INHIBITION OF TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA

Abstract: In a preferred embodiment, a method for the inhibition of the synthesis and release of tumor necrosis factor from various cells, comprising: administering to a human or other mammal an effective dose of one or more pharmaceutical substances selected from the group consisting of N-substituted 2(1H) pyridones, N-substituted 3(1H) pyridones, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.

Description: Description Inhibition of Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Technical Field The present invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions and, more particularly, but not by way of limitation, to novel compositions and methods for inhibition of pathophysiologic effects of excessive amounts of TNF-κ in the blood, tissues or organs of mammals including humans. Background Art Current evidence indicates that seemingly diverse immune-mediated diseases involve similar pathogenic mechanisms, and a growing number of key effector molecules known as cytokines. A biochemical cascade of pathophysiologic events is triggered by excessive tissue or blood concentrations of TNF-« released or synthesized following cellular, tissue, or organ injury. TNF-« plays a prominent role in immune and host defense response. There is strong evidence that abnormally high production and release from cells of TNF-α contributes to disease initiation and progression in rheumatoid arthritis, systemic inflammatory syndromes, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, and many other immune-mediated disorders (L. Propert, J. Leukocyte Biol., 59:518-525, 1996). In every one of these conditions, the initiating and sustaining pathophysiologic action is directly a result of an immediate local release and synthesis of massive amounts of TNF-<χ from several types of cells at or adjacent to the injury site. The locally released TNF-κ is followed by additional synthesis and release of TNF-κ by invading macrophages drawn to the injury site y a cascade of chemotactic cytokines released locally from cells in response to the greatly elevated TNF-« concentrations. TNF-α is a 17 kDa, multi-functional peptide produced by a wide variety of cells during host responses to tissue or organ injury including microbial infections and neoplastic diseases. Activated 5 macrophages are a major cellular source for TNF-«, although other cell types such as T-cells, mast cells, neutrophils, endothelial cells, microglia, and astrocytes can be stimulated to secrete TNF-<χ. TNF-α also plays an important role in the initiation of 10 inflammation and the pathophysiologic consequences that result from this process. There are several disease states in which excessive or unregulated TNF-alpha production by monocytes, macrophages or related cells are implicated 15 in exacerbating and/or causing the disease. These include endotoxemia (sepsis), toxic shock syndrome (Tracey et al.. Nature, 330:662-64, 1987; Basger et al., Circ. Shock. 27:51-61, 1989, and Hinshaw et al. ,30:279- 292, 1990); cachexia (Dezube et al.. Lancet, 335 20 [8690]:662, 1990); Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) where TNF-oc concentrations in excess of 12,000 pg per ml have been detected in pulmonary aspirates from ARDS patients (Millar et al.. Lancet, [8665] 2, 712- 714. Systemic infusion of recombinant TNF-alpha 2 resulted in changes typically seen in ARDS (Ferrai- Baliviera et al.. Arch. Surgery, 124:1400-1405, 1989.) TNF-α is widely expressed in monocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes, natural killer cells, endothelial cells, mast cells, neutrophils and eosinophils, glial cells and 30 astrocytes, smooth muscle cells and certain tumor cells. TNFy? can be produced mainly by lymphocytes, astrocytes, lymphokine-activated killer cells and myeloma cells. Overproduction of TNF-« and/or - is closely linked to development of many diseases, ^5 including septic shock, adult respiratory distress syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, selective autoimmune disorders, graft-host disease following bone marrow transplantation and cachexia. Other diseases hemorrhagic shock, asthma and post-renal dialysis syndrome. The multiplicity of actions of TNF-« and -β can be ascribed to the facts that TNF-κ and β actions result in activation of multiple signal transduction pathways, kinases, transcription factors, as well as an unusually large array of cellular genes. (Walajtys-Rode, Elizbieta, Kosmos (Warsaw), 44, 451-464, 1995, CA. 124:199735a, 1995). TNF-α exhibits a plethora of other functions such as induction of IL-l, stimulation of neutrophil degranulation, and enhancement of phagocytosis. Endotoxin from gram negative bacteria has been used to induce TNF-α both in vivo and in vitro. In addition to endotoxin, certain micro-organisms as well as other substances, such aε IL-l, are capable of inducing secretion of TNF-α from stimulated peritoneal macrophages. (H.J. Wanebo, "Tumor Necrosis Factors," Seminars in Surgical Oncology, 1989; 5:402-413.) Thus, TNF-α is a potent immunomediator and proinflammatory cytokine that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a large number of human diseases. The location of its gene within the major histocompatability complex and biological activities have raised the possibility that polymorphism within this locus may contribute to the genetic association of this region of the genome with a wide range of autoimmune and infectious diseases. TNF-α inhibitors can be useful in the therapeutic or prophylactic treatment of a variety of allergic and traumatic disorders including asthma, chronic bronchitis, many skin disorders (including atopic dermatitis and urticaria), allergic rhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis, vernal conjunctivitis, eosinophilic granuloma, psoriasis, reperfusion injury of the myocardium or brain, cystic fibrosis, chronic glomerulonephritis, and adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The principal cytokine that mediates the complex processes triggered by injury to a cell or responses from virtually every type of cell that it binds. (Jour. Cardiovas. Pharm., 25(S1-S8, 1995). TNF-α antagonists can be very effective in the treatment of diεorderε which follow cellular, tissue or organ injury, and may be as effective, or even more potent, than corticosteroids or immunosuppressants without producing the side effects common to these agents. Characterization of TNF-α TNF-α is widely expressed in monocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes, natural killer cells, endothelial cells, mast cells, neutrophils and eosinophils, glial cells, and astrocyteε, εmooth muεcle cells and certain tumor cells. TNF -fi can be produced mainly by lymphocytes, astrocyteε, lymphokine-activated killer cellε, and myeloma cellε. TNF-α and TNF -A bind to the very same cell surface receptorε, and are functionally similar, and almost identical in chemical structure (E. Walajytys-Rode. Kosmoε [Warsaw], 44:451- 64, 1995; CA. 124:199735a, 1996). TNF-α is among the cytokines that are produced and stored by most types of cells in various mammalian organs and tisεues. Although firεt deεcribed aε a product released from activated macrophages that lysed selected tumor cell lines, TNF-α is now recognized as a versatile and ubiquitous cytokine. TNF-α effects on cellε depends on both its concentration at the tissue or organ site, and the embryological lineage of the target cells. TNF-α has been demonstrated to orchestrate its pro- inflammatory effects in response to injury by regulating the cascade and compartmentalized release of secondary mesεenger cytokineε and non-cytokine εignaling biochemicalε. TNF-α is not limited to regulation of cell growth, but also has remarkable effects on cellular functions. Although pathophysiological effects of TNF-α are generally limited to situationε in which TNF-α levels are excesεively high (such aε occurs during gram- negative infectionε, allergic reactions, thermal burns, neoplasia and radiation or traumatic injury), TNF-α mRNA and protein are readily identified in the absence of tissue injury, inflammation or neoplasia. On the other 5 hand, very low levels of TNF-« mRNA and protein are readily identified in the absence of cell or tissue injury, indicating that TNF-α can serve, in concert with other regulatory agents, as a normal mediator of cell and tiεsue homeostaεiε (Terranova et al., PSEBM, 10 209:325, 1995). TNF-α (along with itε pharmacologic twin, TNF-^, and first cousin, IL-l ?) remains the master driving force in implementing the cascade of pathobiologic processes, both physiological and biochemical, which 15 directly and indirectly trigger untoward clinical manifestationε of a very broad εpectrum of human diseases and disorders. These acute and chronically harmful actions, caused by injuries of diverεe etiology, not only are manifest upon clinical examination, but 0 are alεo revealed by (1) meaεurable flagrant, often life threatening, organ dyεfunction, and (2) appropriate pathophyεiologic examination of repreεentative tiεεueε and cellε taken from the dyεfunctional organε. Aε expreεεed in Annalε of Internal Medicine, Vol. 5 115; 464, 1993, TNF-α: (1) Stimulates release of interleukin-l, interleukin-6, interleukin-8, platelet-activating factor, leukotrieneε, thromboxane A2, proεtanglandins; may be able 0 to εtimulate macrophages directly to promote its own release. (2) Has only a weak effect on T cells. (3) Stimulates production of polymorphonucelear cells by bone marrow and enhances their 5 phagocytic activity. (4) Promotes adhesion of endothelial cells, polymorphonuclear cells, eosinophilε, baεophilε, monocyteε, and occasionally. lymphocytes by inducing increased expression of adhesion molecules. (5) Activates common pathway of coagulation and complement system. 5 (6) Is directly toxic to vascular endothelial cells; increased microvascular permeability. (7) Produces a dose-dependent increase in endothelial procoagulant activity; may inhibit thrombomodulin expresεion at endothelial cell 10 surface. (8) Suppresses lipoprotein lipase activity; inhibits acetate formation by adipocytes; decreased incorporation of glucoεe into cellε. (9) Stimulates collagenase release; has variable 15 effects on fibroblast growth, depending on the presence of other mediators. (10) Reduces transmembrane potential of muscle cells and myocyte shortening. (11) Induces class I hiεtocompatability moleculeε. 