A method for obtaining glucose isomerases having altered substrate specificity

Abstract: A method for selecting amino acid residues is disclosed which upon replacement will give rise to an enzyme with an altered substrate specificity. New mutant glucose isomerases with an altered substrate specificity are provided according to this method. These altered properties are useful in starch degradation and in other sugar conversion reactions.

Description: TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to the application of protein engineering technology to improve the properties of enzymes. Specifically, the present invention discloses a method for selecting amino acids which upon substitution give rise to an altered substrate specificity. The method is applied to glucose isomerases. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIOM Glucose isomerases catalyze the reversible isomerization of glucose to fructose. Fructose is nowadays commonly applied as sugar substitute due to its higher sweetness compared to e.g. sucrose and glucose. Many microorganisms are known to produce glucose isomerase, see for example the review articles by Wen-Pin Chen in Process Biochemistry, 15 June/July (1980) 30-41 and August/September (1980) 36-41, in which a large number of microorganisms, capable of producing glucose isomerase, are listed. Several microorganisms can be used for the industrial production of glucose isomerases, among these Streptomyces Ampullariella and Actinoplanes are well known. The Wen-Pin Chen reference describes culture conditions for the microorganisms and recovery and purification methods for the produced glucose isomerases. Generally the naturally occurring glucose isomerases also show a high affinity for sugars other than glucose. In this respect D-xylose, D-ribose, L-arabinose, D-allose and 6-deoxyglucose were found to be substrates of this enzyme. The K m values of D-glucose, D-xylose and D-ribose, were shown to vary from microorganism to microorganism and were reported to be in the range, of 0.086-0.920, 0.005-0.093 and 0.35-0.65 M, respectively. The K m values for xylose are significantly lower than for glucose, which implies that the correct name for the enzyme is in fact xylose isomerase. Furthermore, the V max of the commonly used glucose isomerases is higher on xylose than on glucose, which also suggest that xylose isomerase is a better name. Since glucose isomerase is active on different substrates it may be advantageous to alter the substrate specificity depending on the desired reaction product, the specific process in which it is used or the wish to avoid unwanted side-products. For the application of glucose isomerase in HFCS production a higher V max and a lower K m on glucose would be useful properties, since the reaction time and the enzyme costs would be reduced. Another application of glucose isomerase is in the conversion of xylose to ethanol (Jeffries, T.W., Trends Biotechnol. 3 (1985) 208). A higher activity (V max ) on xylose and/or a better affinity for xylose would be useful properties for this application. The digestibility and the taste of feed for monogastric animals can be improved if glucose is converted enzymatically into fructose. In practice the application of glucose isomerase is hampered by the xylose isomerisation activity, which causes an unwanted formation of xylulose in feed. A glucose isomerase with no or reduced specificity (V max or K m ) for xylose would be preferred for application in feed pretreatment. Clearly, there is a need for altering the substrate specificity of glucose isomerases which would at the same time widen the field of the application of this enzyme. Recently redesigning of the specific activity of enzymes with the aid of protein engineering techniques has been described. Wells et al. (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84 (1987) 5167) show an example for subtilisin. Bacillus licheniformis and B. amyloliquefaciens serine proteases differ by 31% (86 amino acid residues) in protein sequence and by a factor of 60 in catalytic efficiency on certain substrates. By substituting 3 of the 86 different amino acids from the B . amyloliquefaciens sequence by the corresponding B . licheniformis residues the catalytic activity of the mutant enzyme was improved nearly 60 fold. In another paper it is described how a lactate dehydrogenase was changed into a malate dehydrogenase by mutating glutamine 102 into arginine 102 (Wilks et al., Science 242 (1988) 1541). In both cases referred to above, serine protease and lactate dehydrogenase, the modification proposal was based on the comparison of the molecule to be modified and naturally occurring enzymes, which already showed the desired substrate specificity. In the same way the specificity of cytochrome p450 15α was changed into the specificity of cytochrome P450 coh by replacing Leu209 with Phe209 (Lindberg and Negishi, Nature 339 (1989) 632). For glucose isomerase no naturally occurring enzyme is known, which shows a better specificity for glucose than for xylose. The above-mentioned method, based on the comparison of active sites of homologous enzymes having a different substrate specificity, can therefore not be applied to glucose isomerase. WO 89/01520 (Cetus) lists a number of muteins of the xylose isomerase which may be obtained from Streptomyces rubiginosus and that may have an increased stability. The selection of possible sites that may be mutated is based on criteria differing from the ones used in the present invention. More than 300 mutants are listed but no data are presented concerning the characteristics and the alterations therein of the mutant enzyme molecules. