FREQUENCY MODULATED LASER RADAR

Abstract: An apparatus and a method for measuring the distance to an arbitrary target (52) includes a radiation source (62) produc­ ing a beam of coherent radiation the frequency of which is con­ tinuously varied. The beam is divided into a ranging beam and a reference beam. The ranging beam is coupled to a ranging in­ terferometer (70), which directs a portion of the ranging beam at the target (52). The ranging interferometer (70) produces a first signal indicative of the phase difference between a portion of the ranging beam directed at and scattered by the target and another portion of the ranging beam which has traveled over a path of fixed length. The reference beam is coupled to a refer­ ence interferometer (66). A portion of the reference beam is directed by the reference interferometer (66) along a reference path of a predetermined length X ref , and the phase difference between the portion of the reference beam directed along the reference path and another portion of the reference beam which has travelled over a path of a fixed length is measured. The phase difference between the two portions of the refer­ ence beam and the phase difference between the two portions of the ranging beam are processed to determine the distance of the target from the ranging interferometer (70). The number of fringes resulting from the wave interference produced in the ranging interferometer (70) and the number of fringes in the wave inferference pattern produced by the reference inter­ ferometer (66) are counted and used, together with the known

Description: The invention is related to optical devices for measuring distance. In particular, the invention is related to radar devices utilizing a frequency modulated beam of coherent radiation for measuring the distance to an arbitrary target and is especially related to such devices used for precision gauging applications. Radar determines the distance to an object by directing electromagnetic energy at the object and detecting the presence and character of the energy reflected by the object. The radar principle has been applied from frequencies of a few megahertz to the ultraviolet (laser radar). Since good angular resolution and range resolution are obtainable with radars utilizing coherent radiation, laser radars are useful for target information - gathering applications such as ranging and imaging. One common use of laser distance measuring devices is in the field of non-contact precision gauging. Devices utilizing a beam of coherent radiation to determine the contour of a target are known. For instance, U.S. Patent Nos. 3,589,815 and 3,692,414 to Hosterman (issued June 29, 1971 and September 19, 1972, respectively) disclose a non-contacting measuring probe which directs a beam of coherent radiation onto the surface of an arbitrary object. The focal property of a lens is used to determine the distance of the object from the lens. Somewhat similar schemes are disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 3,909,131 to Waters (issued September 30, 1975), U.S. Patent No. 3,986,774 to Lowrey, Jr. et al (issued October 19, 1976), U.S. Patent No. 4,299,291 to Waters et al (issued November 10, 1981) and U.S. Patent No. 4,209,253 to Hughes (issued June 24, 1980). These schemes all have the disadvantage that separate transmitters and receivers must be used, and that the accuracy of the obtained measurements depends upon the mechanical movement of the reflector or a detector. Interferometry, of course, provides highly accurate measurements of distances from a coherent radiation source to a cooperative reflector. Optical interferometers are well known as tools for metrology and spectroscopy. Measurements of very small distances and thicknesses to a high degree of accuracy may be obtained. See, for example, U.S. Patent No. 4,290,697 to McLandrich (issued September 22, 1981), U.S. Patent No. 4,325,636 to Schiffner (issued April 20, 1982), and U.S. Patent No. 4,329,056 to Lachombat et al (issued May 11, 1982), all of which disclose interferometer devices utilizing an optical path defined by a fiber optic coil. However, interferometry has not been applied to gauging of distances to an arbitrary object (such as a diffuse scattering surface) because the signal-to-noise ratio produced is so low as to pose a major obstacle. See, e.g., U.S. Patent No. 3,909,131 to Waters, col. 1, lines 29-35. Nussmeier has developed a self-calibrating interferometer apparatus and method which permits distance measurements to a retro-reflector. This interferometer is disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 4,355,899 and U.S. Patent No. 4,355,900 (both issued October 26, 1982), INTERFEROMETRIC TECHNIQUE FOR MEASURING DISTANCE AT OPTICAL FREQUENCIES (Abstract of Naval Technology from the Air Force Systems Command dated March 28, 1977) and SELF-CALIBRATING INTERFEROMETER FOR OPTICAL PHASE MEASUREMENT (Abstract of New Technology from the Air Force Systems Command, dated March 10, 1977). Nussmeier's invention permits calculation of an unknown multi-wavelength distance by measuring the differential phase shift between two paths (a known reference path and the unknown path the distance of which is to be measured) at each of several wavelengths. The ambiguity inherent in the measurement of the single wavelength is resolved by combination of the multi-wavelength measurements. A single phase shifter is incorporated within the interferometer. An electromagnetic beam of radiation (preferably a laser beam) is expanded to fill a beam splitter, which divides the beam into a pair of beams (a local beam and a remote beam). The local beam illuminates a reflecting element mounted on the phase shifter. The reflecting element divides the local beam into two portions separated by a slight angle. These two portions of the local beam are reflected back through the beam splitter to a pair of detectors, one for each of the spatially separated portions of the local beam. The remote beam is also split into two portions by & reference flat which intercepts the remote beam. The reference flat is optically aligned with the remote beam so as to reflect a portion of the remote beam back to the beam splitter (and from there to the first of the detectors). The portion of the local beam reflected from the phase shifter and the portion of the remote beam reflected from the reference flat form interference fringes on the first detector, thereby causing intensity variations as a function of the differential path length. The remaining portion of the remote beam passes by the reference flat and illuminates the retro-reflector located on the target (which is positioned an unknown distance away from the interferometer). The retro-reflector reflects that portion of the remote beam impinging thereupon back to the beam splitter. The beam splitter directs the reflected remote beam to the second detector, where it interferes with the portion of the local beam impinging upon the second detector and likewise creates interference fringes and associated intensity variations. The transfer function measured from the phase shifter to either detector is sinusoidal with a full cycle for each half-wavelength of phase shifter travel. The phase difference between the two sinusoidal detector outputs represents the optical phase difference between the reference and signal portions (paths) of the remote beam of the interferometer. In other words, the interferometer in accordance with Nussmeier's invention can be characterized as two Michelson interferometers, one beam length of each of which is controlled by the common phase shifter. The phase shifter disclosed comprises a reflecting element mounted on a conventional translational device (such as piezoelectric element). The invention provides apparatus for measuring the distance to an arbitrary target, the apparatus comprising: radiation source means for producing a beam of coherent radiation; beam splitting and interferometer means, optically coupled to the radiation source means, for directing a first ranging beam portion of the radiation along a path towards the target and for producing a first wave interference pattern between a second ranging beam portion of the radiation travelling over a first path and the first ranging beam portion reflected from the target, and for directing a first reference beam portion of the radiation along a reference path of known length and for producing a second wave interference pattern between a second reference beam portion of the radiation travelling over a second path and the first reference beam portion travelling over the reference path; and processing means, responsive to the first and second wave interference paterns, for determining the length of the path between the apparatus and the target; characterised in that: the radiation source means includes frequency modulating means for modulating the frequency of said radiation; and in that the beam splitting and interferometer means comprises first beam splitting means, optically coupled to the radiation source means, for dividing the beam of radiation into a ranging beam and a reference beam; ranging interferometer means, optically coupled to the first beam splitting means, for directing the first ranging beam portion along a path towards the target and for producing the first wave interference pattern; and reference interferometer means, optically coupled to the first beam splitting means, for directing the first reference beam portion along the reference path and for producing the second wave interference pattern. The invention also provides a method for measuring the distance to an arbitrary target, comprising the steps of: (1) producing a beam of coherent radiation; (2) directing a first ranging beam portion of the radiation along a path towards the target; (3) producing a first wave interference pattern between the first ranging beam portion scattered by said target and a second ranging beam portion travelling over another path; (4) directing a first reference bean portion of the radiation along a reference path of a first, predetermined known length. (5) producing a second wave interference pattern between the first reference beam portion travelling over the reference path