0 (12) Actε directly on hypothalamuε to produce fever. The discovery of compounds which inhibit TNF-α overproduction and release will provide a therapeutic approach for those diseases in which excessive or unregulated TNF-α tiεεue levels is implicated, and also contribute to the understanding of how this molecule is syntheεized, proceεεed, εecreted and metabolized. Authors describe TNF-« mediated pathologies such as infectious disease and shock, inflammatory bowel 3 ^ disease, and rheumatoid arthritis, and the use of anti- TNF-α monoclonal antibodies in TNF-α blockade (M.W. Bodner and R. Foulkes, "Therap. Modulation Cytokines," 1996, 221-236 Ed. B. Henderson; B. Bod er, CRCBoca Raton, Fla. ) . JJ TNF-κ inh bitorε are uεeful in the treatment of a variety of allergic, traumatic and other injuriouε disorders including: asthma, chronic bronchitis, atopic dermatitis, urticaria, allergic rhinitis, allergic conjunctivitis, eosiniophilic granuloma, rheumatoid arthritiε, septic shock, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, reperfusion injury of the myocardium and brain, chronic glomerulonephritis, and adult respiratory distresε syndrome (ARDS). TNF-«, a pleiotropic cytokine, is produced, stored or released by macrophages and other cells as an initial response when exposed to a variety of infections or non- infectious disorders. TNF-α is now known to be involved in immunological reactions aε well. In addition, exceεεively high blood or tiεεue levels of TNF-α are often lethal to cells, tisεueε, organε, as well as the host, (Tracey and Cerami, PSEBM 206:233-240, 1992). TNF-α is secreted by monocytes, macrophages, T- cells, natural killer cells, mast cells, neutrophils, fibroblastε and many other typeε of cells, in responεe to stimulation by lipo-polysaccharides (LPS), viruεes, bacteria, parasiteε, antigenε and allograft rejection or other injury. TNF-α alεo can cause changes in the rate of production and secretion of collagenase, collagen, fibronectin, and glycoεaminoglycoεide (Duncan and Berman, Jour. Inveεt. Derm., 92:699-706, 1989; E. J. Ziegler, N.E. Jour. Med., 318:1533, 1988; R.C. Bond, Ann. Intern. Med., 115:457-469, 1991; B.Beutler, Hoεp. Prac. , pgε. 45-52, April 15, 1993; Nature (London), 316:552-554 (1985). The production and releaεe of TNF-α at sites of injury directly or indirectly recruits additional macrophages to the site, and activates macrophages already present. TNF-α also has been shown to be chemotactic for monocytes. TNF-α also activates macrophages and enhanceε their cytotoxic potential in vitro. Since TNF-α iε an important mediator of many reactive pathophyεiologic εtateε or diεeaεeε, inhibitors of TNF-α production can have utility in any pathophysiologic state or disease in which abnormally high levels of TNF-α are present. The compounds of this invention inhibit or block the (1) overproduction and release of TNF-α, and (2) pharmacologically inhibit or block the untoward toxic or lethal effects of high levelε of TNF-α. Exceεsive TNF-« tissue levels have been implicated in mediating or exacerbating a number of diseaεes including: rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatoid spondylitis, osteoarthritiε, gouty arthritiε and other arthritic conditionε; alεo general εepεiε, gram-negative sepsis, septic shock, endotoxic εhock, toxic εhock syndrome, adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), cerebral malaria, chronic pulmonary inflammatory disease, εilicoεis, asbestosiε, pulmonary sarcoidoεiε, bone resorption diseases, graft vs. host reactions, allograft rejections; also fever and myalgias due to bacterial or viral infections, such as influenza; cachexia secondary to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), keloid formation, scar tissue formation, Crohns disease, ulcerative colitis, or pyresis; a number of "autoimmune diseaεes" such as multiple scleroεiε, autoimmune diabetes, and systemic lupus erythematosus. (Tracey et al.. Nature, 330:662- 664, 1987; Badger et al. , Circ. Shock., 27:51-61, 1989 and Hinshaw et al., Circ. Shock., 30:279-292, 1990; cachexia (Dezube et al.. Lancet, 335(8690): 662,1990). The phrase "TNF-α mediated disease or diseaεe states" means, all diseases states in which TNF-α plays a direct role, either by exceεsive production or release of TNF-α, itself, or by TNF-α causing production or releaεe of another pathophysiological biochemical agent, or cytokine. "Cytokine" means any secreted polypeptide that affects the functions of cells, and is a molecule which modulates interactions between cells in response to untoward exposure (for example, injury of various types including an allergic reaction). The term "inhibiting the overproduction and/or release of TNF-α" means: a) decrease of exceεεive in vivo TNF-α levelε, reεpectively, in an animal or human to normal levelε for εeveral typeε of cellε, including but not limited to monocyteε or macrophages; b) a down regulation in a human tiεεue of exceεεive, in vitro or in-vivo TNF-α levels, respectively to normal levels; or c) a down regulation, by inhibition of the direct syntheεiε of TNF-α levelε aε a poεt- tranεlation event. The term "prevention of the pathophyεiologic effectε of excessively high levels of TNF-α in tissues and organs means the pharmacologic inhibition of the untoward, toxic or lethal effects of exceεεively high tissue levels of TNF-α. DISORDERS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (INJURIES AND DAMAGE TO THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM) The expresεion of various cytokines or their genes is altered in the brain in a variety of CNS diseaεeε εuch as multiple scleroεiε, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) encephalitiε, Alzheimer's disease, scrapie, and viral or bacterial infection. Production of cytokines within the CNS may arise from multiple sourceε including infiltrating mononuclear cellε εuch as T cells and macrophages and also from resident neural cells, particularly the aεtrocyteε and icroglia. The glial cells produce a variety of cytokines, including IL- 1, TNF-α, and TNF^τ°, as part of a CNS-cytokine network. Astrocytes, the most abundant glial cells in the CNS, produce TNF-a in responεe to a variety of stimuli, including LPS, the cytokines I1-1B and IFN-< , and Newcastle'ε diεeaεe virus (NDV) (Chung, I.Y. and E.N. Benveniste, J. Immunol. , 144:2999, 1990, A.P. Lieberman et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 66:634B, 1989). Whether in diseases where they are expressed, such as AIDS encephalitiε, Alzheimer's disease, or multiple sclerosis, cytokines often are neuropathogenic mediators, and afford possibilities for therapeutic intervention (I.L. Campel et al., Ann. N. Y. Acad. of Sciences, 771: 301, 1995). EFFECT OF TNF-α ON CELLS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Babak Arvin et al., (Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sciences, 765: 62-71, 1995) reviewed evidence for CNS production of TNF-α, involvement of TNF-α in brain injury, the role of PMNs in brain injury, the role of adhesion molecules in brain injury, and potential TNF-α directed therapeutic strategies for prevention of brain injury. in the brain of HIV-l infected patients, some microglial cells are infected while many other are activated and express elevated levels of TNF-α. These εtudieε demonstrate a direct involvement of TNF-α derived from activated human microglia and TNF-α induced oligodendrocyte damage and death in vitro. Thus TNF-α specific inhibitors could slow down viral replication and attenuate cytotoxicity for oligodendrocytes in HIV-l encephalopathy (S. G. Wilt, et al.. Tech. Adv. AIDS Res. Hum. Nerv. Syεtem, 1995, Pages 151-162.). TNF-α was detected in the spinal fluid (CSF) of patients with bacterial, but not viral, meningitis. In contrast to spinal fluid (CSF), the serum of the patients with bacterial meningitis contained no or only εmall amountε of TNF-α. In εtudies of patients with pyogenic meningitiε and aseptic meningitis of different etiologies (viral, neoplastic) a positive correlation between the levels of TNF-α and IL-^ and a bacterial, but not a viral or neoplastic etiology was observed. Thus theεe cytokines, especially TNF-«, are useful markers for distinguishing between pyrogenic and nonpyrogenic meningitis (senεitivity 94.2%; specificity 100%). Moderately raiεed CSF TNF-α levels were seen also in patients with Mycobacterium tuberculosiε with CSF protein and endotoxin concentrations, bacterial density and outcome. Taken collectively, bacterial meningitis iε accompanied by intrathecal production of cytokineε which may be intimately involved in the development of the meningeal inflammatory reεponεe. The prevention of brain edema by anti-TNF-α antibodies in experimental meningitis provides firm evidence for the involvement of TNF-α in the breakdown of the Blood Brain Barrier. TNF- « can also trigger the infiltration of neutrophils into the tissue with consequent induction of εecondary mediatorε in local areaε. Endothelial cell damage leading to brain edema iε further mediated by production of reactive oxygen intermediates and is prevented by superoxide diεmutaεe ("Cytokineε and CNS," Edit: R. M. Ransohoff and E.N. Beneviste, CRC Presε, Page 193, 1996). E. Shohami et al. (J. Cerebral Blood Flow Metab., 16:378-384, 1996) recently demonstrated that closed head injury (CHI) in rats triggers the production of TNF-α in the contused brain hemisphere. The study was designed to determine whether inhibition of TNF-α production or activity affects the development of cerebral edema, as well as neurologic dysfunction and hippocampal cell loss after CHI. Two pharmacologic agents lesεened peak edema formation at 24 hourε, and facilitated the recovery of motor function for 14 days post-injury. The brain levels of TNF-α were reduced by 80%, an attenuation of the disruption of the Blood Brain Barrier was seen, and the hippocampal cells were protected. Thus, a decrease in TNF-α levels or inhibition of its activity iε accompanied by εignificantly reduced brain damage. MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS Although multiple εclerosis (MS) may be immune mediated, the therapeutic efficacy of immunosuppressive agents has been disappointing thus far (R. Smith, Lancet, 347:1251, May 4, 1996). The multiple scleroεiε (MS) plaqueε within the CNS are infiltrated by Glabinski et al. (Neurol Scand. , 91:276-279, 1995) found that TNF-α, but not lymphotoxin, is overproduced by peripheral blood mononuclear cellε during MS relapεe. TNF-α has a diverse range of functions in the CNS because of its direct effects on oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and brain endothelial cells. Moεt relevant to CNS diseaεe is the ability of TNF-α to mediate myelin and oligodendrocyte damage in vitro and its ability to cause cell death of oligodendrocytes in vitro. This aspect of TNF-α activity contributes directly to myelin damage and/or the demyelination procesε obεerved in diseaseε εuch aε multiple εcleroεiε. Human oligodendrocytes express both types of TNF receptor (TNF- Rl and TNF-R2); thus, the cytotoxicity mediated by TNF-α and TNF -β> may occur through activation of TNF-R1. TNF-α is recognized to be an important mediator of inflammatory responses in a variety of tissues, including the brain, and may play an important role in the initiation of inflammation and the pathologic consequences that result from this process. TNF-α has a diverse range of functions in the central nervous system (CNS) because of itε effectε on oligodendrocyte microglia and aεtrocyteε. Most relevant to CNS disease is the ability of TNF-α to mediate myelin and oligodendrocyte damage in vitro. TNF-α also has an ability to cause cell death of oligodendrocytes in vitro (Robbins, D.S. et al., J. Immunol., 139:2593, 1987). This aspect of TNF-α activity may contribute directly to myelin damage and/or the demyelination procesε obεerved in diεeaεeε εuch as multiple sclerosis (MS). TNF-α also has multiple effects on the astroycte which are noncytotoxic in nature. One of the pathologic features of demyelinated plaques in MS is astrogliosis, in which proliferation of aεtrocyteε and production of glial fibrillary acidic protein occurs, (CS. Raine, Lab. Invest. , 50:608, 1984). Astrocyte proliferation leads to the reactive gliosis asεociated with MS, and TNF-α enhanceε to thiε proceεs. Proliferation of astrocytes in vitro in response to TNF-α indicates a primary role for TNF-α (K.W. Selmaj et al, J. Immunol., 144:129, 1990). TNF-α has been shown to play a central role in the demyelination of the CNS in MS. Serum levels of TNF-α are elevated in patients with active MS, and TNF-α producing