Mutated beta-lactam acylase genes

Abstract: New mutant β-lactam acylases are provided exhibiting altered substrate specificities. These β-lactam acylases are obtained by expression of a gene encoding said β-lactam acylase and having an amino acid sequence which differs at least in one amino acid from the wild-type β-lactam acylase.

Description: FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to mutations of genes encoding acylases, resulting in alterations in the substrate specificity of acylase enzymes. Some of these mutant enzymes exhibit catalytic properties which make them particularly suitable for the deacylation/acylation of β-lactam derivatives. Among those is a preferred group which is designed for a one-step conversion of Cephalosporin C and derivatives to 7-aminocephalosporanic acid and derivatives. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The basic antibiotics of the β-lactam type are principally obtained by fermentation. Fungi of the genus Penicillium and Cephalosporium (Acremonium) are used for the production of raw material for β-lactam antibiotics as Penicillin G, Penicillin V and Cephalosporin C. These fermentation products, also referred to as PenG, PenV and CefC, respectively, are the starting materials for nearly all currently marketed penicillins and cephalosporins. The side-chains of these compounds, phenylacetyl, phenoxyacetyl and aminoadipyl, respectively, are removed by cleavage of an amide linkage (deacylation), resulting in 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) in case of the two penicillin molecules and 7-amino-cephalosporanic acid (7-ACA) in case of the cephalosporin. The particular enzymes which accomplish these conversions are referred to herein as "acylases" or "amidases". These denominations as used in this specification have the same meaning. Also, the conversion of Cephalosporin G to 7-amino 3-deacetoxycephalosporanic acid (7-ADCA) is mentioned. However, Cephalosporin G (CefG) is not a fermentation product but is usually produced chemically from Penicillin G. The basic structures of the various penicillins and cephalosporins discussed above are shown in Figure 1. Synthetic manipulation to produce the various penicillins and cephalosporins of choice basically starts from 6-APA, 7-ACA and 7-ADCA, respectively. The conversion of Penicillin G and Penicillin V to 6-APA may be performed both chemically and enzymatically. The classical way is the chemical cleavage, but enzymatic processes are preferred nowadays (for review, see Lowe [1] ). Costs and environmental considerations are arguments in favour of an enzymatic process. The cleavage of the CefC side-chain to 7-ACA is usually carried out chemically, according to the so-called imino-halide process. However, this process has serious disadvantages, since it is complex, requiring inter alia multiple steps, extremely low temperatures and expensive reagents. The conversion of β-lactam intermediates to the desired semi-synthetic antibiotics may also be performed chemically and enzymatically, the enzymatic route being basically preferred if a suitable enzyme is available. Penicillin acylases are such enzymes in a number of cases. The enzymatic conversion takes advantage of the fact that any enzymatic reaction is reversible, if the correct conditions are applied (Abbott B.J. [2] ). Various types of microorganisms have been proposed in the literature as acylase producing strains useful for the deacylation of β-lactam derivatives obtained by fermentation and/or the acylation of 6-APA and 7-ACA to semi-synthetic β-lactam antibiotics of choice. Examples of such acylase producing microorganisms are certain strains of the species Escherichia coli , Kluyvera citrophila , Proteus rettgeri , Pseudomonas sp., Alcaligenes faecalis , Bacillus megaterium , Bacillus sphaericus , and Arthrobacter viscosus . According to the literature several types of acylases may be envisaged, based on their molecular structure and substrate specificity (Vandamme E.J. [3] ). Type-I acylases are specific for Penicillin V. These enzymes are composed of four identical subunits, each having a molecular weight of 35 kDa. A complete nucleotide sequence of the cloned gene from Bacillus sphaericus has been reported (Ollson A. [4] ). Type-II acylases all share a common molecular structure: these enzymes are heterodimers composed of a small subunit (α; 20-25 kDa) and a large subunit (β; 60-65 kDa). With respect to the substrate specificity, Type-II acylases may be further divided into two groups: Type-IIA acylases are very specific for Penicillin G. In general, they are not so much specific for the moiety adjacent to the nitrogen atom of the amide group (this might be a cephem group, a penem group, an amino acid, etc.), but the substrate specificity resides in the acyl moiety of the substrate. This acyl moiety must be very hydrophobic and is preferably benzyl or (short) alkyl. Examples of substrates which are not hydrolyzed by Type-IIA acylases are those with dicarboxylic acids as acyl moiety: succinyl, glutaryl, adipyl and also aminoadipyl, the side-chain of CefC. Examples of Type-IIA acylases are the enzymes from Escherichia coli , Kluyvera citrophila , Proteus rettgeri and Alcaligenes faecalis . Type-IIB acylases have been reported to be capable of hydrolyzing cephalosporins (including the desacetoxy-derivative) with succinyl, glutaryl and adipyl as an acyl moiety and even in one case CefC to a very limited degree (Shibuya Y. [5] ; Matsuda A. [6] ). So far these acylases have only been found in Pseudomonas species, and in certain strains of Bacillus megaterium and Arthrobacter viscosus . The literature relates mainly to penicillin acylases. The synthetic potential of penicillin acylases, however, is limited due to the specificity of the enzyme. In more recent years also publications relating to Cephalosporin C acylases have appeared, but the activity of the reported enzymes was relatively low. No commercial enzymatic process for the conversion of Cephalosporin C to 7-ACA is available up to now, despite intensive efforts to find a suitable enzyme (cf. Walton R.B. [7] ). There is, therefore, a substantial interest in developing acylase enzymes which are highly efficient in deacylation/acylation reactions to produce desired chemical entities. Of particular interest are the enzymatic deacylation of β-lactams and especially PenG, PenV and CefC, and derivatives thereof, to 6-APA and 7-ACA and derivatives, respectively, and the acylation of the latter compounds to produce semi-synthetic pencillins and cephalosporins of interest. It is of major importance in this connection to dispose of an efficient acylase enzyme which is capable of catalyzing the conversion of CefC (and derivatives) to 7-ACA (and derivatives). The invention aims to provide such efficient enzymes. RELEVANT PRIOR ART Mahajan [8] gives a review of various penicillin acylases and distinguishes PenG and PenV specific acylases. European Patent Application EP-A-0283218 discloses an enzymatic one step conversion of CefC and derivatives to 7-ACA and derivatives, using an enzyme derived from Arthrobacter viscosus strain ATCC 53594. EP-A-0322032 discloses the same enzymatic one step conversion, using an enzyme derived from Bacillus megaterium strain ATCC 53667. U.S. Patent No. 4,774,179 discloses basically the same conversion, using Pseudomonas sp. SE-83 or SE-495, or material obtained from these microorganisms by subjecting them to chemical and/or physical treatment. As already stated before, the low activities of these enzymes stands in the way of a commercial use up till now. The use of recombinant DNA methods has enabled an increase of the production levels of commercially used penicillin acylases (Mayer [9] ) and has enlarged the insight into the processing of these enzymes (Schumacher [10] ). The penicillin acylase of E . coli was found to be produced as a large precursor protein, which was further processed into the periplasmic mature protein constituting a small (α) and a large (β) subunit. Cloning and sequencing of the Kluyvera citrophila acylase gene has revealed a close homology with the E . coli acylase gene (Barbero [11] ). Also for Proteus rettgeri penicillin G acylase a small and a large subunit has been described (Daumy [12] ). Williams [33] describes substrate specificity modifications of the PenG acylase of E . coli ATCC 9637 occurring in a natural variant. The method was based on replacement subcloning of regions in the wild-type gene with equivalent regions of the gene of a natural mutant. Forney [34, 35] describes the selection of amidases with novel substrate specificities from penicillin amidase of E . coli and the alteration of catalytic efficiency of such a penicillin amidase (of E . coli ATCC 11105) by propagation of a recombinant plasmidin a E . coli strain with a high mutation frequency. D-(-)-α-aminophenylacetyl-(L)-leucine was used as a substrate analog of ampicillin and cephalexin. It was found possible to alter the substrate specificity of penicillin amidase and obtain enzymes that, at low pH, hydrolyze amides with α-aminophenylacetyl moieties more rapidly. These publications neither teach nor suggest the instant invention. