SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Abstract: The disclosed satellite communication system comprises a dynamic constellation (C) of satellites (S). The system includes a number of low-earth orbiting spacecraft (S) which travel in orbital planes. Each of the individual spacecraft (S) functions as an independent sovereign switch which knows the position of its neighbors, and independently handles traffic without ground control. The satellites (S) are capable of transporting calls directly to users of portable, mobile and fixed radio terminals; and via gateways to users of the public switched telephone network. The present invention offers direct communication between satellites (S) of the constellation (C) and individuals using lightweight, portable telephones. The direct link is made possible by miniature antennas (210) coupled to the handheld phones.

Description: TECHNICAL FIELD Satellite Communication System The present invention relates to the field of satellite communications. More particularly, this invention comprises a dynamic geodesic constellation of 840 autonomous satellites in low Earth orbit. ^fc Each satellite in the distributed, non-hierarchical constellation is an equally important node in the 5 network, possesses independent switching intelligence and is capable υf communicating directly with a broad variety of subscribers using portable, mobile and fixed terminals. The system will provide continuous world-wide service for voice, data and video signals. This novel satellite network has the ability j to bypass traditional land-based networks and will offer a revolutionary expansion of global communications potential. 10 BACKGROUND ART Public telephone systems have generally used the same system architecture for over one hundred years. Conventional systems employ highly centralized and hierarchical switching facilities as nodes that tie together a complex web of connected links. While a very small portion of their subscribers use direct links to geostationary satellites, the vast majority of the links that couple the conventional phone network 15 comprise a bewildering and dissimilar assortment of cables, wires, fibers and microwave repeaters. Like all hierarchical systems, conventional telephone networks are extremely vulnerable when the performance of any high-ranking node in the hierarchy is impaired. For example, a fire in a Hinsdale, Illinois wire center denied long-distance service to the Chicago area for several days. Relatively minor software failures can disrupt or even suspend service in large, densely-populated urban areas. This vulnerability 20 to localized failure is compounded by the limits which a centralized architecture imposes on the expansion potential of the network. On average, every time a new subscriber is added to a conventional land-based communication network, expensive additions to switching hardware and connecting wires must be installed. The marginal cost of adding each new subscriber is extremely high, and the cost of raising that capital is a drain on telephone subscribers and on the economy at large. Conventional telephone systems are 25 inherently circumscribed by their hierarchical design, and these limits now impose critical barriers to the enormous augmentation of capacity which the previous networks must provide to meet the burgeoning world demand for communications services in the coming decades. Several attempts to bypass these inherent limits have met with mixed results. Large consumers of phone services have begun to install their own private networks to carry large volumes of voice 30 messages, video, and broadband data calls. While some of these expensive and awkward enhancements provide partial solutions, the unalterable constraints imposed by a centralized switching topology continue to confine the future growth of existing networks. Some extension of the century-old centralized telephone switching infrastructure has been achieved using geostationary satellites. These spacecraft, however, offer additional communications 35 capabilities that are quite limited. Since these satellites operate in equatorial orbits, they are not accessible to customers located in high latitudes. Because they must share their orbit with many other services, their number is restricted to a relatively small population. Since all of these spacecraft occupy a single circular orbit, they can not be connected together in a geodesic network. A geodesic network, which could provide enormously greater capacity, must be generally spherical in shape. Geostationary satellites also suffer from a very serious disadvantage-the distant altitude of their orbits. These satellites are so far from Earth that the signal takes about one-quarter of a second to traverse the nearly 50,000 miles (80,000 km) along the round trip from the ground up to the satellite, and back to the ground. The delays sensed by the telephone user's ear that are introduced by this long round trip are not only annoying, but can render some conversations which are relayed between more than one geostationary satellite virtualty unintelligible. Radio signals which are exchanged between a ground station and a geosynchronous satellite may also be impaired by this great round trip distance. A telephone customer on the ground using a portable phone who wanted to communicate directly with a satellite in geostationary orbit would need a telephone capable of producing an output in excess of hundreds of Watts. Generating this power output is not only thoroughly impractical for users of portable phones, but may also create a radiation hazard for the individual wielding the telephone. Geostationary satellites do not supply an adequate solution to the formidable expansion needs of conventional telephone networks. Although cellular service has grown rapidly over the past decade, even greatly expanded cellular service would not provide an adequate solution. Cellular systems are plagued by poor performance, and are ultimately constrained by the same structural limits that circumscribe the future of land-based systems. Cellular customers are still limited to geographic regions served by radio towers called "cell sites." Even in the United States, these cell sites are not universally prevalent, since market forces restrict cellular service to only the most densely populated urban portions of our country. Cellular service is available to only a small minority of privileged users in wealthy countries, and is virtually non-existent in lesser developed parts of the world. No system that is currently available to the general public is capable of taking advantage of the enormous enrichment of communications capacity that could be achieved if the traditional centralized grid of terrestrial switches, and their connecting cables, wires, fibers and microwave repeaters could be completely bypassed. Public phone companies are not presently able to sell continuous global service to customers who wish to use phones that are not coupled to the land-based network. The problem of providing an economically feasible network for voice, data and video which can be used by subscribers all over the world has presented a major challenge to the communications business. The development of a communications system that offers a solution to the immutable obstacles to growth which bind conventional phone networks would constitute a major technological advance and would satisfy a long felt need within the telephone industry. BRIEF DESCRIPΗON OF THE DRAWINGS Figure 1 is schematic diagram which shows a model of the network provided by the present invention. % Figure 2 illustrates a single element of the satellite constellation through the depiction of a single 5 inclined orbital plane occupied by one satellite. Figure 3 is a block diagram that reveals the network concepts embodied by the present invention. Figure 4 is a block diagram of a gateway. Figure 5 is a "ping-pong" diagram that portrays the sequence of events that occur when a call is initiated. 10 Figure 6 is a schematic diagram that reveals the fundamental architecture of the present invention. Figure 7 is a perspective view of a hand-held portable phone. In one of the preferred embodiments, a hemispherical microwave antenna extends from the body of the phone on a collapsible mast. Figures 8 and 9 supply side and top views of a generally trapezoidal, semi-conical embodiment 15 of the antennas. Figures 10 and 11 present side and top views of a hemispherical embodiment of an antenna. Figure 12 is a perspective view of an embodiment of an antenna which takes the shape of a right circular cylinder. Figures 13 and 14 provide enlarged illustrations of one of the circular antenna elements. Figure 20 13 is a top view and Figure 14 is a cross-sectional view. Figures 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19 are schematic representations of a five bit, time delay phase shifter. Figures 20, 21, and 22 reveal side, cross-sectional, and top views of an alternate embodiment of the invention which incorporates dual frequency antenna elements. Figures 23 and 24 show enlarged side and top views of one of the alternative embodiments of the 25 dual frequency antennas. Figures 25 and 26 depict enlarged top and cross-sectional views of one of the dual frequency antenna elements. Figures 27 and 28 reveal schematic block diagrams of the receive and transmit circuits utilized in one of the several embodiments of the invention. 30 Figures 29 and 30 depict side and top views of another embodiment of the miniaturized antenna. . Figures 31, 32, 33, and 34 are plan and sectional views of dual frequency antennas. j Figures 35 and 36 show cross-sectional and plan views of an antenna with a hexagonal lattice. . 3 } Figure 37 is a flowchart of the preferred embodiment of the fast packet switch. Figure 38 presents a block diagram of a satellite switch node. 35 Figure 39 is a block diagram of a 32 by 1 packet priority multiplexor. Figure 40 reveals a block diagram of a fast packet switch. Figure 41 shows a 1 by 32 self-routing switch module. Figure 42 depicts a block diagram of a mobile/fixed satellite link. Figures 43, 44, and 45 disclose the Earth-fixed cell method. Figure 46 shows a supercell containing 16 cells. Figure 47 shows satellite footprints, overlaps, and gaps at the equator. Figure 48 is a flow diagram for processing incoming packets that may be utilized to implement the Earth-fixed cell method. Figure 49 is perspective view of a satellite that includes a hemispherical array of antenna facets and fully extended rectangular solar panels. Figure 50 depicts a schematic diagram of the satellite similar to the one illustrated in Figure 49. Figure 50 also reveals three sets of electronically steered beams produced by the hexagonal antennas and the circular and elliptical footprints which the beams illuminate on the Earth's surface. Figure 51 presents a schematic depiction of the pattern of multiple beams generated by the satellite shown in Figures 49 and 50. Figures 52 and 53 are plots that reveal the geometric relationship of several spacecraft traveling in one of the many orbital planes in the satellite constellation. T ie pathways between neighboring satellites that are not occluded by the limb of the Earth provide communication links between spacecraft in the same orbit. Figure 54 reveals a schematic diagram of a GaAs MMIC time delay network. Figure 55 shows a schematic of the active lens, which includes a large number of the time delay networks shown in Figure 54. Figure 56 is a schematic illustration of an active lens which incorporates a time delay steered antenna array. Figure 57 is a side view of the Earth-facing antenna array and space-facing segments of the present invention of an embodiment called "Oomesat". Figure 58 reveals the space-facing segments in an opened configuration, which allows for the deployment of solar panels that are stored within the spacecraft interior during the flight to low Earth orbit. Figure 59 shows the circular arc depicting the movement of the rolled-up solar panels as they are deployed after orbit has been achieved. Figure 60 portrays a number of satellites produced in accordance with the present invention stored in a launch vehicle. Figures 61, 62, and 63 depict the sequential deployment of the solar panels. Figure 64 supplies a detailed side view of the tubular and spherical elements which are employed to connect the individual panels of the antenna array. Figures 65, 66, and 67 illustrate three views of an alternative embodiment of the invention called "Gearsat." Figures 68, 69, 70, and 71 are schematic diagrams of on-board internal systems that control the satellite and that handle traffic among other satellites and terminals on the ground. Figures 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, and 78 illustrate an alternative embodiment of spacecraft designs referred to as "Batsat." Figure 79 is schematic depiction of a low Earth orbit satellite using transmissions of communications packets from a ground station to compute its orbital position. Figure 80 illustrates the autonomous orbit determination algorithm. Figure 81 is a block diagram of position determination circuitry. . 5 Figure 82 depicts the autonomous attitude determination method. Figure 83 is a schematic diagram of node hardware architecture. Figure 84 is a schematic diagram of link control. Figure 85 is a schematic diagram of a routing process. Figure 86 is a flowchart of dynamic packet routing. 10 Figures 87, 88, and 89 are schematics that show routing information diffusion rates. Figure 90 is a schematic diagram of an output module. Figure 91 is a schematic diagram of a packet router. Figure 92 is a schematic diagram of switching architecture. Figure 93 is another schematic diagram of a packet structure. 15 Figure 94 is a schematic diagram illustrating signal flow. Figure 95 is a schematic diagram which discloses system architecture. Figure 96 is a schematic diagram of a packet switch and input output processors in a token ring. Figure 97 is another schematic diagram of an input packet processor. Figure 98 is a schematic diagram showing IPP common control. 20 Figure 99 is a schematic diagram of an IPP 4-stage pipeline. Figure 100 is a schematic diagram of an IPP optimal route controller. Figure 101 is a schematic diagram that portrays a message communication. Figure 102 is another schematic diagram of a 128 by 128 switch. Figure 103 is a schematic diagram of a switching cell. 25 Figure 104 is a conceptual view of the satellite constellation orbiting the Earth. M BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENΗON Summary of the Invention The Satellite Communication System disclosed and claimed in this patent application overcomes the limits that circumscribe the performance and potential of existing telephone systems. The present invention is capable of offering continuous voice, data and video service to customers across the globe on the land, on the sea, or in the air. Instead of merely improving upon or expanding existing land-based systems, the present invention bypasses centralized terrestrial switching hardware by placing all the intelligence of the network in orbit. Unlike conventional hierarchical systems, which are linked together by a complex web of wires, cables, glass fibers, and microwave repeaters that are very expensive to build and maintain, the present invention liberates the true communications potential of existing land-based networks by routing signals through spacecraft in low Earth orbit. The essence of the system disclosed in this application is a dynamic constellation of satellites. Each satellite functions as a communications node of equal rank and importance that is linked to its nearest neighbors. The topology of the constellation resembles a geodesic dome, which offers several advantages over the topology of conventional networks. In previous systems, some call traffic is diverted through distant nodes when the most direct routes between the origin and destination of a call are completely saturated with traffic. These lengthy diversions greatly impair the quality of the connection by introducing time delays, echoes, and additional noise. In the geodesic network of the present invention, such a low-quality diversion becomes unnecessary, since a parallel route can be found which only increases delays by a relatively small amount. The novel constellation of satellites not only offers a graceful response to overloads by minimizing deleterious diversions of traffic, but also eliminates the devastating consequences of the failure of a node. In current systems, when a node fails, service for entire sections of the network is disrupted. In dramatic contrast, the failure of a node in a geodesic system can be compensated by simply removing the inoperative satellite from the network. Adjacent spacecraft in the web then share the workload of then- disabled neighbor until it can be repaired or replaced. The preferred embodiment of the invention comprises a low Earth orbit satellite system that includes 40 spacecraft traveling in each of 21 orbital planes at an altitude of 700km (435 miles). This relatively large number of satellites in the constellation was selected to provide continuous coverage of the Earth's surface at high angles of radiation with respect to the Earth's surface, thus avoiding foliage, terrain, and minimizing the length of the signal's passage through rain. Each of the individual 840 spacecraft functions as a sovereign switch which knows the position of its neighbors, and independently handles traffic without ground control. The satellites are capable of transporting calls to millions of customers using portable, mobile and fixed residential and business terminals, and gateways to public phone networks. The constellation uses the 20 and 30 GIIz frequency bands for communications between Earth and the constellation, and the 60 GHz band for communicating among the satellites. The use of these extremely high frequencies allows for the use of relatively low power, miniaturized antenna components both on the ground and aboard the satellites. The entire constellation is designed to serve over twenty million subscribers and 60,000 full time DS-0 (64kbps) circuits. The satellites will be coupled to traditional public and private phone systems on the ground through gateways which each utilize relatively large antennas and handle large volumes of call traffic. In the preferred embodiment of the invention, this interface between the terrestrial systems gateway and the terrestrial network is based on current standard ISDN interfaces to preserve compatibility. Unlike presently available cellular systems which relay calls to subscribers from local radio towers, the present invention offers direct communication between the satellites of the constellation and individuals using lightweight portable, mobile and fixed telephones. This direct link is made possible by innovative miniature antennas coupled to handheld phones. The antennas can be integrally formed as part of the housing of portable phones or may be used as separate components mounted on the outside of a vehicle. They are designed to communicate with satellites that are more than forty degrees above the user's horizon so that interference and shadowing caused by terrain and nearby buildings is substantially eliminated. The handheld antennas comprise multi-element, electronically steerable phased arrays that measure only a few inches in diameter and are less than two inches (5.1 cm) high. While the signals from these antennas are sufficiently powerful to provide dependable service virtually anywhere on land, sea or in the air, the radiated power is low enough to insure that the telephone does not pose significant radiation hazards. One of the preferred embodiments of the invention includes a faceted, high-gain, antenna array on each satellite. This electronically steered array is formed from a number of flat antenna panels which are fabricated from ultra-lightweight honeycomb materials and advanced composites. The interior of the dome-shaped antenna array contains electronic equipment and batteries, and is used to store solar cell panels which unfurl when the spacecraft reaches its final orbit. Each panel contains a large number of gallium-arsenide (GaAs) monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMIC) which comprise its antenna array elements, power amplifiers and low-noise receiver pre-amplifiers. The cup-like shape of the satellite allows several satellites to be nested in a compact arrangement that fits within the payload bay of a launch vehicle. Each antenna array simultaneously generates 256 beams which are electronically steered to 4,096 positions on the surface of the Earth. Each individual beam illuminates a region on the ground called a "cell" that measures roughly 400 (20 x 20) square kilometers. Since the cells are small and the satellite moves rapidly over the Earth's surface, a system in which the cells were fixed relative to the satellite would cause a terminal to be "handed-off" from cell to cell every few seconds. To avoid this, an innovative logical/physical cell mapping scheme is utilized to create "Earth-fixed cells" which enhances the efficiency of the system and eliminates click noise during telephone calls that might result from a constant series of handoffs between satellites. The present invention also incorporates novel software which runs on a processor onboard each sateUite in the network. Autonomous Orbit Determination (AOD) algorithms provide each spacecraft with location information about its own position and the position of every other satellite in the network. This position information is used to determine the optimum pathway for routing call traffic among the satellites in the constellation. These data are also used to maintain each spacecraft in its proper orbital position, to steer antennas that receive and transmit signals from neighboring satellites, and may be used to offer Radio Determination Satellite Service (RDSS) which is superior to service currently availabl from the Global Positioning Systems (GPS) service. One embodiment of the AOD software employs a ranging algorithm that calculates distances between spacecraft or between spacecraft and ground stations by measuring time delays that are inherent in the radio transmissions conveyed by the network. A second embodiment of the AOD software incorporates an algorithm which fixes spacecraft position by measuring the Doppler shifts of sateUite or ground station transmissions. The AOD software also determines the attitude of the spacecraft using data from the antenna steering function. A third embodiment uses signals from known, fixed location ground terminals to determine both sateUite location and attitude with great accuracy. The AOD software generates position information that is used by a second computer program that utilizes a novel Adaptive Routing Algorithm (ARA). Like the AOD software, the ARA runs continuously on a processor on board each sateUite. The output produced by the AOD program enables the ARA software to monitor the constantly-changing topology of the constellation. The ARA is also responsible for keeping track of the flow of caU traffic through the nodes and links of the constellation and to compensate for traffic congestion and node failures. Each satellite carries fast packet switch circuitry to direct calls among other satellites and to customers on Earth using portable, mobile and fixed terminals. 