macrophages, microglia and astrocyteε are present at active lesion εiteε. In vitro experimentε, TNF-α directly mediates oligodendrocyte damage and suppresses myelin formation, and it stimulateε aεtrocyteε, which are then reεponεible for the CNS scarring plaques in MS (Owens and Srira , Neurological Clinics, 13:51, 1995). Key players in the process of demyelination are macrophages and microglia. TNF-α may be a key player in oligodendrite survival or death in autoimmune demyelination, as it has been detected in MS plaques. However, the details of the role of TNF-α in demyelination in vitro remains to be determined ("Cytokines and the CNS," Ed: R.M. Ransohoff and E.N. Beneviste, CRC Presε, 1996, p.99). Serum levelε of TNF-α are elevated in patientε with active MS (M. Chofflon et al., Eur. Cytokine Net., 3:523, 1991; Sharief, M.K. and Hentgen, N.E. Jour. Med. , 325:467, 1991). TNF-α producing macrophages/microglia and aεtrocyteε are preεent at active lesion sites (K. Selmaj al.. Jour. Clin. Invest. , 87:949,1991). In in vitro experimentε, TNF-α directly mediates oligodendrocyte damage and suppresεeε myelin formation (K. Selmaj et al. , J. Immunol. , 147:1522, 1990); T. Tεumamoto et al., Acta Neurol. Scand. , 91:71, 1995), and it εti ulateε aεtrocyteε, which are reεponεible for the εcarring plaques (K.Selmaj et al.. Jour. Immunol., 144:129, 1990). Pathological features of MS include perivascular inflammation and demyelination with oligodendrocyte loss; attempts at remyelination are often unsuccesεful and often culminate in aεtrocytic εcarring. In tiεεue cell-mediated and humoral mechanisms. Substances including complement and TNF-α, are capable of killing rat oligodendrocytes in vitro; surface complement activation also initiates intracellular processes within 5 oligodendrocytes as well as providing ligands for phagocytic interactionε. (J. Zajicek et al.. Mult. Scler. , 1:61-72, 1995.) Astrocytes express only the TNF-R1 (-3,000 receptors/cell); thus, all effects of TNF-α are mediated 0 via this receptor. One of the pathologic features of MS is gliosis, in which proliferation of aεtrocyteε and excessive production of Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein occur. TNF-α induces astrocyte proliferation, which may lead to the gliosis associated with MS, especially since 5 TNF-α levels in the CNS are elevated during these diseases. TNF-α is a potent inducer of the production of cytokines by astrocytes. Reickmann and colleagues showed an increase in TNF- α expression preceding MS exacerbation attacks (using 0 circulating mononuclear cells). ("Cytokines and the CNS," Edit: R.M. Ransohoff and E.N. Beneviste, CRC Press, 1996, p.232). The role of TNF-α in regulating aεtrocyte proliferation haε been examined uεing variouε typeε of ^ aεtrocyte cultureε from human and rat brainε. In human aεtrocyte cell lineε, TNF-α increaεes proliferation, and this effect is inhibited by an TNF-α antibody. The role of TNF-α in regulating astrocyte proliferation has been examined using various types of aεtrocyte cultures from *- 1 human and rat brains. In the human adult astrocyte cell lines TNF-α increases proliferation and this effect is inhibited by an anti-TNF-a antibody. In vivo studies of murine, rat and human demyelinating diseases indicate that TNF-α participates in the inflammatory reactions that take place within the CNS. TNF-α positive astrocytes and macrophages have been identified in the brains of MS patients, particularly in the plaque region (F.M. Hofman et al.. Clin. Inveεt., 87:949, 1991) have determined that both TNF-α and TNF-^ are preεent in MS plaque regionε, and that TNF-α iε localized within aεtroyctes, whereas TNF- is aεεociated with microglia and T-cellε. Increaεed serum and cerebroεpinal fluid levelε of TNF-α have been documented in patients with MS (Sharief, M.K., M. Phil, and R. Hentges, N. Engl. J. Med. , 325:467, 1991), and a εtrong correlation exiεtε between cerebroεpinal fluid levelε of TNF-α, disruption of the blood brain barrier, and high levels of circulating ICAM-1 in patientε with active MS. ALZHEIMER DISEASE Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common dementing disorder of late life, is a major cause of disability, and death in the elderly. The diseaεe iε manifeεted by the appearance of abnormalitieε in the brain, particularly involving the hippocampuε, amygdala, thalamuε and neocortex. Lesions in these regions are associated with dysfunction/death of neurons and deafferentation of targets. The principal pathological hallmarks of AD are depositε of the amyloid-^ protein (A/?) in extracellular parenchyma and cerebral veεεelε, and neurofibrillary tangleε (S.S. Sisodia et al., "Pathobiology of Alzheimer's Diseaεe," Academic Preεs, Ltd., p.183, 1995). TNF-α has been generally elevated in the serum of AD patientε baεed upon both antibody assays and bioassayε. In one study almoεt half of the AD caεeε had elevated TNF-α, but none of the controlε had a εimilar elevation. The patients with increased serum TNF-α were free of inflammatory diseaεes, and it waε speculated that increase in serum TNF-α was a reflection of CNS disease. The blood-brain barrier does not normally permit passage of cytokines. However, there is evidence to suggest that the blood-brain barrier may not be intact in AD. The primary mediators of immunological procesεeε within the CNS are the glial cellε and in particular, aεtrocyteε and microglia. ("Cytokineε and the CNS," Ed. by R.M. Ransohoff and E.T. Beneveniεte, CRC Presε, Pg. 246, 1996.). There is a diffuse increase in the number of astrocytes in the cortex of AD, and astrocytes are also frequently asεociated with εenile plaques. Immuno- cytochemical studies have shown that apo-E iε aεεociated with εenile plaqueε and neurofibrillary tangleε. ("Cytokineε and the CNS," Ed. by R.M. Ranεohoff and E.N. Beneviεte, CRC Preεε, Pg. 254, 1996.) ^-protein (Aβ ) which is deposited in the amyloid plaques and vaεculature in brainε of Alzheimer'ε Diεease (AD) patients is a 39 to 43 amino acid peptide proteolytically derived from the amyloid precursor protein (A?PP). (J. Conn, Amyloid, 1:232-239, 1994.). Extracellular deposition of amyloid fibrilε iε associated with the pathological events in the syεtemic amyloidoseε and probably also in Alzheimer's diεease (Haas, C & Selkoe, D.J. (1993) Cell 75, 1039-1042) and type II diabetes mellitus (Lorenzo, A., et al., 1994) Nature (London), 368, 756-760). Deposition of amyloid fibrils in the brain is a histopathological hallmark of Alzheimer's diεease (AD), and -amyloid iε implicated in the neuropathogeneεis of AD. Ab-induced neurodegeneration was accompanied by microglial cell proliferation and enhanced release of TNF-α (C Chun, Mol. Chem. Neuropathol■ , 23:159-178, 1994). The progression of Alzheimer's disease and related disorderε involves amyloid /-7-protein (A/?) deposition and pathological changed in the parenchyma as well as cerebral blood vesselε. The cerebrovaεcular AS depoεitε in theεe diεorders are associated with degenerating smooth muscle cells in the vessel wall, which have been shown to expresε the A precurεor (A^PP) and A ?. The authorε εhow that A51-42, an abundant cerebrovascular form of A/?, causes cellular degeneration in cultured human cerebrovascular smooth muεcle cells. This streεε reεponse is accompanied by a εtriking increases in the levelε of cellular A/3PP and soluble. iV? peptide produced in theεe degenerating cellε. Theεe data provide the first experimental evidence that /? can potentially contribute to the onset and progreεεion of the cerebrovascular pathology (S. Saporito-Irwin, et al., J. Neurochem. , 65:931-934, 1995). Diεruption of vaεcular function may underlie neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer'ε. T. Thomas et al. (Nature, 380:168-171, 1996), have shown that^-amyloid may alter the structure and function of endothelium in blood vesεelε by stimulating the production of superoxide radicals. Their obεervationε provide a link between the free-radical theory of aging and Alzheimer-type neurodegeneration. deposits are seen in the brain and cerebral blood vesεelε of aging individuals and Alzheimer patients. As abnormalities in the microvasculature of the brain are an early indicator of Alzheimer's disease, Thomas et al., supra, investigated the effect of /^-amyloid on blood vessels. They found that micromolar concentrations of 7-amyloid caused rapid vasoconstriction of rat aorta. To test whether superoxide radicals were involved in this effect, blood vessels were preincubated with superoxide dismutaεe, a free-radical scavenger. -amyloid-induced vasoconstriction was blocked. Electron microscopy revealed a clear damage to the endothelium in /^-amyloid- treated blood vessels. (J. Bradbury, Lancet, 347:750, 1996.) DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (PULMONARY FUNCTION AND PERFUSION (DLCOn Villani et al, (Jour. Chemotherapy, 7:452-454, 1995, studied pulmonary function in 22 patientε affected by in-tranεit metaεteε from cutaneouε melanoma and metaεtaεeε from εoft tiεεue εarcoma of the limbs who were treated with iεolation perfuεion in extracorporeal circulation with TNF-α at doεeε ranging from 0.5 to 4.0 mg/εquare meter in mild hyperthermia. Seventeen patientε suffered respiratory insufficiency which required assisted ventilation (7 mechanical ventilation for 1 day, 8 for 2 days and 2 patients on synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation) . Seriometric parameters recorded 7 to 125 days after treatment did not change from baseline values; in contrast, lung tranεfer factor (DLCO) for carbon monoxide significantly declined in a dose-dependent fashion. These data confirm that TNF-α administered by isolation perfusion technique induces pulmonary side effects (previously described by R.CMorice, et al., Proc. Soc. Clin. Oncol. , 6:29, 1987; Kuei et al. , Chest 96:334-338, 1989; Lienard et al.. World Jour. Surg. , 16:234-240, 1992). One potential therapeutic strategy is to selectively inhibit the actions of macrophage-derived cytokines. The importance of the pathophysiologic concentrations of TNF-α has been demonstrated (Vilcek J. et al.. Jour. Exp. Med. , 163:632-643, 1986). Piguet et al., (Jour. Exp. Med. , 170:655-665, 1989; Nature, 344:245-247, 1990) utilized in vivo administration of TNF-α antibodieε to abolish lung fibrosiε in a murine model of hyperεenεitivity pneu onitiε. Diffuεion capacity iε more accurately described by the appellation "transfer factor", since it may be affected by factorε other than impairment of gas diffusion. The diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (DLCO), usually measured by the single-breath method, is commonly utilized because it is more easily measured. DLCO is usually reduced at the time of diagnosis of pulmonary dysfunction and is reduced to a greater extent than lung volume. DLCO has a been a remarkable clinical tool in the follow-up of the pathological severity in bleo ycin- induced human pneumonitis (Van Barneveld et al. Am. Rev. Reεpir. Diε., 135:48-51, 1987). Impairment of gaε diffuεion (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide or oxygen) iε cauεed by abnormalitieε of the alveolar-capillary membrane, reduction in the pulmonary capillary blood volume, erratic distribution of diffusing capacity relative to lung volume, or perfusion. The membrane component of diffusing capacity may be reduced either by increaεed thickneεε of the alveolar- capillary membrane or by a reduction in the total surface area available for gas exchange. Casεan et al.. Chest, 65:275-278, 1974) in a morphometric study of lung biopsy