Thermal memory cell and thermal system evaluation

Abstract: A method for determining the thermal history of an object is disclosed. The object carries at least two thermal calibration materials having different activation energies. The method comprises: first, exposing an object to a thermal treatment; second, detecting the change in each of the calibration materials caused by the thermal treatment; and third, determining the thermal history of the thermal treatment from the detected changes. Also disclosed are thermal history recording devices comprising one or more metal insulator semiconductor (MIS) capacitors (10). The insulating layer (12) is non-uniformly doped with mobile charged carriers (15). Two or more MIS capacitors (10), each having different activation energies, may be mounted in a common support structure to provide a thermal memory cell. The thermal cells may be used in conjunction with an apparatus for determining the thermal history of the cells as also disclosed herein.

Description: Thermal processes are used for a broad variety of purposes in the food, chemical, pharmaceutical, and paper and pulp industries. In the food processing industry, such processes include the cooking of canned products such as soup and the pasteurization of dairy products such as milk and eggs. At present, more than seventy thousand thermal processing lines approved by the Food and Drug Administration exist. Because of product changes, five to ten thousand processing lines must be evaluated each year. This procedure is time consuming, expensive, and often inaccurate. In many industries, it is desirable to know the thermal history of particulates suspended in a liquid as they travel through a thermal processing apparatus. Due to the complex nature of these systems, however, true thermal histories cannot be obtained. Procedures for use of the Equivalent Point Method (EPM) for analyzing the thermal effects on products during continuous flow heating have been disclosed. See K. Swartzel, 47 J. Food Sci. 1886 (1982); K. Swartzel, 34 J. Agric. Food Chem. 397 (1986). The Equivalent Point Method differs substantially from previous methods in that all other methods define the thermal treatment based upon a single factor such as enzyme inactivation, microbial destruction, protein denaturation, nutrient loss, etc. The problem with these other methods is that a physical and/or chemical effect (flavor, color, product separation and gelation during storage if thermally related) may actually be the shelf life limiting factor. Calibration materials useful in the equivalent point method are discussed in F. Sadeghi and K. Swartzel, Calibration Materials for Thermal Systems (Institute of Food Technologists 46th Annual Meeting Food Expo, June 15-18, 1986) (tape available from Institute of Food Technologists). Candidate calibration materials mentioned are esters, ketones, peroxides, sugars, vitamins, enzymes and dyes. Solid-state radiation detectors have been suggested for temperature recording. Such devices are made of a silicon substrate with a layer of lithium diffused into its surface. T. Hirsch, Whither microengineering, Chemtech 118, 121 (February 1986), suggests measuring surface capacitance or resistance in such devices to determine the degree of temperature-dependent lithium migration. G. Haugen and G. Hieftje, An Interdisciplinary Approach to Microinstrumentation, 60 Analytical Chemistry 23A, 27A (1988), suggest that, if several combinations of semiconductor and dopant are used that possess a range of activation energies in such a device, the combination of readouts corresponds to a set of integral equations that can be inverted mathematically (inverse LaPlace transform) to produce the full curve of time versus temperature. The disadvantages of existing technology for thermal system evaluation pose severe problems for the Food Processing Industry. There is presently a critical need to accurately characterize thermal behavior within a food particle as it is pumped through a continuous flow thermal processing apparatus. The present invention is based on our continued research in this area. According to the invention there is provided a thermal memory cell for thermal system evaluation comprising a container and a first thermal calibration material supported by a support structure; a second thermal calibration material is supported by said support structure, and said first and second thermal calibration materials have different activation energies. The support structure is preferably a container in which the thermal calibration material is sealed. The thermal calibration material comprises metal insulator semiconductor (MIS) capacitors the insulating layer of each of which is preferably non-uniformly doped with mobile charged carriers. Advantageously at least two MIS capacitors, doped with materials having different activation energies, are provided and are exposed to a thermal treatment process, and the change in capacitance in the objects may be employed to calculate the thermal history of the devices. Two or more MIS capacitors, each having different activation energies, may be mounted in a common support structure to provide a thermal memory cell, which in turn may be embedded in an object (e.g. a food particle) which then undergoes thermal treatment. The thermal cells are extremely small, easy and inexpensive to fabricate using well known semiconductor fabrication techniques, and provide an accurate and repeatable integration of the thermal history. The invention in a second aspect provides an apparatus for determining the thermal history of a thermal memory cell as described above. The apparatus preferably includes a holder for the cell, a capacitance sensor for detecting changes in the capacitance of each of the MIS capacitors in the cell, and a stored program computer for calculating the thermal history from the detected changes in capacitance. According to the invention, the computer may be programmed to efficiently calculate the thermal history of any object which carries two or more thermal calibration materials having different activation energies. The equivalent point of a thermal treatment may be calculated by determining the product constituent relationship for each calibration material, interpolating to obtain a range of product constituent relationships versus activation energy and obtaining the equivalent point by applying, for example, a weighted least squares linear regression to the range