UNIVERSAL, ENVIRONMENTALLY SECURE, WAVE DEFENSE SYSTEMS USING MODULAR CAISSONS

Abstract: A system of standardized, ballastable, trimmable modular caissons (30) is provided for constructing universal, environmentally secure, wave defense systems for use over a wide range of site conditions in bodies of water of various types and depths and subjected to any kind of storm or tsunami. The modular system comprises one or more different types of primary modular caissons of five standardized shapes and proportions, wherein each different type of caisson module has bulk storage capability and is designed to perform one or more specific functions in the overall wave defense system. The caisson modules (30) can be suitably scaled to size and assembled in different combinations to construct a multitude of differently configured wave defense systems. The individual caisson modules can be manufactured in shipyards or shipyard-type facilities on shore and then towed to, and assembled at, the site where the wave defense system is required. Due to the modular nature of the wave defense system, it can be demounted and the caisson modules readily removed at the end of the useful life of the wave defense system, thereby returning the site as closely as possible to its preconstruction state.

Description: UNIVERSAL, ENVIRONMENTALLY SECURE, WAVE DEFENSE SYSTEMS USING MODULAR CAISSONS BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to modular caissons which can be assembled in different configurations to form wave defense systems in deep or shallow waters, and more particularly to standardized, modular caissons which are constructed onshore in the form of either monolithic caissons or caisson sub-assembly sections, floated to a preselected site, trimmed and ballasted down to form a wave defense system. In large, open bodies of water, the forces generated by maximum force winds and waves can vary greatly depending on the location of, and underlying conditions at, any particular site. Because of this great variation, it has heretofore not been possible to standardize the design of wave defense systems to any appreciable extent. Instead, wave defense systems have generally been designed as one-of-a-kind structures suited to the requirements of a particular site. This results in construction being undertaken at a location near or at the site in question, with little, if any, cost savings being available from standardized production methods, such as those available in shipyards and shipyard-type facilities. Usual wave defense systems include breakwaters, groins, pilings, caissons and the like. Caissons are typically constructed of concrete and/or steel and may be of either the floating or sunken type. A floating caisson floats on the surface and is anchored to the seabed, lake bed, etc. A sunken caisson, on the other hand, rests directly on the bed and may, depending on its construction, penetrate into the bed to aid in embedding the caisson in place. Floating caissons present a danger of breaking loose in severe wind and wave conditions, such as during a hurricane or typhoon, regardless of how strongly the caissons are anchored. This is an extremely dangerous condition and results in a breach of the wave defense system which, in turn, destroys the integrity of the protected area behind the caissons. Similarly, sunken caissons, even though large enough to rest on, or even penetrate, the bed, also present a danger of breaking loose due to their hydrodynamic characteristics. For example, when severe storm waves and winds slam into the seaward side of a sunken caisson, the wind and wave forces create: a lifting force tending to lift the caisson off the bed; a turning moment tending to overturn the caisson; and a slamming force tending to move the caisson sideways — any of which, if large enough in magnitude, can lead to a caisson breaking loose thus resulting in a breach of the wave defense system. By way of example, French Patent No. 1,012,795 dated April 23, 1952 to Pascal Hermes discloses a sea wall made of sunken caissons. However, the caissons all have a greater height than width and are, therefore, likely to be toppled over when subjected to anything approaching maximum level wave and wind attack. This presents a serious drawback and severely restricts use of the sea wall to relatively shallow, protected waters. Another drawback is that the caissons appear to rest more or less on the surface of the seabed, with hardly any penetration into the bed, and thus are likely to be swept away by high waves. The caissons are not strongly anchored to the seabed and are not designed for use in deep, open waters subjected to severe wind and wave conditions. A further drawback is that the caissons have no additional use, other than their wave defense functions, so that their cost cannot be offset in any way other than by their wave defense function, i.e., the caissons have no revenue-earning capability. Another drawback is that the caissons are designed to be ballasted down but not ballasted up so that the caissons, once sunk into position, become a permanent structure. As a consequence, the caissons cannot be realigned or replaced and cannot be ballasted up and towed away for use at other locations, or for breakup in the event the sea wall has to be dismantled for environmental or other reasons. Because of these and other drawbacks, it is not believed that any sea wall using the caissons described in this patent has been built anywhere in the world. Out in open waters, especially in deep water, breakwaters armored with riprap, concrete blocks, tetrapods, dolos, etc. represent the only viable method of constructing wave defense systems. At such locations, however, the cost becomes too high and constitutes a strong financial deterrent preventing the construction of breakwaters, especially in deeper, open waters which are exposed to maximum force winds and waves. In addition, the problem of the extreme cost of constructing breakwaters and the like in deeper, open waters is compounded by the fact that such wave defense systems offer no additional economic benefits other than their value as a wave defense system. In short, the benefit/cost ratios of conventional wave defense systems are too low to justify their construction in open, deeper waters. Another problem of using breakwaters as wave defense systems is that once the breakwater is breached, there generally is no second line of wave defense. Thus the area that had been protected by the wave defense system is open to the full force of wind and wave attack. A further problem of constructing breakwaters massive enough to withstand severe hydrodynamic environments is that such breakwaters represent a large and permanent environmental "footprint" on the ocean floor, especially when the "core" thereof is made of dredged material. Due to their size, these breakwaters cannot be economically de-mounted and removed following the end of their useful life. For the foregoing reasons, very few such wave defense systems have been actually constructed, for example, at deep water sites in the open ocean. Further, those wave defense systems, such as breakwaters, that have been constructed in deeper, exposed waters cannot be built high enough, due to the prohibitive cost, to prevent wave over-topping, nor can they provide adequate protection on their lee sides from maximum strength winds. As a result, such wave defense systems do not provide adequate shelter on their lee sides for anchoring, docking or mooring vessels, especially when such wave defense systems are under maximum wind and wave attack. These conditions present a major problem for all vessels maneuvering at slow speed, or docking, or at anchor, especially vessels that have a high windage profile, such as container ships, cruise ships, tankers and bulk carriers, car carriers, and especially liquified gas carriers, such as LNG tankers and the like. There are no known wave defense systems which can provide adequate shelter at deep water sites, as for example in the open ocean, when subjected to maximum wind and wave attack such as exists along, and off, the open coastlines surrounding the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, for all classes of sea-going vessels engaged in commerce throughout the world. Further complicating the construction of wave defense systems in large, open bodies of water such as the open ocean is the growing need to build any such system so that, at least from an environmental or navigational standpoint, it can be de-mounted and removed following the end of its useful life, thereby returning the ocean to, or as close as possible to, its pre-construction state. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One object of the present invention is to provide a wave defense system comprised of modular caissons which overcomes the aforementioned problems associated with the prior art systems. Another object of the present invention is to provide a universal wave defense system that can protect any coastline or shoreline against beach erosion, or any artificial manmade island, against any level of wave and wind attack, including those arising from maximum scale hurricanes, typhoons, cyclones and tsunamis. A further object of the present invention is to provide a wave defense system capable of withstanding maximum force winds and waves generated at the site of the wave defense system. Another object of the present invention is to provide a wave defense system which is economically and technically feasible and which is environmentally benign. Another object of the present invention is to provide a wave defense system comprised of ballastable, trimmable, modular caissons which can be used for bulk storage of materials and which are designed and assembled to withstand maximum wind and wave attack in open, deeper waters and which can be easily scaled down for use in calmer, shallower waters. Another object of the present invention is to provide a wave defense system in large, open bodies of water (including the open ocean) at depths usually ranging from 20 to 100 feet, although, under certain conditions, depths up to 150 feet may be considered. A further object of the present invention is to provide a wave defense system comprised of a plurality of primary, ballastable, modular caissons which are all designed to store bulk materials and which can be constructed under cost-controlled conditions in shipyards, floated and towed out to a desired site, precisely trimmed, and then ballasted down and assembled into position to form an integrated wave defense system. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide a wave defense system comprised of ballastable, modular caissons which can be ballasted down to form an integrated wave defense system and which can, if desired, be ballasted up and towed away at the end of the useful life of the wave defense system to enable the site to be restored as closely as possible to its pre-construction state. A further object of the present invention is to provide a set of primary, ballastable, trimmable, modular caissons of different configurations which can be assembled in different combinations to constitute a wide array of wave defense systems and which can be scaled to size for use at different preselected sites having different water depths and different maximum wind and wave conditions. A still further object of the present invention is to provide a modular caisson system comprised of a given number of standardized, ballastable storage caissons which can be scaled to different sizes and which can be deployed in a multitude of different configurations to form wave defense systems under different site conditions. Another object of the present invention is to provide a modular storage caisson system in which the caissons are of a design that allows installation thereof in conjunction with any type of rubble mound breakwater having any type of outer layer armor. A further object of the present invention is to provide an installation of modular caissons which will remain stable when subjected to a wide range of adverse hydrodynamic and weather conditions. A further object of the present invention is to provide a wave defense system having a line of outer wave defense caissons and having, depending on site conditions, a reinforcement sub-system which is integral with the outer wave defense caissons and which acts as a reinforcing support system for supporting the line of outer wave defense caissons and which comprises a series of transverse support caissons and inner wave defense and multi-purpose caissons. Another object of the present invention is to provide a wave defense system having a line of outer wave defense caissons and having, depending on site conditions, a wave over-topping absorption, containment and dispersion sub-system which is integral with the outer wave defense caissons and which is comprised of transverse support caissons and inner wave defense caissions for absorbing, containing and dispersing the energy of waves over-topping the line of outer wave defense caissons. These as well as other objects, features and advantages of the invention are attained by providing a plurality of primary, ballastable, modular caissons of different configurations which can be assembled in different combinations to form a wide array of wave defense systems and which can be scaled to size for use at different preselected sites having different depths and subjected to different maximum force winds and waves. The primary, ballastable, modular caissons comprise anchor tower caissons, outer wave defense caissons, transverse support caissons, inner wave defense caissons, and multi¬ purpose caissons. The outer wave defense caissons are designed to be assembled in end-to-end relation to form a line which, when site conditions require, can be anchored at one or both ends and/or intermediately by an anchor tower caisson. A reinforcement sub-system may be provided for reinforcing the line of outer wave defense caissons, the reinforcement sub-system comprising one or more lines of inner wave defense caissons and multi-purpose