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to mutant type II β-lactam acylases having at least a mutation in one or more of the positions corresponding to 62, 177, 178 and 179 in Pseudomonas SY-77 compared to the wild-type β-lactam acylase. Other mutant acelyses are given for comparison only. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Figure 1 : reaction schemes of certain 8-lactam conversions. Reaction 1 is the deacylation of PenG resulting in 6-APA and phenylacetic acid. Reaction 2 reflects the deacylation of PenV resulting in 6-APA and phenoxyacetic acid. Reaction 3 is the deacylation of CefC into 7-ACA and (α-)aminoadipic acid. Reaction 4 reflects the deacylation of CefG into 7-ADCA and phenylacetic acid. Figure 2 : restriction map of plasmid pUNNI. Figure 3 : restriction map of plasmid pUNNEC harboring the E . coli ATCC 11105 penicillin acylase gene. Figure 4 : restriction map of the 6.4 kb insert of plasmid pAF1. Figure 5 : nucleotide sequence and derived amino acid sequence of the penicillin acylase gene of Alcaligenes faecalis . Amino acids are indicated in the 1-letter code. Figure 6 : insert of pUNNGL7 harboring the Pseudomonas SY-77 glutaryl-Cef acylase gene. Figure 7 : restriction map of plasmid pUCGL7A: plasmid pUC18 harboring the glutaryl-Cef acylase gene of Pseudomonas SY-77. Figure 8 : restriction map of plasmid pTZSE5-1: plasmid pTZ18R harboring the Pseudomonas SE-83 AcyII gene. Figure 9 : map of plasmid pMcTNde: a derivative of the mutagenesis expression plasmid pMa/c 5-8 with a Nde I insertion position under control of the TAC promoter. Figure 10 : map of plasmid pMcTGL7ANde, with the SY-77 glutaryl-Cef acylase gene inserted into the Nde I site (harboring the start codon) of plasmid pMcTNde. Figure 11 : map of plasmid pMcTSE5Nde: plasmid pMcTNde with the SE-83 AcyII gene inserted in the Nde I site. Figure 12 : map of plasmid pMcTAFNde: plasmid pMcTNde with the A . faecalis penicillin acylase gene inserted in the Nde I site. Figure 13 : nucleotide sequence and derived amino acid sequence of the complete Pseudomonas SY-77 glutaryl-Cef acylase gene. Figure 14 : alignment of Type-II acylases from E . coli (e.col), Kluyvera citrophila (K.cit), Alcaligenes faecalis (a.fae), Pseudomonas SE-83 AcyII (AcyII) and Pseudomonas SY-77 (SY-77). An asterix denotes that the sequence contains the same amino acid at that position as the sequence from the E . coli acylase. Figure 15a : region selection in the Alcaligenes faecalis α-subunit. Figure 15b : region selection in the Alcaligenes faecalis β-subunit. Figure 16a : amino acid residue selection in the SY-77 α-subunit. Figure 16b : amino acid residue selection in the SY-77 β-subunit. Figure 17 : conversion of adipyl serine by glutaryl acylase SY-77 wild-type and mutant V62L. Enzymes were dosed in such a way that the same activity on glutaryl 7-ACA was obtained. Figure 18 : conversion of adipyl serine by glutaryl acylase SY-77 wild-type and mutants Y178H and V179G. Enzymes were dosed in such a way that the same activity on glutaryl 7-ACA was obtained. Figure 19 : conversion of adipyl serine by glutaryl acylase SY-77 wild-type and mutants Y178H and L177I + Y178H. Enzymes were dosed in such a way that the same activity on glutaryl 7-ACA was obtained. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention uses protein engineering as a tool to develop acylases with an altered substrate specificity. The invention is based on the finding that the genes encoding various (known) acylases show a significant degree of homology at certain regions. A comparative analysis was made which has indicated that certain mutations may alter the biochemical properties of the acylases. According to the method which will be outlined below a number of potential mutation sites will become apparent. It has been observed that the tertiary structures in homologous proteins are much more conserved in evolution than the primary structures and considerably more than the DNA-sequences. This is for example illustrated by the globin-family (Dickerson [13] ). The globin fold is encoded by many different amino acid sequences, some differring from others in as many as 86% (130 out of 150 residues). Nevertheless, their closely similar conformation support the current assumption that they diverged from a common evolutionary ancestor. When organisms divert in the course of the evolution, their genes will gradually accumulate mutations to produce proteins with quite different amino acid sequences. The more they divert, the less the sequence homology. The frequency of mutations is high at sites which are irrelevant for folding, stability or catalytic properties. Usually, these sites occur at positions in the polypeptide chain where the side chain is on the surface. Only at reversed turns, there is a tendency for residues to have one of the short polar side chains, or to be glycine or proline, the residues most freqently found at this position. Interior residues are changed less frequently and the non-polar nature of the side chain is conserved fairly well. Since mutation during evolution is a random process, there will be also substitutions that affect functional properties. Only when these substitutions do not cause a disadvantage to the organism, they will be tolerated. As a consequence, variation of these amino acids is much less. Usually, residues directly involved in catalysis are found to be highly conserved. Insertions and deletions tend to occur in surface loops between secondary structure units, with little perturbation of the interior. Usually, in the diverged molecules, elements of secondary structure are arranged in a similar three dimensional topology. The sequence homology found among the Type-II acylases, as well as the similarity in the molecular architecture of these molecules suggest that Type-IIA and Type-IIB acylases evolved from a single ancestral gene. Also the typical maturation process suggests a common origin. The comparison of sequences of proteins which diverged from a common ancestor can reveal those residues that are involved directly in the functional properties of the enzyme. In an embodiment of the invention genes encoding known Type-IIA or Type-IIB acylases, for example PenG acylases from Escherichia coli , Kluyvera citrophila , Alcaligenes faecalis or any other organisms producing such enzymes, and glutaryl-Cef acylases from Pseudomonas SE-83 AcyII, Pseudomonas SY-77 or any other organisms producing such enzymes, are mutated in such a way that the enzymes obtain an altered specificity for their substrates. The alteration of the substrate specificity of PenG acylases (Type-IIA) is achieved in such a way that the mutant enzymes are able to cleave or synthesize penicillin and cephalosporin derivatives possessing side-chains other than phenylacetyl, which is the natural side-chain of Penicillin G. Examples of side-chains which are presently not significantly affected by PenG acylases are acyl groups derived from the dicarboxylic acids succinic acid, glutaric acid, adipic acid and aminoadipic acid (the latter being the natural side-chain of CefC). In another embodiment of the invention the alteration of the substrate specificity of Cef acylases (Type-IIB) is performed in such a way that the mutant enzymes cleave or synthesize penicillin and cephalosporin derivatives possessing side-chains other than the glutaric acid moiety. Examples of suitable side-chains which may be cleaved or synthesized by such new mutant enzymes are those which are presently not substantially affected by Cef acylases such as the moieties derived from adipic acid and aminoadipic acid (which is the natural side-chain of Cephalosporin C), hydrophobic side-chains such as the moiety derived from phenylacetic acid, the natural side-chain of Penicillin G, and alkyl side-chains. In still another aspect the alteration of the specificity and activity of acylases (Type-IIA and IIB) is performed for side-chains which are already existing substrates for the said acylases. Using protein