A METHOD OF AND A DEVICE FOR DIGITAL SIGNAL CODING BY VECTOR QUANTIZATION

Abstract: The method of and the device for digital signal coding by vector quantization exploit representation of signal portions in a one-dimensional space for vector codebook generation and for coding for transmission and/or storage purposes.

Description: The present invention concerns a method of and a device for digital signal coding by vector quantization. Preferably, but not exclusively, the method and the device are used in image signal transmission and/or storage systems, for redundancy reduction purposes. For redundancy reduction, it is known from IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATON THEORY, vol. IT-15, no 6, November 1969, pages 658-664; T. BIALLY: "Space-Filling Curves: Their Generation and Their Application to Bandwidth Reduction", to present the data of points in a n-dimensional space by a single number belonging to a one-dimensional space, using a space filling curve. The conversion of the n-dimensional coordinates into the one-dimensional coordinate may be termed mapping. After the mapping the representative value of a sample in the one-dimensional space is used as sample coded value, and then the inverse mapping may be made to recover the signal in the n-dimensional space. A quantization of the values obtained by the mapping is not provided for. The redundancy reduction is not complete and the inverse mapping is a complex procedure, while on the other hand also vector quantization requires complex algorithms. Vector quantization is a type of quantization where a set of samples conveniently extracted from the signal to be coded is taken into account, instead of a single sample. E.g., in case of image signals, the matrix formed by the samples obtained from the signal by orthogonal sampling is scanned by rows and samples extracted from a number of rows successive in time (e.g. two or four samples for each of two successive rows, or four samples for each of four successive rows) are quantized together. Blocks of 2x2, 2x4 or 4x4 samples, respectively, are thus obtained. Considering, e.g. the 2x4 case, if the samples are represented by 8 bits (corresponding to 256 quantization levels per sample), as stated in CCIR recommendation 601, the number of possible configurations is 256⁸, which ought to be represented by 64 bits. Through vector quantization techniques the number of possible configurations is reduced and becomes variable, typically within 1024 and 128; if the configurations are equiprobable, just 10 and 7 bits are required for their representation. Vector quantization is a potentially better algorithm than the others, since it does not only permit considerable redundancy reduction, but it also allows exploitation of statistical dependance among the variables to be coded (in this case the image points) and not only of correlation; yet its implementation gives rise to two problems. The first problem concerns codebook generation, i.e. the identification, once defined a particular distortion minimization criterion, of the most probable values of the set of variables, namely identification of the regions of an n-dimensional space, where higher value density exists: in this particular case the 1024 or 128 configurations (or code vectors) representing the possible 256⁸ quantized signal configurations, are to be obtained. The second problem concerns the identification of the vector to be used for representation of the generic block, taking always into account the distortion minimization criterion. A known solution to codebook generation problem is described by Y. Linde, A. Buzo and R.M. Gray in the paper entitled "An Algorithm for Vector Quantizer Design", IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. Com-28, No.1, January 1980. An iterative algorithm is described which, in the most usual application, computes in a first step the centroid of the set of the vectors relevant to a sequence of training signals. Such centroid is then multiplied by a scalar quantity thus identifying non-optimized representative points of two hypothetical classes of such a set. By use of the said two representative classes this set is partitioned, allotting each of the vectors to either class. As a third step the actual centroid of each of the two classes obtained is calculated. The same operations are repeated for the two new centroids and so on till the desired number of representative vectors is obtained. Once the codebook built up, the actual coding can be effected either by comparison of each vector to be coded with all the representative vectors and consequent choice of the one which minimizes the distortion, or by selective tree techniques. Said known method can be applied whatever distortion criterion is to be satisfied, yet: 1) the codebook generation method is particularly inefficient due to the great number of operations to be performed on the training sequence, and is also rather complicated since the analysis on the set is performed in an n-dimensional space; 2) the coding phase, if the comparison technique is chosen, is very long due to the necessity of making comparisons with the whole codebook, and it does not allow direct identification of the vector representative of the block to be coded; in case of selective tree techniques, the number of comparisons is reduced, but no optimal representation is ensured. In the case in which the adopted distortion criterion is that of minimizing the Euclidean distortion (i.e. the mean square error), the foregoing disadvantages are overcome by the method and device of the invention, which allow codebook generation without resorting to iterative methods and in a less complicated way, since the analysis of the set of variables is effected in a one-dimensional