of product constituent relationships versus activation energy. A complete time-temperature profile may be obtained from the product constituent relationships for each calibration material by performing a numerical integration of its product constituent relationships. A complete characterization of any thermal process may be obtained. According to a third aspect of the invention there is provided a set of thermal memory cells as described above, wherein identification means are associated with said support structure for distinguishing each of said thermal memory cells from the other members of said set. In the drawings: Figure 1 is a cross-sectional view of a MIS capacitor after initial thermal/bias stress, with the field oxide present; Figure 2 is a cross-sectional view of a MIS capacitor after initial thermal/bias stress, with the field oxide removed; Figure 3 is a plot of capacitance against voltage shift for a MIS capacitor as shown in Figure 1 after different thermal treatments; Figure 4 is a plot of capacitance against voltage shift for a MIS capacitor as shown in Figure 2 after different thermal treatments; Figure 5 is a plot of capacitance over time at various temperatures for a device as shown in Figure 2; Figure 6 is a top plan view of a thermal memory cell of the present invention with the cover removed; Figure 7 is a cross-sectional view of the thermal memory cell shown in Figure 6; Figure 8 is a top plan view of a thermal memory cell of the present invention with the cover in place; Figure 9 is a cross-sectional view of the thermal memory cell shown in Figure 8; Figure 10 is a schematic wiring diagram of an apparatus according to the present invention; Figure 11 is a simplified flowchart illustrating certain operations for computing equivalent times and temperatures and time-temperature profiles according to the present invention; and Figures 12A-12C are simplified flowcharts illustrating the details of certain operations of Figure 11. A single MIS capacitor 10, as prepared for use in the present invention, is shown in Figures 1 and 2. The capacitor comprises a semiconductor substrate 11, for example, silicon, germanium or gallium arsenide, an insulating layer 12, for example, silicon dioxide or aluminum oxide, formed on the Si substrate, and a conductive layer 13 (preferably aluminum), formed on the insulating layer. A second conductive layer 14 (preferably aluminum) is formed under substrate 11. In a preferred embodiment, substrate 11 is monocrystalline silicon, insulating layer 12 is a grown silicon dioxide layer 1000 Å thick, while metal electrodes 13 and 14 are typically aluminum electrodes 4000-5000 Å thick. The insulating layer 12 is non-uniformly doped with a charged ion 15, with the charged ion preferably being lithium, potassium or sodium. However, it will be understood by those having skill in the art that any charged ion which is mobile in insulating layer 12 at the expected processing temperatures may be employed. Preferably, the portion of insulator 12 which lies outside top conductor 13 is removed, as shown in Figure 2, so that insulator 12 and the metal layer 13 are coextensive. The theory of MIS capacitors is known in the literature and has been summarized in a detailed paper by Grove, A. et al., Solid-State Electron. 8 , 145 (1965). Depending upon whether the metal electrode is biased positively or negatively for a given semiconductor type (p or n type), the resultant semiconductor interface boundary layer is either accumulated (conductive) or depleted (dielectric). In the latter case, the depletion layer becomes a capacitor in series with that of the insulator. This results in a total capacitance less than the smaller of either of the two components as determined from the product of the two divided by the sum of the two capacitances. Introduction of mobile ionized impurities (dopants) such as the alkali metals Na⁺, K⁺ and Li⁺ into the insulating layer of the MIS structure has been shown to produce time-dependent shifts in the normal capacitance-voltage characteristic of the device at elevated temperatures [ see Kerr, D., IBM Journal 8 , 376 (1964); Snow, E. et al., J. Appl. Phys. 36 , 1664 (1965); Yon, E. et al., IEEE Trans. Electron Devices ED-13 , 276 (1966); Antyushin, V. et al., Physica Status Solidi (a) 56 , K91 (1979); Yamashita, K. et al., J. Appl. Phys. 20 , 1429 (1981); and Hillen, M. and Verwey, J., 1 Instabilities in Silicon Devices , Chap. 8 (G. Barbottin and A. Vapaille, eds., North Holland Book Co., Amsterdam, 1986)]. The presence of such mobile ions is normally undesirable in semiconductor device structures since it can produce anomalous device surface leakage paths that are deleterious to device operation [ see Grove, A., Physics and Technology of Semiconductor Devices , Chap. 12 (John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1967), and Sze, S., Physics of Semiconductor Devices , Chap. 10 (Wiley-Interscience Publ. Co., New York, 1969)]. According to the invention, when controlled amounts of certain mobile ion impurities are non-uniformly introduced into the insulator of a MIS capacitor, the diffusion kinetics of the mobile ions can be studied by measuring the resultant characteristic MIS device capacitance-voltage shifts with time at specific temperatures. If the mobile ions are initially attracted to either the metal-insulator or semiconductor-insulator interfaces by a rapid elevated temperature stress under the appropriate bias, the resultant diffusion kinetics at elevated temperatures produce predictable capacitance-voltage (C-V) shifts. According to the invention, such C-V shifts can then be utilized to determine both temperature and time-at-temperature for a particular elevated temperature event. The MIS capacitor structures of the present invention may be fabricated using conventional microelectronic fabrication techniques. For example, the MIS capacitor may be fabricated in a semiconductor clean room environment from either high resistivity (preferably greater than 5 ohm cm) n or p-type (100) oriented single crystal Si wafers 11. Initially, wafers are cleaned by a three-step process to remove organic and inorganic contaminants as well as native oxide surface films. This cleaning process was developed by RCA Corp. (see W. Kern, Semiconductor International, April (1984), p. 94) and insures a microscopically clean surface prior to device fabrication. After surface cleaning, wafers 11 are placed in a conventional oxidation tube