LIQUID COOLED ANODE X-RAY TUBES

Abstract: A liquid cooled anode x-ray tube wherein the rotating anode is adapted for irradiation by an energy beam (18), and includes a heat exchange surface (24), said x-ray tube includes means for providing a flow of coolant liquid to remove heat from said heat exchange surface by formation of nucleate vapor bubbles on said heat exchange surface, said liquid tending to include a viscous sublayer adjacent to said heat exchange surface, the improvement wherein said heat exchange surface includes at least one of: means for forming pressure gradients in said liquid having a component perpendicular to said heat exchange surface to facilitate removal of said nucleate bubbles, and means for breaking up said viscous sublayer to facilitate removal of said nucleate bubbles.

Description: - i - LIQUID COOLED ANODE X-RAY TUBES Technical Field The present invention is directed to liquid cooled anode x-ray tubes, and in particular, x-ray tubes having a continuously cooled anode whereby high average power is achieved while still maintaining the high peak powers characteristic of rotating anodes. Background of the Invention The need for continuous duty, high power rotating anode x-ray tubes exists in medical radiography, i.e., fluoroscopy and computerized tomography (CT) , and in industrial applications such as x-ray diffraction topo¬ graphy and non-destructive testing. A number of schemes have been proposed in the past to achieve continuous power output at high peak power with a rotating anode x-ray tube. These include direct liquid cooling of the anode, liquid to vapor phase cool¬ ing of the anode, as well as other techniques. A prior art scheme for liquid cooling rotating anodes is described in the Philips Technical Review, Vol. 19, 1957/58, No. 11, pp. 362-365. The rotating anode of the Philips device constitutes a hollow cylinder with three radially running tubes through which water flows to a cavity located along the inner surface of the peripheral wall or anode strip of the hollow body. In this device, the water flows back into the hollow drive shaft through three other tubes running radially in the rotary anode. However, various disadvantages have been attributed to the Philips device. For example, U.S. Patent No. 4,130,772 to Kussel, et al, issued December 1978, states that only relatively low speeds of rotation can be ob¬ tained with the Philips rotary device because the maximum thickness of the peripheral wall provided as the anode target meώber allowable for proper cooling is not suffi- cient to withstand the pressures in the cooling medium that arise due to centrifugal force at higher speeds of revolution. Only relatively small surface density of illumination (brightness) can be obtained with this known rotary anode, since the intensity of illumination, i.e., radiation per unit of surface, generated by a device de¬ pends upon the rate of anode revolution. . The ussel, et al patent describes a liquid cooled rotating anode which purports to resolve the shortcomings of the Philips device. The portion of the rotary anode cylindrical peripheral wall, whereon the electron beam strikes, is cooled with water supplied and removed, re¬ spectively, through coaxial ducts distributed by radial ducts in one end face of the rotary to a ring duct and gathered from a ring duct at the other end face through another set of radial ducts leading back to the shaft. Between the two ring ducts, the cooling medium flows throu helical cooling ducts running parallel to each other and at an angle of about 15° to the edge boundaries of the cylindrical operating surface. These ducts are formed on the outside by the anode peripheral wall material itself and on the inside by a stainless steel insert. The Kussel device, although resolving the short¬ comings of the Philips device, has several problems of its ow —one of them, basic. To obtain efficient heat transfer, relatively high coolant velocities are required. To achieve high coolant velocities, high pump pressures are needed. Unfortunately, the seals necessary to join stationary to rotating fluid conduits generally have short lives when subjected to such high coolant pressures and high speed anode rotation. A more basic limitation of the Kussel et al device arises from the use of the metal insert with grooves achined thereon to form the coolant ducts. The outer¬ most rims of the groove walls are brazed to the anode peripheral wall. As described, the cooling ducts traverse one face of the anode to the other at a pitch angle of 15°. Therefore, the duct walls whose peripheries are brazed to the inside surface of the anode opposite the electron beam track also traverse one face of the anode to the other at the prescribed 15° angle. Therefore, the electron beam alternately travels over coolant duct and then duct wall as the anode rotates. When the electron beam is above the coolant, heat transfer is efficient, whereas when it is above the duct wall, it simulates more closely a solid metal structure, i.e., a conventional solid rotating anode. This creates a hot spot and severely limits the power handling capability because of the long heat path to the coolant. The braze alloy, used to braze the anode to the insert and which must melt well below the metals used, further limits the power densities that can be handled. The duct walls, brazed to the periphery of the anode, which provide the necessary strength to the anode shell to prevent its distortion due to centrifugal force of the coolant, become a liability in that they become a limiting factor in power handling capability. U.S. Patent No. 4,165,472, issued on August 21, 1979, to Wittry describes a device utilizing a cooling technique typically referred to as "liquid to vapor phase cooling." In the preferred embodiment of the Wittry patent, a two- stage system is used. The first stage consists of a sealed chamber in the anode that is filled with a coolant, such as water, that removes heat by vaporizing and recon- densing on another portion of the internal anode surface that is cooled by a secondary liquid cooling loop. This in turn removes the heat to a heat sink external to the x-ray tube. In general, the various embodiments described are described as wickless heat pipes. One limitation is that heat transfer is limited by the diffusion rate of the vapor phase to the cool surface. A 6 kw capability is described in terms of a 12" diameter anode rotating at 5000 rpm. Directly cooled rotating anode x-ray tubes are rated at higher powers. Kussel discloses power capa¬ bility of 100 kw. A further limitation on this structure is the sealed coolant chamber. A small amount of over¬ heating can cause excessive pressures to be built up, i.e., bearing wear slowing the rotation. If the struc¬ ture does not explode, it will bulge which will throw it out of balance, thereby rapidly wearing out the bearings. U.S. Patent No. 3,959,685, issued on May 25, .1976 to Konieczynski discloses a method whereby the heat capa¬ city of a conventional, solid rotating anode x-ray tube can be increased. This is accomplished by sealing slugs of high heat capacity and selected melting point metal into the anode. When the anode reaches a critical tempera¬ ture, the slugs melt, absorbing more heat. Upon cooling, they re-solidify. A 20% increase in heat capacity is mentioned. The limitation of this device is that should the melted slugs overheat and create excessive pressures due to target slowdown or stoppage (frozen bearings) , it truly becomes a bomb with molten metal spewing out. This makes it unacceptable for medical use. Any irregulari¬ ties in resolidification of the slugs, due to small differences in cooling rates or irregular crystal forma¬ tion,will cause an imbalance in the anode with resultant early bearing failure. U.S. Patent No. 3,719,847 issued on March 6, 1973 to Webster provides a hollow anode in which a liquid metal such as sodium or lithium is confined. Heat from the elec¬ tron beam is striking the cathode which causes the liquid metal to evaporate, thereby effectively increasing the heat capacity of the anode. With no means to extract the heat, cooling is by radiation as with a conventional solid anode. Should the anode overheat, due to bearing wear, etc., the confined metal vapor will build