and a second reference beam portion travelling over another path; and (6) processing the first and second wave interference patterns to determine the distance to said target; characterized by modulating the frequency of the radiation; by dividing the beam of radiation into a ranging beam and a reference beam; by dividing the ranging beam into the said first and second ranging beam portions; and by dividing the reference beam into the said first and second reference beam portions. The ranging interferometer may include a beam splitter directing a portion of the ranging beam along a first path of the first predetermined distance and directing a portion of the ranging beam along a path comprising the round-trip path to the target and the first path. Likewise, the reference interferometer may comprise a beam splitter directing a portion of a reference beam along a second path of a second predetermined length and directing a portion of the reference beam along a reference path comprising a third predetermined length and the second path. The reference path may comprise an optical fiber. The ranging interferometer may focus the ranging beam onto the target. The ranging interferometer may also include a phase difference determining device optically coupled to the ranging interferometer beam splitter which produces a signal indicative of the phase difference between the first portion of the ranging beam after traveling over the first path and the portion of the ranging beam after traveling over the target path. Likewise, the reference interferometer may include a phase difference determining device optically coupled to the reference interferometer beam splitter which produces a signal indicative of the phase difference between the portion of the reference beam after traveling over the second path and the portion of the reference beam after traveling over the reference path. The frequency of the radiation may be swept between a first and a second frequency. Such sweeps may be periodically performed (as in a sawtooth waveform), and may be accomplished mechanically or electrically. The ranging interferometer phase difference determining device may, for each sweep of the frequency of the radiation source, count the number of fringes Nr resulting from the wave interference between the portion of the ranging beam after traveling over the first path and the portion of the ranging beam after travelling over the target path. The reference interferometer phase difference determining device may, for each sweep of the frequency of the radiation source, count the number of fringes Nref resulting from the wave interference between the portion of the reference beam after travelling over the second path and the portion of the reference beam after travelling over the reference path. A processing device may determine the distance of the target from the ranging interferometer by dividing Nr by Nref and multiplying the quotient by the third predetermined length (the length of the reference path). The apparatus and method according to the invention may include provision for determining the surface roughness of the surface of a target, in which method a continuous beam of coherent radiation is directed on the surface, and the angle of incidence of the beam on the surface is varied. The intensity of the radiation scattered by the surface is measured for a plurality of angles of incidence. These measured intensities are processed to produce indicia of surface roughness. The measuring step may include a step of characterizing modulations in the intensity of said scattered radiation, said modulations produced by interference between portions of said radiation scattered by different points on said surface. Measured intensities may be stored for a plurality of angles of incidence. The stored measured intensities may then be compared with stored experimentally-obtained data comprising intensities of scattered radiation as a function of angle of incidence for a plurality of predetermined surfaces in order to characterize the roughness of the measured surface. The angle of incidence may be varied by changing the orientation of said surface and/or changing the direction of the beam. Surface roughness in accordance may also be ascertained by characterizing modulations in the intensity of the scattered radiation produced by interference between portions of the radiation reflected by different points on the target. The roughness of a surface may also be determined by the steps of: directing a beam of coherent radiation onto the surface; detecting the intensity of the radiation scattered by the surface; characterizing modulations in the intensity of the scattered radiation, the modulations being produced by interference between portions of the radiation scattered by different points on said surface; and deriving, from the characterization of the modulations, indicia for the roughness of said surface. The intensity of the modulations may be characterized according to peak-to-peak amplitude and angular displacement, and the roughness indicia may be derived by storing experimentally-obtained data comprising the peak-to-peak amplitudes and angular displacements of modulations in coherent radiation scattered by a plurality of different predetermined surfaces, the said modulations for each of the said different surfaces having been produced by interference between different portions of the scattered radiation; and comparing the measured peak-to-peak amplitude and angular displacement data with the said stored peak-to-peak amplitude and angular displacement data in order to approximate the roughness of the surface by the roughness of one of the said predetermined surfaces. The peak-to-peak amplitudes and angular displacements of the modulations may be determined by changing the frequency of the radiation and/or the angle of incidence of the radiation and/or by scanning the beam over the surface. The peak-to-peak amplitudes and angular displacements of the surface may be compared with stored experimentally-obtained data for a plurality of different predetermined surfaces in order to characterize the surface. Apparatus according to the invention may also include apparatus for determining the roughness of a surface, comprising: radiating means for directing a continuous beam of coherent radiation onto the surface; means for varying the angle of incidence of the beam on the surface; means for detecting the intensity of the radiation scattered by the surface for a plurality of different angles of incidence; and means for processing the detected intensities to produce indicia of surface roughness. The processing means may includes means for storing experimentally-obtained data comprising sets of a plurality of intensities of scattered coherent radiation as a function of angle of incidence for a plurality of different predetermined surfaces; and means for comparing the detected intensities for a plurality of angles of incidence with the said stored sets in order to approximate the roughness of the said surface by the roughness of one of the predetermined surfaces. The detecting means may include means for characterizing modulations produced in the scattered radiation by interference between radiation scattered by different points on the said surface; and the processing means may then include means for deriving, from the said characterization of the modulations, indicia of the roughness of the said surface. Apparatus according to the invention may further include apparatus for determining the roughness of a surface, comprising: radiating means for directing a continuous beam of coherent radiation onto the said surface; detecting means for detecting the intensity of the radiation scattered by the said surface; characterizing means, responsive to the detected intensity, for characterizing modulations in produced the scattered radiation by interference between radiation scattered by different points on the said surface; and means for deriving, from the characterization of the modulations, indicia of the roughness of the said surface. The means for characterizing advantageously includes: means for measuring the peak-to-peak amplitude of the modulations; and means for measuring the angular displacement of the modulations; and the deriving means then advantageously includes: means for storing experimentally-obtained data comprising the peak-to-peak amplitudes and angular displacements of modulations produced in radiation scattered by each of a plurality of different predetermined surfaces by interference between radiation scattered by different points on that surface; and means for comparing the said measured peak-to-peak amplitude and angular displacement data a with the stored-peak-to-peak amplitude and angular displacement data in order to approximate the roughness of the said surface by the roughness of one of the predetermined surfaces. The means for characterizing may further include means for scanning the beam over the said surface. The means for varying the angle of incidence may comprise means for changing the position of the radiating means or means for changing the position of the said surface. Nussmeier's interferometer (discussed previously) avoids range ambiguity by using two closely spaced laser frequencies. Equation (13) shown at column 4, line 59 of U.S. Patent No. 4,355,899 relates the range L u to the difference between the two laser frequencies as follows: (where c is the velocity of light). For a typical case where L u is approximately equal to one meter, f₁-f₂ must thus be made approximately equal to 150 megahertz. The range precision of Nussmeier's invention depends upon the optical phase null which can be achieved: Note that typically would be very large and would include thousands of fringes of light. To reduce the ambiguity ΔL u to one interference fringe (i.e. ΔL u ≦ λ / 2), δ must be made less than or equal to 5 x 10⁻⁶ radians. This figure probably can not be achieved in practice. The uncertainty in range may also be written in terms of the signal-to-noise ratio as: For Nussmeier's invention to achieve a small range uncertainty, sources which are extremely stable in frequency (on the order of one part in 10¹⁰) must be used, and a cooperative reflector must