specimens from nine patients with moderately severe dysfunction of pulmonary diffusion, found the harmonic mean thickness of the alveolar-capillary membrane increased by 70% over that of normal controls. The DLCO values correlate strongly with the severity of exercise-induced deterioration of gas exchange. This iε meaεured aε the change in Pa02, arterial oxygen saturation between rest and exercise, and is directly correlated to the oxygen demand, and the efficiency of oxygen diffusion. For monitoring the course of pulmonary function patients, measurements should conεiεtently include determination of DLCO valueε. Such measurements are widely available, easy to perform and inexpensive (Gottlieb, D. , et al. Pulmonary Fibrosis, 80:85-87, 1995). The response to therapy over 6-12 months usually is predictive of the course over the subsequently 24 months (Rudd et al.. Am. Rev. Resp. Diε. , 124:4-8, 1981); Watter et al.. Am. Rev. Resp. Diε. , 135:696-4704, 1987). Deterioration over the firεt year of therapy iε predictive of reduced long-term εurvival. TNF-α haε been εhown to play a role in pulmonary fibrosis induced by bleomycin and silica (Piguet et al.. Jour. Exper. Med., 170:655-663, 1989, and Nature, 344:245-247, 1990; Everson and Chandler, Amer. Jour. Path. , 140:503-512, 1992; Phan and Kunkel, Exp. Lung Invest. , 84:1873-1882, 1989; Denis et al. , Amer. Jour. Cell Mol. Biol. , 5:477-483, 1991). TNF-α has been reported to orchestrate its proinflammatory effects by regulating the compartmentalized release of secondary messenger cytokines. Investigations have shown that nude mice exposed to chronic in vivo TNF-α develop pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis (ARRD 145:A307, 1992). Asthma Cirelli et al. undertook to characterize more fully the patterns of monokine production in the allergic asthmatic airway, and hypothesized that the relative levels of these substances may be related to disease clasεification and cellular recruitment. Cytokine meaεurementε were made by ELISA of lOx concentrated BAL fluid obtained before (day 1) and 24 hours after segment antigen challenge (day 2) with ragweed in 25 allergic asthmatics, 19 with a dual response to whole lung challenge, 6 with single early response. Results: the levels of TNF-«, IL-lb and IL- lra were increased on day 2 for all aεthmaticε (TNF-α: 2.49+/-0.75 to 12.43+/-4.78 pg/ml, p=0.03; IL-lb: 3.70+/- 0.62 to 7.25+/-0.91 pg/ml, p=0.02; IL-lra: 1531.83+/- 270.34 to 3799.96+/-440.49 pg/ml, ρ=0.0001). While there was a trend towards increasing cytokine levels among AA-S, day 2 levels of TNF-α, IL-l and IL-lra were higher in the AA-D group (p<0.05 for all three) and accounted for the majority of the day 2 increases. Cellular influx was also greateεt among the AA-D (p<0.05 for macrophage, eoεiniphil, and neutrophil). Inveεtigatorε concluded that the production of TNF-α, IL- 1 and IL-lra iε εignificantly increaεed 24 hourε after εegmented antigen challenge in all allergic aεthmaticε. (R.A. Cirelli, et al., Amer. Jour. Resp. Critical Care Med., 151:345A, 1995). TNF-α is a pro-inflammatory cytokine which is believed to play an important role in asthma. Concentrations of TNF-α were measured in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid in 13 healthy control subjects (4M/9F, mean age 22.5+/-SD 4.0; 8 atopic and 7 mildly symptomatic atopic asthmatics age 30.7+/-13.2) . Fiberoptic bronchoscopy waε carried out under local anesthesia and BAL was performed in a segmental bronchus of the right upper lobe. BAL fluid was concentrated 10- 30 times and concentrations of TNF-a were measured by an ELISA technique. TNF-α levels (expresεed per ml unconcentrated BAL fluid) were εignificantly greater in the asthmatics compared to the control subjects (median 97.5 vs. 54.1 fg/ml, p<0.05). However, there was no significant difference between TNF-α levels in the non- atopic and the atopic control subjects (54.1 vs. 57.4 fg/ml, p>0.05). Theεe findingε indicate an increaεed tissue level of TNF-α in asthma and that this may contribute to the pathophysiology of the condition. (A.E. Redington et al., Amer. Jour. Respir. Crit. Care Med.. 151: 702A, 1995). Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Another disease state in which TNF-α plays a role in the pathophysiology is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In silicosis, a diεeaεe of progreεεive reεpiratory failure caused by a fibrotic reaction, antibody to TNF-α completely blocked the silica-induced lung fibrosis in mice (Piguet et al. , Nature, 344:245- 247, 1990). High levels of TNF-α production (in the serum and in isolated macrophages) have been demonεtrated in animal modelε of εilica and asbestoε induced fibrosis (Bissonnette et al.. Inflammation, 13:329-339, 1989). Inflammation in COPD patients is currently assessed by endoscopic bronchial biopsies. An increase of inflammatory cellε and an upregulation of adhesion- moleculeε both on endothelial and epithelial cells are found. In this study, authors evaluated the levels of systemic inflammation by measurement of inflammatory mediators in plasma of patients with stable COPD (Amer. Jour. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 151: 841A, 1995). Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Adult respiratory distress syndrome where excesεive TNF-α concentrations in excess of 12,000 pg/ml have been detected in pulmonary aspirateε from ARDS patientε (Millar et al.. Lancet, 2(8665) :712-714, 1989). Systemic infusion of recombinant TNF-α reεulted in changes typically seen in ARDS (Ferrai-Baliviera et al.. Arch. Surg., 124:1400-1405, 1989). Lung Sarcoidosis Alveolar macrophages from pulmonary sarcoidosis patients have been found to spontaneouεly release massive quantities of TNF-α as compared with macrophages from normal donors (Baughman et al.. Jour. Lab. Clin. Med., 115:36-42, 1990); TNF-α is also implicated in other acute disease εtateε εuch aε the pathophyεiologic reεponses which follows subsequent reperfusion. It is involved in re-perfusion injury, and is a major cause of tissue damage after loεε of blood flow. (Vedder et al. , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 87:2643- 2646, 1990). SEPSIS Overproduction of TNF-α has been implicated in the pathogenesiε of endotoxin induced εeptic εhock, (εee Carεwell et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 2:3666-3670, 1975). Endotoxin iε the lipopolyεaccharide component of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria, and iε a macrophage activator which induceε the εynthesis and enhanced secretion of TNF-α and other biologically active cytokine molecules. TNF-α is recognized as a central mediator of sepεiε, εeptic εhock and multiple organ failure. Theεe hoεt reactionε are aεsociated with increased blood levels of TNF-α, due to increased TNF-α production. (F. Stuber et al.. Jour. Inflam. , 46:42-50, 1996). in sepsis, TNF-α overproduction leads to hypotension, vascular endothelial permeability, and organ damage, i.e., some of the resultε of endotoxic εhock. Adult Reεpiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) is frequently associated with εepεis and multiple organ failure which has led to recognition of a role for TNF-α in the pathogeneεiε of ARDS. TNF-α is also the agent responεible for the weight loεε (cachexia) found in chronic catabolic diεeaεe εtateε, εuch aε long term paraεitic and viral infectionε and malignancieε. Thiε weight loεε is a handicap to recovery and may even be fatal. The liver contains the largeεt pool of cytokine- producing macrophages in the body, and may therefore play an important role in the development and outcome of sepsis syndromes. S. Auer-Bath et al. investigated the TNF-α releasing capacity of the in situ perfused mouse liver. Pre-treatment of mice with either LPS or TNF-α elicited a dose-dependent TNF-α release into the perfuεate (Jour. Pharm. Exper. Therap., 276:968-976, 1996). A.M.Badger et al. studied the effect of on specific agents for their effects on LPS-induced TNF-α production in vitro and in vivo, and for their ability to protect mice from LPS-induced lethality in D- galactoεamine sensitized mice. In vivo, effective agents greatly reduced TNF-α serum levels. TNF-α is implicated as having a central pathogenic role in the LPS plus D-galactosamine model, since survival of the animals correlated directly with the reduction of serum TNF-α levels (Cir. Shock, 44:188-195, 1994). In vivo, there waε a rank order potency on serum TNF levels in LPS challenged D-galactosamine sensitized mice. Interestingly, TNF is implicated as having a central pathogenic role in the LPS/D-galactosamine model, εince εurvival of animalε correlated directly with reduction of serum TNF levels for each compound studied (Badger et al., Circ. Shock, 44:188-195, 1994). A highly specific polyclonal rabbit anti-serum directed against murine TNF-α was prepared. When BALB/c mice were pasεively immunized with antiεerum, they were protected againεt the lethal effect of the LPS derived fro E. coli. The prophylactic effect was dose- dependent and was most effective when the antiserum was given prior to the injection of the LPS. Anti-serum to TNF-α did not mitigate the febrile response of LPS- treated animals, and very high doseε of LPS could overcome the protective effect. The median lethal dose of LPS in mice pre-treated with 50 microliters of specific antiserum was approximately 2.5 times greater than the median lethal doβe for controls given nonimmune serum. The data suggest that TNF-α iε one of the principal mediators of the lethal effect of LPS (B. Beutler et al.. Science, 229:869, 1985). LIVER Because of its central role in metabolism and host defense mechanisms, the liver is thought to be major organ responsible for initiation of the multiple organ failure during sepsis. The depression in hepatocellular function in early, hyperdynamic stages of sepsis does not appear to be due to any reduction in hepatic perfusion, but is asεociated with elevated levelε of circulating cytokines such as TNF-α. Furthermore, administration of recombinant TNF-α at doses that do not reduce cardiac output or hepatic perfusion, produces hepatocellular dysfunction. (P. Wang et al., Amer. Jour. Phvsiol., 270:5, 1996). The liver contains the largest pool of cytokine- producing macrophages in the body and may therefore play an important role in the development and outcome of systemic inflammatory response syndromes. The TNF-α releasing capacity of the in situ perfused mouse liver and its modulation by methylxanthines was investigated, i.e., by a class of well-establiεhed inflammatory cytokine-suppressing drugs. It was shown that pre¬ treatment of mice with either lipopolysaccharide or TNF elicited a dose-dependent TNF release into the perfusate which waε inhibited by in vivo pretreatment of mice with pentoxifyline or A-802715 (i-(5 hydroxy-5-methyl) hexyl- 3-methyl-7 proplyxanthin) . Infusion of these methyl- lipopolyεaccharide or TNF alεo inhibited TNF releaεe in an immediate and reversible way even after TNF production had been initiated. The inhibitory effect of methyl-xanthines waε prevented by pretreatment office with the adenylate cyclaεe inhibitor dideoxyadenoεine, suggesting upregulation of the cyclic adenosine monophoεphate εyεtem aε a poεεible mechaniεm of action of these drugs. It was demonstrated that the liver is a potent cytokine producer and identify it as one of the target organs of methyl-xanthines or other phosphodiesterase inhibitors in murine models of shock and inflammatory liver failure. (M. Leist, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 