Artificial intelligence for adaptive machining control of surface finish

Abstract: A method of using a mathematical model to adaptively control surface roughness when machining a series of workpieces or segments by: (a) linearizing a geometrical surface roughness model; (b) initializing said model essentially as a function of feed; and (c) subjecting the initialized model to computerized estimation based on roughness and feed values taken from the last machined workpiece, thereby to determine the largest allowable feed for attaining a desired surface roughness in subsequently machined workpieces or segments of the series. The mathematical model is an algorithm of the form R = [1262.79]f²/r. The model is linearized and initialized to give the form R = β₁s R f+β₂R max where R is the actual roughness and R max is desired roughness, f is actual feed, β₁ and β₂ are coefficients to be updated by estimation, and s R is a scale factor chosen to make the first term have the same order of magnitude as the second term. Computerized estimation is carried out by converting the above initialized linear model to vector matrix notation with provision for the estimated coefficients in the form R n = ϑ T x n , where R n is measured roughness, x n is a computed vector taken from measured feed, and ϑ is a vector to be estimated with "T" denoting the transpose of the vector. After inserting roughness and feed values into such vector model, taken from the last machined workpiece, the coefficients are recursively estimated by sequential regression analysis.

Description: This invention relates both to the art of machining and to the art of adaptive process control, and, more particularly, both to the art of finish-machining and the art of computer controlled adaptive processing. The degree of surface roughness on machined parts is one of the most widely misunderstood and incorrectly specified aspects in part design. Reliability and optimum performance of the machined part are the primary reasons why selection of the proper machined surface is important. Surface roughness affects not only how a part fits and wears, but also how it may transmit heat, distribute a lubricant, accept a coating, or reflect light. Such part cannot possess the selected quality unless the surface roughness is controlled to be substantially the same on all the machined parts or segments. Without control, surface roughness will vary from part to part in a continuing machining process as a result of inherent variations in tool wear, tool composition, workpiece composition, and microflexing of the tool-holder to workpiece relationship; this will be true even though machining parameters such as feed, cut, and speed are kept constant. Adaptive control of surface roughness would make it possible to achieve the benefits of precise specification of surface finish by assuring a substantially constant surface roughness throughout all segments or parts of a given finish-machining operation. Adaptive control is used herein a conventional manner to mean changing one or more of such machining parameters to influence surface roughness and maintain it at a desired level. Commercial machining operations today usually maintain the feed constant and adjust it only after the operation is stopped or after the machining run is complete, all in response to an off-line measurement. The use of the largest constant feasible depth of cut and the largest feed compatible with power and surface finish constraints is standard practice. Assuming adequate power is available, the surface finish desired determines the largest allowable constant feed. The constant feed is usually set conservatively low to ensure that the maximum allowable surface finish will not be exceeded as the tool wears. This, however, leads to poor productivity. Adaptive controls were first used in the chemical industry to maintain a physical parameter at some desired level. Algorithms or computer models have been investigated to relate a selected parameter, such as pressure, to other influences that affect is such as temperature and reaction rate variables. An example is set forth in "Implementation of Self-Tuning Regulators", by T. Fortescus, L. Kershenbaum, and B. Ydstie, Automatica, Volume 17, No.5 (1981), pp. 831-835. Such investigation worked with high order equations to devise dynamic math models that would accommodate a fast rate of data generation from the application. Estimates of the selected parameter were made on-line by recursive least squares estimation techniques, and as the estimates converged, control was achieved. Mathematical factors were inserted to keep the estimation techniques from imposing unstable control. Unfortunately, such computer model for the chemical industry involved too many variables and was much too complex to be used for straightforward control of surface roughness in a machining application. The question remains whether roughness can be mathematically related to essentially one variable: feed. To answer this question, one must look to known adaptive controls in the machining art to see if a solution has been provided. Adaptive controls have been proposed for controlling aspects not directly related to surface roughness. Such controls are essentially of two types. One type is to optimize the least cost or time for machining by sensing a changing machining condition (i.e., tool wear) which cannot be totally controlled, and thence to use this information to adjust other machining parameters (i.e., speed and feed) to achieve cost or time optimization. When using feed and velocity, the feed and speed may be adjusted to obtain the most economical tool life. References which disclose this first type of optimization control are: "Flank-Wear Model And Optimization Of Machining Process And its Control in Turning", by Y. Koren and