'Hie voice, data and video information within the telephone calls is arranged in a digital formal called a "packet." A single call may include thousands, millions, or even billions of packets. The packets comprise a sequence of several hundred ones and zeroes, and are divided into two general groups or strings of bits: the first called a "header," the second referred to as a "payload." The header includes the address of the destination of the packet, while the payload contains the digitized substance of the call itself. The present invention utilizes a "datagram" approach that routes every packet conveyed by the system independently at every node in the network. The packets are directed along an optimized pathway through the network by a fast packet switch that directs traffic based on instructions from the processor that continuously runs the Adaptive Routing Algorithm. The innovative switching methods employed by the fast packet switch present on each satellite optimize the utilization of the network facilities and minimize transmission delays. The present invention will not only supply an enormous expansion of telephone capacity, but will also offer a broad range of services that will meet rising world demand in the next century. By liberating conventional land-based systems from the tyranny of hierarchical and centralized switching facilities on the ground, the Satellite Communication System will revolutionize the telecommunications industry. System Overview &. Architecture Figure 1 is a conceptual block diagram which outlines the fundamental architecture of one of the preferred embodiments of the present invention. The end-to-end network model 10 shown in Figure 1 extends from a first generalized user terminal 12, and includes a first network interface 14, the "Calling Network" 16, a second network interface 18 and a second generalized user terminal 20. This system 10 comprises a fast packet network having only a single interface to and from the network which transports two general kinds of messages. These two types of messages are Operations Traffic 22 and User Traffic 24. This architectural configuration contrasts with earlier conventional networks which incorporat separate interfaces and networks for signaling and call handling. The user terminals 12 and 20 depicte in Figure 1 are generalized terminals that define a particular communications pathway through the syste 10. The entire communication system 10 is designed to serve many mUlions or even bUlions of terminal Figure 2 is a schematic depiction of a single satellite (S) of the constellation operating in one o the twenty-one orbits 28 that circle the Earth (E). A conceptual view of a more densely populate constellation (C) is shown orbiting the Earth in Figure 104. Figure 3 presents functional blocks that each provide specialized signal processing. Th components portrayed in Figure 3 may reside in a hand-held personal phone (P), a mobile phone (M) fixed phone (F), or may be located at a gateway (G). Each of these blocks occupies a particular positio along a communications pathway that extends up to one or more satellites S via an antenna, and the back down through the antenna to the terminal 30. Although this network 28 is capable of conveyin virtually any form of information, including audio, video or data signals, Figure 3 emphasizes a telephon call in which voices from either end of the call are transmitted through the network. The user gains acces to the network by using the keypad and display 31 on terminal 30. Tones and text appearing on displa 31 that help guide the user through the access procedure are generated by circuitry in stage 33. Once th call is established, the user's voice, which is represented in the drawing as an analog voice signal 32, i processed by an Analog-to-Digital "A/D" Converter 34. The digitized output 36 produced by converte 34 is a stream of ones and zeroes which are generated at the rate of 64,000 bits per second (KBIT/sec). The digital signal 36 is then processed by a speech encoder 38, yielding digital encoded speech 40. T protect telephone calls from eavesdroppers, the signal is then passed to encryption equipment 42, which utilizes an encryption key 44 from a signalling and control processor 46. Encrypted output 48 is then combined with sequence numbers 50, destination addresses 52, and signal packets 54 generated by processor 46. All these signals are merged together by a packet assembler 56 that composes packets 58. An error encoder 60 adds information to the packets 58 which enables the packets 58 to be checked for transmission-induced errors farther downstream. The packets 58 that are ready to be transported wail in a transmit buffer 62. In the last processing stage associated with the uplink portion of the journey, packets 58 are forwarded to transmitter 64, which is coupled to power control circuitry 66 and frame and bit timing circuitry 68. Finally, radio signals 72 are emitted from an antenna 70 which may be controlled by steering logic circuits 74. Signals 76 dispatched from a satellite S may be sensed by the same antenna 70, and are processed by a receiver 78 and an address decoder 80, which receives terminal identifier information 82 from the signalling and control processor 46. After any errors have been discovered by an error detector 84, the header portion of the packet is read by header decoding stage 86. Once the headers are decoded, signal packets 88 are sent to signaUing and control processor 46, and speech packets 90, which carry the voice "cargo," are passed to a packet receive buffer 92. These packets 90 arc resequenced at stage 94 and decrypted using key 96 at stage 98. At this point, the digital signal undergoes speech decoding 100, echo suppression 102, and is reconstituted as an analog signal at converter 104 that may be perceived by the user at terminal 30. Figure 4 presents a block diagram of an earth station or gateway G. The gateway G includes antennas 106 which convey signals to local and remote receivers 108 and 110. These antennas 106 are capable of communicating directly with the sateUites S in the network. One group of local and remote receivers 108 and 110 are coupled directly to a fast packet switch 118, while another group 112 and 114 are coupled to the fast packet switch 118 through receiver select logic 116. The fast packet switch 118 includes incoming control circuitry 120, outgoing control circuitry 122 and a Packet Assembly and Disassembly interface 124. A series of Packet Assembly and Disassembly (PAD) stages 126 connect the fast packet switch 118 to an access switching machine 130 via DS-1 links 128. The access switching machine 130 comprises test access circuitry 132, which includes a link for spacecraft access 136, control circuitry 134, and a clock 146. Both switched and unswitched traffic 138 and 140 is carried over DS-0 Unks that are, in turn, conveyed by larger DS-1 links. Local control of the access switching machine 130 in gateway G is maintained over link 142. Dedicated access to one of the PADs 126 is supplied via Unk 144. Outside telephone carriers 154 are coupled to the access switching machine 130 through operating systems 148, DS-1 interfaces 150, and custom or standard interfaces 152. Figure 5 presents a "ping-pong" diagram 156 that portrays the sequence of events that occur when a caU is placed between a terminal and a land line. Different portions of the diagram show steps which occur at the terminal and in various sateUites and gateways. The chart reveals a sequence of events in which a terminal first requests and is then assigned a communications channel. After subscriber information is authenticated, a call is configured or "setup", and eventually terminated or "released". Figure 6 is a schematic diagram that reveals the fundamental architecture of the present invention. A portion of the network 158 includes satellite nodes 160, which communicate over intcr-satcliite links 162. Signals are passed between the orbiting nodes 160 and gateway interfaces 166 over gateway-satellite links (GSLs) 164. The gateway interfaces 166 are, in turn, connected to operation support systems 168, feature processors 170, gateway switches 172 and database systems 174. As shown schematically in Figure 6, the network 158 also communicates directty with customers 178 using hand-held phones and car phones 182 over mobile terminal sateUite links (MTSL's) 176 and 180 that are capable of carrying 16 kilobits of voice or data signals per second (kbps). Subscribers 186 using fixed terminal satellite links (FTSL's) 184 will be able to communicate at the rate of 64 kbps. The apparatus and methods depicted in Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 are explained in greater detafl in the sections appearing below entitled System Communication Links and CaU Handling. Terrestrial Antennas Figure 7 Ulustrates a hand-held portable phone that includes a Terrestrial Antenna for a Satellite Communication System. In one of the preferred embodiments, a hemispherical millimeter wave antenna 210 is used in conjunction with a portable telephone T that includes an LCD display screen L, a keypad K, and a battery pack B. In this version of a compact hand-held transceiver T, the antenna 210 is mounted on a collapsible mast M, which is shown in both the extended and stowed positions, EX and ST. Figures 8 and 9 exhibit top and side views of the invention 210A, which incorporates a generally trapezoidal, semi-conical housing. An inclined exterior surface 212 includes an upper and a lower portion 212a and 212b. This slanted ring 212 is attached to both a top circular surface 214 and a bottom circula surface 216. Both the side and top surfaces 212 and 214 provide support for a number of generall circular antenna elements 218. The patches 218 on the side 212 of the antenna 210A form an azimut array, while those situated on the top 214 belong to an elevation array. These elements 218 utilize conductive patch 220 bearing a cross-slot 222 that is formed from two individual perpendicular slots 222 and 222b. In one embodiment that is designed for use with the 20 Ghz band, the diameter of the to surface 214 is 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). The side surface 212 is 1.0 inch (2.5 cm) high, and the bottom surfac 216 is 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) wide. The nominal gain of this embodiment is approximately 20 dB. For th 30 GHz band, the diameter of the radiating patches shrink to about seventy percent of the larger 20 GH antenna patch. For a trapezoidal geometry where the ratio of the bottom 216 and top 214 surfaces is 5/3 beams emanated by this embodiment are capable of being steered electronically over 360 degrees in th azimuth plane and plus or minus 60 degrees in the elevation plane. Active and passive microwav components are located within the housing attached to a ground plane. Figures 10 and 11 depict another embodiment of the invention 210B, which makes use of dual frequency radiating elements located on a hemispherical or dome-shaped surface. A hemispherical surfac 224, which is mated to a bottom circular surface 226, is covered by antenna elements 218. The preferre embodiment of this configuration 210B utilizes a dome having a diameter of about 2.5 inches (1 cm). Th nominal gain of the hemispherical antenna is about 20 dB over the desired range of scan angles. Th radiating elements, along with their integrated phase shifter, provide beam steering over 360 degrees i the azimuth plane and plus or minus 60 degrees in the elevation plane. A variation of the dom embodiment 210B is characterized by a flattened or truncated surface at the top of the dome. Figure 12 shows a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention 210C that takes the shap of a right circular cylinder having a curved cylindrical surface 228, a top circular surface 230, and a botto circular surface 232. Like the hemisphere 210B, the cylindrical antenna 210C has a nominal gain of 2 dB, and offers beam steering over 360 degrees in the azimuth plane and plus or minus 70 degrees in th elevation plane. For 20 GHz operation, this antenna is designed to measure three inches (7.6 cm) acros and one inch (2.5 cm) high. A reduction of thirty to forty per cent can be achieved if the 30 GH frequency is utilized. Figures 13 and 14 supply detaUed renditions of one of the circular antenna elements 218. Figure 13 is a top view which includes a conductive patch layer 220 that has been milled, molded, or etched so that it bears two intersecting slots 222a and 222b. The resulting cross-slot 222 comprises two perpendicular slots which do not have equal lengths. The dissimilar lengths insure that the radiation emitted from the antenna 210 wiU be circularly polarized. Figure 14 portrays a cross-section of element 218. A copper patch 220 that includes cross-slot 222 sits atop a nonconductive substrate layer 234, which resides above a ground plane layer 236. Each conductive patch 220 is 233 mils in diameter and from 0.25 to 1.00 mil thick. Figures 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19 supply schematic diagrams of a five bit, time delay phase shifter 238. Each printed circuit delay line 240, 242, 244, 246, and 248 provides the necessary phase shift depending on the line length. In one embodiment of the invention, these lines 240, 242, 244, 246, and 248 provide phase shifts of 11.25, 22.50, 25.00, 90.00, and 180.00 degrees, respectively. The present invention utilizes these conductive pathways to select the appropriate delay for steering the antenna beams. Each antenna element 218 is coupled to its own phase shifter 238. The series-resonant printed circuit patch arrays are formed by connecting rows of patches through high impedance microstrip lines. The radiating patch elements are excited by low-loss microstrip lines arranged peφendicular to the resonant arrays. Each feed lύie will excite aU the resonant arrays, forming a pencU beam in the broadside direction. The direction of the beam is steered by the low-loss, phase shifting elements with soUd state switches located in the feed line. The present invention combines the phased array section and using a common aperture beamformer into a compact, low-loss, low-profile antenna structure. Figures 20, 21 and 22 reveal side, cross-sectional and top views of an alternate embodiment of the invention 250 which incorporates a hemispherical structure 252 covered by dual frequency antenna elements 254. Figures 23 and 24 show enlarged side and top views of one of the alternative embodiments of the dual frequency antennas. The edge of lower circular surface 253 is visible in Figure 23. Figures 25 and 26 show enlarged top and cross-sectional views of one of the dual frequency antenna elements 254 which includes an upper conductive layer 256, a lower conductive layer 258, and two conductive vias 259 and 260. The cross-sectional view in Figure 26 also depicts a foam layer 262, a dielectric layer 264, and a ground plane layer 266. The radiating elements are printed on a high performance substrate. The feed networks and distribution circuits are printed on the lower side of the substrate. The active microwave components are located below the dielectric substrate. The entire antenna structure is secured to the ground plate 266. Figures 27 and 28 reveal schematic block diagrams of the receive and transmit circuits 268 and 297 utilized in one of the several embodiments of the invention. The receive circuit 268 comprises a 20 GHz printed circuit four element subarray 270 which includes feeds 272. The feeds 272 convey signals to a first radio frequency (RF) amplifier 274, a first band pass filter (BPF) 276, a second RF amplifier 278, and a mixer 280. The mixer 280 combines the output of the second RF amplifier 278 and a source 282, which, in turn, receives the output of a synthesizer 284. The output of the mixer 280 is fed to a third RF amplifier 286 and to an intermediate frequency (IF) bandpass filter (BPF) 290, an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter 292, a digital band pass filter (DBP) 294, and a threshold detector 296. A decoder 288 is connected to the output lead of RF amplifier 286. The transmit circuit 297 shown in Figure 28 contains a 30 GHz printed circuit four element subarray 298 which has feeds 300 coupled to an amplifier 302, an encoder 304, an RF source 306 and a synthesizer 308. Figures 29 and 30 depict side and top views of another embodiment 310 of the miniaturized antenna that is characterized by a top element 312, radiating elements 314, a soft substrate 315, a ground plane 316 and a dummy element 317. The radiating elements 314 are arranged in a hexagonal lattice pattern and are separated by approximately 0.075 inches (0.19 cm). Figures 31, 32, 33, and 34 are plan and sectional views of dual frequency antennas. Figure 31 exhibits a top view 318 of a 30 GHz printed circuit patch element 320 above a 20 GIIz patch element 322. Figure 32 shows the same hardware in a cross-sectional side view 326 that reveals the substrate layer 324 that separates the 20 GHz and 30 GHz elements 320 and 322, as well as a layer of foam 328 and a ground plane 330. Figure 33 shows a series of 20 and 30 GHz patches residing together on a portion of an antenna. Figures 33 and 34 portray an alternative arrangement in which the active patches 320 and 322 are situated on either side of the substrate 324, as opposed to having element 322 embedded within substrate 324 as shown in Figure 32. Figures 35 and 36 show cross-sectional and plan views of an antenna with a hexagonal lattice. Figure 35 comprises a cross-sectional view 332 that includes a radome 334 covering a dummy element 335, dual frequency printed circuit elements 336 and 337, a microwave substrate 338, feed networks and distribution circuits 340, active microwave components 342, and a ground plane and support structure 344. The top view shown in Figure 36 reveals an array of 20 and 30 GHz patches 336 and 337 deployed in a hexagonal lattice with the dummy element 335 at its center. The Terrestrial Antennas disclosed above may be used for voice or data communications. The portable transceiver unit T that incoφorates the present invention 210 will provide a direct ground to sateUite link (GSL) to a constellation of 840 spacecraft in low Earth orbit. The compact antennas 210 are designed to send and receive signals to satellites that are within a cone having a vertical axis that point toward the zenith which measures 80 degrees across. The angle from the terminal to the sateUite, called the "mask angle," is sufficiently wide to insure that there are always at least two satellites in the consteUation flying overhead to service portable units, but is also high enough above the horizon to virtually eliminate occultation by terrain, buildings, or trees. The 40 degree mask angle also limits the path length of the signal, protects link margins and thus reduces power requirements. For optimal performance, the vertical axis of the antenna 210 should point at the zenith, but the beam steering capabilities of the antenna 210 can overcome the effects of using the transceiver T at different angles, as long as the signal from the portable phone remains pointed somewhere within the mask angle. If the orientation of the antenna 210 presents a problem for the subscriber, the hand-held unit can be connected to an external antenna which is mounted at a fixed angle or which is more sensitive. The low power design of the present invention substantially eliminates any radiation hazards. The number of elements 218 which are deployed on the antennas 210 is directly proportional to the total gain achieved by the array. The number, N, for a hexagonal lattice is given by the expression: N=((1.5*^)) 2 A where D is the aperture and λ is the wavelength at the highest frequency. This expression indicates that about 61 elements having two inch (5.1 cm) aperture should be used for a frequency of 30 GHz. The appropriate phase shift, φ, that is electronically selected to steer the beams using the various microstrip phase delay lines is determined by the following equation: φ . = 2πλ si .n „θ d where θ is the scan angle. The design choices for the selection of materials is largely determined by the performance requirements that are encountered using the 20 GHz the 30 GHz frequency bands. Three commercially avaUable materials would be suitable for the substrates for the present invention. These include Rohacell rigid styrofoam material and Roger RT/5870 and RT/5880 materials, which are both glass microfiber- reinforced PTFE composite substrates. Whfle Teflon fiberglass is an extremely rigid material, which is a desirable property for the substrate, its cost is nearly twice that of styrofoam. The dielectric constant, e„ for each of these substrates ranges from 1.35 to 2.55. Although styrofoam is the least expensive material, it