be located on the target to reflect back radiation of sufficient intensity. In accordance with the present invention, the range uncertainty is written as: (where Δf is the frequency deviation of the sweep of the Fm laser source). In accordance with the present invention, very small range uncertainties are obtained in the determination of the range to an arbitrary target while only practically obtainable signal-to-noise ratio figures are necessary. Additionally, the present invention requires only that the sweep in frequency of the FM laser source be continuous; neither the absolute frequency nor the stability of the source, nor the actual amount of frequency deviation is critical to accuracy. The radar device and method in accordance with the present invention measures absolute distance rather than changes in distance (unlike conventional interferometers). A system in accordance with the present invention can perform absolute distance measurements off of an arbitrary surface (including a diffuse surface). The present invention is a true radar rather than merely an interferometer in that the target need not be a cooperative reflector. An accuracy approaching the wavelength of laser light (33 millionths of an inch) is obtainable. Recent improvements in the quality of injection laser diodes provide the coherence length and wavelength tuning range needed. Small size of the invention (made possible by high technology integrated optical assemblies) make possible the development of low cost, precise measuring sensors in accordance with the present invention which are orders of magnitude more accurate and more reliable and their conventional counterparts. Processing of the measuring results is relatively simple and the degree of resolution is vastly improved over conventional devices because the number of fringes are counted (thus permitting the use of digital signal processing circuits). Moreover, the present invention is "self-calibrating" in that the beam path may be momentarily interrupted without affecting the measurement. The potential applications of the present invention are practically limitless. Anticipated immediate large volume applications include non-contact precision gauging, mapping of contoured surfaces, large structure metering, surface quality measurement, secondary standard calibration, inspection of finished parts, positioning of robot arms, and proximity sensors in the fingertips of robot grippers. Because of the inherent versatility of the present invention, the list of potential applications appears virtually endless. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other features and advantages of the invention can be more easily understood from the following more detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures in which: FIGURE 1 is a schematic block diagram of a conventional radar system; FIGURE 2(A) is a high-level schematic block diagram of a first presently preferred exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIGURE 2(B) is a graphical illustration of the outputs of detectors 72 and 74 of the embodiment shown in FIGURE 2(A) as a function of a sweep df in frequency of laser source 62; FIGURE 3 is a detailed schematic block diagram of the embodiment shown in FIGURE 2(A); FIGURE 4 is a detailed schematic block diagram of a second presently preferred exemplary embodiment of the present invention using Mach-Zehnder interferometers in lieu of the Michelson interferometers shown in FIGURE 3; FIGURE 5 is a schematic block diagram of a third presently preferred embodiment of the present invention using Michelson interferometers implemented in conventional optics; FIGURE 6 is a schematic block diagram of a fourth presently preferred embodiment of the present invention using Mach-Zehnder interferometers implemented with conventional optics; FIGURE 7 is a side elevational view of a bimorph element of a first embodiment of the FM Driver Block and laser source shown in FIGURE 8; FIGURE 8 is a schematic diagram of a first embodiment of the Laser Source and FM Driver Block of the embodiment shown in FIGURE 2(A); FIGURE 9 is a schematic diagram of a second embodiment of the Laser, Source and FM Driver Blocks of the embodiment shown in FIGURE 2(A); FIGURE 10 is a schematic diagram of a third embodiment of the Laser Source and FM Driver Blocks of the embodiment shown in FIGURE 2(A); FIGURE 11 is a graphical illustration of the near field effects associated with a conventional FM radar utilizing an afocal antenna; FIGURE 12 is a graphical illustration of the near field effects associated with the embodiment of the present invention shown in FIGURE 2(A); FIGURE 13 is a graphical illustration of the precision achievable for multiple FM sweeps of the laser source in accordance with the present invention as a function of integration time of each measurement; FIGURE 14 is a graphical illustration of the maximum and minimum range (depth of range) as a function of aperture diameter in accordance with the present invention; FIGURE 15(A) is a schematic illustration of a first method of producing a speckle pattern in accordance with the present invention by scanning the beam across the surface the roughness of which is to be characterized; FIGURE 15(B) is a schematic illustration of a second method in accordance with the present invention for characterizing the roughness of a surface by changing the angle of incidence of a beam striking the surface by tilting the surface; FIGURE 15(C) is a schematic illustration of a third method in accordance with the present invention for producing a speckle pattern by varying the frequency of the beam striking the surface the roughness of which is to be characterized; FIGURE 16 is a schematic illustration of experimental results of surface reflectivity profiles as a function of tilt angle for several different typical surfaces; FIGURE 17 is a graphical illustration of surface roughness parameters; FIGURES 18(A) and 18(B) are graphical illustrations of speckle pattern parameters in accordance with the present invention; and FIGURE 19 is a graphical illustration of a representative speckle pattern in accordance with the present invention for an arbitrary surface. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIGURE 1 is a schematic block diagram of a conventional FM CW radar system 50. The distance R to an arbitrary target 52 is to be measured. FM Source 54 produces a continuous beam of frequency modulated rf radiation which is directed toward target 52. The radiation reflected by target 52 is detected by a detector 56. A counter 58 measures the interference beats (heterodyne frequency) between the transmitted signal and the received signal as the transmitter frequency is frequency modulated with a frequency deviation of delta f (Δf). Distance R may be calculated as (where c is the speed of light, Δf is the frequency deviation, and n is the number of interference beats between the transmitted and the received signals). The accuracy of the measurement of system 50 is dependent upon the frequency deviation Δf of the FM Source, and is given by Of course, at conventional microwave frequencies, Δf may be made relatively large to obtain a desired accuracy. Some of the operating fundamentals of the system shown in FIGURE 1 are adaptable to the present invention, as will be seen shortly. FIGURE 2(A) shows a schematic block diagram of a first presently preferred embodiment of a system 60 in accordance with the present invention. System 60 mainly comprises a laser source 62 and an associated FM ramp generator 64, a beam splitter 65, a reference interferometer 66 and an associated reference arm 68, a ranging interferometer 70, a reference phase difference detector 72, a ranging phase difference detector 74, a counter 76, and a range processor 78. System 60 measures the distance (range) R from ranging interferometer 70 to an arbitrary target 52. Target 52 may be a diffuse surface which reflects and/or scatters (diffusely reflects) light incident to it. Coherent radiation is produced by laser source 62. FM ramp generator 64 frequency modulates the coherent radiation produced by the laser source 62. In the preferred embodiment, ramp generator 64 produces a periodic waveform (such as a sawtooth) which is continuous and increasing (or decreasing) between first and second levels. This periodic waveform is used to sweep the frequency of the radiation produced by laser source 62 between a first and a second frequency (the sweep being continuous and constantly increasing or decreasing between the first and the second frequencies). The coherent radiation produced by laser source 62 is coupled to beam splitter 65, which divides the radiation into a reference beam 80 and a ranging beam 82. Beam splitter 65 may comprise any conventional optical beam splitter, as will be discussed in greater detail shortly. Reference beam 80 is coupled to reference interferometer 66, while ranging beam 82 is coupled to ranging interferometer 70. Reference and ranging interferometer 66 and 70 may comprise conventional interferometers, as will be discussed shortly. As is well known, a conventional interferometer produces a wave interference pattern between light which has traveled along a first path and light which has traveled along a second path. Typically, the first path is of a known, predetermined length while the second path is of an unknown length and includes the first path and a path the length of which is to be determined. By measuring the difference in phase between the light which has traveled along the first path and the light which has traveled along the second path, it is possible to ascertain the difference in path lengths of the first and second paths. As is also well known, however, a single interferometer only resolves the difference in path lengths to within a fraction of the wavelength of the light Δλ, without resolving the number of wavelengths by which these two paths differ. In other words, a single interferometer will measure the same phase difference whether the lengths of the two paths differ by Δλ + λ, Δλ + 2· λ..., Δλ + n·λ (where n is an integer and λ is the wavelength of the light). Additional information must be obtained to resolve this range ambiguity. Various techniques