NUCLEAR-ENCODED TRANSCRIPTION SYSTEM IN PLASTIDS OF HIGHER PLANTS

Abstract: The present invention provides novel DNA constructs and methods for stably transforming the plastids of higher plants. The constructs described herein contain unique promoters that are transcribed by both nuclear encoded plastid polymerases and plastid encoded plastid polymerases. Use of the novel constructs of the invention facilitates transformation of a wider range of plant species and enables tissue specific expression of a transforming DNA in plastids of multicellular plants.

Description: NUCLEAR-ENCODED TRANSCRIPTION SYSTEM IN PLASTIDS OF HIGHER PLANTS FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to plant genetic engineering and particularly to plastid transformation in higher plants. The invention provides a novel promoter secruences useful for the expression of foreign genes of interest in various plant species. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Chloroplast genes are transcribed by an RNA polymerase containing plastid-encoded subunits homologous to the a, β and β x subunits of E. coli RNA polymerase. The promoters utilized by this enzyme are similar to E. coll σ 70 -promoters, consisting of -35 and -10 consensus elements (G.L. Igloi and H. Kossel, Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 10, 525, 1992; . Gruissem and J.C. Ton yn, Crit. Rev. Plant. Sci. 12:-19, 1993) Promoter selection by the plastid-encoded RNA polymerase is dependent on nuclear- encoded sigma-like factors ((Link et al. 1994, Plant promoters and transcription factors , Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, pp 63-83) . In addition, transcription activity from some promoters is modulated by nuclear- encoded transcription factors interacting with elements upstream of the core promoter (L.A. Allison and P. Maliga, EMBO J. , 14:3721-3730; R. Iratni, L. Baeza, A. Andreeva, R. Mache, S. Lerbs-Mache, Genes Dev. 8, 2928, 1994) . These factors mediate nuclear control of plastid gene expression in response to developmental and environmental cues. There has been speculation of the existence of a second transcription system in plastids. However, direct evidence to support such a speculation has heretofore been unavailable. Identification of a novel second transcription system in plastids represents a significant advance in the art of plant genetic engineering. Such a system enables greater flexibility and range in plant species available for plastid transformation, and facilitates tissue specific expression of foreign proteins and RNAs via constructs that can be manipulated by recombinant DNA techniques. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention provides DNA constructs and methods for stably transforming plastids of multicellular plants. The DNA constructε of the invention extend the range of plant species that may be transformed and facilitate tissue specific expression of foreign genes of interest. According to one aspect of the invention, DNA constructs are provided that contain novel promoter sequences recognized by a nuclear encoded plastid (NEP) RNA polymerase. The DNA construct contains a transforming DNA, which comprises a targeting segment, at least one cloning site adapted for insertion of at least one foreign gene of interest, the expression of the foreign gene of interest being regulated by a promoter recognized by a NEP polymerase, and a plastid selectable marker gene. The use of promoter elements recognized by plastid encoded plastid (PEP) RNA polymerase for enhancing expression of foreign genes of interest is another aspect of the instant invention. Like the constructs described above, these constructs also contain a targeting segment, and a cloning site for expression of a foreign gene of interest. The promoters recognized by plastid encoded plastid RNA polymerase have been well characterized in photosynthetic tissues such as leaf. In contrast, the nuclear-encoded polymerase transcription system of the present invention directs expression of plastid genes also in roots, seeds and meristematic tissue. In most plants, including maize, cotton and wheat, plant regeneration is accomplished through somatic embryogenesis (i.e., involving meristematic tissue) . In a preferred embodiment of the invention, efficient plastid transformation in these crops will be greatly facilitated, through the use of the NEP plastid transcription system, promoters and polymerases of the present invention. The NEP promoters of the invention are incorporated into currently available plastid transformation vectors and protocols for use thereof, such as those described in U.S. Patent No. 5,451,513 and pending U.S. Application No. 08/189,256, and also described by Svab & Maliga. , Proc . Natl . Acad . Sci . USA, 90, 913 (1993) , the disclosures of which are all incorporated herein by reference. To obtain transgenic plants, plastids of non-photosynthetic tissues are transformed with selectable marker genes expressed from NEP promoters and transcribed by the nuclear-encoded polymerase. Likewise, to express proteins of interest, expression cassettes are constructed for high level expression in non-photosynthetic tissue, using the NEP promoter transcribed from the nuclear-encoded polymerase. In another aspect of the invention, PEP promoters of the invention are incorporated into currently available plastid transformation vectors and protocols for use thereof. In yet another aspect of the invention, the NEP transcription system also may be combined with the σ 70 - type system through the use of dual NEP/PEP promoters. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Fig. 1. Deletion of rpoB from the tobacco plastid genome by targeted gene replacement. (A) Homologous recombination (diagonal lines) via plastid DNA - A - sequences flanking aadA in plasmid pLAA57 results in replacement of rpoB (Sac I to Sma I fragment) in the wild-type plastid genome (ptDNA) with aadA sequences, yielding the ΔrpoB plastid genome (ΔrpoB ptDNA) . Abbreviations: rpoB , rpoCl , rpoC2 are plastid genes encoding the β , β'and β * ' subunits of the E. coli-like RNA polymerase; aadA is a chimeric spectinomycin-resistance gene. Restriction enzyme recognition sites: P, Pst I; Sm, Sma I; Sc, Sac I. (B) Pigment deficiency is associated with the deletion of rpoB . Total cellular DNA was isolated ' from green (lanes 1,3,5) and white (lanes 2,4,6) leaf tissue from three independently transformed lines (Line Nt-pLAA57-llB, lanes 1 and 2; line Nt-pLAA57- 16B, lanes 3 and 4; line Nt-pLAA57-18C, lanes 5 and 6) and from wild-type green leaf tissue (Nt, lane 7) . The DNA was digested with Pst I, and the gel blot was hybridized with a DNA fragment (nucleotide positions 22883-24486 of the ptDNA, numbering according to K. Shinozaki, et al . , (EMBO J. 5, 2043, 1986)) containing part of rpoCl (thick black line in Fig. IA) . The probe hybridizes to a 9.0 kb fragment from the wild-type genome and a 4.2 kb fragment from the ArpoB ptDNA. (C) DNA gel- blot analysis confirms the lack of wild-type ptDNA copies in white shoots of line Nt-pLAA57-10A (lane 2) and white seed progeny of a grafted chimeric plant from the same line (lane 3) . DNA from wild-type green leaf tissue was loaded in lane 1. Note the absence of the wild-type pt DNA 9.0 kb fragment in ΔrpoB plants. The blot was prepared as for Fig. IB. Fig. 2. Deletion of rpoB results in a pigment- deficient phenotype. (A) Green wild-type (left) , pigment-deficient ArpoB (right) , and chimeric (center) plants are shown. (B) A flowering chimeric plant in the greenhouse. Note the white leaf margins indicating ΔrpoB plastids in the second leaf layer which forms the germline cells. Fig. 3. (A) Plastids (P) in leaf mesophyll cells of ArpoB plants lack organized photosynthetic membranes. Abbreviations: N, nucleus; V, vesicles, M, mitochondrion (B) For comparison an electron micrograph of a wild-type leaf chloroplast (Cp) with thylakoid membranes (T) is shown. Magnification in both (A) and (B) is 7,800X. Fig. 4. (Upper) Accumulation of plastid mRNAs for (A) photosynthetic genes and (B) genetic system genes in the ΔrpoB " plants. Gel blots were prepared with total cellular RNA (A, 3 μg per lane; B, 5 μg per lane) from wild-type (lanes 1,3,5) and ΔrpoB (lanes; 2,4,6) leaf tissue, and hybridized to the indicated plastid gene sequences. (Lower) Blots shown above were reprobed with 25S rDNA sequences. Hybridization signals were quantified with a Molecular Dynamics Phosphorimager and normalized to the 25S rRNA signal. The fold excess of wild-type over ΔrpoB signal intensities for each probe is shown below the lanes. Fig. 5. Transcription in the ΔrpoB plants initiates from a non-canonical promoter. (A) Primer extension analysis was used to map the 5' ends of rj c and 16SrDNA transcripts in wild-type (lanes 1,3) and ΔrpoB (lanes 2,4) plants. Primary transcripts are marked by circles (open for wild-type, closed for ΔrpoB;, processed transcripts by a triangle. Transcripts of unknown origin are starred. The accompanying sequence ladders (loading order GATC) were generated using the same primers that served in the primer extension reactions. Numbers beside each extension product mark the distance from the first nucleotide of the coding sequence for rJbα and from the first nucleotide of the mature 16S rRNA. (B) Mapping primary transcripts for 16S rRNA in wild-type (lane 2) and ΔrpoB (lane 3) plants. Total leaf RNA (20 μg ) was capped in vitro, and capped 16S rRNA species were identified by RNAse protection after hybridization with a complementary RNA probe. Capped protected products are marked as in (A) . Lane 1 contains RNA standards of the sizes indicated. (C) DNA sequence of the lβSrDNA upstream region with transcripts initiating from promoters for the plastid-encoded (σ 70" type, Pl) and nuclear-encoded (P2) polymerases (designation of Pl and P2 is based on A. Vera and M. Sugiura, Curr. Genet . 27, 280, 1995) . Consensus σ 70 promoter elements (-35 and -10) are boxed. Initiation sites are marked by circles, as in (A) and (B) . Numbering begins from the first nucleotide upstream of the 16SrDNA coding region (-1 = nucleotide 102757 in the tobacco plastid genome) . Fig. 6. Accumulation of plastid mRNAs in wild-type and ΔrpoB tobacco leaves. Blots for the plastid genes (see Example I) are grouped as follows. (A) mRNA is significantly more abundant in the leaves of wild-type than in ΔrpoB plants. (B) Levels of mRNA are comparable in wild-type and ΔrpoB leaves, or (C) are higher in ΔrpoB leaves. Gel blots were prepared with total cellular RNA (3 μg per lane) from wild-type (lanes 1) and ΔrpoB (lanes 2) leaf tissue, and hybridized to the indicated plastid gene sequences. (Lower panel) To control for loading, blots shown above were reprobed with 25S rDNA sequences. Fig. 7. Mapping atpB transcription initiation sites in wild-type and ΔrpoB tobacco leaves. (A) Primer extension analysis. End-labeled primer extension products from wild-type (wt) and ΔrpoB (T57) samples were run alongside the homologous sequence obtained by using the same primer. Numbers alongside the sequence refer to the distance from the ATG translation initiation codon. Primary transcripts from NEP and PEP promoters are marked by filled and open circles, respectively. (B) In vitro capping and RNase protection assay to identify primary transcript 5' ends. Lanes were loaded with ΔrpoB (T57; 1, 2) and wild-type (wt; 4,5) RNA samples with (2,4) and without (1,5) protecting complementary antisense RNA. Molecular weight (MW) markers (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 nucleotides) were loaded in lane 3. The transcript 5' end in (A) corresponds to the protected fragment size in brackets: -254 (277nt) , -289 (311). Note artifact slightly below the 200 nt marker which is present in the unprotected RNA samples. (C) Physical map of the atpB - rbcL intergenic region. Map position of the primary transcript 5' ends for the atpB NEP and PEP promoters are marked as in (A) . Fig. 8. Mapping atpl transcription initiation sites in wild-type and ΔrpoB tobacco leaves. (A) Primer extension analysis. End-labeled primer extension products from wild-type (wt) and ΔrpoB (T57) samples were run alongside the homologous sequence obtained by using the same primer. Numbers alongside the sequence refer to the distance from the ATG translation initiation codon. Primary transcripts from NEP and PEP promoters are marked by filled and open circles, respectively. (B) In vitro capping and RNAse protection assay to identify primary transcript 5' ends. Lanes were loaded with ΔrpoB (T57; 1, 2) and wild-type (wt; 4,5) RNA samples with (2,4) and without (1,5) protecting complementary antisense RNA. Molecular weight (MW) markers (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 nucleotides) were loaded in lane 3. The transcript 5' end in (A) corresponds to the protected fragment size in brackets: -130 (235nt) , -207, 209, 212 (303, 305, 309; not resolved). Note artifact slightly below the 200 nt marker which is present in the unprotected RNA samples. (C) Physical map of the rps2 -atpl intergenic region. Map position of the primary transcript 5' ends for the atpl NEP and PEP promoters are marked as in (A) . Fig. 9. Mapping clpP transcription initiation sites in wild-type and ΔrpoB tobacco leaves. (A) Primer extension analysis. End-labeled primer extension products from wild-type (wt) and ΔrpoB (T57) samples were run alongside the homologous sequence obtained by using the same primer. Numbers alongside the sequence refer to the distance from the ATG translation initiation codon. Primary transcripts from NEP and PEP promoters are marked by filled and open circles, respectively. (B) In vitro capping and RNAse protection assay to identify primary transcript 5 ' ends. Lanes were loaded with ΔrpoB (T57; 1, 2) and wild-type (wt; 4,5) RNA samples with (2.4) and without (1,5) protecting complementary antisense RNA. Molecular weight (MW) markers (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 nucleotides) were loaded in lane 3. The transcript 5' end in (A) correspond to the protected fragment size in brackets: -53 (96 nt) , -95 (138 nt) , -173 (216 nt) and -511 (69 nt) . Note artifact slightly below the 200 nt marker which is present in the unprotected RNA samples. (C) Physical map of the clpP psbB intergenic region. Map position of the primary transcript 5' ends for the clpP NEP and PEP promoters are marked as in (A) . Fig. 10. Mapping accD transcription initiation sites in wild-type and ΔrpoB tobacco leaves. (A) Primer extension analysis. End-labeled primer extension products from wild-type (wt) and ΔrpoB (T57) samples were run alongside the homologous sequence obtained by using the same primer. Numbers alongside the sequence refer to the distance from the ATG translation initiation codon. Primary transcript for the PaccD-129 NEP promoter is marked by a filled circle. (B) In vitro capping and RNAse protection assay to identify primary transcript 5 ' ends. Lanes were loaded with ΔrpoB (T57; 1, 2) and wild-type (wt; 4,5) RNA samples with (2,4) and without (1.5) protecting complementary antisense RNA. Molecular weight (MW) markers (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 nucleotides) were loaded in lane 3. The -57 transcript 5' end in (A) corresponds to the protected 103 nt fragment. Note artifact slightly below the 200 nt marker which is present in the unprotected RNA samples. (C) Physical map of the accD — rbcL intergenic region. Map position of the primary transcript 5• end for the PaccD-129 NEP promoter is marked. Fig. 11. Alignment of DNA sequences flanking the NEP promoter transcription initiation sites. Nucleotides with more than 6 matches are boxed. Consensus sequence adjacent to the transcription initiation site is shown below. Position of 5' ends are marked by filled circles. Note, that 5' ends for Prpsl2-152 and Prpsl6-107 were not capped and may not be primary transcripts. Fig. 12. NEP and PEP polymerases, through recognition of distinct promoters, provide a mechanism for selective transcription of plastid genes. Note that some genes have only PEP promoters (photosystem I and photosystem II) , others have both PEP and NEP promoters (most housekeeping genes) , or only NEP promoters (accD) . Fig. 13. A schematic diagram of a chimeric plastid gene expressed from a NEP promoter. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Several reports have suggested the existence of an additional plastid-localized, nuclear-encoded RNA polymerase (reviewed in Gruissem and Tonkyn, 1993; Igloi and Kossel, 1992; Mullet, 1993; Link, 1994). By deleting the rpoB gene encoding the essential β subunit of the tobacco E. coli-like RNA polymerase. The existence of a second plastid transcription system which is encoded by the nucleus has been established (Allison et al., 1996, EMBO J. 15:2802-2809). Deletion of rpoB yielded photosynthetically defective, pigment-deficient plants. An examination of plastid ultrastructure in leaf mesophyll cells of the ΔrpoB plants revealed proplastid-like organelles lacking the arrays of stacked thylakoid membranes which are characteristic of photosynthetically-active chloroplasts. Transcripts for the rbcL, psbA and psbD photosynthetic genes were low, whereas mRNAs for the rpll6, atpl and 16SrDNA genes accumulated to about wild-type, or higher than in wild-type levels. Lack of transcript accumulation for the photosynthetic genes was due to lack of σ 70 -type promoter activity. While in wild-type tobacco leaves the ribosomal RNA operon is normally transcribed from a σ 70 -type promoter, in the ΔrpoB plants the rRNA operon was transcribed from a non-σ 70 promoter. The rRNA operon is the first transcription unit for which both a plastid-encoded and nuclear-encoded plastid RNA polymerase (PEP and NEP, respectively) was identified. An analysis of the promoter regions of other genes has revealed that the rRNA operon is not unique. It is a member of a large class of plastid genes which have at least one promoter each for PEP and NEP, with a potential for expression by either of the two plastid RNA polymerases. In addition, plastid genes have been identified which are transcribed exclusively by NEP. Furthermore, the data suggest that additional gene-specific mechanisms regulate NEP transcript levels in different plastid types. A NEP transcriptional start site has been identified about 62 bases upstream of the mature 16S rRNA 5' terminus. The sequence surrounding the initiation site is highly conserved among numerous plant species examined, and bears no resemblance to the PEP promoter consensus sequence. NEP promoter consensus sequences important for nuclear encoded polymerase recognition and binding (analogous to the -10 and -35 sequences of the E. coli-type transcription initiation site) are preferentially located within about 50 nucleotides in either direction of the NEP transcription start site. As described in greater detail in Example 1, several different NEP promoters exist, and NEP promoters are sometimes found in conjunction with PEP promoters. The polymerases of the invention may be purified by chromatography, using standard methods. The NEP polymerase activity in column fractions can be assayed utilizing DNA segments comprising the NEP promoter region as templates in vitro transcription reactions. Alternatively, NEP promoter segments may be attached to ' a matrix which is separable by some means (e.g., magnetic beads). The matrix-bound DNA is incubated with a plant extract under conditions in which the nuclear encoded polymerase is expected to bind the DNA. The matrix/DNA/polymerase complex is then separated from the plant extract, and the bound protein may then be isolated and characterized. The protein purified by either of the above mentioned protocols may be used to produce antibodies to probe expression libraries, for the purpose of isolating the nuclear genes or cDNAs encoding the nuclear encoded polymerase. As an alternative approach for the isolation of the NEP polymerase, proteins with specific affinity for the promoter fragment can be isolated and the N-terminal amino acid sequence can be determined by microsequencing. The amino acid sequence can then be used to design appropriate PCR primers for gene isolation. The activity of the previously-known plastid- encoded σ 70 -type transcription system has been well characterized in photosynthetically active tissues, such as leaf. In contrast, the nuclear-encoded polymerase transcription system of the present invention directs expression of plastid genes also in roots, seeds and meristematic tissue. In most plants, including maize, cotton and wheat, plant regeneration is accomplished through somatic embryogenesis (i.e., involving meristematic tissue) . Efficient plastid transformation in these crops will be enabled, or greatly facilitated, through the use of the NEP plastid transcription system of the present invention. The NEP promoters of the invention can be incorporated into currently available plastid transformation vectors and protocols for use thereof, such as those described in U.S. Patent No. 5,451,513 and pending U.S. Application No. 08/189,256, and also described by Svab & Maliga., Proc. Natl . Acad. Sci . USA, 90, 913 (1993), all of which are incorporated herein by reference. To obtain transgenic plants, plastids of non- photosynthetic tissues are transformed with selectable marker genes expressed from NEP promoters and transcribed by the nuclear-encoded polymerase. Likewise, to express proteins of interest, expression cassettes are constructed for high level expression in non- photosynthetic tissue, using the NEP promoter transcribed from the nuclear-encoded polymerase. The NEP transcription system also may be combined with the σ 70 - type system through the use of dual NEP/PEP promoters. In some cases, expression of transgenes from NEP promoters in photosynthetic tissue also may be desirable. The detailed description set forth in Examples I-III below describes preferred methods for making and using the DNA constructs of the present invention and for practicing the methods of the invention. Any molecular cloning and recombinant DNA techniques not specifically described are carried out by standard methods, as generally set forth, for example, in Ausubel (ed.), Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1994) . The following nonlimiting Examples describe the invention in greater detail. EXAMPLE 1 Demonstration of a Second Distinct Plastid Transcription Svstem bv Deletion of rpoB To establish the existence of a non-]?. coli- like RNA polymerase in plastids, the gene for one of the essential subunits of the E. coli-like enzyme was deleted from the tobacco plastid genome. mRNA levels were then assessed in mutant plastids. The data indicate that, in the absence of the plastid-encoded E . coli-like enzyme, expression of some photogenes is dramatically reduced. In contrast, transcript levels for the plastid genes encoding the gene expression apparatus are similar to levels in wild-type plantε. Therefore the non-B. coli - like RNA polymerase selectively transcribes a subset of plastid genes. This second transcription apparatus does not initiate from typical E . coli σ 70 -promoters but recognizes a novel promoter sequence. Materials and Methods for Example I Plasmid construction. Plasmid pLAA57 is a pBSKS+ (Stratagene) derivative which carries a Sac I to Bam HI fragment (nucleotides 22658 to 29820) of the ptDNA. An internal Sac I to Sma I DNA fragment within the ptDNA insert, between nucleotides 24456 and 28192, was replaced by a chimeric spectinomycin-resistance (aadA) gene. The aadA gene is identical to that described (Z. Svab and P. Maliga, Proc . Natl . Acad . Sci . USA, 90, 913, 1993), except that the psbA 3' region is shorter and is contained in an Xba I to Dra I