engineering the affinity for a substrate may be altered (e.g. increased, expressed by a lower K m for said substrate) or the catalytic turnover may be altered (e.g. increased, expressed by a higher k cat for said substrate). In order to achieve alterations in the enzyme molecule, it is of course highly desirable to avail of the 3D structure of said enzyme. Sofar, no high-resolution, 3D-structures of acylases have been published. However, several genes encoding acylases have been sequenced, viz. the genes from E . coli and Kluyvera citrophila (both Type-IIA) and Pseudomonas SE-83 AcyII (Type-IIB) and this has gained insight into the biological processing of these enzymes. Amino and carboxy terminal sequencing of the isolated subunits revealed that the gene encodes a precursor protein consisting of a signal sequence followed by the α-subunit, a connecting peptide (spacer) and finally the β-subunit. According to an embodiment of the invention protein engineering of the acylases is carried out following two strategies, depending on the availability of a 3D-structure of the selected acylases. The procedure for determining a 3D-structure is known in the art. In the absence of a 3D-structure substantially the following strategy is followed: First, a number of selected acylase genes are cloned into a suitable expression host organism. Preferred microorganisms include E . coli , Bacillus , Pseudomonas . Then, the DNA-sequence of each cloned acylase is determined. The DNA-sequences are translated into the corresponding amino acid sequences and these amino acid sequences are then aligned in such a way as to obtain a homology which is as high and relevant as possible. For sequence alignment the types of amino acids may be suitably used as parameters, based on identity but also on similarity. For example, serine is similar to threonine, aspartic acid is similar to glutamic acid, etc. Further suitable parameters are, for example, secondary structure predictions (according to several "standard" procedures, e.g. Chou Fassman), and charge distribution over the sequences. In a further step, regions are selected for mutation. The randomly generated mutants are selected by allowing only those mutants to grow which are capable of cleaving a specific substrate. These substrates usually comprise an amide derivative containing as an acyl moiety the side-chain for which the specificity of the said acylase is desired, and as an amine moiety an L-amino acid which is indispensible for growth of the expression host. Therefore, only those hosts, expressing an acylase with the desired substrate specifity, are able to cleave the said amide compound, thereby liberating the essential amino acid. For example, D-α-aminoadipyl L-leucine (hereinafter referred to as aminoadipyl leucine, which compound is in the D-form) can be used as the amide compound to select for a CefC acylase using leucine auxotrophic expression organisms. Another example of an amine moiety is ammonia, which may serve as the sole nitrogen source for the expression host. The "positive" mutant acylases which reveal the desired substrate specificity, on the basis of the selection procedure used, are then purified and tested. The sites of mutagenesis are identified by sequencing the gene of the mutant acylases. Examples of such mutants are the mutants V62L, Y178H, V179G of SY-77 acylase. Other mutations (including amino acid replacements, deletions and insertions) may also be performed at or around these sites in order to further increase the activity of the mutant acylase. Thus, it will be understood that any combinations of the above-mentioned mutations are included within the present invention. An example of such combination is the mutant L177I/Y178H of SY-77 acylase. When a 3D-structure of an acylase is available, the first (four) steps of the above procedure still need to be done, but the selection may be based on the 3D-structure. Two approaches may be envisaged: a) A rational approach, in which one or a few amino acids are mutated into other amino acids. This does not create a large amount of mutants and therefore, all mutants can be handled with respect to purification and testing for their substrate specificity. From the three-dimensional structure one or more amino acids in the active site may be selected in order to be mutated in such a way that the desired side-chain can be accomodated optimally in the active site. For example, accomodating the aminoadipyl side-chain of CefC into a PenG acylase, requires that the binding pocket is first of all enlarged in order to fit in the longer alkyl chain, and secondly that it is supplied with the proper electrostatic environment to bind the amino and/or carboxy group of the aminoadipyl side-chain. As another example, the introduction of the proper electrostatic environment in order to accomodate the positively charged amino group of the side-chain of CefC may change the specificity of a glutaryl-Cef acylase (which already shows some activity with aminoadipyl Cephalosporin) to a CefC acylase. b) a "targeted random mutagenesis (TRM) approach". Despite the 3D-structure it may be difficult to make predictions. If it is possible to assess that a few amino acids are involved in substrate binding, a targeted random mutagenesis is advantageously performed followed by a selection test as indicated above. This approach yields for example 8000 possible mutants when a set of 3 sites is mutated randomly (with respect to the amino acids, 20*20*20; on DNA level - where the mutants have to be made - this is as many as (4*4*4) 3 = 262,000 possible mutants!). In a further aspect of the invention it was found that the acylase enzyme from Alcaligenes faecalis showed a surprisingly high degree of homology with the acylases from E . coli and Kluyvera citrophila . The acylase encoding gene from Alcaligenes faecalis was isolated and sequenced and compared with the genes of the two other species. It appeared that a common feature of the sequences is that the genes encode a large polypeptide precursor which may be composed as is depicted in Table 1. The question marks relating to Alcaligenes faecalis indicate only that the end of the sequences could not yet be determined unambiguously. Number of amino acids per acylase peptide Acylase from signal seq. α-subunit connecting peptide β-subunit Escherichia coli 26 209 54 557 Kluyvera citrophila 26 209 54 555 Alcaligenes faecalis 26 210(?) 29 (?) 551 Pseudomonas SE-83 AcyII 0 239(?) ? ? 535 Pseudomonas SY-77 28 169(?) ? ? 521 In another aspect of the invention it was found that α- and β-subunit of the acylase from Pseudomonas SY-77 depicted regions with a high sequence homology both with Type-IIA acylases and the Type-IIB SE-83 AcyII acylase. The acylase encoding gene of Pseudomonas SY-77 was isolated and the complete sequence of the gene was obtained. For both Pseudomonas acylases there is no evidence for a connecting peptide between α- and β-subunit. The SY-77 enzyme appeared to have a signal peptide whereas N-terminal sequencing of the SE-83 AcyII showed that the mature α-subunit commenced just after the initiating methionine (Matsuda A. [6] ). The kinetics of Type-II acylases are consistent with catalysis proceeding via an acyl-enzyme intermediate (Mahajan [8] . In the first step of the mechanism, the substrate PenG binds to the enzyme to form the non-covalent Michaelis-Menten complex e:PenG. In the subsequent step, the covalent intermediate is formed between the enzyme and the acyl moiety of the substrate (e-PhAc = acylated enzyme; PhAc = phenylacetic acid) with the concomitant release of the first product 6-APA. Deacylation occurs with the aid of a water molecule thereby liberating the second product PhAc and regenerating the enzyme. This mechanism is also in accordance with the observations that PhAc acts as a competitive inhibitor and 6-APA as a non-competitive one. The above mechanism, which is identical to the one postulated for the serine proteases, together with the finding that phenylmethylsulfonylfluoride (PMSF, a potent inhibitor of serine proteases) inhibits the enzyme (Mahajan [8] ), suggests that these enzymes are also serine hydrolases containing a catalytic triad consisting of a serine, histidine and aspartic acid. Such a catalytic triad is not only found in the serine proteases of the trypsin- and subtilisin family, but was recently also discovered in two, structurally different, triacylglycerol lipases (Blow D. [14] ; Winkler F.K. [15] ; Brady L. [16] ) from human pancreas and the fungus Rhizomucor miehei . Based on the sequence alignment Ser765 of Alcaligenes faecalis