have been proposed in the past to solve this problem. See, e.g. , U.S. Patent No. 4,355,899 to Nussmeier (discussed previously) for one such proposed solution. To eliminate this ambiguity, reference interferometer 66 of the present invention includes a path of fixed length (internal to the interferometer and thus not shown) and a second (reference) path 68. In accordance with the present invention, path 68 is of a known predetermined length (its length being very accurately measured, preferably by calibrating system 60 with a primary standard). Reference interferometer 66 splits reference beam 80 into two portions, and directs one portion along path 68 and another portion along the fixed internal path. In the preferred embodiment, path 68 includes a reflector 84 to reflect the portion of reference beam 80 directed along path 68 back to reference interferometer 66. Reference interferometer 66 produces a wave interference pattern between the portion of the reference beam 80 directed along path 68 and the portion of the reference beam directed along the fixed internal path. As the frequency of the laser source 62 is swept, the wave interference pattern will comprise a plurality of fringes. Reference detector 72 detects the fringes in the wave interference pattern. Ranging beam 82 is likewise directed to ranging interferometer 70, which splits the ranging beam into two beams. The first beam is directed at target 52, which reflects (scatters) some of the beam back toward interferometer 70. The second beam travels along a path of fixed length internal to ranging interferometer 70. The beam reflected (scattered) by target 52 and the beam which has traveled along the path internal to ranging interferometer 70 interfere with one another, producing a fringe pattern. Ranging detector 74 detects the fringes in the wave interference pattern. FIGURE 2(B) shows typical outputs of detectors 72 and 74 for an incremental change df in frequency of the radiation produced by laser source 62 (note that df shown is much smaller than the frequency deviation actually used in the present invention). The respective outputs of reference detector 72 and ranging detector 74 are input to counter 76, which separately counts the number of fringes in the wave interference pattern of the reference and ranging interferometers (66 and 70) for each sweep of frequency deviation Δf of FM driver 64. N ref is the number of fringes in the wave interference pattern of the reference interferometer 66 for the sweep, while N r is the number of fringes in the wave interference pattern of the ranging interferometer 70 for the sweep. FIGURE 2(B) shows, for example, 5 fringe counts output by detector 72 and 6 fringe counts output by detector 74 for a frequency sweep of df. Processor 78 calculates R (range) for each sweep of Δf according to the following equation: Provided that X ref is precisely known, the measurement of R will be highly accurate. As is well known, accurate measurement of the absolute frequency of a beam of light is very difficult. Likewise, the accurate analog measurement of the phase difference between two beams of light is difficult or impossible to achieve because of the very high frequency of light. The present invention requires the measurement of neither the absolute frequency of light nor the analog phase difference between two beams of light. Rather, the present invention measures phase difference only in modulo of 2π (i.e., the number of fringes are counted and phase difference less than one fringe is ignored). In accordance with the present invention, counter 76 and processor 78 may both be digital, resulting in a far simpler and more accurate approach. Though inaccuracy is produced by the failure to resolve phase difference to within less than 2π radians, the effect of this inaccuracy can be reduced so as to be negligible and highly accurate measurements may thus be obtained (as will be explained). Range uncertainty of the system 60 in accordance with the present invention will be discussed in greater detail shortly. FIGURE 4 shows a detailed schematic block diagram of a second presently preferred exemplary embodiment of the present invention. The embodiment shown in FIGURE 4 is implemented using fiber optic technology. Laser source 62 directs a frequency modulated beam of coherent radiation to beam splitter 65 through optical fiber 86. Beam splitter 65 comprises a conventional star coupler, and splits the beam into a reference beam (coupled into optical fiber 88) and a ranging beam (coupled into optical fiber 90). As is well known, conventional star couplers ("star-configured data buses") may be used as passive mixing elements, i.e., the optical powers from the input ports of the star coupler are mixed together and then divided equally among the output ports. Such conventional star couplers may be used to combine signals or to split a signal into parts. The reference beam is coupled to a star coupler 92, which splits the beam into first and second beams. The first beam is coupled through a reference arm 68 comprising a coiled length of optical fiber 94. Optical fiber 94 may be housed in a conventional temperature-controlled oven 96. The function of oven 96 is to maintain the length (X ref ) of optical fiber 94 constant. The second beam derived from the reference beam by star coupler 92 is coupled through an optical fiber 98. The beams traveling through optical fibers 94 and 98 are both coupled to a star coupler 100, which produces wave interference between the two beams. The length of optical fiber 94 should be approximately equal to the range R to be measured for greatest accuracy. When X ref differs from R by a factor of 3, accuracy is still relatively good, although accuracy does decrease appreciably when X ref differs from R by a factor of 10 or more. Star coupler 100 produces two outputs, one on an output port 102 and one on an output port 104. The output produced at output port 102 is of equal amplitude and opposite polarity to the output produced at output port 104 (for instance, output port 102 would produce a light fringe where output port 104 would produce a dark fringe). Output port 102 is coupled to a first reference detector 106 through an optical fiber 108, while output port 104 is coupled to second reference detector 110 through an optical fiber 112. Reference detectors 106 and 100 produce complementary outputs indicative of the number of fringes in the wave interference pattern (see FIGURE 2(B)). The output of detector 106 is applied to one input of a differential operational amplifier 114, while the output of detector 110 is applied to the other input of the operational amplifier. Operational amplifier 114 subtracts the output of detector 106 from the output of detector 110, which, in effect, sums the amplitudes of the desired signals indicating the detected wave interference pattern. However, the effect of laser noise (such as jitter) is substantially decreased by employing this arrangement, since much of the noise present at the outputs of detectors 106 and 110 will be cancelled out by the subtraction process performed by operational amplifier 114 and thus will not be present on the output of the operational amplifier. This technique of using detectors producing complementary outputs and a differential amplifier to reduce effects of noise is described in Biancomano, V., "Special Report on Fiber Optic Components", Electronic Design News, pages 108-110 (March 8, 1984); see also Skolnick, Merrill, Radar Handbook, page 5-9 (McGraw-Hill, 1970). A reference counter 116 counts the number of fringes of the wave interference pattern by counting the number of pulses present at the output of operational amplifier 118 as FM ramp generator 64 sweeps through Δf in frequency. Operational amplifier 114 typically is operated in a saturated mode, so that it will produce a logic 1 output whenever the difference signal increases above a predetermined threshold. Optical fiber 90 (through which travels the ranging beam) is coupled to a star coupler 118 which splits the ranging beam into a first and a second beam. The first beam is coupled to a star coupler 120 by an optical fiber 122 of a predetermined fixed length. The second beam is coupled to a conventional collimator 124 through an optical fiber 126. Collimator 124 focuses the second beam onto target 52. Obviously, since R is not predetermined, the focal point of collimator 124 will not be exactly located at target 52. Depth of range due to this inherent approximation of the focal point will be discussed in greater detail in conjunction with FIGURES 12 and 14. A portion of the second beam is reflected by target 52 back toward a collimator 128, which is coupled to star coupler 120 through an optical fiber 130. A first output port 132 of star coupler 120 is coupled to a first ranging detector 134 (via an optical fiber 136), while a second output port 138 of the star coupler is coupled to a second ranging detector 140 (via an optical fiber 142). The respective outputs of ranging detectors 134 and 140 are connected to respective inputs of a differential operational amplifier 144, which functions in a manner similar to that of operational amplifier 114. The output of operational amplifier 144 is applied to the input of a narrow passband tracking filter 146. The function of tracking filter 146 is to lock its narrow passband to the fringe rate frequency to pass only fringe count information while rejecting noise outside of the narrow passband. The output of tracking filter 46 is applied to the input of a ranging counter 148 which counts the number of pulses produced at the output of operational amplifier 144 (and passed by tracking filter 146). While a tracking filter could be included between the output of operational amplifier 114 and the input of reference counter 116, one is ordinarily not necessary because of the relatively strong beam intensities present in reference interferometer 66. However, because the intensity of the beam reflected by target 52 may be relatively weak, significant amount of noise may be present on the signal (as shown in FIGURE 2(B)). Tracking filter 146 significantly improves the signal-to-noise ratio of system 60, thus improving circuit performance, reducing errors, and increasing measurement accuracy (as will be explained). Reference counter 116 produces an output N ref , the number of fringes in the wave interference pattern of the reference interferometer 66 for a given frequency sweep (Δf) of FM ramp generator 64. Ranging counter 148 produces an output N r , the number of fringes in the wave interference pattern of the ranging interferometer 74 for a given frequency-sweep (Δf). N ref and N r are both applied to a range processor 78, which produces an output R in accordance with equation 3 above. Operational amplifier 144 additionally produces an AGC output which is proportional to the amplitude of the wave interference pattern of ranging interferometer 74 (and thus to the intensity of the beam reflected by target 52). The AGC output is applied to the input of a surface roughness processor 150. A second input of surface roughness processor 150 is connected to a target tilt data generator block 152 which provides instantaneous data specifying the angle of incidence of the beam directed at target 52 by collimator 124. Surface roughness processor 150 produces two surface roughness parameters (σ, T) which are indicia of the roughness of the surface of target 52 reflecting (scattering) light back toward collimator 128. The function of surface roughness processor 150 and target tilt generator 152 will be described in greater detail in conjunction with FIGURES 15(A)-19. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that interferometers 66 and 70 of the embodiment shown in FIGURE 4 each comprise a conventional Mach-Zehnder type interferometer (thus, the embodiment of FIGURE 4 is a "bi-static" radar). FIGURE 3 shows another embodiment in accordance with the present invention wherein interferometers 66 and 70 are Michelson interferometers rather than Mach-Zehnder interferometers (i.e. a "mono-static" radar). FIGURE 3 is a detailed diagram of the embodiment shown in FIGURE 2(A). As can be seen, optical fiber 88 is coupled to an input port 154 of star coupler 92, while the corresponding (opposite) output port 156 of the star coupler is coupled to optical fiber 94. However, the other end of optical fiber 94 terminates with a specular surface 158 which serves to reflect light back toward star coupler 92. A second input port 160 of star coupler 92 is connected to star coupler 100 via an optical fiber 162, while a second output port 164 of star coupler 92 is coupled to star coupler 100 via optical fiber 98. Star couplers 92 and 100, together with optical fibers 98 and 162, form a Michelson interferometer. It will be noted that the path length X ref of the portion of the reference beam traveling through optical fiber 94 will now be twice the length of the optical fiber because the light must travel the entire length of the optical fiber, strike specular surface 158, and be reflected back toward star coupler 92. Star couplers 118 and 120 (together with optical fibers 122 and 166) are arranged in a manner similar to star couplers 66 and 100 (and optical fibers 98 and 162) so that ranging interferometer 70 also comprises a Michelson interferometer. Only a single collimator 168 is coupled to star coupler 118. Collimator 168 is used both to transmit a portion of the ranging beam toward target 52 and to receive the portion of the beam reflected by the target. Slight decreases in efficiency result in the use of Michelson interferometers in lieu of the Mach-Zehnder interferometers of FIGURE 3 (a 3dB decrease in efficiency is predicted). However, since only one collimator 168 is employed for both transmission and reception, the embodiment shown in FIGURE 4 may be preferred for some applications. FIGURE 5 shows a third embodiment of the present invention implemented with partially reflective plates, mirrors and free space(beam optics) paths in lieu of star couplers and optical fibers. the embodiment shown in FIGURE 5 is analogous to the embodiment shown in FIGURE 3 in that dual Michelson interferometers are used. Partially reflective, partially transmissive plates 166 and 168 divide the beam produced by laser source 62 into a target beam and a reference beam, and divide the target and the reference beam each into two portions. Mirrors 170 and 172 reflect beams directed at them by one of partially reflective-plates 166 and 168 to the other one of the partially reflective plates. Detectors 72 and 74 respectively produce signals indicative of the number of fringes in the reference and the ranging interferometers. Counter 76 and processor 78 function as previously described. Shown in FIGURE 6 is a free space (beam optics), equivalent of the embodiment shown in FIGURE 4 in that dual Mich-Zehnder interferometers are employed. Note that plates 174 and 176 are both partially reflective and partially transmissive. A serious disadvantage of the embodiments of the invention FIGURES 5 and 6 is that the reference arm must occupy free space, thus substantially increasing the size of the apparatus if distances R to be measured are relatively long. The reference path of the embodiments shown in FIGURES 3 and 4 is defined by a coiled optical fiber; thus, the X ref may be relatively long and yet the coiled optical fiber which defines that path can be made to occupy a relatively small volume. As has been mentioned, the beam, produced by laser source 62 is frequency modulated by FM ramp generator 64. Ramp generator 64 produces an output which is continuous and, in the preferred embodiment, is periodic. Only one frequency sweep (Δf) is required to make a measurement of R in accordance with the present invention. However, it is typically desirable to measure R several times and then perform independent statistical analysis (to be discussed shortly) in order to achieve greater measurement precision. For this reason, ramp generator 64 in the preferred embodiment generates a periodic symmetrically sawtooth waveform (although any continuous waveform could be used). It is critical to accuracy that the frequency deviation of the beam produced by laser source 62 be great enough. As will be explained shortly, the accuracy achievable by the present invention is directly related to the frequency deviation. One embodiment of a laser source 62 in accordance with the present invention is shown in FIGURE 8. The embodiment of laser source 62 shown in FIGURE 8 comprises a solid state injection laser diode 178, a collimating lens 180, a blazed grating 182, a piezoeletric bender bimorph 184 and a half reflecting plate 186. Diode 178, lens 180, grating 182, bimorph 184 and half reflecting plate 186 are mounted inside of a resonant laser cavity 189. A current i is applied to diode 178, causing it to produce radiation. Some of the radiation produced by diode 178 is directed toward collimating lens 180, which parallelly aligns the radiation and directs it toward grating 182. As is well known, blazed grating 182 reflects radiation incident to it back along the path of incidence while suppressing diffractions of orders other than those along the path of incidence. Thus, blazed grating 182 behaves as a flat specular surface except that it has frequency selectivity as a function of angle. Typically, the frequency selectivity of blazed grating 182 may be described as: λ 2 = δ cos  (4) where δ is the line spacing and  is the blaze angle. Tuning sensitivity may be described by: dλ d = -2δ sin  (5) Blazed grating 182 is fixedly attached to an element 188 of bimorph 184. As is well known, bimorph 184 comprises two piezoelectric elements or plates (188 and 190) which are cemented together in such a way that the application of an electric potential between them causes one of the elements to mechanically expand and the other one of the elements to mechanically contract. The resulting mechanical movement is depicted in FIGURE 7. The amount of movement of grating 182 produced when electric potential is applied to bimorph 184 is dependent upon the effective pivot length of elements 188 and 190 (ℓ) and the amount of angular deflection (d) of the elements. The effect of the movement of elements 188 and 190 of bimorph 184 is to mechanically change the cavity length L of laser source 62. The amount of cavity length change is given by ℓd. The amount of frequency tuning in the radiation produced by laser source 62 for a cavity length change of ℓd is given by: dλ d = - ℓλ L (6) It is desirable that wide frequency deviation be produced by the single motion of grating 182. To achieve this effect, the following should be satisfied: ( dλ d ) cavity ≡ ( dλ d ) grating (7) Provided that the above condition is met, then it can be said that: ℓλ L = 2δ sin  (8) This is known as the "wide tuning condition" wherein a desired amount of FM deviation may be achieved by a single motion of elements 188 and 190 of bimorph 184. It is highly desirable that laser source 62 achieve this wide tuning condition if an adequate Δf is to be obtained. As is well known, half reflecting plate 186 reflects some of the radiation incident to it back into the laser cavity and permits some of the radiation incident to it to exit the laser cavity and be directed toward a desired point. Oscillation is thus produced within the laser cavity to amplify the wave produced by diode 178, thereby obtaining laser action. FIGURE 9 shows another embodiment of a laser source 62 in accordance with the present invention. A conventional graded index fibers (GRIN) lens 192 is substituted for half reflector plate 186, while another GRIN lens 194 is substituted from collimating lens 180 (FIGURE 8). While lenses 192 and 194 could be microscope objectives or anamorphic compound lenses, the fiber-type lens produces better results. There are many other methods of mechanical tuning of a laser cavity employing alternate methods of achieving frequency selectivity and cavity length change, and the present invention is not limited to any one such method. FIGURE 10 shows another embodiment of laser, source 62 which employs electronic tuning of an injection laser diode. Semiconductor lasers with controllable wavelength outputs are well known in the art. See , e.g. Fang et al, Appl. Phys. Lett. , Vol. 44, No. 1 (American Institute of Physics, January 1, 1984); Reinhart & Logan, APL, Vol. 27, No. 10 (1975); Suematsu et al, Electron