space, and which also allow a direct identification of the vector representative of the block. The limitation inherent in the possibility of applying the invention only to that particular distortion criterion is not particularly severe, since such a criterion is the most generally used in signal processing. According to the invention there is provided a method of coding a digital signal by vector quantization, which signal is subdivided into blocks to be coded in sequence, each block comprising a predetermined number of samples which are coded at the same time, each block being represented by a vector identifying a point in an n-dimensional space [n = number of samples in a block] and having n components whose values represent the values of the individual samples, whereby, for each block to be coded, the coordinates of the point in the n-dimensional space are transformed into the coordinates of a point in a one-dimensional space, according to a mapping providing for a good preservation in the one-dimensional space of the adjacency properties of the n-dimensional space, which method is characterized in that the coordinates obtained in this way are compared with the values of the coordinates of the end points of a plurality of consecutive intervals in said one-dimensional space to determine the interval in which the coordinate falls, each interval being associated with an index forming the coded value of the points falling within that interval, and in that, during decoding, such an index selects a vector out of a previously determined codebook, consisting of the mean value of those vectors that fall in said interval. The invention provides also a device for coding a digital signal by vector quantization, which signal is subdivided into blocks to be coded in sequence, each block comprising a predetermined number of samples which are coded at the same time and being represented by a vector identifying a point in an n-dimensional space [n = number of samples in a block] and having n components whose values represent the values of the individual samples, the device consisting of a coder comprising means subdividing into blocks the signal to be coded and calculating, for each block, the coordinates of a representative point in the n-dimensional space, and a decoder comprising means building up again the block of samples starting from a vector and combining the blocks into a decoded signal, which device is characterized in that said coder comprises in addition: a first logic network which, for each block, calculates the coordinate of a point which, in a one-dimensional space, corresponds to the point representative of the block in the n-dimensional space; a first memory which stores the values of the coordinates of the end points of a plurality of intervals the one-dimensional space is divided into, and an index associated with each interval; a comparison logic network which receives the one-dimensional coordinate of each signal block to be coded, compares such coordinate with those of the end points of said intervals to detect the interval in which the coordinate falls, and reads from said first memory the value of the index of such an interval and supplies said index as a coded signal; and in that the decoder comprises also a second memory, addressed during reading by said indices and storing a codebook consisting of the mean values of those vectors that fall in each interval. By the invention, the values obtained by the mapping are quantized. After the mapping, the point in the one-dimensional space is used to identify the representative value in the n-dimensional space, which value has been determined in the codebook generation step. This operation is a simple scalar quantization and eliminates any need for an inverse mapping. Moreover, the determination of the codebook in a separate step from coding, by using the same mapping as used in the coding step, allows an easy adaption of the codebook itself to the input signal statistic, without need of employing complex algorithms as required by vector quantization. The invention will now be illustrated with reference to the annexed drawings, in which: Figs. 1-4 are diagrams depicting codebook generation by the method of the invention; Fig. 5 is a block diagram of the device according to the invention; Figs. 6-7 are flow charts of codebook generation and coding operations; Fig. 8 is a diagram of a practical embodiment of the device of Fig.5. Codebook generation is disclosed first, assuming such generation occurs starting from a training image sequence. Codebook generation takes place in a plurality of steps: first a mapping from the n-dimensional space to a one-dimensional space is calculated, and a histogram of the distribution of the representative points in such a one-dimensional space is determined; next a quantization law in such a one-dimensional space is determined, which law minimizes mean square error; finally the actual codebook is calculated. For the histogram determination, a sequence of training images I1, I2...In is submitted to orthogonal sampling in order to obtain a sample matrix, and samples extracted from a certain number of successive rows are quantized together. More particularly s samples of each out of r successive rows are quantized together, thus obtaining a block of n = r.s samples. By way of example, whenever necessary, reference will be made to blocks of 4 samples per row and to 4 rows successive in time, so that a 16-dimensional space is considered. Said sampling is performed by a device STB, which, for each block, calculates the values of the image elements forming the block and organizes such values into sequential form, according to a predetermined law. A point, and hence a vector, in such an n-dimensional space is