fragment as described (J.M. Staub and P. Maliga, Plant J. 6, 547, 1994) . Plant Transformation . For plastid transformation tungsten particles were coated (Z. Svab and P. Maliga, Proc . Natl . Acad . Sci . USA, 90, 913, 1993) with pLAA57 DNA, and introduced into the leaves of Nicotiana tabacum plants using the DuPont PDSlOOOHe Biolistic gun at 1100 p.s.i. Transgenic shoots were selected aseptically on RMOP medium (Z. Svab, P. Hajdukiewicz, P. Maliga, Proc . Natl . Acad . Sci . USA 87, 8526, 1990) containing 500mg/ml spectinomycin dihydrochloride. Transgenic cuttings were rooted and maintained on RM medium consisting of agar-solidified MS salts (T. Murashige and F. Skoog, Physiol . Plant . , 15, 493, 1962) containing 3% sucrose. Electron Microscopy. Electron microscopy was done on fully expanded leaves from wild-type and ΔrpoB cuttings grown in sterile culture on RM medium with 3% sucrose. Tissue was fixed for 2 hours in 2% glutaraldehyde, 0.2M sucrose, O.lM phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) at room temperature, and washed three times in 0.2M sucrose, O.lM phosphate buffer. Fixed tissues were postfixed in buffered 1% osmium tetroxide with 0.2M sucrose, dehydrated in a graded ethanol series, embedded in Spurr's epoxy resin (hard) , sectioned, and stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate for transmission electron microscopy. Gel blots . Total leaf DNA was prepared as described (I.J. Mettler, Plant Mol . Biol . Rep. , 5, 346, 1987) , digested with restriction endonuclease Pst I, separated on 0.7% agarose gels, and transferred to Hybond N (Amersham) using the Posiblot Transfer apparatus (Stratagene) . Hybridization to a random-prime labeled fragment was carried out in Rapid Hybridization Buffer (Amersham) overnight at 65°C. Total leaf RNA was prepared using TRIzol (GIBCO BRL), following the manufacturer's protocol. The RNA was electrophoresed on 1% agarose/formaldehyde gels, then transferred to nylon membrane and probed as for the DNA blots. Synthesis of Probes . Double-stranded DNA probes for psbA, atpl, and rpllβ were prepared by random- primed 32 P-labeling of PCR-generated DNA fragments. The sequence of the primers used for PCR, along with their positions within the tobacco ptDNA (K. Shinozaki, et al . , EMBO J. 5, 2043, 1986) are as follows: psbA, 5 1 primer = 5'-CGCTTCTGTAACTGG-3 ' (complementary to nucleotides 1550 to 1536 of the ptDNA), 3' primer = 5 1 - TGACTGTCAACTACAG-3 ' (nucleotides 667 to 682); atpJ 5' primer = 5 • -GTTCCATCAATACTC-3 ' (complementary to nucleotides 15985 to 15971), 3' primer = 5'- GCCGCGGCTAAAGTT-3 • (nucleotides 15292 to 15306); rpllδ 5' primer = 5 • -TCCCACGTTCAAGGT-3 • (complementary to nucleotides 84244 to 84230), 3' primer = 5 1 - TGAGTTCGTATAGGC-3 • (nucleotides 83685 to 83699). To generate probes for rbcL, psbD/C and 16S rRNA, the following restricted DNA fragments were 32 P-labeled: rbcL, a Bam HI fragment (nucleotides 58047 to 59285 in the ptDNA) ; psbD/C, a Sac II to Hind III fragment of the tobacco psbD/C operon (nucleotides 34691-36393) ; 16S rRNA, an Eco RI to Eco RV fragment (nucleotides 138447 to 140855 in the ptDNA) . The probe for tobacco 25S rRNA was from plasmid pKDRl (D. Dempsey, K.W. Wobbe, D.F. Klessig, Mol . Plant Path . 83, 1021, 1993) containing a 3.75 kb Eco RI fragment from a tobacco 25S/18S locus cloned in plasmid pBR325. When hybridizing gel-blots for 25S rRNA, 32 P- labeled double-stranded DNA probe was mixed with unlabeled plasmid pKDRl corresponding to a 2-fold excess over the amount of RNA present on the filter. Normalizing DNA levels by plastid genome copy number. To test whether changes in plastid genome copy number contributed to the estimated differences in gene expression, total cellular DNA and RNA were prepared from equal amounts of leaf tissue from wild-type and ΔrpoB plants. To compare the number of plastid genome copies per equivalent leaf mass, DNA gel-blots were carried out with an equal volume of each DNA preparation and probed with a radiolabeled Eco RI to Eco RV fragment (from nucleotides 138447 to 140845 of ptDNA (K. Shinozaki, et al . , EMBO J. 5, 2043, 1986) of lβSrDNA sequence. Quantitation by Phosphorimage analysis demonstrated an equal number of plastid genome copies in each sample. The amount of 16S rRNA from equal tissue samples, as measured by RNA gel-blots on equal volumes of each RNA preparation, was reduced by 2.5-fold in the ΔrpoB plants. This value is similar to the 3-fold reduction estimated when normalizing with the cytoplasmic 25S rRNA signal (Fig. 3B) . Primer extension reactions. Primer extension reactions were carried out on 3 μg (wild-type) or 10 μg (ΔrpoB) of total leaf RNA as described (L.A. Allison and P. Maliga, EMBO J. , in press) using the following primers: 16S rRNA: 5 '-TTCATAGTTGCATTACTTATAGCTTC-3 ' (complementary to nucleotides 102757-102732); rbcL : 5'- ACTTGCTTTAGTCTCTGTTTGTGGTGACAT (complementary to nucleotides 57616-57587) . Sequence ladders were generated with the same primers using the Sequenase II kit (USB) . Identification of primary transcripts by in vitro capping. Total leaf RNA (20 μg) from wild-type and ArpoB plants was capped in the presence of [α- 32 P]GTP (J.C. Kennell and D.R. Pring, Mol . Gen . Genet . 216, 16, 1989) . Labeled 16S rRNAs were detected by ribonuclease protection (A. Vera and M. Sugiura, Plant Mol . Biol . 19, 309, 1992) using the RPAII kit (Ambion) . To prepare the protecting complementary RNA, the 16SrDNA upstream region (nucleotides 102526-102761 of the ptDNA) was PCR- amplified using the following primers: 5' primer was 5'- CCTCTAGACCCTAAGCCCAATGTG-3 ' corresponding to nucleotides 102526 and 102541 of the ptDNA (K. Shinozaki, et al . , EMBO J. 5, 2043, 1986), underlined) plus an Xbal site; 3' primer was 5'-CCGGTACCGAGATTCATAGTTGCATTAC-3 ' complementary to nucleotides 102761 to 102742 of the ptDNA (underlined) plus a Kpn I site. The amplified product was cloned as an Xba I to Kpn I fragment into Xba I and Kpn I-restricted pBSKS+ vector (Stratagene) . To generate unlabeled RNA complimentary to the 5' end of 16S rRNAs, the resulting plasmid was linearized with Xba I, and transcribed in a Megascript (Ambion) reaction with T3 RNA polymerase. Markers (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 nucleotides) were prepared with the RNA Century Markers Template Set (Ambion) , following the manufacturer's protocol. The 72 nucleotide marker was the mature processed transcript from the plastid trnV gene, and was generated by RNAse protection. Results and Discussion Disruption of the E. coli-l±ke UNA polymerase activity in tobacco plastids results in a pigment- deficient phenotype. To avoid disrupting plastid genes for other functions the rpoB gene was targeted for deletion, since it is the first reading frame of an operon encoding exclusively subunits of the E. coli-like plastid polymerase (K. Shinozaki, et al . , EMBO J . 5, 2043, 1986). The deletion was accomplished by replacing most of the rpoB coding region (3015 out of 3212 base pairs) and 691 bp of upstream non-coding sequence, with a chimeric spectinomycin resistance (aadA) gene (Z. Svab and P. Maliga, Proc . Natl . Acad . Sci . USA, 90, 913, 1993) in a cloned plastid DNA (ptDNA) fragment. The resulting plasmid was introduced by particle bombardment into tobacco chloroplasts, where the aadA gene integrated into the plastid genome via flanking plastid DNA sequences as diagrammed in Fig. IA. Since the plastid genetic system is highly polyploid, with every leaf cell containing up to 10,000 identical copies of the ptDNA, selective amplification of transformed genome copies was carried out by growing the bombarded tissue on spectinomycin- containing medium (P. Maliga, Trends Biotechnol . 