caissons disposed on the leeward side of the line of outer wave defense caissons and integrated therewith through a series of transverse support caissons. In deep, open bodies of water, a wave over¬ topping absorption, containment and dispersion sub-system may be provided for absorbing, containing and dispersing the energy of waves over-topping the line of outer wave defense caissons. All of the primary, ballastable, modular caissons have large interior storage spaces for bulk storage of materials and are designed to be constructed onshore in shipyard-type facilities, and then floated to the desired site, trimmed and ballasted down to form the integrated wave defense system. The foregoing as well as other objects, features and advantages of the invention will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon a reading of the following detailed description of the invention when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Fig. la is an explanatory top plan view and Fig. lb is a cross-sectional view of one exemplary embodiment of a wave defense system constructed according to the principles of the present invention; Fig. 2a is an explanatory top plan view and Fig. 2b is a cross-sectional view of another exemplary embodiment of a wave defense system constructed according to the principles of the present invention; Fig. 3 is an explanatory side elevational view, partly cutaway, of a multi-purpose caisson according to the present invention; Figs. 4a and 4b are explanatory side elevational views, partly cutaway, of two embodiments of outer wave defense caissons according to the present invention; Figs. 5a and 5b are explanatory side elevational views, partly cutaway, of two embodiments of anchor tower caissons according to the present invention; Figs. 6a and 6b are explanatory side elevational views, partly cutaway, of two embodiments of inner wave defense caissons according to the present invention; Fig. 7 is an explanatory side elevational view, partly cutaway, of a transverse support caisson according to the present invention; Fig. 8 is an explanatory side elevational view, partly cutaway, of a multi-purpose caisson showing the trim and ballast tanks; Fig. 9 is an explanatory side elevational view, partly cutaway, of a multi-purpose storage caisson for bulk liquid storage; Fig. 10 is an explanatory side elevational view, partly cutaway, of a multi-purpose storage caisson for bulk solids storage; Fig. 11a is a sectional view and Fig. lib is a top plan view of a wave defense system without a rubble mound breakwater; Fig. 12a is a sectional view and Fig. 12b is a top plan view of a wave defense system with a rubble mound breakwater; Fig. 13a is a sectional view and Fig. 13b is a top plan view of another wave defense system with a rubble mound breakwater; Fig. 14a is a sectional view and Fig. 14b is a top plan view of a wave defense system using two types of primary modular caissons; Fig. 15a is a sectional view and Fig. 15b is a top plan view of a wave defense system using three types of primary modular caissons; Fig. 16a is a sectional view and Fig. 16b is a top plan view of a wave defense system using five types of primary modular caissons; Figs. 17-19 are explanatory side elevational views, partly in cross section, of typical wave defense systems at deeper sites under different hydrodynamic and site conditions; Figs. 20-22 are explanatory side elevational views, partly in cross section, of typical wave defense systems at shallower sites under different hydrodynamic and site conditions; Fig. 23 shows cross-sectional side elevations, at the same scale, of one type of standardized, ballastable modular caisson showing the size variation thereof across the range of hydrodynamic and site conditions for the wave defense systems shown in Figs. 17-22; Fig. 24 is an explanatory cross-sectional view of a wave defense system designed for maximum hydrodynamic and site conditions for use in explaining the toppling factor; and Figs. 25a and 25b are explanatory side views of two anchor tower caissons of different heights for use in explaining the penetration factor. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION To facilitate an understanding of the modular caisson concept utilized in the present invention, a brief description will first be given of two illustrative wave defense systems constructed of modular caissons according to the invention followed by a description of the different types of primary, modular caissons and illustrative embodiments of other caisson systems. It is understood that the several illustrative embodiments of wave defense systems described herein are merely representative of the multitude of different wave defense systems that can be constructed according to the principles of the present invention and that the invention is in no way limited or restricted to the particular configurations of wave defense systems illustrated in the drawings. As used throughout the specification and claims, the term "wave defense system" refers to and means a system or installation of modular caissons in waters of any type, such as oceans, seas, bays, rivers, lakes, estuaries and the like. The protected, sheltered area on the leeward side of a wave defense system, or enclosed or partly enclosed by a wave defense system, is referred to as a "manmade island" because it is surrounded or substantially surrounded by relatively unprotected water. The protected area is a manmade refuge surrounded by unprotected water. The protected area may be filled, or partly filled, with sand, rock, gravel or other fill material to constitute a land island, or the protected area may remain filled with water to constitute a water island. One embodiment of a wave defense system constructed of different types of modular caissons according to the present invention is shown in Fig. 1. Fig. la is a top plan view and Fig. lb is a sectional view of a wave defense system installed at a preselected ocean site in the open ocean. The system comprises a plurality of outer wave defense caissons 30 disposed in a line in end-to-end relation to define a partly closed loop. A plurality of inner wave defense caissions 50 are disposed in a line in end-to-end relation on the leeward or inner side of the line of outer wave defense caissons 30. An anchor tower caisson 45 is disposed at each of the ends of the lines of outer and inner wave defense caissons 30 and 50. Transverse support caissons 70 are disposed between and transversely of the lines of outer and inner wave defense caissons 30 and 50. In this embodiment, the outer wave defense caissons 30 are designed to permit wave over¬ topping, and the caissons 30, 50 and 70 coact to distribute the energy of the over-topping waves (described below with reference to Fig. 16) . An array of multi-purpose caissons 10 are disposed within the protected area on the leeward or inner side of the line of inner wave defense caissons 50. In this embodiment, the multi-purpose caissons 10 are disposed in juxtaposition with the inner wave defense caissons 50. In accordance with the invention, the particular number of the different types of caissons, and the arrangement of the caissons, will depend on the size of the area to be protected, the depth of the water at the selected site, the scale and direction of the maximum wind and wave forces generated at the selected site, and other factors. For example, one or more anchor tower caissons 45 may be interposed along the line of outer wave defense caissons 30 in addition to the two corner anchor tower caissons. The leeward side of the protected area may, if desired, be closed with a line of wave defense caissons 30 and/or 50 to completely enclose the protected area. A sea lock may also be provided, either in one of the caissons or between two adjoining caissons, to permit vessels to enter and exit the protected area. Figs. 2a and 2b show another embodiment of a wave defense system constructed of modular caissons according to the present invention. This embodiment is simlar to that shown in Fig. 1 but is designed for use at a site having less severe hydrodynamic and weather conditions than the embodiment of Fig. 1. In the embodiment of Fig. 2, a plurality of outer wave defense caissons 20 are disposed in a line in end-to-end relation, and the caissons 20 are designed to prevent wave over-topping. Thus in the Fig. 2 embodiment, the transverse support caissons 70 (which are used in the Fig. 1 embodiment) can be dispensed with, and the combination of the two juxtaposed lines of outer wave defense caissons 20 and inner wave defense caissons 50 provides a protected area for the array of multi-purpose caissons 10. Other illustrative examples of wave defense systems constructed of modular caissons are described below. In accordance with the invention, a system of standardized, ballastable, trimmable modular caissons is provided for constructing universal, environmentally secure, wave defense systems for use over a wide range of site conditions in bodies of water of various types and depths and subjected to any kind of storm or tsunami. The modular system comprises one or more different types of primary modular caissons of standardized shapes and proportions, wherein each different type of caisson module is designed to perform one or more specific functions in the overall wave defense system. The caisson modules can be suitably scaled to size and assembled in different combinations to construct a multitude of differently configured wave defense systems. The individual caisson modules are preferably made of reinforced concrete and can be manufactured, to the maximum extent possible, under cost-controlled conditions in shipyards or shipyard-type facilities onshore and then towed to, and assembled at, the site where the wave defense system is required. The caisson modules are capable of being scaled and assembled in different combinations, so that the overall scale and modular assembly of the wave defense system is capable of withstanding and overcoming the maximum hydrodynamic and wind forces that can be generated at a preselected site, with no larger modules, nor greater number of modules, nor greater degree of modular assembly, being utilized than are absolutely necessary for that particular site. The wave defense system is designed so that the area on the lee side of the system is fully protected to form a manmade or artificial island to provide secure maneuvering, docking and anchoring areas for all types of vessels, even when the site is subjected to maximum wind and wave attack. Due to the modular nature of the wave defense system, the caisson modules can be readily removed, if desired, at the end of the useful life of the wave defense system, thereby returning the site as closely as possible to its pre-construction state. This is an important consideration in this era of increasing environmental awareness and regulation. In accordance with one aspect of the invention, the modular caisson system consists of a plurality of different types of primary, ballastable, trimmable caissons which may be assembled in configurations of one or more types of caissons to construct different manmade wave defense systems. There are five fundamental types of primary, standardized, ballastable modular caissons which constitute the basic building blocks of all the wave defense sytsems. The five primary, ballastable caissons are shown to scale relative to one another in Figs. 3-7. The five primary modular caissons comprise multi-purpose caissons, outer wave defense caissons, anchor tower caissons, inner wave defense caissons and transverse support caissons — all of which have the capability of storing bulk materials. One or more of the five types of primary caissons, or all five, can be combined to form integrated, environmentally secure, wave defense systems, various examples of which are shown in Figs. 1-2 and 11-23. For purposes of illustration, all of the primary caissons described in Figs. 3-7 are illustrated as having recessed bottom portions. In certain circumstances, however, such as when the floor of the dredged trench (in which the caissons are sunk) is of a hard material, such as a hard clay, the recesses in the bottom portions may be dispensed with. This is because in hard material the recessed bottoms of the caissons loose their ability to act as "suction cups", which is their function in soft material such as a silt or silt/clay. The decision as to whether to use caissons with or without recessed bottom portions depends on whether or not the outside peripheral edges of the recessed bottoms are capable of aiding the caisson bottoms to penetrate into the floor of the trench, which depends primarily on the soil mechanics of the particular site in question. Further, it should be noted that when conditions beneath the floor or bed are extremely fluid, it may be necessary to drive piling clusters deeply into the bed, or use other well-established methods, to further support the anchor tower and other caissons. Fig. 3 shows a side elevation of one example of a multi-purpose caisson 10. The caisson 10 may be provided with an annular skirt 11 to assist in securing and holding the caisson to the bed beneath a body of water. The multi¬ purpose caisson 10 preferably has a rectangular cross section to simplify its design and construction and thus reduce its cost of manufacture while, at the same time, maximizing the internal volume or space of the caisson so that it may be used more effectively for various purposes, such as storage of materials, processing of materials, institutional purposes, administrative purposes, residential purposes and the like. The multi-purpose caisson 10 is provided with large, interior, storage voids or spaces S for the storage of materials. Multi-purpose caissons 10 which are to be used in large part for storage of materials are sometimes referred to herein as "storage" caissons. If the storage voids or spaces S are completely enclosed, as described below with reference to Fig. 9, they are generally limited to the storage only of pumpable materials, such as bulk liquids, slurries and the like. If the