acylase is most likely the active site serine. Based on this finding further mutants are provided with altered activity. In a further aspect of the present invention, the genes coding for the acylases from Escherichia coli , Alcaligenes faecalis , Pseudomonas SY-77 and Pseudomonas SE-83 AcyII, respectively, were cloned into the expression host organism E . coli . The DNA sequences of the acylases from E . coli , Kluyvera citrophila , Pseudomonas SE-83 AcyII and the partial DNA sequence for Pseudomonas SE-77 were taken from the literature. The DNA sequence for the acylase from Alcaligenes faeca was determined as well as the remainder of the DNA sequence of the Pseudomonas SE-77. The alignment of the five amino acid sequences revealed a close homology between the PenG acylases (>45%), whereas the homology between the PenG acylases and the glutaryl-Cef acylases was lower (25-35%) while also the homology between the glutaryl-Cef acylases was of that same order. Yet regions of high homology between all five sequences could be detected which points to a possible similar 3D-structure (already supported by the heterodimeric structure). Regions of particular interest to mutate are the α-and β- subunits of the acylase. It is to be understood that all amino acids, as used in this specification, are in the L-form, unless otherwise stated. The term "aminoadipyl" is used to indicate the D-α-aminoadipyl moiety. Mutant β-lactam acylases may also be cloned and expressed in a β-lactam producing microorganism. This would have the advantage that the deacylated β-lactam intermediate can be recovered directly from the fermentation broth. Cephalosporium and Penicillium strains are preferred hosts for this application of mutant β-lactam acylases. The following Examples are offered by way of illustration and not by way of limitation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Cloning and detection of acylase genes General cloning techniques were performed as described by Maniatis [17] , Ausubel [18] and Perbal [19] . These handbooks describe in detail the protocols for construction and propagation of rDNA molecules, the procedures for making gene libraries and the protocols for mutating DNA in a site-directed or random fashion. Enzymes used for DNA manipulations were purchased from commercial suppliers and used according to their instructions. Plasmids and E . coli cloning hosts were obtained from public culture collections. Construction of Plasmid pUNN1 Plasmid pUNN1 was constructed as follows: Plasmid pUB110 ( S . aureus ) was cut with Sna BI and Tag I and the fragment carrying the neomycin resistance gene was cloned into Sma I, Acc I digested pUC19 resulting in pPNeo. The small Eco RI- Sca I fragment of pPNeo was exchanged for the small Eco RI- ScaI I fragment of pUC18 resulting in pPNeoII. Then the small Pst - Pst fragment of pPNeoII was cloned into the single Pst I site of pUN121 (Nilsson [20] ). After Kpn I, Xba I digestion, nuclease S1 treatment and ligation, plasmid pUNNI was recovered. This plasmid can be used as a positive selection vector (Nilsson, ibid.) and has the advantage over common cloning vectors that it does not contain a β-lactamase gene, which may destroy β-lactam antibiotics. Enzyme assays Acylase activity was assayed by a spectrophotometric method based on the detection of primary amino groups with the fluorophor fluorescamine (S. Underfriend et al. [32] ). For the detection of 7-ACA the method was adapted by Reyes et al. [21] . In order to determine enzymatic activity the enzyme was incubated with substrate at room temperature.The composition of the reaction mixture was: 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer pH 7.5, 1.2 mM substrate, 1.0 mM β-lactamase inhibitor 6-bromo-penicillanic acid and enzyme. The reaction was stopped by adding 0.5 N HCl. Slow reactions were assayed immediately without prior stopping the reaction with HCl. From the reaction mixture 100 microliters were taken and mixed with 800 µl 0.2 M sodium acetate buffer pH 4.5 and 100 µl of fluorescamine which was prepared in AR acetone (1 mg/ml). When the substrate contained an amino acid instead of 7-ACA, the sodium acetate buffer was replaced by 0.2 M sodium phosphate pH 7.5. After 15 minutes the absorption at 378 nm was determined with an Uvicon 860 spectrophotometer and corrected for the appropriate blancs. Through a calibration curve the absorption at 378 nm can be related to the number of free amino groups released by hydrolysis of the substrate. Site-directed mutagenesis of cloned DNA fragments was carried out as described by Stanssens [ 22 ] with the aid of the phasmid pMa/c system. Suitable gapped duplex molecules of acylase genes were constructed. With specific mismatch oligonucleotides site directed mutations were introduced. Expression of acylase genes was obtained in E . coli WK6 either from the homologous expression signals or from the E . coli lac, tac or trp promoter (De Boer [23] ). Gapped duplex molecules were annealed with "spiked" oligonucleotides to obtain a region-targeted random mutagenesis (Hermes [24] ). These "spiked" oligonucleotides were prepared by including traces of all 4 nucleotides during the synthesis of oligonucleotides on an Applied Biosystems DNA synthesizer. Alternatively, random mutagenesis of the gapped DNA was performed enzymatically with a method modified from Leethovaara [25] . By the choice of the gap the region to be mutagenised enzymatically was selected. In another type of experiments targeted random mutagenesis was performed. This comprises the inclusion of all four bases at the codon for a specific amino acid during the synthesis of the oligonucleotide. In doing so, a mutagenic oligonucleotide which can mutate any amino acid in all other possible amino acids can be synthesized. A single amino acid position or a combination of several positions can be mutagenized in that way. Alternatively, random mutagenesis based on the PCR technology can be used [36]. Selective media Selective media for phenylacetyl leucine ("fal") were prepared as described by Garcia [ 26 ]. Minimal plates are as follows: M63 minimal agar, 2 g/l glucose, 1 mg/l thiamine, 10 mg/l proline and the appropriate antibiotic (50 µg/ml chloramphenicol (cap) or 25 µg/ml ampicillin (amp)). For selections on side-chain specificity (e.g adipyl or aminoadipyl) of acylases, 100 µg/l of the corresponding acyl leucine was included into minimal plates. Transformants or mutants of E . coli HB101 (Leu) growing exclusively in the presence of the acyl leucine are considered to harbor an acylase gene with the desired specificity. Instead of leucine the amino acid moiety desired specificity. Instead of leucine the amino acid moiety of the selective substrate was varied. In such case a suitable auxotrophic mutant of E . coli was used for selection. For example, selection on the substrate N-adipyl serine was carried out with E . coli strain PC2051 as a host (obtained from Phabagen, Utrecht, the Netherlands). Phenylacetyl leucine, aminoadipyl leucine, glutaryl leucine, adipyl alanine and adipyl serine were purchased from LGSS, Transferbureau Nijmegen, the Netherlands. Phenylacetyl amide was added to a final concentration of 15 mM to minimal M63 medium supplemented with 0.2% of either succinate, glycerol or glucose as carbon source, and thiamine (1 µg/ml), proline (10 µg/ml), and the appropriate antibiotic. All salts in the basal medium were replaced by the corresponding salts containing either Na + or K + ions in order to ensure selective growth on the amide (Daumy [12] ). Amides with the desired side-chains were purchased from commercial suppliers or prepared according to standard techniques. E . coli strains JM101, WK6, HB101, PC2051 and PC1243 were used as hosts to select for mutant genes with specificity for the selective amides. Isolation procedure wild-type and mutant glutaryl acylases Cells were harvested by centrifugation and resuspended in 10 mM sodium phosphate buffer pH 7.4 containing 140 mM NaCl. The cells were disrupted through sonification (6 x 20 sec, 100 W, 100 mm bar, Labsonic 1510; after every 20 seconds the cells were cooled on ice for 30 seconds). Subsequently, the suspension was centrifugated. The sonification procedure was repeated with the resuspended pellet and finally the cell debris was removed by centrifugation. Supernatants were pooled and ammonium sulphate was added upto a 30% saturation. After 30 minutes stirring precipitated material was removed by centrifugation. The ammonium sulphate concentration of the supernatant was increased to 60% saturation and after 30 minutes the