11, 101, 1993) . From the initial round of selection several spectinomycin-resistant plants exhibiting sectors of white leaf tissue were obtained (Fig. 2A) . DNA gel-blot analysis of white and green sectors indicated that the pigment-deficiency was correlated with deletion of rpoB in three independently transformed lines (Fig. IB) . Most DNA samples from the pigment-deficient tissue, for example lane 4 in Fig. IB, contained a mix of wild-type and transformed genome copies. The complete absence of wild-type ptDNA copies was critical for the interpretation of the data. Therefore, to obtain plants containing only transformed plastid genomes, shoots were regenerated from the white tissue sectors. This procedure yielded uniformly white plants (Fig. 2A) which contained no wild-type ptDNA as judged by DNA gel-blot analysis (Fig. IC) . Regeneration from these white leaves on spectinomycin-free medium yielded exclusively pigment- deficient shoots, confirming the complete absence of wild-type plastid genomes in all leaf layers and cell types. It is difficult to obtain seed from tobacco plants grown in sterile culture. Fortuitously, during plant regeneration from primary transformants, we obtained a periclinal chimera (S. Poethig, Trends Genetics 5, 273, 1989) homoplasmic for the plastid mutation in the L2 leaf layer (Fig. 2A) . This line was grafted on wild-type tobacco and was raised to maturity in the greenhouse (Fig. 2B) . Seed from self-pollinated flowers gave rise to uniformly white seedlings, in which no wild-type plastid genomes could be detected by DNA gel-blot analysis (Fig. IC) . Plastids in leaves of the ΔrpoB plants lack thylakoid membranes . The pigment-deficient ArpoB plants were unable to grow photoautotrophically. However, if maintained on sucrose-containing medium to compensate for their lack of photosynthesis, they grew normally but at a reduced rate compared to wild-type plants, and exhibited no noticeable changes in organ morphology. Moreover, ΔrpoB seedlings germinated at a high efficiency, and developed into plants. These observations indicate that the E. coli-like plastid RNA polymerase is not required for maintenance of the nonphotosynthetic plastid functions necessary for plant growth and differentiation. An examination of plastid ultrastructure in leaf mesophyll cells of the ΔrpoB plants revealed that the mutant plastids were smaller and rounder than wild¬ type chloroplasts, averaging 2-5 μm in length as compared to 5-9 μm for wild-type chloroplasts. The ΔrpoB plastids are thus larger than undifferentiated proplastids whose average size is 1 μm (M.R. Thomas and R.J. Rose, Planta 158, 329, 1983). In addition, ArpoB plastids typically contained multiple vesicles of irregular size and shape, and lacked the arrays of stacked thylakoid membranes which are characteristic of photosynthetically-active chloroplasts (Fig. 3) . Transcription of plastid genes is maintained in ΔrpoB plastids . In the absence of the β subunit, no transcription was expected from plastid σ 70 -type promoters. To determine whether any transcription activity was maintained in the ΔrpoB plastids, accumulation of RNAs was examined by RNA gel-blot analysiε. Transcripts were surveyed for two different classes of plastid genes (K. Shinozaki, et al . , EMBO J . 5, 2043, 1986). The first group included genes encoding subunits of the photosynthetic apparatus: the psbD/C operon, encoding subunits D2 and CP43 of photosystem II; rbcL, encoding the large subunit of ribuloεe-1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase; and psbA, encoding the Dl subunit of the photosystem II reaction center. The second group contained genes for components of the gene expression apparatus: rpllβ encoding a ribosomal protein subunit, and the 16SrDNA gene. All plastid RNA quantitations were normalized to cytoplasmic 25S ribosomal RNA levels. Surprisingly, accumulation of mRNAs was detected for all the genes examined. However, the effect of the rpoB deletion on transcript accumulation was dramatically different for the two classes of genes. The steady-state mRNA levels of the photosynthetic genes psbD/C, rbcL, and psbA, were reduced 40- to 100-fold compared to wild-type levels (Fig. 4A; signals were visible in all ΔrpoB lanes upon longer exposure) . In contrast, transcript levels for nuclear encoded polymerase genes were much less affected. A 3-fold reduction for 16S rRNA was measured, and an actual increase for the multiple transcripts arising from the polycistronic operon containing the rpllβ gene was also observed (Fig. 4B) . These data indicate that, while expression of genes encoding the photosynthetic apparatus is defective in the ΔrpoB plants, the RNAs for genes involved in housekeeping functions accumulate to approximately wild-type, or higher, levels. The 16SrDNA gene is transcribed from a novel promoter in ΔrpoB plants. The accumulation of plastid RNAs confirmed that there is RNA polymerase activity in plaεtids lacking the β εubunit of the E . coli-like enzyme. However, migration of plastid genes to the nucleus has been documented (S.L. Baldauf and J.D. Palmer, Nature 334, 262, 1990; J.S. Gantt, S.L. Baldauf, P.J. Calie, N.F. Weeden, J.D. Palmer, EMBO J. 10, 3073, 1991; M.W. Gray, Curr. Op . Genet . Dev . 3, 884, 1993) . Therefore, transcription in ΔrpoB plastids could still conceivably initiate from σ 70 -type promoters if there existed a nuclear copy of rpoB , whose product could be imported into plastidε and aεεembled into functional E. coli-like enzyme. To eεtabliεh whether the plastid transcripts detected in ArpoB plants were productε of transcription from a σ 70 -type promoter, the 5 1 transcript ends for four genes were mapped, rbcL (K. Shinozaki and M. Sugiura, Gene 20, 91, 1982), lβSrDNA (A. Vera and M. Sugiura, Curr. Genet . 27, 280, 1995), psbA (M. Sugita and M. Sugiura, Mol . Gen . Genet . 195, 308, 1984) and psbD (W.B. Yao, B.Y. Meng, M. Tanaka, M. Sugiura, Nucl . Acids Res . 17, 9583, 1989), for which the transcription initiation sites have been establiεhed previously. None of the 5' ends mapped to σ 70 -type promoter initiation sites (data are shown for rbcL and 16SrDNA in Fig. 5A) . Therefore it was concluded that the residual RNA polymerase activity in the ΔrpoB plastidε waε not due to an E. coli-like enzyme, but represents a second unique plastid transcription system. This distinct RNA polymerase enzyme is referred to as the Nuclear Encoded Plastid RNA polymerase (NEP) , to distinguish it from the E. coli-like enzyme which we designate Plastid Encoded Plastid RNA polymerase (PEP) . Since the tobacco plastid genome has been fully sequenced, and since the few unidentified reading frameε bear no sequence similarity to known RNA polymerase subunits (K. Shinozaki, et al . , EMBO J. 5, 2043, 1986), transcription by the nuclear encoded RNA polymerase relies on nuclear gene products. In the absence of transcription from σ 70 - type promoters in the ΔrpoB plants, the question remained: what promoters were the source of the plastid RNAs. The 16S rRNA 5' end detected in the ΔrpoB plants mapped 62 nucleotides upstream of the mature 16S rRNA 5' terminus (Fig. 5A) . This 5' end was determined to be a primary transcript by in vitro capping (Fig. 5B) . A prominent primary transcript with a similar 5' end was recently reported in proplastids of heterotr—>hically- cultured tobacco cells, and waε deεignated P2 (A. Vera and M. Sugiura, Curr. Genet . 27, 280, 1995; This transcript is also present at very low levels in wild¬ type leaf cells (A. Vera and M. Sugiura, Curr. Genet . 27, 280, 1995; Fig. 5A longer exposure, not shown) . The sequence surrounding the initiation site is highly conserved among all plant species examined, and bears no resemblance to the σ 70 consensus sequence (A. Vera and M. Sugiura, Curr. Genet . 27, 280, 1995). Based on its prominent usage in the ArpoB plants, it was concluded that this unique promoter is utilized by the NEP transcription apparatus. In contrast to the 16S rRNA, the major transcripts for the photosynthetic genes rbcL, and psbD/C mapped to previously-characterized processed ends (data shown for rJbσi Fig 5; L. Hanley-Bowdoin, E.M. Orozco, N.