahn, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:3038-3042, 1987). 3S S-labeled calmodulin binding and peptide binding assays revealed that the calmodulin-binding site of CCaMK is present between amino acid residues 322-340. This region has homology to animal CaMKII, with conserved basic (Arg-325, Arg-326, and Lys-327) as well as hydrophobic (Phe-323, Ala-325, Ala-332, and Leu- 338) amino acid residues. The visinin-like Ca 2* -binding domain, a novel feature of CCaMK, is not known to exist in other protein kinases. The visinin-like domain contains three EF-hand motifs, similar to animal visinin-like proteins. Frequenin, neurocalcin, and visinin-like proteins are known to be members of Ca * -sensitive guanylyl cyclase activators that are involved in cation channel regulation in neuronal tissues (Palczewski et al, Neuron 13:395-404, 1994). Visinin-like proteins typically contain three conserved EF-hand motifs, each with a different affinity for Ca 2 * (Pongs et al. Neuron 11: 15-28, 1993; Ames et al, J. Biol. Chem. 270:4526-4533, 1995). The Ca 2* - dependent mobility-shift assay suggests that binding of Ca 2* to the EF-hands II and III is important for inducing conformational changes in the visinin-like domain of CCaMK. Ca 2 *-induced conformational change in the visinin-like domain may be critical for regulation of CCaMK activity. The CCaMK mutant 1-356 lacking this domain did not show Ca 2* -dependent autophosphorylation. The mutant 1-356 also exhibited reduced activity as compared to the wild- type enzyme, suggesting that the visinin-like domain is required for the maximal activation of CCaMK. It is unlikely that this reduced activity is due to lowered affinity of mutant 1-356 to calmodulin, since the saturation curve of 35 S-calmodulin binding for mutant 1-356 indicated that it has a similar Kd (60 nM) for calmodulin. However, it is possible that the visinin-like domain may stabilize the conformation of CCaMK, which is indispensable for its maximal activity. Phosphoamino acid analysis revealed that CCaMK autophosphorylation is due to the phosphorylation of the threonine residue(s). Autophosphorylation of CCaMK increased its Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent kinase activity by five-fold. Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent autophosphorylation of animal CaMKII at Thr-286 NH 2 -terminal to the calmodulin-binding site, is known to stimulate Ca 2* -independent activity (Colbran and Soderling, Curr. Topics Cell. Regul 31: 181-221 , 1990; Theil et al, Proc-Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:6337-6341, 1988; Fong et al, J. Biol. Chem. 264: 16759-16763, 1989). In contrast, Ca 2 7calmoduIin-independent basal autophosphorylation at Thr-305 and 306 within the calmodulin-binding site inactivates CaMKII by inhibiting its ability to bind calmodulin (Leckteig et al, J. Biol. Chem. 263: 19232-19239, 1988; Colbran, J. Biol. Chem. 268:7163-7170, 1993). Although the calmodulin binding region of CCaMK has similarity to the calmodulin-binding region of CaMKII, there are no threonine residues around this area. The inhibition of the Ca 2* -stimulated CCaMK autophosphorylation by calmodulin, may be due to the conformational change induced by the calmodulin binding to CCaMK (James et al, Trends Biochem. Sci. 20:38-42, 1995). Inhibition of autophosphorylation by calmodulin is also reported in smooth muscle MLCK (Tokui et al, Biochemistry 34:5173-5179, 1995), in which all three phosphorylated residues are present in proximity to the calmodulin- binding site. The absence of threonine residues around the calmodulin-binding region of CCaMK suggests that the mechanism of CCaMK regulation by autophosphorylation is different from MLCK and CaMKII. Signal-induced changes in cytosolic Ca 2* concentration are believed to be important for many cellular processes in plants (Gilroy and Trewavas, Trends Genetics 16:677-682, 1994; Bush, Plant Physiol. 103:7-13, 1993; Gilroy et al, J. Cell. Sci. 106:453-462, 1993). Ca 2* has a dual effect on the stimulation of CCaMK activity. In the presence of calmodulin, Ca 2* binds to calmodulin and stimulates CCaMK activity. In the absence of calmodulin, Ca 2+ alone stimulates autophosphorylation of CCaMK which further increases Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent kinase activity. Plants have multiple isoforms of calmodulin and their expression is developmentally regulated and responsive to environmental signals (Takezawa et al. Plant Mol. Biol. 27:693-703, 1995; Jena et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:3644-3648, 1989; Braam and Davis, Cell 60:357- 364, 1990). Plant calmodulin mRNA and protein are also reported to have a relatively rapid turnover rate in the cell (Perera and Zielinski, Plant Physiol. 