precipitate was collected by centrifugation. The pellet was dissolved in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer pH 7.5 and extensively dialyzed against the same buffer. EXAMPLE 1 Cloning of an E. coli penicillin acylase gene From the published restriction map and sequence of E . coli ATCC 11105 penicillin acylase gene (Sang-Jin [27] ) it was concluded that the Hin dIII- Sma I fragment of 2.9 kb comprises the acylase gene ("pac"). Chromosomal DNA was digested with Hin dIII and Sma I and fractionated on a 0.5% agarose gel. Fractions from 2 to 4 kb were purified with Geneclean (BI0101, La Jolla, CA) and hybridized with the following oligonucleotide DNA probe: derived from the sequence of E . coli pac. The positively hybridizing fraction was then ligated into vector pUNN1 and transformed into E . coli HB101. Filter hybridization of 2000 transformants with the above-mentioned oligo probe resulted in the identification of plasmid pUNNEC1. The structure is shown in Figure 3. Colonies carrying pUNNEC1 were grown on HI-agar plates for 24 hours at 30°C. Then the plates were overlayered with 5 ml nutrient broth topagar containing Penicillin G (5 mg/ml) and 0.5 ml of an overnight culture of Serratia marcescens ATCC 27117 and incubated for another 24 hours. Penicillin acylase activity of the transformants can be seen from the inhibition zone around the colony, which results from a high sensitivity of Serratia marcescens for 6-APA (Meevootisom [28] ). EXAMPLE 2 Cloning of an Alcaligenes faecalis penicillin acylase gene Chromosomal DNA of Alcaligenes faecalis strain ATCC 19018 (= NCTC415) was isolated and partially digested with Sau 3A. Fractions ranging from 4 kb to 7 kb were purified and ligated into vector pACY184, which was digested with BamHI. DNA was transformed into E . coli HB101 and plated onto fal-plates (see methods). Two positive clones, pAF1 and pAF2, could be identified. These clones were also tested with positive result in the Serratia marcescens overlay technique. The 6.4 kb insert of the pAF1 plasmid is shown in Figure 4. The localization of the gene was determined with the aid of an oligonucleotide designed on the NH 2 terminal sequence of the β-subunit of A . faecalis penicillin acylase. The amino acid sequence reads: The following oligonucleotide was used as a hybridization probe on the pAF1 insert: From the position of the hybriding signal on the restriction map the orientation of the A . faecalis pac gene was determined (Figure 4). The 3.9 kb Sau 3A- Nde I subclone of the 6.4 kb insert, was shown to give penicillin acylase activity, whereas the 3.1 kb Sau 3A- Sph 1 fragment was inactive (Figure 4). The DNA sequence of the 3.9 kb insert was determined by dedeoxy sequencing of suitable fragments in pTZ18R and pTZ19R (Pharmacia). The encoding DNA sequence and the derived amino acid sequence for A . faecalis penicillin acylase are shown in Figure 5. EXAMPLE 3 Cloning of a Pseudomonas glutaryl-cephalosporin acylase gene (A) Pseudomonas SY-77 produces an enzyme capable of hydrolyzing glutaryl amidocephalosporanic acid into 7-ACA and glutaric acid. The gene encoding this enzyme was cloned (Matsuda [29] ). DNA extracted from Pseudomonas SY-77 was digested with Hpa I and Sma I and cloned into SmaI linearized vector pUNN1 in strain HB101. Transformants were selected on neomycin plates and hybridized with a probe derived from the DNA sequence (Matsuda [29] , ibid.): The hybridizing plasmid pUNNGL-7 was shown to harbor the acylase encoding fragment of Pseudomonas SY-77 by restriction mapping (Figure 6). This plasmid was purified and partially digested with Bam HI and Sal I. Fragments of 2.6 kb were purified from agarose gel (Geneclean) and ligated into Bam HI, Sal I linearized pUC18 (Pharmacia). The resulting plasmid was characterized as shown in Figure 7. Colonies were grown in LBC medium and analyzed for acylase activity (see Methods). It was shown that plasmid pUCGL-7A produces 5 Units/g cell pellet. The same Bam HI- Sal I fragment was also cloned into plasmid pTZ19R (Pharmacia) resulting in plasmid pTZ19GL-7A. The total DNA sequence of the 2.6 kb Bam HI- Sal I fragment was determined (see Figure 13) and the complete amino acid sequence of SY-77 acylase was derived. The first 311 residues (out of the total of 850) are identical to the published partial sequence of SY-77 acylase (Matsuda [29] , ibid.). EXAMPLE 4 Cloning of a Pseudomonas glutaryl-cephalosporin acylase gene (B) Pseudomonas SE-83 produces an acylase capable of hydrolyzing glutaryl amidocephalosporanic acid and cephalosporin C into 7-ACA and glutaric acid. A gene encoding the responsible enzyme was cloned from the chromosomal DNA of Pseudomonas SE-83 (AcyII in Matsuda [30] ). From these data it was decided to clone a 6.0 kb Bgl II fragment of Pseudomonas SE-83 into Bcl I linearized pUN121 (Nilsson [20] ). Resulting transformants in JM101 were hybridized with an oligonucleotide derived from the DNA sequence of AcyII (Matsuda [30] , ibid.): A positive clone, pUNSE-5, was isolated. A 2.3 kb Sac I- Sma I fragment of plasmid pUNSE-5 was purified and subcloned into vector pTZ18 to give pTZ18SE5-1 (Figure 8). EXAMPLE 5 Homology comparison of Type-II acylases In Figure 14 the amino acid sequence of the precursor form of various acylases are aligned, with respect to the sequence of the acylase of Escherichia coli . The acylases originating from Escherichia coli (E.col), Kluyvera citrophila (K.cit) and Alcaligenes faecalis (A.fae) are Type-IIA acylases (PenG acylase), whereas the acylases from Pseudomonas (SE-83 and SY-77) are the Type-IIB acylases (glutaryl-Cef acylase). Also indicated in Figure 14 are the positions where the leader, α-subunit, connecting peptide and β-subunit are starting. These positions were deduced from the peptide-sequencing data summarized in Table 2. Where no peptide sequencing data were available, positions were deduced from the corresponding positions in E . coli . The homologies between the amino acid sequences were calculated for the (putative) α-subunits and the β-subunits (Tables 3 and 4, respectively). Homology matrix of the α-subunits of Type-II acylases 1. 2. 3. 4. Type-IIA 1. E.col 100 2. K.cit 83(89) 100 3. A.fae 47(60) 46(61) 100 Type-IIB 4. SE-83 26(38) 26(45) 32(42) 100 5. SY-77 30(40) 29(42) 28(38) 25(32) Homology matrix of the β-subunits of Type-II acylases 1. 2. 3. 4. Type-IIA 1. E.col 100 2. K.cit 86(91) 100 3. A.fae 41(56) 41(55) 100 Type-IIB 4. SE-83 22(35) 23(36) 27(34) 100 5. SY-77 26(35) 27(39) 22(32) 28(36) The values in brackets denote the homology based on similar residues whereas the values in front of the brackets are for identical residues. It can be seen from Tables 3 and 4 that there is a high degree of homology within the Type-IIA acylases ranging from 46-83% for the α-subunits to 41-86% for the β-subunits. This becomes even higher if similarity between residues (e.g. Ser/Thr, Asp/Glu, Arg/Lys etc.) is taken into account. This high degree of homology suggests that the 3D-structure of the three PenG acylases will be very similar. The homology between Type-IIA and Type-IIB acylases is lower (22-30%). Again these values become higher if the similarity between amino acids is taken into account (35-45%). Therefore, the Type-IIB acylases appear to be structurally related to the Type-IIA acylases. The homology is not equally distributed over the amino acid sequences, but certain areas of high homology do occur. The determination of the sequences of the Alcaligenes faecalis and Pseudomonas SY-77 acylases makes it possible to identify residues which may be directly involved in catalysis. The observation that Type-II acylases are inhibited by PMSF suggests strongly that an activated serine is involved in catalysis. Activated serines have been observed in serine proteases, and in lipases. They are always found together with a histidine and an aspartic acid, forming a catalytic triad. The alignment of the sequences in Figure 14 shows only 3 conserved serines: Ser174, Ser266 and Ser765 ( A . faecalis numbering). Ser174 is located in the α-subunit in a rather well conserved region within the Type-IIA acylases which, however, is poorly conserved in the Type-IIB acylases (Figure 14). Taking also into account the experimental observation that the PMSF-sensitive amino acid is located on the β-subunit (Daumy [12] ), Ser174 is unlikely to be the active site serine. Ser266 is located at the N-terminus of the β-subunit and most likely conserved because it is essential for the maturation of the enzyme. It is therefore also an unlikely candidate to be the active site serine. Ser765 is located on