storage voids S are open at the top, as described below with reference to Fig. 10, they may be used for the storage of dry and semi-dry bulks materials. It is preferable from the standpoint of cost and installation expediency to construct the multi-purpose caisson 10 as a monolithic floatable structure; however, that may not always be possible or practical due to limitations imposed by the construction facility and/or the channel depth from the facility to the installation site. When monolithic construction cannot be done, the multi¬ purpose caisson 10 may be formed of two or more individual floatable sections such as a base section 10• and one or more intermediate sections 10' ' which are constructed, in whole or in part, onshore and then towed to the site, trimmed, ballasted down, and assembled together at the site. A top section 10• '• is constructed at the site on the assembled base and intermediate sections 10' and 10' '. For ease and clarity of description, the remaining primary caissons (outer and inner wave defense caissons, anchor tower caissons and transverse caissons) are shown as monolithic structures, and it is understood that each of these caissons may likewise be constructed of two or more individual floatable sections. Figs. 9 and 10 are side elevational views, partly cut-away, showing examples of multi-purpose caissons 10 used as a storage caisson 10A for the storage of bulk liquids (Fig. 9) and as a storage caisson 10B for the storage of bulk solids (Fig. 10) . The storage caisson 10A shown in Fig. 9 has one or more enclosed interior voids or storage spaces S in which are disposed storage tanks 14. In order to pump liquids or other pumpable materials into and out of the storage tank 14, the storage caisson 10A is equipped with a network of piping, valves, pumps and controls, which are housed in tunnels 15 running beneath the storage tank 14. Main pumps 16 are provided for withdrawing liquid from the storage tank 14 and pumping the withdrawn liquid through piping and valves to a pipe 18 for delivery to a barge, tanker or other vessel. A set of main pumps 17 are provided for pumping liquid introduced into the caisson 10A through the pipe 18 through piping and valves to upper and lower discharge pipes 19 for introducing the liquid into the storage tank 14 for storage. Any type of liquid or other pumpable materials can be stored in the storage tank 14. By way of example, and without limitation, the pumpable materials may include dredge material, sewage sludge, water, crude oil, petroleum products and pulps. The storage tank may be pressurized and/or refrigerated to enable storage of gasses or liquified gasses, such as liquified petroleum gas (LPG) , liquid ammonia and liquified natural gas (LNG) . The storage caisson 10B shown in Fig. 10 is designed for the storage of dry and semi-dry bulk materials. In this case, the caisson 10B is provided with one or more large interior voids or storage spaces S which may be in the form of dry-bulk storage silos 14a. The storage silos 14a are open at the top to enable the dry material to be introduced into the silos and removed therefrom by means of a loading/unloading apparatus 13, such as a crane, gantry or the like. A series of tunnels 15a extend along the length of the storage caisson 10B beneath the storage silos 14a and house material transporting means, such as conveyor belts, for distributing the material introduced by the load/unloading apparatus 13 throughout the length of the storage silos 14a. Alternatively, the tops of the storage silos 14a may be closed and/or sealed from the outside environment. Any type of dry or semi-dry bulk materials can be placed inside the storage silos 14a. By way of example, and without limitation, the dry and/or semi-dry bulk materials may be municipal solid waste, dewatered sewage sludge, waste paper, coal, ores, grains, cement, sintered metals, sintered rubber and plastic pellets. Figs. 4a and 4b show side elevations of two exemplary outer wave defense caissons 20 and 30. Each of the caissons 20 and 30 may be provided with an annular skirt 21 and 31 to assist in securing and holding the caissons to the bed by suction. The outer wave defense caisson 20 shown in Fig. 4a is designed for use at sites subjected to minimum "worst case" hydrodynamic conditions at minimum commerical depths, whereas the outer wave defense caisson 30 is designed for use at sites subjected to maximum "worst case" hydrodynamic conditions at maximum commercial depths. The caissons 20 and 30 have large, interior voids or storage spaces S for storage of bulk materials. Suitable piping, valves, pumps, controls, etc. (not shown) of known type are provided for pumping liquid or other pumpable material into and out of the storage spaces S. The outer wave defense caisson 20 has a tapered cross section that tapers outwardly in the downward direction on both the windward and leeward sides 22 and 23 of the caisson. In this design, the slope of the windward side 22 is the same as that of the leeward side 23, and the two sides slope outwardly for a major part of their downward extent. Depending on site conditions and other factors, the slope of the windward (outer) side 22 may be different from that of the leeward (inner) side 23, and the slopes of both sides may vary from that illustrated. The top part of the tapered caisson 20 is truncated and has a generally horizontal ledge portion 24 connected to the upper portion of the windward side 22 and a tapered ridge portion 25 connected to the upper portion of the leeward side 23. Alternatively, the tapered ridge portion 25 can be omitted (as indicated by dashed lines) so that the top of the caisson 20 is flat across its entire surface. The outer wave defense caisson 30 shown in Fig. 4b has a different configuration from that of the outer wave defense caisson 20 and has its center of gravity shifted in the leeward direction as compared to that of the caisson 20. The windward side of the caisson 30 has a split slope having an upper sloped portion 32 having a relatively gradual rise and a lower sloped portion 33 having a relatively steep rise. The caisson 30 is designed so that most or all of the upper sloped portion 32 extends above the water surface at mean low water (M.L.W.) and most or all of the lower sloped portion 33 lies below the water surface. The caisson 30 has a top horizontal portion 34. The leeward side of the caisson 30 has a sloped upper portion 35 and a generally horizontal ledge porton 36, both of which are disposed entirely above the water surface, and a vertical portion 37 which is provided to accommodate placement of transverse support caissons, as described below. As shown in Fig. 4b, the top part of the outer wave defense caisson 30 has a tapered cross section that tapers outwardly in the downward direction on both the windward and leeward sides in the region of the opposed sloped portions 32 and 35. Depending on site conditions and other factors, the slopes of the sloped portions 32, 33 and 35 may be different from that illustrated. While the two forms of wave defense caissons 20 and 30 are both designed for use as outer wave defense caissons, the caisson 20 is designed for use at locations subjected to minimum "worst case" wave and wind conditions, whereas the caisson 30 is designed for use at locations, generally in deeper waters, subjected to maximum "worst case" wave and wind conditions. This will be explained below. Outer wave defense caissons for use in large, open bodies of water must be designed to withstand maximum scale wind and wave attack, such as that of a maximum scale hurricane, typhoon, cyclone or tsunami. Maximum scale waves tend to slam and lift any caisson they encounter because the buoyancy of the caisson is increased as the wave impinges on the caisson. When the wind forces acting against the windward face of the caisson are added to the slamming and lifting forces created by the waves, turning moment forces are generated which, when combined with the tendency of the caisson to be lifted by the waves, can result in the caisson being raised from its position on the seabed, lake bed, etc. and turned over (toppled) and swept away (see description of toppling factor with reference to Fig. 24) . Under such conditions, the integrity of the wave defense system can be broken, leading to widespread destruction on the leeward side. A wave defense caisson having vertical windward and leeward faces will be subjected to greater relative lifting and slamming forces, and have a greater potential turning moment, than will a caisson of similar width but with sloping windward and leeward faces. For these reasons, the outer wave defense caisson 20 shown in Fig. 4a was designed with sloping rather than vertical faces. The caisson 20 has the preferred cross section for outer wave defense caissons for use in the open ocean for a wide range of hydrodynamic and site conditions and is designed to substantially prevent wave over-topping. It has been found, however, that the cross section of the caisson 20 is not optimal for meeting the engineering design requirements under the most severe hydrodynamic and site conditions such as might occur in large, open bodies of water up to a maximum commercial depth. Under maximum hydrodynamic and site conditions, the outer wave defense caisson 20 would have to be so large as to be unfeasible from a technical and economic standpoint. On the other hand, the caisson 30 is designed to permit over-topping of waves which are then absorbed by an inner wave defense system (described hereinafter) . In a typical example, the over-topping design of the caisson 30 would have a width in the lateral or sidewise direction approximately 60% that of the non- over-topping design of the caisson 20 and a height approximately 70% that of the non-over-topping design, thus making the wave over-topping caisson 30 significantly more feasible to construct than the wave non-over-topping caisson 20 from a technical and economic standpoint. Furthermore, the over-topping design of the outer wave defense caisson 30 offers other significant advantages over the non-over-topping design of the caisson 20, especially when the caissons are used under maximum hydrodynamic and site conditions and at a maximum commercial depth. These advantages include the following: (1) The gradual slope of the main windward face 32 of the wave over-topping caisson 30 reduces the forces to be absorbed by the caisson in the face of maximum wave attack. A relatively greater proportion of these wave forces is transferred up the windward face of the caisson and over the top thereof than is the case in the wave non- over-topping caisson 20 whose main windward face 22 has a much steeper slope. (2) The wave forces that must be absorbed by the wave over-topping caisson 30 are transferred more directly into a downward, vertical component than is the case with the wave non-over-topping caisson 20. This lessens the tendency for the caisson 30 to be lifted and over-turned as compared to the caisson 20. When under wave attack, the wave over-topping caisson 30 experiences a significantly less increase in buoyancy as compared to that of the wave non-over-topping caisson 20. (3) The more gradual slope of the windward face 32 of the wave over-topping caisson 30 reduces the slamming effect of maximum strength waves on the caisson when compared to the wave non-over-topping caisson 20 with its steeper windward slope 22. (4) The optimal engineering design of the windward slope of the wave over-topping caisson 30 has two differently sloped portions 32 and 33. The lower sloped portion 33 is at a much steeper angle relative to the upper sloped portion 32. This allows for a greater volume and, therefore, a greater weight, of rubble mound to be placed on and against the windward face 32,33 of the wave over- topping caisson 30 as compared with the wave non-over¬ topping caisson 20 which has a windward face 22 of constant slope. The added weight of rubble borne by the wave over¬ topping caisson 30 counteracts the lifting and turning forces. (5) As shown in Fig. 4b, the leeward face 37 of the wave over-topping caisson 30 is perpendicular to the bed from at least the mean-low-water level to the bottom of the caisson. This allows for the juxtapositioning of a transverse support caisson (as explained hereinafter) where hydrodynamic and site conditions so dictate, whereas such is not possible in the case of the wave non-over-topping caisson 20. The provision of a transverse support caisson not only eliminates any tendency of the outer wave defense caisson 30 to shift laterally, due to the slamming action of the waves, but also adds to those countervailing forces that oppose the tendency of the caisson to be overturned. Fig. 5a shows a side elevation of an exemplary anchor tower caisson 40 embedded on the ocean floor. The anchor tower caisson 40 preferably has a polygonal cross section and has an annular skirt 41 which defines a recessed bottom portion of the caisson to aid in securing the caisson bottom to the bed or floor by suction. A modified form of anchor tower caisson 45 is shown in Fig. 5b, and such comprises a taller, more massive version of the anchor tower caisson 40. The anchor tower caisson 45 has an annular skirt 46 and a massive pedestal portion 47, the size of which may vary depending on site conditions and other factors. The caissons 40 and 45, like the other types of primary caissons, have large interior voids or storage spaces S for storage of bulk materials. Suitable piping, valves, pumps, controls, etc. (not shown) of known type are provided for pumping liquid or other pumpable materials into and out of the storage spaces S. There are several main purposes of the anchor tower caissons 45. One is to anchor the ends, or one end, of the wave defense system by providing a substantial mass firmly embedded in the seabed, lake bed, river bed, etc. to assist in maintaining the integrity of the wave defense system between the ends thereof or between one end thereof and the shore. Another purpose is to provide a high and readily identifiable radar target for vessels approaching