100:812-819, 1992). Signal-induced expression and rapid turnover suggest that there is a dynamic regulation of calmodulin in vivo. Therefore, it is likely that CCaMK activity is differentially controlled by signal-induced transient changes in free Ca 2* concentration and calmodulin In plant cells, the Ca 2* concentration required for Ca 2* -dependent autophosphorylation and the Ca 2* concentration required for Ca 2 7calmodul in¬ dependent substrate phosphorylation may be different EXAMPLE 3: Effects of CCaMK on Male Sterility Materials and Methods Plant Material Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv Xanthi) and lily (Lilium longiflorum Thumb cv Nellie White) plants were grown under normal greenhouse conditions In situ Hybridization Different stages of lily anthers were cut and fixed ovemight at 4°C in a solution containing 25% paraformaldehyde, 1 25% glutaraldehyde, 50 mM Pipes (pH 7 2) The samples were processed and embedded in LR white One μm-thick cross-sections were mounted on gelatin-coated slides, stained with saframn, and examined by light microscopy To obtain a CCaMK-specific probe, a 438-bp fragment (base pairs 2076 to 2514 in lily CCaMK, Patii et al , Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92 4897-4901, 1995) was cloned into the pSPTl 8 plasmid (Boehringer Mannheim, DIG RNA Labeling Kit, cat no 1175025) Antisense and sense digoxigenin-labeled RNA was synthesized according to standard protocols (Boehringer Mannheim) After transcription, the RNA was hydrolyzed to approximately 150 bp by 02 M NaHCOj Na j COj (pH 102) at 60°C Sections were treated with 5 μg/ml proteinase K for 30 min at 37°C before hybridization 15 μl hybridization solution (Panoskaltsis-Mortair et al , BioTechmques 18 300- 307, 1995) containing the heat-denatured RNA probe were applied to each section, covered with a covers p, sealed with rubber cement, and incubated in a humid chamber overnight at 48°C The next day, the slides were washed in 2 x SSC at room temperature for 5 min, then incubated in RNase A (40 μg/ml in STE) for 30 min at 37°C, washed with 2 x SSC, 50% formamide at 50°C for 5 min, with 1 x SSC, 0.5 x SSC, and 02 x SSC at room temperature for 5 mm each wash, then quickly rinsed with H 2 0 Signals were detected by lmmunolocahzation (Li et al , Cell 72 869-879, 1993) using gold-conjugated sheep anti-digoxigenin, silver enhanced at room temperature for 18 min, then stained with saframn for 30 sec Protein Extraction. Anther tissue was frozen in liquid nitrogen and ground using a mortar and pestle, then taken into 4 to 5 volumes (w/v) of extraction buffer (40 mM Tris pH 7.6, 1 mM DTT, 1 mM EDTA, 0.1% Triton X-100, 1 mM PMSF and 10 μg/ml each of antipain, pepstatin, and leupeptin). Powdered tissue was vortexed in the extraction buffer for 1 min and centrifuged at 12,000 g for 10 min at 4°C. The supernatant was used for phosphorylation assays. Inactivation of Endogenous Kinases. The total protein extract was heated at 60°C for 10 min, slowly cooled in water at room temperature, and centrifuged at 10,000 g for 10 min at 4°C. This method inactivates all endogenous kinases in plant extracts. In vitro Phosphorylation of Proteins. For in vitro phosphorylation, 25 μg of heat- inactivated total proteins were used. The assay (50 μl) was carried out for 10 min at 30°C in 50 mM Hepes (pH 7.6), 1 mM DTT, 10 mM Mg(Ac) 2 , 200 mM γ- 32 P-ATP (1500 - 2000 cpm/pmol), 0.5 mM CaCl 2 , lμM calmodulin and either with or without CCaMK (200 ng). The reaction was terminated by the addition of SDS-PAGE sample buffer and analyzed by SDS-PAGE using a 10% gel. Proteins were visualized by staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue. The gels were dried and subjected to autoradiography. Autophosphorylation of CCaMK. Four μg of CCaMK were autophosphorylated at 30°C for 20 min in the presence of 50 mM Hepes (pH 7.5) containing 0.5 mM γ- 3 P-ATP (8000 - 10,000 cpm pmol), 10 mM Mg(Ac) 2 , 1 mM DTT. Unincorporated ATP was removed by filtering the reaction mixture several times through a Microcon 10 filter (Amicon). Gel Overlay Assay of CCaMK-binding Proteins. Protein samples (100 μg) from lily anthers at various stages of development were separated by SDS-PAGE using a 12% gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane (Millipore) at room temperature at 150 V for 3 hrs in transfer