Fungal resistant plants, process for obtaining fungal resistant plants and recombinant polynucleotides for use therein

Abstract: Plants are provided with improved resistance against pathogenic fungi. They are genetically transformed with one or more polynucleotides which essentially comprise one or more genes encoding plant chitinases and β-1,3-glucanases. Preferred are the intracellular forms of the said hydrolytic enzymes, especially preferred are those forms which are targeted to the apoplastic space of the plant by virtue of the modification of the genes encoding the said enzymes. Particularly preferred are plants exhibiting a relative overexpression of at least one gene encoding a chitinase and one gene encoding a β-1,3-glucanase.

Description: FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention lies in the area of recombinant DNA technology, especially in conjunction with the genetic manipulation of plants and concerns a process for obtaining fungal resistant plants due to genetic manipulation, as well as genetically manipulated plants and plant cells themselves (including subparts of the genetically manipulated plants as well as progeny obtained by asexual or sexual propagation) and recombinant polynucleotides (DNA or RNA) which can be used for the genetic manipulation. BACKGROUND Most agricultural and horticultural crops are under a constant threat due to fungal attack. To protect the crops from significant losses due to fungal disease, the crops and sometimes the soil in which the crops are grown are periodically treated with large amounts of fungicides. These fungicides form a heavy burden on costs of crop growing, and more importantly on the environment and the growers. Moreover the treatment is very labour intensive. Therefore, there is a need for less costly and safer methods to protect plants from fungal attack which, preferably, are devoid of the need of repeated human involvement. Induced resistance In plants generally several types of resistance against pathogens occur; non-host resistance, "horizontal" or partial resistance and "vertical" resistance. None of these forms of resistance is particularly well understood in molecular terms. In addition to these constitutively expressed forms of resistance there is a resistance mechanism that can be induced by certain pathogenic infections as well as by a number of biotic and abiotic factors. This induced resistance is very broad and is directed against various pathogens, including fungi. This is further illustrated below. Inoculation of the lower leaves of a hypersensitively reacting tobacco cultivar ( Nicotiana tabacum cv Samsun NN) with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) results in the formation of local lesions on the inoculated leaves. The non-inoculated leaves appear resistant to a second infection with TMV after 3 days; this resistance lasts at least twenty days, and an optimal resistance is obtained after 7 days. The resistance against the second infection is also directed to other viruses, such as tobacco necrosis virus, tobacco ringspot virus (Ross & Bozarth, 1960; Ross, 1961), and fungi, such as Thielaviopsis basicola (Hecht & Bateman, 1964), Phytophthora nicotianae and Peronospora tabacina (McIntyre & Dodds, 1979; McIntyre et al ., 1981). The phenomenon of induced resistance has been studied in numerous other host plants and in combination with several other pathogens as well (Kuc, 1982; Sequeira, 1983). The general picture emerging from these studies is that a hypersensitive response is accompanied by resistance against a broad range of pathogens, irrespective of the type of pathogen having caused the first infection. Proteins expressed concomitant with induced resistance Together with the resistance a great number of proteins is synthesized, which are absent before infection. Roughly three categories of proteins can be discerned: 1) Key-enzymes in the synthesis of secondary metabolites, such as phytoalexins, which exhibit an antimicrobial effect, and precursors of lignin; the latter is used in the reinforcement of plant cell walls after pathogen invasion. These enzymes, or their messenger RNAs are mainly found in cells in the immediate vicinity of the site of infection (Elliston et al ., 1976; Cramer et al ., 1985; Bell et al ., 1986). 2) Hydroxyproline rich glycoproteins (HRGPs) or extensins, which can be incorporated into the cell wall and possibly function there as a matrix for the attachment of aromatic compounds like lignin (Fry, 1986). HRGPs are important structural components of plant cell walls, and their accumulation occurs in reaction to fungi, bacteria and viruses (Mazau & Esquerré-Tugayé, 1986). In contrast to the situation with the key-enzymes mentioned above, HRGPs and their mRNAs are found in substantial amounts in non-infected parts of the plant as well as around the site of infection (Showalter et al ., 1985). 3) A third group of induced genes encodes proteins which accumulate both inside the cells and in the apoplastic space. Among these proteins are hydrolytic enzymes such as chitinases and glucanases. After a necrotic infection these enzymes can often be found throughout the plant, including the non-infected parts, in higher concentrations than before infection. Increased synthesis of these enzymes appears to be induced also by microbial elicitors, usually fungal cell wall preparations (Darvill & Albersheim, 1984; Toppan & Esquerré-Tugayé, 1984; Mauch et al ., 1984; Chappel et al ., 1984; Kombrink & Hahlbrock, 1986; Hedrick et al ., 1988). Structure of fungal cell walls The cell walls of fungi are known to consist of a number of different carbohydrate polymers. Most fungi, with the exception of the Oomycetes, contain considerable amounts of chitin. Chitin is a polymer of N-acetyl glucosamine molecules which are coupled via β-1,4 linkages and, in fungal cell walls, are often associated with β-1,3/β-1,6 glucan, polymers of glucose with β-1,3 and β-1,6 linkages. Fungi from the group of Zygomycetes do not contain glucans with β-1,3 and β-1,6 linkages, while in most of the Oomycetes the glucans are associated with cellulose (for an overview, vide: Wessels and Sietsma, 1981). In vitro degradation of isolated fungal cell walls It has been known for a long time that isolated cell walls of fungi can be degraded in vitro by plant extracts (Hilborn & Farr, 1959; Wargo, 1975; Young & Pegg, 1982) and also by chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase preparations from microbial origin (Skujins et al ., 1965; Hunsley & Burnett, 1970; Jones et al ., 1974). More recently a purified endo-β-1,3-glucanase from tomato in combination with an exo-β-1,3-glucanase of fungal origin were shown to be capable of hydrolysing isolated cell walls of the fungus Verticillium albo-atrum . Each of the preparations separately did not have activity (Young & Pegg, 1982). A purified β-1,3-glucanase from soybean (Keen & Yoshikawa, 1983), as well as a purified chitinase from bean (Boller et al ., 1983) have also been shown to be capable of degrading isolated cell walls of fungi in vitro . When pea chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase were tested on isolated cell walls of Fusarium solani , both appeared to be active; in combination they appeared to work synergistically (Mauch et al ., 1988b). It is not known whether these hydrolytic enzymes can degrade the polymer compounds in cell walls of living fungi effectively, if at all. Inhibition of fungal growth on synthetic media by chitinases and glucanases from plant origin Some chitinases and glucanases of plant origin are capable of inhibiting the growth of fungi on synthetic media. Chitinase purified from bean is capable of inhibiting the growth of the fungus Trichoderma viride in agar plate assays (Schlumbaum et al ., 1986). A combination of chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase, both purified from pea pods, do inhibit the growth of some fungi on agar plates, whereas other fungi are not inhibited. The Ascomycete Cladosporium cucumerinum appeared slightly sensitive, while the Oomycetes Phythophthora cactorum , Pythium aphanidermatum and Pythium ultimum are insensitive. Pea chitinase alone has effect on the growth of T.viride , while β-1,3-glucanase inhibits the growth of Fusarium f.sp. pisi . It was established that in these assays the inhibition of fungal growth was due to lysis of the hyphal tips (Mauch et al ., 1988b). Apparently the hydrolytic enzymes do have access to their substrate in the cell walls of living fungi, when grown on synthetic media, although at least some of the active plant hydrolytic enzymes seem to be specific to certain fungi. Little is known about the effect of hydrolytic enzymes on fungi in the biotrope, i.e. in the soil or on plant leaves, and although some of these enzymes are putative candidates for a role in fungal resistance, evidently, not all chitinases and glucanases have activity against living fungi. Possibly, the stage and site of infection at which hydrolytic enzymes come into contact with the invading fungus may be of great importance. Occurrence of chitinases and glucanases in plants As far as known, chitinases and β-1,3-glucanases occur in most if not all plant species, both in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. At least two classes of chitinases and two classes of glucanases can be discerned: intracellular and extracellular. Both chitinase and glucanase genes of one particular class appear to be encoded by gene families. Natural expression of chitinase genes and glucanase genes in plants Chitinase and glucanase genes are known to be expressed in plants both constitutively and in a strictly regulated fashion. Chitinases and β-1,3-glucanases are constitutively synthesised in roots of tobacco plants (Felix and Meins, 1986, Shinshi et al ., 1987,; Memelink et al ., 1987, 1989). Nevertheless tobacco plants are not resistant to infection of Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae (a root pathogen of tobacco). However, resistance against this pathogen can be induced in tobacco plants, following inoculation with TMV (McIntyre & Dodds, 1979). This suggests that a complex of yet unknown factors other than, or in addition to, chitinases and glucanases, may be involved in fungal resistance. On the other hand, plant species are known which seem to be resistant to fungal infection, although no significant increase in the levels of chitinases or glucanases can be observed. For instance, in tomato a compatible interaction with the fungus Phytophthora infestans causes a systemic resistance (Christ & Mösinger, 1989), i.e. a resistance to infection throughout the whole