the wave defense system, thus providing an important navigational aid to ships and planes in the neighborhood of the system. Another purpose is to provide a high location overlooking the wave defense system to house a command and control center for excercising vessel traffic control, fire control, security control, air-sea rescue control, disaster control, etc. In addition, the top decks of the relatively high anchor tower caissons 45 are ideal locations for helicopter landing pads to allow for optional use of helicopters to transport personnel, supplies, etc. and to assist in carrying out the various control functions. To enable the anchor tower caissons 45 to perform these functions, the caissons must rise a major distance above the height of the other modular caissons of the wave defense system. Further, due to the height of the caissons 45, they provide optimal locations for garaging and maintaining all of the mobile wheeled vehicles used at the installation, while providing ample space for administrative offices, first aid facilities, dormitories, cafeterias, stores, etc. By comparison, there is generally no need for the truncated anchor tower caissons 40 to rise above the height of the other modular caissons of the wave defense system. The main function of the truncated anchor tower caissons 40 is to provide additional support to sections of the wave defense system at points between the end anchor tower caissons, especially where the length of any section is unusually long and therefore may require added support. The truncated anchor tower caissons 40 are typically interspersed along a line of wave defense caissons and ideally should be at the same height as the wave defense caissons to facilitate provision of a service road running the length of the wave defense system. In such a case, the top decks of the truncated anchor tower caissons 40 can be used as parking areas for vehicles, such as during emergency situations and the like. Another use for the truncated anchor tower caissons 40 is as a base for supporting a lighthouse, transmitter or other aid to navigation. The provision of a lighthouse is particularly suited for aesthetic and visual impact reasons in the case of wave defense systems used for coastal protection and placed within sight of shore. In some instances, the height of the truncated anchor tower caissons 40 may be less than that of the line of wave defense caissons. For example, in a wave defense system requiring sluice gates, the sluice gates would be incorporated in the truncated anchor tower caissons which, in that case, would have a height below that of the wave defense caissons so that the height of the sluice gates, when fully raised, is approximately the same as the height of the adjoining wave defense caissons. In other words, the top deck of the truncated anchor tower caissons would be located below the level of the top of the line of wave defense caissons. Figs. 6a and 6b show side elevations of two exemplary inner wave defense caissons 50 and 60. As in the case of the other caissons, the caissons 50 and 60 may be provided with annular skirts 51 and 61 to aid in securing and holding the caissons to the bed by suction. The caissons 50 and 60 have large interior voids or storage spaces S for storage of bulk materials. Suitable piping, valves, pumps, controls, etc. (not shown) of known type are provided for pumping liquid or other pumpable materials into and out of the storage spaces S. As shown in Fig. 6a, the windward side of the inner wave defense caisson 50 has a lower vertical wall portion 52 which extends from the bed to above the water surface, a sloped portion 53 and an upper vertical wall portion 54. The leeward side 56 of the caisson 50 extends vertically from the top to the bottom of the caisson. A ridge portion 57 is formed by the opposed surfaces 54 and 56 at the top of the caisson 50 on the leeward (inner) side thereof. The inner wave defense caisson 60 shown in Fig. 6b is substantially similar to the inner wave defense caisson 50 shown in Fig. 6a except that the sloped portion 63 of the caisson 60 terminates at its upper end in a generally horizontal ledge portion 64 instead of a ridge portion 57 as in the case of the caisson 50. The lower end of the sloped portion 63 terminates in a vertical wall portion 62. Depending on site conditions and other factors, the slopes of the sloped surface portions 53 and 63 may vary from that illustrated. Further, it should be noted that the leeward (inner) sides 56 and 66 of the inner wave defense caissons 50 and 60 most usually would be the same height as the windward (outer) side of the multi-purpose caisson 10 against which they are to be placed in juxtaposition in any single integrated wave defense system. Fig. 7 is a side elevation of an exemplary transverse support caisson 70. The caisson 70 preferably has a rectangular cross section and, depending on bed conditions, may be provided with an annular skirt 71 to assist in holding the caisson in place by suction on the ocean floor. As in the case of the other types of primary caissons, the caisson 70 has large interior voids or storage spaces S for storage of bulk materials. Suitable piping, valves, pumps, controls, etc. (not shown) of known type are provided for pumping liquid or other pumpable materials into and out of the storage spaces S. The caisson 70 has a vertical windward side 72 and a vertical leeward side 73 and is provided with a plurality of transverse ports 74 for permitting water to flow laterally through the caisson to dissipate wave energy and balance hydrodynamic forces on either side of the caisson. For ease of illustration, the transverse ports 74 have been shown in Fig. 7 as being rounded in shape although as site requirements dictate, they may have other shapes. The five primary, ballastable, trimmable caisson modules can be combined in various arrangements to construct universal, environmentally safe, wave defense systems. By way of illustration. Figs. 16a and 16b show a typical, integrated wave defense system constructed using the modular caisson system of the invention and designed specifically for use at a location involving maximum adverse site conditions, maximum depth, and exposure to maximum hydrodynamic wave and wind conditions, such as those that can be generated by a maximum scale hurricane, typhoon or tsunami. The wave defense system comprises a line of outer wave defense caissons 30 anchored at opposite ends by anchor tower caissons 45 (only one of which is visible in the figure) . As shown, the base of the anchor tower caisson 45 is embedded much deeper in the ocean floor than the bases of the other caissons. A line of inner wave defense caissons 50 extends in juxtaposition with the line of outer wave defense caissons 30 on the leeward side thereof. A line of multi-purpose caissons 10 extends along the line of inner wave defense caissons 50 on the leeward side thereof. A plurality of transverse support caissons 70 (only one of which is visible) are interposed between the lines of outer and inner wave defense caissons 30 and 50 and extend lengthwise in the transverse direction relative to the lines of outer and inner wave defense caissons. The vertical windward sides 72 of the transverse support caissons 70 confront the vertical leeward side portions 37 of the outer wave defense caissons 30, and the vertical leeward sides 73 of the caissons 70 confront the vertical windward wall portions 52 of the inner wave defense caissons 50. The vertical leeward sides 56 of the inner wave defense caissons 50 confront the vertical windward sides of the multi-purpose caissons 10. Rubble mound breakwaters 80 are provided as shown. Means (not shown) are provided for interconnecting adjoining caissons in the lines of caissons. Any suitable connection may be employed, and preferably the facing ends of adjoining caissons are provided with connectors such as interlocking connectors or other suitable means to enable connection and disconnection of adjoining caissons. Shock absorbing means (not shown) , such as fenders, bumpers and the like, are interposed between adjoining caissons to absorb and distribute impact forces between the caissons, and, where necessary, to prevent the passage of water between the caissons. Figs. 16a and 16b illustrate an inner wave defense and reinforcement sub-system for reinforcing the line of outer wave defense caissons 30. The sub-system comprises the transverse support caissons 70, the line of inner wave defense caissons 50 and the line of multi¬ purpose caissons 10. The reinforcement sub-system reinforces and supports the line of outer wave defense caissons 30 and prevents them from being lifted, slammed or overturned by maximum force wind and waves. Depending on the maximum adverse site conditions, it may be necessary to place a transverse support caisson 70 behind each one of the outer wave defense caissons 30, though that number of transverse support caissons would not normally be required, especially if the line of outer wave defense caissons 30 is curved or angled outwardly in the direction of the prevailing winds and waves. If the outer wave defense caissons are deployed in a straight line, as might be the case in coastal protection systems, a transverse support caisson may, if needed, be placed behind an outer wave defense caisson. On the other hand, if the outer wave defense caissons are deployed in a curved line, especially in an arch configuration, transverse support caissons may not be needed. Under the maximum adverse site conditions, maximum water depth and maximum hydrodynamic wave and wind conditions considered for the wave defense system shown in Fig. 16, a major problem is created due to the energy potential of waves over-topping the line of outer wave defense caissons 30. If the line of outer wave defense caissons 30 is built to entirely eliminate the possibility of wave over-topping (e.g., by using the wave non-over¬ topping outer wave defense caissons 20 instead of the wave over-topping caissons 30) , the resulting structure would be so massive as to be impractical from engineering and cost standpoints. In accordance with the present invention, this problem has been solved by designing the line of outer wave defense caissons 30 to accept a significant amount of wave over-topping and by providing a uniquely designed wave over-topping absorption, containment and dispersion sub¬ system within the reinforcement sub-system. Such a sub¬ system must be designed as an integral part of the reinforcement sub-system which, in turn, must be designed as an integral part of the overall wave defense system. The wave over-topping absorption, containment and dispersion sub-system comprises two of the five primary modular caissons, namely, the transverse support caissons 70 and the inner wave defense caissons 50. From a structural point of view, the inner wave defense caisson 50 is almost as massive as the multi-purpose caisson 10 but differs therefrom in significant respects. Namely, the inner wave defense caisson 50 has an extensive sloping windward face 53, and perpendicular walls 52 and 54 above and below the sloping face 53. The two walls 52,54 create wave-slamming surfaces that serve to create counter waves that contribute their energy towards breaking up the incoming over-topping waves. The extensive windward facing slope 53 serves to cause any residual surge of water up the slope, known as "uprush", to lose energy and fall back, known as "downrush", onto the incoming over-topping waves. The transverse support caissons 70 have a relatively low profile and have large transverse holes 74 extending therethrough. For ease of illustration, these holes are shown to be of different sizes to accommodate the placement of the rubble mound breakwaters 80. These features allow for greater lateral dispersion of any build¬ up of water levels resulting from waves over-topping the line of outer wave defense caissons 30, and falling back as "downrush" from the line of inner wave defense caissons 50. In this manner, the inner wave defense caissons 50 and the transverse support caissons 70 jointly constitute the wave over-topping absorption, containment and dispersion sub¬ system, which most likely would be included in the overall wave defense system when the hydrodynamic, wind and site conditions are such as to require a maximum scale integrated, overall wave defense system. In designing an integrated wave defense system according to the principles of the present invention, the modular caissons are selected and scaled to be no larger than necessary for the particular site. Only the minimum number and type of modular caissons are used, and the wave defense system is designed to withstand and overcome the maximum wind and wave forces that can be generated at that site. All of the modular caissons 10, 20, 30, 40, 45, 50, 60 and 70 are designed to be storage caissons, which are ballastable, trimmable and preferably demountable and, to the maximum extent possible, can be manufactured in shipyard-type facilities onshore. Maximum economic advantage is gained where the caissons can be manufactured as floatable monolithic modules in shipyard-type facilities onshore. However, in cases where draft or other constraints prevent such monolithic manufacture, all modular caissons can be manufactured in sections by assembly of manufactured sub- assemblies or by further construction, and/or assembly of sub-assemblies, on top of caisson base sections where such further construction, and/or assembly of sub-assemblies, is undertaken at a location where adequate drafts are available and where the base sections act as construction "platforms" for further construction and/or assembly of sub-assemblies. For maximum economic advantage, such base sections would be manufactured as floatable sections or sub-sections at a shipyard-type facility onshore up to the maximum draft available at that facility and in the navigation channel leading from that facility to open water. To undertake this in the most cost-effective manner, manufacturing should, to the maximum extent possible, result in components that can be