Letters , Volume 19, No. 17 (1983); Manning & Olshansky, J.Q.E. Qe-19, No. 10 (1983). The device disclosed in Fang et al obtains a total wavelength change of 61 Angstroms, a continuous tuning range of 4.1 Angstroms and a tuning rate of -0.74 Angstroms per mA. Electronic tuning of an injection laser diode is accomplished by electronically producing an optical phase shift within a phase shift region 196 of the device. Phase shift by phase shift region 196 is equivalent to changing the electrical length of the laser cavity. Phase shift region 196 and an active (gain) region 198 (which actually produces the radiation) each include their own control electrode. A 60 Angstrom tuning range may be achievable electronically in the near future as research in this area continues. RADAR TARGET CROSS SECTION One of the difficulties which the present invention must overcome in order to obtain measurements of distances to an arbitrary target such as a diffuse surface is to achieve a sufficient signal-to-noise ratio. Unlike coherent interferometer distance measuring devices which use cooperative reflectors to return the beam to the sensor, the present invention depends on the light randomly scattered from the surface of a diffused target. The signal is thus weaker and more noisy, and the intensity of the radiation received from the target depends greatly on the surface roughness and absorption properties of the target. The radar cross section of a target is a conventional quantitative measure of the ratio of power density in the vector signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power density of the radiation incident upon the target, and is typically used to define the relevant target characteristics. Target cross section is given by the following expression: (where ρ is target cross section). In computing the target cross section for an optical diffuse surface, it is assumed that the net target cross section over the illuminated spot is the sum of the cross sections of individual scatterers, and that the individual scatterers are of the order of the wavelength of light and scatter the reflected light into a hemisphere (2π steradians) or a Lambertian sphere (π steradians). The equivalent area of a single scatterer which scatters light into a hemisphere can be determined. Assuming the size of the surface element is δ then ( λ δ )² = 2π (10) for a hemisphere or ( λ δ )² = π (11) for a Lambertian sphere. The area of one element is then δ² and the target cross section for a single scatterer may be written as ρ₀ is defined as the reflectivity of the surface (i.e. the fraction of light not absorbed which is scattered away). The power scattered back into the radar receiver for multiple scatterers is defined as the scalar sum of the power scattered from the individual single scatterers: (where n is the ratio of areas of the total illuminated area to the area of a single scatterer δ²). The target cross section for an array of end scatterers is thus: It is observed that since the illuminated area A is given by A = ( Rλ d )² (20) the results are consistent with the definition and concept of target cross section (i.e. ρ 2π = 2ρ₀A and ρ π = 4ρ₀A). If the scattering angle is the full 4π steradians, the target cross section is merely the area of the target times the reflection coefficient or ρ 4π = ρ₀A. (21) RADAR RANGE EQUATION The range equation for a radar in accordance with the present invention is substantially different from the conventional radar range equation due to special optical and geometrical differences between range measurement by microwave and range measurement by laser radiation. As is well known, the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver of a radar is given by or (where P t is the laser transmitter power, N is the receiver noise power, ρ is the target cross section, d r is the diameter of the receiver aperture diameter and R is the range). Equation 23 can be resolved with a conventional radar range equation by defining transmitter gain as and receiver gain as (Where d t is the transmitter aperture diameter and d r is the receiver aperture diameter). Solving for R and substituting in a threshold S/N parameter, the maximum range of the radar can be calculated as: For the continuous wave laser radar in accordance with the present invention, it is more convenient to use Equation 23. Substituting in Equation 23 for target cross section (as shown in Equations 17 and 19), we obtain Setting the threshold S/N equal to σ and solving for R, the maximum range of the CW laser radar of the present invention is determined as It should be observed that R max is not only dependent on the bracketed parameters but also on the antenna aperture diameter d. The bracketed parameters are known collectively as the radar performance parameter. As will soon be explained, the depth of range ΔR is directly dependent on the radar performance parameter. RANGE COMPUTATION AND ACCURACY Range computation for the present invention is done differently than in a conventional microwave radar. As mentioned previously, the present invention utilizes a reference channel to eliminate the dependence on laser frequency stability. A convention FM CW radar system (previously described) is shown in FIGURE 1. The phase in the path between FM source 54 and target 52 is a function of frequency. Thus, as the frequency of the output of FM source 54 sweeps over a band Δf, the phase in the path changes by Δ = 2π c ΔfR (29) The number of interference counts n which are detected is thus: n = Δ π (30) Solving Equation 29 for range, we obtain: The precision or accuracy of the measurement is determined by the uncertainty in the counting of n. An average quantization error of ½ is expected, so that: or Assuming a precise measurement of Δf, this single channel technique is valid. However, in the CW laser radar, precise measurement of Δf is difficult if not impossible. Since precise measurement of Δf (frequency sweep) should be avoided, the present invention uses a reference channel technique which makes computation of the range independent of laser frequency. As mentioned previously, the phase difference in the reference path (n ref ) and the phase difference in the ranging path (n r ) are measured separately and are given by the following: n ref = Δ ref /π (35) n r = Δ r /π (36). As described previously, the range R may be calculated as: (where X ref is the length of the reference path). From Equation 32, the practical range precision for a conventional FM CW radar may be written as δR R = 1 2n (38) The apparent quantization error in counting fringes is n = ½ per linear sweep of the frequency. However, since the apparatus in accordance with the present invention has a reference channel with an associated reference range X ref , there are three variables to be taken into account: Assuming the errors are random and gaussian distributed: Equation 40 implies that the same quantization error applies to the reference channel as well as to the ranging channel. Thus, It can be shown that Substituting, Or, Assuming that R is approximately equal to X ref , then for a single sweep. Equation 46 gives the precision achievable for each sweep Δf of frequency deviation of laser source 62 (i.e. each half cycle of the waveform output of FM ramp generator 64) of the embodiment shown in FIGURE 2. By independent statistical averaging of the measurements resulting from many sweeps, the error can be reduced by: (where N is the number of independent sample measurements taken). For a FM sawtooth frequency of F s and an integration time of τ, the number of measurements averaged is: N = 2F s τ (48) However, the averaging process does not apply to fixed δX ref , but only to the quantization error of Nr and N ref . Thus, we have: FIGURE 13 shows the precision δR as a function of integration time τ in seconds for both a typical mechanically-modulated lasar source (such as that shown in FIGURE 8) and for a typical electronically-modulated laser source (such as that shown in FIGURE 10). Note that integration time τ is dependent upon the number of sweeps Δf performed for each point on target 52 as well as on the sweep rate. Counter 76 will typically limit the rate at which the frequency may be swept. Moreover, it is generally desirable that the sweep rate be as great as possible to permit more rapid measurement. A conventional microwave radar utilizes a collimated beam output through an afocal antenna. For this arrangement, the near field effects of the antenna may be determined from: In a radar in accordance with the present invention, the beam power is relatively low and the range is expected to be relatively short. Under these conditions, near field effects of an afocal antenna pose a serious problem. FIGURE 11 illustrates the maximum and minimum range of a 1mW radar as a function of aperture diameter. The near field effects of the afocal antenna exceed the maximum range of the radar when the antenna is only 0.3mm in diameter. At this point, the range is about 20cm when extinction is observed. In the present invention, a focal antenna is used wherein the radar beam is brought to focus at or near the target. Under these conditions, the depth of focus of the radar determines the useful operating range, and the focal range lies half-way between R max and R min (where R max is the maximum useful range and R min is the minimum useful range). The depth of focus may be determined from classical optics to be: ΔR = 2(R f /d)²λ (51) where R f is the focus range and R max = R f + ΔR 2 (52) For large values of range, the depth of focus is found to be nearly or Solving for the performance parameters, we obtain Thus, the system in accordance with the present invention must meet the condition given in equation 55. Where this requirement is established, the relevant equations may be solved. Combining equation 51 with equation 52 yields the quadratic equation When equation 56 is solved, the focal range R f is given by The minimum range is defined as the maximum range less the depth of range and is found simply from equations 28, 52 and 55 as R min = R max - ΔR (58) RADAR PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS A typical set of performance parameter definitions for a radar in accordance