HIGH LEVEL EXPRESSION OF PROTEINS

Abstract: The invention features a synthetic gene encoding a protein normally expressed in a mammalian cell wherein at least one non-preferred or less preferred codon in the natural gene encoding the protein has been replaced by a preferred codon encoding the same amino acid.

Description: HIGH LEVEL EXPRESSION OF PROTEINS Field of the Invention The invention concerns genes and methods for expressing eukaryotic and viral proteins at high levels in eukaryotic cells. Background of the Invention Expression of eukaryotic gene products in prokaryotes is sometimes limited by the presence of codons that are infrequently used in E. coli. Expression of such genes can be enhanced by systematic substitution of the endogenous codons with codons over represented in highly expressed prokaryotic genes (Robinson et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 12:6663, 1984). It is commonly supposed that rare codons cause pausing of the ribosome, which leads to a failure to complete the nascent polypeptide chain and a uncoupling of transcription and translation. Pausing of the ribosome is thought to lead to exposure of the 3' end of the mRNA to cellular ribonucl eases. Summary of the Invention The invention features a synthetic gene encoding a protein normally expressed in a mammalian cell or other eukaryotic cell wherein at least one non-preferred or less preferred codon in the natural gene encoding the protein has been replaced by a preferred codon encoding the same amino acid. Preferred codons are: Ala (gcc); Arg (cgc); Asn (aac); Asp (gac) Cys (tgc); Gin (cag); Gly (ggc); His (cac); He (ate); Leu (ctg); Lys (aag); Pro (ccc); Phe (ttc); Ser (age); Thr (ace); Tyr (tac); and Val (gtg). Less preferred codons are: Gly (ggg); He (art); Leu (etc); Ser (tec); Val (gtc); and Arg (agg). All codons which do not fit the description of preferred codons or less preferred codons are non-preferred codons. In general, the degree of preference of a particular codon is indicated by the prevalence of the codon in highly expressed human genes as indicated in Table 1 under the heading "High." For example, "ate" represents 77% of the He codons in highly expressed mammalian genes and is the preferred He codon; "att" represents 18% of the He codons in highly expressed mammalian genes and is the less preferred He codon. The sequence "ata" represents only 5% of the He codons in highly expressed human genes as is a non-preferred He codon. Replacing a codon with another codon that is more prevalent in highly expressed human genes will generally increase expression of the gene in mammalian cells. Accordingly, the invention includes replacing a less preferred codon with a preferred codon as well as replacing a non-preferred codon with a preferred or less preferred codon. By "protein normally expressed in a mammalian cell" is meant a protein which is expressed in mammalian under natural conditions. The term includes genes in the mammalian genome such as those encoding Factor VIII, Factor IX, interleukins, and other proteins. The term also includes genes which are expressed in a mammalian cell under disease conditions such as oncogenes as well as genes which are encoded by a virus (including a retrovirus) which are expressed in mammalian cells post-infection. By "protein normally expressed in a eukaryotic cell" is meant a protein which is expressed in a eukaryote under natural conditions. The term also includes genes which are expressed in a mammalian cell under disease conditions. In preferred embodiments, the synthetic gene is capable of expressing the mammalian or eukaryotic protein at a level which is at least 110%, 150%,, 200%, 500%, 1,000%, 5,000% or even 10,000% of that expressed by the "natural" (or "native") gene in an in vitro mammalian cell culture system under identical conditions (i.e., same cell type, same culture conditions, same expression vector). Suitable cell culture systems for measuring expression of the synthetic gene and corresponding natural gene are described below. Other suitable expression systems employing mammalian cells are well known to those skilled in the art and are described in, for example, the standard molecular biology reference works noted below. Vectors suitable for expressing the synthetic and natural genes are described below and in the standard reference works described below. By "expression" is meant protein expression. Expression can be measured using an antibody specific for the protein of interest. Such antibodies and measurement techniques arc well known to those skilled in the art. By "natural gene" and "native gene" is meant the gene sequence (including naturally occurring allelic variants) which naturally encodes the protein, i.e., the native or natural coding sequence. In other preferred embodiments at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of the codons in the natural gene are non-preferred codons. In other preferred embodiments at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of the non-preferred codons in the natural gene are replaced with preferred codons or less preferred codons. In other preferred embodiments at least 10%, 20%o, 30%, 40%o, 50%, 60%), 70%, 80%, or 90% of the non-preferred codons in the natural gene are replaced with preferred codons. In a preferred embodiment the protein is a retroviral protein. In a more preferred embodiment the protein is a lenti viral protein. In an even more preferred embodiment the protein is an HIV protein. In other preferred embodiments the protein is gag, pol, env, gpl20, or gpl60. In other preferred embodiments the protein is a human protein. In more preferred embodiments, the protein is human Factor VIII and the protein in B region deleted human Factor VIII. In another preferred embodiment the protein is green flourescent protein. In various preferred embodiments at least 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%), 90%), and 95% of the codons in the synthetic gene are preferred or less preferred codons. The invention also features an expression vector comprising the synthetic gene. In another aspect the invention features a cell harboring the synthetic gene. In various preferred embodiments the cell is a prokaryotic cell and the cell is a mammalian cell. In preferred embodiments the synthetic gene includes fewer than 50, fewer than 40, fewer than 30, fewer than 20, fewer than 10, fewer than 5, or no "eg" sequences. The invention also features a method for preparing a synthetic gene encoding a protein normally expressed by a mammalian cell or other eukaryotic cell. The method includes identifying non-preferred and less-preferred codons in the natural gene encoding the protein and replacing one or more of the non- preferred and less-preferred codons with a preferred codon encoding the same amino acid as the replaced codon. Under some circumstances (e.g., to permit introduction of a restriction site) it may be desirable to replace a non-preferred codon with a less preferred codon rather than a preferred codon. It is not necessary to replace all less preferred or non-preferred codons with preferred codons. Increased expression can be accomplished even with partial replacement of less preferred or non-preferred codons with preferred codons. Under some circumstances it may be desirable to only partially replace non-preferred codons with preferred or less preferred codons in order to obtain an intermediate level of expression. In other preferred embodiments the invention features vectors (including expression vectors) comprising one or more the synthetic genes. By "vector" is meant a DNA molecule, derived, e.g., from a plasmid, bacteriophage, or mammalian or insect virus, into which fragments of DNA may be inserted or cloned. A vector will contain one or more unique restriction sites and may be capable of autonomous replication in a defined host or vehicle organism such that the cloned sequence is reproducible. Thus, by "expression vector" is meant any autonomous element capable of directing the synthesis of a protein. Such DNA expression vectors include mammalian plasmids and viruses. The invention also features synthetic gene fragments which encode a desired portion of the protein. Such synthetic gene fragments are similar to the synthetic genes of the invention except that they encode only a portion of the protein. Such gene fragments preferably encode at least 50, 100, 150, or 500 contiguous amino acids of the protein. In constructing the synthetic genes of the invention it may be desirable to avoid CpG sequences as these sequences may cause gene silencing. Thus, in a preferred embodiment the coding region of the synthetic gene does not include the sequence "eg." The codon bias present in the HIV gpl20 env gene is also present in the gag and pol genes. Thus, replacement of a portion of the non-preferred and less preferred codons found in these genes with preferred codons should produce a gene capable of higher level expression. A large fraction of the codons in the human genes encoding Factor VIII and Factor IX are non- preferred codons or less preferred codons. Replacement of a portion of these codons with preferred codons should yield genes capable of higher level expression in mammalian cell culture. The synthetic genes of the invention can be introduced into the cells of a living organism. For example, vectors (viral or non- viral) can be used to introduce a synthetic gene into cells of a living organism for gene therapy. Conversely, it may be desirable to replace preferred codons in a naturally occurring gene with less-preferred codons as a means of lowering expression. Standard reference works describing the general principles of recombinant DNA technology include Watson et al., Molecular Biology of the Gene. Volumes I and II, the Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., publisher, Menlo Park, CA (1987); Darnell et al., Molecular Cell Biology. Scientific American Books, Inc., Publisher, New York, N.Y. ( 1986); Old et al., Principles of Gene Manipulation: An Introduction to Genetic Engineering. 2d edition, University of California Press, publisher, Berkeley, CA (1981); Maniatis et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 2nd Ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, publisher, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (1989); and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. Ausubel et al., Wiley Press, New York, NY (1992). By "transformed cell" is meant a cell into which (or into an ancestor of which) has been introduced, by means of recombinant DNA techniques, a selected DNA molecule, e.g., a synthetic gene. By "positioned for expression" is meant that a DNA molecule, e.g., a synthetic gene, is positioned adjacent to a DNA sequence which directs transcription and translation of the sequence (i.e., facilitates the production of the protein encoded by the synthetic gene. Description of the Drawings Figure 1 depicts the sequence of the synthetic gpl20 and a synthetic gpl60 gene in which codons have been replaced by those found in highly expressed human genes. Figure 2 is a schematic drawing of the synthetic gpl20 (HIV-1 MN) gene. The shaded portions marked vl to v5 indicate hypervariable regions. The filled box indicates the CD4 binding site. A limited number of the unique restriction sites ares shown: H (Hind3), Nh (Nhel), P (Pstl), Na (Nael), M (Mlul), R (EcoRI ), A (Agel) and No (Notl). The chemically synthesized DNA fragments which served as PCR templates are shown below the gpl20 sequence, along with the locations of the primers used for their amplification. Figure 3 is a photograph of the results of transient transfection assays used to measure gpl20 expression. Gel electrophoresis of immunoprecipitated supernatants of 293T cells transfected with plasmids expressing gpl20 encoded by the IIIB isolate of HIV- 1 (gp 120111b), by the MN isolate of HIV- 1 (gpl20mn), by the MN isolate of HIV- 1 modified by substitution of the endogenous leader peptide with that of the CD5 antigen (gpl20mnCD5L), or by the chemically synthesized gene encoding the MN variant of HIV- 1 with the human CD5Leader (syngpl20mn). Supernatants were harvested following a 12 hour labeling period 60 hours post-transfection and immunoprecipitated with CD4:IgGl fusion protein and protein A sepharose. Figure 4 is a graph depicting the results of ELISA assays used to measure protein levels in supernatants of transiently transfected 293T cells. Supernatants of 293T cells transfected with plasmids expressing gpl20 encoded by the IIIB isolate of HIV- 1 (gp 120 Illb), by the MN isolate of HIV- 1 (gpl20mn), by the MN isolate of HIV- 1 modified by substitution of the endogenous leader peptide with that of CD5 antigen (gp!20mn CD5L), or by the chemically synthesized gene encoding the MN variant of HIV- 1 with human CDS leader (syngpl20mn) were harvested after 4 days and tested in a gpl20/CD4 ELISA. The level of gpl20 is expressed in ng/ml. Figure 5 A is a photograph of a gel illustrating the results of a immunoprecipitation assay used to measure expression of the native and synthetic gpl20 in the presence of rev in trans and the RRE in cis. In this experiment 293T cells were transiently transfected by calcium phosphate co- precipitation of 10 μg of plasmid expressing: (A) the synthetic g l20MN sequence and RRE in cis, (B) the gpl20 portion of HIV- 1 IIIB, (C) the gρl20 portion of HIV- 1 IIIB and RRE in cis, all in the presence or absence of rev expression. The RRE constructs