276:968-976, 1996.). The authors discuεε TNF-α induction of hepatic apoptosis under transcriptional arrest, activation of the 55 kDa receptor in the induction of hepatic apoptosis, the glycosylation step in TNF-induced hepatic apoptosis, hepatic injury induction by T cell-initiated cytokine release, and Ta cell-dependent TNF-mediated liver injury without transcriptional arrest. (A. Wendel et al.. Cell. Biol. Mol. Basis Liver Transp., Int., Ringberg Conf. Hepatic Transp., 2nd, 1995, Pages 105- 111. ) . PANCREAS The mechaniεm of obeεity-induced resistance to insulin which puts obese individuals at risk for developing heart disease and type II diabetes has been identified recently (Science 271:665, 1996). Knowing that the fat cells of obese individualε contain TNF-α at levelε that correlate with the degree of both obesity and insulin resiεtance, the reεearchers tackled the role of TNF-α in promoting insulin reεiεtance. They found that TNF-α induceε reεiεtance by phoεphorylating a key subεtrate, at εerine reεidueε. Thiε altered form of IRS inhibitε the first step in the insulin pathway autophosphorylation of the insulin receptor after insulin binds to it. TNF-α plays a central role in the state of insulin resistance associated with obesity. It has been previously shown that one important mechanism by which TNF-α interferes with insulin signaling is through the serine phosphorylation of insulin receptor subεtrate-1 (IRS-1), which can function aε an inhibitor of the tyroεine kinaεe activity of the inεulin receptor (IR). The data strongly suggest that TNF-α inhibits signaling via a stimulation of p55 TNFR, and sphingomyelinaεe activity, which reεultε in the production of an inhibitory form of IRS-1 (P. Peraldi et al.. Jour. Biol. Chem. 271:13018-13022, 1996). CROHN'S DISEASE Investigatorε meaεured TNF-α concentrationε in stool samples from normal children, infants with diarrhea, and children with inflammatory bowel disease in active and inactive phases. In 10 normal children and 14 children with diarrhea, median stool TNF-α concentrationε were 58 and 45 pg/gram stool, respectively. Compared with diarrhea controls, stool TNF-α concentrations were significantly increased in children with active Crohn's disease (n=13, median 994 pg/gram, P<0.0002). In patients with inactive Crohn'ε diεease, either as a result of εurgery, or treatment with steroids, the concentration of stool TNF-α fell to the level of the controls (approximately 50 pg/gram; CP. Braegger et al.. Lancet, 339:89-91, 1992). PRE-ECLAMPSIA Pre-eclampsia is an endothelial disorder, and TNF- α has fundamental effects on endothelial cells by several means, including alteration of the balance between oxidant and anti-oxidant, changing the pattern of prostaglandin production, and affecting the expreεεion of several cell surface componentε. In patientε, results show that TNF-α mRNA expression is εignificantly elevated in preeclamptic patientε compared to the control groupε. Theεe obεervations are consistent with a major role for TNF-α in the Immunol . 104 : 154- 159 , 1996 ) . DERMAL BURNS The protein catabolic rate and TNF-α content of the soleuε uεcle of the εcalded region and remote region were dynamically determined in the firεt week after the ratε were inflicted with 37% TBSA full thickness scalding. The TNF-α content of skeletal muscles was far greater in the scalded region than in the remote region. TNF-α increase was also εignificantly correlated to the protein catabolic rate of the skeletal muscles (L. LI et al., Jour. Med. Coll. , PLA 10:262-267, 1995; CA. 125:938, 1245:8156a, 1996). BONE RESORPTION TNF-α is increased in bone resorption diseases, including arthritis, wherein it has been determined that when activated, leukocytes will produce a bone- reabsorbing activity. Data indicates that TNF-« enhances this activity (Bertolini et al.. Nature, 319:516-518, 1986, and Johnson et al.. Endocrinology, 124:1424-1427, 1989). TNF-α stimulates bone resorption and inhibits bone formation in vitro and in vivo through stimulation of osteoclaεt formation and activation combined with inhibition of oεteoblaεt function. TNF-α may be involved in many bone reεorption diεeaεeε, including arthritiε. RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS Analysis of cytokine mRNA and protein in human rheumatoid arthritis tissue revealed that many proinflammatory cytokines such aε TNF-α are abundant in all patients regardleεε of therapy. In rheumatoid joint cell cultureε that εpontaneouεly produce IL-l, TNF-α was the major dominant regulator of IL-l. Subsequently, other proinflammatory cytokines were also inhibited if TNF-α was neutralized, leading to the concept that the proinflammatory cytokines were linked in a network with TNF-α at its apex. This led to the concept that TNF-α was of major importance in rheumatoid arthritis and waε a therapeutic target. This has been successfully tested theεe εtudieε have provided the rationale for clinical trialε of anti-TNF-α therapy in patientε with long¬ standing rheumatoid arthritis. Several clinical trials using a chimeric anti-TNF- α antibody have shown marked clinical benefit, verifying the concept that TNF-α is of major importance in rheumatoid arthritis. Re-treatment clinical studieε have alεo εhown benefit in repeated relapεeε, indicating that the diεeaεe remainε TNF-α dependent (M. Feldmann, Annual Rev. Immunol., 14:397-440, 1996.). VASCULAR TNF-α alterε the propertieε of endothelial cellε and haε various pro-coagulant activities, such as production an increase in tissue factor procoagulant activity and suppression of the anticoagulant protein C pathway as well as down-regulating the expression of thrombomodulin (Sherry et al.. Jour. Cell. Biol., 107:1269-1277, 1988). TNF-α has activities which, together with its early production (during the initial stages of a trauma or injury event), make it a mediator of responεe to tissue injury in several important disorders including, but not limited to myocardial infarction, stroke and circulatory shock. Of specific importance may be TNF-«-induced expression of adhesion molecules, such as intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM) or endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule (ELAM) on endothelial cells (Munro et al.. Am. Jour. Path., 135:121-132, 1989). CARDIAC Packer et al. indicate the current top suεpectε in heart failure are noradrenaline, angiotensin, vasopreεεin, endothelin, and tumor-necroεiε factor (TNF- α), (N.E. J. Med., 323:236-241, 1990). They reported that concentrationε of TNF-α, which cauεe cachexia in chronic inflammatory disorders, infections, cancer and other diseases, were elevated in patients with severe heart failure, especially those with the more severe anifestations of the diεease, such as cardiac cachexia. The main purpose of this study was to determine the subchronic effects of low concentrations of TNF-α on the inotropic responεe and on the cellular level of high energy phoεphateε of cardiomyocyteε. Therefore, the inotropic response of cultured neonatal rat heart cells to 10-5M isoproterenol-, 10-1M ouabain-,10-5M forskolin- and 2,4 mM calcium-perfusion was studied 24 hourε after exposure to TNF-α. From resultε with animalε and humanε, it is concluded that subchronic exposure to low concentrations of TNF-α results in an almost complete but reversible inhibition of the response of cardiomyocytes to difference inotropic agents suggesting that a common final step of the inotropic cascade might be altered by TNF-α. Although energy metaboliεm of TNF- α exposed cells was affected also, reduction of high energy phosphate levels alone it not explain the observed inhibition of the inotropic response of the cardiomyocytes. The inveεtigatorε conclude from studies in vitro with cultured rat cardiomyocytes that subchronic exposure to low concentrationε of TNF-α resulted in almost complete, but reverεible, inhibition of the reεponεe of the cardiomyocyteε to different inotropic agents (isoproterenol, ouabain, forskolin), suggesting that a common final step of the inotropic cascade might be altered by TNF-α, (P. Boekstegers, Mol. Cell. Biochem., 156:135-143, 1996.). Inflammatory disease states predispose to myocardial infarction. The authors investigated the effects of a εyεtemic inflammatory reεponεe syndrome, (LPS)-induced circulatory shock in rats, on coronary vascular tone. Pre-treatment with cycloheximide or a TNF-α antibody or continuous infusion in vivo and Ln vitro of the endothelin ETA receptor selective antagonist FR 139317, greatly decreased the increase in coronary vascular resistance induced by LPS. Thus TNF- « may induce the releaεe of endothelin-l-(ET-l) and this mediates at least part of the coronary vasoconstriction. Therefore, in inflammatory disease states, such as LPS-induced septic shock, there iε the εequential releaεe of TNF-α and endothelin-1 which leads to an increase in coronary vascular tone and so a predisposition to myocardial ischemia. Inactivation of TNF-α by an antibody as well aε ET, receptor blockage by a selective antagonist may effectively interfere with this pathway. (T.Hohlfeld, et al., Br. J. Pharmacol. , 116:3309-3315, 1995.). IMMUNOLOGY In graft versus host reactions, increased serum TNF-α levels have been associated with major complications following acute allogenic bone marrow transplantε (Holler et al.. Blood, 75:1011-1016, 1990). Although salmeterol, and the related agents did inhibit TNF-α secretion by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- activated THP-1 cells with similar 1C50S of approx. 0.1 uM, this inhibition was effectively reversed by the B2- antagonist B2-adrenergic receptor. A strikingly different reactivity profile was seen with T cells. Salmeterol was able to inhibit the activation of both mouse and human T cells, as measured by proliferation and IL-2 secretion in response to anti-CD3 antibody, where as albuterol was completely inactive in these assayε. Thiε T cell inhibition by εalmeterol waε about 10-fold leεs potent than that from TNF-α production, and was not reversed by a B2-antagonist, indicating that a different mechanism was involved in the effect of salmeterol on T cellε. Paralleling the TNF-α inhibitory activity in vitro, oral doεing of εalmetrerol and albuterol inhibited LPS-induced increaεe in murine serum TNF-α level in vivo, with ED50s of approximately OSlmg/kg. This inhibition could be abrogated by dosing orally with the b blocker propranolol. The long-acting pharmacology profile of salmeterol was apparent in that it maintained itε efficacy for 3 h, while albuterol had a much εhorter duration of action. Salmeterol alεo had of endotoxic εhock, which iε dependent upon TNF-α production. Though salmeterol inhibited serum TNF-α levels by up to 94% in this asεay, it protected leεε than 50% of the animalε from the lethal effects of the LPS/galactosamine mixture. This obεervation εuggeεtε that functional levelε of TNF-α localized in tiεsues may not be accurately reflected by εerum levelε. (L. Sekut, Clin. Exp. Immunol., 99:461-466, 1995.). INFECTIONS Some viruεes are sensitive to upregulation by TNF- « or will elicit TNF-α overproduction and secretion in vivo. Such viruses include, but are not limited to, HIV viruses, cytomegalovirus (CMV) ,influenza, adenovirus and the Herpes group of viruses, εuch as, but not limited to. Herpes zoεter and Herpeε simplex. Monocytes, macrophageε, and related cells, εuch as Kupffer and glial cells, have been implicated in maintenance of HIV infections, and are targets for HIV viral replication. TNF-α also haε