up excessive pressure and the vessel can explode with consequent danger to personnel in the vicinity. U.S. Patent No. 4,146,815, issued March 27, 1979, to Childenc, also discloses a hollow anode filled with a liquid metal much like that disclosed in Webster. It suffers from the same limitation of retaining the charac¬ teristic of a solid anode that must cool by radiation. It also possesses the potential of exploding like a bomb should it overheat due to bearing wear caused by age or imbalance. U.S. Patent No. 3,736,175, issued May 22, 1973, to Blomgren, discloses a heat pipe to transmit heat from the anode to an external heat sink. Notwithstanding the efficacy of external electrostatic cooling, a heat pipe depends on the diffusion rate of the coolant vapor to the cool end for the rate of heat removal. The power dens ties that can be handled are relatively low. For the powe levels required, a huge and impractical heat pipe would be needed, i.e., 50 kw dissipation. U.S. Patent No. 3,794,872, issued February 26, 1974 to Haas, discloses a fixed target anode cooled by a jet of fluid. The target is mounted on a bellows such that "the target reciprocates laterally in a direction perpen¬ dicular to the axis of the tube but the target does not rotate on its own axis." As the focal spot wears out, i.e. pits, the target is moved to a new position to provide fresh target surface. In this manner, the effective life of the tube is extended considerably. The motion provided is not rotational and therefore does not increase the out- u power of the tube. As a fixed target tube, its power output is low. A prior art alternative to the respective Philips and Kussel et al approaches to dissipation of large power loads is that of Taylor as described in Advances in X-ray Analysis, Vol. 9, August 1965, G. R. Mallett, et al, Plenu Press, N.Y. In the Taylor design, the liquid coolant flows transverse to the direction of anode rotation and interacts with the anode in a manner known as "linear coolant flow." However, although there is a high rela¬ tive velocity between the anode and coolant, the inter¬ action is relatively inefficient and is reported by Taylor to provide only relatively low power (7% kw) . This stands in sharp contrast to the 100 kw attributed to the Kussel design. However, the Taylor design is not subject to per¬ formance-limiting centrifugal forces as the Philips άe- vice is, and permits the use of low pressure pumps and components. Further description of prior art liquid cooled ro¬ tating anode x-ray tubes is found in the following arti¬ cles: G. Fournier, J. Mathieu: J. Phys. 8, 177(1937) R.E. Clay: Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) 46, 703 (1934,) R.E. Clay, A. Miller: J. Instr. Elect. Engs. 84, 261 (1939) W.T. Astbury, R.D. Preston: Nature 24, 460 (1934) Z. Nishiyama: J. Japan Met. Soc. 15,42 (1940) V. Linnitzki, V. Gorski: Sov. Phys-Tech. Phys. 3, 220 (1936) R.R. Wilson: Rev. Sci. Instr. 12,91 (1941) S. Miyake, S. Hoshino: X-sen 8,45 (1954) (Japanese) Y. Yoneda, K. Kohra, T. Futagami, M. Koga: Kyushu Univ. Engs. Dept. Rep. 27,87 (1954) S. Kiyono, M. Kanayama, T. Konno, N. Nagashita: Technol. Rep., Tohoku Univ. XXVII,103 (1936) A. Taylor: J. Sci. Instr. 26,225 (1949); Rev. Sci. Instr. 27,757 (1956) D.A. Davies: Rev. Sci. Instr. 30,488 (1959) P. Gay, P.B. Hirsh, J.S. Thorp, J.N. Keller: Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) B64,374 (1951) A. Muller: Proc. Roy. Soc. 117,31 (1927) W.T. Astbury: Brit. J. Rad. 22,360 (1949) E.A. Owen: J. Sci. Instr. 30,393 (1953) K.J. Queisser: X-ray Optics, Applications to Solids Verlag-Springer, NY (1977), Chap. 2 Longley: Rev. Sci. Instr. 46,1 (1975) Mayden: Conference on Microlithography, Paris, June 21-24, 1977, pp. 196-199 MacArthur: Electronics Eng. 17,1 (1944-5) A.E. DeBarr: Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 1,305 (1950) Summary of the Invention The present invention provides a liquid cooled rotat ing anode x-ray tube that possesses the high power capabi ities of the Kussel type design while using low pressure pumps and components. The present invention further pro¬ vides liquid cooled stationary target (anode) x-ray tubes with improved power capabilities. The present invention also provides a high power, continuous duty liquid cooled rotating anode x-ray tube, wherein the rate of heat removal, and the critical heat flux (burn out) , are increased as compared to prior art liquid cooled rotating anode x-ray tubes, and which tube is capable of long life at continuous power. The present invention further provides for simultan¬ eous and continuous liquid cooling of the entire heat exchange surface of a hollow rotating anode x-ray tube thereby avoiding any power limiting hot spots. In addition, the present invention provides for a high relative velocity of the anode to coolant liquid with low fluid velocities, long lived rotational fluid seals, and permits the use of low pressure fluid pumps and components. The present invention provides a liquid cooled sta¬ tionary target (anode) x-ray tube with many of the advan¬ tages described for the liquid cooled rotating anode x-ray tube. The foregoing is accomplished in accordance with the present invention by providing the heat exchange surface of the anode with a contoured surface, i.e., with a prede¬ termined varying geometry, a calculated surface roughness, or both, to promote nucleate boiling and bubble removal. Description of the Drawings FIG. 1 is a complete cross-section of a rotating anode x-ray tube according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a partial cross-sectional view of rotating anode heat exchange surface illustrating roughened surface; FIG. 3 is a partial vertical view of rotating anode heat exchange surface, illustrating a roughened surface; FIG. 4 is a partial cross-sectional view of rotating anode heat exchange surface, illustrating flutes with rounded cusps; FIG. 5 is a partial cross-sectional view of rotating anode heat exchange surface illustrating flutes with cusp tips "rolled" over in the direction of anode rotation so as to induce swirl flow conditions; FIG. 6 is an enlarged view of a single flute as depicted in FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is a partial vertical .view of rotating anode heat exchange surface illustrating ' flutes and "rolled" cusps angled at other than 90° to direction of anode rotation; FIG. 8 is a partial cross-sectional view of rotating anode heat exchange surface illustrating a converging spacing, in the direction of fluid flow, between anode and septum, with the septum geometry varying and the anode heat exchange geometry remaining fixed. FIG. 9 is a complete cross-sectional view of a rotat¬ ing anode x-ray tube incorporating baffle fins in the coolant input conduit so as to minimize induced rotational velocity in coolant flow; FIG. 10 is a complete cross-sectional view of a rotating anode x-ray tube incorporating a stationary outer tube so as to minimize induced rotational velocity in coolant flow; FIG. 11 is an x-ray tube assembly containing the essential elements that are required for the functioning and use of a liquid cooled rotating anode x-ray tube; FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of a stationary an utilizing the present invention; and ■ FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view of a high power uniform intensity x-ray tube utilizing the present inventi Detailed Description of Preferred Exemplary Embodiments The basic cooling mechanism in liquid cooled anodes for use in x-ray tubes is nucleate boiling (or other vapor or gas mechanism). In nucleate boiling, bubbles of vapor¬ ized fluid are generated on the anode heat exchange surfac The vapor bubbles break away and are replaced by fresh bubbles*, much like a pot of boiling water, thus providing efficient cooling by the removal of heat from the exchange surface to vaporize the -liquid. In film boiling, however, the power handling capacity of the system is limited by.. transformation of the nucleate boiling mechanism into destructive film boiling (or other vapor or gas blanket). The heated surface is surrounded by a vapor blanket which insulates the heated surface, thus causing significantly reduced heat transfer. The primary heat removal mechanism therefore becomes radiation