J. Ben-Uri, Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. , Volume 187, No. 25 (1973), pp. 301-307; "The Metal Cutting Optimal Control Problem - A State Space Formulation", by E. Kannatey-Asibu, Computer Applications in Manufacturing Systems, ASME, 1981; "A Microprocessor Based Adaptive Control Of Machine Tools Using The Random Function Excursion Technique And Its Application to BTA Deep Hole Machining", by S. Chandrashekar, J. Frazao, T. Sankar, and H. Osman, Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing , 1986; and "A Model-Based Approach To Adaptive Control Optimization In Milling", by T. Watanabe, ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control , Volume 108, March 1986, pp. 56-64. The other type of adaptive machining control is to sense, in real time, a controllable machining condition (i.e., power consumption which can be controlled) and thence to use such sensed condition to change other machining conditions (i.e., speed and feed) to ensure that the first condition (power consumption) is constrained to be below a certain maximum level. References which disclose this type of constraint control are: "Adaptive Control With Process Estimation", by Koren et al, C.I.R.P. Annals , Volume 30, No. 1 (1981), pp. 373-376; "Experiments on Adaptive Constrained Control of a CNC Lathe", by R. Bedini and P. Pinotti, ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry , Volume 104, May 1982, pp. 139-150; "Adaptive Control In Machining-A New Approach Based On The Physical Constraints Of Tool Wear Mechanisms", by D. Yen and P. Wright, ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry , Volume 105, February 1983, pp. 31-38; and "Variable Gain Adaptive Control Systems For Machine Tools", by A. Ulsoy, Y. Koren, and L. Lauderbaugh, University of Michigan Technical Report No. UM-MEAM-83-18 , October, 1983. Optimization machining control, the first type, has not been used in the commercial machine tool industry because it requires on-line measurement of tool wear which has not yet been developed technically or economically to make it feasible. Constraint machining control, the second type, has been used only in commercial roughing operations; it is disadvantageous because it requires (i) the use of several expensive sensors to measure cutting forces, torque, or temperatures during machining, and (ii) extensive off-line acquisition of data to derive comparative computer models to establish maximum levels, all of which demand undue and expensive experimentation. But, more importantly, both types of such adaptive controls in the machining arts are not designed to maximise workpiece quality, such as surface finish. None of such controls have entertained the idea of relating surface roughness to essentially only feed in a static relationship that reduces data gathering. US-A-4,736,306 discloses a method of manufacturing an object from a boundary representation thereof comprising: cleaving said boundary representation of said object, which represents said object only by zero, one or two dimensional features thereof, into elemental atomic geometrical units, assembly said I-bodies into assemblies having atomic geometrical forms which collectively form a constructive solid geometry representation of said object usable for manufacturing thereof, utilising said constructive solid geometry representation of said object to develop machine instructions for instruction one or more machines in a manufacturing process, and controlling said machines to perform operations under control of said instructions to manufacture at least a portion of said object. US-A-4,707,793 discloses a system having a machine with a cutter for cutting a metal workpiece and a fixture for mounting the workpiece, a method of adjusting the feed rate and cutting speed for a machining operation to the characteristics of the material to be cut, the cut to be made, the fixture, the cutter, and the machine. The method comprises, determining a first set of parameters, including a preliminary cutting speed and a preliminary feed rate, from the characteristics of the material to be cut, the cut to be made, the fixture, the cutter and the machine, calculating the maximum allowable cutter force from the first set of parameters, calculating the maximum feed rate from the first set of parameters, the maximum allowable cutter force, and the base cutting speed, and designating the calculated base cutting speed as the initial cutting speed, and the calculated maximum feed rate as the initial feed rate, for the machining operation. According to the invention there is provided A method of adaptively controlling feed for a cutting tool to improve the surface finish of a series of machined workpieces, comprising; (a) sensing surface finish and feed information from the first of said workpieces which is undergoing or has undergone surface machining; (b) recursively estimating a feed that would produce a desired surface finish solely as a function of surface roughness; (c) using said estimated feed to machine the next of said series of workpieces; and (d) repeating steps (a)-(c) for each successive workpiece. A method embodying the present invention utilises a mathematical model in such a way that it results in adjusting the machining feed to maintain a desired surface roughness for each machined part or segment in a series, despite tool wear, variations in tool material and geometry, and variability in workpiece composition. This will lead to improved and more uniform machining quality. Further, the method embodying the invention provides such artificial intelligence for adaptively controlling feed which provides for machining workpieces at higher feeds and hence shorter cutting times than obtainable with conventional metal cutting operations. By automatically seeking higher feeds consistent with