buffer (39 M glycine, 48 mM Tris base, 0.037% SDS and 20% methanol). The gel overlay assay was performed using the method of Carr and Scott (Trends Biochem. Sci. 17:246-247, 1992). The membrane was blocked for 60 min in blocking buffer (50 mM Tris HC1/200 mM NaCl-TBS containing Tween 20 (3% v/v) and non-fat powdered milk (5% w/v)). After washing the membrane with rinsing buffer (TBS containing Tween 20 (0.1% v/v) and non-fat powdered milk (5% w/v)) for 30 min, the membrane was incubated with autophosphorylated CCaMK ( 32 P-labeled) in rinse buffer for 2 hrs at room temperature with constant agitation The membrane was washed extensively with a minimum of 4 to 5 changes of rinse buffer, dried, and subjected to autoradiography PCR. cDNA Library Screening, and Sequencing A partial CCaMK cDNA clone (483 bp) was obtained from developing anthers of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum SRI) by PCR using two degenerate oligonucleotide primers corresponding to two highly conserved regions of mammalian Ca 2 7calmodulm-dependent protein kinases (DLKPEN and FNARRKL, Hanks et al , Science 241 42-52, 1988) A tobacco immature anther cDNA library was produced using the λ ZAPI1 vector according to manufacturer's protocol (Stratagene) and screened using the PCR- amplified fragment as a probe The sequencing of the cDNA was carried out by using the dideoxynucleotide chain-termination method RT-PCR Analysis First-strand cDNA was synthesized from 5 μg total RNA using a cDNA synthesis kit (Gibco BRL) and one out of 20 μl was used as template Two tobacco CCaMK gene-specific oligonucleotide pπmers (3 '-coding region, amino acid residues 290-296 and 512-518) and two calmodulin degenerate primers (Takezawa et al , Plant Mol Biol 27 693-703, 1995) were used in the same reaction The cycling profile was 25 cycles of 94°C for 30 sec, 50°C for 1 mm, and 72°C for 1 min Southern Blot Analysis Tobacco genomic DNA (5 μg) was digested with various restriction enzymes and transferred to a nylon membrane Hybndization was by standard protocols (Sambrook et al , 1989) The membrane was washed twice in 2 x SSC, 0 5% SDS at room temperature for 15 mm and twice in 0 1 x SSC, 0 1% SDS at 65 C C, 20 mm Plant Transformation. Binary plasmid pGA748 (An, Meth Enzymol 153 292-305, 1987) was used preparing the sense and antisense constructs To produce a sense construct, full-length cDNA was used, to produce an antisense construct, a BamHI cut fragment (amino acid residues 1 10-517) was used The two constructs were then transferred to A tumefaciens strain LBA4404 using a direct DNA transfer method (An, Meth Enzymol 153 292-305, 1987) Leaf discs of N tabacum xanthi were transformed according to the method of Horsch (Science 227 1229-1231, 1985) Transformants were selected on media containing kanamycin (100 mg l) Slot-Blot Analysis Different tobacco parts and tobacco anthers from different stages were collected and the RNA was isolated as described by Verwoerd (Nucl Acids Res. 17:2362, 1989). Slot blot analysis was performed by using 5 μg total RNA from different tobacco parts or anthers from different stages. A 330-bp fragment (5' coding region, amino acid residues 1-109, FIG. 7) was used as a probe. Hybridization was performed at 42°C ovemight in a solution containing 50% formamide, 6 x SSPE, 5 x Denhardt's solution, 0.5% SDS, 100 μg/ml denatured herring sperm DNA and >10 9 cpm/μg of 32 P-labeled cDNA probe. The membrane was washed once in 2 x SSC, 0.5% SDS at room temperature for 15 min and two times for 10 min each in 0.2 x SSC, 0.1% SDS at 55°C, and exposed to film. After the film was exposed, the membrane was washed in 0.1 x SSC, 0.1% SDS at 90°C for 5 min to remove the probe, then re-hybridized to 32 P- labeled PCM6 calmodulin cDNA, which shows the least changes during development (Takezawa et al, Plant Mol. Biol 27:693-703, 1995) to confirm that the loaded RNA was the same amount. Scanning Electron Microscopy. Pollen grains from mature anthers were collected, freeze-dried, coated with gold and observed under a scanning electron microscope at 15 KV or 20 KV. Histochemical Localization of Callose. Dehisced tobacco pollen grains were tapped directly into a 0.01% aqueous solution of water-soluble aniline blue made up in 0.15 M K 2 HPO,. After 30 min, samples were observed using a microscope fitted with a fluorescence attachment as described by Worrall et al. (Plant Cell 4:759-771, 1992). Pollen Germination. Dehisced tobacco pollen grains were collected and incubated at room temperature in a medium containing 10% sucrose, 0.0017 g/1 