furnace and thin silicon dioxide films 12, preferably 1000 Å thick, are grown by a dry (O₂)/wet (H₂O + HCl)/dry (O₂) process at 900-1050°C. The next step is oxide doping with an aqueous solution of a hydroxide of the desired mobile ion impurity 15. Each wafer is placed on a photoresist spinner and the solution applied while the wafer is spinning at about 2000 rpm. This insures uniformity of film thickness and provides a means of controlling the concentration of the impurity in the oxide film. Alternate means are by solution dipping or ion implantation. The concentration of hydroxide in the water solutions is dependent on the particular mobile ion required in the oxide film for optimal device performance. After deposition of the doping solution on device wafer surfaces, the wafers are then baked on a hot plate at 250°C for one hour to insure adequate impurity diffusion (drive-in) into the thin oxide films. While 250°C is the preferred temperature for the impurities used herein, different temperature ranges may be appropriate for other impurities. From the literature limited diffusivity of the hydroxyl (OH) anion is evident in silicon dioxide films (E. Yon et al., IEEE Trans. on Electron Devices ED-13, 276 (1966)); hence, unpredictable anion effects upon mobile cation diffusion in oxide films are minimized. In contrast, the use of halide salt solutions as diffusion sources have been shown to produce considerable anion concentrations in bulk oxide films (E. Yon et al., ibid). Such anion-doped oxide films have been predicted by the above authors to retard the rate of diffusion of the mobile cation. Next, thin aluminum films 13 (4000-5000 Å) are vapor deposited on the front sides of the wafers in a high vacuum evaporator system. The front side of the wafers are then coated with a 1.5 micron thick layer of positive photoresist, and the wafers hard baked for thirty minutes at 120°-130°C in an oven. The wafers are then dipped in a buffered oxide etch solution (ten parts NH₄F solution to one part 49% HF solution) to remove back side oxide deposited during the original thermal oxide growth step. Afterward, photoresist films are stripped from the front sides of the wafers with ACCU-STRIP™ (Allied Chemical Co.); then thin films of aluminum 14 (2000 Å or more) are deposited on the back sides of the wafers. The wafers are then sintered in 9N₂/1H₂ forming gas for thirty minutes at 400°C in a tubular diffusion furnace. To create appropriate surface electrode patterns, the front sides of the wafers are then recoated with photoresist and the wafers soft baked on a hot plate for five to ten minutes at 95°C. The wafers are then aligned, exposed, and developed using an appropriate mask. Next, the wafers are hard baked for thirty minutes at 120°-130°C, aluminum etched with twelve parts phosphoric acid/two parts acetic acid/three parts nitric acid solution, and rinsed with deionized water. The photoresist is then removed from the wafers with ACCU-STRIP™ and the wafers rinsed with deionized water. Finally, the portion of field oxide 12 lying outside electrode 13 is removed with a dry etch/liquid etch procedure to avoid lateral etch of the oxide. The wafers are placed in a Reactive Ion Etch chamber, a 10⁻⁵ Torr or better vacuum drawn, CHF₃ gas introduced at 50 x 10⁻³ Torr, then the wafers are reactive ion etched at 200 watts for up to five minutes. After dry etching, the wafers are etched with buffered oxide etch solution for thirty seconds to remove surface oxide, and rinsed with deionized water. In the alternative, after sintering, wafers are mounted on a vacuum or mechanical chuck and chip dicing performed. For this operation, either a high speed circular dicing saw or a laser cutting tool is used to cut chip die with the desired tolerance on chip dimensions. For the proposed application, 1 mm x 1 mm square die are selected for final device packaging. This saves the steps of photomasking and dry and wet etch. After MIS capacitor construction is completed, each wafer is secured to a vacuum chuck and a measuring probe contacted to the capacitor. A capacitance-voltage (C-V) scan is performed with the voltage limits at ±5 volts. The mobile ions are then drawn to the metal/oxide or Si/oxide interface by applying an appropriate bias voltage (positive for n-type and negative for p-type) to the aluminum pad 13 and heating the "thermal/bias stress". For p-type wafers, -6 volts at 200°C for ten minutes may be used. Figure 3 shows the C-V scan for an MIS capacitor as shown in Figure 1, prepared as described above except that the field oxide outside electrode 13 is not removed. The two rightmost lines represent C-V scans after initial thermal/bias stress (1a for five minutes; 1b for ten minutes). The remaining lines 2a-2h represent C-V plots taken at half minute intervals during a 160°C thermal treatment. Note the variability between intervals. Figure 4 is a series of C-V traces like Figure 3, taken from the same MIS capacitor used to generate Figure 3 except that field oxide lying outside electrode 13 has been substantially removed. Rightmost line 2 represents the C-V scan after initial thermal/bias stress. The remaining lines 3a-3h represent C-V plots taken at half minute intervals during a 160°C thermal treatment. Note the uniformity between intervals achieved through substantial removal of the field oxide. For many thermal memory cell applications, the change in device capacitance with time at a fixed temperature is a much more convenient parameter to measure than is a C-V shift characteristic (Fig. 4). If one applies a fixed bias to a MIS capacitor at a potential in the nearly linear region of the dynamic C-V characteristic, then a predictable time dependent change in device capacitance is evident. This is best illustrated by selecting a bias of -1.0 volts to the p-type device in Fig. 4 and noting the resultant change in the intercept value of a vertical line drawn from the -1.0 volt point (on the abscissa) to the family of C-V shift curves. An example of the dynamic capacitance characteristic of a p-type MIS capacitor with a 1000 Å oxide doped with 200ppm of Na is shown in Fig. 5. Time-at-temperature capacitance characteristics are shown at 20°C intervals between 60°C and 120°C for a bias of -0.9 volt. Such well behaved capacitance changes with time provides a graded response which permits calculation of equivalent points, time-temperature profiles, and residence times for a thermal treatment, with the algorithms