is far less rigid than either RT/5870 or RT/5880. One quarter ounce copper is used for the printed circuit antenna elements. The housing enclosure can be fabricated from a ' ghtweight aluminum aUoy. Fast Packet Switch The fast packet switch aboard each sateUite in the consteUation provides novel fast packet switching for a network having a rapidly changing topology. Each packet moved through the network is routed independently at each network node along an optimum route that is determined by an innovative adaptive routing algorithm. The switching methods disclosed and claimed in this patent appUcation overcome the limitations encountered by conventional packet switching using virtual circuits. The fast packet switch utilizes a "datagram" approach that routes every packet conveyed by the system independently at every node in the network. The packets are directed along an optimized pathway through the network by a fast packet switch that directs traffic based on instructions from a microprocessor that continuously runs an adaptive routing algorithm. This microprocessor uses orbital position information generated aboard each spacecraft to monitor the rapidly changing topology of the constellation and the distribution of traffic among its nodes and links. The self-routing fast packet switch works in combination with an input packet processor, a routing cache memory, and an adaptive routing processor. The input packet processor functions like a gatekeeper or guide that extracts the destination node address from each packet and uses it to access routing information stored in the routing cache memory. The adaptive routing processor constantly updates the routing cache memory so each sateUite has an accurate "knowledge" of the whereabouts of aU its neighbors, and of the expected packet delay from adjacent nodes to aU possible destination nodes. Based upon this position and expected delay information, the adaptive routing processor selects the best pathway from a particular sateUite to a single neighboring sateUite, and the packet is then moved through internal switch circuitry onboard the sateUite on its way to other spacecraft in its journey to some eventual destination on Earth. The switching methods of the present invention optimize the utilization of the network facilities and minimizes transmission delays and variances of transmission delays. By precalculaliπg the optimal route for each packet one step at a time at each satellite, the amount of time required to process individual packets is greatly reduced. Figure 37 is a flow chart 410 that explains the switching process as it occurs on each satellite S in the constellation C. Orbital position information 412 is an input to an adaptive routing processor 414 which runs an adaptive routing algorithm (ARA) 416. The ARA 416 constantly monitors the changing locations of all the spacecraft S in the network, and also keeps track of communications traffic congestion among the links and nodes of the system. The adaptive routing processor 414 produces an output caUed "Next-πode-in-path-to-destination" 418. As the name implies, this output 418 contains information and provides instructions for moving communications data through the network one node at a time. 5 Packets 422 generated by a packetizing circuit (not shown) arrive at one of the satellites S from a portable P, mobile M or fixed F terminal or gateway G or from another sateUite S. Packeting circuits may include analog-to-digital converters that are weU known in the electronic arts which translate audio signals to streams of digital bits. Each packet 422 comprises a string of one's and zero's and is divided into two general sections called a header 424 and a payload 426. The header 424 includes the address 10 of the packet's destination, and information caUed a destination node 432, which refers more particularly to the location in the network where the packet must be delivered. An input packet processor 428 receives an asynchronous sequence of packets in a serial transmission format. Each packet 422 contains information in its header section 424 that enables circuitry aboard the sateUites S to route the packets 422. The input packet processor 428 extracts the destination node information from each packet 422 and 15 forwards the destination node 432 as an input to a routing cache memory 420. This memory 420 is also the recipient of next-node-in-path-to-destination output 418 produced by the adaptive routing processor 414. Since the routing cache memory 420 is used by more than one input packet processor 428, a time- sequencer or multiple cache memories can be used to eliminate contention problems that occur when more than one input packet processor 428 seeks the services of the cache 420. 20 The input packet processor 428 receives a next node routing tag 430 from the routing cache memory 420 prepends the tag 430 to the processed packet 434, and forwards the packet 434 to a fast packet switch 438. The switch 438 receives the processed packet 434 through one of its many input ports 436, and conveys it to one of many multi-stage self-routing switch sections (MSSRSS) within it. The tag 430 is read by an MSSRSS, and the MSSRSS automatically routes it to an asynchronous packet 25 multiplexing section (APMS). The multiplexing section multiplexes the packets 434 received in parallel from various input ports 436 into a serial output stream at one of its output ports 440. Figure 38 presents a block diagram of a satellite switch node 442. One fast packet switch 438 is shown in the upper portion of the diagram, and receives signals from a series of circuit modules 444 and 452. Module 444 includes a receiver 446 coupled to receive antennas (not shown in Figure 38), a 30 demodulator 448, and a bit/packet synchronizer 450. Module 452 provides input packet control, and comprises circuits for error detection 454, packet tagging 456, local cache access 458 and network cache access 460. The series of input packet control modules 452 are also connected to control complex 462 through a local routing cache 476 and a local routing and handover processor 474. Another link to the input packet control modules 452 are coupled to the control complex 462 through a network routing cache 35 480 and a network management and routing processor 478. The control complex 462 is an array of circuit stages that include a signalling and call control processor 464, a test and maintenance processor 466, a system control and reload processor 468, a billing and traffic processor 470 and a satellite ephemerides processor 472. The control complex 462 is coupled to a communications processor 482, a spare processor 484 and a beam steering processor 486, which is connected to output packet control modules 490 and 496. Modules 490 comprise circuits that keep track of path history 492 and that are responsible for error encoding 494. Modules 496 include packet framing circuits 498, modulators 500 and transmitters 502 connected to transmit antennas (not shown in Figure 38). Figure 39 suppUes a schematic illustration of a 32 by 1 packet priority multiplexor 504. Serial input signals 506 are fed to the multiplexor 504 at the rate of 150 megabits per second (MBIT/S) through a series of serial-to-paraUel (S/P) converters 508. The S/P converters 508 are coupled to first-in, first-out (FIFO) buffering circuits 510, which are also connected to status and control (S&C) circuits 512. AU the S&C circuits 512 are linked to FIFO scanning and control logic circuitry 514 and an output queue status stage 516. An eight bit paraUel bus 517 receives the output of the FIFO circuits 510, and are conveyed to a priority router 518, 8 by 16K low and high priority FIFO circuits 520 and 522, and through a parallel- to-serial converter (P/S) 524 to provide a 150 MBIT/S serial output 526. Figure 40 is a block diagram 528 which reveals the details of a fast packet switch 438. Serial inputs 530 are transported into the switch 438 via a series of 1 x 32 self-routing switch modules 532 that are, in turn, associated with a series of 32 x 1 asynchronous packet multiplexors 534. Figure 41 is a schematic diagram 536 that shows the detafls of the 1 x 32 self-routing switch module 532 Ulustrated in Figure 40. Packets 422 having headers 424 and payloads 426 are fed into the module 532 at the rate of 150 MBIT/S. The packet 422 comprises a string of ones and zeroes, and includes a priority flag, a routing tag and an error flag. A series of self-routing ceUs 538 read the bits in the header 424, and direct routed packets 542 with their payloads of data 426 to the output side 540 of the module 532. Figure 42 is an fllustration which presents a block diagram of a mobile/fixed sateUite Unk 544. A radiating array 546 which both receives and transmits signals through feeds 548 is controlled by a beam steering computer 550. Incoming signals pass through a diplexer 552 on their way to a receive beam forming network 554 and a bank of receivers 556 that are all linked to controUer mux/demux/modem 558 that provides input to the fast packet switch 438. A synthesizer 560 generates signals that are fed to a frequency controUer 562, which provides an input to a second controUer mux/demux modem 564 that processes signals for transmission from the fast packet switch 438. A bank of transmitters 566 furnishes signals to a transmit beam forming network 568, which are then passed through the diplexer 552 before they are emitted from the satellite through the radiating array 546. Beam Compensation Beam compensation pertains to the assignment of individual radio beams from the consteUation of sateUites to delineated regions on the ground with fixed boundaries called "ceUs." This beam management system offers enhanced frequency coordination and communication reliability. Beam compensation substantially eUminates the problem of rapid "hand-of fs" of a communication channel among the multiple beams of one sateUite or between sateUites as one satellite moves as one satellite moves out of range of subscribers within the cell and another takes over to supply service to the ceU. The system aUocates the radio beams which are generated by the satellites. These beams are precisely controlled so that they flluminate "Earth-fixed ceUs" as opposed to "satellite-fixed ceUs." In previous satellite communication schemes, spacecraft which are not held stationary over one particular location on the Earth in geo-synchronous orbits fly over large regions of the Earth very rapidly. The rad beams generated by these fast moving spacecraft sweep across vast regions of the Earth's surface at t same rate of speed. If these beams were visible to the eye, they would paint bright circular and elliptic patches of light on the ground beneath the satellite which emitted them. In a system that emplo sateUite-fixed cells, the "footprint" of the radio beams propagated by the spacecraft defines the zone the ground caUed a "ceU" which is illuminated by the spacecraft. This sateUite-fixed ceU moves constant as the spacecraft moves around the globe. In sharp contrast, an "Earth-fixed cell" is a stationary regio mapped onto the surface of the Earth that has permanent fixed boundaries, just like a city or a stat Although the rapidly moving satelUtes stiU shine their radio beams over the ground in rapidly movin footprints, the locations of the footprints at any given time do not determine the location of th unchanging Earth-fixed ceUs. The great advantage provided by using ceUs having boundaries that are fixe to the Earth is realized when a subscriber being served by one satellite must switch to another beam i the same sateUite or to a second sateUite because the first is moving out of range below the local horizo With satellite-fixed ceUs, this "handover" involves the assignment to the terminal of a new communicatio channel within the new beam or new satellite. This assignment process takes time and consume processing capacity at both the terminal and the satellite. It is also subject to blocking, call interruptio and call dropping if there is not an idle communication channel in the next serving beam or satellite. h Earth-fixed ceU method avoids these problems by allocating communication channels (frequency, cod and/or time slot) on an Earth-fixed ceU basis rather than on a satellite-fixed ceU basis. Regardless o which satellite/beam is currentfy serving a particular cell, the terminal maintains the same chann assignment, thus eliminating the "handover" problem. Beam compensation is accomplished in conjunction with innovative Spacecraft Antennas, whic are described in the text presented below. These antennas comprise advanced active element phase arrays that utilize electronic beam steering to provide extremely high gain signals. One of the preferre embodiments of these spacecraft antennas employs a hemispherical configuration of hexagonal antenn facets fabricated from ultra-light weight honeycomb materials and advanced composites. Gallium-arsenid (GaAs) millimeter wave integrated circuits (MMIC) coupled to each antenna panel handle caU traffic Each antenna simultaneously generates 256 beams which are electronically steered to over 4,000 position on the surface of the Earth. At any instance, each individual beam iUuminates a region on the groun caUed an "Earth-fixed cell". A beam iUuminates each of the cells in the superceU on a pre-determine sequence and time schedule. A four by four matrix of ceUs forms an "Earth-fixed superceU." The entir surface of the Earth is mapped into 80,000 Earth-fixed supercells (80 km x 80km). Figures 43, 44, and 45 present schematic illustrations that exhibit the relationships among th spherical surface of the Earth E, a sateUite footprint 602, an Earth-fixed super cell 604, an Earth-fixe cell 606, and radio beams B emitted from a satellite S that provides service for users within the Earth fixed cells 606. Figure 43 reveals the geometric and numerical relationships that have been establishe to implement beam compensation. The beams B emanating from a constellation C of sateUites Uluminate generally circular footprints 602 on the surface of the Earth E. These footprints 602, whic have a radius of about 700 kilometers, are associated with a grid of approximately 80,000 Earth-fixe superceUs 604 that span the entire globe. Each footprint 602 is served by 256 superceUs 604, Each superceU 604 is divided into a four by four matrix comprising four Earth-fixed ceUs 606 on a side. Every Earth-fixed ceU 606 is twenty kilometers wide and twenty kilometers high. There are approximately 1.28 million Earth-fixed cells 606 covering the surface of the world. The upper and lower boundaries of each 5 Earth-fixed superceU 604 are paraUel to lines of latitude. The Earth-fixed superceUs 604 circle the Earth in bands, with the largest bands residing at the equator. The number of Earth-fixed superceUs 604 in an Earth-circling band decreases toward the poles. Earth-fixed superceUs 604 in adjacent bands are not necessarily aUgned. In the text below, the terms "superceUs" 604 and "ceUs" 606 are employed as a shorthand reference to the more technically correct terms "Earth-fixed superceUs" 604 and "Earth-fixed 10 cells" 606. The ceUs 606 and superceUs 604 defined and utilized by the present invention are different from the topography of previous communication systems because they are literally fixed to the Earth like a permanent grid of lines of longitude and latitude. In earlier systems, the perimeter of the beam footprint determined the instantaneous location of a ceU. Figure 46 exhibits a pattern 608 that reveals how an Earth-fixed superceU 604 is mapped into 15 sixteen Earth-fixed ceUs 606, and how the circular footprints 602 from the satellites S cover the square cell regions. The ceUs 606 in this diagram are also numbered from one to sixteen. These numerals indicate the timing assignments that represent the schedule of sequential satellite transmissions that serve each ceU. This cell pattern 608 insures that three inactive cells are always present between every two active cells during normal operations. In the event of a timing skew between satellites servicing adjacent 20 superceUs 604, this pattern still provides for a minimum of two inactive ceils 606 between active cells 606. This separation is sufficient to eliminate signal interference between two cells 606 which are being illuminated at the same time. Figure 47 is a diagram 610 that depicts satelUte footprint overlaps 615 and gaps 617 at the equator for three different orbit populations. Each footprint has a radius of 700 km, and the orbital planes are 25 spaced at nine degrees, which results in 1000 km spacing at the equator. Figure 47 presents six columns of overlapping circles. Three pairs of adjacent columns 612, 614 and 616 reveal the coverage gaps that result from different orbit populations. If each orbit in the constellation C has 40 satellites, virtually no gaps 617 are encountered, as shown by column pair 612. In this first instance, the footprints 602 are closely packed, being deployed only 1000 km apart from center to center. The second and central pair 30 of adjoining columns 614 represent the footprints 602 generated when each orbit has only 35 satellites. The footprints 602 depicted in the middle pair of columns are 1142 km apart when measured from center to center along the path of the orbit. The footprints shown in column pair 614 are separated by small gaps 617. The last pair of columns 616 shows what happens when each orbit has 30 satellites. The spacing between footprints 602, measuring along the orbit path, is now 1333 km. Consequently, large gaps 35 617 separate some of the footprints 602 shown in the rightmost pair of columns 616. » Figure 48 is a flow chart 618 which discloses one implementation of one of the preferred embodiments of beam compensation. A packet 422 is shown as it progresses through mapping and switching hardware which directs the packet 422 to the beam which is currently serving the Earth-fixed superceU 604 and ceU 606 in which the destination terminal 619 resides. The incoming packet 422 possesses "node" 620 and "caU identification (ID)" 622 bits that comprise a terrestrial locatio identification about the terminal where the caU originated. The substance of the phone caU, such as voic or video information, has been digitized and is carried as the payload portion 426 of the packet 422. Th node 620 identifies the satellite S currently serving the destination terminal 619. The call ID 622 is use as an input to a ceU ID map 624, which is used as a translation device for a fast packet switch 438 tha actuaUy selects the beam B that wfll be used to deUver the payload 426. The call ID map 624 identifie the superceU 604, ceU 606, and channel 626 assigned to the destination terminal 619 within this node 62 as identified by the caU ID 622 in the incoming packet 422. In the present context, a channel 626 is portion of beam B that has been aUocated into several frequencies. Output beams are recorded in position/output beam map 630. The sateUite beam B which is currently assigned to serve a particula superceU 604 is also a function of the instantaneous position of the sateUite S which is generating beam B to handle a given caU. This position information is produced by autonomous orbit positio determination software 628. Once the channel 626, ceU 606, and beam assignments have been derived these assignments are appended to the payload 426 of the packet 422, replacing the caU ID 622. Afte mapping, the modified packet 632 is then transmitted to the fast packet switch 438, which uses thi information to direct the packet 422 to the appropriate buffer slot in the beam B currently serving thi superceU 604. The transmission system determines the frequency that wfll be used for the transmissio of the packet 422 based on the selected channel, and picks the time slot for transmission based on th selected ceU 606. In one of the preferred embodiments of the beam compensation invention, the time slot is 1.44 milliseconds in duration, and the frequency domain modulation (FDM) cycle for the beams is 23.111 milliseconds long. The time required for communication is 1.156 milliseconds, and 0.289 milliseconds o guard time is provided. The receive beams lag the transmit beams by twice the time encountered by the transit delay between the user and the sateUite. This lag time varies from 6.8 milliseconds for superceU at the edge of the footprint to 4.7 milliseconds for superceUs directly below the satelUte. The variation over a superceU 604 ranges from 0.04 milliseconds for cells 606 directly below the sateUite to 0.7 milliseconds for ceUs 606 at the edge of the footprint. The beams B generated by antenna facets (not shown in Figure 48, but shown below in Figures 49 and 50) on the sateUites S include 256 transmit and 256 receive scanning beams. The sateUites travel at an orbital height of 700 km and service ceUs within a 40 degree terminal elevation mask angle footprint. The sateUite footprint 602 measures approximately 1.6 million square kilometers. The satelUte antenna beams B that service ceUs 606 directly below the sateUite S have a gain of 37.7 dB and half power beamwidths of 2.6 degrees. The beams B that service ceUs 606 at the edge of the satelUte footprint 602 have a gain of 40 dB and half power beamwidth of 1.8 degrees. The beams illuminate circular spots on the Earth's surface of approximately 800 square kilometers. The square inscribed within this circular spot has an area of 512 square kilometers (22.6 km sides). This geometry provides 1.84 km (13%) of overlap at the cell corners. The overlap 615 mitigates the effects of satellite position errors and beam pointing errors. The tolerable error limits are 300 meters maximum for sateUite position determination error and 1.5 km (0.17 degree) maximum for beam pointing errors. The movement of the beam footprint 602 on the Earth's surface due to the motion of the sateUite S is less than 12 meters over the 1.444 miUisecon dweU time, and less than 200 meters during the 23.111 millisecond superceU timing cycle. Instead o computing the required pointing angles for each spot beam every 1.444 milliseconds, the pointing angles for the center of the superceU