- H. Chua, Mol . Cell . Biol . 5, 2733, 1985; J.E. Mullet, E.M. Orozco, N.-H. Chua, Plant Mol . Biol . 4, 39, 1985; S. Reinbothe, C. Reinbothe, C. Heintzen, C. Seidenbecher, B. Parthier, EMBO J. 12, 1505, 1993). Additional minor transcript ends mapped upstream of the processed termini. Therefore, the low levels of transcript accumulation for these photosynthetic geneε are the result of upstream promoter activity and subεequent proceεεing of the readthrough RNAε to yield correctly-εized tranεcripts. Proposed roles for the two plastid transcription systems . In the ΔrpoB plants there is accumulation of RNAs transcribed by the NEP syεtem. Thiε indicateε a role for the nuclear encoded RNA polymeraεe in maintaining the expression of plastid housekeeping genes. Apparently these expression levels are sufficient to support the growth and differentiation of non- photoautotrophic plants. In contrast, the E . coli-like PEP RNA polymeraεe iε required to provide the high levels of plastid gene transcripts necessary for development of photoεynthetically active chloroplaεtε. The proposed role for the nuclear encoded RNA polymerase implies a high demand for its function during the early phases of chloroplast development, before the PEP RNA polymerase iε active (J.E. Mullet, Plant Physiol . , 103, 309, 1993). Developmental regulation of a nuclear-encoded RNA polymerase is supported by the observation that the nuclear encoded polymerase P2 promoter of the IδSrDNA gene is more ' active in proplastids of cultured tobacco cells than in leaf chloroplasts (A. Vera and M. Sugiura, Curr. Genet . 27, 280, 1995). EXAMPLE II Transcription by two distinct RUA polymerases is a general regulatory mechanism of gene expression in higher plants As described in Example I, accumulation of tranεcriptε in plantε lacking the PEP polymeraεe led to the identification of a NEP promoter for the plastid ribosomal RNA operon (Allison et al. 1996, EMBO J. 14:3721-3730). To facilitate mapping of additional NEP promoters, mRNA accumulation waε examined in ΔrpoB plantε for most classeε of plastid genes. The novel promoter sequences described herein may be used to extend the range of species within such plastid transformation is feasible and to drive expression of foreign genes of interest in a tissue specific manner. Materials and Methods for Example II .RNA Gel blots Total leaf RNA was prepared using TRIzol (GIBCO BRL), following the manufacturer's protocol. The RNA was electrophoresed on 1% agarose/formaldehyde gels, then transferred to Hybond N (Amersham) using the Posiblot Transfer apparatus (Stratagene) . Hybridization to random-primer labeled fragment was carried out in Rapid Hybridization Buffer (Amersham) overnight at 65°C. Double-stranded DNA probeε were prepared by random-primed 32 P-labeling of PCR-generated DNA fragments. The sequence of the primers used for PCR, along with their positions within the tobacco ptDNA (Shinozaki, et al. , 1986, supra) are as follows: Gene 5' nucleotide Sequence posl-tion in plastid DNA accD 60221 GGATTTAGGGGCGAA 60875 GTGATTTTCTCTCCG atpB 56370(C) AGATCTGCGCCCGCC 55623 CCTCACCAACGATCC atpl 15985(C) GTTCCATCAATACTC 15292 GCCGCGGCTAAAGTT clpP 73621(C) GACTTTATCGAGAAAG 73340 GAGGGAATGCTAGACG ndhA 122115(C) GATATAGTGGAAGCG 121602 GTGAAAGAAGTTGGG ndhB 97792(C) CAGTCGTTGCTTTTC 97057 CTATCCTGAGCAATT ndhF 113366(C) CTCGGCTTCTTCCTC 112749 CTCCGTTTTTACCCC ORF1901 129496(C) GTGACTATCAAGAGG 128895 GACTAACATACGCCCG ORF2280 92881 GCTCGGGAGTTCCTC 93552 TGCTCCCGGTTGTTC petB 78221 GGTTCGAAGAACGTC 78842 GGCCCAGAAATACCT psaA 43467(C) TTCGTTCGCCGGAACC 42743 GATCTCGATTCAAGAT psbB 75241 GGAGCACATATTGTG 75905 GGATTATTGCCGATG psbE 66772(C) CAATATCAGCAATGCAGTTCATCC 66452 GGAATCCTTCCAGTAGTATCGGCC rpsl4 38621 CACGAAGTATGTGTCCGGATAGTCC rpl33/rpll8 70133 GGAAAGATGTCCGAG 70636 GTTCACTAATAAATCGAC The rpsl6 mRNA was probed with an EcoRI fragment iεolated from plaεmid pJS40, containing εequenceε between nucleotideε 4938/5363 and 6149/6656 of the tobacco ptDNA (Shinozaki et al., 1986, supra). The probe for tobacco 25S rRNA was from plasmid pKDRl (De psey et al., Mol. Plant Path. 83:1021, 1993) containing a 3.75 kb EcoRI fragment from a tobacco 25S/18S locus cloned in plasmid pBR325. When hybridizing gel-blots for 25S rRNA, 32 P-labeled double-εtranded DNA probe waε mixed with unlabeled plasmid pKDRl corresponding to a 2-fold excess over the amount of RNA present on the filter. Primer extension reactions Primer extension reactions were carried out on 10 μg (wild-type) or 10 μg (ΔrpoB) of total leaf RNA as described (Allison and Maliga, 1995 EMBO J. 15:2802-2809) . The primers are listed below. Underlined oligonucleotides were also used to generate the capping constructs. Gene 5 ' nucleotide Sequence position in plastid DNA accD 59758 CCGAGCTCTTATTTCCTATCAGACTAAGC atpB 56736 CCCCAGAACCAGAAGTAGTAGGATTGA atpl 15973 GTATTGATGGAACATGATAGAACAT clpP#l 74479 GGGACTTTTGGAACACCAATAGGCAT clpP#2 74947 GGGAGCTCCATGGGTTTGCCTTGG ORF1901 31451 CTTCATGCATAAGGATACTAGATTACC ORF2280 87419 GGGAGCTCTACATGAAGAACATAAGCC rps2 16921 CCAATATCTTCTTGTCATTTCTCTC rpsl6 6185 CATCGTTTCAAACGAAGTTTTACCAT Sequence ladders were generated with the same primers uεing the Sequenase II kit (USB) . Identification of primary transcripts by in vitro capping Total leaf RNA (20 mg) from wild-type and ΔrpoB plants was capped in the presence of [a-32P]GTP (Kennell and Pring, 1989 Mol Gen. Genet., 216:16-24) . Labeled RNAs were detected by ribonuclease protection (Vera and Sugiura, 1992, supra) using the RPAII kit (Ambion) . To prepare the protecting complementary RNA, the 16SrDNA upεtream region (nucleotideε 102526-102761 of the ptDNA) waε PCR-amplified uεing the primerε liεted below. The 5' primerε were deεigned to add an Xbal reεtriction εite(underlined) upstream of the amplified fragment. The 3 ' primers were deεigned to add a Kpnl site (underlined) downstream of the amplified sequence. The amplified product was cloned as an Xbal to Kpnl fragment into Xbal- and Kpnl-restricted pBSKS+ vector (Stratagene) . To generate unlabeled RNA complementary to the 5 ' end of RNAs, the resulting plaεmid waε linearized with Xbal, and tranεcribed in a Megaεcript (Ambion) reaction with T3 RNA polymeraεe. Markers (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 nucleotides) were prepared with the RNA Century Markers Template Set (Ambion), following the manufacturer's protocol. Gene 5' nucleotide Sequence position in plastid DNA accD 59758 CCGAGCTCTTATTTCCTATCAGACTAAGC 59576 CCGGTACCATAGGAGAAGCCGCCC atpB 56750 CCGAGCTCGTAGTAGGATTGATTCTCA 57131(C) CCGGTACCGGAGCCAATTAGATACAAA atpl 15895 CCGAGCTCTGACTTGGAAACCCCC 16277(C) CCGAATTCTAGTATTCGCAATTTGT clpP 74462 GGGAGCTCCAGGACTTCGGAAAGG 74752(C) GGGGTACCAATACGCAATGGGG 74947 GGGAGCTCCATGGGTTTGCCTTGG 75080(C) GGGGTACCGCTAATTCATACAGAG ORF1901 31424 GGGAGCTCCGACCACAACGACCG 31724(C) GGGGTACCCTTACATGCCTCATTTC ORF2280 87419 GGGAGCTCTACATGAAGAACATAAGCC 87154 GGGGTACCGTGCCTAAGGGCATATCGG DNA sequence analysis DNA sequence analysiε waε carried out utilizing the Wiεconsin Sequence Analysis Package (Genetics Computer Group, Inc.). Results and Discussion Based on the accumulation of mRNAs in wild-type and ΔrpoB leaves, the plastid genes may be divided into three classes. The first class includes genes for which the mRNAs accumulate to high levels in wild-type leaveε, and to very low levelε in the leaves of ΔrpoB plants (Figure 6A) . Genes which belong to this clasε are psaA (photosystem I gene) , psbB and psbE (photosyεtem II genes) , petB (cytochrome b6/f complex gene) , ndhA (respiratory chain NADH dehydrogenase homologue; Matsubayashi et al., 1987 Mol. Gen. Genet. 