associated with such a block. Assuming now for simplicity sake that the value of each image element is the only luminance value and that such a value is coded by 8 bits, each coordinate of said point in the n-dimensional space can have value 0...255. It is also to be noted that the values utilized can be either the actual values or values wherefrom there has been subtracted a mean luminance value of the block itself, coded in any known way, e.g. in PCM by 4 bits. A mapping from the n-dimensional space to a one-dimensional space is performed (block MH) for the vector built up by STB for each block. This mapping must present ease of computation, and hence of circuit implementation, and a good preservation of adjacency properties, i.e. it must be such that points which are near one another in a region of the n-dimensional space remain such in the one-dimensional space. This property is essential because mapping from n to one dimensions might give rise to a random dispersion of the points of a same region all over the one-dimensional space, making coding inefficient. These requirements are satisfied by the so-called "space filling curves", known also as Peano's curves. Among these curves, Hilbert's curve has been chosen which, being on a binary base, is well-suited to be implemented by electronic circuits operating in a binary logic. By associating each point of the n-dimensional space with a curve point, the latter can be identified by a single coordinate, representing the distance from the curve origin. The mapping consists then in determining, for each point of the n-dimensional space, the value of the coordinate of the corresponding point on the curve, which is obtained by suitable permutation operations on the individual bits of the words representing the coordinates of the point in the n-dimensional space. Advantageously, the mapping performed for the passage from n to 1 dimensions is an inverse mapping of that described by A.R. Butz in the paper entitled "Alternative algorithm for Hilbert's space filling curve", IEEE Transactions on Computers, Vol. C-20, 1971, pages 424-426, disclosing the mapping from one to n dimensions. The step subsequent to the mapping is the generation of a histogram of the coordinates of the points on the Hilbert's curve. If m is the number of bits coding each coordinate in an n-dimensional space, each value of the curvilinear coordinate would be represented by m.n bits, and histogram generation would require the use of a 2 m.n - position memory. Considering that typical values for m and n are those previously stated (8 bits, 16 dimensions) it is evident that the size required for such a memory (2¹²⁸ positions) cannot be utilized in practice and hence the number of values the curvilinear coordinate can assume should be reduced. For this reduction, denoted by block LIM, a uniform quantization is performed, i.e. the Hilbert's curve is split into equal-length intervals. If L is the number of intervals to be used for the coding, quantization performed in LIM results e.g. in a splitting of the curve into K = 10.L intervals. For instance, with the values stated above for n and m, L can be 1024 and K can be about 10,000; the histogram memory can have 2¹³ - 2¹⁴ positions. Said uniform quantization can be performed through a simple truncation of the words supplied by MH, i. e. by keeping only the most significant bits of such words (symbol indicates the upper integer of the quantity contained inside it). A more efficient method may be calculating maximum value H M of the coordinates supplied by MH and normalizing value Hi of the generic coordinate by relation where K is the histogram dimension. If this method is chosen, during the mapping from n to 1 dimensions the values obtained ought to be stored to prevent repetitions of the operations described. After information reduction within acceptable values, the actual histogram (block HIST) is generated; to this aim the normalized or limited value relevant to each image block increments by a unit the contents of the histogram creating memory, at the address corresponding to the value itself. Said histogram will consist of a series of peaks separated by zones corresponding to quantization intervals where no or very few points fall: such peaks correspond to dominant configurations in the training image and their number indicates a minimum possible number of coding levels for the images. The second step is now to be performed: the histogram is quantized according to the law which minimizes the mean square error (block QG). Said quantization corresponds to finding the abscissae bounding the various peaks and, if the number of peaks is not equal to the desired interval number, to partitioning the peaks giving origin to the highest mean square error (if the peak number is less than the interval number) or to regrouping the peaks with the lowest mean square error, in the opposite case, until the desired interval number of intervals is obtained. The operation effected in QG results in storing the end points of the quantization intervals (block QL) and the values representative of the intervals. The latter values are not utilized, as will be explained later. Various algorithms can be applied to obtain such values: examples are the direct resolution of the system of non-linear equations defining error minimization conditions, as described by J.Max in the paper entitled "Quantizing for minimum distortion", IRE Transactions on Information Theory, Vol.IT-9, March 1960, pages 7-12, or the iterative computation of the centroids of successive partitions obtained starting from an arbitrary partition. The inverse mapping of the one applied in MH could be applied to the values of the points representative of the intervals to obtain the codebook from the