been εhown to activate HIV replication in monocyteε and/or macrophageε (Poli et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 87:782- 784, 1990). Therefore, inhibition of TNF-α overproduction or activity enhanceε the suppression of the HIV progression. AIDS viral replication of latent HIV in T-cell and macrophage lines can be induced by TNF-α (Folk et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 86:2365-2368, 1989). A molecular mechanism for the virus inducing activity iε indicated by TNF-α's ability to activate a gene regulatory protein found in the cytoplaεm of cellε, which promoteε HIV replication through binding to a viral regulatory gene sequence. (Osborn et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. , 86:2336-2340, 1989). Elevated TNF-α levels in AIDS aεεociated cachexia iε εuggeεted by elevated εerum TNF-α, and high levelε of εpontaneouε TNF- α production in peripheral blood monocyteε from patients (Wright et al., J. Immunol., 141:99-104, 1988). Lahdevirta et al., in the Amer. Jour. Med. , 85:289, 1988, discusε that TNF-α iε involved in the HIV- associated stateε of cachexia and muεcle degradation. Wright et al., in the J. Immunol. , 141:99-104, 1988, suggest a possible role for TNF-α in AIDS cachexia by elevated serum TNF-α and high levels of TNF-α production in peripheral blood monocytes from such patients. Folks et al., (Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 86:2365- 2368, 1989) indicate that TNF-α induces stimulation of viral replication of latent HIV in T-cell and macrophage lines. Bacterial meningitis is accompanied by intrathecal production of cytokines which may be intimately involved in the development of the meningeal inflammatory response. The prevention of brain edema by anti-TNF-α antibodies in experimental meningitis provides firm evidence for the involvement of TNF-α in the breakdown of the Blood Brain Barrier. TNF-α also can trigger the infiltration of neutrophils into the tissue with consequent induction of secondary mediators in local areas. TNF-α may also activate formation of platelet activating factor (PAF) and prostaglandins by endothelial cells and leukocytes. Endothelial cell damage leading to brain edema iε further mediated by production of reactive oxygen intermediates, which can be prevented by εuperoxide diεmutaεe (A. Fontana et al., "Cytokineε and the CNS," Ed., R.M. Ransohoff and E.N. Benveniste CRC Press, 1996, p.193). TNF-α is also associated with yeast and fungal infections. Specifically, Candida albicans has been shown to induce TNF-α overproduction in vitro in human monocytes and natural killer cells (Riipi et al.. Infection and Immunity, 58:2750-54, 1990; Jafari et al., Jour. Infect. Dis., 164:389-95, 1991; Wasan et al., Antimicrob. Agents and Chemo., 35:2046-48, 1991; and Luke et al., Jour. Inf. Dis., 162:211-214, 1990). Cerebral malaria is a lethal hyperacute neurological syndrome asεociated with high blood levelε occurring in malaria patients. A form of experimental cerebral malaria that reproduces some features of the human disease was prevented in mice by administration of an anti-TNF antibody (Grau et al. , Immunol. Rev. , 112:49- 70, 1989). Levels of serum TNF-α correlated directly with the severity of diseaεe and prognoεiε in patientε with acute malaria attacks (Grau et al. , New Eng. Jour. Med. , 320:1586-1591, 1989). At conventional doses, the TNF-α suppreεsant activity of chloroquine in human peripheral blood monocytes stimulated by lysed erythrocytic forms of Plasmodium falciparum were greater than those of quinine. The optimal treatment for cerebral malaria may be a combination with a rapid acting anti-TNF-α antibody with chloroquine (D. Kwaitkowski and C Bate, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.. 89:215-216, 1995). One of the hallmarks of Chagas diseaεe (cauεed by T. cruzi) iε progressive cardiomyopathy. The disease is associated with elevated serum levels of TNF-α, which is known to depresε cardiac function. In one month old male, Lewis rats infected with T. cruzi trypomastigotes, and killed 15 dayε later, hiεtological examination of infected animals revealed dense infection with amastigotes within myocytes, and minimal inflammatory infiltrate in the myocardium. In addition to mechanical damage, infection by T. cruzi induceε pro-inflammatory cytokine production in the myocardium itεelf, which may further exacerbate the pathology, and adversely affect myocardial function (B.Chandrasekar et al., Biochem. Biophyε. Reε. Commun., 223:365-3671, 1996). Accordingly, it is a principal object of the present invention to provide compoεitions and methods for the (1) inhibition of the syntheεiε, storage and release of TNF-α from the various appropriate cells (mesenchymal, mesodermal or epithelial in origin), and (2) to prevent the pathophyεiologic effects of exceεεively high concentrations of TNF-α on cells, tissues and organs. It is an additional object of the invention to provide such compositions and methods that do not inhibit any beneficial effects of TNF-α. Other objects of the preεent invention, as well as particular features, elements, and advantages thereof, will be elucidated in, or be apparent from, the following description. Disclosure of Invention The present invention achieves the above objects, among others, by providing, in a preferred embodiment, a method for the inhibition of the εyntheεiε and releaεe of tumor necrosis factor from various cells, compriεing: administering to a human or other mammal an effective dose of one or more pharmaceutical substances selected from the group consisting of N-substituted 2(1H) pyridones, N-substituted 3(1H) pyridones, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Brief Description of Drawingε Figures 1—5 illustrate the reεultε of variouε experimentε conducted with one of the compound of the present invention, Best Mode for Carrying Out the Invention 5-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH)-pyridone, "pirfenidone" , and related compounds have been found to inhibit the syntheεiε and releaεe of TNF-α and inhibit or block the several pathophysiological effects of TNF-α at injury sites and thus alεo inhibit the releaεe of other pathophyεiological biochemical products from cells such as hiεtamineε, prostaglandins, bradykinins, and peroxidases. The invention also relates to pharmaceutical compositionε compriεing εuch compoundε and a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent. The diεcovery of εuch compounds which specifically inhibit TNF-α overproduction and/or release not only provides a therapeutic approach for diseaεeε in which excessive TNF-α production is implicated, but also preventε the pathophyεiologic effectε of expoεure to excessive concentrations of TNF-α by cells, tissues or organs. The compounds are useful in inhibiting the overproduction and release of TNF-α by monocytes, macrophages, neuronal cellε, endothelial cellε, epidermal cellε, mesenchymal cells (for example: fibroblastε, εkeletal myocyteε, εmooth muεcle myocyteε, cardiac myocyteε) and many other types of cells. This invention also relates to a therapeutic method of (1) inhibiting TNF-α and/or TNF-ι£? overproduction and/or its release from cellε and (2) preventing the untoward, toxic or lethal effects of excessively high tissue levels of TNF-α in a mammal, including a human. This method comprises administering to a mammal an effective TNF-α inhibiting quantity of one or more of the above compounds. Thiε method also may be used for the prophylactic treatment or prevention of certain TNF-α mediated or exacerbated diseases amenable thereto. The invention provides a method for the treatment of allergic, traumatic, radiation, chemical, microbial and other injurious diεorderε by safely administering to a mammal, including a human, in need thereof an effective amount of such compounds. The compounds, by inhibiting or blocking the release, synthesiε, aε well as the pathophysiologic actionε of exceεεive levelε of TNF-α in each of these circumstances, directly facilitate the arrest or resolution of the tissue or organ damage, and facilitates the restoration of normal function. Together, these actions relate their novel use in treating tisεue trauma, or other injury diεorderε cauεed by infection, allergy, immunologic phenomena, burnε, radiation expoεure, neoplaεtic diεeaεe, toxic chemicalε and expressed as cardiovascular damage, neurologic injury, renal damage, liver damage, pancreatic damage; as well aε aεciteε, localized edema, dermal damage and dermal bliεterε. In contrast to cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan), azathioprine, cyclosporine or prednisone which are powerful immunosuppressants, these compounds afford a medicinal remedy for clinical diεorders clasεified as "auto-immune diseases" without suppreεεion of the immune response. The markedly reduced local edema after syεtemic or topical use of these novel compounds iε evident whether the edema is induced experimentally by a specific chemical agent, an allergic reaction, an endotoxin, radiation, a microbial infection, a thermal burn or by trauma. The edema readily diεsipates after (1) local topical application of εuch a compound or (2) adequate systemic (oral or parenteral) dosage. For example, such a compound,, a TNF-α antagonist, applied locally or given systemically, dramatically eliminates local edema, or vesicant responseε (blisters) caused by repeated pressure trauma injury (for example, pressure bruises, or blisterε on handε cauεed by handling of toolε), injury cauεed by εcalding or burnε, aε well as (1) injury caused by chemicals, (2) products released by microbial infection (for example, LPS), (3) immunologic responεe to contact with a foreign biological product (contact dermatitis, insect bite), (4) classical allergic responεe (ragweed hay fever resulting in chronic rhinitis), (5) radiation exposure (sunburn) . In patients with pulmonary dysfunction, preliminary tests with oral pirfenidone demonstrated marked, rapid and consiεtent improvement in the diffusion capacity of the lungs as measured by serial DLCO determinations. The compounds also are useful in the treatment of viral infectionε, where such viruses are sensitive to upregulation by TNF-α or will elicit TNF-α overproduction and secretion in vivo. The viruses for treatment with the cited compounds are those that produce TNF-α as a result of infection, or those which replication, directly or indirectly, to the TNF-α inhibitors of Formula (I). Such viruses include, but are not limited to HIV viruses, cytomegalovirus (CMV), influenza, adenovirus and the Herpes group of viruseε, such as, but not limited to. Herpes zoεter and Herpeε simplex. The active compounds described herein inhibit production of TNF-α and are therefore of use in the treatment of very many diseases asεociated with excessive TNF-α tissue or blood levels, described above, and which include septic shock, hemorrhagic shock, rheumatoid arthritis, insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes, inflammatory diseases, adult respiratory distresε syndrome, asthma, post-renal dialyεis syndrome, and graft versus host disease after bone marrow transplantation. In order to use such a compound or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof for the treatment of humans and other mammals, it iε normally formulated in accordance with εtandard pharmaceutical practice as a pharmaceutical composition. The compounds or a pharmaceutically acceptable formulations thereof can be used in the manufacture of medications for the prophylactic or therapeutic treatment