and convection of the vapor. The heat flux at the transition from nucleate to film boiling is called the critical heat flux. Should this value be exceeded in electrically heated structures such as a liquid cooled x-ray tube anode, the insulating film blanket would cause a rapid rise in temperature, typically resulting in burn out (i.e., melt down) of the structure. In general, this occurs so quickly, or the protective means required are so elaborate or expensive, that adequat protection is not practical. Formation of the boiling film occurs when expanding bubbles are generated faster than they can be carried away. The expanding nucleate bubbles interact and com¬ bine ultimately to form an insulating blanket of vapor. Thus, the transition is made from nucleate boiling to film boiling. It is the bubble interaction which controls the heat transfer process. To provide for efficient heat removal from the liquid cooled inner surface of the anode, i.e., at the anode heat exchange surface, a high relative velocity between the anode heat exchange surface and the liquid, approximately 50 feet per second or greater, is required. The anode heat exchange surface is that surface on the inside liquid cooled surface of the hollow rotatable anode to which sub¬ stantially all the heat generated by the electron beam striking the electron beam track is transmitted. The anode heat exchange surface is generally larger than the surface illuminated by the electron beam track and is also generally centered on the electron beam track. In the prior art previously described, high pressure pumps have been used to achieve the desired high liquid velocity. Shortened rotational fluid seal life and atten¬ dant anode design limitations, previously noted, result. To obviate these design limitations, use is made in accor¬ dance with one aspect of the present invention,. of the high rotational velocity present in rotating anode x-ray tubes. A state-of-the-art rotating anode tube operates at 10,000 rpm and is 4 inches in diameter. The rotation of the anode can thus provide a surface velocity at its periphery of about 170 feet per second, considerably greater than the desired minimum (50 feet per second) . Such high rotational velocity of the anode is required to achieve the high peak powers obtained in con¬ ventional rotating anode x-ray tubes. The present inven¬ tion combines relatively low velocity liquid which tra¬ verses the path of anode rotation, with the high rotationa velocity of the anode to establish necessary (but not sufficient) conditions for highly efficient heat removal. As previously discussed, it is the presence of nuclea bubbles which cling tenaciously to the anode surface, thei rate of formation, their interaction and their rate of removal that determine the critical heat flux, i.e., burn out, and the rate of heat removal. To raise the critical heat flux and simultaneously increase the rate of heat removal, the present invention provides means whereby nucleate bubbles are more rapidly removed. In addition, one series of embodiments provides for an increase in nucleation sites as well as optimizing their geometry and distribution. Thus, more nucleate bubbles of specified geometry and quantity are generated and removed, thereby increasing the heat flux. The adherence of nucleate bubbles to the anode heat exchange surface is related to such factors "as surface tension, viscosity, temperature, bubble size, etc. There are two basic methods for increasing their rate of removal. One approach is to create a pressure gradient in the fluid perpendicular to the anode surface. The higher the gradi¬ ent, the faster the rate at which bubbles break loose. This is the principal by which the Kussel et al device achieves a stated 100 kw output. In the Kussel et al and Philips designs, the centrifugal force generated by the fluid as it is pumped at high velocities around the in¬ side circumference of the anode generates high gradients. Thus, the nucleate bubbles break loose more rapidly there¬ by significantly increasing the heat transfer. The work of Gambill and Greene at Oak Ridge National Laboratories (Chem. Eng. Prog. 54,10 1958) theoretically and experimentally demonstrated that by using a vortex coolant flow in a heated tube, power dissipations 4 to 5 times greater than that possible by linear coolant flow could be achieved. The vortex flow, a helical motion of the coolant down the inside of a heated tube, generates pressure gradients normal to the tube wall by centrifugal force and, according to Gambill and Greene, provides a mechanism "of vapor transport (nucleate bubble removal) by centrifugal acceleration." In the present invention, a gradient in the fluid is obtained by periodically varying, i.e., contouring, the inner surface geometry of the anode in the proximity of the electron beam track. That is, the anode wall thickness in the proximity of the electron beam track is varied in a periodic manner so as to generate periodic curves at the coolant interface. The anode surface at the electron beam 'track is circular. Thus, as the anode rotates, the liquid traversing the anode path periodically has a pres¬ sure gradient perpendicular to the anode wall generated by the changing anode wall thickness, i.e., a pumping actio caused by the changing radius as measured from the axis of rotation of the anode to the liquid heat exchange surface of the anode. The inertia of the liquid being displaced at the anode surface creates the gradient. A number of geometries are available to create the desired gradient.. The anode heat exchange surface with periodic curves generated thereon may be described, and will hereinafter sometimes be referred to, as a contoured.surface.. The viscous or laminar sublayer—a thin, layer of laminar flow adjacent to the wall of the conduit and always present in turbulent flow—provides a mechanism to further cause the nucleate bubbles to adhere more readil to the anode surface. The second method of increasing the rate of nucleate bubble removal is by breaking up this viscous or laminar sublayer. The viscous layer can be broken up by roughening the anode coolant surface. The roughened anode heat exchange surface may also be described as a contoured surface. A contoured surface is herein defined. s any surface condition or geometry designed to improve heat transfer from the anode heat exchange surface to the liquid coolant. When the height of the roughening projections ranges from 0.3 times the thickness of the viscous sublayer to the sum of the thickness of the vis¬ cous sublayer and a transition zone adjacent the viscous sublayer, the sublayer is broken up. Breaking up the vis¬ cous sublayer enables the turbulent fluid to reach the base of the nucleate bubble, where it is attached to the anode, thereby providing the energy needed to break it loose. The thickness of the viscous sublayer is a function of the Reynolds number R n (the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces) as used in fluid mechanics. The dimen- sionless Reynolds number is used to characterize the type of flow in a hydraulic structure where resistance to motio is dependent upon the viscosity of the liquid in conjunc¬ tion with the resisting forces of inertia, and is given by the equation: wherein ( -£) - density of the fluid u = viscosity of the fluid V = velocity of the fluid A = area of fluid in conduit P = wetted perimeter of conduit • p ■ = hydraulic radius Thus, for a given fluid, of specific density and • viscosity, the Reynolds number defines the relationship between the fluid velocity and conduit geometry. Most efficient heat transfer is obtained with turbulent fluid flow as compared to laminar fluid flow. Turbulent fluid flow is characterized by a Reynolds number of at least 2000. However, with very rough surfaces, turbulent flow can be obtained at a Reynolds number o.f 1000. The geometry of nucleate bubbles is a function of the surface roughness geometry; small fissures tend to generat small nucleate bubbles, whereas large fissures tend to generate larger ones. Therefore, nucleate bubble size and generation can be optimized by providing a surface of calculated and preferably uniform roughness and geometry. A surface having such roughness geometry may also be con¬ sidered as a contoured surface as