targeted surface finish and cutting tool conditions, increased productivity will indirectly result while maintaining consistent part quality. The method embodying the invention also provides an algorithm based on a simple static geometrical relationship that not only improves the predictability of a finish-machining process, but also permits the detection of a tool worn beyond its useful life; the latter detection is based on the rate of change of a specific coefficient of such algorithm. The algorithm would permit the controller to be self-learning and use the measured surface roughness to predict the condition of the cutting tool. The method embodying the invention uses a mathematical model to adaptively control surface roughness when machining a series of workpieces or segments. The method essentially comprises: (a) linearising a geometrical model of surface roughness essentially as a function of feed; (b) initialising such model; and (c) subjecting the initialised model to computerised estimation based on roughness and feed values taken from the last machined workpiece, thereby to determine the largest allowable feed for attaining a desired surface roughness in subsequently machined workpieces or segments of the series. The mathematical model is an algorithm derived by imposing the centerline average method of measuring roughness onto a geometrical surface model of circular segments, solving for a portion of a leg of a triangle described within one of such segments by use of Pythagoras' Theorem. By using small angle approximations for chord angles of such triangles, the result is the following revised static model form: R = [1262.79] f² (feed) r (tool nose radius) where R is roughness in microinches. This model R=1262.79 f²/r is linearised by use first order Taylor series expansion techniques to give the approximate relationship R ≅ R(f o )+[dR(f o )/df](f-f o ). The relationship is initialised by setting R equal to the desired maximum roughness and solving for feed (f o ). The initial feed estimate will thus be .0281406 rR max . If f₀ is substituted into the expanded relationship and the latter scaled, the following linear model is provided: where R is the actual roughness and R max is desired roughness, f is actual feed, /₁ and /₂ are coefficients to be updated by estimation, and s R is a scale factor chosen to make the first term have the same order of magnitude as the second term. Computerized estimation is carried out by converting the above initialized linear model to vector-matrix notation with provision for the estimated coefficients in the form: R n = ϑ T x n where R n is measured roughness, is the vector to be estimated with "T" denoting the transpose of the vector, and x n is the computed vector taken from measured feed. After inserting roughness and feed values into such vector model, taken from the last machined workpiece, recursive estimation of the coefficients is carried out by sequential regression analysis. Square root regression may be used to increase the precision of such calculations. The estimated vector r n is improved in accuracy by incorporating a prediction error term e n and a forgetting factor g n . The forgetting factor is chosen to minimize and keep constant the discounted sum of squared model errors & n preferably equal to that which is determined experimentally to be a compromise between small and large changes in r n . The invention will now be described further, by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which : Figure 1 is a schematic illustration of the geometric relationship used to relate surface roughness to machining feed; Figure 2 is an overall system flow diagram which in part incorporates the method of using artificial intelligence to adaptively control feed for improving the surface finish of a series of machined workpieces or segments; Figure 3 is a schematic layout of hardware components comprising a gauging station for the overall system; Figure 4 is a block diagram illustrating electronic intercommunications between basic elements of the overall system; Figure 5 is a second level flow chart further depicting the step of calculating new parameters set forth in Figure 2; Figure 6 is a third level flow diagram further depicting the step of computing an updated feed in Figure 5; Figure 7 is a computer source code useful in carrying out the steps of Figures 5 and 6; Figure 8 is a graphical illustration depicting surface finish as a function of the number of pieces machined utilizing the method of this invention; Figure 9 is a graphical illustration presenting a surface finish histogram for the test results of Figure 8; Figure 10 is a graphical illustration of machining feed as a function of the number of pieces machined for the process recorded in Figure 8; Figure 11 is a graphical illustration of the forgetting factor plotted as a function of number of pieces machined for the process carried out in Figure 8; Figure 12 is a graphical illustration depicting β₁ (the first coefficient of the vector matrix-form of the linearized algorithm) as a function of number of pieces machined for the test carried out in Figure 8; Figure 13 is a graphical illustration and comparison of surface finish as a function of number of pieces machined for a second test carried out for the method herein and illustrating controlled versus uncontrolled (i.e., constant) feed; and Figures 14A and 14B comprise a computer printout for the various terms computed and estimated by the algorithm of this invention. A basic aspect of this invention is the formulation of a simple static geometric algorithm which accurately relates surface roughness to feed of the machine tool. As shown in Figure 1, a cutting tool describes a surface 10 as it moves along its machining path; the surface 10 varies from peak 11 to valley 12. Taking one arc 