plant, although chitinases or glucanases cannot be detected in such leaves (Fischer et al ., 1989). Apparently there is no clear correlation between expression of the genes encoding hydrolytic enzymes and fungal resistance. In addition to these observations, some chitinases exhibit a regulated expression pattern which does not immediately suggest a correlation with fungal resistance. For example, genes encoding chitinases are known to be expressed in a developmentally regulated manner in, inter alia , tobacco flowers (Lotan et al ., 1989). Glucanases are known to occur in large quantities in seedlings of barley (Swegle et al ., 1989; Woodward & Fincher, 1982; Hoj et al ., 1988, 1989). In tobacco cell suspensions the synthesis of intracellular chitinases and glucanases can be inhibited by the addition of cytokinins or auxins (Mohnen et al ., 1985; Felix & Meins, 1986; Shinshi et al ., 1987; Bauw et al ., 1987). The synthesis of the same hydrolytic enzymes can be induced by cytokinin when this hormone is added to the growth medium in which normal tobacco plants are grown axenically. Under certain circumstances the plant hormone ethylene can also induce the synthesis of chitinase and glucanase (Felix & Meins, 1987). In the roots and lower leaves of both soil-grown and axenically grown tobacco plants, intracellular chitinases and glucanases can be detected, while in upper leaves they can not be detected at all, or to a much lesser extent (Felix & Meins, 1986; Shinshi et al ., 1987; Memelink 1987, 1989). Thus, there is also organ-specific expression of the intracellular chitinases and glucanases. The regulation of expression of the genes coding for extracellular chitinases and glucanases is hardly, or not at all, influenced by cytokinin (Memelink et al 1987., 1989). In tobacco flowers the extracellular chitinases are expressed specifically in anthers, sepals and the ovary. Thus, there is at least an organ-specific expression of the genes coding for the extracellular chitinases as well. Fungal resistant plants expressing chimeric chitinase genes Notwithstanding the many still unelucidated features concerning the nature and the role of hydrolytic enzymes in fungal resistance, some initial successes have been reported in providing plants with diminished sensitivity to fungal attack. In US Patent 4,940,840, tobacco plants expressing a bacterial chitinase gene ( i.e. the chiA gene from Serratia marcescens ) have been shown to be less sensitive to the fungus Alternaria longipes . In the International Patent Application WO 9007001 the plant species tobacco and canola, expressing a bean chitinase under regulation of a strong viral promoter or a plant promoter, appear to be less sensitive to two of the tested fungi, namely Botrytis cinerea and Rhizoctonia solani . It is not known, however, whether these plants are effectively resistant to other fungi as well. In European Patent Application EP-A-0 292 435 it was suggested that resistance to certain classes of fungi may be conferred by the introduction of a gene that expresses chitinase in the plant tissues. Mention was made of a preference in certain cases to target gene products into the mitochondria, the vacuoles, into the endoplasmic vesicles or other cell parts or even into the intercellular (apoplastic) spaces. There was no teaching of the type of chitinase or of the preferred site of action of the chitinase, in order to obtain the desired effect. EP-A-0 270 248 proposes a mechanism to target a bacterial gene (the β-glucuronidase gene from E.coli ) to the plant cell wall by using the leader sequence of the polygalacturonase gene from tomato. It was, inter alia , proposed to target chitinases or glucanases to the plant cell wall to combat fungal attack. Results were not shown, nor was indicated which hydrolytic enzymes should be used, or how intracellular plant proteins must be targeted outside the plant cell. In EP-A-0 332 104 genetic constructs are described comprising chemically regulative sequences derived from plant genes, among which the so-called PR-genes, including those coding for chitinase and glucanase. No results of fungal resistant plants were shown. Summary of the state of the art Plants contain at least two classes of chitinases and β-1,3-glucanases: extracellular and intracellular. The expression of the genes encoding the said hydrolytic enzymes is not constitutive, at least not in all tissues, but is among other things regulated in a developmental or tissue-specific fashion. However, the expression of the genes can also be induced under certain stress-conditions, such as an infection by a necrotisizing pathogen. In most cases, induction of the synthesis of chitinases and β-1,3-glucanases is accompanied by the induction of resistance against a broad range of pathogens, including phytopathogenic fungi. Whether there is a causal relation between fungal resistance and expression of the genes encoding hydrolytic enzymes is not clear. Cell walls of phytopathogenic fungi contain glucans and often a certain amount of chitin. These carbohydrate polymers are substrates for glucanases and chitinases, respectively. It is attractive to hypothesize that both hydrolytic enzymes are responsible for the observed resistance. However, this is far from obvious, in view of many observations which are clearly in conflict with this hypothesis. Hence, it is still unclear whether hydrolytic enzymes have a significant role in fungal resistance, or, when they appear to have so, how substantial their role in fungal resistance is. It seems at least doubtful that any chitinase can confer broad range protection of plants against phytopathogenic fungi. Generally, it is even questionable if chitinases and glucanases by themselves are capable of providing sufficient protection against a broad range of plant pathogenic fungi. There is still little basic understanding of the role of hydrolytic enzymes in the complex process of acquiring (induced) fungal resistance. However, there is a need for a method to effectively protect plants against (a broad range of) phytopathogenic fungi, by means of genetic modification. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The aim of the present invention is to provide plants which have improved resistance to fungal attack. Thereto, plants are genetically transformed by introducing into the genome of the said plants at least one recombinant polynucleotide comprising a gene encoding a chitinase, preferably an intracellular chitinase, and a gene encoding a glucanase, under the control of a promoter that allows suitably strong expression, in one or more tissues. In a still further preferred embodiment, the invention provides plants constitutively expressing a gene encoding an intracellular chitinase of plant origin which is targeted to the apoplastic space and, additionally, one or more genes encoding a hydrolytic enzyme from the group consisting of intracellular glucanases and extracellular glucanases. One especially preferred embodiment is a plant expressing the genes encoding an intracellular chitinase, an extracellular chitinase, an intracellular β-1,3-glucanase, and an extracellular β-1,3-glucanase. Of these, genes encoding the intracellular forms of the mentioned plant hydrolytic enzymes are particularly preferred. Still more preferred is the use of the genes encoding intracellular hydrolytic enzymes, modified by genetic manipulation as to provide for apoplast targeting. In order to achieve apoplast-targeting of the intracellular hydrolytic enzymes, the 3'-end of the gene encoding the C-terminal end of the intracellular hydrolytic enzymes is modified in order to establish, upon expression of the genes, the absence of the C-terminal amino acids that are involved in intracellular targeting of the respective enzymes. Generally such modification results in the absence of at least 3 amino acids of the C-terminal end, or as many amino acids as desired, as long as the enzymatic function and/or other relevant domains of the protein are not negatively affected. Preferably such modification results in the deletion of between 3 and 25 amino acids in the case of intracellular β-1,3-glucanases, and between 3 and 10 amino acids in the case of intracellular chitinases. More preferred are deletions of 4-8 amino acids. Further embodiments of the invention are the recombinant DNA molecules, comprising one or more plant expressible DNA sequences encoding at least one chitinase of plant origin which is modified preferably to achieve targeting of the chitinase to the apoplastic space, and, additional DNA sequences encoding one or more hydrolytic enzymes selected from the group consisting of intracellular glucanases and extracellular glucanases. Certain preferred embodiments are the intracellular chitinase genes located on the Eco RI- Sst I fragment of pMOG200; the extracellular chitinase gene from petunia hybrida, located on pMOG200; the intracellular β-1,3-glucanase gene located on the Xba I- Sst I fragment of pMOG212; the gene encoding the extracellular β-1,3-glucanase which is located on the Sst I- Hin dIII fragment of pMOG212, or genes which are essentially homologous to the said genes. Especially preferred are modified versions of the genes encoding intracellular forms of the said hydrolytic enzymes, which provide for apoplast-targeting. This includes the modified intracellular chitinase gene of pMOG189 (or truncated forms thereof which retain antifungal activity), as well as modified forms of intracellular chitinase genes, which are essentially homologous to the intracellular chitinase gene of pMOG189. Also preferred is the modified intracellular glucanase gene of pMOG512, in which a stopcodon is introduced into the coding region to provide for apoplast-targeting of the produced intracellular β-1,3-glucanase. Also provided are cloning vectors, expression vectors and transformation vectors containing DNA-sequences comprising the said genes, as well as microorganisms containing said DNA-sequences. Further embodiments of the present invention include whole fungal resistant plants obtained by the processes according to the said invention, protoplasts, cells, parts (such as seeds, fruits, leafs, flowers, and the like), and any other part of the plant that can be reproduced either sexually, asexually or both, and progeny of the said plants. The advantages and the field of application will be readily understood from the following detailed description of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES Figure 1 shows the nucleotide sequence and the deduced amino acid sequence of a complete cDNA corresponding to an extracellular chitinase from Petunia hybrida . The