210:385:393) and rpsl4 (ribosomal protein gene) . The second class includes plastid genes for which the mRNAε accumulate to about equal levelε in the wild-type and (rpoB leaves (Figure 6B) . This class includes atpB (ATP synthase gene) , ndhF (respiratory chain NADH dehydrogenase homologue gene; Matsubayashi et al., 1987, supra), rpsl6 (ribosomal protein gene) and ORF1901 (a gene with unknown function; Wolfe et al., 1992, J. Mol. Biol. 223:95-104). The third class includes genes for which there is significantly more mRNA in the ΔrpoB leaves than in the leaves of wild-type plants (Figure 6C) . Typical for this class are rpl33 and rpllδ (ribosomal protein genes) , accD (encoding a subunit of the acetyl-CoA carboxylase; Sasaki et al., 1993 Plant Physiol. 108:445-449) and ORF2280 (putative ATPaεe with unknown function; Wolfe 1994, Curr. Genet. 25:379-383). Two additional genes of thiε claεε, ndhB (reεpiratory chain NADH dehydrogenaεe homologue; Matεubayashi et al. , 1987, supra) and clpP (encoding the proteolytic subunit of the Clp ATP-dependent protease; Maurizi et al., 1990 J. Biol. Chem. 265:12546-12552; Gray et al., 1990 Plant Mol. Biol. 15:947-950) form a εubgroup of thiε claεε which demonεtrate εignificant levelε of mRNA in wild-type leaves. The atpB and atpl ATP synthase genes have both NEP and PEP promoters. The RNA gel blot analysis identified a number of genes and operons for which high transcript levels are maintained in ΔrpoB leaves. To identify additional NEP promoters, the 5'-end of several transcriptε has been mapped by primer extension analysis. 5" ends may be those of primary transcripts identifying a promoter, or generated by RNA processing. Since primary plastid transcripts retain triphosphate groups at their 5' ends, specific [ 32 P]GMP transfer to these RNA molecules by the enzyme guanylyltransferase allowed accurate discrimination between primary transcriptε and proceεεed ends. For the tobacco atpB operon, transcript 5*- ends have been identified by Orozco et al. (1990 Curr. Genet. 17:65-71.) at nucleotide positions -611, -502, -488, -289 and -255 upstream of the translation initiation codon (Figure 7C) . The 5* ends are numbered relative to the translation initiation codon (ATG) when the nucleotide directly upstream of A is at position -1. Primer extension analysis identified each of these 5'-ends in our wild-type plants (Figure 7A) . In the ΔrpoB sample only the -289 RNA species was present, the 5' end of which was a substrate for guanylyltransferase (Figure 7B) . Therefore, the -289 RNA is transcribed from a NEP promoter, PatpB-289. Interestingly, the -289 transcript is present in the wild-type leaves, although it is leεs abundant than in the ΔrpoB plants. The -255, -488 and -611 transcripts are absent in the ΔrpoB plants (Figure 7A) . DNA fragments containing these promoters (but not PatpB-289) are recognized by the E . coli RNA polymerase (Orozco et al., 1990, supra), and are transcribed by PEP in plastids. The atpA operon includes the atpl, -atpH-atpF-atpA genes (Figure 8C) . In wild-type tobacco leaves, mRNA 5' ends have been mapped to three regions upstream of atpl,: the -209 region, with 5'ends mapping to nucleotides -212, -209 and -207, and 5'-ends at nucleotides -130 and -85. In ΔrpoB leaves only the -207 transcript is detectable (Figure 8A) . This transcript could be capped in the ΔrpoB RNA sample (Figure 8B) , therefore it is tranεcribed from a NEP promoter. A signal at this position was also obtained in the in vitro capping reaction of wild-type RNA sampleε. The -209 and -212 transcripts may be due to the activity of an overlapping PEP promoter, or formation of multiple transcripts from the NEP promoter in wild-type plants. The -130 transcript which iε preεent only in wild-type leaf RNA could alεo be capped (Figure 8A, 8B) . Since there are sequenceε εimilar to -10/-35 elements at the correct spacing upstream of this 5'-end, it is transcribed by the PEP polymerase. A clpP NEP promoter is highly expressed in chloroplasts. The clpP protease subunit gene also belongs to the clasε which haε both NEP and PEP promoterε. Primer extenεion analyεiε in the wild-type plantε identified RNA 5'-endε at nucleotide poεitionε -53, -95, and -173, while in ΔrpoB plants 5' ends map to the -53, -173, and -511 nucleotide positionε (Figure 9A) . In vitro capping reaction verified that each of these are primary transcripts (Figure 9B) . Three of the transcripts derive from NEP promoters. The PclpP-53 promoter is highly expressed in both wild-type-and ΔrpoB plants, thus represents a distinct claεs of NEP promoters with a potential for high-level expression in different tissue typeε. The PclpP-53 promoter iε well conεerved in spinach (Westhoff, 1985 Mol. Gen. Genet. 201:115-123). Additional clpP promoters for NEP are PclpP-173 and PclpP-511. Since the PclpP-511 transcript accumulates only in ΔrpoB plants (Figure 9A) it is a candidate regulated NEP promoter. Note also, that the PclpP-511 iε located within the psbB coding region, and it's expression may be affected by the convergent psbB PEP promoter (Figure 9C) . The only PEP promoter directly upstream of clpP is PclpP-95. RNAs from this promoter accumulate only in wild-type leaves and PclpP-95 has upstream sequences reminiscent of the -10-/-35 conserved elements (not shown) . The accD gene is transcribed exclusively from a NEP promoter. For the lipid biosynthetic gene accD, mRNA accumulates to high levels only in ΔrpoB plants. A major transcript initiates at nucleotide position -129 (Figure IOA) , which can be capped in vitro (Figure 10B) . Therefore, this RNA is transcribed from a NEP promoter. Since PaccD-129 does not have a significant activity in the photosynthetically active leaf meεophyll cellε, it serves as a candidate for a regulated NEP promoter with a distinct tissue-specific expresεion pattern. NEP promoters share a loose consensus adjacent to the transcription initiation site. Sequences flanking the transcription initiation sites were aligned to identify conserved NEP promoter elements (Figure 11) . Included in the sequence alignment are nine promoters identified in this study and Prrn-62, the NEP promoter described in Allison et al. (1996, supra). Sequences for PORF2280-1577, and PORF1901-41 for which the 5' ends were shown to be primary transcripts by capping in vitro are alεo included (data not εhown) . Both of these promoters are active in ΔrpoB leaves but not in the leaves of wild-type plants. Also included in the sequence alignment are tentative NEP promoterε for rpε2 and rpεl6 , for which there is more mRNA in ΔrpoB leaveε. The 5' endε of these transcriptε were mapped by primer extenεion analysis. The in vitro capping asεay failed due to low abundance of the mRNAε (data not shown) . Multiple sequence alignment of the regions immediately flanking the NEP 5' ends identified a loose 10 nucleotide consensus around the transcription initiation site (Figure 11) . Conservation of additional nucleotides upstream and downstream is also apparent. Striking is the lack of sequence conservation between the PclpP-53 and * other NEP promoters which iε the only NEP promoter highly active in chloroplaεtε. Given the lack of sequence similarity, this sequence was not included in the alignment. Sequences around the PclpP-53 transcription initiation site are shown separately at the bottom of Figure 11. NEP and PEP polymerases, through recognition of distinct promoters, provide a mechanism for selective transcription of plastid genes (Figure 12) . The data provided herein demonstrate that some genes have only PEP promoters or NEP promoters while others have both PEP and NEP regulatory sequences. EXAMPLE III NEP Promoters for the Expression of Selectable Marker Genes For versatility and universal applications, expression of selectable marker genes for plastid transformation is desirable in all tisεue typeε at a high level. Selectable marker geneε in the currently utilized plastid transformation vectors are expressed from PEP promoters recognized by the plastid encoded RNA polymerase. The PEP polymerase transcribes photosynthetic genes and some of the housekeeping genes, therefore appears to be the dominant RNA polymerase in photosynthetically active leaf tisεueε. Efficient plaεtid tranεformation has been achieved