KH 2 PO„, 0.025 g 1 H 3 B0 3 , and 10 mM CaCl 2 . After 2 hrs incubation, the pollen suspension was mixed with diphenylboric acid 2-aminoethyl ester (0.5% in 50% MeOH, Sigma) and photographed. Cross Pollination. Anthers in antisense plants were removed before they matured, pollen grains from dehisced wild-type anthers were collected and applied to pistils of antisense plants. Results CCaMK is Expressed in Anther in a Stage-specific Manner. Micrographs show the progressive development of microspores in lily anther. In order to investigate the cellular localization of CCaMK, in situ hybridization experiments were performed. Thin sections of developing lily anthers were hybridized with an antisense or sense CCaMK RNA probe labeled with digoxigenin and detected by gold-conjugated sheep anti-digoxigenin. The antisense probe yielded hybridization signals mostly in tapetum and locules when the bud was 2.5 to 3.5 cm. In contrast, epidermis, endothecium and middle layers showed little or no expression, while the sense control did not show hybridization in any tissues. Expression of CCaMK was specific to stages that coincided with meiosis and the uninucleate microspore stage. Identification of CCaMK Substrates in Lily Anthers. In order to identify substrates for CCaMK, total protein isolated from various stages of developing lily anthers was heated to inactivate endogenous kinases and subjected to Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent phosphorylation in the presence or absence of E. co//-expressed and purified CCaMK. The proteins were then separated on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and the gel was dried was subjected to autoradiography. Several endogenous proteins were phosphorylated in a Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent manner by CCaMK. These proteins were shown to be present when the buds were 1.0 to 3.0 cm (fully opened lily flower is about 15 cm), coinciding with the pollen mother cell stage to the uninucleate microspore stages of lily anther development. The amount of these substrate proteins decreased in later stages of anther development and were absent in fully mature anthers and other parts of the plant, indicating the anther- and developmental stage-specificity of these substrates. A polypeptide of approximately 24 kDa that was present at an extremely low level was phosphorylated to a very high level, indicating its high specificity for CCaMK. The phosphorylation of this 24- kDa protein is Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent, since the addition of EGTA, a Ca 2* chelator or W-7 (Sigma), a calmodulin inhibitor, prevented its phosphorylation by CCaMK. Binding Proteins of CCaMK. Autophosphorylated CCaMK ( 32 P-labeled) was used in a gel overlay assay to identify the proteins interacting with CCaMK. Total protein (100 μg) from various stages of lily anthers and other parts of the plant were separated on SDS-PAGE, transferred to a PVDF membrane, and probed with autophosphorylated CCaMK ( 2 P-labeIed) CCaMK. The dried membrane was then subjected to autoradiography. Several proteins that bind specifically to CCaMK were present only when the bud size was between 0.5 cm to 3.0 cm, coinciding with the pollen mother cell stage to the uninucleate microspore stage. There was a progressive decrease in binding proteins at later stages of anther development and a total absence in fully mature anthers. These proteins were not detected in other parts of the plant. These results indicate that CCaMK binds various proteins in developing anthers in an anther- and stage-specific manner. Cloning and Sequence Analysis of a Tobacco CCaMK cDNA. A full-length (1776 bp including a 55 bp poly-A sequence) cDNA clone from tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum SRI) was obtained by screening an immature tobacco anther cDNA library using a PCR-amplified fragment (483 bp, corresponding to amino acid residues 164-325) as a probe. The nucleotide sequence of tobacco CCaMK cDNA is shown in FIG. 13. The coding region of the tobacco CCaMK cDN A encodes a 517 amino acid polypeptide and is flanked by a 19 bp 5 '-untranslated region and a 203 bp 3 '-untranslated region. FIG. 14A shows the comparison of amino acid sequences of tobacco and lily CCaMKs. Both tobacco and lily CCaMKs contain all 1 1 major conserved subdomains of serine/threonine protein kinases (Hanks et al, Science 241:42-52, 1988), the calmodulin-binding domain and the visinin- like Ca 2* -binding domain (FIGS. 14A and 14B). Tobacco CCaMK and lily CCaMK share 71% identity and 