defined above. A regular roughness geometry can be obtained by suitable conventional techniques such as, for example, chemically by means of chemical milling; electronically, by the use of lasers or electron beams; or mechanically, by broaching, hobbing, machining, milling, stamping, engraving, etc. Another method of obtaining a surface with crevices for forming nucleate bubbles is the use of a thin porous metal layer adherent to the anode at the anode heat ex¬ change surface. This porous metal layer may be considered to provide a contoured surface as defined above. Relative uniform pore size can be obtained by fabricating the porous structure from metal powders with a narrow range of particle s ' Izes. Methods, such as described in U.S. Patent No. 3,433,632, are well suited to providing the desired porous metal structure. Thus, optimum cooling can be obtained by combining a calculated surface roughness with generated curves on the anode cooling surface. The surface roughness gener¬ ates nucleate bubbles of uniform dimensions and breaks up the viscous or laminar sublayer which causes the bubbles to adhere more readily to the anode .surface. ' The gradient generated by the periodic curves on the anode coolant surface further assists in causing the nucleate bubbles to be rapidly carried away. A fully roughened conduit surface induces large frictional losses in liquids with attendant pressure drop. The pressure drop * is related to the length of roughened surface. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, the roughened anode surface width, or length of the roughened surface in the direction of liquid flow, ranges from 1 to 9 times the width of the electron beam track and is generally on the order of one-quarter to two-inches wide. Thus, the pressure drop due to the roughened surface, i.e., a roughness height ranging from 30% that of the viscous sublayer thickness to approximatel equal to the combined thickness of the viscous sublayer and the transition zone, is minimal. Surfaces having roughness heights less than 30Z of the viscous sublayer thickness are effectively smooth. Increasing the rough¬ ness height beyond that described can result in dead spots at the base of the roughness elements. This will adversel effect the heat transfer characteristics. Increasing the spacing between roughness elements to minimize the dead spots will result in fewer nucleation sites per unit area, with consequent reduction in heat flux. In addition, the pressure drop increases with consequent increase in re¬ quired pumping power. Thus, for a specified fluid, i.e., viscosity and density, optimum geometries can be specified In general, liquid cooled anodes such as the previous described Philips and Kussel et al devices are character¬ ized by conduit geometries at the heat exchange surface with long lengths and small cross-sections. Contoured sur faces in such conduit geometries could result in excessive pressure drop. In contrast, one aspect of the present invention provides a heat exchange surface,having a short length and a large cross section. This permits the use ' of fully roughened heat exchange surfaces with minimum pressure drop. In addition, the small ratio of length (L) to diamete (D) of the conduit as compared to large L/D ratios as are present in the Kussel et al design, results in greater hea flux, i.e., heat transfer, per unit area. The rule of thumb is that each halving of the L/D ratio increases the heat flux by 15%. To minimize the pressure drop further and not induce significant rotational velocity to the liquid, a thin stationary sleeve can be placed in close proximity to the inside diameter of the outer rotating shaft used to impart rotation to the anode. The sleeve proceeds the full lengt of the shaft and flares to a funnel shape in the anode so as to retain close proximity. It terminates shortly before reaching the heat exchange surface of the anode. Thus, minimal rotational velocity is transmitted to the liquid from the outer rotating shaft. Another method to minimize induced rotational velocity in the liquid is to ϋ place thin longitudinal vanes external to the inner sta¬ tionary sleeve which separates the incoming from the out¬ going liquid. The vanes extend to close proximity to the inner wall of the hollow rotating shaft and continue into the anode, terminating just before the anode strip. The vanes serve to dampen a induced rotational velocity in the liquid caused by contact with the inside diameter of the outer rotational shaft. Thus, the design criteria have now been established for optimum heat transfer in liquid cooled rotating anode x-ray tubes. They are as follows: 1. Utilize the high rotational velocity of the anode to obtain the desired high relative anode to liquid velocity. 2. Provide relatively low velocity liquid flow- that traverses the path of anode rotation. 3. Maintain a Reynolds number of at least 1000 at the anode heat exchange surface. 4. In the proximity of the electron beam track, provide periodic variations in the wall thickness of the hollow rotatable anode so as to generate periodic curves at the heat exchange surface; the outer surface of the anode containing the electron beam remaining circul 5. In the proximity of the electron beam track, provide a calculated surface roughness at the anode heat exchange with roughness projections of heights ranging from 0.3 times the thickness of the viscous sublayer to equal the sum of the thickness of the viscous sublayer and the transition zone to break up the viscous sublayer. Using design criteria 1 and 2 alone results in a circular anode surface at the liquid interface with a smooth surface, i.e., surface roughness less than 0.3 of the thickness of the viscous sublayer. Even with the high anode to liquid velocity, poorer heat transfer and lower critical heat flux result because the nucleate bubbles will adhere more readily to the anode surface inasmuch as there is no pressure gradient generated to induce them to break away, other than those normally generated by surface tension and other minor factors, such as shear forces and transmitted turbulence. Therefore, the bubbles become larger and remain longer and have a greater tenden- cy to interact to form the insulating vapor blanket of film boiling. Thus, poorer heat transfer and lower criti¬ cal heat flux, i.e., burn out, result. This is much like spinning a cup of water on its axis. The water remains essentially stationary while the cup spins and then slowly picks up rotational velocity. Were the inside .surface of the cup contoured, i.e., roughened and/or provided with periodic curves as described, the water would agitate quickly thereby providing improved interaction with the cup wall, i.e., improved heat trans- fer. The use of a gradient to provide efficient heat removal is shown by' the previously-described Kussel et al device. In that device, the liquid is pumped essentially circu ferentially around the anode, i.e., at 15° to the path of anode travel. The change in direction, i:e., cen¬ trifugal force, of the liquid as it travels along the inner surface of the peripheral wall induces the desired gradi¬ ent. Kussel et al reports 100 kw with this design. The present invention will achieve the same results without the described shortcomings of the Kussel et al design. Referring nowto FIG. 1, the basic structure of a preferred exemplary embodiment of the present invention will be described. A hollow anode 1 attaches to a hollow rotating shaft 2. A rotational fluid seal 3 is mounted at the end of hollow shaft 2. A stationary cupped cylindrical attachment 4 with entrance duct 5 is mounted to rotational fluid seal 3. A stationary tube 6 is disposed concentricall with, and extends through, stationary hollow cupped cylin¬ drical attachment 4; a hermetic seal is provided between attachment 4 and stationary tube 6. Stationary tube 6 extends longitudinally, and concentrically, within hollow rotatable shaft 2 into the hollow rotatable anode 1. A stationary septum 7 is mounted on hollow stationary tube 6, and disposed within hollow anode 1. Hollow anode 1 is rotatably coupled to stationary septum 7 by a rotational bearing 8 and a fin radial support and centering means 9 attached to inner, stationary segment of bearing 8. A rotatable bearing member 10, including an inner rotating segment and outer stationary segment 12 is util¬ ized to rotatably couple rotatable shaft 2 to a mounting member 13 and to a vacuum envelope 14. Inner rotating se ment 11 of rotatable bearing member 10 is fastened to the outside diameter of hollow rotatable shaft 2. Outer stationary..