gpl20IHbRRE and syngpl20mnRRE were generated using an Eagl/Hpal RRE fragment cloned by PCR from a HIV-1 HXB2 proviral clone. Each gpl20 expression plasmid was cotransfected with 10 μg of either pCMVrev or CDM7 plasmid DNA. Supernatants were harvested 60 hours post transfection, immunoprecipitated with CD4:IgG fusion protein and protein A agarose, and run on a 7% reducing SDS-PAGE. The gel exposure time was extended to allow the induction of gρl20IIIbrre by rev to be demonstrated, z Figure 5B is a shorter exposure of a similar experiment in which syngpl20mnrre was cotransfected with or without pCMVrev. Figure 5C is a schematic diagram of the constructs used in Figure 5A. Figure 6 is a comparison of the sequence of the wild-type ratTHY-1 gene (wt) and a synthetic ratTH Y- 1 gene (env) constructed by chemical synthesis and having the most prevalent codons found in the HIV-1 env gene. Figure 7 is a schematic diagram of the synthetic ratTHY-1 gene. The solid black box denotes the signal peptide. The shaded box denotes the sequences in the precursor which direct the attachment of a phophatidyl- inositol glycan anchor. Unique restriction sites used for assembly of the THY-1 constructs are marked H (Hind3), M (Mlul), S (Sacl) and No (Notl). The position of the synthetic oligonucleotides employed in the construction are shown at the bottom of the figure. Figure 8 is a graph depicting the results of flow cytometry analysis. In this experiment 293T cells transiently transfected with either a wild-type ratTHY-1 expression plasmid (thick line), ratTHY-1 with envelope codons expression plasmid (thin line), or vector only (dotted line) by calcium phosphate co-precipitation. Cells were stained with anti-ratTHY-1 monoclonal antibody 0X7 followed by a polyclonal FITC-conjugated anti-mouse IgG antibody 3 days after transfection. Figure 9A is a photograph of a gel illustrating the results of immunoprecipitation analysis of supernatants of human 293T cells transfected with either syngp 120mn (A) or a construct syngp 120mn.rTH Y- 1 env which has the rTHY-lenv gene in the 3' untranslated region of the syngp 120mn gene (B). The syngp 120mn.rTHY-l env construct was generated by inserting a Notl adapter into the blunted Hind3 site of the rTHY-lenv plasmid. Subsequently, a 0.5 kb Notl fragment containing the rTHY-lenv gene was cloned into the Notl site of the syngp 120mn plasmid and tested for correct orientation. Supernatants of 35 S labeled cells were harvested 72 hours post transfection, precipitated with CD4:IgG fusion protein and protein A agarose, and run on a 7% reducing SDS-PAGE. Figure 9B is a schematic diagram of the constructs used in the experiment depicted in Figure 9 A. Figure 10A is a photograph of COS cells transfected with vector only showing no GFP fluorescence. Figure 1 OB is a photograph of COS cells transfected with a CDM7 expression plasmid encoding native GFP engineered to include a consensus translational initiation sequence. Figure IOC is a photograph of COS cells transfected with an expression plasmid having the same flanking sequences and initiation consensus as in Figure 10B, but bearing a codon optimized gene sequence. Figure 10D is a photograph of COS cells transfected with an expression plasmid as in Figure IOC, but bearing a Thr at residue 65 in place of Ser. Figure 11 depicts the sequence of a synthetic gene encoding green flourescent proteins (SEQ ID NO:40). Figure 12 depicts the sequence of a native human Factor VIII gene lacking the central B domain (amino acids 760-1639, inclusive) (SEQ ID NO:41). Figure 13 depicts the sequence of a synthetic human Factor VIII gene lacking the central B domain (amino acids 760-1639, inclusive) (SEQ ID NO:42). Description of the Preferred Embodiments EXAMPLE 1 Construction of a Synthetic gp!20 Gene Having Codons Found in Highly Expressed Human Genes A codon frequency table for the envelope precursor of the LAV subtype of HIV- 1 was generated using software developed by the University of Wisconsin Genetics Computer Group. The results of that tabulation are contrasted in Table 1 with the pattern of codon usage by a collection of highly expressed human genes. For any amino acid encoded by degenerate codons, the most favored codon of the highly expressed genes is different from the most favored codon of the HIV envelope precursor. Moreover a simple rule describes the pattern of favored envelope codons wherever it applies: preferred codons maximize the number of adenine residues in the viral RNA. In all cases but one this means that the codon in which the third position is A is the most frequently used. In the special case of serine, three codons equally contribute one A residue to the mRNA; together these three comprise 85% of the serine codons actually used in envelope transcripts. A particularly striking example of the A bias is found in the codon choice for arginine, in which the AGA triplet comprises 88%o of the arginine codons. In addition to the preponderance of A residues, a marked preference is seen for uridine among degenerate codons whose third residue must be a pyrimidine. Finally, the inconsistencies among the less frequently used variants can be accounted for by the observation that the dinucleotide CpG is under represented; thus the third position is less likely to be G whenever the second position is C, as in the codons for alanine, proline, serine and threonine; and the CGX triplets for arginine are hardly used at all. TABLE 1 : Codon Frequency in the HIV- 1 Hib env gene and in highly expressed human genes. High Env High Env Ala Cys GC C 53 27 TG C 68 16 T 17 18 T 32 84 A 13 50 G 17 5 Gin CA A 12 55 Arg G 88 45 CG C 37 0 T 7 4 Glu A 6 0 GA A 25 67 G 21 0 G 75 33 AG A 10 88 G 18 8 Gly GG C 50 6 Asn T 12 13 AA C 78 30 A 14 53 T 22 70 G 24 28 Asp His GA c 75 33 CA C 79 25 T 25 67 T 21 75 Ik AT C 77 25 T 18 31 A 5 44 Leu Ser CT c 26 10 TC C 28 8 T 5 7 T 13 8 A 3 17 A 5 22 G 58 17 G 9 0 TT A 2 30 AG C 34 22 G 6 20 T 10 41 Lys T r AA A 18 68 AC C 57 20 G 82 32 T 14 22 A 14 51 G 15 7 Pro Tyr CC C 48 27 TA C 74 8 T 19 14 T 26 92 A 16 55 G 17 5 Phe Val TT C 80 26 GT c 25 12 T 20 74 T 7 9 A 5 62 G 64 18 Codon frequency was calculated using the GCG program established the University of Wisconsin Genetics Computer Group. Numbers represent the percentage of cases in which the particular codon is used. Codon usage frequencies of envelope genes of other HIV-1 virus isolates are comparable and show a similar bias. In order to produce a gpl20 gene capable of high level expression in mammalian cells, a synthetic gene encoding the gpl20 segment of HIV- 1 was constructed (syngp 120mn), based on the sequence of the most common North American subtype, HIV-1 MN (Shaw et al., Science 226: 1165, 1984; Gallo et al., Nature 321 : 1 19, 1986). In this synthetic gpl20 gene nearly all of the native codons have been systematically replaced with codons most frequently used in highly expressed human genes (Figure 1). This synthetic gene was assembled from chemically synthesized oligonucleotides of 150 to 200 bases in length. If oligonucleotides exceeding 120 to 150 bases are chemically synthesized, the percentage of full-length product can be low, and the vast excess of material consists of shorter oligonucleotides. Since these shorter fragments inhibit cloning and PCR procedures, it can be very difficult to use oligonucleotides exceeding a certain length. In order to use crude synthesis material without prior purification, single-stranded oligonucleotide pools were PCR amplified before cloning. PCR products were purified in agarose gels and used as templates in the next PCR step. Two adjacent fragments could be co-amplified because of overlapping sequences at the end of either fragment. These fragments, which were between 350 and 400 bp in size, were subcloned into a pCDM7-derived plasmid containing the leader sequence of the CD5 surface molecule followed by a Nhe 1 /Pst 1/Mlul /EcoRI /BamH I polylinker. Each of the restriction enzymes in this polylinker represents a site that is present at either the 5' or 3' end of the PCR-generated fragments. Thus, by sequential subcloning of each of the 4 long fragments, the whole gpl 20 gene was assembled. For each fragment three to six different clones were subcloned and sequenced prior to assembly. A schematic drawing of the method used to construct the synthetic gpl 20 is shown in Figure 2. The sequence of the synthetic gpl20 gene (and a synthetic gpl60 gene created using the same approach) is presented in Figure 1. The mutation rate was considerable. The most commonly found mutations were short (1 nucleotide) and long (up to 30 nucleotides) deletions. In some cases it was necessary to exchange parts with either synthetic adapters or pieces from other subclones without mutation in that particular region. Some deviations from strict adherence to optimized codon usage were made to accommodate the introduction of restriction sites into the resulting gene to facilitate the replacement of various segments (Figure 2). These unique restriction sites were introduced into the gene at approximately 100 bp intervals. The native HIV leader sequence was exchanged with the highly efficient leader peptide of the human CD5 antigen to facilitate secretion (Aruffo et al., Cell 61 : 1303, 1990) The plasmid used for construction is a derivative of the mammalian expression vector pCDM7 transcribing the inserted gene under the control of a strong human CMV immediate early promoter. To compare the wild-type and synthetic gpl20 coding sequences, the synthetic gpl20 coding sequence was inserted into a mammalian expression vector and tested in transient transfection assays. Several different native gpl20 genes were used as controls to exclude variations in expression levels between different virus isolates and artifacts induced by distinct leader sequences. The gpl20 HIV Illb construct used as control was generated by PCR using a Sall/Xhol HIV-1 HXB2 envelope fragment as template. To exclude PCR induced mutations, a Kpnl/Earl fragment containing approximately 1.2 kb of the gene was exchanged with the respective sequence from the proviral clone. The wild-type gρl20mn constructs used as controls were cloned by PCR from HIV-1 MN infected C8166 cells (AIDS Repository, Rockville, MD) and expressed gpl20 either with a native envelope or a CD5 leader sequence. Since proviral clones were not available in this case, two clones of each construct were tested to avoid PCR artifacts. To determine the amount of secreted gpl20 semi-quantitatively supernatants of 293T cells transiently transfected by calcium phosphate co-precipitation were immunoprecipitated with soluble CD4:immunoglobulin fusion protein and protein A sepharose. The results of this analysis (Figure 3) show that the synthetic gene product is expressed at a very high level compared to that of the native gpl20 controls. The molecular weight of the synthetic gpl20 gene was comparable to control proteins (Figure 3) and appeared to be in the range of 100 to 1 10 kd. The slightly faster migration can be explained by the fact that in some tumor cell lines, e.g., 293T, glycosylation is either not complete or altered to some extent. To compare expression more accurately gpl20 protein levels were quantitated using a gpl20 ELISA with CD4 in the demobilized phase. This analysis shows (Figure 4) that ELISA data were comparable to the immunoprecipitation data, with a gpl20 concentration of approximately 125 ng/ml for the synthetic gpl20 gene, and less than the background cutoff (5 ng/ml) for all the native gpl 20 genes. Thus, expression of the synthetic gpl20 gene appears to be at least one order of magnitude higher than wild-type gpl20 genes. In the experiment shown the increase was at least 25 fold. The Role of rev in gp!20 Expression Since rev appears to exert its effect at several steps in the expression of a viral transcript, the possible role of non-translational effects in the improved expression of the synthetic gpl20 gene was tested. First, to rule out the possibility that negative signals elements conferring either increased mRNA degradation or nucleic retention were eliminated by changing the nucleotide sequence, cytoplasmic mRNA levels were tested. Cytoplasmic RNA was prepared by NP40 lysis of transiently transfected 293T cells and subsequent elimination of the nuclei by centrifugation. Cytoplasmic RNA was subsequently prepared from lysates by multiple phenol extractions and precipitation, spotted on nitrocellulose using a slot blot apparatus, and finally hybridized with an envelope-specific probe. Briefly, cytoplasmic mRNA 293 cells transfected with CDM&, gpl20 IIIB, or syngpl20 was isolated 36 hours post transfection. Cytoplasmic RNA of Hela cells infected with wild-type vaccinia virus or recombinant virus expressing gpl20 Illb or the synthetic gpl20 gene was under the control of the 7.5 promoter was isolated 16 hours post infection. Equal amounts were spotted on nitrocellulose using a slot blot device and hybridized with randomly labeled 1.5 kb gpl20IIIb and syngpl20 fragments or human beta-actin. RNA 5 expression levels were quantitated by scanning the hybridized membranes with a phospoimager. The procedures used are described in greater detail below. This experiment demonstrated that there was no significant difference in the mRNA levels of cells transfected with either the native or synthetic gpl20 gene. In fact, in some experiments cytoplasmic mRNA level o of the synthetic gpl20 gene was even lower than that of the native gpl20 