with the present invention is listed as follows: P t (lasar transmitter power) typically 1 to 100mW. N (receiver noise power) is typically 4 x 10⁻¹⁹ B n W (where B n is the electronic noise bandwidth). ρ (target reflectivity) for a typical smooth white painted surface is 0.9; for a rough dark metal surface, ρ = 0.01. σ (threshold signal-to-noise ratio) is typically 10dB. FIGURES 12 and 14 graphically illustrate the maximum range, minimum range and depth of range values in accordance with the present invention for two representative sets of performance parameters. SURFACE ROUGHNESS DETERMINATION As will be recalled from FIGURES 3 and 4, measurement of the surface roughness of target 52 is possible in accordance with the present invention. A surface roughness processor 150 and a target tilt data generator 152 (as shown in FIGURES 3 and 4) perform this measurement. Target surface roughness is performed by analyzing the intensity of the beam reflected (scattered) by the target. Parameters of surface roughness are determined in the present invention by two methods: by the reflectivity (scattering) versus tilt angle (i.e. reflectivity "profile"); and by the speckle pattern of the reflected (scattered) light. Both of these methods provide a target "signature" from which surface roughness may be determined. The reflectivity profile is the target brightness (i.e. the intensity of the radiation reflected (scattered) by the target toward the detector) as a function of angle of incidence of the beam upon the surface of the target. Most targets are isotropic scatterers; that is, the target is brighter when the incident beam is normal to the surface. Experimentally obtained scattering profiles ("target signatures") for honed steel, rough steel, rough machined steel and white paper as a function of tilt angle are shown in FIGURE 16. Theoretical models of scattering profiles have been derived based upon two surface roughness parameters: σ (the RMS height of the surface irregularities); and T (the correlation distance between the peaks of the irregularities). FIGURE 17 graphically illustrates these two parameters. Due to the complexity of arbitrary surfaces, most models are simplifications and are not entirely accurate. However, the scattering profile is truly unique for a particular surface and therefore comprises a true signature. Experimentally measured reflectivity profiles of standard surfaces versus angle of incidence are correlated with microscopic measurements which precisely indicate σ and T. The surface roughness processor in accordance with the present invention may then characterize unknown target surfaces by comparing them with the experimentally-measured results. Approximation algorithms providing "best fit" curve fitting and statistical processes which eliminate systematic errors are also used. Another method, of determining surface roughness is by measuring speckle pattern. When coherent light is scattered by an irregular diffuse surface, interference effects cause what is known is "speckle," a modulation of the scattered light intensity as a function of angle of incidence. The relation between speckle and surface parameters σ and T have been derived theoretically and have been confirmed experimentally. See Asakura, T. Speckle Metrology (Academic Press, New York 1978). Speckle contrast (modulation index depth) C = kσ is directly proportional to the surface roughness parameter σ. It can also be shown that the number of speckles in the pattern (spatial frequency) is given by F = 2d/T (where d is the laser spot size and T is the correlation distance). FIGURES 18(A)-18(B) illustrate these effects. A model of speckle contrast in accordance with the present invention will now be discussed. An illuminated spot of diameter s is assumed to be comprised of an array of n random scatterers, all of which contribute to the contrast modulation of the scattered light in the far field. The size of the elemental scatterers is a function of the surface roughness of the target, and will consist of a distribution of sizes about some average value δs. The total number of scatterers over the illuminated spot is then Since power scattered into a small detector in the far field is subject to statistical fluctuation of the phase of the light from the array of scatterers, it follows that the peak (maximum) intensity will be an average value plus a variance value and that the minimum intensity will be the average value minus the variance value. Thus, and Defining speckle contrast C as the peak intensity minus minimum intensity divided by the average intensity, we obtain This simple contrast model exhibits a linear dependence on surface roughness and an inverse dependence on spot size. Reported experimental results of Asakura, P. Speckle Metrology (Academic Press, New York, 1978) show a linear dependence and agrees with the above equation for a spot size of 0.63 micrometers. The lens Asakura used to focus the laser is not mentioned, but an F#1 lens with a helium neon laser would give the measured results and would be consistent with the model in accordance with the present invention. Measurement of contrast can be achieved by measuring intensity while tilting the target sample through one diffraction angle of the illuminated spot, δ α , where the appropriate angle from a peak to a minimum in the radiation pattern is given by δα ≅ λ s (65) For a typical radar beam spot size of 1 millimeter in diameter, the speckle defraction angle δ α equals 1 milliradian. The contrast seen by a fixed detector in the radiation field is then C ≅ 2·10⁻³δ s (66) (where δ s is in micrometers). FIGURE 19 shows a typical speckle pattern from a diffuse surface as a function of angle of incidence. Speckle contrast C is given by or (where σ is the surface roughness parameter). Similarly σϑ o (the speckle size, i.e. the angular displacement of the modulations in the speckle pattern or, in other words, the spatial frequency of the modulations in the speckle pattern) can be measured by tilting the target, changing the laser frequency or by scanning the beam slightly (as will be discussed in conjunction with FIGURE 15(A)-(C)). From speckle size, we can determine the number of speckles in the beam (for a one-dimensional scan) from (where ϑ o is the speckle size). Thus, Referring to FIGURES 15(A)-(C), three different arrangements in accordance with the present invention for producing target signature data are shown. In FIGURE 15(B), the target 52 is tilted through an angle δ α while the intensity of the portion of the beam scattered by the target toward a detector is measured. The detector could be positioned anywhere in the radiation field, although the same detector arrangement is used in the preferred embodiment to measure both phase difference and intensity. Speckle contrast (but not reflectivity profile) may also be determined by holding the sample still and varying the frequency of the laser (as is shown in FIGURE 15(C)). However, for the frequency scan type of measurement, the sample must be inclined to introduce a path difference across the illuminated spot. A path difference of s(tanα) is obtained between the two opposite sides of the beam incident to the target surface. For the arrangement shown in FIGURE 15(C) where the path difference is given by s(tan α), the phase difference may be written as Δ = 2π Δf c s (tan α) (71) Letting the phase difference equal one half cycle and solving for the required frequency scan width as a function of a yields the following result: For a tilt angle of one radian, the laser source 62 must be tuned over a two Angstrom width; for a tilt angle of ten degrees, laser source 62 must be tuned over an eighteen Angstrom width. Obviously the frequency scan method cannot be used when the incident beam is normal to the target. FIGURE 15(A) shows yet another method of measuring speckle contrast. The incident beam is moved slightly ("scanned") across the surface of the target, and the resulting speckle pattern is detected. This method provides the most satisfactory results since it avoids the problems discussed above. The surface roughness processor 150 shown in FIGURES 3 and 4 measures the intensity of the signal reflected (scattered) by the target by monitoring the automatic gain control voltage output of differential amplifier 144. Target tilt data generator block 152 provides information of the instantaneous angle of incidence of the beam on the surface of target 52. Depending upon the application, of course, target tilt data generator 152 will produce this information in different ways. For instance, if the method shown in FIGURE 15(b) is used and the target is tilted mechanically, target tilt data generator 152 might process the output of resolvers operatively connected to the mechanical device (not shown) used to tile the target in order to produce information of target tilt. Alternatively, collimator 124 (or 168) could be tilted in position to change the angle of beam incidence. In this case, target tilt data generator 152 would be coupled to resolvers operatively connected to the mechanical device used to position the collimator to provide target tilt information. If the surface of target 52 is complex rather than substantially flat, further information might be required to compute the angle of incidence. This information could be obtained by mapping the surface of target 52 using ranging measurements performed as discussed previously (by scanning the beam over the surface and determining range for each dwell point), and then using the mapped contour information to compute instantaneous angle of incidence. Surface roughness processor 150 in accordance with the present invention uses both the reflectivity profile and the speckle contrast methods (discussed previously) to ascertain surface roughness parameters σ and T. The parameters calculated by the two methods can be correlated for accuracy. As mentioned previously, surface roughness processor 150 produces surface roughness parameters σ and T by comparing experimentally-measured reflectivity profiles and speckle contrasts with a stored library of similar information for standard surfaces the surface roughness parameters of which have been accurately measured (such as by electron microscopy).