may be computed every 23.111 miUiseconds, and the beam B is then positioned relative to this center for each ceU. The rotation of the Earth contributes an error to this computation, but is less than 6% of the effect of sateUite motion, and the same method can be used to compensate for this motion. The same method can also be used to compensate for sateUite attitude motion (roU, pitch, and yaw). When a superceU 604 is contained within the footprints 602 of two or more sateUites, then the sateUites S negotiate among themselves as to which ones wfll service that superceU 604. One sateUite may be assigned complete responsibiUty or the frequency aUocation may be divided among several sateUites. Each ceU 606 is designed to provide service for up to 720 16-kilobit per second subscribers using portable terminals, and 360 terminals operating at 64-kilobits per second. The beam compensation invention described above offers several advantages over previous beam allocation systems. Terminals are served by the footprint 602 of the satellite that happens to be passing overhead at the time a particular caU flows through a given terminal. By aUocating the beams to Earth- fixed cells as opposed to satellite-fixed cells, the problem of performing frequent "hand-offs" from sateUite to sateUite is substantially eliminated, since a terminal keeps the same frequency (channel) and time slot (ceU) for the duration of the caU even though it communicates via different beams and sateUites during the caU. A similar system using sateUite-fixed ceUs with each sateUite footprint partitioned into approximately four thousand cells would require a cell hand-off approximately every five seconds. The utilization of the beam compensation invention described above requires these undesirable hand-offs only when a subscriber using a portable P or mobUe M terminal actually transits across a ceU boundary. The Earth-fixed ceU method also avoids the danger of accidentaUy terminating a caU if aU of the channels in the ceU to which the beams are switched are already occupied. The allocation method of the present invention that switches a caU from the beams of one sateUite to another is completety transparent to the customer. The Earth-fixed ceU technique also offers enormous spectral efficiency, since 100% of the frequencies between the cells and between the sateUites are constantly reused. Similar systems using sateUite-fixed cells often divide the assigned frequencies into bands assigned to sateUites to avoid frequency conflicts, but that procedure is an inefficient use of the valuable frequency spectrum. Spacecraft Antennas The antennas aboard each sateUite in the consteUation provide advanced, steerable, active element, phased array antennas that supply extremely high gain, and which also use the available spectrum with great efficiency. The antennas utilize electronic beam steering to provide extremely high gain signals. By incorporating these novel antenna systems on a constellation of spacecraft, phone customers across the globe will be able communicate through a communication system whose switching intelligence resides on orbit. This unique configuration bypasses traditional land-based networks, and offers a revolutionary expansion of communications potential. The innovative design of one of the preferred embodiments employs a hemispherical configuratio of hexagonal antenna facets fabricated from ultra-light weight honeycomb materials and advance composites. Gallium-arsenide (GaAs) milUmeter wave integrated circuits (MMIC) coupled to eac antenna panel handle caU traffic. Each antenna simultaneously generates 256 beams which ar electronically steered to 4,096 positions on the surface of the Earth. Each individual beam illuminate a region on the ground that measures roughly 20 km by 20 km. Figure 49 depicts one of the preferred embodiments of the antennas. This perspective schemati view shows a satelUte S that includes an array 700 of generally hexagonal antenna Earth-facing facets 70 that are mated together along their six-sided boundaries to form a sUghtly flattened, hemispherical sheU An array of space facing facets 706 including panels 708 is mated to the Earth facing array 700. Th antenna sheU is connected to two generaUy rectilinear, unfurled, solar panels 704 which trail the body o the spacecraft S. Figure 50 depicts a schematic diagram of a similar satelUte S, and also reveals three sets o electronicaUy steered beams 709 produced by the hexagonal antennas 702 and the circular and elUptical footprints 602 which the beams 709 illuminate on the Earth's surface. The footprints 602 of the radio beams 709 are shown as regions of "illumination" on various portions of the Earth's surface E. The set of beams marked 709a travel the shortest possible distance from the spacecraft S to the Earth E because these beams 709a travel along a pathway which runs from the ground to the zenith Z and back. The area on the surface illuminated by this set of beams 709a results in a generaUy circular footprint 602a. Other sets of beams, like those marked 709b and 709c, are more inclined to the line that runs from the center of the Earth toward the zenith Z, and the areas 602b and 602c irradiated by these beams 709b and 709c become progressively more elliptical as the angle of incUnation becomes larger. Figure 51 combines many sets of beams and portrays a complete set of line-of-sight radio waves 710 generated by one spacecraft. Figures 52 and 53 are geometric plots 712 and 714 which include sight lines between neighboring satelUtes that travel along the same orbit. These plots 712 and 714 reveal the geometric relationship of several spacecraft S traveling in one of the many orbital planes in the sateUite consteUation C. The pathways between neighboring sateUites that are not occluded by the limb of the Earth provide communication links between spacecraft S in the same orbit. In one of the preferred embodiments of the invention, the sateUites shown in Figures 49 and 50 operate in a consteUation which includes 29 sets of spacecraft flying in 29 orbits. The entire fleet travels around the Earth at a height of 700 km (435 miles). In this embodiment, the antennas 702 are designed to transmit and receive signals from terrestrial units that are located within the footprints 602 produced by the electronically steered beams 709. Only those terrestrial units that are within the conical line-of- sight region that is defined by a minimum elevation angle, or "mask angle," of 40 degrees can be serviced by a particular spacecraft. The hexagonal antenna facets 702 and their related signal processing circuitry produce hexagonal coverage pattern. In one embodiment of this invention, the radius to the center of each of the six sides of each facet 702 is 6.2 degrees, while the radius to the six corners of the hexagon subtends 7.16 degrees. A spacing of 12.41 degrees allows for 29 hexagonal coverage patterns in each orbital plane. A similar spacing along the equator results in 29 orbital planes. This configuration of hexagonal facets 702 offers double coverage in the equatorial regions and up to eight-fold coverage a higher latitudes, where larger numbers of subscribers are located. By selecting an odd number of sateUite and planes, the center of the descending patterns wiU faU on the seams of the ascending patterns. Thi selection insures that virtually every region on the surface between the latitudes of 70 degrees North an South wfll be serviced by the consteUation. In general, and allowing for the somewhat inaccurate assumption that the Earth is spherical, th coverage angle of each satellite is given by the expression: where a is the half angle of the cone of Earth coverage in radians; θ is the user antenna mask angle in radians; r is the radius of the Earth (6378 km); and d is the height of the orbit (700 km). Orbits of 700 km and a 40 degree user antenna mask angle yield a coverage of 87.3 degrees. The slant range at the edge of the Earth coverage cone is determined by the equation: rf=v^(r+A) α -r 2 )cos 2 θ)-rsinθ=1022fen The Earth coverage area of the cone is: A=it(d 2 +h 2 -2dhcos(a))=l£6S,000km 2 This quantity represents the Earth coverage area of each sateUite if the entire circular footprint is utilized. As described above in the sub-section describing Beam Compensation, this area is divided into 256 superceUs 604 and each superceU 604 is further divided into 16 smaUer individual ceUs 606. The total number of ceUs 606 created by each spacecraft is then 256 x 16, or 4096. Each of these 4,096 cells has an area of 383 km 2 . If each ceU 606 is square, they measure approximately 19.6 km on a side. Although the preferred embodiment of the invention utflizes circular footprints 602, the footprints created by the sateUites need not be circular. Any regular polygon inscribed in the circle may be effectively employed. Other alternative embodiments employ inscribed squares and inscribed hexagons. The area of the square is 63.7% of the total area, while the area of the hexagon is 82.7% of the total area. If the ceU size is maintained constant, then the resulting numbers of cells 606 are 2609 for the square and 3387 for the hexagon. The spaceborne antennas 702 are capable of providing a gain of 45 dB at the periphery of each footprint and 42 dB at the nadir position. Because the beams generated by the spaceborne antennas 702 are so powerful, Earth-based terminals can in∞φorate low power antenna designs which substantially eliminate any radiation hazards that might otherwise harm the user. Each antenna uses a combinati of the 20 and 30 Ghz frequency bands for satellite to ground communications, and propagates 2 simultaneous beams, which are multiplexed to 4,096 positions. Beams aimed at the horizon possess eUiptical, as opposed to a circular or polygonal, shape to compensate for the low grazing angle, so t a constant Earth coverage footprint is maintained. Uncorrected beams have an elliptical ground patte which degrades spectral reuse efficiency. Electronic beam steering also permits the independent cont of directivity gain and power gain. The beam steering provides a convenient method of correcting po levels during rain fades. The transmitted power gain from the satelUte can be increased on transmit overcome downlink fading. Satellite receive power gain can be increased during receive to overco uplink fading. The use of these two techniques overcomes possibly poor communication performan during rainy weather conditions. Signal processing components residing in the spacecraft include GaAs MMIC filters and a responsible for electronically steering active antenna arrays on board each satelUte. Figure 54 reveal schematic diagram of a GaAs MMIC time delay network 716. Figure 55 shows a schematic of the acti lens 718, which includes a large number of the time delay networks 716 coupled to radiating elements 7 In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, a circuit Model No. TD101 produced Pacific Monolithics, Inc. in California is employed as the time delay network. Other more convention time delay networks may also be employed. Ihe electronic steering is accomplished by using these ti delay networks 716 to create an active lens 718. The focal point of the lens 718 is related to the directivi gain of the antenna 702 and can be controlled electronically. The ability to control the directivity ga is important for communications satellites in low Earth orbit because less gain is needed when a cell 6 is addressed at the sateUite nadir than when a cell is addressed at the periphery of the satelUte footpri 602. It is also desirable to increase the directivity gain in the elevation plane when addressing a ceU the sateUite footprint periphery. The active lens 718 incoφorated in the antennas 702 allows the variable directivity gains to be implemented without the reduction in efficiency that is associated wi conventional antenna arrays. The active lens 718 illustrated in Figure 55 is the microwave analog of optical lens. By increasing the time delay for the signal paths in the center of the lens with respect to t edge of the lens, the focal length of the lens can be changed electronically, which, in turn, changes t directivity gain of the antenna 702. The antennas 702 provide electronic steering which is sufficiently accurate to implement practical gain variation in the 42 dB to 45 dB regime. For example, changing the radius of a radiati pattern by 200 meters at a range of 1200 kilometers requires a time delay control of 4 picoseconds for 45 dB gain antenna array with dimensions of 1.2 meters on a side. Active lens control for the 42 to dB range (in a 20/30 GHz system) requires time delays on the order of 4 picoseconds to 35 picosecond The active lens 718 can be constructed using one of two techniques. The first, which is depicte in Figure 55, utflizes a conventional lens that includes many pairs of receive and transmit antennas th are each connected in series with an active time delay network. The second technique, which compris the preferred embodiment of the invention, is a time delay circuit 722 exhibited in Figure 56. This circu 722 includes a feed 724 coupled to a time delay steered array 725 which comprises a series of switch 726, time delay paths 728, transmission lines 729 and amplifiers 730. The time delay steered array 7 is connected to the time delay active lens 718 and to radiating elements 720. The switched time delay networks 716 in the coφorate feed accomplish beam steering functio The time delay networks 716 can be adjusted for either fine gain beam steering (a few degrees) or f changing the directivity gain of the antenna (focal length of the lens). Every sateUite S controls the assignment of channels to terminals requesting services. When terminal has more than one sateUite in view, the sateUites monitor the signal quaUty and select which o is best suited to handle the caU to the terminal. The receive beam from the ground terminal lags t transmit beam emitted from the sateUite by a fixed interval. The terminal transmits its data to the sateUi at a delay specified by the satelUte in its preceding scan. This method is used to compensate for del differences caused by variations in path lengths. The scan pattern among beams is coordinated to insu that aU cells being scanned at one instant are separated by sufficient distance to eliminate interferen among many closely-spaced customers. An electronic pushbroom carries the beams through one bea position in the direction of satelUte travel, and then performs a flyback. Each beam carries a pilot ton which identifies each beam for terrestrial terminals. Components on board each satellite measure tim delay and Doppler shift of each subscriber signal to determine the location of the subscriber within particular beam footprint. Because the sateUite antennas operate at a relatively high gain, the footprint on the ground are relatively small. Since the cells are smalt and the satellite footprint moves rapidly ove the Earth's surface, any particular terminal remains in the same cell for only a few seconds. To avoid th rapid handoff from satellite to satellite every few seconds, the innovative logical/physical cell mappin scheme described above as Beam Compensation is utilized in conjunction with the present invention. Several spacecraft in a single orbital plane can communicate with each other if they are locate above the horizon of the Earth. SateUites communicate among one another using a 60 Ghz inter-satellit frequency band. In one of the preferred embodiments, a 1.5 foot antenna provides approximately 45 D of gain which supports a practical inter-satellite link (ISL). Four fixed and two electronically steerable antennas are used on each satellite for ISL links. Optional links in the orbital plane may increase the number of ISL antennas to ten, eight of which would be fixed and two of which would be steerable. A second preferred embodiment comprises sateUites circling in 21 orbital planes with 40 satelUtes in each orbit. This 21 x 40 embodiment can be implemented using the same antennas 702 which may be modified to account for the increased population of the constellation. Spacecraft Designs The consteUation comprises 840 extremely high power and ultra-Ughtweight spacecraft grouped in sets of 40 which circle the globe in 21 separate low Earth orbits. The sateUites operate in 700 km (435 mile) circular, sun-synchronous orbits which are inclined approximately 98.2 degrees to the equator. These innovative sateUites will be capable of providing direct links among users across the world without using conventional land-based networks. One of the preferred embodiments of the invention called "Domesat" includes a hemispherical, high-gain, antenna array that is always pointed toward the Earth. This electronically steered array is formed from a number of hexagonal antenna panels which are fabricated from ultra-lightweight honeycomb materials and advanced composites. The panels are held together by tubular and spherical connectors. The interior of the dome-shaped antenna array is used to store solar ceU panels made from amoφhous silicon which unfurl through an opening in a space-facing array when the spacecraft reaches its final orbit. Each panel is coupled to its own GaUium-arsenide (GaAs) millimeter wave integrated circuits (MMIC) which maintain the sateUile's internal control systems and coordinate communications with other sateUites and ground terminals. The hemispherical contour of the antenna array aUows several sateUites to be nested in a compact arrangement that fits within the payload bay of a launch vehicle. One of the alternative embodiments of the invention, "Gearsat", includes an inflatable torus. When viewed from the side along its circumference, the torus looks Uke two flattened pyramids that share a common base. Phased array antenna panels are deployed across the top of the pyramid, while arrays of amoφhous silicon solar cells cover the slanted surfaces. The sateUite rotates about its center, and individual portions of the antenna panels are specifically dedicated to transmit and receive signals from pre-defined regions on the ground. Another alternative embodiment, which is generally referred to as "Batsat", comprises a central cylindrical body and a plurality of substantially circular, foldable, linked panels which carry antennas and solar/thermal arrays. Domesat Figures 57, 58, and 59 depict side views of the Earth-facing antenna array and space-facing segments of the present invention called "Domesat" 800. A sateUite S having a partiaUy hollow interior 715 includes a concave, geodesic antenna array 700 which is always pointed in the direction of the Earth E. The array 700 is formed from individual panels or facets 702 which are each coupled to active beam- steering circuitry that handles and manages call traffic. A space-facing array 706 includes individual polygonal sections 708 that look away from the Earth E. As viewed by a terminal on the ground, the space-facing array 706 is always oriented in the direction of the local zenith Z. Each space-facing section 708 has one fixed edge connected to the earth-facing antenna array 700 by a hinge 711. AU the other edges of each space-facing section 708 are free to move, so that the "top" of the spacecraft S can be opened once it attains orbit. When the sections 708 of the space-facing array 706 are moved apart, solar panels 704 are swung out from the interior 715 and are unfurled to their fuUy extended positions in a direction opposite the direction of travel 802 of the spacecraft S. The sun-facing surfaces of the rectangular solar panels 704 are covered with amoφhous, thin-film silicon, and can be "canted" or rotated about their longitudinal axis 804 to gather the maximum amount of Ught from the sun. Figure 60 portrays several sateUites 800 stored coaxiaUy in a compact, nested arrangement within the payload bay of a launch vehicle 801. Before the sateUite is opened and the solar panels 704 are unfurled, the spacecraft resembles a cup which measures about four meters across. In the preferred embodiment, the satellites S can be stacked inside launchers which are 4.4 meters wide. Figures 61, 62 and 63 reveal a sequence of views showing the deployment of the solar panels 704. In the preferred embodiment of the invention, panels 704 are coupled to nickel metal-hydride batteries that can store over 300 AH of energy. This configuration of solar panels 704 and batteries work together to provide over three KW of continuously-available power. As an alternative, the Domesat embodiment 800 could use solar panels deployed around its circumference or trailing streamers covered with solar cell instead of the panels 704. Figure 64 exhibits spherical and tubular connectors 806 and 808 which hold the antenna panel 702 in place. The antenna panels 702 are each coupled to their receivers, transmitters, beam steering an caU switching electronics (shown in Figure 68 and also described in the section concerning Satellite Antennas presented above). These on-board circuit components are located within the interior 715 and are held in place by the spherical and tubular connectors 806 and 808. Gearsat Figures 65, 66, and 67 Ulustrate three views of an alternative embodiment of the invention called "Gearsat". One embodiment of Gearsat 810 is shown schematicaUy in a side view in Figure 65, and comprises an inflatable torus having a radius of approximately ten (10) meters. The scale of the torus 810 is suggested in a different side view by Figure 66, which includes a schematic representation of a person 811 standing two meters tall. Once deployed in orbit, Gearsat 810 revolves about its center at a rate of roughly 0.1 revolutions per minute, turning slowly like a rolling pin whose longest dimension extends peφendicular to its direction of travel. The axis of rotation of the satelUte 810 is always normal to its orbital pathway. An outermost surface 812 that generaUy defines a cylinder Ues at the periphery of the sateUite 810. This cylindrical surface 812 bears an array of antennas 814 which transmit and receive radio signals to and from other sateUites in the consteUation and to and from personal, mobile and fixed terminals