METHODS OF PREVENTING VIRAL REPLICATION

Abstract: The invention is drawn to methods and compositions for inhibiting viral replication. In particular, complete and irreversible termination of replication of a virus is achieved by introducing at least one mutation at specific regions in the viral polymerase gene. The method can be used to prevent or treat viral infections.

Description: TITLE OF THE INVENTION METHODS OF PREVENTING VIRAL REPLICATION Field of the Invention The invention relates to the prevention and treatment of viral diseases. Background of the Invention The consequences of a viral infection depend upon a number of factors, both viral and host. These factors which affect pathogenesis include the number of infecting viral particles and their path to susceptible cells, the speed of viral multiplication and spread, the effect of the virus on cell functions, the host's secondary responses to the cellular injury, and the i munologic and non-specific defenses of the host. In general, the effects of viral infection include acute clinical diseases, asymptomatic infections, induction of various cancers, and chronic progressive neurological disorders. Viruses are potent infectious pathogenic agents because virions produced in one cell can invade other cells and thus cause a spreading infection. Viruses cause important functional alterations of the invaded cells, often resulting in their death. Viral infections continue to be major medical problems throughout the world. For example, acute and chronic hepatitis virus infection and its sequelae present a major problem. In fact, there are probably 400 million people in the world today infected with hepatitis B virus. In this setting, there is a high risk of acute and fulminant hepatitis and chronic liver disease, including cirrhosis, chronic active hepatitis and the eventual development of hepatocellular carcinoma in individuals who remain chronic carriers of the virus. The dramatic effects of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) provides another illustration of the results of viral disease. There are currently more than 27,700 diagnosed cases of AIDS in the United States and the U.S. Public Health Service predicts that by the end of 1991 more than 179,000 persons will have the disease. Thus, intense medical research is going to the development of diagnostic tools and vaccines to HIV. AIDS and hepatitis represent only two of the diseases wrought by viral infection. Currently, methods are needed to stop viral replication and prevent the spread of the virus to additional cells. However, this goal presents considerable difficulties. A major problem is the problem of inhibiting the virus without harming the host cells. The dependence of viral multiplication on cellular genes limits the points of differential attack. Even the largest viruses have fewer biochemical reactions that are unique in relation to the cells of the host. Further, it is only after extensive viral multiplication and cellular alteration have occurred that viral infections become evident. Therefore, the most general approach to control is prophylaxis. Therapy in most cases is limited to situations where the killing of some uninfected cells can be tolerated if the damage is subsequently repaired. Another important limitation of anti-viral therapy is the emergence of resistant mutants. In order to avoid their selection, the principles valid for bacteria are equally applicable to viruses: adequate dosage, multi-drug treatment, and avoiding therapy unless clearly indicated. Therefore, because of the serious nature of viral infection and the obstacles presented by the nature of the infecting virus, there is an urgent need for methods which control viral replication. A method which would be applicable to RNA and DNA viruses would have widespread applicability. DESCRIPTION OF RELATED LITERATURE Replication strategy of the hepatitis B virus can be found in: Seeger et al.. Science 232:477-484 (1986); hudyakov et al.. FEBS Letters 43:115-118 (1989); Will et al.. J. of Virol. 61:904-911 (1987); and Hirsch et al.. Nature 344:552-555 (1990). Retroviruses and retroviral integration is discussed in: Varmus, H., Science 240:1427-1435 (1988); and Grandgenett et al.. Cell 60:3-4 (1990). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Complete and irreversible termination of replication of a viral polymerase-containing virus is achieved by introducing at least one mutation at specific regions in the viral polymerase gene. The mutant gene or gene products (DNA, RNA, or protein) can be supplied to the virus to effect defective replication. The method is useful for the prevention and treatment of viral diseases. Both DNA and RNA viruses which utilize polymerase gene products for replication can be inhibited by the disclosed method. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Figure 1: Mutant HBV genome 5-15 is efficiently transcribed in Huh 7 hepatoma cells. Huh 7 cells (Nakabayashi, H. et al.. Cancer Res. 42:3858-3863 (1982)) were grown in MEM medium supplemented with 10% FBS. At about 90% confluence the cells were transfected with 20 ug cloned DNA per 100 mm dish, using the calcium phosphate method (Chen, C. et al ., Mol. Cell. Biol. 7:2745-2752 (1987)). HBV DNAs used were the incomplete genome 1-8 (negative control; see Table I), a head-to-tail dimer of 'wild-type' adw and a head-to-tail dimer of the mutant viral genome 5-15. Forty-eight hours after transfection, total RNA was prepared from cells by the guanidine isothiocyanate method (Sambrook, J. et al .. Molecular cloning: A laboratory manual, 2nd Edition, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1989)), fractionated by formaldehyde 1.25% agarose gel electrophoresis, transferred to a Nytran membrane (Schleicher & Schuell, Keene, NH) and hybridized with a full-length HBV DNA probe, 32P-labeled by nick translation. Autoradiographic exposure at -80 * C was 12 hours. Figure 2: Mutant HBV genome 5-15 is replication-defective. Huh 7 cells were grown and transfected as described in the legend to figure 1. Five days after transfection cell culture media were collected and cells were lysed in NP40 (Hirsch, R. et al.. VirolOQV 167:136-142 (1988)). The cell lysate was centrifuged for 30 minutes at 50,000 x g (20*C). To the supernatant DNase I (1 ug per ml; Worthington) was added in order to digest input DNA. The solution was layered on a sucrose cushion (30% sucrose, 20 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl, 0.1% 2-mercaptoethanol, 0.1% bovine serum albumin) and centrifuged for 12 hours at 178,000 x g (4'C). The pellet was digested for 3 hours at 55'C with proteinase K (500 ug/ml) in the presence of 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8, 10 mM EDTA, 1% SDS. After phenol extraction, nucleic acids were precipitated with etnanol. After lyophilization, the precipitate was dissolved in 10 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 1 mM EDTA, and 1 ug DNase-free RNase A per ml, fractionated by 1.25% agarose gel electrophoresis, transferred to a Nytran membrane and hybridized to a full-length HBV DNA probe, 32P-labeled by nick translation. Cytoplasmic DNA from one 100 mm dish was applied per lane. Autoradiographic exposure at -80 * C was 4 hours. Figure 3: DNA sequences responsible for replication- defectiveness of HBV mutant 5-15 map between nucleotide position 2606 (Apa 1) and 2823 (Bst Ell). The head-to-tail dimer of 'wild-type' adw (adw HTD, cloned into the Eco RI site of pGEM-7) was subcloned as Aat II (1419) and Dra I (2186) fragment to yield the truncated, replication-competent construct adw R9. By exchange of specific regions between adw R9 and the mutant HBV genome 5-15 the subclones illustrated were obtained. The regions in black indicate HBV 5-15 insertions into adw R9. The replication- competence of these constructs was analyzed as described in the legend to figure 2. Figure 4: Nucleotide 2798 is critical to replication competence of HBV DNA Huh 7 cells were grown and transfected as described in the legend to figure 1. Five days after infection, cell culture media were collected and cells were lysed in NP40 (Hirsch et al.. Virology 16Z:136-142 (1988)). Media were centrifuged for 30 minutes at 50,000 x g (20'C). The supernatant was brought to 10 mM MgCl . After addition of DNase I (1 ug/ml; Worthington) in order to digest input DNA, the solution was layered onto a sucrose cushion and processed as described in the legend to figure 2. The equivalent to the cell culture medium from one 100 mm dish (10 ml) was applied per lane. Autoradiographic exposure at -80'C was 12 hours. All cell culture media negative for replicating HBV DNA were also negative in the respective cell lysate preparations (data not shown). The structure and DNA sequence of the constructs, respectively, are given in Fig. 3 and Table 2, respectively. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS Methods and compositions are provided for the termination of viral replication. The methods involve a defective protein which is necessary for initiation of the polymerase reaction. Specific changes may be introduced into the polymerase gene region which encodes the necessary protein. The mutation leads to complete and irreversible termination of replication of the virus. Further, by supplying the defective protein to a virus, normal viral replication may be interrupted. The mutation is introduced or inserted into a region of the polymerase gene resulting in the production of a defective protein. It is hypothesized without being bound by it that the defective protein is necessary for viral replication by serving as a primer for replication. The defective protein, however, is unable to prime transcription by RNA and DNA polymerases. Alternatively, the defective protein may not allow encapsidation of pregenomic RNA (Hirsch et al ., Nature 344:552-555 (1990)). It is noted that the method of inhibition may involve another aspect of viral replication and thus patentability is not predicated on any proposed mechanism. While the intimate details of viral replication vary from virus to virus, certain aspects of the mechanism are shared, for example, RNA-directed DNA synthesis, first described for retroviruses, is now recognized as the probable means for the transfer of genetic information in various other settings. This includes the replication of hepatitis and cauliflower mosaic viruses. The synthesis of double-stranded DNA from a single-stranded RNA template requires an enzyme for synthesizing the first DNA strand from an RNA template and a second DNA strand from the first; primers for each of the two strands; and a means for removing the RNA template after reverse transcription, to allow synthesis of the second DNA strand. For purposes of the present invention, attention is focused on the role of the polymerase gene products in viral replication. The introduction of specific changes into the polymerase gene can effectively terminate replication of the virus. The methods are therefore applicable to both RNA and DNA viruses, particularly those viruses which use polymerase gene products to prime transcription for RNA and DNA polymer- ases. Viruses subject to the disclosed