vertical arrow shows the cleavage site of the signal peptide. Figure 2 shows the nucleotide sequence and the deduced amino acid sequence of a Bam HI DNA fragment corresponding to an intracellular chitinase from tobacco. The sequence of nucleotide 2 through 22 originates from a synthetic fragment, while the nucleotides 23-27 form the remainder of the Eco RI recognition site. The Pst I recognition site (5'-CTGCAG-3') is found at position 129-134. The last 21 nucleotides of the sequence succesively represent a filled in Eco RI recognition site, originating from an Eco RI linker-molecule used for the construction of the cDNA library, a Sma I and a Bam HI recognition site, both originating from the polylinker of pIC19H. The arrow shows the cleavage site of the signal peptide. Figure 3 shows the nucleotide sequence and the deduced amino acid sequence of a gene coding for an extracellular β-1,3-glucanase from tobacco. The vertical arrow shows the location in the amino acid sequence where the signal peptide is cleaved. The position of the intron is indicated; the sequence of the intron is only given in part. Figure 4 shows the nucleotide sequence and the deduced amino acid sequence of a gene coding for an intracellular β-1,3-glucanase from tobacco. The vertical arrow shows the location in the amino acid sequence where the signal peptide is cleaved. Figure 5 shows a schematic representation of expression vector pMOG181. Amp r stands for the ampicilline resistance gene. A restriction enzyme recognition site between brackets shows that the concerned site is no longer present in the plasmid. Figure 6 shows a schematic representation of vector pMOG183, a derivative of pMOG181 wherein the Eco RI recognition site is replaced by a Sst I site. Figure 7 shows a schematic representation of vector pMOG184, a derivative of pMOG181 wherein the Hin dIII recognition site is replaced by a Sst I site. Figure 8 shows a schematic representation of vector pMOG185, a derivative of pMOG184 wherein the Eco RI recognition site is replaced by a Xba I site. Figure 9 shows a schematic representation of the binary vector pMOG23. Figure 10 shows a schematic representation of the binary vector pMOG22, a derivative of pMOG23 wherein the kanamycin resistance gene (NPTII) is replaced by a hygromycin resistance gene (HPT). Figure 11 shows a schematic representation of the plasmid pMOG200, a derivative of pMOG23 wherein two expression cassettes are cloned into the polylinker, viz., one with the coding sequence for an intracellular chitinase (ChiI) and one with the coding sequence for an extracellular chitinase (ChiE). The arrow provides the direction of the transcription in the cassettes, beginning with the CaMV 35S promoter. Figure 12 shows a schematic representation of plasmid pMOG212, a derivative of pMOG22 wherein two expression cassettes are cloned into the polylinker, viz., one with the coding sequence for an extracellular β-1,3-glucanase (GluE) and one with the coding sequence for an intracellular β-1,3-glucanase (GluI). The arrows give the direction of transcription beginning with CaMV 35S promoter. DEFINITIONS For the purpose of the present invention it is understood that an extracellular protein is a protein which, after proper expression in the original plant, is localised in the apoplastic space. Consequently, an intracellular protein is a protein which, after proper expression in the plant of origin, is localised intracellularly. The apoplastic space is defined herein as the extracellular space, including the plant cell wall. For the purpose of this invention a protein is said to be localised intracellularly if it is localised in any compartment of the cell that does not form part of the apoplastic space; these compartments include nuclei, chloroplasts, mitochondria, vacuoles, endoplasmatic reticulum, other membranous organelles, the cytoplasm, and all membranes, including the plasma membrane. Genes are said to be essentially homologous if their DNA sequences correspond for more than 60%, unless stated otherwise. With chimeric genes is meant, genes that are physically coupled to regulatory sequences ( e.g. promoters, enhancers, or DNA-sequences that impart a specific mode of regulation of the gene), which are not naturally coupled to that gene, in order to alter its authentic mode of regulation of expression. By plant is meant any monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plant, including progeny, or parts of such plants, cells or protoplasts, and the like, and any other plant material that is amenable to transformation and subsequent regeneration into a whole plant. With relative overexpression is meant any expression of a chimeric gene that eventually leads to higher levels of the encoded protein in a preselected plant part, as compared with the expression of the non-chimeric gene in the same plant part in the plant of origin. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In the light of their assumed involvement in fungal resistance, it was surprisingly found that purified extracellular chitinases from tobacco and petunia do not have a significant antifungal effect when compared to intracellular chitinases. In an antifungal assay, equal amounts of chitinolytic activity of purified intracellular and extracellular chitinases, rather than equal amounts of protein, were compared. The antifungal activity of the tested extracellular forms was practically undetectable. Expression of a chimeric gene encoding an extracellular chitinase in a transformed plant as such, is therefore not sufficient to provide for fungal resistance. Nevertheless, it can not be entirely excluded that extracellular chitinases play a supportive role in fungal resistance, by increasing the antifungal effect of other hydrolytic enzymes present. This observation has important implications for the engineering of fungal resistance in plants, based on expression of chimeric genes encoding plant hydrolytic enzymes. In a series of experiments the combined effect of chitinases and glucanases in total protein extracts and extracellular fluids of leaves of transgenic plants was investigated. Tobacco plants were transformed with a recombinant DNA construct essentially comprising: 1°. a gene encoding a tobacco intracellular β-1,3-glucanase, targeted to the apoplast by modification of the C-terminal end; 2°. a gene encoding a tobacco intracellular chitinase, and the tobacco intracellular β-1,3-glucanase, both targeted to the apoplast, by modification of the C-terminal end of the hydrolytic enzymes. Transgenic tobacco plants that were good expressors of the chimeric genes were selected, and subjected to isolation of extracellular fluid (EF) and total protein extract (TE) of leaves. Both the EF and TE of plant 1, expressing the intracellular β-1,3-glucanase that was targeted to the apoplast, exhibited a weak antifungal effect on the fungus Fusarium solani . The EF and TE of plant 2, expressing both the apoplast-targeted intracellular chitinase and the apoplast-targeted intracellular β-1,3-glucanase, exhibited a surprisingly strong antifungal effect; this effect was slightly higher than that of the EF and TE of a plant of a former experiment (expressing only the gene encoding the apoplast-targeted intracellular chitinase). It can be concluded from these experiments that modification of the C-terminal end of the intracellular β-1,3-glucanase succesfully leads to apoplast-targeting of (most of) the enzyme, and that the C-terminal modification does not adversely affects the antifungal activity of the intracellular β-1,3-glucanase. Moreover, it is shown that the antifungal effect of the expression of both an intracellular chimeric chitinase gene and an intracellular chimeric β-1,3-glucanase gene is larger than the effect of the expression of each of the genes alone. Thus, in a aspect of the invention plants having improved fungal resistance are provided, expressing a chimeric plant chitinase gene and a chimeric plant glucanase gene, both under the regulation of the CaMV 35S promoter. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention plants are provided which have been transformed with at least a gene encoding an intracellular chitinase gene and an intracellular β-1,3-glucanase gene. It will be advantageous if these latter plants express the modified forms of the hydrolytic enzymes, to achieve apoplast-targeting of the said enzymes. Another preferred embodiment of the invention is a plant constitutively expressing an intracellular chitinase, preferably targeted to the apoplast, an extracellular chitinase, an intracellular glucanase, preferably targeted to the apoplast, and an extracellular glucanase. In principle any combination of genes encoding plant hydrolytic enzymes can be chosen, modified or unmodified, as long as suitably high expression of these genes does not impair cell function of the transformed plant host. In addition to genes encoding plant hydrolytic enzymes, other plant or non-plant genes ( e.g. derived from bacteria, yeast, fungi, or other sources) may be used as well. The plant genes encoding the hydrolytic enzymes may either be endogenous or exogenous to the plant that is to be transformed. It will be readily understood, that, in addition to the chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase genes mentioned, genes encoding hydrolytic enzymes can be readily isolated from other plant species as well. Moreover, the genes as meant by the present invention may be entirely synthetic. Genes or cDNAs coding for the desired hydrolytic enzymes can for instance be isolated from tobacco ( e.g. Legrand et al ., 1987; Shinshi et al ., 1987), tomato (Joosten et al ., 1989), a basic intracellular chitinase can be isolated from potato (Gaynor, 1988; Kombrink et al ., 1988), an extracellular chitinase can be isolated from cucumber (Métraux & Boller, 1986; Métraux et al ., 1986), and both intracellular chitinases and glucanases can be isolated from bean (Broglie et al ., 1986; Vögeli et al ., 1988; Mauch & Staehelin, 1989). Furthermore, chitinases and β-1,3-glucanases can be isolated from pea, using chitosan as inducing compound (Mauch et al ., 1984). Further analysis revealed the presence of at least five hydrolases, viz. two basic β-1,3-glucanases and three basic chitinases (Mauch et al ., 1988a). Intracellular and extracellular chitinases which are serologically related to an intracellular chitinase from bean can be isolated from Allium porrum L. (Spanu et al ., 1989). Endochitinases and glucanases can also be isolated from maize, following inoculation of leaves with BMV (bromine mosaic virus) (Nasser et al ., 1988). Chitinases which are serologically