and gateways. The antenna array 814 includes sixty (60) adjacent rectangular panels, each measuring approximately one meter square. As best seen in the partial side view presented in Figure 67, two rows of solar cells 816 lie adjacent to the antennas 814. The sixty antenna panels comprise an active, electroπicaUy steered phase array. At any given time, three of the sixty antenna panels 814 are pointed toward the Earth's surface and are transmitting and receiving signals. As the satelUte 810 revolves, antenna panels 814 become active as they move into position facing the Earth E, and also terminate their activity as they turn away from the Earth. This continuous hand-off of the communication operation from one set of antenna panels 814 to another is controUed by earth sensors, and insures that radio beams B from the sateUite 810 are always iUuminating the footprints 602 on the surface. The Gearsat embodiment 810 derives its name from the spatial synchronization of the antenna panels 814 with specific regions of the ground that are illuminated by the beams generated by the antennas. Like the engaged teeth of two mechanical gears, particular antenna panels 814 in the array are matched with particular regions on the ground. Radio beams B emanating from the sixty panels 814 are essentially "locked" or dedicated to specific footprints 602 or ceUs below it on the Earth's surface. While the text above specifies one particular sateUite configuration that offers this form of spatial synchronization among antennas 814 and beam footprints 602, the reader will appreciate that the central objective of providing a dedicated relationship among many antennas and footprints may be carried out using a wide variety of various implementations without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention claimed below. In one of the preferred embodiments of the invention, the sateUites shown in the figures operat in a consteUation of 840 spacecraft which includes 21 sets of 40 equaUy-spaced satelUtes flying in 21 orbit The entire fleet travels around the Earth in sun-synchronous orbits 700 km (435 miles) above the Eart The circular orbits are inclined 98.2 degrees to the equator. There are 21 orbit planes at different fixe longitude-of-ascending-nodes. Each plane is separated approximately 8.6 degrees (34.3 minutes) from it neighbors. Every plane is occupied by 40 equaUy spaced satellites. AU ascending nodes are groupe together between 6 AM and 6 PM. SateUites in adjacent orbits travel in the same direction except at th "seams" between north-going and south-going portions of the orbits. The sateUite system is 3-axi stabilized and momentum biased. Magnetic torquers, reaction wheels and passive aerodynamic pressur provide the required autonomous control torques that keep the antenna panels 702 pointed toward th Earth E and the satelUte 800 pointed toward the direction of travel 802 as shown in Figure 63. Figures 68, 69, 70 and 71 are block diagrams of on-board internal systems that control the sateUit and that handle traffic among other sateUites and terminals on the ground. The systems illustrated i Figures 68, 69, 70 and 71 may be generally incoφorated in any of the embodiments of Domesat 80 Gearsat 810 or Batsat 894. For the purpose of simplicity, the foUowing description relates the component shown in Figures 68, 69, 70 and 71 to the Domesat 800 embodiment. The diagram 818 shown in Figure 68 reveals subsystems that provide Electrical Power 826 Attitude and Orbit Determination and Control 828; Propulsion 834; and Command and Data Handlin 824. Each of these subsystems are connected to a bus 820 that is also coupled to a Communication Payload Subsystem 822, which includes the fast packet switch 438 and its related circuitry. The Electrica Power Subsystem 826 (EPS) derives energy from the photovoltaic cells covering panels 704 (solar array S/A), and power is stored in nickel metal-hydride batteries. The Attitude and Orbit Determination an Control Subsystem (AODC) 828 maintains the orientation of the spacecraft using three axis stabilizatio methods. Actuators (ACTRS) 832 are employed to perform the stabilization process. Sun sensors 83 are used as an initial reference once the sateUite achieves orbit. Afterwards, inertial measuring units magnetometers, and information gathered from call traffic is used to keep the craft on course and stead in its desired position. Each sateUite "knows" its own position and the positions of all the other satellite in the consteUation, as weU as all the positions of terminals on the ground. A Propulsion Subsystem 834 uses redundant pulse-plasma thrusters which accomplish maneuvers that include orbit insertion, dra make-up, stationkeeping and deorbit at the end of the satelUtes lifetime. A Command and Data HandUng Subsystem (C&DH) 824 acquires, conditions and formats aU sateUite data and decodes, stores and distributes aU sateUite commands. The C&DH 824 comprises a processor with a 4Gb solid-state RAM memory that is coupled to a local area network (LAN). A microprocessor analyzes, inteφrets and compresses on-board data, and another microprocessor, running at 20 million instructions per second (MIPS), is dedicated to processing traffic. A Cabling Subsystem 836 contains all the conductors that unite the power and signal electronics on the ship. A Structure Subsystem 838 comprises the geodesic, concave, stackable support skeleton which bears the antenna array 700. A Mechanisms Subsystem 840 includes components that deploy and orient the solar panels 704. A Thermal Control Subsystem 842 includes blankets and coats of paint that manage the thermal conditions of the satellite S. Figure 69 suppUes a block diagram 844 of internal circuitry that resides within the interior 715 of the Domesat embodiment 800. A local area network (LAN) 846 is coupled to a Power Contro Subsystem 848 that receives power from batteries 850. A Power Distribution Subsystem 852 is coupled to the Power Control Subsystem 848, and to the solar arrays 704 through an array switching link 854. Shunt regulators 856 and radiators 858 are provided to manage the energy distribution onboard each spacecraft. Figure 70 shows another block diagram 860 comprising a local area network 862, a bus 864 that connects to other subsystems, a payload 866, a telemetry and command unit 868, a "1750" microprocessor 870 for data control and an associated master oscillator 872, an "EDA (Engineering Diagnostic and Trending) microprocessor 874 developed by the Martin Marietta Corporation and a "RISC" (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) microprocessor 876. The EDAT processor 874 is a power autonomous operations controUer that monitors aU telemetry to determine the current "health" status of each spacecraft. It performs detailed diagnostic procedures and reports the health of each spacecraft to ground controUers. Figure 71 presents another block diagram 878 comprising a LAN 880, acquisition sun sensors 882, inertial measurement units (IMU's) 884, magnetometers 886, reaction wheels 890 and magnetic torquers 892, aU of which work in concert with an Attitude Control Electronics Unit (ACE) 888. Batsat Figures 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 and 78 depict another alternative embodiment of the invention which is generally referred to as "Batsat" 894. Figures 72 and 73 show the satellite 894 in its folded and stowed configuration, in which arrays 898 and 900 of disc-shaped antenna and solar and thermal panels are coUapsed together against a central body 896. Figure 74 portrays a group 897 several folded Batsats 894 stacked together in preparation for launch. Figures 75 and 76 supply schematic rear and top views of the Batsat embodiment 894 after it has reached orbit and has been completety unfolded and locked into its operational configuration. Figures 75 and 76 reveal antennas 901, 902, 903, 904, 905, 906, 907, 908 and 909 and solar/thermal surfaces 910 and 911. The panels are held together by cables 912 and hinges 914. Figure 77 fllustrates the potential antenna panel coverage areas generated by radio beams emitted by Batsat, while Figure 78 depicts actual antenna panel coverage areas. Figure 77 fllustrates the footprint coverage capability for each panel, while Figure 78 illustrates the primary coverage areas without overlap. The preferred embodiment of Batsat 894 includes a central cylindrical body 896 and two arms of panels 898 and 900 that extend away from the central body 896 in generaUy opposite directions. The arms comprise nine substantiaUy circular, disc-shaped antenna panels 901 through 909, and a pair of solar/thermal panels 910 and 911. The central body 896 has a generally cylindrical shape, and includes two flat faces which receive antenna panels 904 and 905 when the sateUite 894 is in its folded and stowed configuration. When deployed after reaching orbit, the two flat faces of the body 896 are positioned peφendϊcular to the direction of the Nadir. As best seen in Figure 76, four antenna panels 901, 902, 903 and 904 are connected in series to and extend from one side of central body 896, while the other five antenna panels 905, 906, 907, 908 and 909 are similarly connected in series and extend in the opposite direction. The two solar/thermal panels 910 and 911 are connected in series to antenna panel 901. E antenna or solar/thermal panel is coupled to its neighbor or neighbors with power, control a communication cables 912 and spring-loaded self-latching hinges 914. Each panel has two gener circular flat faces. The face of each antenna panel 901-909 which is oriented toward the Earth's surf carries a set of hexagonal antenna surfaces. The faces of the two solar/thermal panels 910 and 911 ca both hexagonal areas of solar cells and thermal radiators. When Batsat 894 is fully deployed, all t connected antenna panels 901-909 and solar/thermal panels 910 and 911 are spaced as far apart as t hinges 914 and cables 912 allow. In this configuration, the spacecraft resembles a bat with its wings f extended in two opposing arcs, and the elements of the sateUite reside at their "maximum possi unfolded distances" from central body 896. When the Batsat panels are folded together Uke an accordi the elements of the ship reside at their "minimum possible folded distances" from central body 896. Batsat incoφorates high-gain, electronicaUy-steered, phased-array antennas to provi telecommunication links over a contiguous surface area within view of the sateUite. The problem fac by nearly aU sateUite systems concerns the limited amount of frequency spectrum available communication links between a sateUite communication system and communication terminals on t Earth. Previous systems employ various multiple access schemes which divide the footprint generated the satellite's Ulumination into multiple spots or ceUs. These ceUs are organized into patterns which aU the same frequencies to be reused many times within a particular footprint. When the frequencies a physically separated, the reuse technique is called "space division", and is represented by the acron "SDMA", or space division multiple access. When the codes are different, the method is caUed "co division" and the abbreviation "CDMA" is used as a shorthand expression for "code division multi access". The acronym "TDMA" stands for "time division multiple access", and indicates that many bea having the same frequency are emitted at different times. Each of these techniques help to elimina interference between cells using the same frequencies. As a general rule, the smaller the cell, the mo the set of frequencies can be reused within the footprint. The reuse of frequencies leads to spect efficiency and the potential for higher capacity for the sateUite and network as a whole. To achieve fuU footprint coverage, the number of ceUs in a sateUite footprint is selected to inversely proportional to the area of the ceU. Assuming each satelUte antenna 901-909 produces o transmit or receive beam which is multiplexed over a fixed number of ceUs, the number of antennas the sateUite then also increases as the ceU size decreases. The ceU size is primarily a function of t directivity, or antenna gain, of the satellite antenna— the smaUer the cell size, the higher the required gai For a given frequency, the gain of an antenna is proportional to its effective area of the anten in the direction of the source (destination) of the received (transmitted) signal. The effective area of flat surface phased array antenna is greatest along the zenith, which is colinear with the line peφendicul to the surface of the antenna. The effective area, and thus the gain, decreases in proportion to the cosi of the angle between the zenith and a line to the communication source/destination. For the best anten performance, the required beam steering angle needs to be kept small so that the antenna's effective ar is close to its actual area. For this reason, Batsat is designed to achieve high spectral efficiency and syste capacity. The present invention includes a large number of high-gain antennas and a corresponding lar amount of antenna surface area. The antenna surfaces are arranged to keep the beam steeri requirements to a few degrees. Batsat not only offers high spectral efficiency and system capacity, but does so at a minimal laun cost. Because the present invention can be folded, stacked and packed into a relatively smaU laun vehicle 801, the cost of placing each sateUite into orbit is relatively low. Each antenna panel 901-909 is responsible for one portion of the sateUite footprint. In its ful deployed configuration, the antenna panels 901-909 are arranged at angles with respect to the Earth whi limit the beam steering angle of each antenna beam to a few degrees, yet aUow fuU coverage of th footprint area by the pluraUty of antennas. Two panels 910 and 911 at the end of each arm provide sol arrays on the side facing the sun and thermal radiators on the opposite side. These panels are deploye at an angle which is the optimal angle for both solar energy collection and thermal radiating for the su synchronous orbit in which the sateUite operates. The hinges H are spring loaded latching hinges. Onc released from their restraints, the panels 901-909, 910 and 911 deploy automaticaUy. The springs pus the panels apart, and the locking mechanism locks them into the correct deployment angle. The hinge on each panel which join that panel to the previous panel or sateUite body 896 and to the next panel ar offset from each other. The combination of offset angle and the hinge locking angle determines th deployment angle of each panel. For example, if the offset angle is 180 degrees and the locking angle i 90 degrees, the deployed wings would extend straight along the axis of the central body in a series o peφendicular panels. By changing the offset angle of the hinges, the panels can be deployed in an ar extending from each end of the central body such that each panel points at a different angle (azimuth an elevation) with respect to the earth. The flexible cables 912 may include optical fibers or copper wires, and connect the panels with each other and to the central body for passing control, data, power, etc. Since the preferred embodiment of the invention is deployed in a sun-synchronous orbit, there is an optimum deployment angle for solar arrays and thermal radiators. For example, in the terminator orbit (6 AM - 6 PM), a vertically oriented array will always have one face to the sun and one to cold space. A panel with solar coUection on one side and thermal radiators on the other can be deployed at one angle which is the optimal angle for both functions for the Ufe of the sateUite. In this design, the solar/thermal panels are the last panel(s) on the arms and are designed to be rotated about an axis parallel to the direction vector of the satelUte and latched to the angle correct angle. The solar array is stowed as a panel of the same diameter as the other panels for packing efficiency, but may include deployment mechanisms if the surface area required exceeds that of one or two panels. Although the preferred embodiment has been described as comprising the central body, nine antenna panels and two solar/thermal panels, additional smaU panels may used for intersateUite links. The antenna panels comprise multiple antenna facets, each capable of generating a single transmit or receive beam. Each beam can be steered ± 15" from its zenith in aU directions. Table One supplies the antenna deployment angles with respect to the satellite nadir. One panel points in the nadir direction, while the other eight antenna panels point in directions which are displaced 30° in elevation from the nadir and evenly spaced at 45 β increments in azimuth. Azimuth NA 22.5 02.5 67.5 247.5 112.5 292.5 157.5 337.5 NA 90 90 NA NA The values presented below the column labeled "Elevation" are angles measured in degrees with respe to the direction of the Nadir. 'Ihe values presented below the column labeled "Azimuth" are angl measured in degrees with respect to the direction of the Velocity Vector 802, as shown in Figures 77 a 78. Each of the embodiments of the invention, Domesat, Gearsat and Batsat may incoφorate tefl thrusters for precise altitude, attitude and position control. These thrusters use small pieces of a materi such as teflon as fuel. Extremely small amounts of the teflon are expelled from miniature nozzles, a the slight reactions of the spacecraft provide highly precise position control. System Communication Links Unlike prior conventional systems, the present invention utilizes a fast packet switch as an inp to the gateways. Another feature of the Satellite Communication System which distinguishes it fro earlier systems is that the control of calls is separated from the hardware that performs the call switchin functions. The satellite antennas 700 are divided into four subsystems. The first supports the links betwee the sateUite and mobile terminals (MTSLs) and links between the fixed terminals and satellites (FSLs Portable terminals, which include hand-held and mobile phones installed in vehicles, the term fixe terminals F refers to terminals that are installed in fixed locations like office buildings or residences. The may range from fixed terminals serving a single telephone to fixed terminals F providing up to 30 trunk serving groups of phones within a single building or in a rural town. In one embodiment of the invention the FT antenna system includes a steerable transmit antenna and a steerable receive antenna whic provide 30 dB of gain and 27 dB of gain, respectivety. These antennas automaticalfy track a fixe frequency pilot carrier tone from the sateUites. They are steerable over a 100 fuU angle cone. Antenna used on MTs have 18 dB of transmit gain and 15 dB of receive gain. MTSL data is transmitted at a burst data rate of 450 KBPS and a duty cycle of 6.25%. The uplin uses the 29.5 to 31 GHz band and the downlink uses the 19.7 to 21.2 GHz band. One-fourth DS- capacity (16 KBPS) is provided. The modulation format used is 8-PSK with 2/3 rate coding. Assumin a bandwidth efficiency factor of 1.5, each MTSL requires 0.28 MHz. Average terminal transmit powe is 16mW (0.26 W peak) and average sateUite transmit power is 12mW (0.19 W peak). Assuming a 51 bit packet, the beams would dweU on each ceU for 1.138 miUisecond (512 BPS/450 KBPS). Thus the come back to the same ceU every 23.111 miUiseconds (16 x 1.444 miUisecond). When a transmit beam switches to a ceU it sends a message saying, in effect, "beam on cell N" on a fixed beam identification frequency that all MTs monitor. The satelUte also sends any packets addressed to MTs in ceU N on the frequency assigned to that MT. Finally the satellite sends any paging requests on a fixed paging frequency that all MTs monitor. All of these transmissions occur simultaneously (FDMA). Active MTs can be in one of three modes: waiting for call, ready to initiate call, or call in progress. An MT waiting for calls monitors the paging channel and periodically sends a "Here I am" message in response to a "Beam on cell N" message on the fixed frequency assigned for this purpose. The "Here I am" message is short relative to a packet and the MT randomly selects one of the ten 100 microsecond slots from 0 to 1 milliseconds after the receipt of the "Beam on cell N" message to send the "Here I am" message. This minimizes the probability of collision. The "Here I am" message allows the system to update a database of the current location of PTs. An MT ready to initiate a call or an MT that has been paged responds to the "Beam on cell N" message by sending a "Request for assignment" message on the fixed frequency assigned to the calling channel. The "Request for assignment" message is short relative to a packet and the MT randomly selects one of the ten 100 microsecond slots from 0 to 1 milliseconds after the receipt of the "Beam on cell N" message to send the "Request for assignment". Tin ' s minimizes the probability of collision. After sending a "Request for assignment" message, the MT monitors the fixed frequency assignment channel for an assignment message. The assignment message tells the MT which satellite and cell to respond to, and which frequency to use. If an MT does receive an assignment within 40 msec of sending a request, it assumes that the request was blocked and re-requests. On the average it will take 120 msec to obtain an assignment. An MT in the caU in progress mode has already been assigned a cell number and frequency slot. When it receives the "Beam on cell N" message for its cell it transmits any packet it has waiting on the assigned frequency slot and receives any packet from the satellite on the assigned receive frequency slot. If the MT does not have a packet ready it transmits an empty packet. Whenever an MT in the "call in progress" mode sends a packet to the satellite it includes, in the header, information which can be used to identify the satelUte ID and ceU number from which it has received "Beam on cell N" messages and th channel (frequency) assigned as a result of the "Request for Assignment" message. This information i used by the destination terminal to address its packets to this terminal. Another option for receiving caUs is for the satellites to carry a VHF pager payload. The satellite would then page the terminal similarly to a conventional pager. The terminal user would then know t enable the terminal to receive his caU. The Fixed Terminal SateUite Unk is substantially similar to th MT/SatelUte Unk. Similar, but more powerful satellite antennas are used. The FSLs use a differen frequency aUocation and employ separate paging, calling, and assignment channels. The second antenna subsystem supports the Unks between the sateUites S and gateways G (GSLs) and includes eight electronicaUy steerable arrays pointed towards the Earth. The third antenna subsyste supports the links among the sateUites (ISLs), and includes of a band of electronically steerable antenna around the circumference of the sateUite. The fourth antenna subsystem consists of an Earth coverag antenna for the sateUite GSL, FTSL, and PTSL pilot tone. The gateways are the interfaces between th present invention and public telephone networks. They are dedicated fixed sites consisting of two antenn subsystems separated by 30 to 50 KM. The sites are connected by line-of-sight microwave or fiber opti links. This separation provides spatial diversity that virtually eliminates rain outages. Each gatewa antenna subsystem includes a steerable receive antenna and a steerable transmit antenna. 