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention discloses a method for selecting amino acids which upon replacement lead to an altered substrate specificity of a given enzyme. This method, which is generally applicable, is used to alter the substrate specificity of glucose isomerase. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of the active site of glucose isomerase from Actinoplanes missouriensis , derived from the three dimensional structure of the glucose isomerase - xylitol complex. The inhibitor is shown in full detail in the centre of the figure. For the amino acid residues only those atoms are drawn which are involved in hydrogen bonding. Residue names are in boxes drawn with solid lines, solvent molecules in boxes drawn with dashed lines. Metal binding sites are represented by ovals numbered 395 and 580. Dashed lines indicate electrostatic interactions: the thin dotted lines represent hydrogen bonds, the fat dashed lines the proposed ligation of the metals. Strictly conserved residues are marked by an asterix. For non-conserved residues the substitutions found in nature are indicated. Figure 2 shows the alignment of the amino acid sequences of glucose isomerases obtained from different microorganisms. The complete sequence of Actinoplanes missouriensis glucose isomerase is given. The amino acid sequence of Ampullariella glucose isomerase differs from that of the published sequences (Saari, J. Bacteriol., 169 , (1987) 612) by one residue: Proline 177 in the published sequence was found to be Arginine. The Streptomyces thermovulgaris sequence has only been established upto amino acid 346. Undetermined residues are left blank. A dot indicates the absence of an amino acid residue at this position as compared to any of the other sequences. The different species are indicated by the following symbols: Ami. Actinoplanes missouriensis DSM 4643 Amp. Ampullariella species ATCC 31351 Svi. Streptomyces violaceoruber LMG 7183 Smu. Streptomyces murinus Sth. Streptomyces thermovulgaris DSM 40444 Art. Arthrobacter species Bsu. Bacillus subtilis Eco. Escherichia coli Lxy. Lactobacillus xylosus The secondary structure assignment was made in the structure of Actinoplanes missouriensis . Helices in the barrel are enclosed by solid lines. Shaded boxes indicate β-strands. Figure 3 shows a comparison of the H290N mutant (bold) with the wildtype-sorbitol-Mg structure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention discloses a method for selecting amino acids, in an enzyme, that upon substitution give rise to an altered substrate specificity. To obtain such a mutant enzyme the DNA seqence encoding this enzyme is altered in such a way that the encoded enzyme has one or more selected amino acid replacements. The altered DNA is expressed in a desired host/vector system. To select appropriate (point) mutations a rational approach is taken, relying on the well coordinated application of protein crystallography, molecular modelling and computational methods, enzymology and kinetics, molecular biology and protein chemistry techniques. The strategies for the identification of target amino acid sites are innovative in a sense that it is recognized that point mutations rarely cause local perturbations, but affect several different properties of the protein structure at once, causing a change in different properties as well. Therefore, although the described strategies make use of well established structure-function relationships, they also provide a rational way to avoid or correct unwanted alterations of kinetic and structural properties. Alteration of substrate specificity by replacement of appropriate amino acids To modulate the substrate binding to the active site of an enzyme, the following general rules can be applied in sequential order, provided that data are available concerning the Three-Dimensional (3D) structure for the enzyme-substrate or enzyme-substrate-analogue/inhibitor complexes: a) select all residues and crystallographically assigned water molecules which have at least one atom within a sphere of 4Å surrounding the atoms of the substrate or of a substrate analogue/inhibitor bond in the active site; b) select all the residues which are in Van der Waals contact with the residues and water molecules obtained by application of criterion a); c) discard from the recorded list of residues and water molecules those that are implied in catalysis, cofactor binding (such as metal ions and nucleotides) and essential intersubunit interactions (in the case of oligomeric enzymes); d) discard those residues and water molecules that interfere with the structural role of the above-selected residues. Model building and analysis of the conserved nature of the target residues can be used to identify an essential structural role; e) to modulate the substrate affinity, one or more of the above-selected residues can be substituted by alteration of the genetic code to change one or more of the following interactions and properties: e1) steric hindrance through altering the residue size; e2) hydrophobicity/polarity of the substrate surroundings; e3) solvation of the substrate surroundings either by providing side chains that solvate via hydrogen bonding to groups within the