floated and towed by tugs to installation assembly sites and, only when this is not feasible, should components be designed to be transported to installation sites by heavy lift vessels and/or crane ships. The objective in both instances is to maximize construction under cost-controlled conditions in shipyards or shipyard-type facilities onshore, and minimize construction offshore. To meet this objective requires that each caisson be designed so that its construction can, if necessary, be broken down into two or more discrete, floatable sections. For example, caisson bottom sections (which can act as construction platforms) and lengths of side walls and end walls, can be designed and constructed as floatable sub- assembly sections. The caisson sub-assembly sections are designed to be constructed with single walls, double walls, or a combination of both. While, under certain conditions, single wall construction is desirable, double wall construction is preferable for several reasons. All other things being equal, double wall construction allows for stronger caisson construction, with greater economy in the use and cost of materials, and greater control in trimming and ballasting the caissons. In the preferred design, the caisson sub-assembly sections have a double-wall design with internal trim and ballast tanks therebetween, which enables the sub-assembly sections to be floated and towed to installation sites. The double-wall construction of the caissons is illustrated in Fig. 8 with reference to the multi-purpose caissons 10. All of the caissons 10, 20, 30, 40, 45, 50, 60 and 70 have their floatable sections comprised of similar double-wall structures so that the description of the caisson 10 will suffice to describe the construction of all of the caissons. As shown in Fig. 8, the multi-purpose caisson 10 has a double wing-wall construction comprised of spaced-apart outer and inner walls 84 and 85 which extend completely, or substantially completely, around the periphery of the caisson 10. A series of tanks in the form of enclosed chambers are provided in the space between the outer and inner walls 84 and 85, the tanks being vertically spaced in columns and horizontally spaced in rows and all being placed between the structural cross members connecting and reinforcing the outer and inner walls. The tanks in the several top rows constitute trim tanks 86, and the tanks in the remaining rows constitute ballast and/or storage tanks 88. Suitable piping, pumps, motors and controls (not shown) are provided within the caisson 10 to selectively and individually pump fluids into and out of the trim and ballast tanks 86 and 88 to precisely trim the caisson 10 and to ballast the caisson or caisson sections down and up in the water. By such a construction, all of the primary caissons, whether constructed as a monolithic section or as separate sections, can be floated out from onshore construction sites, trimmed using the trim tanks 86, and then towed to an offshore installation site. At the installation site, the caisson or caisson sections are again trimmed by the trim tanks 86, ballasted down by the ballast and/or storage tanks 88, and installed in place. The liquid ballast medium may then be removed from the tanks 88, as needed, and replaced by a liquid storage medium. Should it be desired to remove the caisson 10, the ballast and/or storage tanks 88 are emptied in a controlled sequence and filled with air or other fluid to enable ballasting up of the caisson or caisson sections, which may then be towed from the installation site. The buoyancy required for such operations can be supplied by filling the internal ballast tanks with air and/or by attaching one or more temporary, external buoyancy enhancement devices, such as flotation "collars" or the like. Alternatively, modified-type heavy lift vessels can cradle a sub-assembly section, and use of these vessels, with their greater surplus buoyancy, in effect, transfers some of the weight of the sub-assembly section to themselves. For those components that cannot be floated, even with the assistance of external buoyancy enhancement devices, they should be designed and constructed so that, to the maximum extent possible, they can be carried by barges or vessels including crane ships for installation at the site. Once manufactured, all floatable caissons and/or floatable caisson sections (base sections, intermediate sections and/or sub-assembly sections) are designed to be floated to the installation site, for example, by towing the caissons by a tugboat or other vessel or by placing sub-assembly parts on heavy lift vessels, crane ships, etc. At the selected site, a trench is dug by dredging, and the floor of the trench is prepared to receive the modular caissons. This may include mats, depending on the nature of the floor in the trench. The decision where and if to use such mats (in order to maintain the integrity of the seabed, lake bed, river bed, etc. and to assist in distributing the weight of the armor, etc.) is dependent on the soil mechanics at the site in question. For example, mats are more likely to be employed under armor, etc. where bed conditions include silts, etc. and are generally not needed where bed conditons include hard clays, etc. The modular caissons are floated into position, trimmed, and then ballasted down and sunk into place on the bed. A rubble mound with a core of sand and/or gravel overlaid by rock and/or riprap, concrete block and/or specialized outer layer armor is placed, as needed, on and against the sides of the modular caissons to provide for a first line of wave energy absorption, add necessary mass to the overall wave defense system, and eliminate scouring around the wave defense system. The integrated wave defense system is constructed such that at the end of the useful life thereof, the system can be demounted and the modular caissons disassembled, where necessary, and ballasted up and towed away, either for reuse at another site or for destruction, thereby leaving the site as nearly as possible in its pre- construction state. Any residual underwater mounds of rock or concrete armor can be reshaped to provide fishing reefs. The wave defense system can thus be de-mounted and removed at relatively low cost and without leaving any significant permanent environmental change. The scale of the modular caissons to be used at a particular site is a function of the maximum hydrodynamic and wind forces that are expected to be generated at that site. These forces are largely a function of the height and velocity of the maximum strength waves and the maximum wind pressure that are expected to be generated at that site. In theoretical terms, the energy generated by a wave is given by the equation: E = 1/8 (pgH 2 ) where E = wave energy in joules per square meter (Jm "2 ) p = density of water in Kgm "3 g = 9.8 ms "2 H = wave height in meters In actual practice, the height of the maximum wave, and its maximum speed, for the purposes of calculating the scale of the modular caissons can only be derived when site specific data are known. In large bodies of water, the engineering forces generated by maximum force winds and waves can vary greatly, depending on the location of the particular site under consideration. For example: (1) A group of waves, such as generated by a hurricane, can be more damaging to a wave defense system than a single, very high wave, such as generated by a tsunami. (2) An irregular train of waves can be more destructive than a regular train of waves. (3) Breaking waves can exert much greater pressures than non-breaking waves. In addition, the extent to which wave-generated forces can vary at different locations, especially near coastlines or shorelines, is further compounded by the fact that the bottom usually slopes upward as the waves approach the coastlines or shorelines, thereby increasing bottom friction ("bottom effect") which, in turn, tends to reduce wave height. On the other hand, depending on the degree of rise of the bottom slope as it approaches the coastline or shoreline, the shoaling effect can increase wave height and may also contribute to the creation of breaking waves. This complexity of forces that can be generated by waves, especially as they approach coastlines or shorelines, must be taken into account in the engineering layout and design of wave defense systems. In view thereof, the necessary calculations to properly scale the modular caissons requires an interactive methodology between, on the one hand, ocean engineering calculations and geophysical site studies and data, and on the other hand, the results of accurately scaled physical hydrodynamic model tests (hydraulic model tests) in properly calibrated hydrodynamic test tanks (wave basins and wave flumes) where actual site conditions can be simulated. Hydrodynamic (hydraulic) model tests are essential if the engineering design of any wave defense system is to proceed on a sound basis. Test models for testing in a wave basin are usually constructed to a linear scale of 1:100 to 1:150 (model to prototype) . Models are designed and model tests operated in accordance with Froude's model laws. Models are constructed of concrete on a wave basin floor, usually inside a large hangar or shed, which protects against wind, rain, snow, etc. The wave basins have to be extremely well lighted to assure that sharp photographs can be taken of wave patterns and the like. Waves are reproduced to scale by a wave-making machine. Wave heights are typically measured by electric gauges. The impact and effects of maximum strength waves on a wave defense system will be felt (by reflected waves) over a considerable distance surrounding the system. It is essential that the impact and effects over this entire area are accurately measured. For this reason, the size of the wave basin must be many times larger than the models being tested. It is as a result of long-term evaluation of the wide range of forces that can be generated over large bodies of water, that a solution involving the use of five primary, ballastable, trimmable, modular caissons has been developed. The overriding importance of considering site specific data and hydrodynamic tank testing in determining the proper scaling of the modular caissons cannot be overemphasized. The complexity surrounding the theoretical calculations in determining proper scaling, and the absolute essentiality of undertaking these calculations in an interactive manner together with the results from site specific hydrodynamic tank tests, can be readily appreciated from a review of the site specific variables involved. The maximum wave and wind forces at a particular site are a function of a number of variables, including: (1) The fetch, or distance, over which maximum force winds and waves can travel unobstructed before they reach the site. (2) The velocity of the wind blowing over this fetch. (3) The duration over which this wind blows. (4) The maximum depth of water at the site, taking into account maximum tide and storm surge levels. (5) The degree of rise, or slope, of the seabed, lake bed, etc. as it approaches the site, especially from the directions of maximum wind and wave attack. (6) The velocity and direction of the currents around the site. (7) The extent of the scour effect around the site. High velocity winds, blowing over a long fetch for an extended period of time, create powerful waves. As these waves approach a coast, especially if, at the same time, there is also a steep rise in the bed surrounding the site, the waves can generate enormous destructive power. An example of this power can be seen when waves of only 30 feet in height, but propelled by hurricane force winds, broke up the tanker Brea when it was wrecked on the coast of the Shetland Islands in January 1993. It is not unusual, however, for the maximum wave height around the Shetland Islands to reach twice, or more than twice, this level. For a wave defense system to be truly universal, consideration must also be given to tsunamis and the extreme wave conditions they represent. For example, in 1992, two large-scale tsunamis came ashore on Pacific coastlines; one in Nicaragua and one in Indonesia. In both cases, these tsunamis, created by major underwater earthquake and/or volcanic events, resulted in waves reported to be over 60 feet high hitting the coasts with widespread loss of life and destruction. The wave defense system of the present invention is the only known modular caisson system in the world that can be scaled up to the size necessary to withstand full-scale tsunamis such as those experienced in the Pacific in 1992. It is this maximum hydrodynamic condition that dictates the scaling of the modular caissons and the final engineering calculations used in the design of a wave defense system for a particular site. Failure to understand and design against maximum level forces can lead to disastrous results. For example, it was because of miscalculation, and a misunderstanding, of both the scale and the direction of the maximum wind and wave forces that could be generated at Signes, Portugal that led to the destruction of the 100 foot deep breakwater at this site in its first Atlantic storm. In fact, it was only after Dutch ocean engineers were able to simulate the actual destruction of the Signes breakwater in a wave flume test series that proper calculations could then be started, leading to the reconstruction of the breakwater. From the standpoint of cost, the depth of water at a selected site is important, because the cost of construction of a wave defense system using the modular caissons tends to increase as a square of the height of the maximum wave that can be generated at that site. For any implementation of the modular caisson system in large, open bodies of water to be commercially viable, the site depth should be kept to a minimum, generally no greater than the depth (at mean low water) necessary to accommodate the private sector and/or public sector uses at that site. For example, if the primary use of the wave defense system is to create a protected harbor for general cargo vessels, then