the β-subunit (confirming the experimental result that the PMSF-sensitive amino acid is located at the β-subunit) and therefore very likely the active site serine. The consensus sequence around this serine is The glycine preceding the serine is common to all serine hydrolases (Blow [14] ). Two different histidines are conserved throughout the five sequences (Figure 14): His42 and His777. They both are in a region which is highly conserved in all sequences. His777, however, is rather close to the postulated active site serine at position 765 and therefore an unlikely candidate. On the contrary, His42 is in a region of high homology. Assuming that this His42 is the active site histidine, being localized on the α-subunit, is also in accordance with the experimental observations that only the heterodimer is the active form of the enzym (i.e. the serine on the β- and the histidine on the α-subunit). With respect to the third residue of the proposed catalytic triad, there are three candidates found in the β-subunit: Asp448, Asp590, Asp780 and one in the α-subunit: Asp36. The latter is contained at the start of a highly conserved region, yet close to the proposed active site His42. Similarly, the Asp780 is contained in a highly conserved region, but close to the proposed active Ser765. Asp448 and Asp590 are both in a moderately conserved region and therefore both are likely candidates to be the active site aspartic acid. EXAMPLE 6 Selection of residues for mutagenesis based on Type-IIA acylases In this Example the amino acid residues are selected which may be mutated in order to obtain acylases with altered biochemical properties. These altered properties may result in an alteration of the substrate specificity of Type-II acylases towards the acylation and/or deacylation of certain β-lactam antibiotics. The criteria for the selection are outlined while at the same time reference is made to Figures 15a and 15b which contain all selected positions. For reasons of simplicity, the residues given are those for the Type-IIA acylase from Alcaligenes faecalis. The corresponding residues in the other acylases may be found using the aligned sequence data from Figure 14. The selection of the regions for mutagenesis was based on the following criteria: 1) In order to change the substrate specificity of the Type-II acylases, the mutations were restricted to the mature α- and β-subunits. This means residues 27-236 (α-subunit) and 266-816 (β-subunit), resulting in a total of 210 and 551 residues, respectively. 2) The amino acids of the PenG-acylases (Type-IIA) which are binding the hydrophobic phenylacetyl side-chain of PenG will be conserved in the Type-IIA acylases and, due to the different substrate specificities, probably not in the Type-IIB acylases. Therefore, from the α- and β-subunits those residues are preferably selected which, in the alignment of Figure 14, are identical or similar in the Type-IIA acylases from E . coli, Kluyvera citrophila and Alcaligenes faecalis. A position is said to contain a similar amino acid residue when the residues found at that position belong to one of the following groups: a) Hydrophobic residues - This group includes the amino acids isoleucine, valine, leucine, cysteine, methionine, alanine, phenylalanine, tryptophan and tyrosine. b) Small, non-bulky residues with a high propensity to be in a flexible segment - This group includes alanine, glycine, serine, threonine, proline, valine and cysteine. c) Polar or charged residues - This group includes serine, threonine, histidine, glutamine, asparagine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, arginine and lysine. The number of positions to be considered for mutagenesis in the α-subunit is restricted by these selection criteria to 169 (80%) and in the β-subunit to 416 (75%). In Figures 15a and 15b these selected residues are summarized in the columns with heading 1. The numbers refer to the positions of the respective amino acids in the sequence of the Alcaligenes faecalis acylase as given in Figure 14. 3) A preferred group is selected based on the assumption that, since the interactions between the PenG-acylase and the side chain of PenG are supposed to be highly hydrophobic in nature, only those conserved and similar amino acids may be selected which are not charged. This means omission of any selected position that contains at least one charged residue in a conserved or similar set as defined above for group c. This selection criterion further restricts the number of preferred amino acid positions in the α-subunit to 119 (57%) and the β-subunit to 304 (55%). Figures 15a and 15b summarize these residues in the columns with the heading 2. 4) A further preferred group is selected based on the observation that conserved glycine and proline residues usually fulfill a structural role in a protein rather than a catalytic one. Leaving out the conserved Gly's and Pro's from the selected set of amino acids, results in a more preferred group consisting of 102 amino acids in the α-subunit (49%) and 258 in the β-subunit (47%) - Figures 15a and 15b summarize this group under heading 3. This set of amino acids consists therefore of conserved and similar residues with the exception of the charged amino acids, conserved glycines and conserved prolines. 5) A still more preferred group of selected amino acids is obtained on the assumption that it is also less probable that polar amino acids such as glutamine, asparigine, threonine, serine and others are involved in the binding of the hydrophobic substrate. Using this further selection criterion 74 amino acids in the α-subunit (35%) and 162 in the β-subunit (29%). Figures 15a and 15b summarize these under the heading 4. This set of amino acids consists only of identical and similar hydrophobic amino acids as they are defined above under a) in paragraph 2. 6) Yet a further selection of amino acids to be mutated or capable of being mutated is made on the assumption that the binding site of the Type-IIA acylases is composed of identical hydrophobic amino acids. This reduces the number of selected amino acids further to a final set of 44 conserved, hydrophobic amino acids in the α-subunit (being 21% of the total number of amino acids in the α-subunit) and of 81 conserved, hydrophobic amino acids in the β-subunit (15% of the total in the β-subunit). Columns 5 in Figures 15a and 15b show this selected set of amino acids. EXAMPLE 7 Selection of residues for mutagenesis based on differences in polarity between Type-IIA and Type-IIB acylases Type-IIB acylases are specific for substrates containing dicarboxylic acids as the acyl moiety, such as succinic, glutaric and adipic acid. This suggests that the binding site is much more polar as compared with the Type-IIA acylases. It might even contain a positive charge to compensate for the negative charge on the substrate side acyl moiety. These features are expected to be conserved among the enzymes revealing this substrate specificity. Therefore, the Type-IIA and Type-IIb acylase sequences were compared in order to find regions which are conserved in both the Type-IIA and the Type-IIB acylase sequences but which have changed polarity in order to obtain a more favorable binding of the negatively charged acyl moiety. The criteria for the selection are outlined while at the same time reference is made to Figures 16a and 16b which contain all selected positions. The residues given are those for the Type-IIB acylase SY-77. The corresponding residues in the other acylases can be found using the aligned sequence data from Figure 14. Identification of regions which are conserved in type IIB acylase was performed according to a similar procedure as described in Example 6 for the Type-IIA acylases: 1) Mutations were restricted to the mature α- and β-subunits. This means residues 30-198 (α-subunit) and 199-720 (β-subunit). 2. Select those positions in Type-IIB acylases which contain identical or similar amino acid residues according to the grouping in Example 6. The selected residues are summarized in Figures 16a and 16b in the columns with heading 1. 3) The further selection is based on the assumption that the interactions between the PenG-acylases (Type-IIA acylases) and the side chain of PenG are highly hydrophobic in nature while for the glutaryl acylase a more polar binding site is assumed which may even harbor positively charged residues. Therefore all positions in the alignment of Figure 14 which show charge in both the Type-IIA and the Type-IIB acylases were omitted. Only in situations where Type-IIA acylase show an Asp or a Glu while Type-IIB acylases show unambiguously much less negatively charged residues, the position is maintained. Application of this selection further restricts the number of preferred amino acid positions. Figures 16a and 16b summarize these residues in the columns with the heading 2. 