'Ihe receiv antenna provides 41 dB of gain and the transmit antenna provides 41 dB of gain. These antenna ar steerable over a 100 degree full angle cone. Figure 4 shows the basic design of a gateway terminal. Gateway terminals provide networ services such as billing, network database, administration, maintenance, and satellite operations. Ihe GS upUnk uses the 27.5 to 29.5 GHz band and the downlink uses the 17.7 to 19.7 GHz band. Ihe GSLs ar dedicated, and the consteUation supports all authorized GSLs on a continuous basis. The gatewa transmit antennas provide 45 dB of gain and autotrack the satellite pilot carrier signal. Gateway receiv antennas provide 42 dB of gain and also autotrack the pilot carrier signal. Satellite gateway antenna provide 41 dB of gain. The nominal uplink and downlink transmit powers are 0.48W and 0.36 continuous, respectively. The data rate is 170 MBPS with 32-CROSS modulation and rate 4/5 coding. The GSL channel density is 1 GSL channel 51 Mhz. Each satellite can support up to 8 GSLs simultaneously and each GSL can support up to 12 GSL channels. Ihe required frequency allocation is 612 Mhz. Spatial multiplexing allows all satellites to share the same allocation (100% reuse). 'Ihe satellites cooperatively assign each gateway to one of the satellites. Λ standard ISL link communication packet stream is used for this puφose and for reassignments as the satellite geometry changes. 'Ihe GSL is robust enough to support operation in high humidity (95% RII, 35 degrees C) environments with rain clouds and rain at the 99.9lh percentile for sub-tropical wet temperate continental areas region D2. Spatial diversity is used to virtually eliminate rain outages. Each Inter-sateUite Link (ISL) channel is 170 MBPS with 32-CROSS modulation and rate 4/5 coding. The channel density is 1 ISL channel/51 MHz. Each satellite can support up to 8 ISLs simultaneously and each ISL can support up to 12 duplex ISL channels. Thus the required frequency allocation is 1,224 MHz. Spatial diversity allows all satellites to share the same allocation (100% reuse). The ISL antennas provide 35 to 50 dB gain and autotrack. The nominal transmit power is 0.5 W. Th ISLs use the 59 to 64 GHz band. AU of the links utilize electronic power control of the RF transmitters to ensure that onfy th minimum amount of power necessary to carry out the desired communication is used. Thus minimu transmit power is used for unobstructed Unks and clear sky. Transmit power is increased to compensat for shadowing and rain. Table 1A: Frequency AUocation The RF bandwidth requirements are given by: Bandwidth/Channels Bandwidth Required 0.275 MHz 198 MHz 1.1 MHz 396 MHz 51 MHz 612 MHz 0.275 MHz 198 MHz 1.1 MHz 396 MHz 51 MHz 612 MHz ISL 24 51 MHz 1224 MHz The GSL and ISL bandwidth can be reused 100% from sateUite to sateUite because of the smaU antenna beamwidths. The MTSL and FTSL bandwidth can be re-used 100% from Earth fixed ceU 606 to Earth fixed ceU 606 because of the TDMA scanning pattern. CaU Handling Figure 5 provides a schematic fllustration that is commonly referred to as a "ping-pong" diagram in the telephone business. This figure represents the sequence of events which occur when a call is placed and handled by the present invention. Once a terminal has been assigned a communication channel as described previously, it sends a "Call Request" message to the satelUte S Λ which assigned it a channel. This satelUte forwards this message to one of a set of "Feature Processor" systems F which may be located on the ground or within another satellite. Included in the Call Request message is the identity of the terminal requesting to make the call T A and the identity of the called terminal T B . The Feature Processor communicates with one of a set of "Database" Processors (which may be located on the ground or in a sateUite node) to update the terminal's current location information and to obtain information including the services the terminal can use and the terminal's "Authentication" Key N A . The Feature Processor uses the terminal's Authentication Key N A to encrypt a 128-bit rando number N which is composed of two 64-bit fields, N κ (the Link key), and N R (the Response key). private key encryption and decryption Algorithm A can be used, such as the well-known DES standard The Feature Processor sends the encrypted number N E to the terminal. The terminal decrypts N E usin its own Authentication key N AT and Algorithm A at to derive the two 64-bit numbers N^ and N RT . It use the derived key N^ to encrypt N RT (using Algorithm A) and sends this to the Feature Processor. Th Feature Processor decrypts N RT using the previously derived key N κ and Algorithm A. If the resul matches the previously derived N R , this proves that the terminal possesses the correct Authentication Key, and the terminal is aUowed to use the system services. AU future packets transmitted by this termina during this caU are encrypted using the derived Key N κ (which is equal to N,..) and the Algorithm A. A similar process is used to validate and encrypt other system communication Unks. This method prevents the fraudulent use of system services and the "eavesdropping" on terminal-to-satellite links, both of which are serious problems in similar systems. FoUowing the authentication of the originating terminal T A , the Feature Processor interrogates a Database Processor to determine the last known location, Authentication Key, and Service Features of the called terminal T„ (if TB is a subscriber to this network), or the identity of the Gateway System serving T B (if T B is a subscriber of another network). Ihe Feature Processor uses the Autonomous Orbit Determination (AOD) algorithm to determine the identity of the Satellite S B currently serving the location of Terminal T B or the corresponding Gateway. The location information (referred to in Figure 5 as Routing Instructions) is returned to T Λ . Terminal T A sends a Call Setup Request packet to Satellite S B . Ihis packet identifies the called Terminal T B or associated Gateway G. If T„ is served by a Gateway, Satellite S B sends the Call Setup packet to the Gateway, which then completes the call setup to Terminal T B and returns the Connect packet to Terminal T A once T B has answered the call. If T B is not served by a Gateway, Satellite S B broadcasts a paging message to alert T B . Terminal T B responds to the page by sending a "Request for Assignment" message to Satellite S B as detailed previously. In a manner similar to that described for Terminal T A , SateUite S B assigns T B a communication channel, and initiates the Authentication and Link Encryption procedures using Feature Processor F. At the successful completion of these procedures, the Connect packet is returned to T A , and the connection is established. Packets transmitted between T A and T B contain a Node and Call Identifier field used to route the packet through the fast packet switch nodes to their destination. If the Node or Call Identifier associated with a Terminal changes during a caU, the new information is transmitted to the other Terminal in subsequent packets to prevent a disruption of the call. System Services In addition to offering basic voice service, the present invention will also be capable of carrying data. The system is designed to relay data for alarm and security services, telemetry services, facsimile and encryption. Like land-based networks, the satellite constellation will also have the ability to provide a broad spectrum of business services, including AIOD, FX, OPX, 800, and WATS. Subscribers wfll also be able to use the present invention as a Centrex service which connects related users in a virtual private exchange similar to conventional PBX service. The network disclosed in this appUcation wfll also support currentfy available phone company products, such as pay phone, free-of-charge emergency lines such as the 911 service offered in the United States, paging, calling party identification, caU forwarding, caU transfer, call trace, three-way calling, conference calling, and call pickup. Technical Specifications of a Preferred Embodiment Specific detafls and characteristics of the one of the preferred embodiments of the present invention are suppUed in the tables that foUow. These specifications are presented as particular examples which may be varied if alternative embodiments are employed to practice the invention. Those persons ordinarily skilled in the electronics and telecommunications arts wfll appreciate that this data is not intended to limit the scope of the invention, but, rather, provides a more comprehensive disclosure of design detafls. Table IB: Cells over land Table IC: Traffic Density Distribution Table 2: Calculation of Number of IntersateUite Links able 4: Fixed Terminal-SatelUte Link (FTSL) RF Plan Table 5: Gatewav-SateUite Link fGSL) RF Plan DOWNLINK 17.7 - 19.7 GHz RHCP 612 MHz 51 MHz 12 32-QAM SPATIAL 51M0D7D 0.355 W 2.3 W 44.1 dBW 54.9 dBW -114 dBW/m 2 394° K/504° K . 15.5/-14.5 dBPK Table 6: Inter-Satellite Link (ISL RF Plan LINK Table 7: MTSL Modulation Parameters Source Data Rate 18 KBPS Packet Efficiency 512/416 bits/source bit Packet Data Rate 22.254 KBPS Coding Rate 2/3 Coded Data Rate 33.231 KBPS Compression Factor 20.312 Burst Bit Rate 675 KBPS Modulation Efficiency 3 bits/Hz (8-PSK) Symbol Rate 225 KSPS Table 8: FTSL Modulation Parameters Source Data Rate 72 KBPS Packet Efficiency 512/416 bits/source bit Packet Data Rate 88.615 KBPS Coding Rate 2/3 Coded Data Rate 132.923 KBPS Compression Factor 20.312 Burst Bit Rate 2,700 KBPS Modulation Efficiency 3 bits/Hz (8-PSK) Symbol Rate 900 KSPS Table 9: GSL Modulation Parameters Source Data Rate 138.125 MBPS Packet Efficiency 512/416 bits/source bit Packet Data Rale 170 KBPS Coding Rate 4/5 Coded Data Rate 212.5 MBPS Modulation Efficiency 5 bits/Hz (32-QAM) Symbol Rate 42.5 MSPS Table 10: ISL Modulation Parameters Source Data Rate 138.125 MBPS Packet Efficiency 512/416 bits/source bit Packet Data Rate 170 KBPS Coding Rate 4/5 Coded Data Rate 212.5 MBPS Modulation Efficiency 5 bits/Hz (32-QAM) Symbol Rate 42.5 MSPS Spacecraft Position and Attitude Determination Each spacecraft in the constellation requires orbital position information about itself and other sateUites in the constellation. Each sateUite carries a navigation computer which 1000 that depicts a satellite S in low Earth orbit. The sateUite is capable of routing telephone caUs carrying voice, data, and video signals among ground stations 1006 and 1008 and other satelUtes 1002. The AOD software is used to calculate position information accurate to within 10km for a constellation of 840 satellites S orbiting at 700 km (435 miles). Although the preferred embodiment employs an orbital altitude of 700 km, the invention may utilize an altitude of from approximately 500 km to approximately 1000 km. The population of the consteUation may include one hundred or more satelUtes, which are deployed in at least eight orbital planes. In the preferred embodiment of the invention, each of the orbital planes is inclined to the equator at an angle of 98.2 degrees. This inclination angle may, however, vary from 65 to 125 degrees. The eccentricity of the orbits may extend from 0.001 to 0.005. The packets 422 that are transmitted and received by the satelUtes S include headers 424 which hold address information that enables switching circuitry 438 aboard each spacecraft to route the packet to its proper destination. The header 424 includes time and frequency information that is used by a microprocessor called an orbit determination processor aboard each satellite to generate an inter-satellite almanac packet. Unlike communications packets 422 which are constantly relayed among spacecraft in the system to their final destinations on the ground, inter-satellite almanac packets are broadcast among the entire consteUation at least once every day. These inter-satellite packets contain an almanac message that contains information which is used to calculate orbital position. Ranges between satellites and ground stations can be computed using a pseudo-range algorithm that converts time differences into distances. Two satellites, A and B, each broadcast packets that include a time-tag of the time of transmission. The microprocessors onboard each spacecraft also measure the arrival times of the packets 422. These measurements are then exchanged between satellites. The average of the two measurements is a measure of the range between the two satellites. Alternatively, a satellite can send a package to its neighbors which is addressed back to itself. By measuring the time it takes for the word to return, the range to the adjacent satellite is computed. Alternatively, Doppler shifts 1010 can be measured instead of differences in time. This measurement is made from signals called "pilot tones" which are broadcast by the satellites to steer the antenna beams that transmit the call traffic to ground stations. This alternative measurement process is independent of satellite data links. Ihe measurements of the satellite Doppler shifts observe the range-rate between the satellites. Figure 80 is a block diagram 1012 that illustrates the functional relationships among the autonomous orbit determination algorithm, time and frequency measurements 1014 that are used as inputs, and related hardware including radio determination satellite service (RDSS) circuitry 1020, satellite guidance and control systems 818, communication circuitry 1022, and antenna control systems 1024. Figure 81 is a block diagram that reveals details of position determination circuitry 1026. Λ communication Unk 1028 conveys information to a demodulation stage 1030, which forwards information about the time of perception of packets 1040 to a time and frequency synchronization stage 1042. A frequency synthesizer 1032 is coupled to the data demodulation stage 1030 and to a phase locked loop stage 1036. The frequency synthesizer 1032 is also coupled to an oscillator 1034. The phase locked loo stage 1036 and an antenna control stage 1024 receive pilot tones 1038 as inputs. The phase locked loo stage 1036 measures Doppler shifts 1044, while the antenna control stage 1024 determines correct antenn pointing directions 1048. The Doppler measurements 1044 serve as inputs to an autonomous orbi determination processor 1046. The pointing directions 1048 are used for attitude determination 1050. Figure 82 is a schematic diagram 1052 showing a satellite S in orbit communicating with a gatewa G. The figure illustrates the calculation of attitude information computed by the spacecraft. The AO methods not only provide position information which is used to select optimal pathways for routin communications traffic, but also supplies output that is utilized for spacecraft guidance and control an inter-sateUite antenna steering and generates pseudo-ranging packets for highly accurate radi determination satelUte service (RDSS). Traffic Routing Switching circuits about each satellite in the constellation transport packets of data through a low Earth orbit sateUite network. Each satellite furnishes inteUigent and autonomous on-board switching capabUities and provides synchronous, circuit-switched communication services with uniform end-to-end transmission delays. The routing methods implemented on the switching hardware manage the sateUite communication Unks between the origin and destination of telephone calls which convey voice, data, or video information. The spaceborne switches are capable of selecting the best series of connections from a terrestrial gateway or terminal up through a satellite constellation and back down to Earth. The pathway that is selected for a particular call must be highly adaptive and able to change rapidly in response to the constantly changing geometry of the low Earth orbit consteUation. Based upon inputs from the position determination algorithms that define the length of each link in the system, the methods implemented by the present invention determine the optimal route for each transmission from each sateUite and also estabUshes the most efficient distribution pattern of traffic throughout the system. One of the preferred embodiments of the traffic routing invention comprises an asynchronous fast packet switched network in which the user bits are collected synchronously but transported in packets having a variable transmission delays. The network employs datagram switching, as opposed to conventional virtual circuit switching techniques. Packets associated with the a single phone caU do not necessarily travel along the same route, and consequently arrive at their common destinations at different times. Any re-ordering of packets that arrive due to variations in transit delays are re-sequenced by circuitry that resides at the destination node. The network's switching nodes are located aboard the sateUites, which are constantly moving relative to each other. This continuous motion causes the propagation delays along the Unks to vary peφetuaUy. As satellites of the constellation move in their different orbits, the set of sateUites visible from any network element, such as a satellite, gateway or user terminal, constantly changes. A satellite that is visible from a gateway at some particular time may not be visible a few minutes later, and a previously invisible satellite may then appear. The underlying network "topology", which is defined as the interconnection geometry among the network elements experiences constant change. Hardware and software that are collectively called the "router" must continuously adapt to the changing topology. The time varying network topology is irregular, unli conventional regular networks that utilize ring, cube, or star topologies. The present invention uses arbitrary mesh configuration. The network topology also changes when new satellites are deployed, wh the useful lives of old sateUites come to an end, or when sateUite and Unk failures occur. The traf intensity or "load" on links changes randomly due to normal traffic fluctuations. These load changes le to variable link queuing delays in addition to variable link propagation delays. "News" of events in o portion of the network does not reach all nodes simultaneously, requiring the router to make decisio with imperfect information. The traffic routing switches overcome the limitations encountered by conventional pac switching using virtual circuits. The present invention utilizes a "datagram" approach that routes ev packet conveyed by the system independently at every node in the network. Ihe packets are direct along an optimized pathway through the network by a fast packet switch that directs traffic based instructions from a microprocessor that continuously runs an adaptive routing algorithm. T microprocessor uses orbital position information generated aboard each spacecraft to monitor the rapi changing topology of the consteUation and the distribution of traffic among its nodes and links. In general, the hardware that is responsible for traffic routing comprises a self-routing fast pack switch, an input packet processor, a routing cache memory, and an adaptive routing processor. The inp packet processor functions like a gatekeeper or guide that extracts the destination node address from ea packet and uses it to access routing information stored in the routing cache memory. The adapti routing processor constantfy updates the routing cache memory so each satelUte has an accura "knowledge" of the whereabouts of all its neighbors, and of the expected packet delay from adjacent nod to aU possible destination nodes. Based upon this position and expected delay information, the adapti routing processor selects the best pathway from a particular sateUite to a single neighboring sateUite, a the packet is then moved through internal switch circuitry onboard the sateUite on its way to oth spacecraft in its journey to some eventual destination on Earth. The present invention optimizes t utilization of the network facilities and minimizes transmission delays and variances of transmission delay By precalculating the optimal route for each packet one step at a time at each satellite, the amount time required to process individual packets is greatly reduced. The Traffic Routing Environment Although one of the preferred embodiments of the Satellite Communication System comprises sets of 40 spacecraft traveUng in 21 separate orbital planes, the discussion of the traffic routing portio of the invention assumes a sateUite consteUation comprising 336 satellites traveling in 21 orbits with 1 sateUites in each orbit. The satellite altitude is fixed at 700km (435 miles). The relatively large numbe of sateUites in the various preferred embodiments of the constellation were selected to provide continuo coverage of the Earth's surface at high angles