the navigation depth of water required at mean low water (M.L.W.), including clearance under the keel, is currently about 45 feet. On the other hand, if the primary use is to create a harbor for maximum-size bulk carriers, then the navigation depth is currently about 80 feet (M.L.W.). Of course, a wave defense system must be designed to provide protection above this navigation depth to account for tidal change and storm surge. By contrast, a wave defense system having as its primary use coastal protection against beach erosion could be located in depths as little as 20 feet (M.L.W.) or even less depending on site conditions. In some instances, such as for underwater containment of dredge material, it may not be necessary for the caissons to break the surface but rather they may stay permanently submerged. The commercial depth range for ocean-going vessels, which includes maximum tide and storm surge conditions in addition to maximum navigation depth requirements, currently lies between 20-100 feet for the vast majority of the world's ports. Technically, however, it is possible to consider constructing wave defense systems using the five primary, ballastable, modular caissons in even deeper waters, outside this commercial depth range. The construction of wave defense systems in shallower, relatively protected, waters, such as bays, estuaries, rivers, lakes and the like is discussed later. Even though the current extremes of the commecial depth range for ocean-going vessels probably differ by no more than 70-80 feet, the maximum force waves and winds that can be generated within this depth difference can vary greatly. As a result, the configuration and cost of construction of a wave defense system located in large, open bodies of water can also vary greatly within such a relatively small vertical distance. All the primary caisson modules in the universal, environmentally secure, wave defense system are designed to enable them to be used without the need to construct rubble mound breakwaters on their windward or weather (outer) sides. The design of the primary caisson modules enables them to be constructed heavier enough, wide enough and placed deep enough in the bed to withstand, by themselves, maximum hydrodynamic and weather conditions at any site. However, by placing a rubble mound breakwater on the windward sides of the caissons, the hydrodynamic forces to which the caissons would otherwise be subjected are greatly reduced. As a result, this enables the design weight and structure, and the corresponding construction cost, of the caissons also to be significantly reduced. The primary caisson modules may be used in conjunction with a wide range of possible rubble mound breakwater designs. The more traditional breakwater designs have slopes as flat as 1:6 and typically use concrete blocks as the outer armor layer. More modern breakwater designs have steeper slopes, some as steep as 1:2, and use dolos (tetrapods, hexapods, aquapods, etc.) as the outer armor layer. The flexibility and universality of wave defense systems constructed of caisson modules according to the present invention are illustrated by the fact that the caissons can be assembled in any number of different combinations and configurations, and may be scaled up or down in size, to enable installation of wave defense systems at locations that may be exposed to maximum hydrodynamic, site and weather conditions. Illustrative examples of typical wave defense systems are shown in Figs. 11-16 and range from wave defense systems using a single type of caisson for use at sites in relatively protected waters to wave defense systems using all five basic types of caisson modules for use at sites that may be exposed to maximum hydrodynamic and weather conditions. Figs. 11a and lib show a wave defense system comprised of a line of multi-purpose caissons 10 without a rubble mound or other type breakwater. In this example, the caissons 10 are sufficient, by themselves, to withstand the maximum hydrodynamic and weather conditions at the site of installation. In the example shown in Figs. 12a and 12b, a rubble mound breakwater 80 is provided on the windward or weather side of a line of storage caissons 10. The breakwater 80 may be of any type known in the art and, in the illustrated example, comprises a rubble mound breakwater comprised of a core material 81 of sand, gravel and the like, one or more underlayers 82, and one or more outer armor layers 83 deposited over the underlayer 82. In this example, the rubble mound breakwater 80 extends lengthwise along the line of storage caissons 10 in spaced relation from the line of caissons. In the example shown in Figs. 13a and 13b, the rubble mound breakwater 80 is formed along and in direct contact with the windward or weather side of the line of storage caissons 10. Figs. 14a and 14b illustrate a wave defense system for use at a site having more severe hydrodynamic and weather conditions than would be experienced by the systems shown in Figs. 11-13. In Fig. 14, the line of storage caissons 10 is protected on its windward or weather side by a line of outer wave defense caissons 20. In this example, the caissons 20 have on both their windward (outer) and leeward (inner) sides rubble mound breakwaters 80. For more severe site conditions, the wave defense system illustrated in Figs. 15a and 15b may be used. In this system, the line of outer wave defense caissons 20 is anchored at one or both ends by an anchor tower caisson 40, and similar anchor tower caissons 40 may be placed at intervals along the line of outer wave defense caissons 20. Rubble mound breakwaters 80 are provided on both the windward and leeward sides of the outer wave defense caissons 20 and on the exposed sides of the anchor tower caisson 40. Breakwaters placed alongside and/or adjacent the leeward side of a caisson are primarily to offset the scouring (and undermining) effect of waves over-topping the breakwaters. This compares with breakwaters placed on the windward or weather sides of caissons which, as their main function, act as a first line of wave energy absorption. The wave defense system shown in Figs. 16a and 16b is designed for use at sites which may experience the most severe hydrodynamic and weather conditions. This system has a line of wave over-topping outer wave defense caissons 30 in juxtaposition with a line of inner wave defense caissons 50 with transverse support caissons 70 interposed between the two lines of caissons 30 and 50. Anchor tower caissons 45 are used to anchor the ends of the line of outer wave defense caissons 30 and, depending on site conditions, may also be interspersed along the line of outer wave defense caissons 30. Rubble mound breakwaters 80 are provided along the windward and leeward sides of the outer wave defense caissons 30 and around the exposed sides of the anchor tower caissons 45, along the windward side of the inner wave defense caissons 50, and on opposite sides of the transverse support caissons 70. A line of storage caissons 10 extends along the leeward side of the line of inner wave defense caissons 50. The five primary, ballastable, standardized modules have been developed to encompass the full range of private and/or public sector uses for wave defense systems, constructed using the modular caissons, taking into account the site specific variables described previously. General engineering designs have been developed for each of three, typical, integrated wave defense systems at sites located in large, open bodies of water experiencing different site specific conditions. Figs. 17-19 show the layout of these systems drawn to the same scale. It is obvious that the increase in scale between the three wave defense systems of cases A, B and C is not a linear function; instead, it is closer to being an exponential function. A comparison of the scale of these three cases shows the construction cost "penalty" that must be paid for going into deeper waters, especially at a site that is also exposed to maximum wind and wave forces, such as would be the case where a maximum scale hurricane, etc. causes breaking waves at the site in question. One of the major factors causing this exponential increase in scale is due to the so-called "bottom effect." In shallow waters, there is known a phenomenon that results in waves at shallower depths, such as in case A, being affected to a relatively greater extent by the "drag" or "bottom effect" exerted on the waves by the proximity of the bed (seabed, lake bed, etc.). Conversely, as the depth of water increases, the relative effect of this "drag" decreases. As a result, if all other variables are equal, and depending on where the countervailing shoaling effect occurs, the storm design wave at the deeper site, such as in case C, can be exponentially larger than the storm design wave at the shallower site (case A) . This, in turn, means that the lifting, slamming and overturning forces on the outer wave defense caissons and the anchor tower caissons generated by the larger storm design wave at the deeper site can be exponentially larger than those generated by the smaller storm design wave at the shallower site. This phenomenon, together with the increased forces generated by the greater fetch, wind velocity, duration, rise, tide, storm surge and scour assumed for the deeper case C site, explain why the scale of the wave defense system in case C has to be so much greater than in case A. The general engineering design and layout of the differently scaled wave defense systems for cases A, B and C are shown in Figs. 17, 18 and 19. Specifically, the general engineering design and layout for the ballastable, modular caissons to form single, integrated wave defense systems in large, open bodies of water have been established for each of the three cases, and such covers the general design and layout required for any wave defense system within, as well as outside, the full range of commercial depths. As noted earlier, in actual practice, such general engineering designs and layouts must be modified to take into account the results of site-specific geophysical studies and subsequent hydrodynamic model testing and further ocean and civil engineering calculations. For purposes of establishing a common scale to allow comparison between Figs. 17, 18 and 19, an LNG bulk carrier 90 is shown alongside a multi-purpose caisson in each figure. Fig. 17 is a cross-sectional side elevation of an integrated wave defense system at a site experiencing minimum conditions of fetch, wind velocity, duration, tide, surge, rise, currents and scour effect and located at a minimum commercial depth (case A) . In case A, it was found that a single, integrated wave defense system could be provided using only a line of outer wave defense caissons 20a on the windward or weather (outer) side of an array of multi-purpose caissons 10a. Under this set of minimum conditions, it was found that neither anchor tower caissons nor a line of inner wave defense caissons nor provision of transverse support caissons were needed in order to provide the degree of wave defense required at such a site. It should be noted that a site located in large, open bodies of water that meets this set of minimum criteria, while not impossible to find, will almost certainly not be the norm. Fig. 18 is a cross-sectional side elevation of a wave defense system constructed of primary modular caissons at a site located in a large, open body of water experiencing intermediate fetch, wind velocity, duration, tide, surge, rise, currents and scour effect conditions and located at an intermediate commercial depth (case B) . In case B, anchor tower caissons 40b are provided at each end of a line of outer wave defense caissons 20b to define a protected lee area for an array of multi-purpose caissons 10b. Fig. 19 is a cross-sectional side elevation of a wave defense system using primary modular caissons designed for a site located in a large, open body of water and experiencing maximum fetch, wind velocity, duration, tide, surge, rise, currents and scour effect and located at a maximum commercial depth (case C) . Case C is designed to withstand the maximum level of wind and wave forces that can be generated as well as the maximum lifting, slamming and overturning forces and levels of wave over-topping that can occur under such maximum conditions. In this wave defense system, anchor tower caissons 40c are provided at each end of a line of outer wave defense caissons 20c to define a protected lee area for an array of multi-purpose caissons 10c. A line of inner defense caissons 50c extends in juxtaposition with the line of multi-purpose caissons 10c. In case C, it was found that the scale of the anchor tower caissons and wave defense caissons used in case B had to be significantly increased and, in addition, the line of multi-purpose caissons had to be reinforced by a line of inner wave defense caissons 50c. The up-scaling of the case C wave defense system is necessary in order to bring the overall mass of the integrated wave defense system up to the level needed to be able to withstand the maximum force winds and waves that can be expected at this deepest of commercial sites under consideration. This site would be subjected to the full force of maximum scale hurricane, typhoon or cyclone winds and waves and/or tsunamis, notably waves that are traveling over the longest fetch and are propelled by the strongest possible winds blowing for the longest possible duration, and are approaching the wave defense system up a relatively steep rise. As noted previously, it was a failure to understand, and design against, the scale of such maximum level forces that led to the destruction of the 100 foot deep breakwater at Signes, Portugal during its first major Atlantic storm. The description so far has focused mainly on wave defense systems for location at sites in deeper waters, such as along coastlines or offshore. The modularity of the wave defense systems, and their flexibility for scaling and assembly into different configurations, allows them to be readily scaled down and used in shallower waters, such