82% similarity, with 66% identity and 79% similarity in the kinase domain (amino acid residues 1-307). The 3' visinin-like domain (amino acid residues 339-517) is highly conserved, sharing 79% identity and 87% similarity, suggesting that the visinin-like domain is functionally conserved and plays an important role in regulating CCaMK activity. The calmodulin-binding domain (amino acid residues 320 to 335) is also conserved. The helical wheel projection of the calmodulin-binding domain of tobacco and lily CCaMKs formed a basic amphipathic α-helix (O'Neill et al, Trends Biochem Sci. 15:59-64, 1990), a characteristic feature of calmodulin-binding sites. Expression Pattern of CCaMK in Tobacco. RT-PCR was performed to determine the expression pattern of tobacco CCaMK at different stages of anther development. CCaMK mRNA was detected during meiosis (bud size 0.5 - 0.8 cm), and peaked following meiosis (bud size about 1.0 cm; when fully opened, the tobacco flower is approximately 4.5 cm). The mRNA became undetectable at later stages of development. The CCaMK gene was preferential!) expressed during flower stage 3 to stage 2 of anther development (Koltunow et al, Plant Cell 2:1201-1224, 1990). RNA slot-blot analysis confirmed this result. No expression was detected in other tissues (including leaf, stem, root, pistil, ovary, and petal), indicating that CCaMK is expressed in an anther-specific and stage-specific manner during microsporogenesis. Genomic Organization of CCaMK in Tobacco. To determine the approximate copy number of tobacco CCaMK, Southern blot analysis was carried out using a 600-bp fragment (amino acid residues 123-325) as a probe. Two hybridization bands were observed in tobacco genomic DNA digested with £coRJ, £coRV and Hindlll. Because the tobacco CCaMK cDNA sequence has one intemal site for all three restriction enzymes, it is likely that tobacco CCaMK is encoded by a single copy gene. In order to obtain a tobacco CCaMK genomic clone, a tobacco genomic library (Clontech) was screened with a probe consisting of the 5 '-untranslated region of the tobacco CCaMK cDNA. A clone showing positive hybridization under stringent conditions was subcloned and sequenced. FIG. 15 shows the nucleotide sequence of the promoter region of the tobacco CCaMK genomic sequence. Plants Carrying CCaMK Antisense Construct Are Male Sterile. To study the function of CCaMK in vivo, sense and antisense constructs of tobacco CCaMK were fused to the CaMV 35S promoter and transgenic tobacco plants were produced. Seventeen antisense and 59 sense kanamycin-resistant transgenic plants were produced. Four of the 17 antisense plants (A3, A4, A 14, A 17) showed extreme abnormality in anther development. Control plants (transformed with vector pGA748 alone) showed normal development as compared to wild-type untransformed plants. Southe -blot analysis, using a 687-bp fragment of tobacco CCaMK (3' coding region, amino acid residues 289-517) as a probe, revealed that all of the antisense plants were transgenic. The anthers in transgenic plants looked normal until anthesis. At stage 12 (Koltunow et al, Plant Cell 2: 1201-1224, 1990), when the anthers dehisced, wild-type anthers were fluffy with pollen, anthers in A3, A4, A 14, and A17 plants were mostly bare. Moφhological differences between transgenic and wild-type pollen grains were determined using a scanning electron microscope. In general, the antisense pollen grains were much smaller and malformed as compared to wild-type pollen grains. Histochemical localization of callose in the outer walls of pollen grains was compared between antisense and wild-type plants. The amount of callose in the outer walls of pollen grains was higher in the antisense plants. Callose distribution was uneven on the surface of the antisense pollen grains. Bright field micrographs revealed that wild-type pollen had a very smooth ring-like wall; antisense pollen were misshapen and lacked uniformity. A drastically reduced number of pollen grains were observed in the four antisense plants. Although remnants of pollen-like structures were observed in antisense plants, they were not viable. Germination tests demonstrated that the frequency of pollen germination of wild-type and transgenic plants transformed with vector alone was more than 95%. The frequency of germination of antisense pollen was around 1 -7% (Table 1 ). Furthermore, pollen from antisense plants that did germinate showed drastically retarded pollen tube growth as compared to wild-type pollen. The four antisense plants failed to produce fruit