4) A further selection was made by leaving out the conserved Gly's and Pro's from the selected set of amino acids as discussed before in Example 6. See Figures 15a and 15b for a summary of this set of amino acids under heading 3. 5) A further narrowing of the selected amino acids may be obtained by supposing that in Type-IIB glutaryl-Cef acylase it is less likely that hydrophobic amino acids are involved in the binding of the negatively charged glutaryl side chain. Therefore positions within the Type-IIB acylases which contain identical or similar hydrofobic residues were omitted from the collection which has remained after step 4. Figures 16a and 16b summarize the results under the heading 4. 6) The set of residues which has remained contains mainly polar or charged residues. Yet a further selection of amino acids to be mutated or capable of being mutated may be made by assuming that positions which show polar residues in Type-IIA and Type-IIB are likely to be surface residues, not necessarily involved in substrate binding. Therefore these residues were omitted in step 5 in Figures 16a and 16b. 7) In step 7 those positions were selected which accommodate residues that, unlike residues at the corresponding position in Type-IIA acylases may fit in electrostatically with a negatively charged glutaryl side chain. In particular sites position in Type-IIA acylases may fit in electrostatically with a negatively charged glutaryl side chain. In particular sites which are hydrophobic in Type-IIA and positively charged in Type-IIB acylases were selected for mutagenesis. EXAMPLE 8 Construction of an expression/mutagenesis vector system for acylase genes For the purpose of mutagenesis plasmid pTZ19GL-7A was grown in single stranded DNA form according to the supplier. The following oligonucleotide was used to introduce a Nde I site (CATATG) at the ATG start codon: To enable efficient site-directed and region-directed mutagenesis the Nde I- Hin dIII fragment of the resulting mutant was subcloned into pMcTNde, a derivative of plasmid pMc-5 (Stanssens [22] ). Plasmid pMcTNde was derived from pMc5-8 (EP-A-0351029) by insertion of a fragment encoding the TAC promoter followed by a RBS site and a Nde I cloning site (Figure 9). In a similar way plasmid pTZSE5-1 was mutagenised with the following oligonucleotide: to create a Nde I site at the position of the start codon of the acylase gene. The Nde I- Sma I fragment of the resulting mutant was also transferred into plasmid pMcTNde which was cleaved with Nde I and Sma I. The resulting plasmids pMcTGL7ANde (Fig. 10) and pMcTSE5Nde (Fig. 11) direct the synthesis of SY-77 and SE-83 glutaryl-Cef acylase activity, respectively, under the guidance of the strong inducible TAC promoter (De Boer [23] ). Expression levels in E . coli WK6 in LBC medium are 2.2 and 12.3 Units/g cell pellet, respectively. The sequence of the complete acylase encoding region of plasmid pMcTGL7ANde was determined. The result is shown in Figure 12. EXAMPLE 9 Mutagenesis of SY-77 acylase Plasmid pMaTNdeGL7A was digested with Nde I and Nco I. A gapped duplex with single stranded pMcTNdeGL7A was made and enzymatic mutagenesis on the single stranded gap was performed as described (Methods). The resulting mutant library was transformed into E . coli WK6 MutS and subsequently transformed into E . coli HB101 and selected on aminoadipyl leucine containing minimal plates suplemented with 50 µg/ml cap. Those colonies that were able to grow on these plates and not on minimal plates (because these were leucine revertants) were tested for enzymatic activity on Cephalosporin C. For region directed mutagenesis, spiked oligo's covering various portions of the α-subunit of the acylase gene were incorporated in the same manner as in the site directed mutagenesis protocol (Stanssens [22] ). The following oligonucleotides were used with 2% contamination included during synthesis. Each of the oligo's was designed to harbor a silent mutation allowing the discrimination of wild-type and mutant plasmids based on the occurence or disappearance of a restriction enzyme recognition site. The residues of SY-77 acylase covered by the respective oligonucleotides is given in parenthesis. For each oligonucleotide a mutant library of >10 5 independent colonies in E . coli WK6 mutS was constructed. These libraries were transformed into E . coli PC2051 for selection on adipyl serine and into E . coli HB101 for selection on aminoadipyl leucine. Colonies selected for growth during 10 days at 30°C were subsequently tested for reversion to prototrophy and for linkage of growth capability and the presence of plasmid. The following mutants with good growth capability on adipyl serine were selected: These mutant plasmids were used as starting material for a next round of mutagenesis using spiked oligo's of the α-subunit with a subsequent selection on aminoadipyl leucine (library construction in E . coli HB101). Since the residues 177, 178 and 179 were identified as crucial for the substrate specificity of SY-77 acylase an approach of targeted random mutagenesis can be applied. For this purpose the following mixed oligonucleotide for Targetted Random Mutagenesis on residues 176, 177, 178, 179 and 180 was synthesized: The same strategy can be applied to the region 60-64 with the following oligo: Mutant libraries of 10 6 mutants were generated with the above-mentioned oligonucleotides in E . coli HB101 and selected on aminoadipyl leucine plates. Targeted random mutagenesis was also performed on the same gapped duplex molecule using the following oligo: This results in a substitution of amino acid positions 67, 69, 71, 73 and 74 of SY-77 acylase into all possible 20 amino acids. A mutant library of 10 7 mutants was generated and selected on aminoadipyl leucine plates. A similar approach as described above for the α-subunit was applied on selected regions of the SY-77 acylase β-subunit. Based on the sequence comparison and selection criteria as described above the following regions were selected for spiked oligo mutagenesis with the following oligonucleotides, respectively: With these oligo's mutant libraries for specific regions of the β-subunit were generated and selected on adipyl serine or aminoadipyl leucine. Oligo AB2403 encompasses the region around Ser674 which is identified on the basis of sequence comparison with among other A . faecalis Pen-acylase and SY-77 acylase as a candidate for the catalytic serine residue. Mutations around this region are expected to be close to the catalytic site which enhanced the possibility of a change in substrate specificity. Example 10 SY-77 acylase mutants with increased specificity for adipyl serine Mutants were transformed into a serine auxotroph of E . coli and selected by their ability to grow on a minimal medium which contained adipyl serine as a sole source of carbon. Cells which contained wild-type SY-77 glutaryl acylase did only grow very poorly on such a medium. No significant colonies were observed within 14 days. Colonies which developed within 14 days were selected from the plates and it was verified that they did not grow when adipyl serine was omitted from the plates. Next plasmid DNA was isolated from the selected colonies and transformed to native E . coli cells. It was checked that transformant cells still did grow on the selective medium containing adipyl serine. The following mutants were obtained: V62L, Y178H, V179G and L177I + Y178H. Wild-type SY-77 glutaryl acylase and mutant SY-77 glutaryl acylases were assayed with glutaryl 7-ACA, glutaryl leucine and adipyl serine as substrates. Hydrolysis of the substrates was followed by measuring the release of 7-ACA, leucine or serine with fluorescamine at 378 nm. In the activity assays with glutaryl leucine and adipyl serine the mutants and the wild-type enzyme were dosed according to their activity on glutaryl 7-ACA. Figures 17-19 show the rate of hydrolysis with adipyl serine for the given mutants. The hydrolysis was followed in time by measuring the increase in absorption at 378 nm upon reaction of fluorescamine with the released serine. The mutants showed a 3 to 5 times higher activity on adipyl serine than the wild-type SY-77 glutaryl acylase. Since the wild-type grows very slowly when adipyl serine is the sole carbon source, it can be concluded that the SY-77 acylase