of radiation with respect to the Earth's surface, th avoiding foUage, terrain, and minimizing the length of the signal's passage through rain. Each of th individual 336 spacecraft functions as a sovereign switch which knows the position of its neighbors, an independently handles traffic without ground control. The satellites are capable of tranφorting calls t miUions of customers using portable mobile and fixed residential and business terminals, and gateways t pubUc phone networks. The consteUation uses the 20 and 30 Ghz frequency bands for communication between Earth and the consteUation, and the 60 Ghz band for communicating among the sateUites. Th use of these extremely high frequencies aUows for the use of relatively low power, miniaturized antenn components both on the ground and aboard the satelUtes. The entire consteUation is designed to serv over twenty mflh'on subscribers and 60,000 fuU time DS-0 (64kbps) circuits. The sateUites wfll be couple to traditional pubUc and private phone systems on the ground through gateways which each utiliz relatively large antennas and handle large volumes of caU traffic. In the preferred embodiment of th invention, this interface between the terrestrial systems gateway and the terrestrial network is based o current standard ISDN interfaces to preserve compatibility. UnUke presently available cellular system which relay calls to subscribers from local radio towers, the present invention offers direct communicatio between the sateUites of the consteUation and individuals using lightweight portable mobile and fixed telephones. One of the important inputs to the fast packet switch circuitry is a continuous stream of orbital position information which is generated aboard each sateUite by a navigation computer running Autonomous Orbit Determination algorithms (AOD). The AODs compute ephemeris parameters for each sateUite. These parameters are broadcast to every sateUite in the constellation, so that aU the spacecraft "know" their own positions and the position of every other sateUite in the network. One embodiment of the AOD algorithms employs an inter-sateUite ranging algorithm that calculates distances between spacecraft by measuring time delays that are inherent in fast-packet switching transmissions. A second embodiment of the AOD software incorporates an algorithm which fixes spacecraft position by computing differences in Doppler shifts of sateUite transmissions. A third version uses known location fixed Earth reference stations to determine position. Once the orbital position information is generated, it is used as an input to an adaptive routing processor which runs an adaptive routing algorithm (ARA). The ARA constantty monitors the changing locations of aU the spacecraft in the network, and also keeps track of communications traffic congestion among the links and nodes of the system. The adaptive routing processor produces an output caUed"Next-node-in-path-to-destination". As the name impUes, this output contains information and provides instructions for moving communications data through the network one node at a time. The Traffic Router The SateUite Communication System (SCS) wfll provide its end users with synchronous circuit switched communication services. Users at a portable P or fixed F terminal or gateway G will receive sequential deliveries of user "bits" regardless of their meaning with uniform end-to-end transmission delays. The SCS network is an asynchronous fast packet switched network in which the user bits are collected synchronously but transported in packets having a variable transmission delay. The efficiency of the network is achieved by employing "datagram" switching, as opposed to virtual circuit switching. Since one phone call may comprise many individually routed packets which may take different routes to reach a common destination, the network must include software and hardware systems which account for out-of- sequence arrivals of packets and for variations in packet delays. Figure 83 presents a block diagram whic fllustrates the node hardware architecture 1100 employed by the present invention. A common contr stage 1102 aboard each spacecraft is capable of conveying internode messages 1104 and 1106 to receiver 1108 and transmitters 1110 which communicate with the other sateUites S in the constellation. Th common control stage 1102 is also Unked to a fast packet switch 438. The link control process 1112 is summarized in Figure 84, while the routing process 1114 i illustrated in the flow diagram shown in Figure 85. Service demand 1116 from subscribers 1118 situate around the world prompt the routing algorithm 416 to determine optimum pathways for call traffic usin routing tables 1120 and other local processes 1122. Figure 86 exhibits the dynamic packet routing metho 1124. The router 1126 uses entries stored in routing tables 1120 to instruct packet routers 1128 how t process packets 422 to a sorting network 1130 and associated transmitters 1132. Three disparate rates o diffusion 1134, 1136 and 1138 for routing information diffusing through the constellation are pictured i Figures 87, 88 and 89. A block diagram of an output module 1140 is revealed in Figure 90, the detail of the packet router 1128 are displayed in Figure 91, and Figure 92 supplies an enhanced view of th switching architecture 1142. Figure 93 reveals the structure of packets 422 which are conveyed through the network. A packets 422 conveyed through the network are 512 bits long. The first portion of the packet is a heade 424 comprising 80 bits. The header 424 is a coUection of control fields that define the packet priority an type, and contain routing information. A routing field within the header 424 includes a destination fiel that contains a destination node and a specific call/delivery identification within the destination node. 416 bit payload and a 16 bit cycUc redundancy check (CRC) accompany the header. The payload 42 carries the substance of the message which the packet transports, and the CRC is used to detect errors. The structure recited above is used as a basis for all of the discussion and examples which appear in thi document. For 150 Mbit links among the nodes of the network, the transmission time for a 512 bit packet is 512 7 = =3.4l3microseconds ' 150,000,000 The discussions and examples which follow are also founded upon the presumption that all the circuits that are employed are type DS0 circuits, which include a 64 Kb channel, and an associated 8K data channel. Since each packet off loads 416 bits at a time and the DS0 can handle a total of 72Kb per second, a DS0 generates — '- =17 .017 packets per second 416 or one packet every 5.777 milliseconds: 416 =5.777 milliseconds 72,000 Each sateUite consteUation is a switching node which is treated equaUy as an independent an sovereign member of the network. Since each sateUite is constantty moving relative to aU the othe sateUites in the network, the broadcast links, and, therefore, the propagation delays of the packets, als vary. As the sateUites move in their orbits, the group of sateUites which is visible from any other sateUite gateway or terminal at any given time is constantty changing. A sateUite that is visible from a gateway at a particular time may not be visible a few minutes later, and a previously invisible sateUite may come into view within the same few minutes. The underlying network topology, which embodies the interconnection geometry among the network elements, changes continuously, and requires the router to continuously adapt to the changing topology. The time varying network topology is irregular, as opposed to the regular topology of a ring, cube or star, and represents an arbitrary mesh configuration. The network topology also changes when new satelUtes are deployed, when the useful life of some members of the original consteUation come to an end, or when sateUite or Unk failures occur. The traffic load or intensity on Unks changes randomly due to normal traffic statistics fluctuations and varying call patterns. These load changes lead to variable Unk queuing delays, in addition to variable link propagation delays. Because "news" occurring in one portion of the network does not reach all the nodes in the network simultaneously, the router must make decisions based upon imperfect information. The deficiencies of the information that is available to the router are caused by both a lack of correctness and the tardiness. Distributed routing Packets 422 generated at traffic sources are switched through the network in a store-and-forward fashion. The router 1128 at each hop forwards the packet to the next hop, minimizing the packet end-to- end delay which the packet experiences in its trip from the source to the destination. The decision of how to forward a packet 422 is determined by each hop independently with no a-priori or static route determination. Routing decisions are based on the latest information available to the router al the switching hop, and reflect dynamic global network considerations as weU as the local node considerations. In the one of the preferred embodiments, both satellites S and gateways G possess routing capabilities, so the term "node" is used to refer both to sateUites and to gateways. A gateway is treated simply as a stationary satellite. The term "routing" not only includes the process of directing each packet at each node, but embraces the related operations of controlling traffic flow, overloads and congestion; and optimizing traffic distribution. The router considers data collected locally from the router itself, as well as from other local sources such as the topology manager. Routing data is also received from peer routers located at neighboring nodes. Inter-node message communication is facilitated by the node Message Transport System (MTS). The router forms its local "view of the world" from this information, and shares it with local processes and peers in neighboring nodes. One of the key characteristics of the present invention relates to the method that a router in each node employs to exchange information with its neighboring peers. This exchange permits a node to learn the specific status of its neighbors and its neighbors' views of the rest of the network. Each node can influence or even coerce its neighbors to factor the local node's state into their own actions. The node can then deduce and construct a local routing strategy consistent with the rest of the network, and can also participate in influencing the overall distributed network routin strategy. The final distributed strategy results from the joint cooperation of all nodes. This "self organizing" approach is accompUshed subject to the following objectives: 1. Interaction is permitted only among immediate neighbors. If each of the N network node has an average of K neighbors, the total number of "pair-wise" interactions is on the order of K* instead of the astronomical N*(N-1) pairs of interactions. 2. The routing strategy deduced independently by each node must be correct and consisten throughout the network. In normal operation no routing loops may be created. Major failur events however may lead to temporary but detectable and recoverable routing loops. 3. Minimum end-to-end packet dehVery delay must be assured. The optimal performance of th entire network is judged based on both local and global network considerations. 4. The network is configured to permit fuU routing connectivity so that any node n can optimall communicate with any other node x. 5. Alternate routes are created whenever possible. 6. The network must be adaptive to changes in network load and traffic patterns, and be capabl of functioning in an arbitrary network topology. 7. The network must maintain the highest levels asynchronous and time- independent behavior The network always "tries" to do the best job at any given time with the information and node that are currentfy available. 8. The entire system is self-initializing, and is capable of automaticaUy learning about previously unknown nodes. Some of the essential parameters of one of the preferred embodiments of the invention are described in Tables 12 and 13. Table 12: The SateUite ConsteUation SateUite Altitude 700 km Orbital Inclination 70 degrees Elevation Mask Angle 15 degrees Intra-orbit Overlap Ratio 0.2238 Band Overlap Ratio 0.1249 Table 13: SateUite Deployment Orbits 21 SateUites per Orbit 16 Total SateUites 336 Both Tables 12 and 13 are refer only to the discussion contained in the section of the specification entitled "Traffic Routing". Estimating Packet Delays The router in each node n maintains a local estimate of the delay to any other node x for each of its output Unks 1, 2.....L. The delay from n to x over Unk I is given by: Algorithm 1: D(n, x, 1) = Tp(l) + Tq(l) + ND1(1*, x) Tp(l) is the current propagation delay of link 1 connecting local node n to the neighbor node terminating 1 at its remote edge. This neighbor is designated 1* (the symbol * is used to mean "the successor of)". Tp(l) varies with time as the distance between n and 1* changes with sateUite movement. The node link manager periodically updates the value of TpQ) for each link. It is the node positioning capabflity which actually performs the physical measurements of Tp(l). Tq(l) is the current link queuing delay consisting of two components, Tb and Ts. Tb represents the time spent by a packet in the buffer waiting for aU the packets ahead of it to be transmitted. Ts is the actual packet transmission time once it gets to the queue head (caUed the service time). Ts is a function of the packet length and the link transmission bandwidth. Clearly Tb, and therefore Tq, increase as the link load increases. An important fact to realize, however, is that the higher the Unk bandwidth, the wider the range of the semi-linear dependency of Tq on the offered traffic load. The functional behavior of Tq is described by the following expression: Tq ~ k (link_bw - exerted Joad) Until the exerted load approaches the link bandwidth, Tq is about constant, but beyond this point, Tq is exponential. This behavior is a direct consequence of the law of large numbers which, when applied in this context, suggests that scaling up both the link bandwidth (service capacity) and the traffic load by the same factor results in a decrease of Tq by the same factor. Because of the very high capacity of the 150 Mbit the links, the links between the nodes in the network can be used very efficiently and at loads approaching 100% of the total Unk bandwidth. Because the value of Tq may change very rapidly, its value is measured by hardware which tracks the link transmit buffer size. This monitoring circuitry provides an instantaneous measured value of Tq. The variable ND(1*, x) is the delay reported by neighbor 1* to n stating the least delay from itself (from neighbor node 1*) to destination node x. The router in n maintains a table ND1(1*, x) for each of its Unks, and reflects the most recent delay reported by neighbor 1* to each destination x. The terms Tp and Tq are derived by node n from local information, whereas the term NDl(l*,x) represents the distributed term. From the routers' viewpoint, if load control issues are ignored, the optimal Unk from n to destination node x is that Unk 1 for which D(n, x, I) is lowest. The actual link used by n to forward packets to x is not always the optimal Unk. If objectives concerning traffic load distribution are factored into the decision, another Unk may be chosen. The Information Sent By A Node To Its Neighbors The routing process in each sateUite based node n (but not a gateway based node) sends routing data to each of its neighbors, including to its gateway neighbor nodes periodically. The routing data is refreshed about every 50 milliseconds. In additional to the regular updates every 50 msec, routing data is transmitted when a local event has been detected by the local router affecting its own routing tables; upon receiving information from a neighbor transforming the local routing tables in a way that might possibly affect other nodes; and upon a request by another local process, such as the topology manager when detecting certain events affecting the router. The routing message is transported by the Messag Transport System (MTS), and is sent by local node n to one of its neighbors 1* (1 = 1, 2, ..., L). Thi message is caUed the delay vector. It lists each node x known to n and the current minimum dela estimate D(n, x) from n to x: Table 14: The Delay Vector Node D(n. x) 1 D(n, 1) 2 D(n, 2) D(n, x) N D(n, N) Some entries D(n, x) in the delay vector are not really the true delay from n to x. A Unk 1 may be in one of the foUowing states: SI logically disconnected; S4 disconnect in progress; or S5 normal information exchange. These state names are borrowed from the X25 protocol and have similar meanings. Generating the Transmission Delay Vector If a link 1 is not in either state S4 or S5, the neighbor 1* is ignored and a delay vector is not sent to it. Given n, x, and 1, the value D(n, x) (an entry in the delay vector sent by n over link 1 to neighbor 1*) is set by the router of sending node n using a Transmission Delay Vector comprising the following steps: 1. Select next destination node x. 2. If aU values of x are processed, go to Step 9. 3. Use Algorithm 1, above, for each link 1 of n to find that link which currently yields the least D(π, x, 1) to x. Call that link optjink. If n can not reach x over any link, set opt ink to NULL. 4. If n is equal to x, set D(n, x) to 0 to reflect the delay from n to itself. 5. Otherwise, if optjink is NULL, then set D(n, x) to infinity to signify that x can not be reached from n (infinite delay). 6. Otherwise, if opt_link is the same as link 1, the link over which the delay vector is about to be sent to neighbor 1*, then set D(n, x) to infinity. This step helps to avoid routing loops. The router signals to 1* that it should avoid using n for reaching x because either x is not reachabl at aU from n (step 3 above) or that n is currently using I* for reaching x. 7. Otherwise, set D(n, x) to D(n, x, optjink). 8. Repeat Step 1. 9. Send the delay vector to neighbor 1*. 10. If Transmission Delay Vector was triggered by the periodic vector, then send process schedul in the next transmission. (This step may be different if the Transmission Delay Vector wa triggered by an urgent send request, as is described below.) Processing Received Delay Vectors Although each link is treated as a simplex Unk, the topology manager, in organizing the networ topology, assures that if a link exists from node x to node y (x transmitting, y receiving) one wfll also b estabUshed from y to x. Multiple Unks may exist between the same pair of nodes. Thus if a delay vecto is received by node n over the simplex input link 1 (from neighbor 1*), a complement output Unk als exists from n to 1*. The input link over which node n (sateUite or gateway) receives a delay vector i referred to by the symbol U. Link lo is its complement output link. The vector contains as many entries in it as nodes reachable by reporting node U*. Each entry ND(1*, x) in the vector is the delay from neighbor 1* to node x. Upon receiving a delay vector, the local router updates table NDlo(U*,x), and deduces any impb ' ed changes. Delay vectors sent subsequently by the router to its neighbors wfll reflect these changes. If a delay vector is received over an input Unk having no associated complement output link, the message is ignored and discarded. This transient condition may arise during a link disconnect procedure, which is discussed below. Otherwise, each vector entry is processed as using a Process Reception Delay Vector comprising the foUowing steps: 1. Set variable optjinkjchanges = 0. 2. If aU entries are processed, skip to step 17. 3. If x is the same as 1*, then set table entry NDlo(li*, U*) = 0. 4. Otherwise, if x is the same as n, then set table entry NDIo(U*, n)= 0. 5. Otherwise, if ND(U*, x) is the same as that reported in the previous vector, that is NDlo(li*, x)= ND(li*, x), return to step 2. 6. Set NDIoøi*, x) = ND(U*, x). 7. Set oId_opt_link(x) to be the optimal Unk used to reach x from n up to now. 8. Use Algorithm 1 to compute old_delay(x), which is the delay estimate from n to x with the old parameters. 9. Use Algorithm 1 for each Unk 1 of n to compute new opt Jink(x): the new optimal link to x factoring in the new parameters. 10. Use Algorithm 1 to compute new_delay(x), which is the delay estimate from n to x with the new parameters. 11. If πew_optJink(x) is the same as old_optJink(x), then return to step 2. The delay to x may have changed (up or down), but not enough to cause the optimal link to x to switch. 12. Increment variable opt_Unk_changes. 13. If old_opt_Unk(x) is NULL and new opt Unk(x) is not NULL, decide that node x is a ne node which can now be reached from n via link lo. Enter new x into the routing tables. 14. Otherwise, if old_opt_link(x) is not NULL and new_opt Jink(x) is NULL, decide that x ha been detached from the net and is no longer reachable from n. Remove x from the routin tables. This conclusion may be premature in the event of a major failure but in that cas condition 13 above will occur as soon as the network performs adaptation. 15. Otherwise, if old optjink(x) is not NULL and new opt link(x) is not NULL, decide that i old_delay(x) is now very high (more than the maximum allowable transmission echo delay of 10 msec), the switch occurred because x is no longer reachable from n via old_optJink(x), bu new_optJink(x) provides a good alternate route. This event may occur routinely when th network adapts to local or global changes in the network topology. In some cases, the switc occurs because new_optJink(x) provides a lower delay compared to old_optJink(x). In this case old_opt_link(x) may become an alternate route to x. 16. Return to step 2. 