substrate or through substitutions that alter the water distribution within the surroundings of the substrate; e4) flexibility of individual residues, segments or the overall protein structure by substitutions that disrupt hydrogen bonding networks, decrease the local packing density in the surroundings of the substrate or introduce cavities. The above set of rules is a general one which can in principle be applied to all enzymes provided that enough structural data are available. In order to demonstrate the feasibility of this set of rules a specific example will be discussed below. Application of the general rules to modulate the substrate specificity of Glucose Isomerase Although the selection of residues by applying criteria a) through e) as given above will be demonstrated here using the specific example of Actinoplanes missouriensis glucose isomerase, it is clear that due to extensive homology similar substitution sites can be selected in glucose isomerases obtained from other species. The mentioned sequence homology is demonstrated in Figure 2 which gives an alignment of glucose isomerases obtained from; Actinoplanes missourienses , Ampullariella species, Streptomyces violaceoruber , Streptomyces murinus , Streptomyces thermovulgaris , Arthrobacter species, Bacillus subtilis , Escherichia coli and Lactobacillus xylosus . The approach described above would also give rise, after amino acid replacement at corresponding positions in the glucose isomerases from the other species, to an altered substrate specificity of other glucose isomerases. In general, it can be assumed that where the overall homology is greater than 65%, preferably greater than 74% (minimal homology between Actinoplanes missouriensis and Streptomyces glucose isomerase, according to Amore and Hollenberg, Nucl. Acids Res. 17 , 7515 (1989)), and more preferably greater than 85% and where the 3D structure is similar, amino acid replacements will lead to similar changes in substrate specificity. With similar changes in substrate specificity we mean the direction in which the kinetic parameters change and not the magnitude. Specifically one expects the glucose isomerases from species belonging to the order of the Actinomycetales to have such a high degree of similarity that the alteration of substrate specificities due to amino acid replacements at the selected sites are similar. Actinoplanes missouriensis is the preferred source of glucose isomerase to mutate. Changes in substrate specificity according to the present invention include all combinations of increase and decrease of V max and K m for both glucose and xylose. A person skilled in the art will understand that this encompasses the changes in other kinetic parameters. Furthermore, the specificities for other substrates will inherently be changed also. The proposed rules for changing the substrate specificity are not restricted to the mentioned substrates, they can be applied to other substrates. Among these are, D-ribose, L-arabinose, D-allose and 6-deoxyglucose. Thus apart from providing a general method for altering the substrate specificity the present invention applies this method to glucose isomerase. The selected amino acid replacements can be engineered in the DNA encoding the glucose isomerase by methods well known to a person skilled in the art (e.g. site-directed mutagenesis). The DNA encoding the glucose isomerase or its mutants may be cloned on an expression vector and this construct may be transformed to a host wherein the gene is expressed, the mRNA translated and preferably the mature protein, or a precursor, secreted from the cell. Subsequently the protein can be purified. Standard procedures can be found in Maniatis et al. (Cold Spring Harbor, 1st and 2nd edition, 1982 and 1989 respectively). The application of these methods gives rise to mutant glucose isomerase enzymes, obtained by the expression of a gene encoding said glucose isomerase enzyme having an amino acid sequence which differs at least in one amino acid from the wildtype glucose isomerase enzyme, which mutant glucose isomerase enzyme is characterized in that it exhibits an altered substrate specificity. Instead of single mutants also double mutants may be obtained. Some of these double mutants, aimed at combining the desired properties, show that the properties are at least partially cumulative. Examples are provided, in the present application, of mutants with both an increased specificity for glucose and an increased stability. The substrate specificity of the new enzymes can be tested on the substrate that is necessary for the desired application. Here special attention is paid to the kinetic parameters concerning glucose and xylose as a substrate and also to the relative changes in these parameters. Figure 1 shows a schematic map of residues around the active site of A. missouriensis . In the following methods are described to design mutants which have a higher relative specificity for glucose compared to the wildtype enzyme. Applying the rules given above to glucose isomerase from Actinoplanes missouriensis and using the coordinates of the sorbitol-GI-Co 2+ structure we obtain the following list of residues : Residues and waters selected by criterion (a): 16Trp, 54His, 88Met, 90Thr, 94Phe, 135Val, 137Trp, 181Glu, 183Lys, 217Glu, 220His, 245Asp, 255Asp, 292Asp, 294Lys, 26Phe and 4 water molecules that are arbitrarily denoted as 491, 492, 690 and 887. Additional residues were