described below. The graded response provided according to the present invention is in contrast with prior art temperature sensors which provide an indicator as to whether a predetermined temperature has been reached, but cannot provide information regarding equivalent points or thermal profiles. Stated another way, the well behaved capacitance changes provide an integrator of the time/temperature profile. Time-temperature integrators having different activation energies may be provided, according to the present invention, to determine the thermal history of a thermal treatment. A Thermal Memory Cell incorporating the MIS capacitors described above is shown in Figures 6-9. The cell 20 is comprised of a copper base 21, three MIS capacitor chips 22A-22C, a molded epoxy resin cover 23, and three copper lands 24A-24C on the top of the cover. The copper carrier 21 is configured as a rectangle for ease of insertion into solid particles, though other configurations would also be suitable. In one embodiment, one capacitor 22A is doped with sodium, one capacitor 22B is doped with potassium, and one capacitor 22C is doped with lithium, to provide capacitors with three different activation energies. Alternatively, different activation energies may be provided by doping all the capacitors with sodium, and providing varying levels of positive ions in combination with the sodium. It has been found that different activation energies for sodium or other positive ions may be provided by doping with negative ions such as Cl⁻ or Br⁻. Thus, in another embodiment, one capacitor 22A is doped with Na⁺ alone, another capacitor 22B is doped with Na⁺ and Cl⁻ and a third capacitor 22 C with Na⁺ and Br⁻. Each capacitor chip 22 is positioned in a well formed in the base 21 to align the chip, and the chips 22 are soldered to the base 21 with aluminum saturated tin solder. AMCO 64 soldering flux (a product of the American Solder & Flux Co., Inc.) may be employed for all soldered connections in the thermal memory cell. The copper lands 24 are etched in place on the epoxy resin cover 23 in the same manner as copper on a printed circuit board. A hole penetrates through the center of each copper land and through the cover. When the epoxy-resin cover is placed over the copper base, each hole is filled with solder 25A-25C so that each capacitor is electrically connected with the copper land positioned thereabove. If desired, the joint between the copper base 21 and the resin cover 23 can be sealed with epoxy resin. A serial number or other indicia can be stamped on the bottom surface of the copper carrier 21 so that Thermal Memory Cells in a set of such cells can be distinguished from one another. A simplified block diagram of an apparatus for determining the thermal history of a thermal process according to the present invention is illustrated in Figure 10. The apparatus 30 is comprised of, in combination, a thermal memory cell holder 31, a capacitance sensor 32, and a thermal history calculator 33. The holder 31 may be a vacuum chuck for securing the base of the thermal memory cell 20 (Figures 6-9) and for making electrical contact to the base 21 thereof, and an electrode mounted on a micromanipulator for making electrical contact to the lands 24 of the cell. The mechanical design of such a holder is well known to those having skill in the art, and will be dependent upon the shape and size of the thermal memory cell 20. The capacitance sensor 32 may be electrically connected to the cell through the chuck and electrode. Any conventional capacitance sensor, such as a capacitance bridge, may be employed. The thermal history calculator 33 is operatively associated with the capacitance sensor. In a preferred embodiment, a stored program microcomputer connected to capacitance sensor 32 can be used. Figure 11 illustrates the calculation of equivalent time and temperature and time-temperature profile in the apparatus of Figure 10. In a preferred embodiment, the flowchart of Figure 11 may be embodied in a stored program which runs on microcomputer 33. This program may be designed according to techniques well known to those having skill in the art, based upon the flowcharts of Figures 11 and 12, and the following description. Thermal systems are defined by way of product properties, system properties, and the effect of one on the other. The starting point for all thermal system descriptors is the temperature and time exposure. Many contact point source temperature methods exist including thermal sensors relating some calibrated change associated with the sensor to a data retrieval system by way of wire connections. Other contact sensors use different contacting modes for data retrieval, i.e., electromagnetic waves (visible, infrared, radio waves, etc.). Noncontact methods (using memory cells) have only recently become commercially available with limited application due to the current state of the technology. With the development of the Equivalent Point Method (EPM) of thermal evaluation, numerous new methods for determining product and system responses to heat are now available. The key concept behind the Equivalent Point Method (EPM) is that any system, however complex, can be thermally characterized by two parameters, namely the Equivalent temperature, T E , and the Equivalent time, t E . These two parameters uniquely define the system and hence can be used to compare the changes undergone by different constituents when subject to the same thermal treatment. For example, two chemical constituents with different kinetic properties will undergo different extents of thermal degradation when subject to the same thermal environment. However, both constituents will possess the same equivalent time, t E , and temperature, T E . The Equivalent Point Method (t E , T E ) is hence a property of the system and is independent of the kinetic parameters (Order, n; Activation Energy, E; preexponential factor, B; etc.) of the individual constituents. Other time-temperature indicators available commercially match the activation energy of the indicator with the desired constituent and assume that the change in the indicator corresponds to the change in the constituent. Suppose the kinetics of an indicator were given by the general equation (1) M I = B I e -E I /RT dt where E I is the activation energy of the indicator, B I is the Arrhenius preexponential factor, and M I is the relative change in property of indicator (concentration, color, nutrient