gene. These data were confirmed by measuring expression from recombinant vaccinia viruses. Human 293 cells or Hela cells were infected with vaccinia virus expressing wild-type gpl20 Illb or syngpl20mn at a multiplicity of infection of at least 10. Supernatants were harvested 24 hours 5 post infection and immunoprecipitated with CD4:immunoglobin fusion protein and protein A sepharose. The procedures used in this experiment are described in greater detail below. This experiment showed that the increased expression of the synthetic gene was still observed when the endogenous gene product and the synthetic gene product were expressed from vaccinia virus recombinants under the control of the strong mixed early and late 7.5k promoter. Because vaccinia virus mRNAs are transcribed and translated in the cytoplasm, increased expression of the synthetic envelope gene in this experiment cannot be attributed to improved export from the nucleus. This experiment was repeated in two additional human cell types, the kidney cancer cell line 293 and HeLa cells. As with transfected 293T cells, mRNA levels were similar in 293 cells infected with either recombinant vaccinia virus. Codon Usage in Lentivirus Because it appears that codon usage has a significant impact on expression in mammalian cells, the codon frequency in the envelope genes of other retroviruses was examined. This study found no clear pattern of codon preference between retroviruses in general. However, if viruses from the lentivirus genus, to which HIV-1 belongs to, were analyzed separately, codon usage bias almost identical to that of HIV- 1 was found. A codon frequency table from the envelope glycoproteins of a variety of (predominantly type C) retroviruses excluding the lentiviruses was prepared, and compared a codon frequency table created from the envelope sequences of four lentiviruses not closely related to HIV-1 (caprine arthritis encephalitis virus, equine infectious anemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus, and visna virus) (Table 2). The codon usage pattern for lentiviruses is strikingly similar to that of HIV- 1 , in all cases but one, the preferred codon for HIV-1 is the same as the preferred codon for the other lentiviruses. The exception is proline, which is encoded by CCT in 41% of non-HIV lentiviral envelope residues, and by CCA in 40% of residues, a situation which clearly also reflects a significant preference for the triplet ending in A. The pattern of codon usage by the non-lentiviral envelope proteins does not show a similar predominance of A residues, and is also not as skewed toward third position C and G residues as is the codon usage for the highly expressed human genes. In general non-lentiviral retroviruses appear to exploit the different codons more equally, a pattern they share with less highly expressed human genes. TABLE 2: Codon frequency in the envelope gene of lentiviruses (lenti) and non-lentiviral retroviruses (other) Other Lenti Other Lenti GC c 45 13 TG C 53 21 T 26 37 T 47 79 A 20 46 G 9 3 Gin CA A 52 69 Arg G 48 31 CG C 14 2 T 6 3 Glu A 16 5 GA A 57 68 G 17 3 G 43 32 AG A 31 51 G 15 26 Glγ GG C 21 8 Asn T 13 9 AA C 49 31 A 37 56 T 51 69 G 29 26 m His GA C 55 33 CA C 51 38 T 51 69 T 49 62 _____ AT C 38 16 T 31 22 A 31 61 Leu Sfir CT C 22 8 TC C 38 10 T 14 9 T 17 16 A 21 16 A 18 24 G 19 11 G 6 5 TT A 15 41 AG C 13 20 G 10 16 T 7 25 Lys Thr AA A 60 63 AC C 44 18 G 40 37 T 27 20 A 19 55 Pro G 10 8 CC C 42 14 T 30 41 Tyr A 20 40 TA C 48 28 G 7 5 T 52 72 Phe Val TT C 52 25 GT C 36 9 T 48 75 T 17 10 A 22 54 G 25 27 Codon frequency was calculated using the GCG program established by the University of Wisconsin Genetics Computer Group. Numbers represent the percentage in which a particular codon is used. Codon usage of non-lentiviral retroviruses was compiled from the envelope precursor sequences of bovine leukemia virus feline leukemia virus, human T-cell leukemia virus type I, human T-cell lymphotropic virus type II, the mink cell focus-forming isolate of murine leukemia virus (MuLV), the Rauscher spleen focus-forming isolate, the 10A1 isolate, the 4070A amphotropic isolate and the myeloproliferative leukemia virus isolate, and from rat leukemia virus, simian sarcoma virus, simian T-cell leukemia virus, leukemogenic retrovirus T1223/B and gibbon ape leukemia virus. The codon frequency tables for the non-HI V, non-SIV lentiviruses were compiled from the envelope precursor sequences for caprine arthritis encephalitis virus, equine infectious anemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus, and visna virus. In addition to the prevalence of codons containing an A, lentiviral codons adhere to the HIV pattern of strong CpG under representation, so that the third position for alanine, proline, serine and threonine triplets is rarely G. The retroviral envelope triplets show a similar, but less pronounced, under representation of CpG. The most obvious difference between lentiviruses and other retroviruses with respect to CpG prevalence lies in the usage of the CGX variant of arginine triplets, which is reasonably frequently represented among the retroviral envelope coding sequences, but is almost never present among the comparable lentivirus sequences. Differences in rev Dependence Between Native and Synthetic gp!20 To examine whether regulation by rev is connected to HIV- 1 codon usage, the influence of rev on the expression of both native and synthetic gene was investigated. Since regulation by rev requires the rev-binding site RRE in cis, constructs were made in which this binding site was cloned into the 3' untranslated region of both the native and the synthetic gene. These plasmids were co-transfected with rev or a control plasmid in trans into 293T cells, and gpl20 expression levels in supernatants were measured semiquantitatively by immunoprecipitation. The procedures used in this experiment are described in greater detail below. As shown in Figure 5 A and Figure 5B, rev up regulates the native gpl20 gene, but has no effect on the expression of the synthetic gpl20 gene. Thus, the action of rev is not apparent on a substrate which lacks the coding sequence of endogenous viral envelope sequences. Expression of a synthetic ratTHY-1 gene with HIV envelope codons The above-described experiment suggest that in fact "envelope sequences" have to be present for rev regulation. In order to test this hypothesis, a synthetic version of the gene encoding the small, typically highly expressed cell surface protein, ratTHY-1 antigen, was prepared. The synthetic version of the ratTHY-1 gene was designed to have a codon usage like that of HIV gpl20. In designing this synthetic gene AUUUA sequences, which are associated with mRNA instability, were avoided. In addition, two restriction sites were introduced to simplify manipulation of the resulting gene (Figure 6). This synthetic gene with the HIV envelope codon usage (rTHY-lenv) was generated using three 150 to 170 mer oligonucleotides (Figure 7). In contrast to the syngp 120mn gene, PCR products were directly cloned and assembled in pUC12, and subsequently cloned into pCDM7. Expression levels of native rTHY-1 and rTHY-1 with the HIV envelope codons were quantitated by immunofluorescence of transiently transfected 293T cells. Figure 8 shows that the expression of the native THY-1 gene is almost two orders of magnitude above the background level of the control transfected cells (pCDM7). In contrast, expression of the synthetic ratTHY-1 is substantially lower than that of the native gene (shown by the shift to of the peak towards a lower channel number). To prove that no negative sequence elements promoting mRNA degradation were inadvertently introduced, a construct was generated in which the rTHY-lenv gene was cloned at the 3' end of the synthetic gpl20 gene (Figure 9B). In this experiment 293T cells were transfected with either the syngp 120mn gene or the syngp 120/ratTHY-l env fusion gene (syngp 120mn.rTHY-l env). Expression was measured by immunoprecipitation with CD4:IgG fusion protein and protein A agarose. The procedures used in this experiment are described in greater detail below. Since the synthetic gpl20 gene has an UAG stop codon, rTHY-lenv is not translated from this transcript. If negative elements conferring enhanced degradation were present in the sequence, gpl20 protein levels expressed from this construct should be decreased in comparison to the syngp 120mn construct without rTHY-lenv. Figure 9A, shows that the expression of both constructs is similar, indicating that the low expression must be linked to translation. Rev-dependent expression of synthetic ratTHY-1 gene with envelope codons To explore whether rev is able to regulate expression of a ratTHY-1 gene having env codons, a construct was made with a rev-binding site in the 3' end of the rTHYlenv open reading frame. To measure rev-responsiveness of the a ratTHY-lenv construct having a 3' RRE, human 293T cells were cotransfected ratTHY-lenvrre and either CDM7 or pCMVrev. At 60 hours post transfection cells were detached with 1 mM EDTA in PBS and stained with the OX-7 anti rTH Y- 1 mouse monoclonal antibody and a secondary FITC-conjugated antibody. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a EPICS XL cytofluorometer. These procedures are described in greater detail below. In repeated experiments, a slight increase of rTHY-lenv expression was detected if rev was cotransfected with the rTHY-lenv gene. To further increase the sensitivity of the assay system a construct expressing a secreted version of rTHY-lenv was generated. This construct should produce more reliable data because the accumulated amount of secreted protein in the supernatant reflects the result of protein production over, an extended period, in contrast to surface expressed protein, which appears to more closely reflect the current production rate. A gene capable of expressing a secreted form was prepared by PCR using forward and reverse primers annealing 3' of the endogenous leader sequence and 5' of the sequence motif required for phosphatidylinositol glycan anchorage respectively. The PCR product was cloned into a plasmid which already contained a CD5 leader sequence, thus generating a construct in which the membrane anchor has been deleted and the leader sequence exchanged by a heterologous (and probably more efficient) leader peptide. The rev-responsiveness of the secreted form ratTHY- lenv was measured by immunoprecipitation of supernatants of human 293T cells cotransfected with a plasmid expressing a secreted form of ratTHY-lenv and the RRE sequence in cis (rTH Y- 1 envPI-rre) and either CDM7 or pCMVrev. The rTHY- 1 envPI-RRE construct was made by PCR using the oligonucleotide: cgcggggctagcgcaaagagtaataagtttaac (SEQ ID NO:38) as a forward primer, the oligonucleotide: cgcggatcccttgtattttgtactaata (SEQ ID NO:39) as reverse primer, and the synthetic rTHY-lenv construct as a template. After digestion with Nhel and Notl the PCR fragment was cloned into a plasmid containing CD5 leader and RRE sequences. Supernatants of 35 S labeled cells were harvested 72 hours post transfection, precipitated with a mouse monoclonal antibody 0X7 against rTHY- 1 and anti mouse IgG sepharose, and run on a 12% reducing SDS-PAGE. In this experiment the induction of rTHY-lenv by rev was much more prominent and clear-cut than in the above-described experiment and strongly suggests that rev is able to translationally regulate transcripts that are suppressed by low-usage codons. Rev-independent expression of a rTHY- lenv:immunoglobulin fusjop protein To test whether low-usage codons must be present throughout the whole coding sequence or whether a short region is sufficient to confer rev- responsiveness, a rTHY-lenv:immunoglobulin fusion protein was generated. In this construct the rTHY-lenv gene (without the sequence motif responsible for phosphatidylinositol glycan anchorage) is linked to the human lgGl hinge, CH2 and CH3 domains. This construct was generated by anchor PCR using primers with Nhel and BamHI restriction sites and rTHY-lenv as template. The PCR fragment was cloned into a plasmid containing the leader sequence of the CD5 surface molecule and the hinge, CH2 and CH3 parts of human IgGl immunoglobulin. A Hind3/Eagl fragment containing the rTHY- lenvegl insert was subsequently cloned into a pCDM7-derived plasmid with the RRE sequence. To measure the response of the rTHY- 1 env/ immunoglobin fusion gene (rTHY-lenveglrre) to rev human 293T cells cotransfected with rTHY- lenveg lire and either pCDM7 or pCMVrev. The rTHY-lenveglrre construct was made by anchor PCR using forward and reverse primers with Nhel and BamHI restriction sites respectively. The PCR fragment was cloned into a plasmid containing a CD5 leader and human IgG 1 hinge, CH2 and CH3 domains. Supernatants of 35 S labeled cells were harvested 72 hours post transfection, precipitated with a mouse monoclonal antibody 0X7 against rTHY-1 and anti mouse IgG sepharose, and run on a 12% reducing SDS- PAGE. The procedures used are described in greater detail below. As with the product of the rTHY- 1 envPI- gene, this rTHY- 1 env/immunoglobulin fusion protein is secreted into the supernatant. Thus, this gene should be responsive to rev-induction. However, in contrast to rTHY-lenvPl-, cotransfection of rev in trans induced no or only a negligible increase of rTHY- l envegl expression. The expression of rTHY- 1 :immunoglobulin fusion protein with native rTHY-1 or HIV envelope codons was measured by