related to an intracellular endochitinase from bean (Swegle et al ., 1989) can be isolated from barley ( Hordeum vulgare ). Also β-1,3-glucanases, as well as other classes of glucanases, can be isolated from barley (Balance et al ., 1976; Hoj et al ., 1988, 1989). At least 4 different chitinases and 5 different β-1,3-glucanases are known to exist in oat (Fink et al ., 1988). It will be understood that sources for obtaining hydrolytic enzymes for protecting plants against fungal attack, are not limited to the list given above, which is only given as illustration. cDNAs encoding plant chitinases and β-1,3-glucanases are suitably obtained by immunological screening of a cDNA-expression library, made on polyA + -RNA, isolated from plants after induction of the synthesis of the hydrolytic enzymes, using an antibody against the desired hydrolytic enzyme. In order to be expressed properly the gene must be operably linked to a promoter. The choice of the promoter is dependent on the desired level of expression and the desired way of regulation of the gene under its control. This is all within ordinary skill. Preferably strong constitutive promoters are used which function throughout the whole plant, with as little as possible restrictions with respect to developmental patterns. One example of a constitutive promoter for high level expression is the CaMV 35S promoter. This promoter may be flanked by so-called enhancer sequences (McGuilley et al ., 1987) to further enhance expression levels. Other examples of high-level, light-inducible, promoters are, among others, the ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase small subunit ( rbc SSU) promoter, the chlorophyl a/b binding protein (Cab) promoter, and the like. Occasionally, it may be desirable to restrict expression of the introduced chimeric genes to one or a few pre-selected tissues, for instance those that are targets for fungal attack, such as roots and epidermal cells, and the like. A well known example of a tissue-specific promoter is for example the root-specific patatin class-II promoter. Expression of chimeric genes may be dependent on exogenous stimuli as well, like wounding, drought, temperature, and the like. Generally the gene(s) of choice is/are contained in an expression cassette, which comprises at least a promoter and a transcription terminator, which may be foreign to the gene. It is well known how such elements should be linked in order to function properly and this can be determined without practising inventive skill. Occasionally eukaryotic (genomic) genes contain introns. The presence of the latter, either naturally or introduced by genetic modification, is not particularly relevant to the invention. The techniques for gene manipulation are readily available to a person skilled in the art ( vide e.g. : Maniatis et al ., 1982). In addition to genes encoding hydrolytic enzymes also genes encoding other proteins having an extra effect on pathogen resistance may be introduced in the plant of interest, in order to improve the effect or broaden pathogen range. Such proteins are suitably chosen from the group consisting of e.g. lectins, cow pea trypsin-inhibitor (CpTI), Bacillus thuringiensis toxins, and the like. To obtain transgenic plants capable of constitutively expressing more than one chimeric gene, a number of alternatives are available, which are encompassed by the present invention, including the following: A . the use of one recombinant polynucleotide, e.g a plasmid, with a number of modified genes physically coupled to one selection marker gene. B . Cross-pollination of transgenic plants which are already capable of expressing one or more chimeric genes coupled to a gene encoding a selection marker, with pollen from a transgenic plant which contains one or more gene constructions coupled to another selection marker. Afterwards the seed, which is obtained by this crossing, is selected on the basis of the presence of the two markers. The plants obtained from the selected seeds can afterwards be used for further crossing. C . The use of a number of various recombinant polynucleotides, e.g. plasmids, each having one or more chimeric genes and one other selection marker. If the frequency of cotransformation is high, then selection on the basis of only one marker is sufficient. In other cases, the selection on the basis of more than one marker is preferred. D . Consecutive transformations of transgenic plants with new, additional chimeric genes and selection marker genes. E . Combinations of the above mentioned strategies. The actual strategy is not critical with respect to the described invention and can be easily determined depending on factors such as the desired construct, the materials available and the preference of the skilled workers. For the transformation of plants several techniques are available. The choice of the technique is generally not critical to the invention, as long as the transforming genetic construct, comprising the genes and regulatory elements according to the invention, can be introduced into a plant and become stably integrated into the genome of that plant. Some examples for purposes of illustration are transformation of protoplasts using the calcium/polyethylene glycol method (Krens et al ., 1982; Negrutiu et al ., 1987), electroporation (ref.) and microinjection (Crossway et al ., 1986), (coated) particle bombardment (Klein et al ., 1987), infection with viruses and the like. After selection and/or screening for the tranformed plant material, the transformed material is regenerated into whole plants, using methods known in the art. Subsequently transformed plants are evaluated for the presence of the desired properties and/or the extent to which the desired properties are expressed. A first evaluation may include the level of expression of the newly introduced genes, the level of fungal resistance of the transformed plants, stable heritability of the desired properties, field trials and the like. Secondly, if desirable, the transformed plants can be cross-bred with other varieties, for instance varieties of higher commercial value or varieties in which other desired characteristics have already been introduced, or used for the creation of hybrid seeds, or be subject to another round of transformation and the like. Plants, or parts thereof of commercial interest, with improved resistance against phytopathogenic fungi can be grown in the field or in greenhouses, and subsequently be used for animal feed, direct consumption by humans, for prolonged storage, used in food- or other industrial processing, and the like. The advantages of the plants, or parts thereof, according to the invention are the decreased need for fungicide treatment, thus lowering costs of material, labour, and environmental pollution, or prolonged shelf-life of products ( e.g. fruit, seed, and the like) of such plants. Any plant species or variety that is subject to some form of fungal attack may be transformed with one or more genetic constructs according to the invention in order to decrease the rate of infectivity and/or the effects of such attack. As a matter of illustration the species of the following, non-limitative, list are of particular interest: edible flowers, such as cauliflower ( Brassica oleracea) , artichoke ( Cynara scolymus ) (edible flowers); decorative flowers, such as Chrysanthemum , lily, Rosa ; edible fruit, such as apple ( e.g. Malus domesticus ), banana, berries ( e.g. currant, Ribes rubrum ), sweet cherry ( Prunus avium ), cucumber ( Cucumis sativus ), grape ( Vitis vinifera ), lemon ( Citrus limon ), melon ( Cucumis sativus ), nuts ( e.g. walnut Juglans regia ), orange, peaches ( Prunus persica ), pear ( Pyra communis ), pepper ( Solanum capsicum ), prunes ( Prunus domestica ), strawberry ( Fragaria ), tobacco ( Nicotiana ), tomato ( e.g. Lycopersicon esculentum ); leaf(y) vegetables, such as cabbages ( Brassica ), endive ( Cichoreum endivia ), lettuce ( Lactuca sativa ), spinach ( Spinacia oleraceae ), leek ( Allium porrum ); edible roots, such as beet ( Beta vulgaris ), carrot ( Daucus carota ), turnip/swede ( Brassica rapa ), radish ( Raphanus sativus ) (edible roots); edible seeds, such as bean ( Phaseolus ), pea ( Pisum sativum ), soybean ( Glycin max ), wheat ( Triticum aestivum ), barley ( Hordeum vulgare ), corn ( Zea mays ), rice ( Oryza ); edible tubers, such as kohlrabi, potato ( Solanum tuberosum ), and the like. The following enabling Examples serve to further illustrate the invention, and are not intended to define limitations or to restrict the scope of the subject invention. EXPERIMENTAL EXAMPLE 1 Assay for antifungal activity The effect of various protein solutions on fungal growth was assessed in a microtiter plate assay. In each well of a 24-well microtiter dish 250 µl potato dextrose agar (PDA) was pipetted. Fungal spores were suspended in water and 300-500 spores in 50 µl were added to the wells. Spores were pregerminated overnight. Subsequently 100 µl filter sterilized (0.22 µm filter) protein solutions were added. As controls proteins were boiled for 10 minutes. Microtiter dishes were covered with Parafilm and incubated at room temperature. After 1-2 days the mycelium of the growing fungus in the wells was stained with lactophenol cotton blue and the extent of growth was estimated. EXAMPLE 2 Assay for chitinase activity Chitinase activity was assayed radiometrically with tritiated chitin as substrate (Molano et al ., 1977) Tritiated chitin was synthesized by acetylation of chitosan with tritiated anhydride (Molano et al ., 1977). The specific activity of the final product was approximately 1.2 x 10 6 cpm/mg. Before use the tritiated chitin was washed three times. To 100 µl 10 mM potassium phosphate buffer pH 6.4 with 0.02 % sodium azide, 50 µl tritiated chitin (approximately 150,000 cpm) and 50 µl protein solution was added. The mixture was incubated while shaking for 30 minutes at 37°C. The reaction was stopped by adding 600 µl 10% trichloro acetic acid. After centrifugation to pellet the chitin (10 minutes in a microfuge), 500 µl supernatant was filtered over glasswool and pipetted into a scintillation vial. 5 ml scintillation fluid was added and the radioactivity was counted. The amount of radioactivity released (expressed as counts per minute) was taken as a measure for chitinase activity. EXAMPLE 3 Antifungal activity of chitinase Antifungal activity of chitinases was assessed by the microtiter plate assay described above using the fungus Fusarium solani . Two purified extracellular tabacco chitinases (also known as pathogenesis-related proteins P and Q), a purified intracellular tobacco