loss, etc.) In the indicator that follows first order kinetics, then (2) M I = In (C If /C IO ) where C If is the final concentration of indicator, and C IO is the initial concentration of indicator. The kinetics of a constituent can be given by (3) M C = B C e -E C /RT dt where B C is the Arrhenius preexponential factor, E C is the activation energy of the constituent, and M C is the relative change in property of the constituent. If the constituent also follows first order reaction kinetics, then (4) M C = In (C Cf /C CO ) where C Cf is the final concentration of constituent, and C CO is the initial concentration of constituent. It can be seen from equations (1) and (3) that if the activation energy of the indicator E I is matched to equal the activation energy of the constituent, E C , then the expressions inside the integral in both equations would be equal. However, unless the preexponential factor of the indicator (B I ) is also equal to that of the constituent (B C ), the relative change in property of the indicator (M I ); would not be the same as that of the constituent (M C ). In addition, the kinetics of the constituent must follow the same order of reaction as the indicator (in this example both were assumed to be first order) for the comparisons to be valid. Hence, it is seen that merely matching the activation energies of the indicator and constituent is not sufficient and will lead to erroneous conclusions regarding the final concentration predicted for the constituent (C F ). The Equivalent Point Method (EPM) as described in detail below, matches the equivalences of the system rather than the activation energies or other properties of the individual constituents, and is thus not prone to the same errors as the other available methods. The Equivalent Point Method (EPM) of thermal evaluation was originally developed for use with first order reactions to compare direct and indirect aseptic heating systems, Swartzel, K., J. Food Sci. 47 , 186 (1982). It was later extended to include reactions which were not first order, Swartzel, K. and Jones, V., 1984. At present, however, only one procedure (Line Intersections method) has been described in the literature to determine both t E and T E , see Sadeghi, F. et al., J. Food Proc. and Pres. 10 , 331 (1986), and Swartzel, K., J. Food Sci. 47 , 186 (1982). According to the invention, a new method for calculating the equivalent point method is described. A critical step in determining both t E and T E for a known time-temperature distribution, T(t), is the integration of the Arrhenius equation. This integration for different activation energies result in the thermal reduction relationship, G-value, see Swartzel, K., J. Food Sci. 47 , 186 (1982) and Swartzel, K., J. Food Sci. 49 , 803 (1984). Integration of the rate law equation with substitution of the Arrhenius model for the rate constant yields an absolute G-value: where Ea is the activation energy (J/mol), R is the Universal Gas Constant (8.314 J/mol K), t R is the final processing time (s), B is the Arrhenius preexponential constant, and M is defined as: where X is the extent of reaction. Numerical values for G Abs yields dramatic changes with different values of Ea. Computational problems often appear due to a limiting argument for the exponential function; that is, most microcomputers have a limit of -96.9, setting a restriction for Ea, i.e., Ea ≦ 300 kJ/mole, see Sadeghi, F. et al., J. Food Proc. and Pres. 10 , 331 (1986). To avoid these problems a new definition is introduced by using a reference temperature: As is common practice in thermal processes, it is convenient to set T Ref = 121.1°C. Thus, by introducing the proper time-temperature distribution, equation (8) is valid for any kind of heating process with the following relationship between the two G-values: Usually, thermal treatments are divided into three sections: heating, holding, and cooling. Before parameter estimation, the contribution of the different thermal sections has to be evaluated. Therefore, for a selected Ea-value, a G-value is calculated for each portion of the thermal curve. G-values for the different portions are summed because thermal effects are additive. For any particular value of Ea, equation (8) yields: (10) G Total = G Heat + G Hold + G Cool The equivalent time (t E ) and equivalent temperature (T E ) are obtained from the following model: The following three methods for estimating the equivalent point can be used: 1. Line Intersections (LI) This method has been reported in the literature. See Swartzel, K., J. Food Sci. 47 , 186 (1982); Swartzel, K., J. Food Sci. 49 , 803 (1984); and Sadeghi, F. et al., J. Food Proc. and Pres. 10 , 331 (1986). 2. Nonlinear Least Squares Regression (NLSR) The nonlinear regression performs a single regression which allows for both t E and T E directly by using equation 7. A Gauss-Marquardt nonlinear regression routine was used, see Press, W. et al., Numerical Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing (Cambridge University Press, New York, 1986). 3. Weighted Least Squares Regression (WLSR) The linear least squares analysis presented above assume that the variance is constant throughout the range of measured values. If this is not the case, weighted least squares allows for a better parameter estimation. In addition, parameter estimation involving exponents requires weighted least squares, as shown by Norris, A., Computational Chemistry an Introduction to Numerical Methods (J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981). This method requires the determination of slope and intercept of the transformed equation 13. For a semilog transformation, the weighting function is the square of the independent variable. Therefore, the function to be minimized is: Both WLSR and NLSR provide outstanding predictions for t E and T E with the same level of accuracy. Based upon its simplicity and performance, WLSR is considered best for parameter evaluation associated with the EPM. Using the EPM a variety of memory cell designs allows the determination of the following thermal information: (a) Actual time-temperature history of a point source within a thermal system, including dynamic systems. (b) The residence time of the point in a dynamic system. (c) The residence time distribution (RTD) of particles moving in a fluid in a dynamic thermal system. (d) The film side heat transfer coefficient as a particle - fluid boundary in a dynamic thermal system. (e) Constituent