immunoprecipitation. Briefly, human 293T cells transfected with either rTHY- lenvegl (env codons) or rTHY-1 wtegl (native codons). The rTHY-lwtegl construct was generated in manner similar to that used for the rTHY- lenvegl construct, with the exception that a plasmid containing the native rTHY-1 gene was used as template. Supernatants of 35 S labeled cells were harvested 72 hours post transfection, precipitated with a mouse monoclonal antibody 0X7 against rTHY-1 and anti mouse IgG sepharose, and run on a 12% reducing SDS- PAGE. THE procedures used in this experiment are described in greater detail below. Expression levels of rTHY- lenvegl were decreased in comparison to a similar construct with wild-type rTHY-1 as the fusion partner, but were still considerably higher than rTHY-lenv. Accordingly, both parts of the fusion protein influenced expression levels. The addition of rTHY-lenv did not restrict expression to an equal level as seen for rTHY- 1 env alone. Thus, regulation by rev appears to be ineffective if protein expression is not almost completely suppressed. Codon preference in HIV-1 envelope genes Direct comparison between codon usage frequency of HIV envelope and highly expressed human genes reveals a striking difference for all twenty amino acids. One simple measure of the statistical significance of this codon preference is the finding that among the nine amino acids with two fold codon degeneracy, the favored third residue is A or U in all nine. The probability that all nine of two equiprobable choices will be the same is approximately 0.004, and hence by any conventional measure the third residue choice cannot be considered random. Further evidence of a skewed codon preference is found among the more degenerate codons, where a strong selection for triplets bearing adenine can be seen. This contrasts with the pattern for highly expressed genes, which favor codons bearing C, or less commonly G, in the third position of codons with three or more fold degeneracy. The systematic exchange of native codons with codons of highly expressed human genes dramatically increased expression of gpl20. A quantitative analysis by ELISA showed that expression of the synthetic gene was at least 25 fold higher in comparison to native gpl20 after transient transfection into human 293 cells. The concentration levels in the ELISA experiment shown were rather low. Since an ELISA was used for quantification which is based on gpl20 binding to CD4, only native, non- denatured material was detected. This may explain the apparent low expression. Measurement of cytoplasmic mRNA levels demonstrated that the difference in protein expression is due to translational differences and not mRNA stability. Retroviruses in general do not show a similar preference towards A and T as found for HIV. But if this family was divided into two subgroups, lentiviruses and non-lentiviral retroviruses, a similar preference to A and, less frequently, T, was detected at the third codon position for lentiviruses. Thus, the availing evidence suggests that lentiviruses retain a characteristic pattern of envelope codons not because of an inherent advantage to the reverse transcription or replication of such residues, but rather for some reason peculiar to the physiology of that class of viruses. The major difference between lentiviruses and non-complex retroviruses are additional regulatory and non- essentially accessory genes in lentiviruses, as already mentioned. Thus, one simple explanation for the restriction of envelope expression might be that an important regulatory mechanism of one of these additional molecules is based on it. In fact, it is known that one of these proteins, rev, which most likely has homologues in all lentiviruses. Thus codon usage in viral mRNA is used to create a class of transcripts which is susceptible to the stimulatory action of rev. This hypothesis was proved using a similar strategy as above, but this time codon usage was changed into the inverse direction. Codon usage of a highly expressed cellular gene was substituted with the most frequently used codons in the HIV envelope. As assumed, expression levels were considerably lower in comparison to the native molecule, almost two orders of magnitude when analyzed by immunofluorescence of the surface expressed molecule. If rev was coexpressed in trans and a RRE element was present in cis only a slight induction was found for the surface molecule. However, if THY- 1 was expressed as a secreted molecule, the induction by rev was much more prominent, supporting the above hypothesis. This can probably be explained by accumulation of secreted protein in the supernatant, which considerably amplifies the rev effect. If rev only induces a minor increase for surface molecules in general, induction of HIV envelope by rev cannot have the purpose of an increased surface abundance, but rather of an increased intracellular gpl60 level. It is completely unclear at the moment why this should be the case. To test whether small subtotal elements of a gene are sufficient to restrict expression and render it rev-dependent rTHYlenv:immunoglobulin fusion proteins were generated, in which only about one third of the total gene had the envelope codon usage. Expression levels of this construct were on an intermediate level, indicating that the rTHY-lenv negative sequence element is not dominant over the immunoglobulin part. This fusion protein was not or only slightly rev-responsive, indicating that only genes almost completely suppressed can be rev-responsive. Another characteristic feature that was found in the codon frequency tables is a striking under representation of CpG triplets. In a comparative study of codon usage in E. coli, yeast, drosophila and primates it was shown that in a high number of analyzed primate genes the 8 least used codons contain all codons with the CpG dinucleotide sequence. Avoidance of codons containing this dinucleotide motif was also found in the sequence of other retroviruses. It seems plausible that the reason for under representation of CpG-bearing triplets has something to do with avoidance of gene silencing by methylation of CpG cytosines. The expected number of CpG dinucleotides for HIV as a whole is about one fifth that expected on the basis of the base composition. This might indicate that the possibility of high expression is restored, and that the gene in fact has to be highly expressed at some point during viral pathogenesis. The results presented herein clearly indicate that codon preference has a severe effect on protein levels, and suggest that translational elongation is controlling mammalian gene expression. However, other factors may play a role. First, abundance of not maximally loaded mRNA's in eukaryotic cells indicates that initiation is rate limiting for translation in at least some cases, since otherwise all transcripts would be completely covered by ribosomes. Furthermore, if ribosome stalling and subsequent mRNA degradation were the mechanism, suppression by rare codons could most likely not be reversed by any regulatory mechanism like the one presented herein. One possible explanation for the influence of both initiation and elongation on translational activity is that the rate of initiation, or access to ribosomes, is controlled in part by cues distributed throughout the RNA, such that the lentiviral codons predispose the RNA to accumulate in a pool of poorly initiated RNAs. However, this limitation need not be kinetic; for example, the choice of codons could influence the probability that a given translation product, once initiated, is properly completed. Under this mechanism, abundance of less favored codons would incur a significant cumulative probability of failure to complete the nascent polypeptide chain. The sequestered RNA would then be lent an improved rate of initiation by the action of rev. Since adenine residues are abundant in rev-responsive transcripts, it could be that RNA adenine methylation mediates this translational suppression. Detailed Procedures The following procedures were used in the above-described experiments. Sequence Analysis Sequence analyses employed the software developed by the University of Wisconsin Computer Group. Plasmid constructions Plasmid constructions employed the following methods. Vectors and insert DNA was digested at a concentration of 0.5 μg/10 μl in the appropriate restriction buffer for 1 - 4 hours (total reaction volume approximately 30 μl). Digested vector was treated with 10% (v/v) of 1 μg/ml calf intestine alkaline phosphatase for 30 min prior to gel electrophoresis. Both vector and insert digests (5 to 10 μl each) were run on a 1.5% low melting agarose gel with TAE buffer. Gel slices containing bands of interest were transferred into a 1.5 ml reaction tube, melted at 65 °C and directly added to the ligation without removal of the agarose. Ligations were typically done in a total volume of 25 μl in lx Low Buffer lx Ligation Additions with 200-400 U of ligase, 1 μl of vector, and 4 μl of insert. When necessary, 5' overhanging ends were filled by adding 1/10 volume of 250 μM dNTPs and 2-5 U of Klenow polymerase to heat inactivated or phenol extracted digests and incubating for approximately 20 min at room temperature. When necessary, 3' overhanging ends were filled by adding 1/10 volume of 2.5 mM dNTPs and 5-10 U of T4 DNA polymerase to heat inactivated or phenol extracted digests, followed by incubation at 37 °C for 30 min. The following buffers were used in these reactions: lOx Low buffer (60 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.5, 60 mM MgCl 2 , 50 mM NaCl, 4 mg/ml BSA, 70 mM β-mercaptoethanol, 0.02% NaN 3 ); lOx Medium buffer (60 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.5, 60 mM MgCl 2 , 50 mM NaCl, 4 mg/ml BSA, 70 M β- mercaptoethanol, 0.02% NaN 3 ); lOx High buffer (60 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.5, 60 mM MgCl 2 , 50 mM NaCl, 4 mg/ml BSA, 70 mM β -mercaptoethanol, 0.02% NaN 3 ); l Ox Ligation additions (1 mM ATP, 20 mM DTT, 1 mg/ml BSA, 10 mM spermidine); 50x TAE (2 M Tris acetate, 50 mM EDTA). Oligonucleotide synthesis and purification Oligonucleotides were produced on a Milligen 8750 synthesizer (Millipore). The columns were eluted with 1 ml of 30% ammonium hydroxide, and the eluted oligonucleotides were deblocked at 55 °C for 6 to 12 hours. After deblockiong, 150 μl of oligonucleotide were precipitated with lOx volume of unsaturated n-butanol in 1.5 ml reaction tubes, followed by centrifugation at 15,000 rpm in a microfuge. The pellet was washed with 70% ethanol and resuspended in 50 μl of H 2 0. The concentration was determined by measuring the optical density at 260 nm in a dilution of 1 :333 (1 OD 260 = 30 μg/ml). The following oligonucleotides were used for construction of the synthetic gpl20 gene (all sequences shown in this text are in 5' to 3' direction). oligo 1 forward (Nhel): cgc ggg eta gcc ace gag aag ctg (SEQ ID NO: l ). oligo 1 : ace gag aag ctg tgg gtg ace gtg tac tac ggc gtg ccc gtg tgg aag ag ag gcc ace ace ace ctg ttc tgc gcc age gac gcc aag gcg tac gac ace gag gtg cac aac gtg tgg gcc ace cag gcg tgc gtg ccc ace gac ccc aac ccc cag gag gtg gag etc gtg aac gtg ace gag aac ttc aac at (SEQ ID NO:2). oligo 1 reverse: cca cca tgt tgt tct tec aca tgt tga agt tct c (SEQ ID NO:3). oligo 2 forward: gac cga gaa ctt caa cat gtg gaa gaa caa cat (SEQ ID NO:4) oligo 2: tgg aag aac aac atg gtg gag cag atg cat gag gac ate ate age ctg tgg gac cag age ctg aag ccc tgc gtg aag ctg ace cc ctg tgc gtg ace tg aac tgc ace gac ctg agg aac ace ace aac ace aac ac age ace gcc aac aac aac age aac age gag ggc ace ate aag ggc ggc gag atg (SEQ ID NO:5). oligo 2 reverse (Pstl): gtt gaa get gca gtt ctt cat etc gcc gcc ctt (SEQ ID NO:6). oligo 3 forward (Pstl): gaa gaa ctg cag ctt caa cat cac cac cag c (SEQ ID NO:7). oligo 3: aac ate ace ace age ate cgc gac aag atg cag aag gag tac gcc ctg ctg tac aag ctg gat ate gtg age ate gac aac gac age ace age tac cgc ctg ate tec tgc aac ace age gtg ate ace cag gcc tgc ccc aag ate age ttc gag ccc ate ccc ate cac tac tgc gcc ccc gcc ggc ttc gcc (SEQ ID NO:8). oligo 3 reverse: gaa ctt ctt gtc ggc ggc gaa gcc ggc ggg (SEQ ID NO:9). oligo 4 forward: gcg ccc ccg ccg get teg cca tec tga agt gca acg aca aga agt tc (SEQ ID NO:10) oligo 4: gcc gac aag aag ttc age ggc aag ggc age tgc aag aac gtg age ace gtg cag tgc ace cac ggc ate egg ccg gtg gtg age ace cag etc ctg ctg aac ggc age ctg gcc gag gag gag gtg gtg ate cgc age gag aac ttc ace gac aac gcc aag ace ate ate gtg cac ctg aat gag age gtg cag ate (SEQ ID NO: 11) oligo 4 reverse (Mlul): agt tgg gac gcg tgc agt tga tct gca cgc tct c (SEQ ID NO: 12). oligo 5 forward (Mlul): gag age gtg cag ate aac tgc acg cgt ccc (SEQ ID NO: 13). oligo 5: aac tgc acg cgt ccc aac tac aac aag cgc aag cgc ate cac ate ggc ccc ggg cgc gcc ttc tac ace ace aag aac ate ate ggc ace ate etc cag gcc cac tgc aac ate tct aga (SEQ ID NO: 14) . oligo 5 reverse: gtc gtt cca ctt ggc tct aga gat gtt gca (SEQ ID NO: 15). oligo 6 forward: gca aca tct eta gag cca agt gga acg ac (SEQ ID NO: 16). oligo 6: gcc aag tgg aac gac ace ctg cgc cag ate gtg age aag ctg aag gag cag ttc aag aac aag ace ate gtg ttc ac cag age age ggc ggc gac ccc gag ate gtg atg cac age ttc aac tgc ggc ggc (SEQ ID NO: 17). oligo 6 reverse (EcoRI ): gca gta gaa gaa ttc gcc gcc gca gtt ga (SEQ ID NO: 18). oligo 7 forward (EcoRI): tea act gcg gcg gcg aat tct tct act gc (SEQ ID NO: 19). oligo 7: ggc gaa ttc ttc tac tgc aac ace age ccc ctg ttc aac age ace tgg