methods include hepadnaviruses such as hepatitis viruses, retroviruses such as HIV, adenoviruses, herpes viruses, pox viruses, picornaviruses, orthomyxovi uses, paramyxoviruses, coronaviruses, pestiviruses, flaviviruses and the like. The methods involve the introduction of a mutation into a region of the polymerase gene. By "introduction of a mutation" is intended the substitution, deletion, or addition, preferably the substitution of nucleotide(s) in the gene. The region for insertion of the mutation may be identified in several ways. The region may be identified by a comparison of the conserved amino acid positions in the polymerase genes or gene products of various strains of the virus. For example, when the polymerase genes of various HBV strains were compared, the amino acid position 164 was found to be highly conserved (see Table 1). When a single point mutation was introduced at nucleotide 2798, which corresponds with residue 164, a defective protein was produced which interrupted viral repl cation. -8- In this manner, polymerase gene regions of other viruses can be scrutinized for critical amino acid positions. Mutations can be inserted into these positions and the resulting gene product tested for an effect on viral replication. An alternative strategy is to introduce mutations into RNA and DNA viruses randomly in the polymerase gene. The proteins resulting from such changes are then tested for their effect on viral DNA replication. From the work with hepatitis B virus, the mechanism of termination of viral replication may involve the defective production of a protein necessary for encapsidation of pregenomic RNA or of a binding protein necessary for initiation of the polymerase reaction. This protein serves as a primer for the reverse transcription of the minus strand of DNA which is an important step in the replication life cycle of all hepadnaviruses, of which HBV is a member. This indicates that mutations can be introduced into the protein necessary for initiation of the polymerase reaction to inhibit viral replication. For hepadnaviruses, this includes introducing mutations into the protein which is necessary for encapsidation of pregenomic RNA and for priming the reverse transcription of the minus strand DNA. For retroviruses, second strand synthesis is primed by a viral RNA oligomer that is produced from a polypurine region by a ribonuclease activity associated with reverse transcriptase and specific for RNA-DNA hybrids, ribonuclease H (RNase H). Ribonuclease H is a protein product of the retroviral polymerase gene. Accordingly, the RNase H gene region may be mutated by site-specific mutagenesis followed by testing of the effect of the defective protein products on viral replication. Methods for mutagenesis are well known in the art. In particular, with site-specific mutagenesis, nearly any amino acid position in a target protein can be manipulated at will. See Smith, M., Ann. Rev. Genet. 19:423 (1985), herein incorporated by reference. See also, Higuchi, R., Using PCR to Engineer DNA. p. 61-70, In H.A. Erlich (ed.) PCR Technology, Stockton Press, New York (1989). Another means for inserting mutations into the polymerase gene is to construct nucleic acid segments of the polymerase gene. Methods are known for nucleic acid synthesis. See generally, Synthesis and Applications of DNA and RNA. Narang, S., Ed., Academic Press (1987), and the references cited therein. Thus, in those instances where the nucleic acid sequence of the virus or at least the polymerase gene of the virus is known, synthetic constructs can be made. The synthetic constructs will contain mutations or changes from the natural sequence at specific sites. The expressed protein can then be tested for its effect upon viral replication. Nucleotide sequences of several viral genomes are published. For example, the nucleotide sequence of the HIV can be found in Ratner et al.. Nature 313:277-284 (1985). The nucleotide sequence of the hepatitis virus can be found in Okamoto et al .. J. Gen. Virol. 69:2575-2583 (1988) and available through Genbank. After mutagenesis of the identified target polymerase gene region, the effect of the mutation on viral replication can be tested. Viral replication can be assayed by determining the presence of replication products or viral transcripts. In this manner, cell lysates and cell culture media can be analyzed for the presence of viral transcripts, proteins, and replicative forms of viral DNA. To detect virus-specific transcripts, viral-encoded proteins may be identified by solid-phase radioimmunoassay, both in cell lysates and culture media. Specifically, the replication competence of a mutant viral genome may be assessed by Southern blot hybridization of cytoplasmic DNA after transfection of cells with the mutant virus. See experimental section for more details. Also, details on hybridization can be found in Nucleic Acid Hybridization. A Practical Approach. IRL Press, Washington, DC (1985). Once a particular mutant protein is identified it can be used to terminate viral replication in a number of ways. The mutation can be supplied at the DNA, RNA or protein levels. Since contact with the defective protein interrupts viral replication, the protein may be administered to effect defective replication. A more attractive approach is to provide for expression of the protein in a host cell infected with the virus or susceptible to viral infection. In this manner, the mutated polymerase gene or gene region can be placed in a vector which is capable of transforming the host cells. The gene is placed downstream from a suitable