stored values. However, taking into account that only a portion of the word representing the curvilinear coordinate is available, and not the whole word, such operation can result inaccurate. Preferably therefore codebook vectors are directly computed by an averaging operation solely requiring the knowledge of the interval end points; that is why the storage in QL of the points representing the single intervals is unnecessary. For said direct computation (third step), the values of the coordinates of the individual blocks of the training images, supplied by LIM, are compared (block Qi) with the values of the coordinates of the end points of the various intervals obtained by histogram quantization in QG; these values are read in QL. In this way the interval wherein a given image block falls is detected. The interval is indicated by its serial number or index i. Using such an index and the corresponding n-component vector outgoing from STB, there are built up (block LUT) a matrix with as many rows as are the vectors forming the codebook and as many columns as are the components of the vectors outgoing from STB, and a vector with as many components as the matrix rows are. The matrix and vector contents are reset to 0 at the beginning of codebook generation operations. For each vector outgoing from STB, when Qi supplies LUT with number i of the interval in which the vector image determined by MH and LIM falls, the values of the vector components are added to the contents of row i of the matrix, while the content of position i of the vector is incremented by a unit. Once exhausted training image blocks, the content of each matrix row is divided by the content of the corresponding vector position, thus obtaining the mean values of the vectors whose one-dimensional images fall in each quantization interval. Said computed mean values form the codebook which is then transferred in whatever suitable way to a memory of the decoder (CBR); e.g. if the coding system is part of an image transmission system, the codebook can be transferred to CBR using the system transmission line. Once the codebook is obtained and transferred into the decoder, it is possible to proceed with the coding of any image, using the mapping from an n-dimensional to a one-dimensional space by the Hilbert's curve: the coding consists in determining index i of the interval in which the one-dimensional coordinate of the block falls, such an index forming the coded signal to be transmitted or stored. During decoding, value i will act as an address to read the corresponding vector in the codebook. The coder-decoder diagram is shown in Fig. 5, where the same symbols as in the previous Figures are used. Blocks STB,MH,LIM, Qi,QL form coder COD; the decoder DEC consists of block CBR and of a further block BTS which will be described hereinafter. In this diagram, a device STB splits into blocks and reorganizes the samples of an image in IC which is to be coded. A first logic network MH computes for each block the coordinate value on Hilbert's curve, and supplies the value to a circuit LIM executing the operations described for the homonymous block of Fig.1. A comparison logic network Qi receives the values supplied by LIM and compares them with the end points of quantization intervals stored in a first memory QL, determining index i corresponding to current image block. Still considering the case of an image transmission system, said index i is transmitted to a second memory CBR where it causes the reading of the vector contained in the i-th row. The vector is supplied to a device BTS, carrying out on said vector the inverse operations to STB and supplying a reconstructed image block ID. It is to be noted that if STB had subtracted the mean value of the block from the actual value of the image samples, STB is to supply the decoder, and more particularly CBR, with the relevant information, as schematized by the connection between STB and CBR. What stated for luminance coding can also apply to chrominance component coding, e.g. under U and V form. Codebook generation and coding operations, just described, are also summarized in the flow charts of Figures 6, 7; these flow charts require no further explanations. It is to be noted that a coding based on vector quantization is seriously affected by source non-stationariness: experimental tests have in fact demonstrated that coder performance is highly different according to whether the vectors to be coded belonged or not to the training sequence. To overcome this disadvantage the operations performed to obtain quantization law and codebook (HIST,QG,LUT) and to transfer the latter to the decoder ought to be carried out also during the actual coding phase, and not only during the training phase. In other words, the coder is to be rendered adaptative and is to contain also blocks HIST, QG and LUT, which will be enabled only during the codebook computation steps. To render the coder adaptative various solutions are possible according to the nature of the signal to be coded. E.g., if individual images are to be coded, statistical properties can be assumed to vary from image to image and hence each image ought to be associated with its codebook. On the contrary, if an image sequence is to be coded, the codebook can be updated at fixed time periods or yet it can be continuously calculated and the updating can be carried out in the decoder when the differences with respect to the previous one become significant. Fig. 8 shows a preferred practical embodiment of the device of the invention, which makes use of a microcomputer indicated on the whole by CPU, which carries out the operations of the devices of blocks DEC, COD in Fig. 5. On said Figure, an image signal source VS of any known type, e.g. a television or