aac ggc aac aac ace tgg aac aac ace ace ggc age aac aac aat art ace etc cag tgc aag ate aag cag ate ate aac atg tgg cag gag gtg ggc aag gcc atg tac gcc ccc ccc ate gag ggc cag ate egg tgc age age (SEQ ID NO:20) oligo 7 reverse: gca gac egg tga tgt tgc tgc tgc ace gga tct ggc cct c (SEQ ID NO:21). oligo 8 forward: cga ggg cca gat ccg gtg cag cag caa cat cac egg tct g (SEQ ID NO:22). oligo 8: aac ate ace ggt ctg ctg ctg ace cgc gac ggc ggc aag gac ace gac ace aac gac ace gaa ate ttc cgc ccc ggc ggc ggc gac atg cgc gac aac tgg aga tct gag ctg tac aag tac aag gtg gtg acg ate gag ccc ctg ggc gtg gcc ccc ace aag gcc aag cgc cgc gtg gtg cag cgc gag aag cgc (SEQ ID NO:23). oligo 8 reverse (Notl): cgc ggg egg ccg ctt tag cgc ttc teg cgc tgc ace ac (SEQ ID NO:24). The following oligonucleotides were used for the construction of the ratTHY- 1 env gene. oligo 1 forward (BamHI /Hind3): cgc ggg gga tec aag ctt ace atg att cca gta ata agt (SEQ ID NO:25). oligo 1 : atg aat cca gta ata agt ata aca tta tta tta agt gta tta caa atg agt aga gga caa aga gta ata agt tta aca gca tct tta gta aat caa aat ttg aga tta gat tgt aga cat gaa aat aat aca aat ttg cca ata caa cat gaa ttt tea tta acg (SEQ ID NO:26). oligo 1 reverse (EcoRl/Mlul): cgc ggg gaa ttc acg cgt taa tga aaa ttc atg ttg (SEQ ID NO:27). oligo 2 forward (BamHl/Mlul): cgc gga tec acg cgt gaa aaa aaa aaa cat (SEQ ID NO:28). oligo 2: cgt gaa aaa aaa aaa cat gta tta agt gga aca tta gga gta cca gaa cat aca tat aga agt aga gta aat ttg ttt agt gat aga ttc ata aaa gta tta aca tta gca aat ttt aca aca aaa gat gaa gga gat tat atg tgt gag (SEQ ID NO:29). oligo 2 reverse (EcoRl/Sacl): cgc gaa ttc gag etc aca cat ata ate tec (SEQ ID NO:30). oligo 3 forward (BamHI /Sac 1): cgc gga tec gag etc aga gta agt gga caa (SEQ ID NO:31). oligo 3: etc aga gta agt gga caa aat cca aca agt agt aat aaa aca ata aat gta ata aga gat aaa tta gta aaa tgt ga gga ata agt tta tta gta caa aat aca agt tgg tta tta tta tta tta tta agt tta agt ttt tta caa gca aca gat ttt ata agt tta tga (SEQ ID NO:32). oligo 3 reverse (EcoRI /Notl): cgc gaa ttc gcg gcc get tea taa act tat aaa ate (SEQ ID NO:33). Polymerase Chain Reaction Short, overlapping 15 to 25 mer oligonucleotides annealing at both ends were used to amplify the long oligonuclotides by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Typical PCR conditions were: 35 cycles, 55 °C annealing temperature, 0.2 sec extension time. PCR products were gel purified, phenol extracted, and used in a subsequent PCR to generate longer fragments consisting of two adjacent small fragments. These longer fragments were cloned into a CDM7-derived plasmid containing a leader sequence of the CD5 surface molecule followed by a Nhel/Pstl/Mlul/EcoRl/BamHl polylinker. The following solutions were used in these reactions: lOx PCR buffer (500 mM KC1, 100 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.5, 8 mM MgCl 2 , 2 mM each dNTP). The final buffer was complemented with 10% DMSO to increase fidelity of the Taq polymerase. Small scale DNA preparation Transformed bacteria were grown in 3 ml LB cultures for more than 6 hours or overnight. Approximately 1.5 ml of each culture was poured into 1.5 ml microfuge tubes, spun for 20 seconds to pellet cells and resuspended in 200 μl of solution I. Subsequently 400 μl of solution II and 300 μl of solution III were added. The microfuge tubes were capped, mixed and spun for > 30 sec. Supernatants were transferred into fresh tubes and phenol extracted once. DNA was precipitated by filling the tubes with isopropanol, mixing, and spinning in a microfuge for > 2 min. The pellets were rinsed in 70 % ethanol and resuspended in 50 μl dH20 containing 10 μl of RNAse A. The following media and solutions were used in these procedures: LB medium (1.0 % NaCl, 0.5% yeast extract, 1.0% trypton); solution I (10 mM EDTA pH 8.0); solution II (0.2 M NaOH, 1.0% SDS); solution III (2.5 M KOAc, 2.5 M glacial aceatic acid); phenol (pH adjusted to 6.0, overlaid with TE); TE (10 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.5, 1 mM EDTA pH 8.0). Large scale DNA preparation One liter cultures of transformed bacteria were grown 24 to 36 hours (MC1061p3 transformed with pCDM derivatives) or 12 to 16 hours (MC1061 transformed with pUC derivatives) at 37 °C in either M9 bacterial medium (pCDM derivatives) or LB (pUC derivatives). Bacteria were spun down in 1 liter bottles using a Beckman J6 centrifuge at 4,200 rpm for 20 min. The pellet was resuspended in 40 ml of solution 1. Subsequently, 80 ml of solution II and 40 ml of solution III were added and the bottles were shaken semivigorously until lumps of 2 to 3 mm size developed. The bottle was spun at 4,200 rpm for 5 min and the supernatant was poured through cheesecloth into a 250 ml bottle. Isopropanol was added to the top and the bottle was spun at 4,200 rpm for 10 min. The pellet was resuspended in 4.1 ml of solution I and added to 4.5 g of cesium chloride, 0.3 ml of 10 mg/ml ethidium bromide, and 0.1 ml of 1%> Triton XI 00 solution. The tubes were spun in a Beckman J2 high speed centrifuge at 10,000 rpm for 5 min. The supernatant was transferred into Beckman Quick Seal ultracentrifuge tubes, which were then sealed and spun in a Beckman ultracentrifuge using a NVT90 fixed angle rotor at 80,000 rpm for > 2.5 hours. The band was extracted by visible light using a 1 ml syringe and 20 gauge needle. An equal volume of dH 2 0 was added to the extracted material. DNA was extracted once with n-butanol saturated with 1 M sodium chloride, followed by addition of an equal volume of 10 M ammonium acetate/ 1 mM EDTA. The material was poured into a 13 ml snap tube which was tehn filled to the top with absolute ethanol, mixed, and spun in a Beckman J2 centrifuge at 10,000 rpm for 10 min. The pellet was rinsed with 70% ethanol and resuspended in 0.5 to 1 ml of H 2 0. The DNA concentration was determined by measuring the optical density at 260 nm in a dilution of 1 :200 (1 OD 260 = 50 μg/ml). The following media and buffers were used in these procedures: M9 bacterial medium (10 g M9 salts, 10 g casamino acids (hydrolyzed), 10 ml M9 additions, 7.5 μg/ml tetracycline (500 μl of a 15 mg/ml stock solution), 12.5 μg/ml ampicillin (125 μl of a 10 mg/ml stock solution); M9 additions (10 mM CaCl 2 , 100 mM MgS0 4 , 200 μg/ml thiamine, 70% glycerol); LB medium (1.0 % NaCl, 0.5 % yeast extract, 1.0 % trypton); Solution I (10 mM EDTA pH 8.0); Solution II (0.2 M NaOH 1.0 % SDS); Solution III (2.5 M KOAc 2.5 M HOAc) Sequencing Synthetic genes were sequenced by the Sanger dideoxynucleotide method. In brief, 20 to 50 μg double-stranded plasmid DNA were denatured in 0.5 M NaOH for 5 min. Subsequently the DNA was precipitated with 1/10 volume of sodium acetate (pH 5.2) and 2 volumes of ethanol and centrifuged for 5 min. The pellet was washed with 70% ethanol and resuspended at a concentration of 1 μg μl. The annealing reaction was carried out with 4 μg of template DNA and 40 ng of primer in lx annealing buffer in a final volume of 10 μl. The reaction was heated to 65 °C and slowly cooled to 37 °C. In a separate tube 1 μl of 0.1 M DTT, 2 μl of labeling mix, 0.75 μl of dH 2 0, 1 μl of [ 35 S] dATP ( 10 μCi), and 0.25 μl of Sequenase™ ( 12 U/μl) were added for each reaction. Five μl of this mix were added to each annealed primer-template tube and incubated for 5 min at room temperature. For each labeling reaction 2.5 μl of each of the 4 termination mixes were added on a Terasaki plate and prewarmed at 37°C. At the end of the incubation period 3.5 μl of labeling reaction were added to each of the 4 termination mixes. After 5 min, 4 μl of stop solution were added to each reaction and the Terasaki plate was incubated at 80 °C for 10 min in an oven. The sequencing reactions were run on 5% denaturing polyaerylamide gel. An acrylamide solution was prepared by adding 200 ml of lOx TBE buffer and 957 ml of dH 2 0 to 100 g of acrylamide:bisacrylamide (29:1). 5% polyaerylamide 46% urea and lx TBE gel was prepared by combining 38 ml of acrylamide solution and 28 g urea. Polymerization was initiated by the addition of 400 μl of 10% ammonium peroxodisulfate and 60 μl of TEMED. Gels were poured using silanized glass plates and sharktooth combs and run in lx TBE buffer at 60 to 100 W for 2 to 4 hours (depending on the region to be read). Gels were transferred to Whatman blotting paper, dried at 80 °C for about 1 hour, and exposed to x-ray film at room temperature. Typically exposure time was 12 hours. The following solutions were used in these procedures: 5x Annealing buffer (200 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.5, 100 mM MgCl 2 , 250 mM NaCl); Labelling Mix (7.5 μM each dCTP, dGTP, and dTTP); Termination Mixes (80 μM each dNTP, 50 mM NaCl, 8 μM ddNTP (one each)); Stop solution (95% formamide, 20 mM EDTA, 0.05 % bromphenol blue, 0.05 % xylencyanol); 5x TBE (0.9 M Tris borate, 20 mM EDTA); Polyaerylamide solution (96.7 g polyaerylamide, 3.3 g bisacrylamide, 200 ml lx TBE, 957 ml dH 2 0). RNA isolation Cytoplasmic RNA was isolated from calcium phosphate transfected 293T cells 36 hours post transfection and from vaccinia infected Hela cells 16 hours post infection essentially as described by Gilman. (Gilman Preparation of cytoplasmic RNA from tissue culture cells. In Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. Ausubel et al., eds., Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992). Briefly, cells were lysed in 400 μl lysis buffer, nuclei were spun out, and SDS and proteinase K were added to 0.2% and 0.2 mg/ml respectively. The cytoplasmic extracts were incubated at 37°C for 20 min, phenol/chloroform extracted twice, and precipitated. The RNA was dissolved in 100 μl buffer I and incubated at 37 °C for 20 min. The reaction was stopped by adding 25 μl stop buffer and precipitated again. The following solutions were used in this procedure: Lysis Buffer (TRUSTEE containing with 50 mM Tris pH 8.0, 100 mM NaCl, 5 mM MgCl 2 , 0.5% NP40); Buffer I (TRUSTEE buffer with 10 M MgCl 2 , 1 mM DTT, 0.5 U/μl placental RNAse inhibitor, 0.1 U/μl R Ase free DNAse I); Stop buffer (50 mM EDTA 1.5 M NaOAc 1.0% SDS). Slot blot analysis For slot blot analysis 10 μg of cytoplasmic RNA was dissolved in 50 μl dH 2 0 to which 150 μl of 1 Ox SSC/18% formaldehyde were added. The solubilized RNA was then incubated at 65 °C for 15 min and spotted onto with a slot blot apparatus. Radioactively labeled probes of 1.5 kb gp 120111b and syngp 120mn fragments were used for hybridization. Each of the two fragments was random labeled in a 50 μl reaction with 10 μl of 5x oligo-labeling buffer, 8 μl of 2.5 mg/ml BSA, 4 μl of [~ 3 P]-dCTP (20 uCi/μl; 6000 Ci/mmol), and 5 U of Klenow fragment. After 1 to 3 hours incubation at 37°C 100 μl of TRUSTEE were added and unincorporated [°- 32 P]-dCTP was eliminated using G50 spin column. Activity was measured in a Beckman beta-counter, and equal specific activities were used for hybridization. Membranes were pre- hybridized for 2 hours and hybridized for 12 to 24 hours at 42 °C with 0.5 x 10 6 cpm probe per ml hybridization fluid. The membrane was washed twice (5 min) with washing buffer I at room temperature, for one hour in washing buffer II at 65 °C, and then exposed to x-ray film. Similar results were obtained using a 1.1 kb Notl/Sfil fragment of pCDM7 containing the 3 untranslated region. Control hybridizations were done in parallel with a random-labeled human beta-actin probe. RNA expression was quantitated by scanning the hybridized nitrocellulose membranes with a Magnetic Dynamics phosphorimager. The following solutions were used in this procedure: 5x Oligo-labeling buffer (250 mM Tris HCl, pH 8.0, 25 mM MgCl 2 , 5 mM β- mercaptoethanol, 2 mM dATP, 2 mM dGTP, mM dTTP, 1 M Hepes pH 6.6, 1 mg/ml hexanucleotides [dNTP]6); Hybridization Solution (.05 M sodium phosphate, 250 mM NaCl, 7% SDS, 1 mM EDTA, 5% dextrane sulfate, 50% formamide, 100 μg/ml denatured salmon sperm DNA); Washing buffer I (2x SSC, 0.1% SDS); Washing buffer II (0.5x SSC, 0.1 % SDS); 20x SSC (3 M NaCl, 0.3 M Na 3 citrate, pH adjusted to 7.0). Vaccinia recombination Vaccinia recombination used a modification of the of the method described by Romeo and Seed (Romeo and Seed, Cell, 64: 1037, 1991). Briefly, CVl cells at 70 to 90% confluency were infected with 1 to 3 μl of a wild-type vaccinia stock WR (2 x 10 8 pfu/ml) for 1 hour in culture medium without calf serum. After 24 hours, the cells were transfected by calcium phosphate with 25 μg TKG plasmid DNA per dish. After an additional 24 to 48 hours the cells were scraped off the plate, spun down, and resuspended in a volume of 1 ml. After 3 freeze/thaw cycles trypsin was added to 0.05 mg/ml and lysates were incubated for 20 min. A dilution series of 10, 1 and 0.1 μl of this lysate was used to infect small dishes (6 cm) of CVl cells, that had been pretreated with 12.5 μg/ml mycophenolic acid, 0.25 mg/ml xanthin and 1.36 mg/ml hypoxanthine for 6 hours. Infected cells were cultured for 2 to 3 days, and subsequently stained with the monoclonal antibody NEA9301 against gpl20 and an alkaline phosphatase conjugated secondary antibody. Cells were incubated with 0.33 mg/ml NBT and 0.16 mg/ml BCIP in AP-buffer and finally overlaid with 1% agarose in PBS. Positive plaques were picked and resuspended in 100 μl Tris pH 9.0. The plaque purification was repeated once. To produce high titer stocks the infection was slowly scaled up. Finally, one large plate of Hela cells was infected with half of the virus of the previous round. Infected cells were detached in 3 ml of PBS, lysed with a Dounce homogenizer and cleared from larger debris by centrifugation. VPE-8 recombinant vaccinia stocks were kindly provided by the AIDS repository, Rockville, MD, and express HIV-1 IIIB gpl20 under the 7.5 mixed early/late promoter (Earl et al., J. Virol.. 