in tobacco based on chloroplasts transformation in leaf cells. However, plant regeneration iε not feaεible, or is not practical from the leaves of most agronomically important cereal cropε, including maize, rice, wheat and in cotton. In theεe cropε, tranεgenic plantε are typically obtained by transforming embryogenic tissue culture cells or seedling tissue. Given that these tissues are non-photosynthetic, expression of marker genes by NEP promoters which are active in non-green tissues appears to be particularly advantageous, and will facilitate transformation of plastids in all non-photosynthetic tissue types. A particularly suitable promoter to drive the expression of marker genes is the PclpP-53 promoter. This promoter is highly expressed in the proplastids of ΔrpoB plants, therefore it may also be highly expressed in the proplastids of embryogenic cell cultures which yield transgenic cereal plants. Marker genes expresεed from these promoters will also be suitable to select plastid tranεformants in bombarded leaf cultures, since this promoter was found to be active in chloroplasts. Marker genes expresεed from promoterε such as the PclpP-53 promoter will have wide application to obtain transformed plastidε. The selectable marker genes will be constructed using the principles outlined in U.S. Patent No. 5,451,513 and pending U.S. Application Serial No. 08/189,256, the subject matter of which is incorporated by reference herein. A transforming DNA construct is illustrated in Figure 13. More specifically, the PclpP-53 promoter will be cloned upstream of a DNA segment encoding a plastid-εelectable marker. Signalε for tranεlation will be provided by incorporating suitable DNA sequences between the promoter fragment and the selectable marker coding region. 3' untranslated segments of a plastid gene to provide signals for transcription termination and to stabilize the chimeric mRNA will be cloned downstream of the selectable marker. Utilization of the 3 'untranslated region of genes expressed from NEP promoters is preferred since the requirementε for tranεcription termination for the NEP and PEP polymerases may be different. PclpP-53 is a particularly strong NEP promoter. However, plants with transformed plastids may be obtained with weak promoters as well. There are several exampleε for such weak NEP promoters in the preceding examples, for example PclpP-173. Expression of Tissue Specific Plastid Transgenes Driven by NEP Promoters Tissue specific expression of plastid transgenes is desirable in many applications. Tissue specific expression of a protein that makes the plant tissue repellent or toxic for root nematodes may be desirable in roots. However, expression of the same protein in the leaves would drain the plants resourceε and may effect utilization of the aerial plant parts. Since most often expressed in non-green tissues, the NEP promoters described in this application, and the promoters expressed from the NEP polymerase in general, are a rich source of tissue-specific promoters for transgene expression. Several of the NEP promoters, for example PclpP-511, are highly expressed in proplastids of ΔrpoB plants. Proplastids are present in the edible part of cauliflower. Therefore, high level expression of foreign genes in cauliflower is anticipated from this promoter in the edible parts of the plant. The plastid gene accD encodes a subunit of the prokaryotic acetyl-CoA carboxylase, an enzyme involved in lipid biosyntheεis. Interestingly, in wild-type leaves the level of accD mRNA is low while it is high in the proplastids of ΔrpoB plants. Thiε obεervation suggests that PaccD-129 is active in non-green plastids of tissues actively involved in lipid biosynthesis, such as the plastids of developing seed which is rich in oil.

Claims: What is claimed is: 1. A DNA construct for stably transforming plastids of multicellular plants, which compriseε a transforming DNA having a targeting segment which effects insertion of said transforming DNA into said plastid genome by homologous recombination, a selectable marker gene conferring a selectable phenotype to plant cells containing said transformed plaεtidε and a cloning εite for insertion of an additional expressible DNA encoding a foreign gene ' of interest, wherein the improvement comprises a 5' promoter element which is recognized and transcribed by a nuclear encoded plastid RNA polymerase. 2. The DNA construct of claim 1, wherein said construct is incorporated into a vector suitable for transformation of plastids. 3. A DNA construct according to claim 1, wherein said 5' promoter element is recognized and transcribed by a plastid encoded plastid RNA polymerase. 4. The DNA conεtruct according to claim 1 wherein said promoter element is selected from promoter elements of plastid genes selected from the group consisting of Prrn-62, PORF2280-1577, PatpB-289, PORF1901-41, Prbs2-152, Prpsl6-107, PatpI-207, Pclp-511, Pclp-173, Pclp-53 and PaccD-129. 5. A DNA construct according to claim 2, wherein εaid promoter element iε Pclp-95. 6. A DNA construct for stably transforming the plastids of a plant cell and for expresεion of at leaεt one additional gene product therein, compriεing: a) a targeting εegment compriεing a DNA sequence substantially homologous to a predetermined plastid genomic sequence with a plastid to be transformed, said targeting segment enabling homologous recombination with said pre-determined plastid genomic sequence; and b) a selectable marker gene dispoεed within said targeting segment, said selectable marker gene conferring a non-lethal selectable phenotype to cells containing plastids with said DNA construct; and c) an additional DNA segment comprising a transcription unit of a gene encoding a protein or a precursor thereof; and c) a promoter sequence which is operably linked to said transcription unit, said promoter sequence being recognized by a nuclear encoded polymerase, said gene encoding said protein being regulated by said promoter. 7. A DNA construct according to claim 6, wherein said transcription unit encodes a selectable marker gene. 8. A DNA construct according to claim 7 wherein said selectable marker gene is regulated by a promoter transcribed by a nuclear encoded plastid polymerase. 9. A DNA construct according to claim 6 wherein said tranεcription unit encodeε a reporter gene. 10. A DNA construct according to claim 6, wherein said construct is incorporated into a vector suitable for transformation of plastidε. 11. A multicellular plant εtably tranεformed with the DNA conεtruct of claim 1. 12. A multicellular plant εtably transformed with the DNA construct of claim 2. 13. A method for obtaining a plant cell or a multicellular plant, the plastidε of which cell have been stably transformed by at leaεt one foreign gene of interest, which comprises administering to a plant cell a DNA construct comprising: a) a targeting segment comprising a DNA sequence subεtantially homologous to a predetermined plastid genomic sequence with a plastid to be transformed, 'said targeting segment enabling homologouε recombination with εaid pre-determined plaεtid genomic sequence; and b) a selectable marker gene dispoεed within said targeting segment, said selectable marker gene conferring a selectable plastid phenotype to cells containing plaεtidε with εaid DNA conεtruct; and c) and a foreign gene of intereεt, εaid gene being regulated by a promoter recognized by a nuclear encoded plaεtid RNA polymerase; d) selecting for cells which expresε εaid phenotype; and e) regenerating a plant from εaid cell containing εtably tranεformed plaεtidε.

Inventors: ALLISON LORI A, HAJDUKIEWICZ PETER T, MALIGA PAL, ALLISON, LORI, A., HAJDUKIEWICZ, PETER, T., MALIGA, PAL
Applicants: ALLISON LORI A, HAJDUKIEWICZ PETER T, MALIGA PAL, UNIV RUTGERS, ALLISON, LORI, A., HAJDUKIEWICZ, PETER, T., MALIGA, PAL, RUTGERS UNIVERSITY
Application year: 1996
Main classification: C12N15
IPC codes: A01H5, C12N5, C12N15