chitinase (32 kd protein) and a purified extracellular petunia chitinase were tested. In all cases the added activity was approximately 2000 counts per minute (meaning that this activitiy releases 2000 cpm from tritiated chitin in the chitinase assay). This activity is within in the range in which there is a linearity between protein concentration and activity. As controls bovine serum albumin (BSA), buffer or heat-inactivated chitinase was added. The results are shown in Table 1. Inhibition of the growth of Fusarium solani by chitinases. Protein added Inhibition petunia extracellular chitinase - petunia extracellular chitinase, boiled - tobacco extracellular chitinase (PR-P) - tobacco PR-P, boiled - tobacco extracellular chitinase (PR-Q) - tobacco PR-Q, boiled - tobacco intracellular 32 kd chitinase + tobacco 32 kd intracellular chitinase, boiled - BSA - buffer - - : no inhibition; + : inhibition From the results in Table I it can be concluded that the extracellular chitinases of tobacco and of petunia do not possess antifungal activity. EXAMPLE 4 4.0 The cloning of cDNAs corresponding with chitinase Polyadenylated RNA was isolated from TMV-infected Samsun NN tobacco and double stranded cDNA was made using oligo(dT) as a primer (Hooft van Huijsduijnen et al ., 1986) using standard techniques known to researchers in this area. The double stranded DNA was provided with "C-tails" which were hybridized with "G-tails" which were brought into the plasmid pUC9 after this plasmid was spliced open with Pst I (Maniatis et al ., 1982). The constructs obtained were used for the transformation of Escherichia coli MH-1. The transformants were brought in duplo on nitrocellulose filters. The first filter was hybridized in vitro with transcribed cDNA of poly(A)-RNA from TMV-infected tobacco, the other filter was hybridized with cDNA against poly(A)-RNA from healthy tobacco (Maniatis et al ., 1982). Transformants which showed better hybridization with the first probe than with the second contained cDNA corresponding with mRNAs whose synthesis was induced via the TMV infection. The cDNA clones obtained could be subdivided into six clusters on the basis of cross-hybridizations of the insertions: within a cluster, the insertions of all clones hybridize with each other, between clusters no cross-hybridizations took place (Hooft van Huijsduijnen et al ., 1986) under the hybridization and wash conditions used (0.1 SSC, 1% SDS, 65°C; Maniatis et al ., 1982). The TMV-inducibility of the synthesis of mRNAs corresponding with the insertions of the clones of the six clusters, were confirmed via Northern blot analyses, well known to researchers in this area (Hooft van Huijsduijnen et al ., 1986). Via immunoprecipitations of in vitro translation-products of mRNAs by means of selective hybridization with (the insertions of) cDNA clones from the six clusters, it was established that the clones of two clusters, namely clusters D and F, correspond with mRNAs for proteins serologically related to the so-called PR-proteins P and Q (Hooft van Huisduijnen et al ., 1987). The experiments were conducted according to standard techniques known to researchers in this area. The PR-proteins P and Q were already earlier identified as extracellular acidic chitinases, and antibodies against both proteins cross-react with two basic chitinases also present in tobacco (Legrand et al ., 1987). Inserts of clones from clusters D and F were subcloned in M13-vectors and the sequence of the insertions was determined by the method of Sanger et al . (1977). One clone from cluster F, namely PROB3, appeared to contain an insertion of 412 base-pairs, wherein an open reading frame occurs, coding for 109 amino acids wherefrom the sequence appears to be identical to the C-terminal sequence of a basic chitinase of tobacco (Hooft van Huijsduijnen et al ., 1987). The amino acid sequence of this chitinase was determined from the nucleotide-sequence of a cDNA clone, namely pCHN50 (Shinshi et al ., 1987). Cluster F, including clone PROB3, consequently corresponds with one or more intracellular basic chitinases of tobacco. Cluster D contains one clone, namely PROB30, with an insertion of 404 base-pairs, wherein an open reading frame occurs, coding for 67 amino acids (Hooft van Huijsduijnen et al ., 1987). The homology between the amino acid sequences deduced from the nucleotide-sequences of the insertions of PROB3 and PROB30 appears to be 65%, while the nucleotide-sequences themselves showed a homology of only 56%. From this it was concluded that PROB30 corresponds with a chitinase that is related to, but is not identical to the intracellular chitinase. After partial amino acid sequences for PR-proteins P and Q were established, it was concluded that PROB3O corresponds with PR-protein P, an extracellular acidic chitinase of tobacco. 4.1 Construction of cDNA clones coding for an entire extracellular chitinase To obtain cDNA clones containing the entire coding sequence for the chitinases, clone PROB3O was used as a probe for the selection of clones from a Petunia hybrida cDNA library. Double stranded cDNA was synthesized as described above, treated with Eco RI-methylase, provided with Eco RI-linkers, ligated to lambda gt11 vector-arms and transfected to E . coli Y1090 entirely according to the method described in the instruction manual belonging to "cDNA cloning system-lambda gt11" (Amersham International plc, 1986). Afterwards, the newly constructed library was searched with the plaque hybridization-technique of Benton and Davis (1977) whereby the previously described acidic chitinase-cDNA clone served as a probe. In this manner, five recombinant phages were obtained with sequences homologous to PROB30. Recombinant phage DNA was isolated and afterwards the insertions were spliced out with Eco RI and subcloned in a pUC plasmid, resulting in the clones, D1, D2, D5, D6 and D8. After being subcloned in sections into M13-phages, the nucleotide sequences of the original insertions were entirely or partially determined. In Figure 1, the sequence of clone D1 and a deduced amino acid sequence are provided. The first and the last 7 nucleotides originate from the Eco RI-linkers which were used for the construction of the library. The sequence of eight A-residues at the end of the insertion, just before the Eco RI recognition site represent the remainder of the poly(A)-tail of the original mRNA and consequently confirms the orientation of the insertion previously assigned through the large open reading frame and the homology to the deduced amino acid sequence of other chitinases (see above). The insertion of clone D5 appears to be 10 nucleotides longer on its 5' extremity than that of D1; the remainder of the poly(A)-tail was however, as with the insertion of D6, found 25 nucleotides earlier in the sequence. For as far as could be traced, the sequences of the insertions of D8, D2 and D6 appeared to be identical to those of D1 and D5. The homology between the determined amino acid sequence of Petunia clone D1 and tobacco clone PROB30 is approximately 80%. PROB30 is a partial cDNA clone which corresponds with PR-protein P, an extracellular chitinase. Analyses of transgenic plants have proven that the chitinase encoded on D1 is extracellularly localized, at least in tobacco. D1 consequently contains the entire nucleotide sequence coding for an extracellular chitinase. In order to clone the cDNA corresponding with the extracellular chitinase on a Bam HI fragment, the following experiments were performed. Two of the oligonucleotides were synthesized, namely 5'-AGCTTGGATCCGTCGACGGTCCT-3' and 5'-AATTAGGATCCGTCGACGGATCCA-3', and these were hybridized to one another, resulting in a double stranded DNA fragment with one extremity compatible with the Hin dIII recognition site and one extremity compatible with the Eco RI recognition site. Furthermore, the fragment contains recognition sites for Bam HI, Hin cII and once again, Bam HI. This fragment is cloned in pUC19, spliced open with Eco RI and Hin dIII, whereby the Hin dIII recognition site is restored but the Eco RI recognition site is not. The new plasmid was called pUC19+. After the extremities of the Eco RI insertion of clone D1 were filled in with Klenow polymerase according to standard techniques, the fragment was cloned into the Hin cII site of pUC19+. 4.2 Construction of a cDNA clone coding for an entire intracellular chitinase Screening of a new Samsun NN library (which was constructed in the same manner as the Petunia library described above) with the PROB3 insertion provided a recombinant phage. The insertion of this phage was subcloned into a plasmid as a Eco RI fragment, resulting in clone F1. Clarification of the primary structure showed that the nucleotide sequence of the insertion of F1 was identical to clone pCHN50, which was characterized by Shinshi and co-workers (1987). Because the insertion of pCHN50 has been characterized as a sequence corresponding with the intracellular chitinase of tobacco, it was concluded that the insertion of F1 also corresponds to an intracellular chitinase. The insertion of pCHN50 does not contain the entire coding sequence and is consequently incomplete. Although the insertion of F1 is 30 nucleotides longer on the 5' extremity than is pCHN50, the chitinase coding sequence contained in F1 is also incomplete. To obtain a fragment with a sequence which codes for an entire chitinase, the following cloning steps were performed. The insertion of F1 was cloned as an Eco RI fragment into pIC19H (Marsh et al ., 1984) such that the 3' extremity of the insertion properly came to the Bam HI site of the polylinker. This resulted in plasmid pIC19/F1. Two oligonucleotides were synthesized (5'-GATCCAACATGAGGCTGTGCA-3' and 5'-AATTTGCACAGCCTCATGTTG-3') which form a fragment after hybridization to each other. This fragment is cloned in a three-point ligation reaction in a pUC plasmid spliced open with Bam HI- Pst I, together with the Eco RI- Pst I fragment, with the 5' extremity of the open reading frame in the insertion of pIC19/F1. This cloning results in pUC/5'F1. The sequence of the oligonucleotides was chosen such that the fragment coded for five amino acids, and also such that in the eventually obtained Bam HI- Pst I fragment, the Eco RI recognition site was eliminated and the triplets for said five amino acids were in phase with the open reading frame in F1. After digestion of pIC19H/F1 with Hin dIII and (partially) with Pst I, the Hin dIII/ Pst I fragment was cloned with the 3' part of the insertion into an intermediate vector lacking a Eco RI recognition site. The Eco RI site on the extremity of the insertion was replaced