65:31 , 1991). In all experiments with recombinant vaccina cells were infected at a multiplicity of infection of at least 10. The following solution was used in this procedure: AP buffer (100 mM Tris HCl, pH 9.5, 100 mM NaCl, 5 mM MgCl 2 ) Cell culture The monkey kidney carcinoma cell lines CVl and Cos7, the human kidney carcinoma cell line 293T, and the human cervix carcinoma cell line Hela were obtained from the American Tissue Typing Collection and were maintained in supplemented IMDM. They were kept on 10 cm tissue culture plates and typically split 1 :5 to 1 :20 every 3 to 4 days. The following medium was used in this procedure: Supplemented IMDM (90% Iscove's modified Dulbecco Medium, 10% calf serum, iron-complemented, heat inactivated 30 min 56 °C, 0.3 mg/ml L- glutamine, 25 μg/ml gentamycin 0.5 mM β-mercaptoethanol (pH adjusted with 5 M NaOH, 0.5 ml)). Transfection Calcium phosphate transfection of 293T cells was performed by slowly adding and under vortexing 10 μg plasmid DNA in 250 μl 0.25 M CaCl 2 to the same volume of 2x HEBS buffer while vortexing. After incubation for 10 to 30 min at room temperature the DNA precipitate was added to a small dish of 50 to 70% confluent cells. In cotransfection experiments with rev, cells were transfected with 10 μg gp 120111b, gp 120IIIbrre, syngp 120mnrre or rTHY- 1 enveg 1 rre and 10 μg of pCMVrev or CDM7 plasmid DNA. The following solutions were used in this procedure: 2x HEBS buffer (280 mM NaCl, 10 mM KC1, 1.5 mM sterile filtered); 0.25 mM CaCl 2 (autoclaved). Immunoprecipitation After 48 to 60 hours medium was exchanged and cells were incubated for additional 12 hours in Cys/Met-free medium containing 200 μCi of 35 S-translabel. Supernatants were harvested and spun for 15 min at 3000 φm to remove debris. After addition of protease inhibitors leupeptin, aprotinin and PMSF to 2.5 μg/ml, 50 μg/ml, 100 μg/ml respectively, 1 ml of supernatant was incubated with either 10 μl of packed protein A sepharose alone (rTHY- lenveglrre) or with protein A sepharose and 3 μg of a purified CD4/immunoglobulin fusion protein (kindly provided by Behring) (all gpl20 constructs) at 4° C for 12 hours on a rotator. Subsequently the protein A beads were washed 5 times for 5 to 15 min each time. After the final wash 10 μl of loading buffer containing was added, samples were boiled for 3 min and applied on 7% (all gpl20 constructs) or 10% (rTHY-lenveglrre) SDS polyaerylamide gels (TRIS pH 8.8 buffer in the resolving, TRIS pH 6.8 buffer in the stacking gel, TRIS-glycin running buffer, Maniatis et al., supra 1989). Gels were fixed in 10% acetic acid and 10 % methanol, incubated with Amplify for 20 min, dried and exposed for 12 hours. The following buffers and solutions were used in this procedure: Wash buffer (100 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 5 mM CaCl 2 , 1% NP-40); 5x Running Buffer (125 mM Tris, 1.25 M Glycin, 0.5% SDS); Loading buffer (10 % glycerol, 4% SDS, 4% β-mercaptoethanol, 0.02 % bromphenol blue). Immunofluorescence 293T cells were transfected by calcium phosphate coprecipitation and analyzed for surface THY-1 expression after 3 days. After detachment with 1 mM EDT A/PBS, cells were stained with the monoclonal antibody OX-7 in a dilution of 1 :250 at 4°C for 20 min, washed with PBS and subsequently incubated with a 1 :500 dilution of a FITC-conjugated goat anti-mouse immunoglobulin antiserum. Cells were washed again, resuspended in 0.5 ml of a fixing solution, and analyzed on a EPICS XL cytofluorometer (Coulter). The following solutions were used in this procedure: PBS (137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KC1, 4.3 mM Na 2 HP0 4 , 1.4 mM KH 2 P0 4 , pH adjusted to 7.4); Fixing solution (2% formaldehyde in PBS). ELISA The concentration of gpl20 in culture supernatants was determined using CD4-coated ELISA plates and goat anti-gpl20 antisera in the soluble phase. Supernatants of 293T cells transfected by calcium phosphate were harvested after 4 days, spun at 3000 φm for 10 min to remove debris and incubated for 12 hours at 4°C on the plates. After 6 washes with PBS 100 μl of goat anti-gpl20 antisera diluted 1 :200 were added for 2 hours. The plates were washed again and incubated for 2 hours with a peroxidase-conjugated rabbit anti-goat IgG antiserum 1 : 1000. Subsequently the plates were washed and incubated for 30 min with 100 μl of substrate solution containing 2 mg/ml o- phenylenediamine in sodium citrate buffer. The reaction was finally stopped with 100 μl of 4 M sulfuric acid. Plates were read at 490 nm with a Coulter microplate reader. Purified recombinant gp 120111b was used as a control. The following buffers and solutions were used in this procedure: Wash buffer (0.1% NP40 in PBS); Substrate solution (2 mg/ml o-phenylenediamine in sodium citrate buffer). EXAMPLE 2 A Synthetic Green Fluorescent Protein Gene The efficacy of codon replacement for gpl20 suggests that replacing non-preferred codons with less preferred codons or preferred codons (and replacing less preferred codons with preferred codons) will increase expression in mammalian cells of other proteins, e.g., other eukaryotic proteins. The green fluorescent protein (GFP) of the jellyfish Aequorea victoria (Ward, Photochem. Photobiol. 4: 1, 1979; Prasher et al., Gene 11 1 :229, 1992; Cody et al., Biochem. 32: 1212, 1993) has attracted attention recently for its possible utility as a marker or reporter for transfection and lineage studies (Chalfie et al., Science 263:802, 1994). Examination of a codon usage table constructed from the native coding sequence of GFP showed that the GFP codons favored either A or U in the third position. The bias in this case favors A less than does the bias of gpl 0, but is substantial. A synthetic gene was created in which the natural GFP sequence was re-engineered in much the same manner as for gpl20 (FIG. 1 1 ; SEQ ID NO:40). In addition, the translation initiation sequence of GFP was replaced with sequences corresponding to the translational initiation consensus. The expression of the resulting protein was contrasted with that of the wild type sequence, similarly engineered to bear an optimized translational initiation consensus (FIG. 10B and FIG. IOC). In addition, the effect of inclusion of the mutation Ser 65 - Thr, reported to improve excitation efficiency of GFP at 490 nm and hence preferred for fluorescence microscopy (Heim et al., Nature 373:663, 1995), was examined (FIG. 10D). Codon engineering conferred a significant increase in expression efficiency (an concomitant percentage of cells apparently positive for transfection), and the combination of the Ser 65 -Thr mutation and codon optimization resulted in a DNA segment encoding a highly visible mammalian marker protein (FIG. 10D). The above-described synthetic green fluorescent protein coding sequence was assembled in a similar manner as for gpl20 from six fragments of approximately 120 bp each, using a strategy for assembly that relied on the ability of the restriction enzymes Bsal and Bbsl to cleave outside of their recognition sequence. Long oligonucleotides were synthesized which contained portions of the coding sequence for GFP embedded in flanking sequences encoding EcoRI and Bsal at one end, and BamHI and Bbsl at the other end. Thus, each oligonucleotide has the configuration EcoRI/Bsal/GFP fragment/BbsI/BamHI. The restriction site ends generated by the Bsal and Bbsl sites were designed to yield compatible ends that could be used to join adjacent GFP fragments. Each of the compatible ends were designed to be unique and non-selfcomplementary. The crude synthetic DNA segments were amplified by PCR, inserted between EcoRI and BamHI in pUC9, and sequenced. Subsequently the intact coding sequence was assembled in a six fragment ligation, using insert fragments prepared with Bsal and Bbsl. Two of six plasmids resulting from the ligation bore an insert of correct size, and one contained the desired full length sequence. Mutation of Ser65 to Thr was accomplished by standard PCR based mutagenesis, using a primer that overlapped a unique BssSI site in the synthetic GFP. Codon optimization as a strategy for improved expression in mammalian cells The data presented here suggest that coding sequence re-engineering may have general utility for the improvement of expression of mammalian and non-mammalian eukaryotic genes in mammalian cells. The results obtained here with three unrelated proteins: HIV gpl20, the rat cell surface antigen Thy- 1 and green fluorescent protein from Aequorea victoria, and human Factor VIII (see below) suggest that codon optimization may prove to be a fruitful strategy for improving the expression in mammalian cells of a wide variety of eukaryotic genes. EXAMPLE HI Design of a Codon-Optimized Gene Expressing Human Factor VIII Lacking the Central B Domain A synthetic gene was designed that encodes mature human Factor VIII lacking amino acid residues 760 to 1639, inclusive (residues 779 to 1658, inclusive, of the precursor). The synthetic gene was created by choosing codons corresponding to those favored by highly expressed human genes. Some deviation from strict adherence to the favored residue pattern was made to allow unique restriction enzyme cleavage sites to be introduced throughout the gene to facilitate future manipulations. For preparation of the synthetic gene the sequence was then divided into 28 segments of 150 basepairs, and a 29th segment of 161 basepairs. The a synthetic gene expressing human Factor VIII lacking the central B domain was constructed as follows. Twenty-nine pairs of template oligonucleotides (see below) were synthesized. The 5' template oligos were 105 bases long and the 3' oligos were 104 bases long (except for the last 3' oligo, which was 125 residues long). The template oligos were designed so that each annealing pair composed of one 5' oligo and one 3' oligo, created a 19 basepair double-stranded regions. To facilitate the PCR and subsequent manipulations, the 5' ends of the oligo pairs were designed to be invariant over the first 18 residues, allowing a common pair of PCR primers to be used for amplification, and allowing the same PCR conditions to be used for all pairs. The first 18 residues of each 5' member of the template pair were cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc (SEQ ID NO: 1 10) and the first 18 residues of each 3' member of the template pair were: ggg gat cct cac gtc tea (SEQ ID NO:43). Pairs of oligos were annealed and then extended and amplified by PCR in a reaction mixture as follows: templates were annealed at 200 μg/ml each in PCR buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, 1.5 mM MgCl 2 , 50 mM KC1, 100 μg/ml gelatin, pH 8.3). The PCR reactions contained 2 ng of the annealed template oligos, 0.5 μg of each of the two 18-mer primers (described below), 200 μM of each of the deoxynucleoside triphosphates, 10% by volume of DMSO and PCR buffer as supplied by Boehringer Mannheim Biochemicals, in a final volume of 50 μl. After the addition of Taq polymerase (2.5 units, 0.5 μl; Boehringer Mannheim Biochemicals) amplifications were conducted on a Perkin-Elmer Thermal Cycler for 25 cycles (94°C for 30 sec, 55 °C for 30 sec, and 72°C for 30 sec). The final cycle was followed by a 10 minute extension at 72 °C. The amplified fragments were digested with EcoRI and BamHI (cleaving at the 5' and 3' ends of the fragments respectively) and ligated to a pUC9 derivative cut with EcoRI and BamHI. Individual clones were sequenced and a collection of plasmids corresponding to the entire desired sequence was identified. The clones were then assembled by multifragment ligation taking advantage of restriction sites at the 3' ends of the PCR primers, immediately adjacent to the amplified sequence. The 5' PCR primer contained a Bbsl site, and the 3' PCR primer contained a BsmBI site, positioned so that cleavage by the respective enzymes preceded the first nucleotide of the amplified portion and left a 4 base 5' overhang created by the first 4 bases of the amplified portion. Simultaneous digestion with Bbsl and BsmBI thus liberated the amplified portion with unique 4 base 5' overhangs at each end which contained none of the primer sequences. In general these overhangs were not self-complementary, allowing multifragment ligation reactions to produce the desired product with high efficiency. The unique portion of the first 28 amplified oligonucleotide pairs was thereby 154 basepairs, and after digestion each gave rise to a 150 bp fragment with unique ends. The first and last fragments were not manipulated in this manner, however, since they had other restriction sites designed into them to facilitate insertion of the assembled sequence into an appropriate mammalian expression vector. The actual assembly process proceded as follows. Assembly of the Synthetic Factor VIII Gene Step 1 : 29 Fragments Assembled to Form 10 Fragments. The 29 pairs of oligonucleotides, which formed segments 1 to 29 when base-paired, are described below. Plasmids carrying segments 1, 5, 9, 12, 16, 20, 24 and 27 were digested with EcoRI and BsmBI and the 170 bp fragments were isolated; plasmids bearing segments 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 