mutants disclosed have a higher specificity on this substrate. For glutaryl leucine the same assay procedure was followed as for adipyl serine in order to compare activity of mutants and wild-type. Glutaryl leucine is a suitable substrate to check whether mutations affect the specificity for the acyl side chain or for the complementary side, such as the β-lactam moiety or the amino acid. If mutations affect the specificity for the acyl side chain then the activity of wild-type and mutant glutaryl acylase are likely to show the same tendency for substrates such as glutaryl 7-ACA and glutaryl leucine. Because in the assays enzymes are dosed according to their glutaryl 7-ACA activity this implicates that activities on glutaryl leucine should be very similar for mutants and wild-type. Indeed within the error of the measurement all mutants coincide with wild-type activity which indicates that the mutations affect the specificity for the acyl side chain, more specifically increase the specificity for the adipyl moiety. EXAMPLE 11 Mutagenesis of Pseudomonas SE-83 acylase Region-directed and targeted random mutagenesis of pMcTSE5Nde was performed after creation of a gapped duplex molecule with the enzyme Eco RI. A "spiked" oligo covering amino acid positions 30 to 58 of SE-83 was used. TRM mutagenesis was carried out with the following oligonucleotide: Another TRM mutagenesis was carried out on the region homologous to region 176-180 of SY-77 acylase. The mixed oligonucleotide used was as follows: A second gap was created with the enzymes Not I and Sma I. This gapped duplex was mutagenized with a spiked oligonucleotide covering amino acid positions 730 to 746 of SE-83. TRM mutagenesis was carried out with the following oligonucleotide: Mutants were selected on aminoadipyl leucine or on aminoadipyl amide agar plates. EXAMPLE 12 Mutagenesis of A. faecalis acylase In a pTZ18R subclone of the 4kb Sau 3A- Hpa I fragment of the pAF1 insert an Nde I site was constructed on the startcodon of the A . faecalis gene with the aid of the following oligonucleotide: After Nde I digestion of the resulting mutant plasmid pMaAFnde was constructed. After linearization with Bam HI a gapped duplex with single stranded pMcAFNde was made. A spiked oligo covering region 37-46 was used for region mutagenesis and after transfer into E . coli WK6 Muts and subsequently E . coli HB101 the mutant library was selected on minimal plates with 10 µg/ml glutaryl leucine and 50 µg/ml cap. Those colonies which grew on these plates (and not on minimal plates) were tested for activity on glutaryl cephalosporin. A similar experiment with an oligo covering region 51-72 of A . faecalis was performed. Targeted random mutagenesis (TRM) was performed on the same gapped duplex molecule using the following oligonucleotide: The use of this oligo results in a substitution of positions 51, 53, 55, 57, 59 and 60 into all possible amino acids. Another TRM was carried out on the region homologous to positions 176-180 of SY-77acylase with the following mixed oligonucleotide: A mutant library of 10 7 mutants was generated and selected on aminoadipyl leucine or glutaryl leucine plates. In another experiment a gapped duplex using Nru I and Mlu I was made. This gapped duplex was mutagenized with a "spiked" oligonucleotide covering amino acid positions 761 to 790. The resulting mutant library was selected on glutaryl leucine and aminoadipyl leucine, respectively. EXAMPLE 13 Mutagenesis of E. coli acylase The insert of plasmid pUNNEC1 was subcloned into vector pTZ18 using restriction sites Hin dIII and Sma I. With the following specific oligonucleotide an Nde I site was created at the start codon: The acylase gene was then subcloned into plasmid pMaTECNde using the restriction enzymes Nde I and Sma I. This plasmid was mutagenized with a "spiked" oligonucleotide covering amino acids 53 to 74 of E . coli acylase and selected in a similar way as described in Example 9. TRM of E . coli Pen-acylase was carried out with a mixed oligo homologous to the positions 176-180 of SY-77 acylase. The following oligo was used: All publications including patents and patent applications mentioned in this specification are indicative of the level of skill of those skilled in the art to which the invention pertains. LIST OF REFERENCES 1. Lowe et al ., Book Dev. Ind. Microbiol, 22 , (1982) 163-180 2. Abbott B.J., Adv. Appl. Microb. 20 (1976), 203 3. Vandamme E.J., "Penicillin acylases and β-lactamases", In: "Microbial Enzymes and Bioconversions", E.H. Rose (Ed.), Economic Microbiology 5 (1980) 467-552, Acad. Press, New York 4. Ollson A. et al ., Appl. Env. Microbiol. 49 (1985) 1084 5. Shibuya Y. et al ., Agric. Biol. Chem. 45 (1981) 1561-1567 6. Matsuda A. et al ., J. Bacteriol. 169 (1987) 5815-5820 7. Walton R.B., Devel. Ind. Microbiol. 5 (1964) 349-353 8. Mahajan P.B., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 9 (1984) 537-553 9. Mayer et al ., Adv. Biotechnol. 1 (1982) 83-86 10. Schumacher et al ., Nucleic Acids Res. 14 (1986) 5713-5727 11. Barbero J.L. et al ., Gene 49 (1986) 69-80 12. Daumy G.O. et al ., J. Bacteriol. 163 (1985) 1279-1281 13. Dickerson R.E. & Geis I. in "Hemoglobin", Ed. Benjamin and Cummings (1983), Menlo Park CA, USA 14. Blow D., Nature 343 (1990) 694-695 15. Winkler F.K. et al ., Nature 343 (1990) 771-774 16. Brady L. et al ., Nature 343 (1990) 767-770 17. Maniatis et al ., "Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual", Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1982/1989 18. Ausubel et al ., "Current Protocols in Molecular Biology", John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1987 19. 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Claims: A mutant type II β-lactam acylase having at least a mutation in one or more of the positions corresponding to 62, 177, 178 and 179 in Pseudomonas SY-77 compared to the wild-type β-lactam acylase. A mutant type II β-lactam acylase according to Claim 1, wherein said wild-type acylase is derived from E . coli , Kluyvera citrorhila , Alcaligenes faecalis or Pseudomonas. A mutant type II β-lactam acylase according to Claims 1 or 2, wherein said wild-type acylase is derived from Alcaligenes faecalis strain ATCC 19018. A mutant type II β-lactam acylase according to any one of Claims 1-2, wherein said wild-type acylase is derived from Pseudomonas SE-83 AcyII or SY-77. A DNA sequence encoding a mutant type II β-lactam acylase as defined in any one of Claims 1-4. An expression vector which comprises a DNA sequence of Claim 5. A microorganism host strain transformed with an expression vector of Claim 6. A transformed microorganism host strain according to Claim 7, wherein said host strain is a prokaryote. A transformed microoganism host strain according to Claim 7, wherein said host strain is a Cephalosporium or a Penicillium. A process of preparing a mutant type II β-lactam acylase enzyme as defined in any one of Claims 1-4, which comprises: growing a microorganism host strain transformed with an expression vector comprising a DNA sequence encoding said mutant type II β-lactam acylase enzyme, whereby said mutant type II β-lactam acylase enzyme is produced; recovering said enzyme; and testing for a desired activity change in the enzyme resulting from said mutation. A process for obtaining a mutant type II β-lactam acylase as defined in any one of Claims 1 to 4, having at least one desired activity change relative to a corresponding wild-type acylase of Type-II, when used in an acylation or deacylation reaction, which comprises the steps of: mutagenizing a cloned gene encoding an acylase enzyme of interest or a fragment thereof whereby a mutant acylase gene is obtained; introducing said mutant acylase gene into a host strain whereby a transformed host strain is obtained; growing said transformed host whereby said mutant gene is expressed and a mutant acylase produced; and identifying one or more mutant acylases having at least one desired activity change for use in acylation or deacylation reactions. Use of one or more mutant β-lactam acylases according to any one of Claims 1-11, in an acylation or deacylation process. Use of one or more mutant acylase enzymes according to any one of Claims 1-11, in the production of β-lactam compounds.

Inventors: LENTING HERMAN B M DR, MISSET ONNO DR, QUAX WILHELMUS JOHANNES DR, VAN DER LAAN JAN METSKE DR, LENTING, HERMAN B.M., DR., MISSET, ONNO, DR., QUAX, WILHELMUS JOHANNES, DR., VAN DER LAAN, JAN METSKE, DR.
Applicants: GIST BROCADES NV, GIST-BROCADES N.V.
Application year: 1991
Main classification: C12N15
IPC codes: C12N9, C12N15, C12N1, C12R1