kinetics in micro-environments at point sources in dynamic systems. (f) Thermodynamic and transport properties of materials such as specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, enthalpy, entropy, internal energy, etc., in dynamic systems. (g) Fouling dynamics of heat exchangers. In a typical thermal system consisting of particles moving in a carrier fluid, the latter also serves as the heating medium for the particles. Assuming that the physical properties of the particle such as specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, size, and density are known, the functional form of the time-temperature profile of the center of the particle can be determined. The equations describing the shape of the time-temperature profile are readily available in most heat transfer textbooks. The parameters that describe the exact curve are now known apriori, however, and must be determined. The residence time of a particle in a dynamic system must be known before any predictions can be made regarding the effects of thermal treatment on it. However, this is a very difficult task and, at present, no reliable methods are available that can determine the particle residence time. The Equivalent Point Method (EPM) allows for evaluating the exact time-temperature profile of the particle center, and the residence time of a particle in a dynamic system. The physical properties of the particle and system such as specific heat capacity, density, thermal conductivity, particle size, its initial temperature, and the temperature of the bulk fluid are assumed to be known. Also, from the physics of the system, the shape of the time-temperature profile is known. Since the exact curve is not known, the shape is expressed as in terms of several unknown parameters P1, P2, ..., Pn. These parameters will be determined later and the exact time-temperature profile known (see Figure 11, block 50). The method of the present invention uses two or more calibration materials to determine the Equivalent Point (T E , t E ) of the system. Use of calibration materials to determine (T E , t E ) of the system are discussed in Sadeghi, F. and Swartzel, K., Calibration Materials for Thermal Systems (Institute of Food Technologists 46th Annual Meeting Food Expo., June 15-18, 1986). In that work calibration materials were used to determine the Equivalent Point of bulk fluid continuous flow systems. In the present case, calibration materials may consist of different mobile ions, such as sodium, potassium, or lithium, each used as a dopant within a thin Metal Insulator Semiconductor (MIS) insulator layer. As discussed earlier in the detailed description of the MIS capacitor, the device is small enough to be inserted into the center of the particle undergoing thermal treatment, yielding a point source Equivalent Point available for other system thermal determinations. The present method uses the diffusion kinetics of the mobile ion within the oxide layer, the extent of diffusion being dependent on the time-temperature exposure. This extent is determined by measuring the Capacitance Voltage (C-V) shift taking place. The MIS capacitor is initialized by moving the mobile ions within the oxide to either the metal-oxide or the silicon-oxide interface by elevated temperature stress under a positive or negative bias. The initial C-V scan is designated (CV)₀. After the device is subject to a time-temperature profile, another C-V scan is done to measure the extent of this shift. This is designated (CV) f . In addition, information relating to the order n, preexponential factor B, and the activation energy E I are also known apriori and recorded. (See Figure 11, block 51 and Figure 12A, block 55). Referring now to Figure 12A, if the diffusion is first order (n = 1) (block 57), then the relative change in C-V shift M₁ is given by (13) M I = In (CV) f /(CV)₀ (block 59) where B is the preexponential factor, E is the activation energy, t f is the final time or residence time of particle, and t E and T E are the equivalent time and temperature for the particle center. For any other order (n not equal to 1) the relative shift is given by (14) M I = 1/(1 - n) [(CV) f 1-n - (CV)₀ 1-n ] (block 58). Once M I is known, the product constituent relationship G can be computed as (15) G = M I /B I (block 60). The steps are then repeated for each of the calibration materials (block 61). Evaluation of G Values and Equivalent Point Referring again to Figure 11, by knowing the activation energy E I and the corresponding G values of the three materials, a plot of G versus E I can be drawn. By interpolation, a table of G versus E I values can be prepared (block 52). Usually it is more convenient to plot In (G) versus E I , to obtain the equivalent point. (See Figure 10b, block 62). The values of activation energy E I are usually in the range 50 to 330 KJ/mol. From equation (15) (16) G = t E exp [-E I /R (1/T E - 1/T Ref )] and hence (17) Ln (G) = In (t E ) - E/R(1/T E - 1/T Ref ) where T Ref is a reference temperature in the temperature range of the process (see block 63). By using a weighted least squares linear regression method, the Equivalent Point (t E , T E ) can now be determined (block 63). The weighting factor w is set equal to G² to obtain the best fit (block 63). It should be noted, however, that this is but one of several techniques available to determine the value of the Equivalent Point (t E , T E ). Determination of the Time-Temperature Profile Referring again to Figure 11, block 53, the product constituent relationship G can be expressed as The expression inside the integral is evaluated numerically using a procedure such as Gauss Quadrature (see blocks 64, 65 of Figure 12C). This yields a function in terms of the parameters P₁, P₂, ... P n , which characterize the exact curve, and tF, the residence time of the particle. A non-linear regression method such as the Marquardt method can now be used to optimize the parameters, using the table of G versus E values obtained above. Details of the procedure and a sample problem with its output are presented below. Referring now to block 64 (Figure 12), initial values for the following parameters are introduced: (a) parameters corresponding to the suggested time-temperature function Temp(time) and (b) initial estimate of the residence time, t F . This is an important step to any technique used for the nonlinear regression; therefore, an educated guess for the parameters is used. Referring