Claims: Apparatus for measuring the distance to an arbitrary target, the apparatus comprising: radiation source means for producing a beam of coherent radiation; beam splitting and interferometer means, optically coupled to the radiation source means, for directing a first ranging beam portion of the radiation along a path towards the target and for producing a first wave interference pattern between a second ranging beam portion of the radiation travelling over a first path and the first ranging beam portion reflected from the target, and for directing a first reference beam portion of the radiation along a reference path of known length and for producing a second wave interference pattern between a second reference beam portion of the radiation travelling over a second path and the first reference beam portion travelling over the reference path; and processing means, responsive to the first and second wave interference paterns, for determining the length of the path between the apparatus and the target; characterised in that: the radiation source means includes frequency modulating means for modulating the frequency of said radiation; and in that the beam splitting and interferometer means comprises first beam splitting means, optically coupled to the radiation source means, for dividing the beam of radiation into a ranging beam and a reference beam; ranging interferometer means, optically coupled to the first beam splitting means, for directing the first ranging beam portion along a path towards the target and for producing the first wave interference pattern; and reference interferometer means, optically coupled to the first beam splitting means, for directing the first reference beam portion along the reference path and for producing the second wave interference pattern. Apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein said processing means includes: first detector means, coupled to said ranging interferometer means, for detecting the fringes in said first wave interference pattern; first counting means, operatively connected to said first detector means, for counting the number N r of said fringes detected by said first detector means for a sweep in the frequency of said radiation from a first frequency to a second frequency; second detector means, coupled to said reference interferometer means, for detecting the fringes in said second wave interference pattern; second counting means, operatively coupled to said second detector means, for counting the number N ref of fringes detected by said detector means for said sweep in the frequency of said radiation; and range calculating means, responsive to said counts of said first and second counting means, for calculating the distance R to said target, said distance given by Apparatus as claimed in claim 1 or claim 2, wherein said frequency modulating means includes: ramp generator means for producing a modulating signal the level of which varies and is continuous between a first predetermined level and a second predetermined level; and phase shift means, optically coupled to said radiation source means and responsive to said modulating signal, for modulating the phase of said radiation. Apparatus as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein said ranging interferometer means includes means for focusing said first portion of said ranging beam onto said target. Apparatus as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein said ranging interferometer means includes: ranging beam splitting means, optically coupled to said first beam splitting means, for splitting said ranging beam into said first and second portions, for directing said second portion of said ranging beam along said first path and for directing said first portion of said ranging beam along a ranging path, said ranging path comprising the round-trip path to said target and said first path; and ranging phase difference determining means, optically coupled to said ranging beam splitting means, for producing a first signal, said first signal indicative of the phase difference between the first portion of said ranging beam after travelling over said ranging path and the second portion of said ranging beam after travelling over said first path. Apparatus as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 7, wherein said ranging interferometer means comprises collimating means, optically coupled to said ranging beam splitting means, for focusing said first portion of said ranging beam onto said target. Apparatus as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 6, wherein said reference interferometer means includes: reference beam splitting means, optically coupled to said first beam splitting means, for directing said second portion of said reference beam along said second path and for directing said first portion of said reference beam along said reference path, said reference path comprising a fourth path of predetermined known distance and said second path; and reference phase difference determining means, optically coupled to said reference beam splitting means, for producing said second signal, said second signal indicative of the phase difference between the first portion of said reference beam after travelling over said reference path and the second portion of said reference beam after travelling over said second path. Apparatus as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 7, including surface roughness processing means, responsive to the amplitude of said first wave interference pattern produced by said ranging interferometer means, for characterizing the roughness of the scattering surface of said target. Apparatus as claimed in claim 8, wherein said surface roughness processing means includes: means for varying the angle of incidence of said beam on said surface; means, coupled to said ranging interferometer means, for detecting the amplitude of said first wave interference pattern, said detected amplitude proportional to the intensity of the radiation scattered by said surface; and data processing means for processing the detected amplitude of said first wave interference pattern for a plurality of angles of incidence to produce indicia of said surface roughness. Apparatus as claimed in claim 9, wherein said amplitude-detecting means includes means for characterizing modulations in the scattered radiation, said modulations produced by interference between radiation scattered by different points of said surface; and said data processing means further includes means for deriving, from said characterization of the modulations, indicia of the roughness of said surface. Apparatus as claimed in claim 8, wherein said surface roughness processing means includes: detecting means, coupled to said ranging interferometer means, for detecting the amplitude of said first wave interference pattern, said detected amplitude proportional to the intensity of the radiation scattered by the surface; characterizing means, responsive to said detected amplitudes, for characterizing modulations in the scattered radiation, said modulations produced by interference between portions of said first portion of said ranging beam scattered by different points on said surface; and means for deriving, from said characterization of the modulations, indicia of the roughness of said surface. Apparatus as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 11, wherein the said frequency modulating means comprises means for sweeping the frequency of said produced radiation from a first to a second frequency, said sweep defined by a continuously increasing function of time; wherein the first beam splitting means comprises first star coupling means, including an input port and first and second output ports, said radiation source means coupled to said input port, said ranging beam exiting said first star coupling means at said first output port, said reference beam exiting said first star coupling means at said second output port; wherein the ranging interferometer means comprises ranging beam splitting star coupling means, including an input port and first and second output ports, for splitting said ranging beam into first and second portions, said first portion produced at said first output port, said second portion produced at said second output port, said ranging beam splitting star coupling means including means for coupling said input port of said ranging beam splitting star coupling means to said first output port of said first star coupling means; first collimating means, coupled to said first output of said ranging beam splitting star coupling means, for focusing said first portion on said target; ranging beam combining star coupling means for combining said first and second beam portions to produce the said first wave interference pattern, said ranging beam combining star coupling means including first and second input ports and at least one output port; first optical fiber means for coupling said second output port of said ranging beam splitting star coupling means to said second input port of said ranging beam combining star coupling means, said first optical fiber means defining the said first path; and second collimating means, positioned in proximity with said first collimating means and aimed at said target, for coupling the said first portion of the ranging beam scattered by said target to said first input port of said ranging beam combining star coupling means; and wherein the reference interferometer means comprises reference beam splitting star coupling means, including an input port and first and second output ports, for splitting said reference beam into first and second portions, said first portion produced at said first output port, said second portion produced at said second output port, said reference beam splitting star coupling means including means for coupling said input port of said reference beam splitting star coupling means to said second output port of said first star coupling means; reference beam combining star coupling means for combining said first and second portions of the beam to produce the second wave interference pattern, said reference beam combining star coupling means including first and second input ports and at least one output port; second optical fiber means for coupling said second output port of said reference beam splitting star coupling means to said second input port of said reference beam combining star coupling means, said second optical fiber means defining the said second path; and reference optical fiber means for coupling said first output port of said reference beam splitting star coupling means to said first input port of said reference beam combining star coupling means, said reference optical fiber means defining the said reference path of predetermined known fixed length approximately equal to the distance to be measured. A method for measuring the distance to an arbitrary target, comprising the steps of: (1) producing a beam of coherent radiation; (2) directing a first ranging beam portion of the radiation along a path towards the target; (3) producing a first wave interference pattern between the first ranging beam portion scattered by said target and a second ranging beam portion travelling over another path; (4) directing a first reference beam portion of the radiation along a reference path of a first, predetermined known length. (5) producing a second wave interference pattern between the first reference beam portion travelling over the reference path and a second reference beam portion travelling over another path; and (6) processing the first and second wave interference patterns to determine the distance to said target; characterised by modulating the frequency of the radiation; by dividing the beam of radiation into a ranging beam and a reference beam; by dividing the ranging beam into the said first and second ranging beam portions; and by dividing the reference beam into the said first and second reference beam portions. A method as claimed in claim 13, wherein the said processing step includes the stops of: detecting the fringes of said first wave interference pattern; counting the number N r of said detected fringes in said first wave interference pattern for a sweep in the frequency of said radiation from a first frequency to a second frequency; detecting the fringes in said second wave interference pattern; counting the number N ref of said detected fringes in said second wave interference pattern for said sweep in the frequency of said radiation; and calculating the distance R to said target, said distance given by A method as claimed in claim 13 or claim 14, wherein said modulating step (2) includes the steps of: producing a modulating signal the level of which varies and is continuous between a first predetermined level and a second predetermined level; and modulating the phase of said produced radiation with said modulating signal. A method as claimed in anyone of claims 13 to 15, wherein said directing step (2) includes the step of focusing said first portion of said ranging beam onto said target. A method as claimed in any one of claims 13 to 16 including the step of characterizing the roughness of said scattering surface of said target. A method as claimed in claim 17, wherein said surface roughness characterizing step includes the steps of: varying the angle of incidence of said beam on said surface; measuring the amplitude of said first wave interference pattern produced by said producing step (3), said detected amplitude proportional to the intensity of the radiation scattered by said surface; and processing the detected amplitude for a plurality of angles of incidence to produce indicia of said surface roughness. A method as claimed in claim 18, wherein said angle varying step includes the step of successively directing said first portion of said ranging beam onto a plurality of points on said surface, said steps (3)-(6) being performed for each of said plurality of points; and said detected amplitude processing step includes the step of estimating an angle of incidence of said beam onto each of said plurality of points from the plurality of determined distances produced by said processing step (6).

Inventors: GOODWIN, FRANCIS EUGENE
Applicants: DIGITAL SIGNAL CORPORATION
Application year: 1985
Main classification: G01S17
IPC codes: G01B9, G01S17, G01B11