selected by criterion (b). In this case all residues within a sphere of 2 Å around the above mentioned residues (criterion (a)) were taken. Giving the following amino acids: 15Leu, 17Thr, 20Trp, 25Ala, 27Gly, 52Thr, 53Phe, 55Asp, 57Asp, 87Pro, 89Val, 91Thr, 92Asn, 93Leu, 95Thr, 133Thr, 134Leu, 136Leu, 138Gly, 140Arg, 179Ala, 180Ile, 182Pro, 184Pro, 186Glu, 215Asn, 216Pro, 218Thr, 219Gly, 221Glu, 243His, 244Ile, 246Leu, 254Phe, 256Gln, 257Asp, 290His, 291Phe, 293Tyr and 295Pro. The catalytic residues: 54His, 183Lys, 220His; the cation ligands: 181Glu, 217Glu, 221Glu, 245Asp, 255Asp, 292Asp, water 690 and the interface residue: 26Phe; are discarded by applying criterion (c). Residues 16Trp, 94Phe and 137Trp form a conserved hydrophobic cluster determining the overall shape of the substrate binding pocket and they are therefore discarded by applying criterion (d). Furthermore residue 184Pro is discarded by criterion (d). The preferred residues to be substituted resulting after application of the above mentioned criteria are shown in Table 1. 15Leu 17Thr 20Trp 25Ala 27Gly 52Thr 53Phe 55Asp 57Asp 87Pro 88Met 89Val 90Thr 91Thr 92Asn 93Leu 95Thr 133Thr 134Leu 135Val 136Leu 138Gly 140Arg 179Ala 180Ile 182Pro 186Glu 215Asn 216Pro 218Thr 219Gly 243His 244Ile 246Leu 254Phe 256Gln 257Asp 290His 291Phe 293Tyr 294Lys 295Pro Single substitutions at these sites and/or combinations of substitutions at the different sites may lead to an improved activity either through relief of steric hindrance or by the modulation of polarity of the sugar environment. Different properties such as modulating the affinity and/or catalytic efficiency for various substrates may be altered in this way. In the specific case of increasing the specificity for glucose relative to xylose it is important to note that the substrate specificity for wildtype glucose isomerase decreases going from xylose to 6-deoxy-glucose to glucose. The inhibition constant for sorbitol is larger than for xylitol. This observation suggests that steric hindrance upon binding of the larger substrate or inhibitor contributes to the lower specificity. In the crystal structure of the enzyme-sorbitol-cobalt complex from A . missouriensis the following residues are found within 4Å of the hydroxyl group attached to the C6 of the sorbitol: 16Trp, 88Met, 135Val, 90Thr and a water molecule denoted 491. The hydrophobic side chains 16Trp, 88Met, 135Val are unable to solvate the hydroxyl group. The hydroxyl group of the 90Thr side chain is rotated away, exposing its methyl group to the inhibitor. The water molecule (491) bridges 06 and 04 of the sorbitol. In the structure of the enzyme-cobalt complex determined in the absence of substrate or inhibitor, the active site contains a number of water molecules bound at positions roughly corresponding to the positions of the O1, 02, 03, 04 and 05 of the inhibitor in the enzyme-sorbitol-cobalt complex. However, the environment corresponding to the 06 position is not able to accommodate a water molecule. This provides additional evidence that the hydroxyl group on C6 is not properly solvated. The substitutions which have been made in the collection of target residues (by applying criteria a - e) were aimed to increase the polarity of the environment of the substrate hydroxyl groups, particularly of the 06, and to increase the flexibility of the active site to accommodate the larger substrate. Amongst others the following single and combined point mutations have been made, leading to the intended changes in glucose specificity. 25Ala to Lys: introduction of a positively charged residue at a distance of 6 to 8 Å of the 01, 02 and 03 of the substrate. Disruption of the water structure in the interface. Displacement of 26Phe, which shapes the hydrophobic pocket accommodating the C1 aliphatic hydrogens of the substrate. 243His tot Asn: increased flexibility due to changes in the protein-water hydrogen bonding network in the interior of the barrel. 290His to Asn: increased flexibility due to changes in the protein-water hydrogen bonding network in the interior of the barrel, displacement of water. 290His to Asn combined with 253Lys to Arg: the 253Lys to Arg mutation is introduced to increase stability or prevent glycation (EP-A-0351029) which leads to irreversible inactivation. 88Met to Ser: increasing the polarity of the 06 binding pocket, increasing flexibility by locally altering the packing of the protein. 88Met to Ser combined with 243His to Asn: increasing the polarity of the 06 binding pocket, increasing flexibility by locally altering the packing of the protein. 88Met to Ser combined with 290His to Asn: increasing flexibility due to changes in the protein-water hydrogen bonding network in the interior of the barrel, displacement of water, increasing the polarity of the 06 binding pocket. 90Thr to Ser: altered flexibility of the side chain, increasing flexibility by locally altering the packing of the protein, altering the environment of a substrate bound water molecule (492). 90Thr to Ser combined with 135Val to Gln: altered flexibility of the side chain at position 90, increasing flexibility by locally altering the packing of the protein, altering the environment of a substrate bound water molecule (492), replacement of hydrophobic environment by a polar residue, possibility of a direct hydrogen bond between the glutamine and the C6 hydroxyl group. 