-segment 12 of rotatable bearing member 10 is fastened to mounting member 13 and a vacuum envelope 14. Suitable rotatable high vacuum sealing means 15, such as ferrofluidic seal, is incorporated in bearing 10 to vacuu seal stationary member 12 to rotatable shaft 2 to facili¬ tate provision of a vacuum within vacuum envelope 14, surrounding anode* 1. An electron gun 17 is mounted withi vacuum envelope 14. Electron gun 17 provides an electron •beam 18 focussed upon an electron beam track 19 on the exterior periphery of anode 1. Illumination of anode 1 by beam 18 causes generation of x-rays which exit through a vacuum tight x-ray transparent window 20 in vacuum envelope 14. Pulley 21, or other means, is connected to a suitabl motor by a belt (not shown) to provide rotational drive t shaft 2 and, thus, anode 1. A port 16 is provided in env ope 14 for attachment to means, not shown, to obtain or maintain the necessary vacuum within the evacuated space 27. The vacuum may be generated by, for example, barium, titanium, or zirconium getters or VAC-Ion, titanium sub¬ limation, cryogenic, turbo-molecular, diffusion or other vacuum pumps. The basic structure of FIG. 1, having been described above, functions as follows. Cooled fluid from an extern heat exchanger and pump assembly (not shown) is pumped into the x-ray tube through duct 5. The coolant then travels toward the anode 1 between the outer diamete of stationary inner tube 6, and the inner diameter of rotatable hollow shaft 2. The coolant then passes along inside input face 22 of anode 1 and outside of input face 23 of septum 7, until it inc es the anode heat exchange surface 24. Specific designs for the rapid removal of nucleate bubbles are applied to the anode heat exchange surface 24. The aforementioned periodic curves and calculated surface roughening are provided only on an area of the anode heat, exchange surface 24 generally centered directly below the electron beam track 19 and are typically 1 to 9 times the width or greater (depending on focal spot size and anode wall thickness) of the electron beam track 19. The septum 7 serves to direct the entire coolant flow into close proximity to the anode heat exchange surface by providing a narrow channel between the septum 7 and anode heat exchange surface 24. The width of the septum 26 is typically greater than the width of the electron beam track and is generally centered with the electron beam track. The spacing between the septum and the anode heat exchange surface is designed to maintain optimum flow and heat exchange conditions. The geometry is always such that the entire heat exchange surface of the anode, i.e., the generated curves and/or the roughened surface, is simultaneously and continuously exposed to coolant flow. In this manner, the entire heat exchange surface is continuously cooled and hot spots cannot de¬ velop due to interrupted coolant availability. Thus, optimum heat transfer is obtained and maintained. Having passed over the anode heat exchange surface 24 to 25, the heated coolant now passes the outboard faces of the anode inside surface and septum, past support fins 9 and out through the inside of stationary tube 6. From there, the coolant proceeds to the external heat exchanger pump (not shown) and back to the x-ray tube. It is desirable that the temperature rise at the rotatable vacuum seal 15 be minimized. The ferrofluidic vacuum sealing fluids have viscosity and vapor pressure characteristics that are very sensitive to temperature with the typical maximum operating temperature being 50°C. Accordingly, the cooled liquid is passed between the outer diameter of inner tube 6 and the inner diameter of rotatable shaft 2. This passes cooled input liquid against the vacuum seal, to maintain minimum temperatures and thus optimize operating conditions. Reversing the direction ,of flow would pass heated liquid next to the vacuum seal, raising the temperature of the seal. The increased seal temperature tends to cause degradation of operating characteristics, such as reducing permissible operating rpm and--degrades the vacuum due to the increase vapor pressure of the heated ferrofluids. However, with a suitable cooling and insulating scheme for the vacuum seal the coolant flow direction could be reversed which has advantages with respect to minimizing induced rotational velocity in the liquid flow. Respective alternative cross sections along view 3-3 in FIG. 1 are shown in FIGS, 2, 4 and 5 to illustrate examples of contoured surface geometries that serve to increase heat flux and raise the critical heat flux at the anode heat exchange surface. The contoured surface portions of the heat. exchange surface are generally cen¬ tered beneath the electron beam track and range in widths from 1 to 9 times (or greater for small focal spots) that of the electron beam track. The width is dictated by parameters such as anode thermal conductivity and wall thickness, heat exchange surface geometry and coolant characteristics. In general, the septum is stationary while the anode rotates to minimize induced rotational velocity in the coolant flow. FIGS. 2 and 3 illustrate a contoured surface compris¬ ing a roughened surface at the anode heat exchange surface as shown in FIG. 2. Roughness projections having height, width and spacing generally indicated as 28, 29 and 30, respectively, are provided on the heat exchange surface of the anode 1. The projections are in alignment with septum 7, spaced from septum 7 by a distance generally indicated as 31. Height 28, width 29 and spacing 30, as well as septum 7, anode 1, spacing 31 and anode wall thick ness 32, are designed to provide optimum heat transfer. Anode rotation 33 and the electron beam 18 striking the anode strip 34 are shown. Referring now to FIG. 3, the widths of electron beam 18, septum ' 7, the contoured portion of the heat exchange surface and face are generally indicated as 35, 36, 37 and 38, respectively. Septum width 36 and roughness width 37 are generally equal to or greater than the electron beam track width 35. Electron beam track width 35 is less than the anode face width 38 for all cases. The roughness width 37 is generally greater than the septum width 36. Liquid flow, generally indicated as 39 (FIG. 3) passes between septum 7 and anode 1 (FIG 2) , traversing the path of anode rotation 33 (FIG. 3). The direction of liquid flow 39 is shown 90° (normal) to anode rotation 33. However, in any of the heat exchange configurations, the liquid flow vector 39 can be rotated to provide a velocity component with or against the direction of anode rot «ation to further optimize heat transfer. Roughness elements (projections) 40 are spaced along the direction of coolant flow at a distance generally indicated as 42. Roughness element 40, spacings 30 and 42, as well as height 28 (FIG 2) ' and shape, are designed to provide optimum heat trans¬ fer based on parameters such as fluid viscosity, density, boiling characteristics, thermal characteristics and geometry of the anode, electron beam power densities, etc. Once the benefits of break-up of the viscous sublayer are achieved, further increase in roughness element height generally reduces the efficiency of heat transfer by increasing the possibility of dead spots at the roughness base between roughness elements and increasing the thermal impedance of the roughness element. An alternative contoured surface is shown in FIG. 4, using periodic curves in the shape of flutes, with rounded cusps. Flutes 43 of radius 44 and rounded cusp radius 45 are provided on the inside surface of anode 1. Flute height and period are generally indicated as 46 and 49, respectively. Flute height 46, flute radius 44, cusp radius 45 and flute period 49 are designed for optimum heat transfer for a given liquid, anode metal, power density, anode rotational velocity, etc. The maximum angle ^formed by the rounded cusp is 20°, with minimum break¬ up in liquid flow occurring at 7°. Anode rotation in the