13, 17, 18, 21, 25, and 28 were digested with Bbsl and BsmBI and the 170 bp fragments were isolated; and plasmids bearing segments 4, 8, 1 1, 14, 19, 22, 26 and 29 were digested with EcoRI and Bbsl and the 2440 bp vector fragment was isolated. Fragments bearing segments 1 , 2, 3 and 4 were then ligated to generate segment "A"; fragments bearing segments 5, 6, 7 and 8 were ligated to generate segment "B"; fragments bearing segments 9, 10 and 1 1 were ligated to generate segment "C"; fragments bearing segments 12, 13, and 14 were ligated to generate segment "D"; fragments bearing segments 16, 17, 18 and 19 were ligated to generate segment "F"; fragments bearing segments 20, 21 and 22 were ligated to generate segment "G"; fragments bearing segments 24, 25 and 26 were ligated to generate segment "I"; and fragments bearing segments 27, 28 and 29 were ligated to generate segment "J". Step 2: Assembly of the 10 resulting Fragments from Step 1 to Three Fragments. Plasmids carrying the segments "A", "D" and "G" were digested with EcoRI and BsmBI, plasmids carrying the segments B, 15, 23, and I were digested with Bbsl and BsmBI, and plasmids carrying the segments C, F, and J were digested with EcoRI and Bbsl. Fragments bearing segments A, B, and C were ligated to generate segment "K"; fragments bearing segments D, 15, and F were ligated to generate segment "0"; and fragments bearing segments G, 23, 1, and J were ligated to generate segment "P". Step 3: Assembly of the Final Three Pieces. The plasmid bearing segment K was digested with EcoRI and BsmBI, the plasmid bearing segment O was digested with Bbsl and BsmBI, and the plasid bearing segment P was digested with EcoRI and Bbsl. The three resulting fragments were ligated to generate segments. Step 4: Insertion of the Synthetic Gene in a Mammalian Expression Vector. The plasmid bearing segment S was digested with Nhel and Notl and inserted between Nhel and EagI sites of plasmid CD51NEgl to generate plasmid cd51sf8b-. Sequencing and Correction of the Synthetic Factor VIII Gene After assembly of the synthetic gene it was discovered that there were two undesired residues encoded in the sequence. One was an Arg residue at 749, which is present in the GenBank sequence entry originating from Genentech but is not in the sequence reported by Genentech in the literature. The other was an Ala residue at 146, which should have been Pro. This mutation arose at an unidentified step subsequent to the sequencing of the 29 constituent fragments. The Pro749Arg mutation was corrected by incoφorating the desired change in a PCR primer (ctg ctt ctg acg cgt get ggg gtg gcg gga gtt; SEQ ID NO:44) that included the Mlul site at position 2335 of the sequence below (sequence of Hindlll to Notl segment) and amplifying between that primer and a primer (ctg ctg aaa gtc tec age tgc; SEQ ID NO: 44) 5' to the SgrAI site at 2225. The SgrAI to Mlul fragment was then inserted into the expression vector at the cognate sites in the vector, and the resulting correct sequence change verified by sequencing. The Prol46Ala mutation was corrected by incoφorating the desired sequence change in an oligonucleotide (ggc agg tgc tta agg aga acg gcc eta tgg cca; SEQ ID NO:46) bearing the Aflll site at residue 504, and amplifying the fragment resulting from PCR reaction between that oligo and the primer having sequence cgt tgt tct tea tac gcg tct ggg get cct egg ggc (SEQ ID NO: 109), cutting the resulting PCR fragment with Aflll and Avrll at (residue 989), inserting the corrected fragment into the expression vector and confirming the construction by sequencing. Construction of a Matched Native Gene Expressing Human Factor VIII Lacking the Central B Domain A matched Factor VIII B domain deletion expression plasmid having the native codon sequence was constructed by introducing Nhel at the 5' end of the mature coding sequence using primer cgc caa ggg eta gcc gcc ace aga aga tac tac ctg ggt (SEQ ID NO:47), amplifying between that primer and the primer att cgt agt tgg ggt tec tct gga cag (corresponding to residues 1067 to 1093 of the sequence shown below), cutting with Nhel and Aflll (residue 345 in the sequence shown below) and inserting the resulting fragment into an appropriately cleaved plasmid bearing native Factor VIII. The B domain deletion was created by overlap PCR using ctg tat ttg atg aga ace g, (corresponding to residues 1813 to 1831 below) and caa gac tgg tgg ggt ggc att aaa ttg ctt t (SEQ ID NO:48) (2342 to 2372 on complement below) for the 5' end of the overlap, and aat gcc ace cca cca gtc ttg aaa cgc ca (SEQ ID NO:49) (2352 to 2380 on sequence below) and cat ctg gat att gca ggg ag (SEQ ID NO:50) (3145 to 3164). The products of the two individual PCR reactions were then mixed and reamplified by use of the outermost primers, the resulting fragment cleaved by Asp718 (Kpnl isoschizomer, 1837 on sequence below) and PflMI (3100 on sequence below), and inserted into the appropriately cleaved expression plasmid bearing native Factor VIII. The complete sequence (SEQ ID NO:41) of the native human factor VIII gene deleted for the central B region is presented in Figure 12. The complete sequence (SEQ ID NO:42) of the synthetic Factor VIII gene deleted for the central B region is presented in Figure 13. Preparation and assay of expression plasmids Two independent plasmid isolates of the native, and four independent isolates of the synthetic Factor VIII expression plasmid were separately propagated in bacteria and their DNA prepared by CsCl buoyant density centrifugation followed by phenol extraction. Analysis of the supernatants of COS cells transfected with the plasmids showed that the synthetic gene gave rise to approximately four times as much Factor VIII as did the native gene. COS cells were then transfected with 5 μg of each factor VIII construct per 6 cm dish using the DEAE-dextran method. At 72 hours post- transfection, 4 ml of fresh medium containing 10% calf serum was added to each plated. A sample of media was taken from each plate 12 hr later. Samples were tested by ELISA using mouse anti-human factor VIII light chain monoclonal antibody and peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-human factor VIII polyclonal antibody. Purified human plasma factor VIII was used as a standard. Cells transfected with the synthetic Factor VI 1 1 gene construct expressed 138 ± 20.2 ng/ml (equivalent ng/ml non-deleted Factor VIII) of Factor VIII (n=4) while the cells transfected with the native Factor VIII gene expressed 33.5 ± 0.7 ng/ml (equivalent ng/ml non-deleted Factor VIII) of Factor VIII (n=2). The following template oligonucleotides were used for construction of the synthetic Factor VIII gene. rl bbs 1 for (gcta) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc get age cgc cac 1 rl ccg ccg eta eta cct ggg cgc cgt gga get gtc ctg gga eta cat gca gag cga cct ggg cga get ccc cgt gga (SEQ ID NO:51) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea ggt ttt ctt gta 1 bam cac cac get ggt gtt gaa ggg gaa get ctt ggg cac gcg ggg ggg gaa gcg ggc gtc cac ggg gag etc gcc ca (SEQ ID NO: 52) rl bbs 2 for (aacc) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc aac cct gtt cgt 2 rl gga gtt cac cga cca cct gtt caa cat tgc caa gcc gcg ccc ccc ctg gat ggg cct get ggg ccc cac cat cca (SEQ ID NO: 53) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gtg cag get gac 2 bam ggg gtg get ggc cat gtt ctt cag ggt gat cac cac ggt gtc gta cac etc ggc ctg gat ggt ggg gcc cag ca (SEQ ID NO:54) rl bbs 3 for (gcac) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc gca cgc cgt ggg 3 rl cgt gag eta ctg gaa ggc cag cga ggg cgc cga gta cga cga cca gac gtc cca gcg cga gaa gga gga cga caa (SEQ ID NO: 55) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea get ggc cat agg 3 bam gcc gtt etc ctt aag cac ctg cca cac gta ggt gtg get ccc ccc egg gaa cac ctt gtc gtc etc ctt etc gc (SEQ ID NO: 56) rl bbs 4 for (cage) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cag cga ccc cct 4 rl gtg cct gac eta cag eta cct gag cca cgt gga cct ggt gaa gga tct gaa cag egg get gat egg cgc cct get (SEQ ID NO:57) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gaa cag cag gat 4 bam gaa ctt gtg cag ggt ctg ggt ttt etc ctt ggc cag get gcc etc gcg aca cac cag cag ggc gcc gat cag cc (SEQ ID NO: 58) rl bbs 5 for (gttc) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc gtt cgc cgt gtt 5 rl cga cga ggg gaa gag ctg gca cag cga gac taa gaa cag cct gat gca gga ccg cga cgc cgc cag cgc ccg cgc (SEQ ID NO:59) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gtg gca gcc gat 5 bam cag gcc ggg cag get gcg gtt cac gta gcc gtt aac ggt gtg cat ctt ggg cca ggc gcg ggc get ggc ggc gt (SEQ ID NO:60) rl bbs ό for (ccac) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cca ccg caa gag 6 rl cgt gta ctg gca cgt cat egg cat ggg cac cac ccc tga ggt gca cag cat ctt cct gga ggg cca cac ctt cct (SEQ ID NO:61) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea cag ggt ctg ggc 6 bam agt cag gaa ggt gat ggg get gat etc cag get ggc ctg gcg gtg gtt gcg cac cag gaa ggt gtg gcc etc ca (SEQ ID NO:62) rl bbs 7 for (cctg) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cct get gat gga 7 rl cct agg cca gtt cct get gtt ctg cca cat cag cag cca cca gca cga egg cat gga ggc tta cgt gaa ggt gga (SEQ ID NO:63) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gtc gtc gtc gta 7 bam gtc etc ggc etc etc gtt gtt ctt cat gcg cag ctg ggg etc etc ggg gca get gtc cac ctt cac gta age ct (SEQ ID NO:64) rl bbs 8 for (cgac) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cga cct gac cga 8 rl cag cga gat gga tgt cgt acg ctt cga cga cga caa cag ccc cag ctt cat cca gat ccg cag cgt ggc caa gaa (SEQ ID NO:65) ggg g at cct cac gtc tea tac tag egg ggc 8 bam gta gtc cca gtc etc etc etc ggc ggc gat gta gtg cac cca ggt ctt agg gtg ctt ctt ggc cac get gcg ga (SEQ ID NO:66) rl bbs 9 for (agta) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc agt act ggc ccc 9 rl cga cga ccg cag eta caa gag cca gta cct gaa caa egg ccc cca gcg cat egg ccg caa gta caa gaa ggt gcg (SEQ ID NO:67) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gag gat gcc gga 9 bam etc gtg ctg gat ggc etc gcg ggt ctt gaa agt etc gtc ggt gta ggc cat gaa gcg cac ctt ctt gta ctt gc (SEQ ID NO:68) rl bbs 10 for (cctc) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cct egg ccc cct 10 r 1 get gta egg cga ggt ggg cga cac cct get gat cat ctt caa gaa cca ggc cag cag gcc eta caa cat eta ccc (SEQ ID NO:69) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea ctt cag gtg ctt 10 bam cac gcc ctt ggg cag gcg gcg get gta cag ggg gcg cac gtc ggt gat gcc gtg ggg gta gat gtt gta ggg cc (SEQ ID NO:70) rl bbs 11 for (gaag) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc gaa gga ctt ccc 11 rl cat cct gcc egg cga gat ctt caa gta caa gtg gac cgt gac cgt gga gga egg ccc cac caa gag cga ccc ccg (SEQ ID NO:71) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gcc gat cag tec 1 1 bam gga ggc cag gtc gcg etc cat gtt cac gaa get get gta gta gcg ggt cag gca gcg ggg gtc get ctt ggt gg (SEQ ID NO:72) rl bbs 12 for (egge) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc egg ccc cct get 12 rl gat ctg eta caa gga gag cgt gga cca gcg egg caa cca gat cat gag cga caa gcg caa cgt gat cct gtt cag (SEQ ID NO:73) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea age ggg gtt ggg 12 bam cag gaa gcg ctg gat gtt etc ggt cag ata cca get gcg gtt etc gtc gaa cac get gaa cag gat cac gtt gc (SEQ ID NO:74) rl bbs 13 for (cget) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cgc tgg cgt gca 13 rl get gga aga tec cga gtt cca ggc cag caa cat cat gca cag cat caa egg eta cgt gtt cga cag cct gca get (SEQ ID NO:75) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea cag gaa gtc ggt 13 bam ctg ggc gcc gat get cag gat gta cca gta ggc cac etc atg cag gca cac get cag ctg cag get gtc gaa ca (SEQ ID NO:76) rl bbs 14 for (cctg) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cct gag cgt gtt 14 rl ctt etc egg gta tac ctt caa gca caa gat ggt gta cga gga cac cct gac cct gtt ccc ctt etc egg cga gac (SEQ ID NO: 77) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gtt gcg gaa gtc 14 bam get gtt gtg gca gcc cag aat cca cag gcc ggg gtt etc cat aga cat gaa cac agt etc gcc gga gaa ggg ga (SEQ ID NO:78) rl bbs 15 for (caac) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc caa ccg egg cat 15 rl gac tgc cct get gaa agt etc cag ctg cga caa gaa cac egg cga eta eta cga gga cag eta cga gga cat etc (SEQ ID NO:79) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gcg gtg gcg gga 15 bam gtt ttg gga gaa gga gcg ggg etc gat ggc gtt gtt ctt gga cag cag gta ggc gga gat gtc etc gta get gt (SEQ ID NO: 80) rl bbs 16 for (cege) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc ccg cag cac gcg 16 rl tea gaa gca gtt caa cgc cac ccc ccc cgt get gaa gcg cca cca gcg cga gat cac ccg cac cac cct gca aag (SEQ ID NO:81) ggg g at cct cac gtc tea gat gtc gaa gtc 16 bam etc ctt ctt cat etc cac get gat ggt gtc gtc gta gtc gat etc etc ctg gtc get ttg cag ggt ggt gcg gg (SEQ ID NO:82) rl bbs 17 for (catc) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cat eta cga cga 17 rl gga cga gaa cca gag ccc ccg etc ctt cca aaa gaa aac ccg cca eta ctt cat cgc cgc cgt gga gcg cct gtg (SEQ ID NO:83) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea ctg ggg cac get 17 bam gcc get ctg ggc gcg gtt gcg cag gac gtg ggg get get get cat gcc gta gtc cca cag gcg etc cac ggc gg (SEQ ID NO:84) rl bbs 18 for (ccag) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cca gtt caa gaa 