90Thr to Ser combined with 135Val to Gln and 215Asn to Ser: altered flexibility, replacement of hydrophobic environment by polar residues, possibility to remove a water molecule, possibility of a direct hydrogen bond between the 90Ser and the C6 hydroxyl group. 135Val to Thr: replacement of hydrophobic environment by a polar residue. 135Val to Gln: replacement of hydrophobic environment by a polar residue, possibility of a direct hydrogen bond between the glutamine and the C6 hydroxyl group. These mutation proposals are meant to exemplify a rational which can be applied to create novel glucose isomerases with desired specificities. However, it will be clear to those skilled in the art that desired mutants can be obtained by changing target residues into amino acids differing from the mentioned ones in a similar manner. Replacing, removing, shifting bound water molecules in the active site From comparison of the sorbitol structure with the xylitol structure it appears that particular water molecules may interfere with proper glucose binding. Replacement of this water by an appropriate amino acid side chain, or moving the position of the water by introducing a shorter side chain at the appropriate position may cause an increase in affinity. Glucose isomerase mutant H290N, which has an enhanced specificity for glucose (K m =250 mM, V max =41 µmoles/min/mg) can serve as an example. The removing or shifting of bound water molecules in the active site of mutant H290N is correlated with the observed increase in activity for glucose. Similar effects may be obtained by shifting other bound water molecules. Water molecules which are in a sphere of 4 A around atoms 03, 04, O5 or 06 of the substrate are candidates to be removed or shifted by mutating neighbouring amino acids. In the following examples recombinant DNA techniques are applied to introduce point mutations in the gene cloned from Actinoplanes missouriensis . The protein is overexpressed in E. coli , purified and characterized in vitro and in application conditions as described elsewhere (Van Tilburg, 1983, Thesis: "Engineering aspects of biocatalysts in industrial starch conversion", Delftse Universitaire Pers). EXPERIMENTAL Cloning and expression of the D-glucose isomerase gene D-glucose isomerase (GI) is synonymously used for D-xylose isomerase (D-xylose) ketol-isomerase (EC 5.3.1.5), an enzyme that converts D-xylose into D-xylulose. The D-glucose isomerase from Actinoplanes missouriensis produced by engineered E . coli strains is designated as EcoAmi (DSM) GI. To distinguish the Actinoplanes missouriensis gene coding for GI from the analogous E. coli xylA gene, the former will be designated as GI . Methods for manipulation of DNA molecules are described in Maniatis et al. (1982, Cold Sprong Harbor Laboratory) and Ausubel et al. (1987, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York). Cloning and DNA sequence of the glucose isomerase gene from Actinoplanes missouriensis DSM 43046 is described elsewhere (EP-A-0351029). The derived amino acid sequence of GI is numbered and compared with other glucose isomerases in Figure 2. In the following, the numbering of amino acids refers to Figure 2. Wildtype and mutant GI enzymes were produced in E . coli strain K514 as described in EP-A-0351029. EP-A-0351029 specifically describes most of the techniques applied in this application and it is therefore incorporated herein by reference. Assay of the enzymatic activity of the expression product The enzymatic activity of glucose isomerase was assayed as described below (1 unit of enzymatic activity produces 1.0 micromole of product -D-xylulose or D-fructose- per minute; therefore, specific activity -spa- is expressed as units per mg of GI enzymes). GI activity was assayed directly by measuring the increase in absorbance at 278 nm of xylulose produced at 35°C by isomerisation of xylose by glucose isomerases. This assay was performed in 50 mM triethanolamine buffer, pH 7.5, containing 10mM MgSO 4 , in the presence of 0.1 M xylose. The final concentration of glucose isomerase in the assay was ± 0.01 mg/ml, this concentration was precisely determined, prior to dilution in the enzymatic assay mixture, by absorption spectroscopy using an extinction coefficient of 1.08 at 278 nm for a solution of enzyme of 1.0 mg/ml. In the D-Sorbitol Dehydrogenase Coupled Assay , enzymatic determination of D-xylulose was performed at 35°C as previously described (Kersters-Hilderson et al., Enzyme Microb. Technol. 9 (1987) 145) in 50mM triethanolamine, pH 7.5, 10mM MgSO 4 , and 0.1 M xylose, in the presence of ± 2 x 10 -8 M D-sorbitol dehydrogenase (L-iditol : NAD oxido-reductase, EC 1.1.14), and 0.15 mM NADH. The final concentration of glucose isomerase in this assay was ± 2.5 x 10 -3 mg/ml, this concentration was precisely determined as described above. With glucose as a substrate GI activity can be assayed by the measurement of D-fructose produced during the isomerization reaction using the cysteine-carbazole method (CCM) which is based on the reaction of ketosugars with carbazole in acids to yield a purple product (Dische and Borenfreund, J. Biol. Chem. 192 (1951) 583). Alternatively, the D-fructose produced during the isomerization reaction can be determined enzymatically using sorbitol dehydrogenase and NADH. As a measure of specificity the quotient V max /K m is sometimes used (Wells et al ., ibid). For mutants the V max /K m values for xylose and for glucose were routinely calculated. Measurements for xylose parameters are