by filling in and back-ligation, techniques known to researchers in this area. After elimination of the Eco RI recognition site, the Hin dIII- Pst I fragment was cloned into pUC/5'F1. The thus-obtained plasmid contains on a Bam HI fragment, a cDNA with an entire coding sequence for an intracellular chitinase from tobacco. In Figure 2, the sequence of this Bam HI fragment with the deduced amino acid sequence are provided. The sequence of nucleotides 2 through 22 originates from the synthetic fragment, while nucleotides 23-27 form the remainder of the Eco RI recognition site. The Pst I recognition site (5'-CTGCAG-3') is found at position 129-134. The last 21 nucleotides of this sequence successively represent a filled in Eco RI recognition site which originates from an Eco RI linker-molecule used for the construction of the cDNA library, a Sma I and a Bam HI recognition site, both originating from the polylinker of pIC19H. 4.3 Construction of a gene encoding an intracellular chitinase, modified as to obtain apoplast targeting of the protein. For the construction of a gene coding for an intracellular chitinase to be targeted to the apoplast, the sequence of the intracellular chitinase gene as shown in Figure 2 was modified. The G at position 961 was changed into a T, hence creating a stopcodon. A second stopcodon was introduced by the replacement of the T residue at position 968 into an A. The change of the T residue at position 975 into a C resulted in the creation of a Sal I-site. These modifications were introduced by using an overlapping polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, known to persons skilled in the art. Afterwards, the whole sequence was checked for possible introduction of mutations as a result of the PCR technique. EXAMPLE 5 5.0 Cloning of genes coding for extra- and intracellular glucanases The previously described lambda gt11 tobacco cDNA library was screened for recombinant phages expressing PR-2, PR-N or related sequences, with antiserum, obtained from rabbits that were immunized with tobacco PR-proteins 2 and N. The technique used was based on methods described by Huynh et al ., (1985) and may be presumed to be known by researchers in this area. The insertion of one recombinant phage identified by this method, was used as a probe to rescreen the library, but this time using the plaque hybridization technique of Benton & Davis (1977). Using this method, 30 recombinant phages were identified. The insertions in the DNA of these phages were spliced open with Eco RI and subcloned into a pUC plasmid. On the basis of their various restriction patterns, the thus-obtained clones were divided into a number of groups. After subcloning in M13 vectors, the nucleotide sequences of a number of clones from each group were determined, and the amino acid sequences of the peptides encoded thereby was deduced. These analyses, in combination with the comparison of the thus-obtained sequences to sequences previously known, indicate that for at least 5 groups of clones, each codes for a unique β-1,3-glucanase. Hybridization experiments with total RNA from tobacco, whereby one of the glucanase cDNAs was used as a probe, showed that these glucanase mRNAs were also synthesized following induction with salicylate or following TMV-infection (Memelink et al ., 1989). 5.1 Isolation of genes coding for extracellular β-1,3-glucanases Using one of the above described cDNA clones, a genomic library of DNA from the nucleus of Samsun NN tobacco partially spliced with Sau 3AI (Cornelissen et al ., 1987), screened on recombinant phages with genes coding for glucanases. A number of recombinant phages were obtained from which four, namely gI1, gI3, gI4 and gI9 (PR-N), were further characterized. Southern blot analyses resulted in restriction maps which showed that each of the four clones contained an unique gene. After subcloning in successive pUC plasmids and M13 vectors, sequence analyses were carried out on gI3 and gI9. The sequence of the gene on clone gI9, together with the amino acid sequence deduced therefrom, are provided in Figure 3. Comparisons teach that this amino acid sequence is identical to that of the tobacco extracellular β-1,3-glucanase PR36, the amino acid sequence of which was partially clarified (Van den Bulcke et al ., 1989) with the understanding that the 21st amino acid on the C-terminal end, a threonine residue, appeared not to be present in PR36. The gene herein described is the first isolated and characterized DNA sequence coding for an extracellular β-1,3-glucanase. To clone the gene in an expression vector, the following treatments were carried out. Using the PCR technique, known to researchers in this area, a Bam HI recognition site was introduced before the gene and a Hin dIII recognition site was introduced after the gene. Afterwards the sequence is checked for possible introduction of mutations as a result of the PCR technique. After ligation of the gene as a Bam HI- Hin dIII fragment into expression vector pMOG183 (see under 6), and following linearization by splicing with Bam HI and Hin dIII, an expression unit arises on a Sst I- Hin dIII fragment with the transcription terminator of the glucanase gene itself. 5.2 Isolation of genes coding for intracellular glucanases A clone corresponding to an intracellular glucanase (Memelink et al ., 1989) is used as a probe to search the above described genomic library. Though a large number of recombinant phages with unique insertions were obtained, it appeared after restriction analysis that only 2 unique genes are concerned. The DNA from one phage, gGLB50, was further characterized by Southern blot analysis, subcloning and via clarification of the primary structure of insertions of the relevant subclones, all of which was done using techniques known to researchers in this area. The primary structure of the gene as eventually obtained, together with the amino acid sequence deduced therefrom, are provided in Figure 4. Comparisons teach that this amino acid sequence is extremely homologous to the sequence of an intracellular, basic β-1,3-glucanase from tobacco such as deduced from the sequences of a number of overlapping cDNA clones by Shinshi and co-workers (1988). Though the cDNAs possibly correspond to one another with strong relation, they are nevertheless different genes. At least one of the cDNA clones contains an insertion having a sequence identical to a part of the herein described gene. To clone the gene into an expression vector, the following steps were carried out. Using the PCR technique, known by researchers in this area, a Bam HI recognition site is introduced before the gene and an Sst I recognition site is introduced after the gene. Afterwards, the sequence is checked for possible introduction of mutations as a result of the PCR technique. Following ligation of the gene as a Bam HI- Sst I fragment in expression vector pMOG185 (see under Example 6), after linearization of the vector by digestion with Bam HI and Sst I, an expression unit arises on a Xba I- Sst I fragment with the transcription terminator of the glucanase gene itself. In addition to the above, using the PCR technique, a Bam HI recognition site is introduced before the gene. Afterwards, the sequence is checked for possible introduction of mutations as a result of the PCR technique. Subsequently, the Bam HI- Xba I fragment conataining the glucanase gene was cloned into plasmid pIC19H (Marsh et al ., 1984), after linearisation of the plasmid by digestion with Bam HI and Xba I. After linearization of expression vector pMOG183 (see under 6) by digestion with Bam HI and Hin dIII, the gene was ligated into this vector as a Bam HI- Hin dIII fragment, resulting in a glucanase expression unit on a Sst I- Hin dIII fragment with the transcription terminator of the glucanase gene itself. 5.3 Construction of a gene encoding an intracellular glucanase, modified as to obtain apoplast targeting of the protein. For the construction of a gene coding for an intracellular glucanase to be targeted to the apoplast, modifications were made in the sequence of the intracellular glucanase gene described under 5.2. To this end the sequence GTCTCTGGTGG (nucleotides 1883-1893 in Figure 4) was changed into the sequence TGATATCGTTA using the PCR technique. This modification results in the introduction of two stopcodons with an Eco RV recognition site inbetween. Sequences were checked for possible introduction of mutations as a result of the PCR technique. EXAMPLE 6 6.0 Construction of expression vectors A high constitutive expression of genes is pending upon, inter alia, the promoter of the genes concerned. To satisfy such demands, expression vector pMOG181 was constructed, and is depicted in Figure 5. To this end, the expression cassette of pROK1 (Baulcombe et al ., 1986) is cloned in pUC18 as a Eco RI- Hin dIII fragment. This cassette contains the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter on an Eco RI- Bam HI restriction fragment and the nopaline synthase (nos) transcription terminator on a Bam HI- Hin dIII fragment. The promoter fragment consists of the sequence beginning with the -800 residue and extending to and including the +1 residue of the CaMV genome, whereby position +1 is the transcription initiation site (Guilley et al ., 1982). From the literature it is known that the duplication of the sequence between -343 and -90 increases the activity of the CaMV 35S promoter (Kay et al ., 1987). To obtain a promoter fragment with a double so-called enhancer sequence, the following cloning steps were carried out using techniques known to researchers in this area. First, the sequence upstream from the Nco I recognition site at position -512 was deleted and the Nco I recognition site itself was changed into an Eco RI recognition site. To achieve this, the expression cassette in pUC18 was spliced open with Nco I, the thus-obtained extremities were filled in with Klenow polymerase and an Eco RI linker was ligated into the extremities. The plasmid obtained was spliced open with Eco RI, resulting in the deletion of the Eco RI fragment, and the extremities were filled in using Klenow polymerase. Afterwards, the filled in Acc I- Eco RV promoter fragment (position -388 to -90) was cloned into the linear plasmid, whereby the ligation of the filled Eco RI to the filled-in Acc I recognition site created a new Eco RI site. The newly obtained plasmid, pMOG181, contains the CaMV 35S promoter with double enhancer sequences in an expression cassette which still lies on an Eco RI- Hin dIII fragment. A number of derivatives were made from pMOG181. An adaptor (5'-AATTGAGCTC-3') was cloned into the