promoter which provides for tissue specific or general expression. In the case of hepatitis, the viral DNA is placed downstream from a liver specific promoter to be expressed in the liver. For other viruses, constitutive promoters can be utilized. For expression in a host cell, the mutant gene can be operably linked into an expression vector and introduced into a host cell to enable the expression of the defective protein by that cell. The gene with the appropriate regulatory regions will be provided in proper orientation and reading frame to allow for expression. Methods for gene construction are known in the art. See in particular, Molecular Cloning. A Laboratory Manual, Sambrook et al.. eds., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 2nd Edition, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (1989). A wide variety of transcriptional and trans!ational regulatory sequences may be employed. The signals may be derived from viral sources, such as adenovirus, bovine papilloma virus, simian virus, or the like, where the regulatory signals are associated with a particular gene which has a high level of expression. Alternatively, promoters from mammalian expression products, such as actin, collagen, myosin, etc., may be employed. The expression of the mutant viral DNA in eukaryotic hosts requires the use of eukaryotic regulatory regions. Such regions will, in general, include a promoter region sufficient to direct the initiation of RNA synthesis. Typical promoters include the promoter of the mouse metallothionine I gene (Hammer, D. et al.. J. Mol. APPI. Gen. 1:273-288 (1982)); the Tk promoter of herpes virus (Mc night, S., Cell 31:355-365 (1982)); the SV40 early promoter (Benoist et al .. Nature 290:304-310 (1981)); and the like. Other useful promoters include liver specific promoters such as albumin, alpha- fetoprotein, alpha-1-antitrypsin, retinol-binding protein and others (Fang, X.J. et al.. Heoatology 10:781-787 (1989)). The desired mutant viral DNA and an operably linked promoter may be introduced into a recipient cell either as a non-replicating DNA or RNA molecule, which either may be a linear molecule or, more preferably, a closed covalent circular molecule. Since such molecules are incapable of autonomous replication, the expression of the desired receptor molecule may occur through the transient expression of the introduced sequence. Alternatively, where desired, permanent expression may occur through the integration of the introduced sequence into the host chromosome. The introduced sequence may be incorporated into a plas id or viral vector capable of autonomous replication in the recipient host. cDNA expression vectors include those described by Okayama, H., Mol. Cell. Biol. 3:280 (1983), and others*. Viral vectors include retrovirus vectors as taught in W089/07136 (specifically for expression in hepatocytes) and the references cited therein. In this manner, the corresponding nucleic acid or a portion of it coding for the specific mutation is introduced into the cells of a host suffering from the viral disease. Expression of the nucleic acid produces a protein which interferes with the viral replication. Another means for disrupting viral replication is to provide the host cell with anti-sense RNA. Supplying the anti-sense RNA to the virus also interferes with replication. Anti-sense regulation has been described by Rosenberg et al .. Nature 313:703-706 (1985); Preiss et al.. Nature 313:27-32 (1985); Melton, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82:144-148 (1985); Kim et al.. Cell 42:129-138 (1985); and Izant et al.. Science 229:345-352 (1985). By supplying the anti-sense RNA the functioning of the naturally existing RNA is reduced. Thus, anti-sense regulation may be achieved by introducing into cells a DNA sequence comprising a gene in which the transcribed DNA sequences are at least partially complementary to the polymerase gene or gene region of interest of the virus. The introduced DNA will be under the transcriptional control of a transcriptional initiation region recognized by the host cells as discussed above. Transcription of the introduced DNA will result in ulti-copies of an anti-sense RNA which will be complementary to RNA of the virus and result in reduction of functioning of the naturally existing RNA. Further, ribozymes spanning specific viral gene regions may serve as therapeutic agents (Sarver, N. et al .. Science 247:1222-1225 (1990)). It is also recognized that mutant viral genomes can be constructed and used to transfect and infect host cells. The mutant virus is capable of expressing the defective protein. Thus, the cells can effectively fight off viral attack. Where the host is already infected with unaltered virus, infection of the host with mutant virus expressing the defective protein leads to termination of replication of the unaltered virus. The methods of the present invention can be utilized to prevent viral infection as well as to combat viral infections. The compositions comprising the defective protein or vectors containing nucleic acids encoding the defective proteins may be administered to prevent a virus infection or to combat the virus once it has entered the host. While the use of a defective polymerase protein to inhibit replication is discussed generally, it is recognized that the defective protein is specific for its own virus. That is, a mutation in the hepatitis B virus polymerase gene will produce a defective protein which inhibits or terminates hepatitis B virus replication. As noted above, the compositions and methods of the invention can be used