carried out at 35°C, whereas glucose parameters are determined at 60°C. These temperatures are chosen for practical reasons. To find out whether conclusions about relative specificity are generally applicable independent of the measurement temperature, some measurements on xylose were performed at 60°C for both wildtype and mutant enzymes. It was found that conclusions that could be drawn concerning steady-state kinetic parameters at 60°C were similar to those at 35°C. EXAMPLES Example 1: Mutants with improved catalytic properties The 3-dimensional structure of Actinoplanes missouriensis glucose isomerase was studied to select those residues which upon change might yield an improved substrate binding, catalytic activity or substrate specificity. Residues directly or indirectly (via another residue or water molecule) within 4 Å from O1-O6 of the substrate were selected and changed by site-directed mutagenesis with the aid of the pMa, pMc vector system (Stanssens et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 17 (1989) 4441) In Table 2 below the enzymatic parameters of several of these selected mutants are shown: Mutant V max xy V max gl V max gl/xy K m xy K m gl K m xy/gl V max /K m xy V max /K m gl (µmol/min/mg) (mM) (mM) x10 -2 Wild Type 24.20 34.80 1.43 4.80 290 1.7 5.04 0.12 A25K 7.66 22.61 2.95 2.73 207 1.3 2.81 0.11 M88S 19.37 29.44 1.51 7.60 263 2.9 2.55 0.11 M88SH243N 13.90 24.98 1.79 11.92 387 3.1 1.17 0.06 M88SH290N 16.07 49.77 3.09 14.82 406 3.6 1.08 0.12 T90S 37.07 32.77 0.88 16.76 180 9 2.21 0.18 T90SV135Q 0.54 19.30 36 182 2822 6.4 0.00 0.01 V135Q 0.67 5.57 8.3 56.00 1120 5 0.01 0.00 V135T 10.90 33.11 3.04 19.95 678 3 0.55 0.05 E186D 8.51 37.90 4.45 7.00 736 0.9 1.22 0.05 E186Q 0.77 2.06 2.68 1.80 57 3 0.43 0.04 H243N 18.90 22.00 1.16 5.80 180 3.2 3.26 0.12 K253RH290N 26.70 49.13 1.84 12.80 331 3.9 2.09 0.15 L258K 24.23 44.17 1.82 4.44 327 1.4 5.46 0.14 H290N 24.00 41.80 1.74 9.70 250 4 2.47 0.17 K294Q 5.70 9.70 1.70 32.00 309 10 0.18 0.03 K294R 13.80 27.52 4.82 4.50 308 1.5 3.07 0.09 T90SV135Q, N215S 0.93 39.6 42.60 360 1000 36 0.0025 0.04 Conditions for determining enzymatic parameters were as follows: V max , xylose : : 35°C, 10mM Mg 2 +, pH 7.5; V max , glucose: 60°C, 10mM Mg 2 +, pH 7.5; K m , xylose : 35°C, 10mM Mg 2 +, pH 7.5; K m , glucose : 60°C, 10mM Mg 2 +, pH 7.5. Activities were measured on purified enzyme. The coupled sorbitol dehydrogenase assay was used for xylose, the cysteine-carbazole or discontinuous sorbitol dehydrogenase method was used for glucose. Example 2: Glucose isomerases with improved affinity for glucose Table 3 summarizes measured K m values from various mutants compared to wildtype enzyme. It can be seen that all of these mutants have a lower K m for glucose. This means that the binding of the substrate glucose is enhanced. Moreover, for some of the mutants the K m for xylose has not improved but became worse, as exemplified in Table 2. Thus, mutants M88S, T90S, T90SV135Q, V135Q, H290N, K294Q, H243N have acquired a better K m xylose/K m glucose ratio as compared to the wild-type enzyme. MUTANT K(gl) K(gl)/WT E186Q 57.000 0.197 H243N 180.000 0.621 T90S 180.000 0.621 A25K 207.000 0.714 H290N 250.000 0.862 M88S 203.000 0.907 Wildtype 290.000 1.000 The Km for glucose is expressed in mM. Example 3: Glucose isomerases with enhanced catalytic activity on glucose Glucose isomerase mutants with enhanced catalytic activity on glucose are E186D, L258K, H290N and combined mutations with H290N. L258K was not selected using the criteria described in the general methods as the leucine at position 258 is about 10Å away from the substrate or inhibitor. In Table 4 the V max relative to wildtype V max is shown. An increase from 8,9% to 43% is shown. This will give rise to a faster isomerisation of the preferred substrate glucose. MUTANT V(gl) V(gl)/WT M88SH290N 49.770 1.430 K253RH290N 49.130 1.412 L258K 44.170 1.269 H290N 41.800 1.201 T90SV135QN215S 39.600 1.138 E186D 37.900 1.089 Wildtype 34.800 1.000 The V max for glucose is expressed in micromoles/min/mg. Mutant H290N shows a V max for glucose of 41.80 which is significantly better than the wildtype enzyme. Moreover, the V max xylose has not improved. The ratio V max glucose/V max xylose of H290N has therefore been improved, rendering this mutant more into a "true" glucose isomerase. Example 4: Structure of H290N glucose isomerase In the crystal structure of the mutant H290N, it is observed that the amide group of the Asn side chain is superimposable on the imidazole group of w.t. molecule (Fig.3). As a consequence the amide at 290Asn maintains the hydrogen bond to 245Asp. In addition, the 0δ1 atom of 290Asn can hydrogen bond to the hydroxyl of 12Ser. The hydroxyl group of 52Thr, hydrogen bonded to ne2 of 290His in the w.t. structures, can no longer hydrogen bond to 290Asn. In the mutant the hydroxyl group of 52Thr is rotated (X 1 torsion) in such a way that it hydrogen bonds to a water molecule (wildtype X 1 = 71°, mutant X 1 = -172.5°). This water molecule present in the mutant structure is positioned as the 88Met sδ atom (distance = 0.45A) in the wildtype. The introduction of a water molecule at this position, which forms a hydrogen bond to 52Thr, forces a reorientation of the side chain of 88Met in the mutant structure as compared to wildtype. In addition the 52Thr side chain hydrogen bonds in the mutant to the main chain hydrogen of 53Phe (d = 2.23Å). The reorientation of the 88Met side chain in