13 of such surface, a relationship has been derived from the assumed circular segment 14 having a chord length which is feed f and having a radius which is the tool nose radius r. The height H of such segment 14 is calculated from Pythagoras' Theorem to be approximately equal to f²/8r. Pythagorus' Theorem states that: (r-H)²+(f/2)²=r². However, it is the height h of the centerline average line 15 that is of interest to this method. Using small angle approximations for the angles 2 d and 2 r in Figure 1, the height h for the centerline average line produces an equation where the centerline average roughness R in microinches is: R = 1262.7933 f²/r (static math model) Note that this static math model derived from geometry does not consider parameters such as the cutting tool rake angle, cutting speed, depth of cut, and side cutting edge angle. There is experimental evidence that shows depth of cut has little effect on the surface texture over the range one would call "finishing cuts"; the side cutting edge angle is irrelevant since it is only the extremity of the radiused part of the tool which has any effect on the surface texture; rake angle is not a significant factor since it is selected largely to give a suitable chip formation for the material being machined; and cutting speed is assumed to be constant throughout the machining operation and therefore will have little effect on the geometrical nature of roughness. Using such static math model, the method aspect of this invention adaptively controls surface roughness in machining a series of workpieces or segments by: (a) linearizing a geometrical model of surface roughness essentially as a function of feed; (b) initializing such model; and (c) subjecting the initialized model to computerized estimation based on roughness and feed values taken from the last machined workpiece, thereby to determine the largest allowable feed for attaining a desired surface roughness in subsequently machined workpieces or segments of the series. Software for a surface roughness controlling system or machine incorporating the above method as a subset thereof is shown in Figure 2; such overall system includes initialization, physical gauging movements, as well as carrying out artificial intelligence calculations, part of which form this invention. The hardware and overall system for such a roughness controller is disclosed in a publication authored in part by the coinventors of this invention: "Modeling, Sensing, and Control of Manufacturing Processes", by C.L. Wu, R.K. Haboush, D.R. Lymburner, and G.H. Smith, Proceedings of the Winter Meeting of ASME , December, 1986, pages 189-204. This publication introduces the system approach and compares results using such system with the artificial intelligence of this invention without disclosing such intelligence. The teaching of this reference is incorporated herein. An example of a gauging platform for carrying out the gauging movements is shown in Figure 3. The platform comprises a base plate 20, head stock 21 with a fixed center, tail stock 22 with a pneumatically actuated center, a traversing gauge table 23, a lead screw 24, and a stepper motor 15. The gauge head 23 is mounted on cylindrical bearings which allow the head to move on rails 32,33 from one end of the platform 20 to the other. The lead screw 24 is attached to the gauge head 23 by means of a recirculating ball bearing arrangement and bearing mount. The gauge table carries a surface finish gauge 28 and a laser diameter gauge comprised of parts 29 and 30. Attached to the end of the lead screw for the gauge head is the flexible coupling 26 which connects the lead screw to the stepper motor 25; this stepper motor and lead screw arrangement has an axial positioning resolution of .002 inches. Due to the fine positional resolution, it is possible to run the stepper motor in an open-loop arrangement (no positional feedback). The adjustable tail stock center may be controlled by an electrically activated pneumatic valve 27 so that a device such as a computer can initiate clamping of the part to be gauged. The surface finish gauge may be a Surtronic-10 diamond stylus profilometer; this instrument has a drive motor 31 to traverse the stylus into contact with the workpiece. Analog and digital signal processing electronics convert the stylus signal into a numerical roughness value and display. The profilometer has a measurement range of 1-1600 microinches on the roughness scale. To make a surface roughness measurement, the stylus of the unit is placed in contact with the part and the start signal is activated. The stylus is drawn across the part for a distance of about .19 inches by movement of the gauge head via stepper motor driver 34. Stepper motor 31 is used to drive the stylus into contact with the part when the roughness measurements are to be made. The profilometer requires a computer interface to link the profilometer with a microprocessor (such as single board computer 35). Such interfaces are readily known to those skilled in the art as well as an interface for the NC controller to the microprocessor (see 40 and 41 in Figure 4). Returning to Figure 2, initialization of the overall software system, is carried out by a routine to initialize all of the I/O lines, the profilometer 28, the separate motors, and the adaptive controller or microprocessor. Current values of feed may be read from the NC processor to be used as starting values for the control algorithms. The overall software system next looks for a signal to tell it to start its cycle. This signal could be a digital input, such as a pushbutton in a manually operated system, or input from an electronic port when the system is under the control of another computer. After the start signal is received, a stepper motor drives the diameter gauging head 29 to the first