capsules and seeds in self crosses, but when these plants were cross-pollinated with wild-type pollen, normal fruit capsules and seeds developed, indicating that diese transgenic plants were male sterile. Pistils in these antisense plants recognize and transmit pollen normally. Table 1. Germination of pollen grains from antisense and control plants Type of Plant Germination (%) Wild Type > 95.0 Control* > 95.0 A3 < 1.0 A4 < 1.5 A14 ~ 7.0 A17 ~ 5.0 •Vector DNA Alone RNA slot-blot hybridization was conducted to test the expression of CCaMK in antisense plants. RNA from 1.0 cm bud size anthers was hybridized with a 32 P-labeled 330bp probe (5' coding region, amino acid residues 1-109). Antisense plants (A3, A4, A 14, and A 17) showed high levels of CCaMK antisense RNA compared to wild-type plants and plants transformed with vector alone. Anthers from 1.0 cm buds (the stage at which CCaMK had the highest expression level) were collected from antisense plants as well as control plants. Endogenous CCaMK mRNA isolated from A3, A4, A 14, and A17 anthers was suppressed as compared to wild-type plants. RT-PCR analysis using tobacco CCaMK gene-specific primers confirmed these results. Anther development of antisense plants was compared to about 50 other transgenic tobacco plants as well as to transgenic plants with vector DNA alone. None of the antisense plants showed similar changes during anther development, suggesting that the observed male sterility is the result of suppression of CCaMK mRNA and not an artifact of the point of insertion of the CCaMK transgene or tissue culture manipulation. Discussion Although several anther-specific genes have been cloned, their role in microsporogenesis is not completely understood (Mascarenhas, Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 41:317-338, 1990; McCormick, Plant Cell 5: 1265-1275, 1993). CCaMK is a novel Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent protein kinase expressed in an anther- and stage-specific manner during microsporogenesis. The CCaMK gene of tobacco, a dicot, is similar in structure to the CCaMK gene of lily, a monocot, including the kinase catalytic domain, calmodulin-binding domain, and the visinin-like Ca 2+ -binding domain. Tobacco and lily CCaMK share 71% identity and 82% similarity. High homology in the visinin-like domain (79% identity, 87% similarity) indicates that the visinin-like domain is conserved and controls CCaMK activity. The plant visinin-like domain contains three EF-hand motifs (FIGS. 13A and 13B), similar to animal visinin-like proteins such as frequenin, recoverin, and neurocalcin. These visinin-like proteins are members of Ca 2* -sensitive guanylyl cyclase activators involved in cation channel regulation in neuronal tissues (Palczewski et al, Neuron 13:395-404 1994). In animals, visinin-like proteins are restricted to specialized tissues such as neurons. CCaMK, which has a visinin-like domain, is also expressed in an anther- and stage-specific manner during microsporogenesis. The CCaMK mutant lacking the visinin-like domain did not show Ca 2* -dependent autophosphorylation. However, this mutant retained reduced activity as compared to the wild-type ~ enzyme, suggesting that the visinin-like domain is crucial for maximal activation of CCaMK (Takezawa et al., J. Biol. Chem. 271:8126-8132, 1996). Transient signal-induced changes in free Ca 2* concentration are known to switch on a series of biochemical changes, ultimately leading to a physiological response (Poovaiah and Reddy, CRC Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 12: 185-211, 1993). Ca * -induced conformational change in the visinin-like domain is believed to be critical for regulation of CCaMK activity. Furthermore, biochemical characterization has revealed that autophosphorylation is Ca 2* -dependent; a CCaMK mutant lacking this visinin-like domain did not show Ca 2* -dependent autophosphorylation. In contrast, substrate phosphorylation requires both Ca 2* and calmodulin, suggesting a dual mode of regulation by Ca 2* and calmodulin. Plants are known to have multiple isoforms of calmodulin, some of which are signal-responsive and developmentally regulated (Jena, et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:3644- 3648, 1989; Braam and Davis, Cell 60:357-364, 1990; Ling et al, Plant Physiol. 