as in gulfs, bays, estuaries, rivers, lakes and the like. In addition, the wave defense systems are designed to be used just as effectively in saltwater environments as in either brackish or freshwater environments. Figs. 20, 21 and 22 are cross-sectional elevational views, drawn to the same scale, of typical integrated wave defense systems under varying hydrodynamic and site conditions and located in relatively shallow, protected waters, such as in gulfs, bays, estuaries, rivers, lakes, etc. The wave defense systems shown in Figs. 20-22 are typical examples of systems that could be used to provide secure harbors for relatively shallow draft vessels, such as coasters, barges, and river and harbor traffic. On the other hand, the wave defense systems shown in Figs. 17-19 are typical examples of systems that could be used to provide secure harbors for deep draft vessels, such as ocean-going vessels. The same methodology was used in the calculations determining the design of the systems in Figs. 20-22 as was used in the design of the systems in Figs. 17-19. It should be noted, however, that the scale used in Figs. 17-19 is not the same as that used in Figs. 20-22. The calculations and resulting designs were developed in each case under three sets of varying hydrodynamic and site conditions: minimum, intermediate and maximum. Fig. 20 is a cross-sectional side elevation of an integrated wave defense system at a site experiencing minimum site conditions and located at a minimum commercial depth (case D) , such as would be encountered by river and harbor traffic, barges, etc. In such shallower, more protected, waters under minimum site conditions, the wave defense system could be provided using only a line of multi-purpose caissons lOd. For purposes of establishing a common scale to allow comparison between Figs. 20-22, a barge 91 is shown alongside a multi-purpose caisson in each figure. Fig. 21 is a cross-sectional side elevation of an integrated wave defense system constructed at a site experiencing intermediate site conditions and located at an intermediate commercial depth (case E) , such as would likely be encountered by coastal vessels, river and harbor traffic, barges, etc. This wave defense system comprises a line of outer wave defense caissons 20e which defines on its leeward side a protected area. A line of multi-purpose caissons lOe is disposed within the protected area on the leeward side of the outer wave defense caissons 20e and in juxtaposition therewith. Again, for comparison purposes, the barge 91 is shown alongside the caissons lOe. Fig. 22 is a cross-sectional side elevation of an integrated wave defense system located at a site experiencing maximum site conditions and at a maximum commercial depth (case F) , such as would be encountered by larger coastal vessels, as well as river and harbor traffic, barges, etc. In case F, a line of outer wave defense caissons 20f is anchored at either end by taller anchor tower caissons 40f. A line of multi-purpose caissons lOf is provided in juxtaposition with the line of outer wave defense caissons lOf. To illustrate the versatility and range of scaling of the modular caissons, reference is made to Fig. 23 which shows the range of scaling for the multi-purpose caissons lOa-lOf for Cases A-F in Figs. 17-22. The cross- sectional side elevations shown in Fig. 23 are all drawn to the same scale and are based on a range of hydrodynamic and site conditions, including fetch, wind velocity, duration, tide, surge, rise, currents and scour effect. Fig. 23 demonstrates clearly the exponential effect of moving wave defense systems out from shallow, protected waters to deeper, offshore waters in the open ocean, especially systems exposed to maximum hydrodynamic and site conditions. In designing any wave defense system using sunken caisson technology, careful attention must be given to the possibility of the caissons being toppled over by maximum strength waves, which create large scale lifting and slamming forces and turning moments. There are two basic design considerations, unique to sunken caisson technology, which address this problem — namely, the toppling factor and the penetration factor. These will be described with reference to Figs. 24 and 25. The toppling factor is a measure of the capability of a wave defense system to resist toppling or turning over, i.e., a resistance to toppling or overturning. The larger the toppling factor, the more likely a wave defense system is to topple when subjected to maximum wave and wind attack and thus the greater the stability of the overall wave defense system. The penetration factor is a measure of the depth of penetration of the caissons, particularly the anchor tower caissons, into the seabed, lake bed, etc., and is a function of the stability of the overall wave defense system. The larger the penetration factor, the less likely a caisson is to be displaced or dislodged when subjected to maximum wave and wind attack and thus the greater the stability of the overall wave defense system. The toppling and penetration factors are useful as preliminary design considerations in designing the first model of the wave defense system. As described below, these factors are used initially to select the configuration of the caissons for building test models, approximate the caisson model scale, etc. In the examples depicted in Figs. 24 and 25, representative values have been chosen for an initial design of a typical wave defense system designed for use against maximum scale wave and wind attack under maximum site conditions. The toppling factor T of a wave defense system is defined as the ratio of the average height h AV of the wave defense system at a given cross section to the maximum width w^ of the wave defense system at that cross section, i.e., T = ^ A v/ ^ , and is a measure of the relative likelihood of a sunken wave defense system being toppled (i.e., being lifted up, overturned and swept away) when under maximum scale wave and wind attack. The calculation of an absolute toppling factor for a ^ wave defense system is quite complex. It is, however, useful to show in general terms, with reference to Fig. 24, a typical example of how a toppling factor can be calculated according to the principles of the present invention. First, a determination is made as to the depth (D,,) at mean low water at the desired site. Second, a determination is made as to the maximum depth (D 2 ) of water at the desired site, i.e., D,, + maximum tide + maximum storm surge. Third, a determination is made as to the height (h) of the maximum design wave just before it arrives at the wave defense system, taking into account the variables described hereinabove for determining maximum wave and wind forces at the desired site. In the typical example shown in Fig. 24, h is taken to be 0.8(±) x D 2 . Fourth, a determination is made of the height (h.,) above the seabed, lake bed, etc. of the breaking crest of this maximum design wave for which the wave defense system is designed, again at a point just before it arrives at the wave defense system. In the typical example shown in Fig. 24, h-, is taken to be 1/2 x h + D 2 . Fifth, a determination is made, depending on the uses to which the wave defense system is to be put, as to whether to allow significant wave over-topping or no wave over-topping. Based on this determination, the maximum height h 2 of the inner wave defense caissons and/or the multi-purpose caissons in the system is determined as a function of the maximum height h Namely, if significant wave over-topping is to be allowed, then the maximum height h 2 is set close to the value of h,, i.e., h 2 = 1.0(±) x h-,. If no wave over-topping is to be allowed, then the maximum height h 2 is set close to twice the value of h 1( i.e., h 2 = 2.0(±) x h,,. The system shown in Fig. 24 is designed to allow essentially no wave over-topping and is based on the relation h 2 = 1.8 x h r A multiplier other than 1.8 can be used, and the value of the multiplier is typically determined based on a first approximation of the amount of wave over-topping to be allowed by the system. In this manner, the maximum height h 2 of the highest and most leeward caissons in the system (typically the inner wave defense caissons and/or the multi-purpose caissons) can be determined. Sixth, knowing the maximum height h 2 of the highest and most leeward caissons in the system, and following the general engineering design and layout principles described hereinabove, it is possible to undertake the preliminary cross-sectional design of the wave defense system. Seventh, knowing the preliminary cross section of the wave defense system allows for a determination of the average height h AV of the cross section and the maximum width w,^ of the cross section. Eighth, the initial toppling factor T of the wave defense system is determined by calculating the ratio *W W MAX* τhe i- it-i- 2 -- 1 toppling factor T for the wave defense system shown in Fig. 24 is calculated as T = h AV /w MAχ = 0.068(±) . The analysis of similar initial calculations of toppling factors for various configurations of wave defense systems suggests that a toppling factor of less than about 0.14, and in particular less than about 0.07, is indicative of a wave defense system that will have little or no tendency to be toppled under maximum wave and wind attack, and even less tendency to be toppled if the penetration factor for the anchor tower caissons in the system also falls within preferred limits as described below. The penetration factor P of an anchor tower caisson is defined as the ratio of the depth of penetration p of the anchor tower caisson into the bed to the overall height h of the anchor tower caisson, i.e., P = p/h, and is a measure of relative anchorability of the wave defense system. As in the case of the toppling factor, the calculation of an absolute penetration factor for a wave defense system is extremely complex. It is, however, useful to show in general terms, with reference to Fig. 25, typical example of how a penetration factor for the anchor tower caissons can be calculated in accordance with the principles of the present invention. First, a determination is made of whether the initial penetration factor for the anchor tower caissons in the wave defense system should be closer to a maximum level or closer to a minimum level. This determination is based on an initial evaluation of the sub-surface conditions of the intended installation site. Most wave defense syte s are likely to be located near or at existing densely populated areas along coastlines or shorelines, and most of these existing coastal population centers tend to be located where the sub-bed conditions often tend towards "soft" materials, such as silts, soft clays, silt/sand mixes, etc. and do not as often tend towards "hard" materials, such as hard clays, etc. It is obvious that the relative penetration of an anchor tower caisson into the bed at a soft site needs to be greater than at a hard site in order for the wave defense systems to have the same relative stability. Second, a determination is made of the initial amount of penetration p that the anchor tower caissons should have, taking into account sub-bed conditions and soil mechanics calculations, and the overall height h of the anchor tower caissons. Third, the initial penetration factor P for the anchor tower caissons is determined by calculating the ratio p/h. Figs. 25a and 25b are explanatory side elevations of two truncated anchor tower caissons of signficantly different overall height h, both embedded in relatively "soft" bed materials. Fig. 25a shows an anchor tower caisson 40A of greater relative height h and embedded to a greater relative depth into the bed than the anchor tower caisson 4OB shown in Fig. 25b. It should be noted, however, that the heights H of both anchor tower caissons above the bed is the same in each case. The initial penetration factor P for the anchor tower caisson 40A is calculated as P = p/h = 0.54(±) and that of the anchor tower caisson 40B is calculated as P = p/h 0.27(±). The calculation of the initial penetration factor in each case gives a preliminary indication, for the engineering design and layout of the overall wave defense system, of the "anchorability" of that system provided by its anchor tower caissons. All other things being equal (including bed and site conditions, wave and wind forces, etc.), the anchor tower caisson 40A with a penetration factor P = 0.54(±) shown in Fig. 25a would have a significantly higher wave defense system anchoring capability than would the anchor tower caisson 40B having a penetration factor P = 0.27 (±) shown in Fig. 25b. The analysis of similar initial calculations for various wave defense system configurations suggests that for a wave defense system subjected to maximum wave and wind conditions and maximum "worst case" site conditions, including silt type sub-bed soil conditions, the anchor tower caissons anchoring the system should have a penetration factor P ranging between 0.60(±) and 0.30(±) and, within this range, the higher the penetration factor the better the anchorability. In summary, the deeper penetration of the anchor tower caissons has, as one of its main objectives, the purpose of limiting to the maximum extent possible, any lateral (sideways) movement of the caissons in the wave defense system. This contrasts to the reinforcement sub¬ system (of transverse support, inner wave defense and multi-purpose caissons) which has, as one of its main objectives, the purpose of limiting, to the maximum extent possible, any backward movement of the wave defense system, as a whole, when under maximum wave and wind attack. A wave defense system according to the present invention is designed with the objectives that: (1) The anchor tower caissons remain in a fixed position, thus limiting any lateral (sideways) movement of the wave defense caissons in the overall wave defense system to no greater extent than the compression capability of the energy absorption fenders, shock absorbers, etc. placed between the individual caissons laterally along the length