direction- indicated by arrow — 33 provides the high relative anode to liquid velocity required for generating a pressure gradient at the anode surface. The changing radius 50, generated by the flute as measured from the axis of rotation of the anode 51, causes inward displacement of the fluid inducing in the liquid a radial inward force 52 along the radius of the flute. It is this force, i.e., an artificial gravity, that generates the pressure gradient that assists in more rapidly breaking loose and carrying away the nucleate bubbles. Rounding the cusps to radius 45 minimizes eddies and break-up of the liquid flow as it passes over the cusps, thus maintaining efficient heat transfer. A further alternative contoured surface is shown in FIG. 5, using a geometry that induces swirl flow, generally indicated as 53, of the coolant along the surface of the anode. The geometry uses a modified flute shape 54, wherein the cusp tip 55 is "rolled" over in the direction of anode rotation 33. An enlarged breakout is shown in FIG. 6. As the liquid traverses the path of anode rotation 33, it is "scooped" up by rolled-over cusp tip 55. The centrifugal force generated by the liquid as it flows (indicated by arrow 56) rapidly along the curved surface 57 creates a gradient perpendicular to the node heat exchange sur¬ face that more readily breaks loose nucleate bubbles. The efficiency of the swirl flow configuration may be enhanced by angling the swirl flow structure with respect to the path of anode rotation. FIGS. 5 and 6 depict the swirl flow structure normal to the plane of rotation 33 of the anode. FIG. 7 schematically illustrates a contoured surface wherein the swirl flow structure is placed at an angle θ with the,path of rotation 33 of the anode. Angling the swirl flow geometry serves to provide a component of velocity in the direction of liquid flow thereby minimizin back pressure generated by vaporized liquid or other causes. In so doing, it maintains optimum swirl flow con¬ ditions. The path of the swirl flow is represented by arrow 59. To enhance further the interaction of the liquid with the anode heat exchange surface, the spacing between the septum and the anode may either converge or diverge in the direction of liquid flow or may be a complex curve which combines both convergence and divergence. This geometry serves to optimize further the local liquid flow characteristics in the region of the heat exchange sur- face. An example of such a structure is shown in FIG. 8. FIG. 8 illustrates a converging geometry in the"fluid conduit at the heat exchange region wherein the septum face 60 is angled at angle <p in the direction of liquid flow 62. The geometry of the septum face 60 may also diverge or be a complex curve containing both converging and diverging elements, i.e., a concave or convex arc. The geometry shown illustrates a modified septum. In some cases, it may be desirable to modify the geometry of the anode heat exchange surface 63 in like manner. An example would be the embodiment depicted in FIG. 5 wherein the swirl flow geometry could be enhanced by a diverging anode geometry which would use a component of centrifugal force to optimize further the swirl flow characteristics. Additional improvement may be obtained by designing for optimum spacing geometry between inside anode input face 22 and septum input face 23, generally indicated as 64. To maintain constant liquid velocity, a constant cross- section is required. Thus, input face spacing 64 would decrease as liquid flow 62 approached the anode strip 65. In general, spacing geometry between the output faces of the septum 66 and anode 67 is not critical to the heat exchange process and may be optimized for parameters such as strength or minimizing back pressure. Referring again to FIG. 1, a further design consid¬ eration (raised by passing the cooled coolant between inner tube 6 and outer rotatable shaft 2) is the undesirab rotationable velocity in the direction of anode rotation imparted to a thin layer of coolant adjacent the inside diameter of the rotatable shaft 2 as it travels ' toward the anode and up the anode face 22. Only a thin layer of liquid has a rotational velocity imparted to it, and it substantially mixes with the main body of flow. Thus, only a minor rotation of the total liquid stream by the time it reaches the anode surface is created. However, this rotational velocity is undesirable because it reduces the relative velocity between the anode and the coolant. A coolant rotational velocity can be minimized by two structures. The first, as illustrated in FIG. 9, utilizes thin fins 68 mounted longitudinally on the outer diameter of inner tube 6. Fins 68 extend from rotatable coolant seal 3 to a point at 69 just before anode heat exchange surface 70. Fins 68 are maintained in close proximity (a distance generally indicated as 71) to the inner diameter of rotatable shaft 2, and in close proximity (a- distance generally indicated as 73) of inner anode face 22. A second method of minimizing induced rotational flow in the coolant (shown in FIG. 10) is by providing a thin walled stationary outer tube 74, extending from the rotatable coolant seal 3 into the anode 1, in close proximity (a distance generally indicated as 75) to the inner diameter of rotatable shaft 2, and maintaining close proximity (distance generally indicated as 76) to anode face 22, terminating at point 77 just prior to anode strip 78. (The radial support fins are not shown.) Thus, in both structures, the incoming cooled coolan is substantially separated from rotationally-induced motion imparted by rotational shaft 2 and anode face 22, or rotational components are damped out. Once past the heated anode surface, induced rotational velocity in the coolant is no longer relevant to the heat exchange pro— cess. To further isolate thermally the incoming coolant from the outgoing heated coolant, inner stationary tube 6 (FIG. 1) may be constructed from two thin walled tubes. These two tubes, whose diameters are such to provide a small gap between them, are concentrically and hermeticall brazed at each end in a vacuum. Thus, the evacuated space between the tubes provides insulation as with a "thermos" j g- The liquid cooled rotating anode x-ray tube is mounte within an x-ray tube assembly. Such an x-ray tube assem¬ bly, shown in FIG. 11, typically comprises the following elements: an x-ray tube housing 80 which is generally made from an x-ray absorbing material; an x-ray beam limiting device 81, commonly called a collimator; a liquid cooled rotating anode x-ray tube 84, as previously des¬ cribed; a motor 85 and a drive belt 86, or other means for rotating the anode at the desired rpm. Collimator 81 may contain movable shutters 82 to permit a variable x-ray field size 83 to be obtained. A vacuum pump 87 is mounted on or within the x-ray tube vacuum envelope to maintain the required vacuum. Vacuum pumping means that may be used include, for example, getters or Vac-Ion, titanium sublimation, cryogenic, diffusion or turbo- molecular pumps. These pumps may be used alone or in combination. High 88 and low 89 voltage cables and connectors are utilized as required. A suitable high voltage isolation medium 90 is required within the x-ray tube housing 80 to prevent arc-over from high volrage .sur¬ faces on the x-ray tube to the grounded housing. A suitab medium 90 may be a gas such as a greon or sulphur hexa- fluoride or a liquid such as a fluorocarbon, a silicon© oil or a transformer oil. A vacuum may also be used as an insulating medium or selected regions may be potted with solid dielectrics such as ep.oxy or silicone. The above illustrative insulating means may be used alone or in combination. A heat exchanger 31 is required if the coolant system is to be of the close.d loop type. Generall the heat exchanger contains a pump 92 for circulating the coolant fluid and heat exchange means 93 to transfer the heat to a secondary medium. The secondary medium is suitably air for an air-cooled system and -water for a water-cooled system. Suitable couplings and hoses 94 are utilized if the heat exchanger is external to the s-ra tube assembly. Mounting elements 95 for the x-ray tube within the x-ray tube housing are also provided. These mounting elements are suitably formed