a flying spot camera, supplies analog video signals to an input interface IIV, basically consisting of an analog-to digital converter and of devices selecting, in the signal flow, only the actual information signals. Source VS and input interface IIV are driven by CPU through a control interface IC controlling the movements of the image pick-up and/or analysis devices in VS and supplying timings necessary to image transfer to IIV, conversion into digital form, etc. Digital information signals are stored in a video frame memory SU in a way depending on the image kind and the components used; said memory is not part of the invention and furter details are unnecessary. Memory SU can be read or written at the addresses supplied by CPU, and CPU will have to choose every time the block to be coded; SU is also connected to an output interface IUV, this too controlled by IC, carrying out the functions opposite to those of IIV and allowing the display of coded or decoded images on a monitor MO. CPU is associated with a mass memory or data base BD, wherein the coded images and the coding codebook(s) are stored. An interface IL connects CPU to a transmission line, for image transfer to an analogous remote device. A keyboard TA allow the selection of various CPU operating modes; more particularly the following operations will be of interest for coding: codebook computation; image coding; codebook transmission; image transmission; reading/writing of the codebook in the data base; reading/writing of an image in the data base. The two latter operations are generally required in case of application of the invention to an image storage system. Further operations will e.g. concern image monitoring modalities as well as the modalities by which the service to be offered to customers is carried out. It is clear that a plurality of functions ought to be combined together, according to the requirements of the demanded service. For instance, when applying the invention to a transmission system, at least image coding and transmission will be required, supposing that a standard codebook is used, which requires no updating during the coding. The Figure shows also the conventional printer ST allowing an operator to be supplied with information on the device operation or the like. It is clear that, instead of creating a histogram of the coordinates in the one-dimensional space, a list of the coordinate values can be created and the accumulation zones can be detected; code vectors are identified on the basis of said zones, as before. This operation is slower than histogram creation, yet it avoids the inconvenience, inherent in the latter owing to the truncation in LIM, of obtaining a reduced number of very high peaks, what gives rise to code vectors scarcely satisfactory in quantity and quality. As a further variant, after the creation of the ordered list of the coordinates of the points of the training image set in the one-dimensional space, these points are subdivided into L groups (L being the number of intervals to be used for the coding); the coordinates of the end points of each interval will be the mean values of the coordinates of the last (first) point of a group and of the first (last) point of the subsequent (preceding) group.

Claims: A method of coding a digital signal by vector quantization, which signal is subdivided into blocks to be coded in sequence, each block comprising a predetermined number of samples which are coded at the same time, each block being represented by a vector identifying a point in an n-dimensional space [n = number of samples in a block] and having n components whose values represent the values of the individual samples, whereby, for each block to be coded, the coordinates of the point in the n-dimensional space are transformed into the coordinates of a point in a one-dimensional space, according to a mapping providing for a good preservation in the one-dimensional space of the adjacency properties of the n-dimensional space, characterized in that the coordinates obtained in this way are compared with the values of the coordinates of the end points of a plurality of consecutive intervals in said one-dimensional space to determine the interval in which the coordinate falls, each interval being associated with an index forming the coded value of the points falling within that interval, and in that, during decoding, such an index selects a vector out of a previously determined codebook, consisting of the mean value of those vectors that fall in said interval. A method according to claim 1, characterized in that said mapping of the n-dimensional space into a one-dimensional space is performed by using a space filling curve, in particular the Hilbert's curve, such a curve forming the one-dimensional space. A method according to claims 1 or 2, characterized in that the signals to be coded are image signals and the values of the point coordinates are luminance values, actual or normalized with respect to a block mean value, and chrominance component values. A method according to any of claims 1 to 3, characterized in that, to determine such a codebook, digital signals belonging to a training sequence are split into blocks of n samples; for each block the coordinates of the representative point in the n-dimensional space are transformed into the coordinates of a point in a one-dimensional space, according to said mapping preserving the adjacency properties; the coordinates of the points in the one-dimensional space are ordered; the ordered coordinate set is quantized according to a law which minimizes the mean square error so as to determine said interval plurality; the values of the coordinates of the end points of said intervals are memorized; said mean values of the coordinates of those