96:1196-1202, 1991 ; Botella and Arteca, Plant Mol. Biol. 24:757-766, 1994; Takezawa, et al, Plant Mol. Biol. 27:693-703, 1995). Plant calmodulin mRNA and protein are known to have a relatively rapid turnover rate in the cell (Perera and Zelinski, Plant Mol Biol. 19:649-664, 1992). Signal-induced changes in the calmodulin level and a rapid turnover rate in plants suggests that there is a dynamic regulation of calmodulin in vivo. Hence, it is likely that CCaMK activity is differentially controlled by signal-induced transient changes in free Ca 2* concentration and calmodulin. The Ca 2* -dependent autophoshorylation of CCaMK is suppressed by calmodulin, indicating that both the messenger (Ca 2 *) and the primary transducer of the Ca 2* signal (calmodulin) control the function of CCaMK, which in turn regulates the function of key anther proteins such as the 24- kDa protein. In plants, protein phosphorylation has been implicated in signal transduction (Poovaiah and Reddy, CRC Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 12:185-211, 1993; Stone et al, Plant Physiol. 108:451-457, 1995). Calcium controls CCaMK activity directly or indirectly through the action of calmodulin. The Ca 2* signal is amplified through Ca 2 7calmodulin-dependent protein phosphorylation mediated by CCaMK. The coordinated regulation of CCaMK, its substrates, and binding proteins suggest that there is a cascade of events thafare switched on by changes in the Ca 2* level within the target cells. This transient change in Ca 2* and possibly calmodulin leads to the dual regulation of CCaMK either through the autophosphorylation of CCaMK or through the phosphorylation of substrate(s) in a Ca 2* /calmodulin-dependent manner. Together, this coordinated regulation shows that CCaMK has a role in controlling the Ca 2+ -mediated signaling cascade during microsporogenesis. The developmental events leading to pollen development and release are precisely timed and regulated. Events that occur in the tapetum profoundly affect microspore development. Cell differentiation and dehiscence events occur in an exact chronological order that correlates with floral bud size in tobacco (Koltunow et al. Plant Cell 2:1201-1224, 1990). The CCaMK gene is expressed in anther in a stage-specific manner, being detectable during meiosis, reaching highest levels following meiosis, then becoming undetectable in later stages of development. This programmed regulation, anther-specific expression, and induction of male sterility upon suppression of CCaMK message together indicate that CCaMK plays a role in microsporogenesis, affecting the deposition or degradation of callose in the outer wall of pollen. Our attempts to suppress the CCaMK message using the CaMV 35S promoter have resulted in the production of male sterile plants. Plegt and Bino (Mol. Gen. Genet. 216:321-327, 1989) have shown that during premeiosis and meiosis, the 35S promoter is not active in the tapetum. Because there is high endogenous GUS activity at later stages of anther development, it is uncertain whether the 35S promoter is active in the tapetum at later stages of anther development. To maximize the effect of CCaMK suppression, the CCaMK promoter or other well-known plant promoters can be used. EXAMPLE 4: Transgenic Plants As mentioned above, the tobacco CCaMK genomic clone has been obtained. FIG. 16 shows various constructs that have been introduced into tobacco to produce transgenic tobacco plants as described above. In order to construct a transcriptional fusion, a tobacco CCaMK promoter fragment of either 1.7 kb (FIG. 16, constmcts I, III, and IV) or 0.6 kb (FIG. 16, construct II) was fused to the β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene (FIG. 16, constructs I and II) or the tobacco CCaMK coding region in the antisense orientation (FIG. 16, construct IV). A perfect translational fusion was created between the tobacco CCaMK promoter (1.7 kb) and the tobacco CCaMK cDNA coding region in the sense orientation, to the 3 '-end of which was fused the GUS reporter gene. For comparison puφoses, transcriptional fusions were produced between the tobacco TA29 promoter (FIG. 16, constmct V) or the CaMV 35S promoter (FIG. 16, constmct VI) and the tobacco CCaMK coding region in the antisense orientation. All constructs included the Agrobacterium tumefaciens nopaline synthase terminator sequence (Nos-ter). Transgenic plants including each of the constmcts shown in FIG. 16 have been produced. Having illustrated and described the principles of the present invention, it should be apparent to persons skilled in the art that the invention can be modified in arrangement and detail without departing from such principles. We claim all modifications that are within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.