of dielectric mater- ials such as ceramic or plastic for high voltage isolation. External mounting means 96 are also provided for mounting the x-ray tube assembly in the desired systems configurati It should be appreciated that the foregoing describes a particularly advantageous liquid cooled rotating anode x-ray tube and the assembly which is suitable for use in applications that require the continuous duty generation of x-rays at high power levels. This includes high voltag x-rays for medical diagnostic use or low voltage x-rays for applications such as lithography. The contoured surface techniques herein described can be applied to other geometries of rotating anode and fixed target tubes. For example, to provide for efficient cooling of the heat exchange surface of the anode, the heat exchange surface is contoured such that the liquid flow interacting with the contoured surface generates a pressure gradient perpendicular to the anode heat exchange surface. Alternatively, a calculated surface roughness (geometry) may be applied to the liquid cooled anode heat exchange surface as previously described for the liquid cooled rotating target x-ray tube. Both techniques may be used. The applications of the design criteria can best be illustrated by reference to an example. Maldonado et al, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 16 (6) Nov./ Dec. 1979, describe a stationary target (hereinafter called an anode) x-ray tube. The anode is described as a cone with a wall thickness of 0.6 mm and is provided with a water diverter to provide uniform average water velocity on the back (outside) surface of the cone. A flow of water approaches the cone tip substantially ' parallel to the central axis of the cone. Constant con¬ duit cross section and resulting constant velocity of the water is obtained by varying the spacing between the back of the cone and the water diverter. A pressure drop of approximately 85 psi is required to obtain the stated velocity of 10 cm/sec (330 ft/sec) along the heat exchange surface of the anode. This very high velocity is re- quired to obtain efficient heat transfer, i.e., the rapid removal of nucleate bubbles under the conditions of substantially linear flow. In this example, a flow of 4 gal/min is used for 4 kw input power (though less than * 1% of the water actually boils, i.e., 2 gal/sec). The high power dissipation, 2 12 kw/cm , is achieved by the use of the very high velocity cooling water along the anode surface coupled with the initial pressure gradient perpendicular to the anode sur¬ face, generated at the cone tip region, and progressing some distance up the side, by the water flow as it is diverted outwardly by the cone geometry. Though little water boils, a high Reynolds number is required to obtain a high cooling efficiency. It can be seen that the change in direction, i.e., divergence, of the water flow as it strikes the tip of the cone and the continuing divergence of different layers of water some distance up the surface of r e cone will create a pressure gradient perpendicular to the anode heat exchange surface due to inertia forces. This is the same principle, but different structure, as the previously-described Kussel et al and Philips devices. However, at some point past the tip of the cone, the path of the water flow becomes substantially linear along the surface of the cone, i.e., no further pressure gradients of substance are generated perpendicular to the surface of the anode heat exchange surface. At this point, the maximum heat flux becomes determined by the linear coolant flow characteristics. The higher heat flux possible in the region where a gradient is present cannot be utilized, thus the transition from a flow wherein a pressure gradient perpendicular to the heated surface has been established to one where the flow is linear, i.e., a perpendicular gradient is no longer present, as occurs in the described conical anode, limits the maximum heat flux (burn out) to the lowest value determined by the linear coolant flow. Maximum heat flux can be obtained from the conical anode in accordance with one aspect of the present inven¬ tion ' by providing the outside surface of the cone along the heat exchange region in the form of a diverging curve. The constantly changing path of coolant flow generates a pressure gradient perpendicular to the anode heat exchange surface thereby maximizing heat flux. The curve suitably is in a shape similar to a Tractrix, Eypocycloid, ellipse, or some other curve that generates similar shapes,, rotated about the Y axis as shown in Granville et al, Elements of Calculus, Ginn & Co., 1946, pp. 528, 532. The shape of the water diverter would also change from a conical surface to a curved one in order to maintain the constant cross section. Such an anode target assembly is shown in FIG. 12. Referring now to FIG. 12, the conical outside surface of the anode is replaced with a curved surface 96. The shape of the water diverter 97 is also curved and in such manner as to ωaintain the constant conduit cross section specified by Maldonado. The inner surface 98 of the anode remains cone shaped to maintain a constant electron beam 99 power density striking the anode surface. The hollow circular electron beam 99 described by Maldonado is shown. The conical inner surface 98 and the curved diverging outer surface 96 of the anode result in an increasing anode wall thickness 102 as one progresses from the apex 100 to the base 101 of the "cone." If it were desired to obtain a uniform anode wall thickness, the inner surface 98 of- th _ - anode would conform in shape, i.e., curvature, to the outer curve 96. Vector 103 illustrates the direction of water flow, already somewhat outwardly diverged from its initial path. Vector component 104 shows the velocity component tangent to the curved anode heat exchange sur¬ face. It is velocity component 105 that creates the pressure gradient perpendicular to the anode surface. The gradient may be increased by increasing the rate of curva¬ ture of anode surface 96 or by increasing the velocity of the liquid coolant 106. The 10 cm/sec water velocity described by Maldonado is very high and therefore only a small curvature of the anode surface 96 is required to generate an appreciable gradient. The anode heat exchange surface is the ' surface of the portion of anode 107 beginn- ing slightly above the apex 108 of the anode and within the diverter, to just before the end of the diverter at point 109 on the anode surface towards the base of the anode 107. The diverter structure 110 serves to separate incoming water 106 from outgoing water 111 as well as to provide the proper conduit geometry in the anode heat exchange region. The anode holder 112 forms the outer jacket for the exiting water 111. Electron beam power density considerations may dic¬ tate that the inside surface, i.e., vacuum side, of the cone remain a simple conical geometry. The outside sur¬ face, i.e., the water cooled anode heat exchange surface, is provided with the diverging curve. Therefore, the stated anode wall thit_._.ness, 0.6mm, must vary in some manner. For example, the wall thickness at the cone tip may start thinner, i.e., as thin as 0.25mm (.010") and then get progressively thicker to some maximum thickness, possibly about 1mm (.040") towards the base of the cone. The minimum and maximum permissible wall thickness will be dictated"by the properties of the anode metal, coolant conduit geometry, characteristics of the coolant liquid and its velocity, desired power densities, etc. Inasmuch as the described conical anode is already quite efficient from a heat exchange standpoint, and this is principally due to the very high water velocity, i.e., high Reynolds number, the improvements from . the present invention may reside more from the reduced probability of destructive film boiling, alluded to in the article, and/or a reduced pressure required, presently 165 psi, rather than from any increased power that may be realized. Alternatively, it may enable the use of a dielectric coolant, such as a fluorocarbσn or a silicone oil, instead of water. This eliminates the corrosion problems associated with water and, more importantly, enables the anode to operate at high voltage which permits designs which