now to block 65, the G-values are evaluated by numerical integration. In principle, any numerical integration routine can be used; however, Gauss Quadrature and Romberg integration routines require less computational effort than other routines like Simpson rule, trapezoidal rule, etc. In addition, if further accuracy is required, then the Adaptive Gauss Quadrature can be used. See Forsythe, G. et al., "Computer Methods for Mathematical Computations" (Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1977). Referring now to block 66, the functions required to implement the nonlinear regression will be described. First, Function Temp is the only part of the program that has to be changed to introduce any time-temperature profile including any number of parameters. However, in addition to empirical models, those models based upon transport phenomena and physics may be appropriate resulting in parameters related to physico-chemical properties. Second, Function Arrhenius introduces the typical exponential transformation for the temperature (Temp) where the activation energy (Ea) is a parameter. Third, Function Integral evaluates G-values using a 10-point Gauss Quadrature procedure. This function can be easily modified to adjust for complicated time-temperature profiles, for example using an Adaptive Gauss Quadrature routine, see Forsythe et al., 1977; also see Stoer, J. and Burlirsch, R., "Introduction to Numerical Analysis" (Springer-Verlag, 1980). Fourth, Procedure Funcs evaluates the model and its derivatives with respect to all the parameters for any call of the nonlinear routine. Derivatives are evaluated numerically in order to simplify the implementation of any time-temperature profile. The problem of finding the parameters for the suggested time-temperature profile follows a modular structure such that any nonlinear regression routine can be used with the time-temperature profile. The segment of code below is written in Pascal and can easily be translated to any other language as FORTRAN, FORTRAN 77, BASIC C, etc. Still referring to block 66, there are many methods that can be used to perform a nonlinear regression, among them: the Marquardt Method, see Marquardt, D., J. Soc. Ind. Appl. Math 11 , 431 (1963); the Quasi-Newton Methods, see Dennis, Jr., J. and Schnabel, R., "Numerical Methods for Unconstrained Optimization and Nonlinear Equations (Prentice Hall Series in Computational Mathematics, New Jersey, 1983). Marquardt introduced an elegant and practical method which is related to an earlier suggested of Levenberg; consequently, this method is also referred to as the Levenberg-Marquardt method. The Marquardt Method works very well in practice and has become one of the most used procedure for nonlinear least-squares routines. In addition, this method is simple to be implemented in most personal computers. To illustrate the processing steps according to the invention, an indirect continuous flow heat exchanger with an exponential time-temperature profile is examined. For this system the initial temperature was 100°C, the steam temperature was 150°C, the time constant was 1/0.23 s, and the residence time was 10 s. Next, G-values for different activation energies were evaluated by numerical integration. Then, this data set (G versus Ea) was introduced into the nonlinear regression program using the Marquardt method and convergence was achieved in only eight iterations. Thus, the changes required to run an application and the output from the program can be summarized as follows: Determination of Residence Time Distribution The residence time of a single particle is known from the procedure described above. The residence time distribution (RTD) of particles through a system can be measured by extending the same procedure for a system containing particulates, some or all of which contain a memory cell (MC) in the center. A complete RTD would then be available from the data. Calculation of Film Side Heat Transfer Coefficient, h If the thermal properties of the particle are known, the Fourier Modulus (19) F₀* = α t/R² can be calculated. Here α is thermal diffusivity, t is time and R is particle radius. From the charts of Heisler, M. Trans. ASME 69 , 227 (1947), and Pitts, D. and Sissom, L., "Theory and Problems of Heat Transfer" (Schaum's Outline Series in Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1977), the Biot number (20) Bi* = hR/k is known, where h is heat transfer coefficient and k is thermal conductivity. It should be noted that the particle center temperature, its initial temperature, and the bulk fluid temperature are known. The only unknown in equation (20) is then the heat transfer coefficient, h, which can now be determined. In addition, by using the correction chart for a solid sphere, see Heisler, M. (1947), the temperature of the particle surface can also be computed. Now, if a second MC is attached to the surface of the particle, the surface temperature can be calculated by using the same procedure described above to determine the temperature profile. This measurement can be then used to confirm/verify the accuracy of the method used to determine the heat transfer coefficient, h. The preceding sections discuss some of the key properties and parameters that can be determined by the EPM. As mentioned before, the EPM can also be used to evaluate several thermodynamic properties. In addition, it can be used to predict constituent kinetics in microenvironments and fouling dynamics of heat exchangers. In an alternative embodiment of the present invention, 20% sucrose solution acidified with sulfuric acid to pH 2.5, and blue #2 solution buffered with sodium carbonate to pH 11.3 are used as thermal constituents and encapsulated in 1/4" O.D. cylindrical aluminum modules. The ends of the modules are sealed with silicon sealant (heat resistant and stable up to 400°C). The thermal constituents are placed in the modules with a hypodermic syringe. The two modules containing different thermal constituents are placed at the center of cans filled with sweet potato and water and the cans sealed. The cans are thermally treated at between 110-125°C (230-256°F) in a batch retort. After heating, the cans are cooled by tap water and the solutions inside the modules recovered and diluted to 1 milliliter. Constituent changes occurring in each individual module is assayed and the equivalent point for the thermal treatment calculated by essentially the same procedures as described above.