H290N necessitates the movement of 243His. In addition the water molecule (490), bridging 12Ser to 243His in the wildtype structure, disappears because of steric hindrance with the methyl group of 52Thr and the new orientation of 88Met. 243His adopts another X 1 angle (in w.t. X 1 = -169° and in mutant X 1 = -77°) abolishing the hydrogen bond with 215Asn. The space left by the imidazole of 243His is filed with a water molecule (615) which hydrogen bonds to the amide of 215Asn (not shown). In addition, this water molecule hydrogen bonds to a novel water molecule (872) which hydrogen bonds to main chain hydrogen atom of 244Ile. Additional evidence for the change in flexibility of the side chains in the C6 hydroxyl environment is given by the temperature factors for the residues 52Thr, 88Met and 243His, which is twice as high compared to the wildtype structure. As a result of the complex rearrangements caused by the H290N mutation, three water molecules are solvating the C6 hydroxyl group of the sorbitol. This exemplifies that replacing, moving or shifting bond water molecules in the active site can result in desired changes in enzyme activity. Example 5: Glucose isomerase with an improved substrate binding In Table 5 several mutants with improved xylose binding are shown. A25K and E186D have a descreased K m for both xylose and glucose. E186Q has also a decreased K m for fructose. Enzymes with high substrate affinity are preferred under conditions of low substrate concentrations. MUTANT K(xy) K(gl) K(xy)/Kgl) K(xy)/WT K(gl)/WT E186Q 1.800 57.000 0.032 0.375 0.197 A25K 2.730 207.000 0.013 0.569 0.714 L258K 4.440 327.000 0.014 0.925 1.128 K294R 4.500 308.000 0.015 0.938 1.062 Wild-type 4.800 290.000 0.017 1.000 1.000 K m values are expressed in mM. Note that only E186Q and A25K have an improved affinity for both substrates tested. Example 6: Mutant with an improved specificity for glucose The relative specificity is defined as the V max /K m ratio for xylose divided by the V max /K m ratio for glucose. Therefore, if the number is smaller than for the wild-type the relative specificity for glucose is increased. In Table 6 mutant glucose isomerases with an increased relative specificity for glucose are shown. Mutants V135Q, T90SV135Q and T90SV135QN215S have a largely reduced activity on xylose. Even though in absolute terms the activity with glucose is reduced, the ratio of V max /K m of glucose over xylose has been improved considerably. Therefore these mutants have changed their specificity to become a real glucose isomerase virtually without xylose isomerase activity. The combination of mutations T90S, V135Q and N215S into a triple mutant shows that these mutations are additive with respect to the kinetic parameters (Table 6). MUTANT V/K(xy) V/K(gl) V/K(xy)/(gl) r.spec./WT T90SV135Q, N215S 0.003 0.040 0.065 0.002 N215S 0.058 0.018 3.193 0.076 T90SV135Q 0.003 0.007 0.434 0.010 V135Q 0.012 0.005 2.402 0.057 K294Q 0.178 0.031 5.674 0.135 M88SH290N 1.084 0.123 8.846 0.211 V135T 0.547 0.049 11.209 0.267 E186Q 0.428 0.036 11.837 0.282 T90S 2.212 0.182 12.138 0.289 K253RH290N 2.086 0.146 14.053 0.334 H290N 2.474 0.167 14.798 0.352 M88SH243N 1.166 0.065 18.066 0.430 M88S 2.549 0.112 22.768 0.542 E186D 1.216 0.051 23.609 0.562 A25K 2.806 0.109 25.688 0.611 H243N 3.259 0.122 26.661 0.635 K294R 3.067 0.089 34.322 0.817 L258K 5.457 0.135 40.401 0.962 Wildtype 5.042 0.120 42.014 1.000 Example 7: Structural changes occurring in the M88SH243N mutant Substrate specificity can also be changed by amino acid replacements resulting in amino acids that show a greater side-chain flexibility. In the crystal structure of the mutant M88SH243N it is observed that the 243Asn and 52Thr adopt multiple conformations, reflecting the increase of flexibility in the side chain environment of the C6 hydroxyl environment of the substrate. It is also observed that the Cα positions of the adjacent beta barrel strands containing residues 88Ser, 52Thr, 135Val and 177Arg are displaced by 0.3 to 0.5 Å, making the interior of the barrel slightly larger. The space created by the 88Met to 88Ser mutation is filled with an additional water molecule. The observed alternate side chain locations and the slight movement of the barrel allow the introduction of another water molecule and the movement of a water molecule in the C6 hyrdoxyl direction of the substrate. Example 8: Mutants with improved properties in the presence of Mn 2+ In addition to Mg 2+ , Mn 2+ can be used as a bivalent cation during isomerisation. Although Mn 2+ is not commonly used in commercial isomerisation processes, its use can be envisaged for applications in which metal ions can be removed from the product or in which metal ions are not relevant for the quality of the product. Mutant E186Q shows an improved catalytic activity towards glucose in the presence of Mn 2+ , see Table 7: E186Q V max (µmoles/min/mg) Km(mM) Conditions Xylose 5.4 3.15 35°C, 1mM Mn, pH 7.5 Xylose 14.4 7.83 35°C, 2mM Mn, pH 6.4 Glucose 22.6 387 60°C, 1mM Mn, pH 7.5 Mn 5.63 0.01 35°C,100mM xylose,pH 7.5 Mn 14.5 < 0.03 35°C,200mM xylose,pH 6.4 Wildtype V max (µmoles/min/mg) Km(mM) Conditions Xylose 8.6 13.2 35°C, 1mM Mn, pH 7.5 Glucose 6.5 1537 60°C, 1mM Mn, Ph 7.5 Mn 10.2 0.0048 35°C,100mM xylose,pH7.5 The methods used were as in Example 1. The improvement in V max glucose is 3- to 4-fold as compared to the wild-type enzyme. The improvement in K m glucose is 4-fold. Since 186E is in the vicinity