to terminate viral replication in a wide variety of RNA and DNA viruses. In one embodiment of the present invention, the methods and compositions are utilized to terminate the replication of hepatitis virus, particularly hepatitis B virus. By site directed mutagenesis, at least one mutation can be inserted into the viral genome. The mutation can be introduced at a nucleotide position ranging from about nucleotide 2606 to about nucleotide 2823, generally about nucleotide 2700 to about nucleotide 2900, preferably about nucleotide 2798. Where the mutation is inserted at position 2798, the mutation will involve an A to C or a T to C change. This particular mutation will result in a corresponding amino acid change from a Thr or Ser to Pro (see Table 1). The resulting mutation completely and irreversibly terminates replication of the hepatitis B virus. Then, to terminate HBV replication, a DNA species with a mutation is utilized to prime a defective 3.5 pregenomic RNA in the reverse transcriptase reaction. Alternatively, the specific piece of viral DNA encoding the defective protein may be supplied to the host cells under the control of a liver specific promoter. Further, a human HBV genome containing the mutation driven by liver specific promoter can be constructed such that one produces infectious interfering viral particles leading to termination of replication of the wild-type hepatitis virus. In another embodiment HIV replication can be inhibited. Accordingly, at least one mutation is inserted into the viral genome. The mutation is introduced into the nucleotide region of the HIV polymerase gene. Generally the mutation is introduced at a nucleotide position ranging from about nucleotide 1200 to about nucleotide 5500, more generally about nucleotide 1500 to about nucleotide 4700. The resulting mutations will be examined for an effect on viral replication by the methods disclosed herein. It is believed that the mechanism of termination of viral replication involves the defective production of a protein necessary for encapsidation of pregenomic RNA or of a binding protein necessary for initiation of the polymerase reaction. This protein serves as a primer for the reverse transcription of minus strand DNA. However, it is recognized that the inhibition of viral replication is not dependent upon any specific method disclosed herein, other than the insertion of mutations within the polymerase gene. Accordingly, other or a separate mechanism may actually be involved in terminating viral replication. The following examples are offered by way of illustration and not by way of limitation. EXPERIMENTAL Episo al HBV DNA in the liver of an individual serologically immune to HBV infection was previously identified (Blum, H.E. et al.. Liver 8:307-316 (1988)). The cloning, fine structure analysis, and biologic properties of the viral genome from this individual's livers has been accomplished. The cloned genome showed 48 base changes relative to an infectious HBV of the most closely related serotype adw2 (Valenzuela, P. et al .. The nucleotide sequence of the hepatitis B viral genome and the identification of the major viral genes, p. 57-70, In B.N. Fields, R. Jaenisch and C.F. Fox (eds.), Animal virus genetics, Academic Press Inc., New York (1980)). One of these mutations introduced a stop codon at the end of the pre-core region of the viral genome, prohibiting hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) formation. Functional analysis of the cloned DNA by transfection into Huh 7 hepato a cells indicated competence for synthesis of all major viral transcripts, viral core and envelope proteins but a defect blocking viral DNA replication. The genetic basis of this defect in DNA-synthesis was identified to be a single missense mutation in position 2798 leading to a substitution of threonine or serine by proline. This finding suggests a critical role of this polymerase gene region, presumably coding for the terminal protein or a protein required for encapsidation of pregenomic RNA, in the life cycle of the virus as well as specific therapeutic strategies to terminate viral replication. To establish the fine structure of the episomal HBV DNA in the patient's liver, the viral genome was amplified from total liver DNA by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), using three HBV specific primer pairs (Table 1). The amplified viral DNA fragments were cloned in pGEM-7, yielding the three expected overlapping HBV clones 1-8, 2-13 and 3-1 (Table 1). Using these clones, the HBV DNA molecule was reconstructed and cloned in pGEM-7, yielding the full-length HBV genome 5-15. By direct sequencing of these clones, the complete nucleotide sequence of the HBV genome 5-15 was determined (data submitted to Genbank). The genome has a length of 3221 bases and a genetic organization identical to known HBV DNAs. A comparison to published DNA sequences demonstrated closest homology to HBsAg subtype adw2 (Valenzuela, P. et al .. The nucleotide sequence of the hepatitis B viral genome and the identification of the major viral genes, p. 57-70, In B.N. Fields, R. Jaenisch and C.F. Fox (eds.), Animal virus genetics, Academic Press Inc., New York (1980)). As compared to this subtype, a total of 63 mutations was detected in HBV 5-15, 48 of which resulted in amino acid substitutions. To exclude mutations induced by PCR amplification, mutations leading to amino acid changes were confirmed by cloning and sequencing of independent PCR amplification products. Mutations were identified in all open reading frames with the highest frequency in the pre-C/ C region (26 per 1000 bases), a region which otherwise shows the highest degree of homology between different HBV DNAs and other hepadnaviruses (ref. 3 and data available through Genbank). While the mutations resulted in in-phase stop codon at the end of the pre-C reading frame, resulting in the inability to code for the pre- C/ C protein, a precursor to hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg). The stop codon at the end of the pre-C reading frame was not found in the viral DNA integrated in the patient's hepatocellular carcinoma (data not shown), suggesting that this mutation was not present in the infecting virus but rather occurred during ongoing viral replication in the non- tumorous liver after integration of viral DNA. Because no direct conclusions with respect to the biology of the virus could be drawn from the structural characteristics described above, the functional competence of the mutant viral genome was analyzed in vitro. Following transfection of Huh 7 hepatoma cells (Nakabayashi, H. et al.. Cancer Res. 42:3858-3863 (1982)), cell lysates and cell culture media were analyzed for the presence of viral transcripts, proteins and replicative forms of viral DNA. As shown in Fig. 1, hybridization with an HBV-specific probe revealed the presence of two major transcripts of 2.2 and 3.6 kb length, respectively, in both head-to tail (HTD) adw ('wild-type') and HTD 5-15 ('mutant') transfected cells. No viral transcripts were present in non-transfected cells (data not shown) or in cells transfected with the incomplete HBV clone 1-8 (Table I). While the level of message was higher in HTD adw than in HTD 5-15 transfected cells, the ratio of the 3.6 kb pregenomic to 2.2 kb subgenomic message appears very similar. These findings indicate that the mutant viral genome is competent to synthesize all major HBV transcripts. HBV-encoded proteins were identified by solid-phase radioimmunoassay, both in cell lysates and culture media. Both HTD adw and HTD 5-15 transfected Huh 7 cells secrete substantial amounts of HBsAg and HBc/eAg into the media while no viral antigens are produced by cells transfected with the incomplete clone HBV 1-8 (data not illustrated). As predicted from the stop codon mutation in position 1899, metabolic labeling and im unoprecipitation studies revealed that HTD 5- 15 transfected cells are incompetent to synthesize the large pre-C/C protein and its smaller processed products, normally secreted as HBeAg into the cell culture media (data not illustrated). In order to assess the replication competence of the mutant genome 5-15, HBV DNA species were analyzed by Southern blot hybridization of cytoplasmic DNA isolated from Huh 7 cells after transfection. As shown in Fig. 2, replicating HBV DNA species were detected in cells transfected with HTD adw only while no viral DNA was present in cells transfected with the incomplete clone HBV 1-8 (negative control) or with HTD 5- 15. Viral DNA sequences in HTD adw transfected cells represent single-stranded and partially double-stranded replicative intermediates as well as complete relaxed circular molecules (Blum, H.E. et al .. Virology 139:87-96 (1984)). Viral antigens and DNA species in cell lysates and culture media of HTD adw or HTD 5-15 transfected cells were further characterized by CsCl density gradient centrifugation followed by analysis of individual fractions for HBsAg and HBc/eAg and HBV DNA sequences. In HTD adw transfected cells viral DNA is associated with HBc/eAg (core particles) and in culture media with HBsAg (virions) and HBc/eAg (core particles). As expected, while positive for HBsAg and HBcAg, no viral DNA species were detectable in CsCl fractions of cell lysates or culture media from HTD 5-15 transfected Huh 7 cells. These findings demonstrate that, while Huh 7 cells support viral replication, the mutant HBV genome 5-15 is unable to replicate in this system. The molecular basis of the replication-defectiveness was determined by subcloning of specific regions of the mutant viral genome into the truncated replication-competent adw HTD construct adw R9 (Fig. 3). By exchange of specific DNA fragments, cloning and transfection of Huh 7 hepatoma cells, the mutations responsible for the replication-defectiveness could be localized to a region of the mutant viral genome mapping between position 2606 (Apa 1) and 2823 (Bst EII; Figs. 3 and 4). Within this region the mutant viral genome has only two missense mutations (nucleotide position 2798 and 2820) relative to adw2 (Valenzuela, P. et al.. The nucleotide sequence of the hepatitis B viral genome and the identification of the major viral genes, p. 57-70, In B.N. Fields, R. Oaenisch and C.F. Fox (eds.), Animal virus genetics, Academic Press Inc., New York (1980)). By site- directed mutagenesis of either adw R9 or R9 RB 5-15 (Fig. 3) and primers carrying either the 2798 or the 2820 mutation four clones were generated by PCR amplification (Table 3): adw R9 with an A to C mutation in position 2798 (clone 2-6), adw R9 with a G to C mutation in position 2820 (clone 5-3), Ava la with a C to A mutation in position 2798 (clone 6-6), and Ava la with a C to G mutation in position 2820 (clone 3-3). After transfection of Huh 7 hepatoma cells with these clones, it could be demonstrated that the A to C mutation of clone adw R9 in position 2798 renders viral DNA replication-defective while the C to A mutation of clone Ava la in the same position reestablishes replicationcompetence (Fig. 4). By contrast, the mutation in position 2820 did not affect the replicationcompetence or -defectiveness of the parent constructs (clone 3-3 and clone 6-6). These findings unequivocally demonstrate that the A to C mutation in position 2798 of the viral genome, leading to a Thr to Pro substitution, is the molecular basis for the replication- defect of the mutant viral genome isolated from the patient's liver. Experimental studies (Bosch, V. et al .. Virology 166:474- 485 (1988); Bartenschlager, R. et al.. EMBO J. 7:4185-4192 (1988); Schlicht, H.