Claims: WHAT IS CLAIMED IS: 1. A method of producing a male-sterile plant comprising the steps of: (a) providing a plant having an anther, the anther comprising an anther-specific calcium-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK) activity; (b) reducing levels of the anther-specific CCaMK activity, thereby rendering the plant male-sterile. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the plant comprises a vector comprising a nucleic acid that, when expressed in the anthers of the plant, reduces expression of a gene encoding the CCaMK activity, step (b) further comprising expressing the nucleic acid in at least the anther of the plant. 3. The method of claim 2 wherein the nucleic acid comprises at least 15 contiguous nucleotides of a native CCaMK nucleic acid. 4. The method of claim 3 wherein the nucleic acid comprises at least 15 contiguous nucleotides of a native lily or tobacco CCaMK nucleic acid. 5. The method of claim 4 wherein the nucleic acid comprises at least 20 contiguous nucleotides of a native lily or tobacco CCaMK nucleic acid. 6. The method of claim 5 wherein the nucleic acid comprises at least 30 contiguous nucleotides of a native lily or tobacco CCaMK nucleic acid. 7. The method of claim 3 wherein the nucleic acid is in an anti-sense orientation with respect to an operably linked promoter. 8. The method of claim 3 wherein the promoter is an anther-specific promoter. 9. The method of claim 5 wherein the promoter comprises at least a portion of a native CCaMK promoter. 10. A male-sterile plant produced by the method of claim 1. 1 1. A vector comprising a nucleic acid that is expressible in at least an anther of a plant to reduce an a her-specific calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK) activity in the anther, thereby causing the plant to be male-sterile. 12. The vector of claim 1 1 wherein the nucleic acid comprises at least 15 contiguous nucleotides of a native CCaMK nucleic acid. 13. The vector of claim 12 wherein the nucleic acid comprises at least 15 contiguous nucleotides of a native lily or tobacco CCaMK nucleic acid. 14. The vector of claim 13 wherein the nucleic acid comprises at least 20 contiguous nucleotides of a native lily or tobacco CCaMK nucleic acid. 15. The vector of claim 14 wherein the nucleic acid comprises at least 30 contiguous nucleotides of a native lily or tobacco CCaMK nucleic acid. 16. The vector of claim 12 wherein the nucleic acid comprises a native CCaMK nucleic acid sequence that encodes at least one amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of a calmodulin-binding region, biotin-binding site, visinin-like domain, and autoinhibitory domain. 17. The vector of claim 12 wherein the nucleic acid comprises at least a portion of a native CCaMK promoter. 18. The vector of claim 11 wherein the nucleic acid is in an anti-sense orientation with respect to an operably linked promoter. 19. The vector of claim 16 wherein the promoter is an anther-specific promoter. 20. The vector of claim 17 wherein the promoter comprises at least a portion of a native CCaMK promoter.

Inventors: BACHETTIRA POOVAIAH W, LIU ZHIHUA, PATIL SHAMEEKUMAR, TAKEZAWA DAISUKE, BACHETTIRA, POOVAIAH, W., LIU, ZHIHUA, PATIL, SHAMEEKUMAR, TAKEZAWA, DAISUKE
Applicants: UNIV WASHINGTON, WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY RESEARCH FOUNDATION
Application year: 1997
Main classification: C12N15
IPC codes: C12N9, C12N15