of any diεease state in a human or other mammal, which is mediated by inhibition of TNF-α, such as but not limited to asthma, allergic, or inflammatory diεeaεes. The compounds are administered in an amount sufficient to treat such a diseaεe in a human or other mammal. A pharmaceutical composition of the present invention will compriεe an effective, non-toxic amount of one or more of the compoundε and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. These procedures may involve mixing, granulating, and compresεing or diεsolving the ingredients as appropriate to the desired preparation. Thuε, if a solid carrier is used, the preparation can be tableted, placed in a hard gelating capsule in powder or pellet form, or in the form of a troche or lozenge. The amount of solid carrier will vary, but preferably will be from about 25 mg to 400 mg. When a liquid carrier is uεed, the preparation will be in the form of a syrup, emulsion, soft gelating capsule, sterile injectable liquid such aε an ampule or nonaqueouε liquid suspension. Where the composition is in the form of a capsule, any routine encapεulation iε suitable, for example, using the aforementioned carriers in a hard gelatin capsule shell. A syrup formulation will generally conεiεt of a suspension or solution of the compound in a liquid carrier for example, ethanol, glycerine, or water with a flavoring or coloring agent. An aeroεol preparation will conεiεt of a εolution or εuεpension of the compound in a liquid carrier such as water, ethanol or glycerine; whereaε in a powder dry aeroεol, the preparation may include a wetting agent. Formulationε of the preεent invention compriεe an active ingredient together with one or more acceptable carrier(s) thereof and optionally any other therapeutic ingredient(s) . The carrier(s) must be "acceptable" in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of Formulation and not deleterious to the recipient thereof. It will be recognized by one of skill in the art that the form and character of the pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent is dictated by the amount of active ingredient with which it is to be combined, the route of administration, and other well-known variables. EXAMPLE I In vitro, pirfenidone at concentrations of 33-900 micrograms/milliliter inhibited the εynthesis and/or releaεe of excesεive and pathophysiologic amounts of TNF- α from WEHI 164 cells (Table 1, page 52). In vitro, pirfenidone at concentrations of 33 to 300 micrograms/milliliter did not inhibit the killing of WEHI neoplastic fibroblast cells by TNF-α. TABLE I EFFECT OF PIRFENIDONE ON TNF INDUCTION BY MACROPHAGES EXPOSED TO LPS (Relative TNF Units) Pirfenidone (micrograms/ml) Exp# Pre- 0.0 100 300 900 incubation with pirf. (hourε) 1 0 >256 109 105 18 2 0 >256 87 26 7 3 12 >256 >256 213 34 4 12 140 123 103 80 5 12 >256 80 17 7 6 24 218 209 143 111 Mean +/- S.E. 230+/-14 144+/-29 84+/-31 43+/-18 Exposure of thioglycollate-induced murine peritoneal macrophages to LPS in the presence of pirfenidone resulted in a markedly reduced level of TNF- α secreted into the culture medium of these cellε. The reduction was directly related to the concentration of pirfenidone in the culture media. No toxicity was apparent with macrophages exposed to 0.9 mg/ml. The greatly reduced levelε of TNF-α in the preεence of pirfenidone show a statistically significant (P<0.01) inhibition of TNF-α output. The ability of pirfenidone and related compounds to block the syntheεiε and the releaεe of TNF-α from macrophages, as well as other cells, was bioassayed by the method of Morgan, Millε, D.L. Lefkowitz, and S.S. Lefkowitz ("An Improved Colorimetric Aεεay for Tumor Necrosis Factor Using WEHI 154 Cells Cultured on Novel Microtiter Plates," Jour. Immunol. Method., 145:259-262, 1991). EXAMPLE II in order to determine the direct impact of graded concentrations of pirfenidone upon the εynthesis of TNF- α within the cytoplasm of murine macrophages, cell cultures of macrophages, grown in appropriate culture media, were treated with the respective concentrations pirfenidone for 60 minutes: (1) without exposure to LPS (controlε) and (2) expoεure to 1.0 pg/ml of LPS (E. coli.). Promptly after an expoεure for 60 minuteε, (a) the macrophages were separated from the culture medium by centrifugation, and (b) the macrophages were lysed. Subsequently, the lysed contents (cell cytoplasm and nucleus) from the macrophage cells were assayed via ELISA for TNF-α levels. In the controls (no exposure to LPS, E. coli.), only very low baseline levels of TNF-α were found within the cytoplaεm of the macrophages at the respective pirfenidone concentrations. Even at a concentration of 0.9 mg/ml of pirfenidone, only baseline levels were found. No measurable statistically significant change in production of TNF-α occurred. In the LPS treated macrophages, the cytoplasm and nucleus of cells demonstrated: (1) enhanced synthesis by the cytoplasm of these macrophages of TNF-α in the absence of pirfenidone (Figure 5), and (2) an inhibition of the LPS (E. coli., 1.0 pg/ml) induced rise in TNF-α synthesis that was directly related to the concentration of pirfenidone in the media (Figure 5). The pharmacological inhibition of LPS enhanced synthesis of TNF-α within the cytoplasm and nucleus of the macrophages by pirfenidone was statistically significant (P< 0.01). EXAMPLE III In vivo, in animal studies, i.p. dosageε of 30-400 milligrams of pirfenidone per kilogram of body weight inhibited or completely blocked the pathophysiological toxic effectε of TNF-α (for example, endotoxin [LPS] shock) (Figure 2). in mice, in vivo, at a dosage of 200 milligrams of pirfenidone per kilogram of body weight intraperitoneal or greater, complete blockage of the formation and release of TNF-α into the circulation was achieved and maintained for hourε. This model is a modification of that previously described for the in vivo induction of circulating TNF-α, (Haranaka et al.. Cancer Immunol. Immunother, 18:87-90,1984). EXAMPLE IV In a preliminary in vivo study in mice, the lethality (100.0% mortality) caused by a combination of i.v. LPS (E. coli., 50 pg/ml) plus 600mg/kg of i.p. D- galactosamine was distinctly reduced (10.0% mortality) by the i.p. injection of 300 mg/kg of pirfenidone 30 minutes prior to the administration of the combination of LPS and D-galactosamine. The serum levels of TNF-α in the surviving mice approached normal baεeline levels. The mice were observed for 2 days after the LPS injection. EXAMPLE V In humans, preliminary and controlled trials indicate that the effective anti-TNF-α daily oral dosages are on the order of about 10-30 milligrams per kilogram of body weight, and preferably on the order of about 20-25 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. The data shown herein (Table 1, Figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) indicate that the compounds of the present invention can inhibit TNF-α overproduction and release by mammalian cellε. It followε that the compoundε of the preεent invention are uεeful in inhibiting the overproduction of TNF-α by monocytes, macrophage or other cells in a human. The bioassays for TNF-α were confirmed in monitoring testε by using a modification of the basic sandwich ELISA method (Winston et al., "Current Protocols in Molecular Biology," page 11.2.1, Ausubel et al., Ed. 1987.) All other plasma levelε of TNF were measured using a modification of the basic sandwich ELISA method (Winston et al., "Current Protocols in Molecular Biology," Pg. 11.2.1, Ausubel et al., Ed. 1987. ). At a concentration of 80 micrograms per kilogram of body weight there was a 50% inhibition of the rise in TNF-α εerum levelε aε compared to Control Group (εeven mice per group) . Pirfenidone iε alεo effective in the same dosageε when given orally. The LPS waε injected intravenouεly into the mice at a doεage of 2.5 micrograms (in a volume of 100 micrograms from a stock solution of 100 micrograms per milligram) per mouse, and the Pirfenidone was administered immediately thereafter. The mice were then bled by cardiac puncture 90 minutes later. Subsequently, the εerum waε analyzed for TNF-α by a ELISA kit (Endogen). In addition to pirfenidone, the following, closely related compounds, compriεing other N-substituted 2(1H) pyridones and N-substituted 3(1H) pyridones have been found or are believed to have efficacy in inhibiting the syntheεiε and releaβe of TNF-α: 5-Methyl-l-(3-nitrophenyl-2)-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4'-methoxyphenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-p-tolyl-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3'-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2-(lH) pyridone l-(4'Chlorophenyl)-5-Methyl-2)-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-naphthyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(l 'naphthyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 3-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 6-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 3,6-Dimethyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-Thienyl)-2-(lH) pyridone 1-(2'-Furyl)-5-Methyl-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(5'-quinolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4'-pyridyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3 '-pyridyl)-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2'-pyridyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-quinolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4'-quinolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-thiazolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1-(2'-Imidazolyl)-5-Methyl-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Ethyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 3-Ethyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone l-Phenyl-2-(IH) pyridone 1-( '-Nitrophenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone l,3-Diphenyl-2-(lH) pyridone l-Phenyl-3-(4 '-chlorophenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1,3-Diphenyl-5-methyl-2-(IH) pyridone 3-(4'-Chlorophenyl)-5-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-3-phenyl-l-(2 '-thienyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-ρhenyl-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4 '-methoxyphenyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-p-tolyl-3-(IH) pyridone 1-(4'-Chlorophenyl)-5-methyl-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-1-(2'-naphthyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 4-Methyl-l-phenyl-3-(IH) pyridone 6-Methyl-l-phenyl-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l(2 '-Thienyl)-3(IH) pyridone 1-(2 '-Furyl)-5-methyl-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(5 '-quinolyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3 '-pyridyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2'-pyridyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-quinolyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Ethyl-l-phenyl-3-(lH) pyridone l-Phenyl-3-(lH) pyridone. The general εtructure for the 2-(lH) pyridones is where: Rl = alkyl group (CH3, C2H5, etc.); A iε phenyl, thienyl, etc., or other aryl group. The alternative iε for R3 to be the εite of substitution of the alkyl group with Rl remaining as a hydrogen; R2 and R4 are, in every circumstance, hydrogens. The general structure for the 3-(lH) pyridones is: where: R2 or R3 = alkyl group or hydrogen, as above; A is phenyl, thienyl, etc., or other aryl group. Rl and R4 are hydrogens. Theεe compoundε can be prepared using methods similar to