-J. et al.. Cell 56:85-92 (1989)) and comparative structural and hydropathy analyses of hepadnavirus polymerases (Khudyakov, Y.E. et al .. FEBS Letters 243:115-118 (1989)) suggest that the 5' prime region of the viral polymerase gene encodes for the 'terminal protein' (TP). This protein binds to the 5' end of minus strand DNA and presumably serves as a primer of reverse transcription which is a central feature of the replication strategy of the hepadnaviruses (Seeger, C. et al.. Science 232:477-484 (1986); Will, H. et al.. J. Virol. 61:904-911 (1987)). Mutational analyses of the duck hepatitis B virus polymerase gene indeed demonstrated that an in-frame insertion into the 5' region of this gene eliminates the production of an active polymerase (Schlicht, H.-J. et al.. Cell 56:85-92 (1989)). This data strongly suggests that the TP region of the polymerase gene is important for viral replication. Further, the functionally intact polymerase gene appears to be required for the packaging of pregenomic RNA. Consistent with this interpretation, the mutation identified in nucleotide position 2798 in our mutant or produced by mutagenesis of 'wild-type' virus terminates viral replication. The significance of this mutation is further emphasized by the fact that the amino acid in position 164 of the polymerase gene product is highly conserved in all HBV strains (11/14 Thr, 3/14 Ser), as shown by a comparison with the published HBV DNA sequences (Okamoto et al .. J. Gen. Virol. 69:2575-2583 (1988)) and those available through the Genbank. The mechanism of this termination is possibly mediated through a conformational change of the TP or a protein involved in encapsidation of genomic RNA due to a Thr or Ser to a Pro substitution. Studies are in progress to define the contribution of this polymerase gene region to the function of these proteins. Cotransfection of Huh 7 hepatoma cells with wild type HBV and mutant HBV DNA demonstrated that the mutant was capable of terminating replication of the wild type HBV. See Table 4. When HBV and unrelated DNA were used to transfect Huh 7 cells, replication of the hepatitis virus was not hindered as evidenced by hybridization of total cellular DNA with HBV viral DNA. No viral DNA was detected in cells cotransfected with mutant virus DNA, indicating that the mutant was able to terminate replication of the wild type hepatitis virus. The capability of a mutant virus to terminate replication of nonmutant viruses has important implications. In those individuals or hosts suffering from a viral infection, the mutant virus can terminate the replication of the virus in infected cells and prevent the virus spreading to other cells. All publications and patent applications mentioned in the specification are indicative of the level of skill of those skilled in the art to which this invention pertains. All publications and patent applications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual pμblication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be obvious that certain changes and modifications may be practiced within the scope of the appended claims. TABLE 1: Comparison of conservation of AA position 164 in the polymerase gene of various HBV strains Mutant (no replication) Pro CCC * A single mutation e.g. A to C at position 2798 converts Thr to Pro or a T to C mutation at position 2798 converts Ser to Pro. TABLE 2: Position and Sequences of HBV Specific Oligonucleo- tide Primers used for PCR amplification and Cloning of HBV DNA from the Patient's Liver A 73-year old white male with a history of viral hepatitis presented with metastasizing hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). HBV serology was negative for HBsAg and anti-HBc IgM and positive for anti-HBc IgG, anti-HBe and anti- HBs, as determined by radioimmunoassays (Abbott, North Chicago, IL). No HBV DNA could be detected in serum by spot- blot hybridization. Liver and HCC tissues obtained at autopsy were stored at -80 β C until use. Liver DNA was amplified using Taq polymerase and primers carrying restriction enzyme sites at the 5' and 3' ends (Table 2). The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed according to Saiki et al. (Saiki, R. et al .. Science 239:487-4491 (1988)). Briefly, target sequences were amplified in a 50 ul reaction volume containing 50 ng DNA, 2.5 units of Taq polymerase (Perkin-Elmer Cetus), 200 uM each dNTP, 1 uM each primer, 50 ml/1 KC1, 10 mM Tris- HC1, pH 8.3, 1.5 M MgC12, and 0.01% (wt/vol) gelatin. The reaction was performed for 40 cycles in a programmable DNA thermal cycler (Perkin-Elmer Cetus). Samples were heated to 94'C for 1.5 min (denaturation of DNA), cooled to 50'C for 1.5 min (hybridization to primer), and incubated for 3 min at 72 * C (polymerase reaction). After PCR, 5 units of Klenow polymerase were added to complete strand synthesis and to ensure cleavage by the appropriate restriction endonucleases. The PCR mixture was fractionated on a 1.25% agarose gel in the presence of ethidiu bromide. The band containing the target sequence was removed and DNA was isolated by glass beads (Geneclean, Bio 101 Inc., La Jolla, CA). The purified fragments were ligated into pGEM-7Zf(+) (Promega) and cloned in DH5αF' cells (BRL). Cloned DNA was prepared by standard plas id preparation. The three clones 1-8, 2-13 and 3-1 (Table 2) were used to reconstruct the full-size viral genome (clone 5-15). For transfection experiments, head-to-tail di ers of HBV DNA HBsAg subtype adw ('wild-type') and of HBV DNA 5-15 were constructed in pGEM-7Zf(+) and cloned as described above. DNA sequence analysis was performed as described (Mierendorf, R.C. et al .. Meth. Enzvmol. 