of the UP metal position (see Figure 1), it can be envisaged that 186Q is in better concert with the larger Mn 2+ radius than with the Mg 2+ radius. Example 9 : Application testing of the mutant K253RH290N Mutant H290N shows an increased activity on glucose as can be seen in Table 4. Table 6 shows that the specificity for glucose is also increased in this mutant. This mutant was immobilized as described in EP-A-351029 (Example 7 of that application). Application testing of the wildtype and this mutant glucose isomerase was performed as described in the same application (Example 8). The stability is indicated by the first order decay constant (K d , the lower the decay constant the more stable the enzyme). Table 8 gives the K d values for the wildtype and mutant glucose isomerases. Decay constants for wildtype and mutant glucose isomerase, immobilized on Lewatit K d (x 10 6 sec -1 ) Wildtype 2.5 H290N 3.1 K253R 0.7 H290NK253R 1.6 As can be seen in Table 8, H290N is destabilized as compared with the wildtype glucose isomerase. K253R was found to stabilize the wildtype glucose isomerase by a factor larger than three. Combination of H290N with the stability mutation K253R shows that these characteristics are additive. Furthermore, it can be seen in Table 4 that the activity of K253RH290N on glucose is not negatively influenced by the stability mutation, on the contrary the double mutant shows an even higher activity on this substrate than mutant H290N. As far as the specificity is concerned, in Table 6 it can be seen that the K253R mutation does not substantially influence the specificity of the H290N mutant. Thus it can be concluded that activity mutants can be stabilized by introducing mutations that have been shown to stabilize the wildtype enzyme. It is to be understood that the above mentioned examples are meant to demonstrate the concept of the invention and that they are not meant to limit the scope. In view of this it is clear that combinations of the above mentioned mutations combined with other mutations leading to altered characteristics e.g. thermostability, shifted pH optimum or metal binding are within the scope of the subject invention.

Claims: A method for obtaining an enzyme with an altered substrate specificity by changing an amino acid which is selected according to a method comprising the following criteria: (a) select all residues and crystallographically assigned water molecules which have at least one atom within a sphere of 4 angstroms surrounding the atoms of the substrate or of a substrate analogue or of an inhibitor bond in the active site; (b) select all the residues which are in Van der Waals contact with the residues and water molecules obtained by the selection according to criterion (a); (c) discard from the selected list of residues identified in steps (a) and (b) those that are implied in catalysis, cofactor binding (such as metal ions and nucleotides) and essential intersubunit interactions in the case of oligomeric enzymes; (d) discard from the selected list of residues identified in steps (a) and (b) those residues that interfere with the structural role of the selected residues. A method for obtaining an enzyme with an altered substrate specificity according to claim 1, further characterised in that one or more of the following interactions and properties are changed: e1) steric hindrance through altering the residue size; e2) hydrophobicity/polarity of the substrate surroundings; e3) solvation of the substrate surroundings either by providing side chains that solvate via hydrogen bonding to groups within the substrate or through substitutions that alter the water distribution within the surroundings of the substrate; e4) flexibility of individual residues, segments or the overall protein structure by substitutions that disrupt hydrogen bonding networks, decrease the local packing density in the surroundings of the substrate or introduce cavities. A method as claimed in claim 1 or claim 2 wherein said enzyme is glucose isomerase. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein said altered substrate specificity is altered V max for a specific substrate. The method of claim 4, wherein said V max is higher for said substrate than that of the naturally occurring enzyme within a specific temperature range. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein said altered substrate specificity is altered K m for a specific substrate. The method of claim 6, wherein said K m is lower for said substrate than that of the naturally occurring enzyme within a specific temperature range. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein said enzyme has at least a first substrate and a second substrate and the V max first substrate/V max second substrate ratio is higher than that of the naturally occurring enzyme. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein said enzyme has at least a first substrate and a second substrate and the K m second substrate/K m first substrate ratio is higher than that of the naturally occurring enzyme.

Inventors: LAMBEIR ANNE-MARIE VIRGINIE RE, LASTERS IGNACE, QUAX WILHELMUS JOHANNES, VAN DER LAAN JAN METSKE, LAMBEIR, ANNE-MARIE VIRGINIE RENEE, LASTERS, IGNACE, QUAX, WILHELMUS JOHANNES, VAN DER LAAN, JAN METSKE
Applicants: GENENCOR INT, PLANT GENETIC SYSTEMS NV, GENENCOR INTERNATIONAL INC., PLANT GENETIC SYSTEMS, N.V.
Application year: 1991
Main classification: C12N9
IPC codes: C12N9, C12P19, C12N15, C12R1