diameter to gauge, obtains the diameter measurement, and feeds its value to the adaptive controller 35. This process is repeated until all of the desired diameters have been gauged. Such diameter measurements are useful to update machining offsets of the NC controller and are not of direct use to the method of this invention. The roughness gauging head 28 is then driven by the stepper motor/lead screw arrangement to the point where surface finish can be measured. The stepper motor 31 on the gauge head translates the profilometer towards the part until it makes contact. A signal to start the profilometer measurement is given the controller, the profilometer measures the part, and the controller reads the surface value. The stepper motor/lead screw arrangement then drives the gauging head to the home position. All of the data has now been gathered and the control algorithm can be performed according to the step labeled "Use Artificial Intelligence to Calculate New Parameters"; this stage of the software system represents the invention. The surface roughness value is the input to the adaptive feed algorithm and a feed value for the next part to be machined is calculated. The algorithm measures the machining process output after each workpiece (or after each segment of a stepped part) is machined. The feed for machining the next workpiece is then calculated. After this workpiece (or segment) is machined, the outputs are again measured and the feed calculated, etc. Thus, the feed, while not varied during machining of a given workpiece (or segment), is adjusted between measurements to maintain a desired value of the surface roughness despite the effect of variations in process parameters, tool wear, depth of cut, and workpiece hardness. The feed used for the most recently machined workpiece is used as the independent variable in the roughness regression model. The feed for machining the next workpiece is chosen to maximize the metal removal rate, which is the product of feed, speed, and depth of cut. Since the latter two quantities are held fixed, maximizing the metal removal rate is equivalent to finding the largest allowable feed, subject to limitations on feed, available cutting power, feed rate, and surface roughness. An example of electronic hardware to carry out the commands of such overall software system is shown schematically in Figure 4. A lathe 36 with a cutting tool is controlled by a numerically controlled processor 37 and a workpiece gauging assembly 19, both of which are interconnected by a microprocessor 35 (single board computer) backed up by a host computer 38. The microprocessor 35 may use an Intel 8052 option containing a BASIC interpreter resident in ROM on the microprocessor. The microprocessor may also provide utilities to call and execute user written assembly language routined by use of an IBM PC (see 39) and some powerful mathematical and I/O capabilities from the host computer 38. The microprocessor 35 may be configured with up to 32 K bytes of ROM. Special commands may activate on-board EPROM programming circuitry that save data or program information on either a 264 or 27128 EPROM. The interpreted BASIC language used by the microprocessor 35 provides extensive mathematical and logical operations; however, it is relatively slow (approximately one ms/instruction). The overall system of this invention need not be extremely fast as required in a real time controller. Thus, it is possible to program the majority of the software in BASIC. Only time critical tasks need be programmed in assembly language and called from the main program written in BASIC. Software The first step of the claimed method for calculating the new parameters, as illustrated in Figure 5, comprises the first block. In this block, the geometrical surface roughness model R = 1262.7933 f²/r is linearized using first order Taylor series expansion techniques to give the approximate relationship as follows: R = ≅ R(f o )+[dR(f o )/df] (f-f o ) The second step initializes such relationship by setting R = R max , solving for feed f o . This will take the form: f o = 0.0281406 rR max . R max is the desired value of maximum roughness. Substituting the expression of initial feed f o into this expanded approximated relationship gives the following linear model or algorithm: R = 2(s R f)-R max where s R is a scale factor (equal to 35.53804 R max /r ) chosen to make the term s R f have the same order of magnitude as R, thereby to improve estimation accuracy, particularly through sequential regression analysis. An initialized linear static mathematical model, adapted with coefficients to permit the updating of the algorithm, takes the following form: R = β₁s R f+β₂R max where β₁ and β₂ are coefficients updated by estimation, such as through sequential regression algorithm techniques. The initial values of β₁ and β₂ are, respectively, 2 and minus 1 according to the original linear model. The third step of the claimed process, represented as block 3 of the flow diagram in Figure 5, essentially subjects the initialized algorithm to computerized estimation based upon roughness and feed values taken from the last machined workpiece, thereby to determine the largest allowable feed and to attain a desired surface roughness for subsequently machined workpieces or segments of the series. As depicted in Figure 5, computing is carried out for an updated feed in such algorithm by (i) converting the linearized algorithm to vector matrix notation, (ii) inserting measured roughness and feed values taken from the last machined workpiece into such vector model. and (iii) recursively estimating β₁ and β₂ by sequential regression analysis to permit an updated solution for feed. In more particularity, and as shown in Figure 6, the third step of the claimed process comprises conversion to vector notation