152:556-562 (1987)) using the Gem Seq RT system (Promega) or the T7 polymerase system (Pharmacia). Table 2 Primer Pair 1-8: 1: 3119-3142 5'-CCGAGCTCCACCAATCGGCAGTCAGGAAG-3' 2: 1449-1428 5'-CGATCGATTCAGCGCCGACGGACGTA-3' Target Sequence: 5'-Sac I 1552 bp Cla 1-3' (clone 1-8) Primer Pair 2-13: 3: 1865-1889 5'-CAGAATTCAAGCCTCCAAGCTGTGCCπGG-3' 4: 0248-0224 5'-AGTCTAGACTCTGCGGTATTGTGAGGATTCTTG-3' Target Sequence: 5'-Eco RI 1604 bp Xba 1-3' (clone 2-13) Primer Pair 3-1: 5: 1281-1307 5'-CGGAGCTCCTAGCCGCTTGTTTTGCTCGCAGC-3' 6: 2430-2410 5'-GAAAGCTTCTGCGACGCGGCGATTGAGA-3' Target Sequence: 5'-Sac I 1150 bp Hind III-3' (clone 3-1) TABLE 3: DNA Sequence of In Vitro Mutagenesized HBV DNA Clones and Their Parent Constructs Clones adw R9 and R9 5-15 (see figure 3) were amplified by PCR (see Table 1) using a generic primer spanning the region 2312 to 2333 (CC-22) and a primer spanning the region 2833 to 2794, carrying either a T to G mutation in position 2798 (ATC-40) or a C to G mutation in position 2820 (ACC-40). The amplified fragments were purified by agarose gel electrophoresis and Geneclean (Bio 101 Inc., La Jolla, CA). After digestion with Apa I and Bst ElI, the fragments were cloned into adw R9 (see figure 3), yielding the 4 clones 2-6, 3-3, 5-3 and 6-6 carrying the expected single point mutation. Table 3 Clone DNA Sequence 2798 2820 adw R9 2791 -GAGGGAAACC ACACGTAGCG CATCATTTTG CGGGT- 2-6 2791 - C - 5-3 2791 - C Ava la 2791 -GAGGGAACCC ACACGTAGCG CATCATTTTC CGGGT- 6-6 2791 - A - TABLE 4: Cotransfection with mutant HBV Huh 7 cells were cotransfected with: 1) wild type HBV and unrelated DNA; and, 2) wild type HBV and mutant HBV DNA. The unrelated DNA utilized for cotransfection was a neomycin resistance carrying vector. After cotransfection, replication of the virus was determined by extraction of total cellular DNA followed by hybridization with labelled HBV DNA. Following extraction, total cellular DNA was digested with DNase and RNase followed by centrifugation in a sucrose mixture. Viral DNA was taken from the sucrose gradient and subjected to gel electrophoresis. Following electrophoresis the DNA was transferred to nitrocellulose and treated with labelled viral DNA. The resulting autoradiographs showed the presence of viral DNA in cells cotransfected with wild type HBV and unrelated DNA. No viral DNA was detected in the cells transfected with wild type HBV and mutant HBV DNA. Table 4 Cotransfection Replication 1. Wild type HBV and unrelated DNA 2. Wild type HBV and mutant HBV DNA + indicates replication of HBV as evidenced by hybridization with viral DNAs no replication detected

Claims: WHAT IS CLAIMED IS: 1. A method for inhibiting viral replication comprising: introducing a mutation into a polymerase gene region of said viral genome. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said virus is a hepadnavirus. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein said virus is a hepatitis virus. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein said hepatitis virus is hepatitis B virus. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein said mutation is introduced into said viral genome at a nucleotide position at about nucleotide 2606 to about nucleotide 2823. 6. The method of claim 4, wherein said mutation is introduced at nucleotide 2798. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein said virus is a retrovirus. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein said retrovirus is HIV. 9. A method for preventing or inhibiting replication of a virus in a host cell comprising: contacting said virus with a defective polymerase gene product effective to inhibit replication. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein said virus is a hepadnavirus. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein said hepadnavirus is a hepatitis virus. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein said hepatitis virus is hepatitis B virus. 13. The method of claim 9, wherein said gene product has a single amino acid substitution. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein said amino acid substitution is at amino acid 164. 15. The method of claim 9, wherein said contacting comprises: introducing into said host cell a mutant virus polymerase gene; and expressing defective polymerase gene product. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein said polymerase gene is regulated by a tissue specific promoter. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein said tissue is liver. 18. A recombinant virus polymerase gene encoding a defective polymerase protein wherein said protein is capable of inhibiting viral replication. 19. The gene of claim 18, wherein said gene comprises at least one mutation. 20. A vector comprising the gene of claim 18. 21. A host cell transformed by the vector of claim 20.

Inventors: BLUM HUBERT E, GALUN EITHAN, LIANG TSANYANG, WANDS JACK R, BLUM, HUBERT, E., GALUN, EITHAN, LIANG, TSANYANG, WANDS, JACK, R.
Applicants: GEN HOSPITAL CORP, THE GENERAL HOSPITAL CORPORATION
Application year: 1991
Main classification: C12N15
IPC codes: A61K38, A61K48, C07K14, C12N5, C12N7, C12N9, C12N15, C12R1