Eco RI recognition site, such that the Eco RI site was not recovered and a Sst I recognition site was introduced. The resulting plasmid, pMOG183 (Figure 6), now contains the expression cassette of a Sst I- Hin dIII fragment. In the same manner, pMOG184 was developed from pMOG181 (Figure 7) by the replacement of the Hin dIII site with a Sst I recognition site. Replacement of the Eco RI site in pMOG184 by a Xba I site provided pMOG185 (Figure 8). EXAMPLE 7 Binary vectors In order to introduce the chimeric chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase genes into the genome of tobacco via Agrobacterium tumefaciens , the binary vectors pMOG23 (Figure 9) and pMOG22 (Figure 10) were used. Vector pMOG23 is a derivative of vector BIN19 (Bevan, 1984). In view of this last vector, the following changes were made, which are not essential for the invention, using techniques known to researchers in this area. In the first place, the positions of the left border (LB) and the right border (RB), in view of the neomycine phosphotransferase gene II (NPTII gene), are exchanged for each other. Afterwards, the orientation of the NPTII gene is turned around such that the transcription of the gene occurs in the direction of the LB. Finally the BIN19 polylinker is replaced with a polylinker with the following restriction enzyme recognition sites: Eco RI, Kpn I, Sma I, Bam HI, Xba I, Sac I, Xho I and Hin dIII. Vector pMOG22 is a derivative of pMOG23 wherein the NPTII gene is replaced with a hygromycine resistance gene. The gene used codes for a Escherichia coli hygromycine phosphotransferase (HPT) and is taken from plasmid PLG90 (Van den Elzen et al ., 1985). This plasmid is a derivative of pLG86 (Gritz et al ., 1983) and contains a Bam HI recognition site extending from 19 base pairs before the translation initiation codon to 20 base pairs after the stop codon of the gene. Using site directed mutagenesis, a standard recombinant DNA technique known to researchers in this area, the ATG codon four nucleotides before the translation initiation codon is changed into an ATA codon. In the same manner, the Eco RI recognition site in the coding region of the HPT gene is changed to 5'CAATTC 3'. Afterwards, the Bam HI fragment, following filling in of both Bam HI extremities using Klenow polymerase (Maniatis et al ., 1982), is cloned in the Bam HI recognition site of the expression cassette of pROKI (Baulcombe et al ., 1986) after both Bam HI extremities were also filled in. In this manner an expression unit was obtained with the HPT coding sequence between the CaMV 35S promoter and the nos transcription terminator. EXAMPLE 8 Cloning chimeric genes in binary vectors The cDNA coding for the extracellular chitinase (described in 4.1), the intracellular chitinase cDNA (described in 4.2) and the modified intracellular chitinase cDNA (described in 4.3) are cloned as Bam HI fragments in pMOG181. Clones are selected, using restriction enzyme analysis, which had the coding sequences in the proper orientation after the promoter. Afterwards the expression cassettes isolated as Eco RI- Hin dIII fragments were cloned into the binary vector pMOG23, following linearisation of this plasmid this plasmid with Eco RI and Hin dIII. The resulting plasmids are called pMOG196, pMOG198 and pMOG189, respectively. In addition, the expression cassette with the gene encoding the intracellular chitinase modified as to target the protein to the apoplast, is cloned into pMOG22 as well, resulting in pMOG289. The Sst I- Hin dIII fragment with the expression unit for the intracellular glucanase modified as to target the protein to the apoplast (described in 5.3), is cloned into pMOG23, resulting in pMOG512. The cDNA coding for the extracellular chitinase is cloned as a Bam HI fragment in pMOG184 and the cDNA coding for the intracellular chitinase as a Bam HI fragment in pMOG183. Following both cloning steps, clones are selected using restriction enzyme analysis which placed the coding sequences in the proper orientation after the promoter. Afterwards, both cassettes were isolated as Eco RI- Sst I and Sst I- Hin dIII fragments, respectively, and in a three point ligation, cloned in pMOG23, following linearization of this plasmid with Eco RI and Hin dIII. The plasmid obtained, pMOG200 (Figure 11), now contains both chitinase genes on a binary plasmid physically coupled to the NPTII gene. The Sst I- Hin dIII fragment with the expression unit for the extracellular glucanase and the Xba I- Sst I fragment with the expression unit before the intracellular glucanase are cloned in a three point ligation reaction into the binary vector pMOG22, following linearization of this plasmid with Xba I and Hin dIII. The obtained binary plasmid, pMOG212 (Figure 12) now contains both glucanase genes physically coupled to the hygromycine resistance gene. EXAMPLE 9 Transgenic plants For the transformation of tobacco, use is made of leaf-discs (Horsch et al ., 1985) originating from axenically cultured plants. The cultivation was performed with bacterium strains, derived from Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 (CBS 191.83; Hoekema et al ., 1983) wherein a binary vector was crossed in by means of mobilisation with the help from the plasmid pRK2013 (Ditta et al ., 1980). The thus-obtained Agrobacterium strains were maintained under selection pressure (20 mg/L rifampicine, 100 mg/l kanamycin), and was cultured as such for co-cultivation. The formation of transgenic shoots was established on media with 100 mg/l kanamycin in cases where derivatives of the binary vector pMOG23 were used, and on media with 20 mg/l hygromycin if derivatives of pMOG22 were used. The transgenic plants obtained from the shoots were analyzed for the expression of the newely introduced genes , using the so-called Western blotting technique. The Western blotting technique is known to researchers in this area. In some cases leaf-discs were taken from transgenic plants to insert additional genes. Kanamycin resistant leaf-discs were cocultivated with Agrobacterium strains containing pMOG22 derivatives, and hygromycin resistant leaf-discs were co-cultivated pMOG23 derivatives. The plants capable of the constitutive expression of all the introduced genes were selected, and seeds were obtained after they were fertilized via self-pollination. F1-seedlings of these transgenic plants were used for further analysis. Transgenic tobacco plants were obtained transformed with either pMOG196, pMOG198, pMOG189 or pMOG512, and double transformed with either pMOG196 + pMOG289, pMOG512 + pMOG289 or pMOG200 + pMOG212. EXAMPLE 10 Targeting intracellular chitinase to the apoplast To evaluate the possibility to target the intracellular chitinase to the apoplastic space, the following experiment was carried out. Samsun NN tobacco plants were tranformed with pMOG196 to constitutively express the Petunia extracellular chitinase gene (plant line 1); with pMOG198 to constitutively express the tobacco intracellular chitinase gene (line 2); with pMOG189 to constitutively express the modified intracellular chitinase gene (line 3) and with pMOG196 + pMOG289 to constitutively express the extracellular chitinase gene and the intracellular chitinase gene modified to obtain targeting to the apoplastic space. The lines of transgenic plants were selected for high expression of each chimeric gene (up to 0.5% of total soluble protein fraction was reached). From each of the four selected lines both extracellular fluid (isolation procedure, vide: Parent & Asselin, 1984) and total leaf protein-extracts were prepared (Kaufmann et al ., 1987) and these were tested for antifungal activity on the fungus Fusarium solani . Chitinsase activity was detected in the extracellular fluid (EF) of plant lines 1, 3, and 4, and in the total protein extract (TE) of all plant lines (1 to 4). In the antifungal assay 100 µl of EF from lines 1, 3 and 4 were added, diluted to contain a chitinase activity of approximately 2000 cpm (see example 2). The dilutions of EF of line 2, and the non-transgenic control tobacco were the same as the dilution of line 1. The 100 µl of the diluted TE of the four transgenic lines contained a chitinase activity of approximately 2000 cpm. The dilution of TE of the control was equal to that of plant line 1. The results of the antifungal assay are given in Table 2. Inhibition of growth of Fusarium solani by chitinases from transgenic tobacco plants Inhibition Transgenic plant Extracell. fluid Total extract line 1 (extracell.) - - line 2 (intracell.) - + line 3 (mod.intracell.) + + line 4 (extracell.+ mod. intracellular) + + non-transformed - - - : no inhibition; + : inhibition Neither the EF nor the TE of line 1, expressing the Petunia extracellular chitinase gene, shows any antifungal effect, as expected from the experiments using the purified chitinases (see Example 3). The presence of chitinase activity in the EF of line 1 shows that the Petunia chitinase in tobacco is targeted to the apoplastic space. Although in most experiments neither chitinase activity nor antifungal activity could be detected in the EF of line 2, in some experiments chitinase activity was found in the EF, probably due to leakage of the (relatively over-) expressed intracellular chitinase from the cells. The TE of line 2 showed a strong antifungal effect. Of line 3, expressing the modified apoplast-targeted intracellular chitinase gene, both the EF and the TE exhibited a strong antifungal effect. This proves that the targeted intracellular chitinase of line 3 still has antifungal activity. Apparently, deletion of (part of) the C-terminal vacuole-targeting signal does not significantly affect the antifungal activity of the intracellular chitinase. EXAMPLE 11 synergistic effect of glucanase on antifungal activity of chitinase Samsun NN tobacco plants were transformed with pMOG512 to constitutively express the modified intracellular glucanase gene(line 1); with pMOG512 + pMOG289 to constitutively express the modified intracellular chitinase gene and the modified intracellular glucanase gene (line 2) and with pMOG189 to express the modified intracellular chitinase gene (line 3; see example 10). The plant lines were selected for high levels of expression of each chimeric gene. From each of the selected lines extracellular fluid (EF) (Parent & Asselin, 1984) and total leaf protein extracts (TE) (Kaufmann et al ., 1987) were prepared. Initial dilutions were made of EF and TE of lines 2 and 3 to contain a chitinase activity of approximately 2000 cpm (see example 2). The initial dilutions of EF and TE of line 1 were equal to those of line 3. Subsequently, dilution series