in the form Rn = ϑ T x n where R n is the measured roughness value, x n is a computed vector realized from measured feed, and ϑ is an unknown parameter vector whose value is estimated by an estimated vector ϑ n given by the following recursive equation: ϑ n = ϑ n-1 +k n ε n where k n is an estimation gain vector. In standard sequential regression, k n is derived from the first of the following equations, and ε n is a prediction error derived from the second of the following equations: k n = P n-1 x n /(x T n P n-1 x n +λ n ) ε n = R n -ϑ T n-1 x n =R n - R n where P n = (I-k n x T n )P n-1 /λ n R and n is distinguished from R n by the fact that R and n is the prediction of the measured roughness R n , based on the most recent parameter estimate ϑ n-1 . After each new measurement of x n and R n , an estimate ϑ n-1 of ϑ is updated by an amount proportional to the current prediction error ε n . The measurements of x n and R n are processed sequentially, and no matrix inversion is required to obtain the recursive estimate ϑ n of ϑ after n measurements. The use of the prediction error ε n is successively halved, if necessary, until feasible parameter estimates are obtained, thereby preventing large changes in the estimated coefficients β₁ and β₂. To improve the precision of recursive estimation, the k n term may be converted to a square root algorithm in the form: k n = g n /(|v n |²+λ n ) where g n = S n-1 v n , and v n = S T / n-1x n , and λ n is a discount factor. S n is a 2x2 matrix where P n = S n S T / n. This is represented as an alternative block in Figure 6. Use of the square root algorithm doubles the precision of the covariance matrix calculation and ensures that the matrix P n is always positive definite. The matrix S n is updated by the following equation: S n ={S n-1 -g n v T n /[|v n |²+λ n + λ n (|v n |²+λ n )]}/ λ n where the initial value S o is taken to be proportional to the identity matrix. A different or improved variable discount or "forgetting" factor λ n is used in the sequential regression analysis herein to discount old data and respond to changes in the roughness model. After n measurements of the roughness have been made, the vector estimate ϑ n is chosen to minimize the discounted sum of squared model errors Σ n given by: Since o<λ n <1, multiplying the kth squared model error in the above equation by λ n raised to the n-k power has the effect of giving a greater weight to the more recent observations, thus allowing them to have a greater influence on the model coefficient estimates. The discount factor λ n is chosen to keep Σ n equal to some fixed value Σ o for every n, where Σ o is a user-specified value which is given theoretically by Σ o = Mσ² where M is the desired moving window length for the regression analysis and σ is the standard deviation of the regression model error. Since, in practice, neither M nor σ can be specified a priori, Σ o is not computed but is instead determined experimentally and chosen to provide an acceptable compromise between tracking of changes in regression model coefficients (small Σ o ) and smoothing of noisy measurements (large Σ o ). It can be shown that Σ n is given recursively by: Σ n = λ n [Σ n-1 +ε n ²/(λ n +|v n |²)] Replacing Σ n and Σ n-1 in this equation by the experimentally determined value of Σ o and solving the resulting quadratic equation for λ n gives: λ n = |v n |²+c n -c n where c n = ε n 2 /Σ o +|v n |²-1 2 Feed Constraints As an additional step, shown as the fourth block in Figure 5, the controlled feed must further meet several user-imposed feed constraints. The feed itself may be restricted to a range f min ≦ f ≦ f max where f min and f max are user-entered values for the minimum and maximum allowable feed, respectively, chosen to provide good chip control and limit cutting forces. The feed rate may also be constrained to be below the maximum allowable value F max for the particular lathe being used. This leads to the inequality fN ≦ F max where N denotes the spindle speed. The slenderness ratio, which is the ratio of depth of cut to feed, may be restricted to lie between user-entered values s min and s max to avoid chatter. This leads to the inequalities s min ≦ d/f ≦ s max To avoid built-up edge, the feed may be chosen so that the constant cutting speed v is always greater than a critical cutting speed which is inversely proportional to the feed, i.e.: v ≧ c bue /f where c bue is the constant of proportionality. To avoid excessively large changes in feed from one measurement to the next, the feed may be also constrained to be no larger than a user-specified distance Δ away from the feed f p determined during the immediately preceding adjustment, i.e.: |f-f p |≦ Δ All of the above constraints on feed together are equivalent to a pair of inequalities f₁ ≦ f ≦ f u where the lower and upper limits of feed f₁ and f u are given, respectively, by f₁ = maximum (f min , d/s max , c bue /v, f p -Δ) and f u = minimum (f max , F max /N, d/s min , f p +Δ) Thus, the roughness control feed f R is determined from the surface roughness regression model where β₁ and β₂ are replaced by their current estimates β 1n and β 2n , respectively, obtained from the procedure described above. The feed f R is chosen to make the surface roughness predicted by the model equal to the desired value. The desired roughness value is the maximum allowable surface roughness R max and can be diminished by a specified multiple Z R of the current estimation model error standard deviation σ n to reduce the probability of exceeding the roughness limit R max : f R = [(1-β 2n )R max -Z R σ n ]/β 1n s R An estimate σ n of the model error standard deviation is given by σ n = Σ o /d n where d n , the discounted degrees of freedom, is given recursively by d o = 0 d n = λ n d n-1 +1 The control feed f n for machining