those set forth in US Patent No. 3,839,346, iεsued October 1, 1974, to Gadekar, and titled N- SUBSTITUTED PYRIDONE AND GENERAL METHOD FOR PREPARING PYRIDONES, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference hereinto. That patent also describes use of some of those compoundε in analgeεic, anti¬ inflammatory, and antipyretic treatments. US Patents Nos. 3,974,281, issued August 10, 1976; 4,042,699, issued Auguεt 16, 1977; and 4,051,509, issued October 4, 1988, all to Gadekar, describe further use of pirfenidone in lowering serum uric acid and glucose levelε, treating upper respiratory inflammatory conditions, and treating inflammatory skin conditions, in humanε and other animalε. US Patent No. 5,310, 452, issued May 10, 1994, to Margolin, and titled COMPOSITION AND METHOD FOR REPARATION AND PREVENTION OF FIBROTIC LESIONS, and copending US Application Serial No. 08/243,058, by Margolin, and titled COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR REPARATION AND PREVENTION OF FIBROTIC LESIONS discloεe the uεe of the above compoundε in the reparation and prevention of fibrotic lesions. The compositionε of the preεent invention may be adminiεtered in forms consiεting of capsules, tablets, powders, granules, εyrupε, injectable fluids, pillε, creamε, ointmentε, inhalable solids or fluids, eye drops, and suppositorieε. It will thus be seen that the objects set forth above, among those elucidated in, or made apparent from, the preceding description, are efficiently attained and, since certain changes may be made in the above compositions and methods without departing from the scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the foregoing disclosure shall be interpreted aε illuεtrative only and not in a limiting sense. It is alεo to be underεtood that the following claimε are intended to cover all of the generic and specific features of the invention herein deεcribed and all statements of the scope of the invention which, aε a matter of language, might be said to fall therebetween.

Claims: Claims 1. A method for the inhibition of the syntheεiε and release of tumor necrosis factor from various cells, comprising: administering to a human or other mammal an effective dose of one or more pharmaceutical εubεtanceε εelected from the group conεiεting of N-εubεtituted 2(1H) pyridones, N-subεtituted 3(1H) pyridoneε, and pharmaceutically acceptable εaltε thereof. 2. A method, aε defined in Claim 1, wherein: the general εtructural formula of said N-substituted 2-(l) pyridones is: where: Rl is selected from the group consiεting of (1) an alkyl group, with R3 hydrogen, and (2) hydrogen, with R3 consisting of an alkyl group; A is an aryl group; and R2 and R4 are hydrogen. 3. A method, as defined in Claim 1, wherein: the general structural formula for said N-subεtituted 3-(lH) pyridoneε is: where: R2 is selected from the group consisting of (1) an alkyl group, with R3 hydrogen, and (2) hydrogen, with R3 consiεting of an alkyl group; A iε an aryl group; and Rl and R4 are hydrogen. 4. A method, aε defined in Claim 1, wherein: said pharmaceutical subεtanceε include one or more compoundε selected from the group consisting of: 5-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3-nitrophenyl-2)-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4' -methoxyphenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-p-tolyl-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3'-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1-(4'Chlorophenyl)-5-Methyl-2)-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2'-naphthyl)-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(1'naphthyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 3-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 6-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 3,6-Dimethyl-l-phenyl-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-Thienyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1-(2 '-Furyl)-5-Methyl-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(5'-quinolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4 '-pyridyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3 '-pyridyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2'-pyridyl)-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-quinolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4'-quinolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-thiazolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1-(2 '-Imidazolyl)-5-Methyl-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Ethyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 3-Ethyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone l-Phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone l-(4'-Nitrophenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1,3-Diphenyl-2-(IH)pyridone l-Phenyl-3-(4 '-chlorophenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1,3-Diphenyl-5-methyl-2-(IH) pyridone 3-(4'-Chlorophenyl)-5-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-3-phenyl-l-(2'-thienyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-phenyl-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4 '-methoxyphenyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-ρ-tolyl-3-(lH) pyridone l-(4'-Chlorophenyl)-5-methyl-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-naphthyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 4-Methyl-l-phenyl-3-(lH) pyridone 6-Methyl-l-phenyl-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l(2 • -Thienyl)-3(IH) pyridone l-(2'-Furyl)-5-methyl-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(5'-quinolyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3'-pyridyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-pyridyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-quinolyl)-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Ethyl-l-phenyl-3-(lH) pyridone l-Phenyl-3-(IH) pyridone. 5. A method, as defined in Claim 1, wherein: beneficial effects of said tumor necrosiε factor are not inhibited by εaid pharmaceutical εubεtance. 6. A method, as defined in Claim 1, wherein: said pharmaceutical subεtance iε ad iniεtered to εaid mammal in a dosage of on the order of about 10 to about 400 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. 7. A method, as defined in Claim 1, wherein: said pharmaceutical substance is administered by injection or orally to a human in a daily dosage of from about 10 to about 30 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. 8. A method, as defined in Claim 1, wherein: said pharmaceutical εubstance is administered by injection or orally to a human in a daily dosage of from about 20 to about 25 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. 9. A composition for the inhibition of the synthesis and release of tumor necrosis factor from various cellε, comprising: an effective dose for a mammal of one or more pharmaceutical εubεtanceε selected from the group consisting of N-subβtituted 2(1H) pyridones, N-substituted 3(1H) pyridones, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. 10. A composition, as defined in Claim 9, wherein: the general structural formula of said N- subβtituted 2-(l) pyridones iβ: where: Rl is selected from the group consisting of (1) an alkyl group, with R3 hydrogen, and (2) hydrogen, with R3 consisting of an alkyl group; A is an aryl group; and R2 and R4 are hydrogen. 11. A composition, as defined in Claim 9, wherein: the general structural formula for said N- subεtituted 3-(lH) pyridones is: where: R2 is selected from the group consisting of (1) an alkyl group, with R3 hydrogen, and (2) hydrogen, with R3 consisting of an alkyl gr .p; A is an aryl group; and Rl and R4 are hydrogen. 12. A composition, as defined in Claim 9, wherein: said pharmaceutical substances include one or more compounds selected from the group consisting of: 5-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3-nitrophenyl-2)-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4'-methoxyphenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-p-tolyl-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3'-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1-(4'Chlorophenyl)-5-Methyl-2)-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-1-(2'-naphthyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(1'naphthyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 3-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 6-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 3,6-Dimethyl-l-phenyl-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2'-Thienyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1-(2 • -Furyl)-5-Methyl-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(5 • -quinolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4 • -pyridyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3'-pyridyl)-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2'-pyridyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2'-quinolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4'-quinolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-thiazolyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1-(2'-Imidazolyl)-5-Methyl-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Ethyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 3-Ethyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone l-Phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 1-(4'-Nitrophenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1,3-Diphenyl-2-(lH)pyridone l-Phenyl-3-(4 '-chlorophenyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 1,3-Diphenyl-5-methyl-2-(IH) pyridone 3-(4 '-Chlorophenyl)-5-Methyl-l-phenyl-2-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-3-phenyl-l-(2 '-thienyl)-2-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-phenyl-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(4'-methoxyphenyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-p-tolyl-3-(lH) pyridone l-(4'-Chlorophenyl)-5-methyl-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-naphthyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 4-Methyl-l-phenyl-3-(IH) pyridone 6-Methyl-l-phenyl-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l(2 '-Thienyl)-3(IH) pyridone l-(2'-Furyl)-5-methyl-3-(lH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(5'-quinolyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(3'-pyridyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-pyridyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Methyl-l-(2 '-quinolyl)-3-(IH) pyridone 5-Ethyl-l-phenyl-3-(lH) pyridone l-Phenyl-3-(IH) pyridone. 13. A composition, as defined in Claim 9, wherein: beneficial effects of said tumor necroεiε factor are not inhibited by εaid pharmaceutical substance. 14. A composition, aε defined in Claim 9, wherein: said dose containε εaid pharmaceutical εubstance in a quantity of on the order of about 10 to about 400 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. 15. A composition, aε defined in Claim 9, wherein: εaid doεe containε εaid pharmaceutical εubstance in a quantity of from about 10 to about 30 milligrams per kilogram of body weight of a human. 16. A composition, as defined in Claim 9, wherein: said dose contains εaid pharmaceutical εubstance in a daily doεage of from about 20 to about 25 milligramε per kilogram of body weight of a human.

Inventors: MARGOLIN SOLOMON B, MARGOLIN, SOLOMON, B.
Applicants: MARGOLIN SOLOMON B, MARGOLIN, SOLOMON, B.
Application year: 1996
Main classification: A01N43
IPC codes: A61K31, A61P1, A61P5, A61P9, A61P13, A61P17, A61P25, A61P37, A61P43, C07D213, C07D401, C07D405, C07D409, C07D417