of the wave defense system. (2) With the anchor tower caissons fixed and only minor lateral movement in the wave defense caissons possible, the reinforcement sub-system (of transverse support, inner wave defense and multi-purpose caissons) , due, in large part, to the partially sunken positions of the caissons in the bed, is able to limit any backward movement of the wave defense caissons and of the overall wave defense system to no greater extent than the compression capability of the energy absorption fenders, shock absorbers, etc. placed between the individual caissons across the width of the system from windward to leeward. As a result, any overall wave defense system, constructed using the principles of the present invention, will remain stable at any site even when subjected to maximum adverse hydrodynamic and site conditions. It should be stressed that the initial toppling and penetration factors should be treated as relative rather than absolute ratios, having as their main initial uses to assist in the selection of the wave defense system configuration and to reduce the cost of model construction. To assist in the selection process between different sunken caisson wave defense systems that may be candidates for the same site, it is often useful in determining which system to use, especially when all alternative systems are extremely complex, by having a preliminary set of comparative data. After selection of the wave defense system configuration, the determination of the first set of caisson dimensions and the first configuration of caisson modules can be made so that models can be scaled and constructed for use in the hydrodynamic (hydraulic) tank tests. Since the construction of models for such tests is costly, anything that can be done to bring the first set of models as close as possible to final can save a great deal of time and money. The present invention enables construction ιof wave defense systems comprised of ballastable, trimmable, modular caissons that can be constructed to a maximum extent under cost-controlled conditions in shipyards or shipyard-type facilities; floated, and then towed out to installation sites; assembled, precisely trimmed and then ballasted down, to form the optimal, single, integrated wave defense system needed for the site in question; and removed, if ever necessary, by being disassembled, ballasted up and towed away. The wave defense systems can be constructed from a limited number of standardized, ballastable, modular caissons, which can be scaled up or scaled down to provide wave defense systems capable of withstanding and overcoming the strongest possible wind and wave conditions, including maximum strength hurricanes, typhoons and tsunamis, and the severest possible adverse hydrodynamic, wind and site conditions including maximum fetch, wind velocity and duration, depth, rise, tidal range, storm surge, currents and scouring. The ballastable, trimmable, modular caissons can be assembled into a reinforcement sub-system comprised of transverse support caissons and one or more lines of inner wave defense caissons for reinforcing a line of outer wave defense caissons. The modular caissons can also be assembled to form a wave over-topping absorption, containment and dispersion sub-system comprised of inner wave defense caissons and transverse support caissons, for absorbing, containing and dispersing wave energy caused by over-topping. Both sub-systems can be integrated in an overall wave defense system to prevent any residual wave over-topping from reaching the protected area on the lee side of the overall wave defense system and to fully protect this area from the strongest possible winds thus allowing the area to be used for vessels maneuvering at slow speed, docking or anchored, especially those vessels having a relatively high "windage" profile, such as tankers and bulk carriers, car carriers, cruise ships, liquified gas carriers, etc. which together currently represent the largest proportion of all vessels engaged in world trade. The wave defense systems constructed of modular caissons according to the present invention can withstand those wind and wave conditions which actually exist in most locations throughout the world, along coastlines and in deeper, large open bodies of water, including the open ocean. Such locations are much more likely to face the maximum, and severest, wind and wave conditions rather than the less severe conditions faced by locations in shallower, more protected, waters. The unique modular design of the five, primary caissons can be scaled up or down to meet the wind and wave protection requirements, and site requirements, at the location in question, and only those types of modulues need be used that are essential to meeting the hydrodynamic, wind and site conditions at the selected location. The integrated wave defense system is entirely environmentally safe and can, due to its modular construction, be removed at the end of its useful life so that the site can be returned to its pre-construction state from an environmental standpoint. Because the modular caissons are ballastable, they can be ballasted up and towed away, either for reuse or destruction, and any residual rock and concrete block armor remaining at the original site can be reconfigured into effective fishing reefs. While the present invention has been described with reference to wave defense systems per se, it is understood that other, known structures may be used in conjunction with the wave defense systems to make them more effective in actual practice. For example, a wave defense system for protecting an artificial manmade island may, depending on site conditions, be made more effective by the placement of one or more underwater berms on the windward side of the wave defense system. In a similar manner, a wave defense system for protecting a coastline or shoreline against erosion and other wave damage may, depending on site conditions, be made more effective by the placement of one or more underwater berms on the leeward side of the wave defense system, i.e., between the wave defense system and the coastline or shoreline. Such underwater berms would most usually be constructed of properly sized riprap in a manner well known in the art. The present invention has been described with reference to particular embodiments thereof, and obvious variations and modifications will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. The present invention is intended to cover all such obvious variations and modifications which fall within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.

Claims: I CLAIM: 1. A caisson module removably installable in a body of water, comprising: at least one floatable section having a hollow interior portion and sufficient buoyancy to be rendered floatable in water to enable at least partial construction thereof onshore and towing thereof in the water; each floatable section being fluid trimmable and fluid ballastable and having means for trimming and ballasting the section with fluid to effect lowering thereof in a body of water during installation of the caisson module and raising thereof by floatation to enable removal of the caisson module. 2. A caisson module according to claim 1; wherein the hollow interior portion of the module defines storage space of sufficient size to enable the storage of bulk materials. 3. A caisson module according to claim 2; wherein the storage space is designed for the storage of bulk liquid materials. 4. A caisson module according to claim 2; wherein the storage space is designed for the storage of dry and semi-dry bulk materials. 5. A caisson module according to claim 2; wherein each floatable section has a plurality of trim tanks and ballast tanks to effect fluid trimming and fluid ballasting of the floatable section. 6. A modular caisson installation demountably installed at a preselected water site, the modular caisson installation comprising: one or more first caissons and one or more second caissons, the first caissons being of a different type than that of the second caissons, the first and second caissons having tops and bottoms and being demountably installed in a predetermined configuration at a preselected water site with the caisson bottoms removably seated on a bed at the preselected water site, and the first and second caissons being constructed of one or more floatable sections each being fluid trimmable and fluid ballastable and having means for trimming and ballasting the section with fluid to effect lowering and positioning thereof during formation of the installation and raising and removal thereof by floatation to enable demounting of the installation. 7. A modular caisson installation according to claim 6; wherein the first and second caisson types are selected from among multi-purpose caisson, outer wave defense caisson, anchor tower caisson, inner wave defense caisson and transverse support caisson. 8. A modular caisson installation according to claim 6; wherein the predetermined configuration includes a line of first caissons defining a protected area on an inward side thereof, the second caissons being disposed in the protected area. 9. A modular caisson installation according to claim 8; wherein the second caissons comprise storage caissons having hollow interior portions for the storage of bulk materials. 10. A modular caisson installation according to claim 6; wherein the predetermined configuration includes a line of first caissons with at least one second caisson in the line. 11. A modular caisson installation according to claim 10; wherein the second caissons comprise anchor tower caissons which are seated deeper in the bed than the first caissons to help anchor the line of caissons. 12. A modular caisson installation according to claim 11; wherein the tops of the anchor tower caissons extend to the same level above the water surface as that of the first caissons. 13. A caisson module according to claim 6; wherein each floatable section has a plurality of trim tanks and ballast tanks to effect fluid trimming and fluid ballasting of the floatable section. 14. A modular caisson system demountably installed at a preselected water site, the modular caisson system comprising: a plurality of caissons having tops and bottoms and being installed in a predetermined configuration at a preselected water site with the caisson bottoms removably seated on a bed at the preselected site; each caisson being constructed of one or more floatable sections each having a hollow interior portion and sufficient buoyancy to be rendered floatable in water to enable at least partial construction thereof onshore and towing thereof to the preselected site; and each floatable section being fluid trimmable and fluid ballastable and having means for trimming and ballasting the section with fluid to effect lowering and positioning thereof during installation of the caisson system and raising and removal thereof by floatation to enable demounting of the caisson system. 15. A modular caisson system according to claim 14; wherein at least some of the caissons have interior storage space of sufficient size to accommodate the storage of bulk materials. 16. A modular caisson system according to claim 14; wherein all of the caissons have interior storage space of sufficient size to accommodate the storage of bulk materials. 17. A modular caisson system according to claim 14; wherein the predetermined configuration includes at least one line of caissons defining a wave defense system having a protected area on an inward side thereof, and caissons disposed in the protected area. 18. A modular caisson system according to claim 17; wherein the caissons disposed in the protected area include storage caissons having interior storage space of sufficient size to accommodate the storage of bulk materials. 19. A modular caisson system according to claim 17; wherein the line of caissons includes at least one anchor tower caisson in the line, the anchor tower caisson being seated deeper in the bed than the other caissons in the line. 20. A modular caisson system according to claim 17; including a rubble mound breakwater disposed on an outward side of the line of caissons. 21. A modular caisson system according to claim 14; wherein the predetermined configuration includes at least one line of caissons defining a protected area on an inward side thereof. 22. A modular caisson system according to claim 21; wherein at least some of the caissons in the line of caissons have interior storage space of sufficient size to accommodate the storage of bulk materials. 23. A modular caisson system according to claim 22; including a breakwater disposed on and along an outward side of the line of caissons. 24. A modular caisson system according to claim 23; wherein the breakwater comprises a rubble mound breakwater. 25. A modular caisson system according to claim 24; wherein the caissons in the line of caissons comprise storage caissons. 26. A modular caisson system according to claim 22; wherein each floatable section has a plurality of trim tanks and ballast tanks to effect fluid trimming and fluid ballasting of the floatable section. 27. A modular caisson system installed at a preselected water site, comprising: a plurality of storage caissons having tops and bottoms and being installed in a predetermined configuration at a preselected water site with the caisson bottoms seated on a bed at the preselected site, the storage caissons having interior storage space for the storage of bulk materials. 28. A modular caisson system according to claim 27; wherein the predetermined configuration includes at least one line of caissons defining a protected area on an inward side thereof. 29. A modular caisson system according to claim 28; including a breakwater disposed on and along an outward side of the line of caissons. 30. A modular caisson system according to claim 29; wherein the breakwater comprises a rubble mound breakwater.

Inventors: CHATTEY NIGEL, CHATTEY, NIGEL
Applicants: CHATTEY NIGEL, CHATTEY, NIGEL
Application year: 1994
Main classification: E02B3
IPC codes: E02B3, E02D23, E02D25