18 rl ggt ggt gtt cca gga gtt cac cga egg cag ctt cac cca gcc cct gta ccg egg cga get gaa cga gca cct ggg (SEQ ID NO:85) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea ggc ttg gtt gcg 18 bam gaa ggt cac cat gat gtt gtc etc cac etc ggc gcg gat gta ggg gcc gag cag gcc cag gtg etc gtt cag ct (SEQ ID NO: 86) rl bbs 19 for (agcc) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc age etc ccg gcc 19 rl eta etc ctt eta etc etc cct gat cag eta cga gga gga cca gcg cca ggg cgc cga gcc ccg caa gaa ctt cgt (SEQ ID NO: 87) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea etc gtc ctt ggt 19 bam ggg ggc cat gtg gtg ctg cac ctt cca gaa gta ggt ctt agt etc gtt ggg ctt cac gaa gtt ctt gcg ggg ct (SEQ ID NO:88) rl bbs 20 for (cgag) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cga gtt cga ctg 20 rl caa ggc ctg ggc eta ctt cag cga cgt gga cct gga gaa gga cgt gca cag egg cct gat egg ccc cct get ggt (SEQ ID NO:89) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gaa cag ggc aaa 20 bam ttc ctg cac agt cac ctg cct ccc gtg ggg ggg gtt cag ggt gtt ggt gtg gca cac cag cag ggg gcc gat ca (SEQ ID NO:90) rl bbs 21 for (gttc) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc gtt ctt cac cat 21 rl ctt cga cga gac taa gag ctg gta ctt cac cga gaa cat gga gcg caa ctg ccg cgc ccc ctg caa cat cca gat (SEQ ID NO:91) ggg at cct cac gtc tea cag ggt gtc cat 21 bam gat gta gcc gtt gat ggc gtg gaa gcg gta gtt etc ctt gaa ggt ggg ate ttc cat ctg gat gtt gca ggg gg (SEQ ID NO:92) rl bbs 22 for (cctg) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cct gcc egg cct 22 rl ggt gat ggc cca gga cca gcg cat ccg ctg gta cct get gtc tat ggg cag caa cga gaa cat cca cag cat cca (SEQ ID NO:93) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gta cag gtt gta 22 bam cag ggc cat ctt gta etc etc ctt ctt gcg cac ggt gaa aac gtg gcc get gaa gtg gat get gtg gat gtt ct (SEQ ID NO:94) rl bbs 23 for (gtac) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc gta ccc egg cgt 23 rl gtt cga gac tgt gga gat get gcc cag caa ggc egg gat ctg gcg cgt gga gtg cct gat egg cga gca cct gca (SEQ ID NO:95) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea get ggc cat gcc 23 bam cag ggg ggt ctg gca ctt gtt get gta cac cag gaa cag ggt get cat gcc ggc gtg cag gtg etc gcc gat ca (SEQ ID NO:96) rl bbs 24 for (cage) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cag egg cca cat 24 rl ccg cga ctt cca gat cac cgc cag egg cca gta egg cca gtg ggc tec caa get ggc ccg cct gca eta cag egg (SEQ ID NO:97) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea cat ggg ggc cag 24 bam cag gtc cac ctt gat cca gga gaa ggg etc ctt ggt cga cca ggc gtt gat get gcc get gta gtg cag gcg gg (SEQ ID NO:98) rl bbs 25 for (catg) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc cat gat cat cca 25 rl egg cat caa gac cca ggg cgc ccg cca gaa gtt cag cag cct gta cat cag cca gtt cat cat cat gta etc tct (SEQ ID NO:99) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gtt gcc gaa gaa 25 bam cac cat cag ggt gcc ggt get gtt gcc gcg gta ggt ctg cca ctt ctt gcc gtc tag aga gta cat gat gat ga (SEQ ID NO: 100) rl bbs 26 for (caac) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc caa cgt gga cag 26 rl cag egg cat caa gca caa cat ctt caa ccc ccc cat cat cgc ccg eta cat ccg cct gca ccc cac cca eta cag (SEQ ID NO: 101) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gcc cag ggg cat 26 bam get gca get gtt cag gtc gca gcc cat cag etc cat gcg cag ggt get gcg gat get gta gtg ggt ggg gtg ca (SEQ ID NO:102) rl bbs 27 for (gggc) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc ggg cat gga gag 27 rl caa ggc cat cag cga cgc cca gat cac cgc etc cag eta ctt cac caa cat gtt cgc cac ctg gag ccc cag caa (SEQ ID NO: 103) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea cca etc ctt ggg 27 bam gtt gtt cac ctg ggg gcg cca ggc gtt get gcg gcc ctg cag gtg cag gcg ggc ctt get ggg get cca ggt gg (SEQ ID NO:104) rl bbs 28 for (gtgg) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc gtg get gca ggt 28 rl gga ctt cca gaa aac cat gaa ggt gac tgg cgt gac cac cca ggg cgt caa gag cct get gac cag cat gta cgt (SEQ ID NO: 105) ggg a cct cac gtc tea ctt gcc gtt ttg 28 bam gaa gaa cag ggt cca ctg gtg gcc gtc ctg get get get gat cag gaa etc ctt cac gta cat get ggt cag ca (SEQ ID NO: 106) rl bbs 29 for (caag) cgc gaa ttc gga aga ccc caa ggt gaa ggt 29 rl gtt cca ggg caa cca gga cag ctt cac ace ggt cgt gaa cag cct gga ccc ccc cct get gac ccg eta cct gcg (SEQ ID NO: 107) ggg gat cct cac gtc tea gcg gcc get tea 29 bam gta cag gtc ctg ggc etc gca gcc cag cac etc cat gcg cag ggc gat ctg gtg cac cca get ctg ggg gtg gat gcg cag gta gcg ggt cag ca (SEQ ID NO: 108) The codon usage for the native and synthetic genes described above are presented in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. TABLE 3: Codon Frequency of the Synthetic Factor VIII B Domain Deleted Gene AA Codon Number /1000 Fraction Gly GGG 7.00 4.82 0.09 Gly GGA 1.00 0.69 0.01 Gly GGT 0.00 0.00 0.00 Gly GGC 74.00 50.93 0.90 Glu GAG 81.00 55.75 0.96 Glu GAA 3.00 2.06 0.04 Asp GAT 4.00 2.75 0.05 Asp GAC 78.00 53.68 0.95 Val GTG 77.00 52.99 0.88 Val GTA 2.00 1.38 0.02 Val GTT 2.00 1.38 0.02 Val GTC 7.00 4.82 0.08 Ala GCG 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ala GCA 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ala GCT 3.00 2.06 0.04 Ala GCC 67.00 46.11 0.96 Arg AGG 2.00 1.38 0.03 Arg AGA 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ser AGT 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ser AGC 97.00 66.76 0.81 Lys AAG 75.00 51.62 0.94 Lys AAA 5.00 3.44 0.06 Asn AAT 0.00 0.00 0.00 Asn AAC 63.00 43.36 1.00 Met ATG 43.00 29.59 1.00 He ATA 0.00 0.00 0.00 He ATT 2.00 1.38 0.03 He ATC 72.00 49.55 0.97 Thr ACG 2.00 1.38 0.02 Thr ACA 1.00 0.69 0.01 Thr ACT 10.00 6.88 0.12 Thr ACC 70.00 48.18 0.84 Tφ TGG 28.00 19.27 1.00 End TGA 1.00 0.69 1.00 Cys TGT 1.00 0.69 0.05 Cys TGC 18.00 12.39 0.95 End TAG 0.00 0.00 0.00 End TAA 0.00 0.00 0.00 Tyr TAT 2.00 1.38 0.03 Tyr TAC 66.00 45.42 0.97 Leu TTG 0.00 0.00 0.00 Leu TTA 0.00 0.00 0.00 Phe TTT 1.00 0.69 0.01 Phe TTC 76.00 52.31 0.99 Ser TCG 1.00 0.69 0.01 Ser TCA 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ser TCT 3.00 2.06 0.03 Ser TCC 19.00 13.08 0.16 Arg CGG 1.00 0.69 0.01 Arg CGA 0.00 0.00 0.00 Arg CGT 1.00 0.69 0.01 Arg CGC 69.00 47.49 0.95 Gin CAG 62.00 42.67 0.93 Gin CAA 5.00 3.44 0.07 His CAT 1.00 0.69 0.02 His CAC 50.00 34.41 0.98 Leu CTG 1 18.00 81.21 0.94 Leu CTA 3.00 2.06 0.02 Leu CTT 1.00 0.69 0.01 Leu CTC 3.00 2.06 0.02 Pro CCG 4.00 2.75 0.05 Pro CCA 0.00 0.00 0.00 Pro CCT 3.00 2.06 0.04 Pro CCC 68.00 46.80 0.91 TABLE 4: Codon Frequency Table of the Native Factor VIII B Domain Deleted Gene AA Codon Number /1000 Fraction Gly GGG 12.00 8.26 0.15 Gly GGA 34.00 23.40 0.41 Gly GGT 16.00 11.01 0.20 Gly GGC 20.00 13.76 0.24 Glu GAG 33.00 22.71 0.39 Glu GAA 51.00 35.10 0.61 Asp GAT 55.00 37.85 0.67 Asp GAC 27.00 18.58 0.33 Val GTG 29.00 19.96 0.33 Val GTA 19.00 13.08 0.22 Val GTT 17.00 11.70 0.19 Val GTC 23.00 15.83 0.26 Ala GCG 2.00 1.38 0.03 Ala GCA 18.00 12.39 0.25 Ala GCT 31.00 21.34 0.44 Ala GCC 20.00 13.76 0.28 Arg AGG 18.00 12.39 0.25 Arg AGA 22.00 15.14 0.30 Ser AGT 22.00 15.14 0.18 Ser AGC 24.00 16.52 0.20 Lys AAG 32.00 22.02 0.40 Lys AAA 48.00 33.04 0.60 Asn AAT 38.00 26.15 0.60 Asn AAC 25.00 17.21 0.40 Met ATG 43.00 29.59 1.00 He ATA 13.00 8.95 0.18 He ATT 36.00 24.78 0.49 He ATC 25.00 17.21 0.34 Thr ACG 1.00 0.69 0.01 Thr ACA 23.00 15.83 0.28 Thr ACT 36.00 24.78 0.43 Thr ACC 23.00 15.83 0.28 Tφ TGG 28.00 19.27 1.00 End TGA 1.00 0.69 1.00 Cys TGT 7.00 4.82 0.37 Cys TGC 12.00 8.26 0.63 End TAG 0.00 0.00 0.00 End TAA 0.00 0.00 0.00 Tyr TAT 41.00 28.22 0.60 Tyr TAC 27.00 18.58 0.40 Leu TTG 20.00 13.76 0.16 Leu TTA 10.00 6.88 0.08 Phe TTT 45.00 30.97 0.58 Phe TTC 32.00 22.02 0.42 Ser TCG 2.00 1.38 0.02 Ser TCA 27.00 18.58 0.22 Ser TCT 27.00 18.58 0.22 Ser TCC 18.00 12.39 0.15 Arg CGG 6.00 4.13 0.08 Arg CGA 10.00 6.88 0.14 Arg CGT 7.00 4.82 0.10 Arg CGC 10.00 6.88 0.14 Gin CAG 42.00 28.91 0.63 Gin CAA 25.00 17.21 0.37 His CAT 28.00 19.27 0.55 His CAC 23.00 15.83 0.45 Leu CTG 36.00 24.78 0.29 Leu CTA 15.00 10.32 0.12 Leu CTT 24.00 16.52 0.19 Leu CTC 20.00 13.76 0.16 Pro CCG 1.00 0.69 0.01 Pro CCA 32.00 22.02 0.43 Pro CCT 26.00 17.89 0.35 Pro CCC 15.00 10.32 0.20 Use The synthetic genes of the invention are useful for expressing the a protein normally expressed in mammalian cells in cell culture (e.g. for commercial production of human proteins such as hGH, TPA, Factor VIII, and Factor IX). The synthetic genes of the invention are also useful for gene therapy. For example, a synthetic gene encoding a selected protein can be introduced in to a cell which can express the protein to create a cell which can be administered to a patient in need of the protein. Such cell-based gene therapy techniques are well known to those skilled in the art, see, e.g., Anderson, et al., U.S. Patent No. 5,399,349; Mulligan and Wilson, U.S. Patent No. 5,460,959. What is claimed is:

Claims: 1. A synthetic gene encoding a protein normally expressed in an eukaryotic cell wherein at least one non-preferred or less preferred codon in a natural gene encoding said protein has been replaced by a preferred codon encoding the same amino acid, said synthetic gene being capable of expressing 5 said protein at a level which is at least 110% of that expressed by said natural gene in an in vitro mammalian cell culture system under identical conditions. 2. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein said synthetic gene is capable of expressing said protein at a level which is at least 150% of that expressed by said natural gene in an in vitro cell culture system under identical 0 conditions. 3. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein said synthetic gene is capable of expressing said protein at a level which is at least 200% of that expressed by said natural gene in an in vitro cell culture system under identical conditions. 5 4. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein said synthetic gene is capable of expressing said protein at a level which is at least 500% of that expressed by said natural gene in an in vitro cell culture system under identical conditions. 5. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein said synthetic gene o comprises fewer than 5 occurrences of the sequence CG. 6. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein at least 10% of the codons in said natural gene are non-preferred codons. 7. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein at least 50% of the codons in said natural gene are non-preferred codons. 8. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein at least 50% of the non- preferred codons and less preferred codons present in said natural gene have 5 been replaced by preferred codons. 9. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein at least 90% of the non- preferred codons and less preferred codons present in said natural gene have been replaced by preferred codons. 10. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein said protein is normally l o expressed by a mammalian cell. 1 1. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein said protein is a retroviral protein. 12. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein said protein is a lentiviral protein. 15 13. The synthetic gene of claim 1 1 wherein said protein is an HIV protein. 14. The synthetic gene of claim 13 wherein said protein is selected from the group consisting of gag, pol, and env. 15. The synthetic gene of claim 13 wherein said protein is gpl20. 16. The synthetic gene of claim 13 wherein said protein is gpl60. 17. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein said protein is a human protein. 18. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein said human protein is Factor VIII. 19. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein 20% of the codons are preferred codons. 20. The synthetic gene of claim 18 wherein said gene has the coding sequence present in SEQ ID NO:42. 21. The synthetic gene of claim 1 wherein said protein is green fluorescent protein. 22. The synthetic gene of claim 20 wherein said synthetic gene is capable of expressing said green fluorescent protein at a level which is at least 200% of that expressed by said natural gene in an in vitro mammalian cell culture system under identical conditions. 23. The synthetic gene of claim 20 wherein said synthetic gene is capable of expressing said green fluorescent protein at a level which is at least 1000%o of that expressed by said n atural gene in an in vitro mammalian cell culture system under identical conditions. 24. The synthetic gene of claim 21 having the sequence depicted in Figure 1 1 (SEQ ID NO:40). 25. An expression vector comprising the synthetic gene of claim 1. 26. The expression vector of claim 21 , said expression vector being a mammalian expression vector. 27. A mammalian cell harboring with the synthetic gene of claim 1. 28. A method for preparing a synthetic gene encoding a protein normally expressed by mammalian cells, comprising identifying non-preferred and less-preferred codons in the natural gene encoding said protein and replacing one or more of said non-preferred and less-preferred codons with a preferred codon encoding the same amino acid as the replaced codon.

Inventors: HAAS JURGEN, SEED BRIAN, HAAS, JURGEN, SEED, BRIAN
Applicants: GEN HOSPITAL CORP, THE GENERAL HOSPITAL CORPORATION
Application year: 1997
Main classification: C07H21
IPC codes: C07K14, C12N5, C12N15, C12P21, C12R1