were made of the initial dilutions and these were tested for antifungal activity. No difference was found in antifungal activity between dilution series of EF and of TE. Moreover the highest antifungal activity was found in the (diluted) extracts of line 2. Apparently, the apoplast-targeted intracellular glucanase has a synergistic effect on the antifungal activity of the apoplast-targeted intracellular chitinase. EXAMPLE 12 Analysis of transgenic plants having combined expression of an unmodified intracellular chitinase and glucanase and an extracellular chitinase and glucanase Phytophthora nicotianae var. nicotianae (Pnn) is a fungus which belongs to the family of Oomycetes. It is a root pathogen of tobacco, inter alia. The infection of this plant leads to the wilting of leaves and/or to rotting in the base of the stem (black shank). Eventually the tobacco plant perishes from the infection. To evaluate the fungal resistance of transgenic plants, that express unmodified genes encoding plant hydrolytic enzymes, the following experiment can be performed. Ten transgenic plants constitutively expressing the two unmodified chitinase and the two unmodified β-1,3-glucanase genes (the unmodified chitinase gene from pMOG 200; the unmodified β-1,3-glucanase gene from pMOG212), ten control plants transformed with the empty vector and ten non-transgenic plants are inoculated with a suspension in water of 2x10 5 Pnn zoospores. The suspension is pipetted onto the base of the stem in the soil in the pot wherein the plant is grown and thereafter rinsed with water. In the time thereafter, the plants are monitored for the development of disease symptoms. After two to three days, the control plants and the non-transgenic plants will show the first disease symptoms; after 3 weeks, approximately 17 of the 20 plants will show symptoms; a few plants will be dead. Of the transgenic plants that constitutively express the two chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase genes, just a few plants will show a slight wilting after 3 weeks. In an alternative experiment, leaf-discs having a diameter of approximately 1 cm can obtained from the leaves of transgenic plants capable of the constitutive expression of both chitinases and both glucanases, from control transgenic plants and from non-transgenic tobacco plants. Subsequently, 10 µl of a Pnn zoospore suspension in water (5000 zoospores per ml) is pipetted onto the (underside of the) disks, and afterwards the disks are placed in sterile water and allowed to incubate at room temperature. Three sets of five disks can be used in each test, thus in total, ten control disks per experiment. The experiment can be carried a number of times with the same consistent result. After about a day, the first signs of a beginning infection will be observed on the control disks. After five days, they will be fully colonized. The disks of the transgenic plants capable of expressing chitinases and glucanases will show less severe disease symptoms, even after five days. Tests with leaf disks, performed precisely as described above, can also performed with spores of the fungus Thanatephorus cucumeris (anamorph Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn), a basidiomycete. The inoculum concentration used can be 5000-10000 basidiospores per ml water. After ten days the disks are checked. The disks from the non-transgenic plants and the control transgenic plants will all appear to be infected, while the disks from the transgenic plants, expressing the chimeric chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase genes will be much less affected. Likewise, the sensitivity of transgenic and control plants can be tested on the fungus Alternaria alternata , an Ascomycete. This fungus causes "brown-spot" in tobacco. The experiments can be performed in the manner as described by Spurr in 1973. The inoculum concentration used can be 5000-10000 conidia per ml. After 10 days, the development of "brown-spot" on the inoculated leaf material is judged according to the criteria suggested by Spurr (1973). The non-transgenic and the control leaf-material will show light to very heavy necroses, while the leaf-material having a constitutive expression of both chitinase and both β-1,3-glucanase genes will show no, or much less severe disease symptoms (light yellow lesions). If the experiments are carried out as described above, they will show, that the constitutive expression of an extracellular chitinase and an extracellular β-1,3-glucanase and an intracellular chitinase and an intracellular β-1,3-glucanase provides a resistance against, at least a reduced susceptibility or sensitivity for fungal infections. All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specification are indicative of the level of skill of those skilled in the art to which this invention pertains. All publications and patent applications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually incorporated by reference. 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Claims: A plant, or any plant part regenerated to produce said plant, capable of expression of a chitinase gene and a β-1,3-glucanase gene in at least one of its tissues, characterized in that it has been transformed with one or more recombinant polynucleotides carrying chimeric sequences coding for said chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase. A plant according to claim 1, wherein the chitinase gene is an intracellular plant chitinase gene. A plant according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the β-1,3-glucanase is an intracellular plant β-1,3-glucanase gene. A plant according to any of claims 1 to 3, further exhibiting, as a result of the transformation of the said plant, or an ancestor, or any plant part regenerated to produce the said plant, with one or more recombinant polynucleotides, expression of an extracellular plant chitinase and/or extracellular plant glucanase gene. A plant according to any one of claims 2 to 4, wherein the intracellular plant chitinase gene is modified at the 3' end of its open reading frame causing the intracellular plant chitinase produced therefrom to become targeted to the apoplast. A plant according to claim 3, wherein the intracellular β-1,3-glucanase gene is modified at the 3' end of its open reading frame, causing, the intracellular β-1,3-glucanase produced therefrom to become targeted to the apoplast. A plant according to claim 5 or 6, wherein the modification consists of the introduction of a translation stop codon causing a deletion of between 3 and 10 C-terminal amino acids of the intracellular plant chitinase precursor. A plant according to claim 6, wherein the modification consists of the introduction of a translation stop codon causing a deletion of between 3 and 25 C-terminal amino acids of the intracellular plant β-1,3-glucanase precursor. A plant according to any of the preceding claims, wherein said chitinase and/or said glucanase gene are under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter. A plant according to claim 1, wherein said chitinase gene is the intracellular chitinase gene from tobacco. A plant according to claim 2, wherein the intracellular plant β-1,3-glucanase gene is the intracellular plant β-1,3-glucanase gene from tobacco. A plant according to claim 10 or 11, which is other than a tobacco plant. A plant according to any of the preceding claims, which is less susceptible to fungal attack. A recombinant polynucleotide comprising genetic information for the expression of a chitinase gene and a β-1,3-glucanase gene in at least one of the tissues of the plant. A recombinant polynucleotide according to claim 14, wherein the chitinase gene is an intracellular plant chitinase gene. A recombinant polynucleotide according to claim 14, wherein the β-1,3-glucanase gene is an intracellular plant β-1,3-glucanase gene. A recombinant polynucleotide according to any one of claims 14 to 16, further comprising the genetic information for the relative overexpression of an extracellular plant chitinase and/or an extracellular plant glucanase gene. A recombinant polynucleotide according to any of claims 15 or 16, wherein the intracellular plant chitinase gene is modified at the 3' end of its open reading frame causing the intracellular plant chitinase produced therefrom to become targeted to the apoplast. A recombinant polynucleotide according to claim 16, wherein the intracellular plant β-1,3-glucanase gene is modified at the 3' end of its open reading frame, causing the intracellular plant β-1,3-glucanase produced therefrom to become targeted to the apoplast. A recombinant polynucleotide according to claim 18 or 19, wherein said modification consists in the introduction of a translation stop codon causing a deletion of between 3 and 25 C-terminal amino acids of the intracellular plant β-1,3-glucanase precursor. A recombinant polynucleotide according to any of claims 14 to 20, wherein said chitinase and/or said β-1,3-glucanase gene is under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter. A recombinant polynucleotide according to claim 15, wherein said intracellular chitinase gene is from tobacco. A recombinant polynucleotide according to claim 16, wherein said intracellular β-1,3-glucanase gene is from tobacco. A cloning or transformation vector comprising a recombinant polynucleotide according to any one of claims 14 to 23. Bacteria harboring a vector according to claim 24. A process for obtaining plants capable of the expression of a chitinase and a β-1,3-glucanase by introducing into the genome of the said plants, or their ancestors, or any plant part that can be regenerated to produce the said plant, a recombinant polynucleotide according to any one of the claims 14 to 23. Use of the recombinant polynucleotide according to any of the claims 14 to 23 for conferring fungal resistance to a plant.

Inventors: BOL JOHN FERDINAND, CORNELISSEN BERNARDUS JOHANNES, LINTHORST HUBERTUS JOSEPHUS MA, MELCHERS LEO SJOERD, MEULENHOFF ELISABETH JOSINE SO, SELA-BUURLAGE MARIANNE BEATRIX, VAN ROEKEL JEROEN SEBASTIAAN C, VLOEMANS ALEXANDRA ALEIDA, WOLOSHUK CHARLES PETER, BOL, JOHN FERDINAND, CORNELISSEN, BERNARDUS JOHANNES CLEMENS, LINTHORST, HUBERTUS JOSEPHUS MARIA, MELCHERS, LEO SJOERD, MEULENHOFF, ELISABETH JOSINE SOPHIE, SELA-BUURLAGE, MARIANNE BEATRIX, VAN ROEKEL, JEROEN SEBASTIAAN CHARLES, VLOEMANS, ALEXANDRA ALEIDA, WOLOSHUK, CHARLES PETER
Applicants: MOGEN INT, UNIV LEIDEN, MOGEN INTERNATIONAL N.V., RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT TE LEIDEN
Application year: 1991
Main classification: C12N15
IPC codes: C12N15, A01H5, C12N9, C12N1, A01N65, A01H1