Claims: A method for determining the thermal history of an object, wherein said object carries a thermal memory cell (20), said object is exposed to a thermal treatment while carrying said thermal memory cell, and said thermal history is determined by detecting changes in said thermal memory cell and then calculating the thermal history of said object from the detected changes, said thermal memory cell (20) carries at least two thermal calibration materials (22A, 22B, 22C) having different activation energies, and said detecting step comprises detecting the change in each of said thermal calibration materials, said method characterized in that: said calculating step comprises calculating the equivalent point of said thermal treatment from said detected changes. A method according to claim 1, wherein said determining step comprises the steps of: determining the relative shift in each of said calibration materials (22A, 22B, 22C); and dividing the relative shift by a preexponential factor. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein said calculating step comprises: calculating the time-temperature profile of said thermal treatment from said detected changes. A method according to any of claims 1 to 3, wherein each of said thermal calibration materials (22A, 22B, 22C) comprises a metal insulator semiconductor (MIS) capacitor, the insulators (12) of which are doped with mobile charged carriers (15); and said detecting step comprises detecting the change in capacitance in each of said MIS capacitors caused by said thermal treatment. A thermal memory cell (20) for thermal system evaluation comprising a container (21) and a first thermal calibration material (22A) supported by a support structure (21), a second thermal calibration material (22B) is supported by said support structure (21), and said first and second thermal calibration materials (22A, 22B) have different activation energies said thermal memory cell characterized in that: each thermal calibration material comprises a metal insulator semiconductor (MIS) capacitor (10). A thermal memory cell as claimed in claim 5 wherein the support structure (21) comprises a container in which the calibration materials (22A, 22B, 22C) are sealed. A thermal memory cell as claimed in claims 5 or 6 wherein said first and second thermal calibration materials (22A, 22B) provide graded responses to a thermal treatment. A thermal memory cell as claimed in any of claims 5 to 7 wherein the insulating layer (12) of each MIS capacitor (10) is doped with a charged ion (15), and wherein each MIS capacitor (10) is doped with a charged ion (15) different from the other. A thermal memory cell as claimed in claim 8, wherein said charged ion dopant (15) of each MIS capacitor is collected at the metal/oxide interface of said MIS capacitor (10). A thermal memory cell as claimed in any of claims 5 to 9 wherein: each metal insulator semiconductor (MIS) capacitor (10) comprises a semiconductor substrate (11), an insulating layer (12) on said semiconductor substrate, and a metal layer (13) on said insulating layer (12); and that said insulating layer (12) is doped with mobile charged carriers (15). A thermal memory cell according to claim 10, wherein said insulating layer (12) is non-uniformly doped with said mobile charged carriers (15). A thermal memory cell according to claim 10 or 11, wherein said mobile charged carriers (15) are concentrated at the interface of said insulating layer (12) and said metal layer (13). A thermal memory cell according to any of claims 10, 11 or 12, wherein said insulating layer (12) is doped with said mobile charged carriers (15) to between five to ten percent of saturation. A thermal memory cell according to any of claims 10 to 13, wherein said mobile charged carriers (15) are selected from the group consisting of Na⁺, K⁺, and Li⁺. A thermal memory cell according to any of claims 10 to 14, wherein said semiconductor substrate (11) is monocrystalline silicon, wherein said insulating layer (12) is silicon dioxide, and wherein said mobile charged carriers (15) are Na⁺, ions. A thermal memory cell according to any of claims 10 to 15, wherein said metal layer (13) is coextensive with said insulating layer (12). A thermal memory cell according to any of claims 10 to 16, wherein said mobile charged carriers (15) are of both positive and negative polarity. A thermal memory cell according to any of claims 10 to 17, wherein said insulating layer (12) is non-uniformly doped with mobile charged carriers of a first polarity, and uniformly doped with mobile charged carriers of a second polarity. A set of thermal memory cells including cells (20) as claimed in any of claims 5 to 18 wherein: identification means are associated with said support structure for distinguishing each of said thermal memory cells from the other members of said set. An apparatus for determining the thermal history of a thermal memory cell (20) exposed to a thermal treatment, wherein the thermal memory cell (20) carries a first thermal calibration material (22A), the apparatus comprising means for holding the thermal memory cell, sensing means for detecting changes in said first calibration material (22A) caused by the thermal treatment, and calculating means responsive to said sensing means for calculating the thermal history of said thermal memory cell (20) from said detected changes, said apparatus further comprises sensing means for detecting changes in a second thermal calibration material (22B) carried by the thermal memory cell; and said second thermal calibration material (22B) has an activation energy different from said first thermal calibration material (22A); characterised in that; said thermal calibration materials (22A, 22B, 22C) comprise metal insulator semiconductor (MIS) capacitors (10); and that each of said sensing means comprises means for detecting changes in the capacitance of each of said MIS capacitors. An apparatus according to claim 20, wherein said calculating means comprises a stored program running on a general purpose computer.

Inventors: GANESAN SUDALAIMUTHU G, HAMAKER RAYMOND W, KUEHN RICHARD T, SADEGHI FARID, SWARTZEL KENNETH R, GANESAN, SUDALAIMUTHU G., HAMAKER, RAYMOND W., KUEHN, RICHARD T., SADEGHI, FARID, SWARTZEL, KENNETH R.
Applicants: UNIV NORTH CAROLINA, NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY
Application year: 1989
Main classification: G01K3
IPC codes: H01L21, G01K3, G01K7, H01L27