the next workpiece is then taken to be the feed value which comes closest to f R while not exceeding any of the feed constraints listed previously. The source code useful in carrying out blocks 3 and 4 of Figure 5 is disclosed in the listing of Figure 7. Test Results The adaptive feed control was tested using a series of actual cutting operations with a lathe. Two of such tests are presented herein to demonstrate operation of the adaptive control algorithm and evaluate its effectiveness in maintaining desired surface roughness. Each of the tests were made with a finish turning tool having the following tool geometry: back rake angle -5° side rake angle -5° end relief angle 5° side relief angle 5° end cutting edge angle 5° side cutting edge angle -5° nose radius 0.79375mm The workpiece material was SAE 4140 steel having a hardness of about BHN 200. The cutting speed and depth of the cut were kept constant throughout the test. The only controlled machining variable was feed. The cutting conditions were: cutting speed 182.88m/min; depth of cut 1.270mm; initial feed 0.1778mm/rev; number of machining passes 4; workpiece diameter 43.18mm; and workpiece length 33.02mm. Figure 8 shows the centerline average surface roughness in microinches plotted against the workpiece number. The desired centerline average roughness was 60 microinches. There appears to be four distinguishable regions of surface roughness behavior illustrated in this graphical presentation. First there is a break-in region in which roughness changes rapidly due to the formation of a groove on the tool flank below the main cutting edge. The adaptive control algorithm adjusts the initial feed by modifying the initial surface roughness model parameters to bring the measured roughness to its desired value. The second region is a steady-state region in which the groove wear stabilizes and the estimated model parameters are brought to their current values so that the measured surface roughness hovers about its desired value. The third is a wear-out region in which the tool flank wear becomes large enough to cause a sufficiently large increase in measured surface roughness so that the adaptive control algorithm must return it to the desired value. The fourth region is a brief terminal region in which the tool nose deteriorates enough to cause a drastic reduction in surface roughness to a point where control is impossible and the tool must be replaced. Turning to Figure 9, there is shown a histogram of the same surface roughness measurement as shown in Figure 8. The majority of roughness values, corresponding to the steady-state and wear-out regions shown in Figure 8, cluster tightly about the desired value of 60 microinches. Figure 10 shows machining feed plotted against the workpiece number. The feed is initially raised in the break-in region to achieve the desired surface roughness, held essentially constant within the steady-state region while roughness does not significantly change, and lowered in the wear-out region to compensate for increasing tool wear. It is rapidly raised when the terminal region is reached attempting to offset the breakage of the tool nose. Machining carried out at a constant feed rate would appear as that shown in Figure 10; it is apparent a higher average feed is used in the adaptive control. Figure 11 illustrates the variation of the discount factor λ n used in surface roughness model; it is plotted against the workpiece number. The discount factor is close to 1 in the steady-state and wear-out regions where the model parameters are nearly constant or slowly changing. In the break-in and terminal regions, and at the transition between the steady-state and wear-out regions, the discount factor is lowered to adjust the changing model parameters. Figure 12 is a graphical illustration of the estimated coefficient β 1n plotted against workpiece number to illustrate the adjustments made in the break-in, steady-state, wear-out, and terminal regions. The estimate for β₁ is limited from below to prevent it from becoming negative. When this lower limit is reached, the control software generates a signal which can be used as an indication that the tool is worn out and should be replaced. By estimating the rate of change of surface roughness with respect to feed, it can be observed that when the rate of change is greater than what is normally taking place in the principal regions, it signals the approach of the final wear-out region. This provides a signal to change the tool based upon the rate of change of roughness with respect to feed. As a subfeature of this invention, it has been discovered that when β₁ (the coefficient for the first term of the initialized linearized model) becomes zero or is a negative number, the tool should be withdrawn. Another test was undertaken, the results of which are presented in Figures 13 and 14. Figure 13 is of interest because it compares the same test program using the same tool and material as previously described, but one graphical plot is for the adaptive controlled surface roughness and the other is for uncontrolled surface roughness according to prior art techniques where the feed is held generally constant. An average surface finish much closer to the desired value is obtained with the controlled technique as opposed to the uncontrolled technique. The actual computer data printout for the test of Figure 13, using the algorithm steps of Figures 5 and 6, is illustrated in Figure 14. These tests demonstrate that the primary effect of the adaptive feed controller disclosed herein is to find the feed value which keeps surface roughness at its desired value. This proper value of feed is very difficult to find manually, except by trial and error, because of the unknown effects of the tool and workpiece combination on the measured surface roughness.