points in the n-dimensional space whose mapping falls in each interval are calculated. A method according to claim 4, characterized in that said ordering of the coordinates in the one-dimensional space is obtained by the creation of an histogram of the coordinates, upon limitation of the number of values a coordinate can take up. A method according to claim 5, characterized in that said limitation is effected by a truncation of the words representing the coordinates. A method according to claim 5, characterized in that said limitation is performed by normalizing the value of the generic coordinate with respect to the maximum value a coordinate can take up, according to relation where H andi is the normalized value of the generic coordinate Hi, H M is the maximum value, K is the number of intervals to be used for the histogram. A method according to claim 4, characterized in that said ordering is performed by creating a list of the coordinate values and identifying the accumulation points of said coordinates. A method according to claim 4, characterized in that said ordering is performed by creating a list of the coordinate values and by distributing the points extracted from the training sequence into a number of groups equal to said predetermined number of intervals in such a way that all intervals contain the same number of points, the coordinates of the end points of an interval being the mean values of the coordinates of the last/first point of a group and of the first/last point of the subsequent/preceding group. A method according to any of claims 4 to 9, characterized in that the codebook is periodically updated during the coding. A method according to any of claims, 4 to 9, characterized in that the codebook is calculated at each coding operation. A device for coding a digital signal by vector quantization, which signal is subdivided into blocks to be coded in sequence, each block comprising a predetermined number of samples which are coded at the same time and being represented by a vector identifying a point in an n-dimensional space [n = number of samples in a block] and having n components whose values represent the values of the individual samples, the device consisting of a coder (COD) comprising means (STB) subdividing into blocks the signal to be coded and calculating, for each block, the coordinates of a representative point in the n-dimensional space, and a decoder (DEC) comprising means (BTS) building up again the block of samples starting from a vector and combining the blocks into a decoded signal, characterized in that said coder (COD) comprises in addition: a first logic network (MH) which, for each block, calculates the coordinate of a point which, in a one-dimensional space, corresponds to the point representative of the block in the n-dimensional space; a first memory (QL) which stores the values of the coordinates of the end points of a plurality of intervals the one-dimensional space is divided into, and an index associated with each interval; a comparison logic network (Qi) which receives the one-dimensional coordinate of each signal block to be coded, compares such coordinate with those of the end points of said intervals to detect the interval in which the coordinate falls, and reads from said first memory (QL) the value of the index of such an interval and supplies said index as a coded signal; and in that the decoder (DEC) comprises also a second memory (CBR), addressed during reading by said indices and storing a codebook consisting of the mean values of those vectors that fall in each interval. A device according to claim 12, characterized in that said coder (COD) comprises means for computing and/or updating the codebook, consisting of: means (LIM,HIST) for ordering the values of the one-dimensional coordinates supplied by said first logic network (MH); a device (QG) for quantizing the ordered coordinate set, which device determines and supplies to said first memory (QL) the values of the end points of said intervals of the one-dimensional space; a mean value computing device (LTU) which, for each signal block, receives the values of the coordinates of the point representing such a block in the n-dimensional space from the means (STB) for sub-dividing the signal into blocks, and receives said indices from said comparison logic (Qi), and calculates for each interval the mean value of the coordinates of those points in the n-dimensional space whose mapping in the one-dimensional space falls in said interval, such mean values being transferred into the memory (CBR) of the decoder, when codebook generation or updating is required. A device according to claim 13, characterized in that the means for ordering the coordinate values comprise a circuit (LIM) limiting the number of values the coordinates can take up, and a third memory (HIST) presenting a number of positions equal to the limited number of values and storing, in each position, the number of blocks having that determined coordinate value. A device according to any of claims 12 to 14, characterized in that the coder and the decoder are implemented by a microprocessor (CPU) associated with a mass memory (BD) for storing the codebook and/or the coded signals, the microprocessor being associated with a keyboard allowing selection of one or of a plurality of different operation modes, more particularly: codebook generation; coding of a signal; reading-writing in the mass memory of the codebook and/or of the coded signal; transmission of the codebook and/or of the coded signal to a remote device.

Inventors: CONTE, GARIBALDI, GUGLIELMO, MARIO, OLIVERI, FABRIZIO
Applicants: CSELT CENTRO STUDI E LABORATORI TELECOMUNICAZIONI S.P.A.
Application year: 1987
Main classification: H03M7
IPC codes: H04N7, H03M7, H04B14, G06T9