substantially eliminate the destructive heating effects of secondary electrons on the x-ray window and other parts of the tube. In this type of structure, the x-ray window and selected regions of the vacuum envelope would operate at ground potential, the cathode assembly would be above ground potential, and the anode would operate at the desired potential above the cathode. Thus, the target window and other heat sensitive x-ray tube elements operat¬ ing at ground potential would reflect secondary and re¬ flected primary electrons thereby avoiding any heating - JR£ conical surface, a relatively uniform field intensity c be achieved over a reasonable field size for use in lit graphy. As one proceeds off axis, as the field intensi drops from one side of the cone because of the smaller angle relative to the target surface, however, the fiel intensity is substantially compensated for by an increas in intensity from the opposite side of the cone where th angle is increasing. This technique, while only valid for small changes angle, is quite effective. A geometry that would partia accomplish the same effect for a rotating anode would be to provide a "V" groove in the anode corresponding to the electron beam track. Thus, along an axis at right angles to the groove, an effect similar to that of the c cal shape of the fixed target would be achieved. As the intensity is measured off axis from the center of the gr the opposite surface would tend to compensate for the de crease due to a smaller target angle. However, along an axis parallel to the groove, compensation would be subst tially absent. FIG. 13 illustrates a "V" groove rotating anode co figuration. The rotating anode 113 has a "V" groove * 114 machined along its periphery. The vacuum side of the "V" groove 114 provides the inclined surface for the electron beam track 115. The apex 116 of the "V" groove is not irradiated by the electron beam 117 because of po heat transfer characteristics. While anode wall 118 is shown having a uniform thickness, the anode wall thic ness 118 can be made variable to optimize heat transfer. The liquid cooled anode heat exchange surface on the inc ing face 119 and the outgoing face 120 of the "V" groove is provided with a contoured surface or a calculated surface roughness, or a combination of a contoured surfa and a calculated surface roughness. Incoming liquid cooled "V" groove surface 119 may have a different conto surface or calculated surface roughness, or combination thereof, than that on outgoing liquid cooled "V" gr ' oove surface 120 to further optimize performance. Septum 12 is contoured with respect to the liquid cooled side of the "V" groove so as to provide the desired conduit geometr It will be understood that the above description is of preferred exemplary embodiments of the present invention and that the invention is not limited to the specific forms shown. Modification may be made in the design and arrangement of the elements without departing from the spirit of the invention as expressed in the appended claims.

Claims: AMENDED CLAIMS (received by the Intemationai Bureau on 30 August 1982 (30.08.82) 1. In x-ray generating apparatus of the type including a rotating anode of predetermined geometry adapted for irradiatio by an energy beam, and including a heat exchange surface, said apparatus includes means for providing a flow of coolant liquid of predetermined physical characteristics to remove heat from said heat exchange surface by formation of nucleate vapor bubbles on said heat exchange surface, said liquid tending to include a viscous sublayer adjacent to said heat exchange surface, the improvement wherein said heat exchange surface includes at least one of: means for forming nucleate bubbles of predetermined size and distribution in accordance with said anode geometry and said coolant liquid physical characteristics; means for forming pressure gradients in said liquid having a component perpendicular to said heat exchange surface to facilitate removal of said nucleate bubbles; and means for breaking up said viscous sublayer to facilitate removal of said nucleate bubbles. 2. In apparatus of the type including an anode adapted for irradiation by an energy beam, and including a heat exchange sur¬ face, said apparatus includes means for providing a flow of coolant liquid to remove heat from said heat exchange surface by formation of nucleate vapor bubbles on and removal from said heat exchange surface, said liquid tending to include a viscous sublayer adjacent to said heat exchange surface, the improvement wherein said heat exchange surface includes means for breaking up said viscous sublayer to promote removal- of said nucleate bubbles. 3. In the apparatus of claim 2 , the " further improvement wherein the apparatus comprises means for generating pressure gradients in said liquid having a component perpendicular to said heat exchange surface. 4. In apparatus of the type including an anode adapted for irradiation by an energy beam along a first portion thereof, and " including a heat exchange surface generally underlying and at least generally coextensive with said anode first portion, said apparatus includes means for providing a flow of coolant liquid to remove heat from said heat exchange surface by for¬ mation of nucleate vapor bubbles on said heat exchange surface and removal of said nucleate bubbles from said heat exchange surface, the improvement wherein: said apparatus includes means for generating pressure gradients in said liquid having a component perpendicular to said heat exchange surface along substantially the entirety of said heat exchange surface, to promote removal of said nucleate vapor bubbles from said heat exchange surface. 5. In the apparatus of claim 4 wherein said liquid tends to include a viscous sublayer adjacent to said heat exchange surface, the further improvement wherein said heat exchange surface includes means for breaking up said viscous sublayer. 6 . In the apparatus of claim 1, 2, 3 or 5 the improvement wherein said means for breaking up said viscous sublayer com¬ prises roughness elements formed on said heat exchange surface projecting into said liquid. 7. The apparatus of claim 6 wherein said viscous sublayer is of a first predetermined thickness, and said liquid includes a -transitional sublayer of a second predetermined thickness adjacent to said viscous sublayer, the improvement wherein said roughness elements project into said liquid one or more distances ranging from 0.3 times said first predetermined distance to the sum 1 of said first and second distances. 8. In the apparatus of claim 10 wherein said predetermined periodic geometry comprises flutes with rounded cusps . 9. An apparatus as described in claim 8 wherein the radius of said cusps is in the range of 1/8 to 1/2 of the radius of said flutes, the height of said radiused cusps varying from 1mm to 9mm above the bottom of said flute and the wall thickness of the said anode as measured from the bottom of the flute varying from 0.2mm to about 5mm with the maximum angle of the flute being about 20°. 10. An apparatus as described in claim 1 wherein the anode wall thickness of said hollow rotatable anode in the proximity of said electron beam track varies in a periodic manner, said wall thickness variations generating periodic curves at the anode heat exchange surface. 11. Apparatus as described in claim 10 wherein said periodic curves are in the shape of flutes having their cusps curved in the direction of anode rotation. OMP Editorial Note The claims amended by the applicant under Article 19 (1) of the PCT have not been renumbered in accordance with Section 205 of the Administrative Instructions under the PCT. The following information is given hereafter in order to facilitate the understanding of the amended claims: Correspondence between original and amended claims: Origina] claims Amended claims ϊ 1 (amended) 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 (cancelled) 9 8 (amended) 10 " (cancelled) 11 (cancelled) 12 (cancelled) 13 (cancelled) 14 (cancelled) 15 (cancelled) 16 9 (amended) 17 10 18 (cancelled) 19 (cancelled) 20 11 (amended) 21 to 48 (cancelled)

Inventors: IVERSEN ARTHUR H
Applicants: IVERSEN ARTHUR H
Application year: 1982
Main classification: H05G1
IPC codes: H01J35