Claims: A method of adaptively controlling feed for a cutting tool to improve the surface finish of a series of machined workpieces, comprising; (a) sensing surface finish and feed information from the first of said workpieces which is undergoing or has undergone surface machining; (b) recursively estimating a feed that would produce a desired surface finish solely as a function of surface roughness; (c) using said estimated feed to machine the next of said series of workpieces; and (d) repeating steps (a)-(c) for each successive workpiece. A method as claimed in claim 1, in which in step(b) said function is a geometrical model of a surface roughness, said geometrical model having the form R = 1262.79 f²/r; and said step (b) is carried out by; (e) linearising said geometrical model, said linearised model having the form; R ≅ R(f o )+[dR(f o )/df] (f-f o ); (f) initialising said model; said model being initialised by (i) setting R equal to R max (desired roughness) and solving for the initial feed, and (ii) placing the initialised feed in the linearised model to complete initialisation, said initialised model having the form R = β₁(s R f)+β₂R max ; and (g) subjecting the initialised model to computerised estimation based on roughness and feed values taken from the last machined workpiece, thereby to determine the largest allowable feed for attaining a desired surface roughness in subsequently machined workpieces or segments of the series. A method as claimed in claim 2, in which the initial feed is .0281406 rR max . A method as claimed in claim 2, in which linearising and initialising are carried out by (i) linearising the static mathematical model using Taylor series expansion techniques, and (ii) substituting the initialised feed in such linearised expression to provide a mathematical model of the form R = β₁s R f+β₂R max where R is the measured or updated roughness, β₁ and β₂ are estimated coefficients, s R is a scale factor chosen to make the term s R f in the expression have the same order of magnitude as R, f is feed, and R max is the desired roughness. A method as claimed in claim 4, in which s = 35.53804 R max /r . A method as claimed in claim 2, in which computerised estimation of step (c) is carried out by (i) converting said linearised model to vector-matrix notation, (ii) inserting measured roughness and feed values taken from the last machined workpiece or segment into such vector model, and (iii) recursively estimating β₁ and β₂ by sequential regression analysis to provide an updated solution for feed. A method as claimed in claim 6, in which the converted form of of linearised mathmatical model is R n - Θ T x n , where R n is measured roughness, Θ is the parameter vector of the coefficients β₁ and β₂, and x n is the computer vector of s R f and R max . A method as claimed in claim 6, in which recursive estimation is carried out, after inserting measured roughness and feed values to constitute the vector x n , by using sequential regression analysis to update the least squares estimates of Θ in the equation: Θ n = Θ n-1 +k n ε n , where Θ n-1 is computed from the immediately preceding workpiece or segment, k n is an estimation gain vector, and ε n is a current prediction error vector. A method as claimed in claim 8, in which k n is equal to P n-1 x n /(x T / nP n-1 x n +λ n ), where P n-1 is the covariance matrix of regression errors known from the previous workpiece, x n is the computed vector of s R f from the previous workpiece and R max , and λ n is the discount or forgetting factor derived from theory. A method as claimed in claim 6, in which ε n = R n - R and n , where R n is the measured roughness and R and n is the predicted roughness given by R and n = ϑ T / n-1x n . A method as claimed in claim 9, in which the covariance matrix of parameter estimation errors can be updated by use of the following equation: P n = (I-k T / nx n )P n-1 /λ n , where I is the density matrix, and the other terms are as defined in claim. A method as claimed in claim 8, in which recursive estimation can be improved by modifying k n to have a square root algorithm taking the form k n = g n /(|v n |²+λ n ), where g n is S n-1 v n , v n is s n-1 x n , λ n is a theoretically derived discount factor, and S n is a matrix which is the square root of P n . A method as claimed in claim 12, in which λ n is chosen to keep Σ n equal to a desired experimentally derived value in the algorithm: A method as claimed in claim 12, in which S n = {S n-1 -g n v T n /[|v n |²+λ n +1√λ n (|v n |²+λ n )]}/ λ n . A method as claimed in claim 2, in which β₁ is monitored as a predictor of tool failure so that when β₁ equals zero or becomes negative, a message is transmitted to replace the cutting tool. A method as claimed in claim 7, in which the accuracy of estimating ϑ is improved by incorporating a forgetting factor λ n chosen to minimize and keep constant the discounted sum of squared model errors Σ n . A method as claimed in claim 16, in which λ n = |v n |²+c n -c n , where c n = (ε n ²/Σ o +|v n |²-1)/² A method as claimed in claim 2, in which said largest allowable feed f is derived by using the largest recursively estimated feed which meets all of the following constraints: (i) resides between user determined minimum and maximum feeds, (ii) provides a feed which does not cause the feed rate to exceed a user determined maximum feed rate, (iii) provides a slenderness ratio which is between user determined minimum and maximum values for such slenderness ratio, (iv) provides that the cutting speed v satisfy the relationship v ≧ c/f, where c is a built-up edge threshold value, and (v) constrains the feed to be within a prescribed distance from the currently used feed value.

Inventors: HABOUSH ROGER KENT, WU CHARLES LAISAU, HABOUSH, ROGER KENT, WU, CHARLES LAISAU
Applicants: FORD FRANCE, FORD MOTOR CO, FORD WERKE AG, FORD FRANCE S. A., FORD MOTOR COMPANY LIMITED, FORD-WERKE AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT
Application year: 1989
Main classification: G05B19
IPC codes: G05B19