17. If opt_Unk_changes are greater than zero, urgently send the latest delay vector to eac neighbor to supply the latest changes. Network Adaptation Through Information Diffusion Phase 1: Topology Adaptation When Algorithm 1 begins running within a given node, that particular node has no information about any other nodes in the network. The first delay vector received from one of its neighbors introduces n to that neighbor alone, since that neighbor itself knows only of itself as well. After a short time, each node recognizes aU of its neighbors roughly within an amount of time that is approximately equal to the Tp of the link interconnecting the two neighbors. In the second "wave" of information the level of "node awareness" increases, and each neighbor g of n will report about g's neighbors, which are one or two hops away from n. Since each encounter with a new node x triggers n to urgently send the news (Process Reception Delay Vector, step 17) to its neighbors, a diffusion process is initiated, in which every node n in the network eventually learns of any other node x. Each node learns that x exists, the best way to reach node x and a first order estimate of the delay from n to x. Any subsequent topological change resulting from nodes (satelUtes or gateways) or links being added or removed also triggers a diffusion and topology adaptation process. Phase 2: Minimum Delay Adaptation Although each node has learned some information during the Topology Adaption phase, the adaptation process continues until each node n knows the best way to route packets to each destination x, i.e., how to route packets to achieve absolute minimum end-to-end delays. The Minimum Delay Adaptation Phase is complete when no further optimal link switches occur anywhere in the network. When optimal Unks are set and do not change, all nodes have jointly agreed on a consistent global solution for routing. This distributed solution is optimal, and though the solution is not necessari unique, it guarantees that no better solution exists. Ongoing Adaptation In the normal course of operation, the Unk queuing delay, Tq, may change as a result of traffi load variations. The Unk propagation delay, Tp, varies as weU, since the many nodes keep moving wit respect to each other. The value of Tp is sampled periodicaUy, while the value of Tq is sampled by th local router just prior to the transmission of a new delay vector. The packet switch uses the instantaneou value of Tq which is measured by hardware. A change in Tq or Tp of link 1 of node n affects the dela value D(n, x, 1) as computed by Algorithm 1 (the delay may increase or decrease). If 1 is an optimal lin for some destination node x, then the delay change may also lead to a local switch in the optimal lin opt Jinkfx). AU delay vectors sent subsequently wfll reflect these changes, informing the neighbors of th local changes. Even a smaU change in D(n, x, 1), which may not even lead to a local optimal Unk switc (just a change in the delay value), may trigger a switch in some neighbors, which, in turn, may lead to switch in their own neighbors. As a consequence, a smaU change in one portion of the network ma trigger a diffusion and adaptation process that spans the entire network. The changes in the neighbors o n may, in turn, be reflected back to n to trigger more changes in n. These changes may include optimal Unk switching, which wfll again be foUowed by reflections back to neighbors. In most cases, because Tp is sampled frequently and because Tq may vary rapidly during heavy traffic load conditions, the effects of one local change may not have had a chance to settle down throughout the network before another local change occurs and a new diffusion and adaptation process is triggered. Adaptation Rate The nature of the diffusion process is random and very complex. Each node triggers diffusion waves which result from local conditions. Nodes are also influenced by waves of information originating in other nodes. Since nodes are not evenly spaced and their response to newly arrived information occurs at non deterministic times (which depend upon the node internal processing conditions, process scheduling priorities, etc.), the waves of information do not propagate uniformly about the center of the original cause. The propagation delay of an event/cause triggered in some node n to another remote node x depends primarily on two factors: the number of hops between the two, since each intervening hop processes the information and then broadcasts its resultant delay vectors in aU directions (including the relative backward direction); and the message transmission times which themselves are determined by links propagation delays and the message system queuing delay. The diffusion process may generate an avalanche of messages, which are each multiplied when they are received by a node. To limit the memory requirements, a windowing scheme is employed in which messages available for transmission are simply dropped if the window is full. In addition to lowering the amount of message system memory required (to buffer messages), this limitation assures, to the greatest extent possible, that only the latest news is transmitted. In the worst case, news will be transmitted during the periodic vector transmission cycle. It is possible that in heavy message communications loads a node x just one hop away from n (a neighbor) will receive its information fro n through another node before receiving the information directly from n. Diffusion Simulation Results Computer simulations performed by the inventor indicate that using a small window of size 1 a starting in a state in which no node knows of any other node, Phase 1 (diffusion of aU the topolo information) is complete in about 138 milliseconds. Phase 2 (formation of an optimal minimum del network) is complete in about 292 msec. The window size has a small effect on the adaptation tim Increasing the window size to 4 decreases the adaptation time by about ten percent. In the simulatio Tp is sampled every 50 msec and the periodic delay vector transmission process operates every 50 mse This causes new routing information to be generated before it has a chance to be fully diffused into t network. As a result, the distributed adaptation hunts for the optimal solution continuously and nev has a chance to settle down. Packet Switching Figure 94 is a flow chart which demonstrates the general flow of signals 144 through the fa packet switch 438. Figure 95 reveals the overall architecture of the satelUte node 1146 as it relates to t packet switching process. The relationship among the fast packet switch 438 and Input Output Pack processor (IOP) units 1150 are iUustrated in Figure 96. Figures 97 and 98 reveal the detafls of the inp packet processor (IPP) 1152 and IPP common control 1154, and an IPP four stage pipleUne 1158 is show in Figure 99. Figure 100 is a flow chart that explains the general process performed by an IPP Optim Route ControUer 1160. Message communication 1162 within the switching hardware is revealed in Figu 101. Messages are conveyed on a Fiber Distributed Data Interface Token Ring (FDDI) 1127 in Figur 102 exhibits the pathways within a 128 x 128 switch 1164, while Figure 103 is a schematic diagram of switching ceU 1166. Packets 422 are received from mobile and fixed terminals located under the sateUite footprint vi Mobile Terminal-SateUite Links (MTSLs) and Fixed Terminal-SatelUte Links (FTSLs); gateways used f bringing in traffic from caUs originating or terminating on the public network via Gateway to Satellit Links (GSLs); and other satelUtes via the InterSateUite Links (ISLs). Packets 422 are grouped in tw categories, those carrying user data comprising voice, video, digital data, etc.; and those carrying contr messages that are used in network administration and control functions. The Fast Packet Switch (FPS is responsible for switching each incoming packet to its appropriate destination. Packets can be switche to sateUites, gateways and terminals. Those destined for other satellites are transported over ISL outpu links. Packets passing through satellite nodes on their way to their final destinations may contain use data or control messages. Packets directed to a gateway using a GSL output Unk may also carry user dat or control messages. If the packet type is user data, the call associated with the packet originates o terminates on the public network. If the packet conveys a control message, it terminates at the gatewa node common control. Mobile and fixed terminals can communicate directly with satellites in orbi Mobile terminal to satellite links can convey packets at 16Kb per second. Two Kb of the 16Kb MTS capacity is reserved for a 2 Kb data channel. Fixed terminal to sateUite Unks are 64Kb channels, of whic 8Kb is reserved for data. Packets traveling to mobile and fixed terminals include user data packets th carry voice messages, and control message packets bearing caU control information. Packets may also b delivered to a node Message Transport System (MTS) if the packet type is a control message. Packet Switching and Delay Variance Packet Routing And Link Load Distribution The Fast Packet Switch utflizes the router to select the currently optimal output Unk from a loca node to a destination node x. The output link is selected anew for each received packet, based o decision factors offered by the router's recommendation, as computed by D(n, x, 1), and by instantaneou link load factors. Instead of Umiting the choice to using onfy the absolute optimal Unk, namefy, that 1 fo which D(n, x, 1) is lowest, the FPS may use links having delays that are fairly close to the optimal delay but which have loads Tq that are lower than that of the optimal link. The parameter Delta defines th term "fairly close". In the simulation of one of the preferred embodiments of the invention, Delta is 50 microseconds. The maximum value of Delta must be significantly lower than the inter-packet generation time or the sequencing of packets may be impaired. This method of selecting the output link provides automatic link load distribution as well as some degree of Unk overload control. The method of the invention comprises the following steps: 1. Find the link 1 whose delay D(n, x, 1) is lowest. Call that delay Dmin(n, x). 2. Mark aU candidate links I having delay D(n, x, I) <= Dmin(n, x) + Delta. A link in this set yields a delay of at most Dmin(n, x) + Delta. 3. From among the candidate links, select the one currentfy having the lowest Tq. a. Setting Delta to 0 constrains the router to consider onfy the optimal Unk and other Unks having the exact same delay. b. Increasing Delta increases the degree of load distribution, but only at the expense of also increasing the variance in the packet transmission delay. Using sub-optimal Unks can cause packets to be routed along paths which do not provide absolute minimum delay, but which help meet load distribution objectives. c. The (short term) worst case packet delay occurs when the packet happens to be switched over the worse sub-optimal Unk at each hop along the route and each such sub- optimal link happens to increase the delay by a full Delta above the optimal. With Delta set to 50 microseconds, load distribution will contribute at most .5 msec in delay variance to a very long 10 hop circuit, which is still quite low. d. The best case occurs when the packet is routed over the optimal link at each hop. e. The load distribution process is but a single component contributing to the total variance which is also influenced by normal statistical traffic patterns and intensity fluctuations; continuous changes in Tp due to satellite movement; and topological changes resulting from link disconnects which result from loss of neighbor visibility, and new Unk connects that replace disconnected links. These topological changes may cause the delay to increase or decrease abruptly by as much as several miUiseconds. The greater the number of satellites in the consteUation, the lower the change in delays. To select the packet output link, D(n, x, 1) is computed by using routing tables ND1(1*, x), and the current values of Tp and Tq of each Unk. The value of Tq is a linear function of the number of bits or packets waiting to be transmitted in the output link transmitter buffer. This buffer operates on a first in, first out basis (FIFO). Tp is the latest sampled value and is measured periodically. Once the output link has been selected, its binary identification number is inserted into an N bit tag in front of the packet that is used by the FPS in navigating the packet through its internal switching stages to the selected output Unk. If the FPS has a total of L output Unks, then the value of N is equal to the upper bound of log2L. Ttag bit i controls switching stage i. CONCLUSION Although the present invention has been described in detail with reference to a particular preferred embodiment, persons possessing ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains will appreciate that various modifications and enhancements may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the claims that follow. The various orbital parameters and satelUte population and configuration statistics that have been disclosed above are intended to educate the reader about one preferred embodiment, and are not intended to constrain the limits of the invention or the scope of the claims. The List of Reference Characters which follows is intended to provide the reader with a convenient means of identifying elements of the invention in the specification and drawings. This list is not intended to delineate or narrow the scope of the claims. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The SateUite Communication System described above overcomes the limits that circumscribe the performance and potential of existing telephone systems. The present invention is capable of offering continuous voice, data and video service to customers across the globe on the land, on the sea, or in the air. Instead of merely improving upon or expanding existing land-based systems, the present invention bypasses centralized terrestrial switching hardware by placing all the intelligence of the network in orbit. UnUke conventional hierarchical systems, which are linked together by a complex web of wires, cables, glass fibers, and microwave repeaters that are very expensive to build and maintain, the present invention Uberates the true communications potential of existing land-based networks by routing signals through spacecraft in low Earth orbit. The present invention will revolutionize the telecommunications industry, and offer a wide spectrum of services and industrial opportunities around the world.

Claims: CLAIMS What is claimed is: 1. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth (E) orbit, said communications consteUation being capable of conveying a pluraUty of electromagnetic signals among a pluraUty of portable (P), mobile (M) and fixed terminals (F) and gateways (G) comprising: a pluraUty of sateUites (S); one of said pluraUty of sateUites (S) being capable of communicating with a user of one of said pluraUty of portable (P), mobile (M) and fixed (F) terminals and gateways (G); and each of said pluraUty of sateUites (S) being capable of performing intelligent onboard packet switching. 2. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, in which: each of said pluraUty of sateUites (S) functions as a non-hierarchical switching system. 3. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, in which: each of said pluraUty of sateUites (S) is autonomous, sovereign, and acts independently of each of aU the other of said sateUites (S) in said communications consteUation. 4. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, in which: each of said pluraUty of sateUites (S) is capable of autonomously determining orbit position information which defines its own position relative to the Earth. 5. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 4, in which: each of said plurality of satelUtes (S) is capable of autonomously determining orbit position information which defines the positions of each of the other of said plurality of satelUtes (S) relative lo the Earth (E). 6. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 4, i which: each of said pluraUty of sateUites (S) is capable of autonomously determining the altitude of eac of said plurality of satellites (S) above the surface of the Earth (E). 7. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 4, i which: each of said pluraUty of sateUites (S) is capable of autonomously determining informatio describing the attitude of each of said pluraUty of sateUites (S). 8. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, i which: each of said pluraUty of sateUites (S) occupies a sun-synchronous orbit. 9. An apparatus for operating a communications constellation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, in which: each of said plurality of sateUites (S) is capable of utilizing a radio frequency range of from approximately 1 to approximately 100 GHz. 10. An apparatus for operating a communications constellation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, in which: said pluraUty of electromagnetic signals are quantized in packets (422) and are routed by a fast packet switch (438) onboard each of said plurality of satellites (S). 11. An apparatus for operating a communications constellation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, in which: said fast packet switch (438) is used as an interface to one of said plurality of gateways (G). 12. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, i which: said fast packet switch (438) is capable of routing said packets (422) between any two of sai plurality of portable (P), mobile (M) and fixed (F) terminals without routing said packets (422 through one of said pluraUty of gateways (G). 13. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, i which: each of said pluraUty of satelUtes (S) performs automatic station-keeping, as opposed to bein controUed from ground. 14. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, in which: said pluraUty of sateUites (S) are positioned to provide a mask angle of at least 30 degrees of azimuth above the local horizon of any user of said plurality of portable (P), mobile (M) and fixed (F) terminals and gateways (G). 15. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, in which: said fast packet switch (438) is capable of performing aU channel management aboard each of said pluraUty of sateUites (S). 16. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, in which: said fast packet switch (438) employs connection-less protocol, as opposed to using virtual channels. 17. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, i which: each of said pluraUty of sateUites (S) includes a solar array (700); and said solar array (700) is positioned once after launch and then locked into place to optimize sola insolation for an orbital plane occupied by each of said sateUites (S) without constant adjustment 18. An apparatus for operating a communications consteUation in Earth orbit as claimed in Claim 1, in which: each of said plurality of satelUtes (S) utflizes optical frequencies to communicate with all other of said pluraUty of sateUites (S). 19. A sateUite communications apparatus for conveying a plurality of packets of radio signals among a pluraUty of portable (P), mobile (M) and fixed terminals (F) and gateways (G) comprising: a quasi-geodesic spacecraft constellation (C); said quasi-geodesic spacecraft consteUation (C) including a plurality of at least 840 sateUites (S); said quasi-geodesic spacecraft consteUation (C) being capable of providing substantiaUy continuous, world-wide voice, video and data service between the latitudes of 82 degrees North and 82 degrees South; said quasi-geodesic spacecraft consteUation (C) including said pluraUty of at least 840 sateUites (S); each of said pluraUty of at least 840 sateUites (S) operating in a low Earth, sun- synchronous orbit inclined to the equator at an angle of approximately 98 degrees; each of said pluraUty of at least 840 sateUites (S) also operating at an altitude of at least 500 kilometers; each of said plurality of at least 840 satellites (S) occupying a plurality of generally equally spaced and generally equally populated orbital planes; each of said pluraUty of at least 840 satellites (S) having an adaptive routing processor (414); a routing cache memory (420); an input packet processor (428); and a fast packet switch (438); said fast packet switch (438) enabling each of said pluraUty of at least 840 satellites (S) to direct said plurality of packets (422) of radio signals among said plurality of at least 840 satellites (S) and to said plurality of portable (P), mobile (M) and fixed (F) terminals and gateways (G); each of said pluraUty of at least 840 sateUites (S) being capable of determining position and attitude information for each of said plurality of satellites (S); each of said plurality of at least 840 sateUites (S) being capable of determinin optimal routing information for said pluraUty of packets (422) of radio signal and each of said plurality of at least 840 sateUites (S) also having a plurality 5 electronicaUy steerable antennas (700) for transmitting and receiving a pluralit of radiated beams (B) directed toward the Earth's surface; said plurality electronicaUy steerable antennas (700) being capable of communicating directl with said pluraUty of portable (P), mobile (M) and fixed (F) terminals an gateways (G); 10 each of said plurality of at least 840 sateUites (S) also having an autonomou transmitting and receiving circuit (722); and said pluraUty of packets (422) of radio signals being switched by said fast packe switch (438) separately and independently of said autonomous transmitting an receiving circuit (722).

Inventors: ASHFORD DONALD A, BROWN ALISON K, GRENCIONS VILNIS G, JHA ASU RAM, LIRON MOSHE LERNER, LOCKIE DOUGLAS GENE, PATTERSON DAVID PALMER, STUART JAMES R, STURZA MARK ALAN, TUCK EDWARD FENTON, WACKERNAGEL H BEAT, ASHFORD, DONALD, A., BROWN, ALISON, K., GRENCIONS, VILNIS, G., JHA, ASU, RAM, LIRON, MOSHE, LERNER, LOCKIE, DOUGLAS, GENE, PATTERSON, DAVID, PALMER, STUART, JAMES, R., STURZA, MARK, ALAN, TUCK, EDWARD, FENTON, WACKERNAGEL, H., BEAT +DI
Applicants: CALLING COMMUNICATIONS CORP, CALLING COMMUNICATIONS CORPORATION
Application year: 1992
Main classification: H04B7
IPC codes: H01Q1, H01Q3, H01Q5, H01Q15, H01Q21, H01Q25, H04B7