List of wars involving Chile
List of military confrontations -- XIX century
Table:
Confrontation

Combatant 1

Combatant 2

Results

Spanish American wars of independence
(1810–1833)

Independentists:[Note 2]

Chile

Gran Colombia

United Provinces of the Río de la Plata

Mexico

Peru

Bolivia

Paraguay

Banda Oriental

Native Americans pro-independent

Royalist:

Spanish Monarchy

Spain

Spanish America

Native Americans pro-realistic

Portuguese Empire

Independentist victory

End of all Spanish domains in Americas, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico.

Formation of the new Hispanic American states.

The Banda Oriental, although it defeated the royalists, ended up being conquered by the Portuguese Empire in 1820.

Subsequently, Spain recognizes each of the new Hispanic American states through the signing of international treaties.[Note 3]

Brigandage of the Pincheira brothers
(1827–1832)

Chile
United Provinces of the Río de la Plata
Pampas and Mapuche allies

Montoneras of Pincheira
Pampas and Mapuche pro-Pincheira

Chile & allies victory

End of the montoneras of Pincheira and relocation in Chile of the families that lived in the Pincheira camps.

The Chilean government pardoned José Antonio, the last leader of the Pincheira.

Rural banditry persists for several years but to a lesser extent.

Argentine campaign on the Desert (1833–34).

Surveillance and military confrontation between Chile and the Mapuche tribes on the Biobío River line (1835–1859).

Civil War of 1829–1830
(1829–1830)

Pelucones

Pipiolos

Pelucones victory

Establishment of the Conservative Republic.

Political preponderance of Diego Portales.

Surveillance and military confrontation between Chile and the Mapuche tribes in «La Frontera»
(1835–1859)

Chile

Mapuche tribes

Inconclusive

Chilean elites call for the incorporation the Araucanía to the Republic of Chile to end the Mapuche malones and prevent the Chilean dissidents from taking refuge in that territory.[citation needed]

War of the Confederation
(1836–1839)

Chile

show

Peruvian dissidents

Peruvian exiles (1836–1837)
Government of La Fuente (1837)
Peruvian exiles (1837–1838)
Government of Gamarra (1838–1839)

Argentine Confederation

Peru–Bolivian Confederation

Orbegosista government

Chile & Peruvian dissidents victory

Dissolution of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation.

The orbegosista government is defeated during the course of the war.

Restoration of the republics of Peru (unification of the North and South States of Peru) and Bolivia.

Exile of Andrés de Santa Cruz.

Chile obtains international prestige and the commercial hegemony of Valparaíso in the Pacific.[2]

Military tension between Peru and Bolivia.

Argentina, after the dissolution of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, negotiated with Bolivia the recovery of the territory it had lost during the war.[3]

Uprising of the military canton of Quillota
(1837)

Chilean Government

Rebels of Quillota

Government victory

The rebels execute the Minister Diego Portales.

Defeat of the rebels and execution of their leader, Colonel José Antonio Vidaurre.

Iquicha War[Note 4]
(1839)

Peru
Chile

Iquichanos

Peru & Chile victory

Signature of the Treaty of Yanallay in which the Iquichanos submit to the Republic of Peru.

Isolation of the caudillo Antonio Huachaca.

Chilean Revolution of 1851
(1851)

Chilean Government

Liberal rebels
Mañil

Government victory

Survival of the conservative government.

Repression and exile of intellectuals and liberal politicians.

Chilean Revolution of 1859
(1859)

Chilean Government

Liberal rebels

Government victory

Temporary survival of the conservative government.

Exile of the liberal Pedro León Gallo until 1863.

Presidential candidacy of José Joaquín Pérez, who was elected and started the Liberal Republic in 1861.

The Radical Party of Chile emerged in 1863 from the seed of the revolution.

Occupation of Araucanía
(1861–1883)

Chile

Mapuche tribes

Chilean victory

Incorporation of Araucanía into Chile.

The Mapuche tribes are concentrated in land reductions.

Entry of Chileans and European immigrants into the territory.

Infrastructure build-up in the territory.

Violence and lawlessness in the areas for decades are generated.

Chincha Islands War
(1864–1866)

Chile
Peru

Nominal participation:

Ecuador
Bolivia

Spain

Indecisive, both sides claimed victory

Spanish withdrawal from the Chincha Islands.

Decline of the Chilean merchant fleet.

Increase in the naval power of Chile.[citation needed]

The state of war is maintained between the belligerent parties until the signing of an indefinite armistice in 1871.

Subsequently, Spain and the South American allies signed peace treaties separately: Peru (1879), Bolivia (1879), Chile (1883) and Ecuador (1885).

War of the Pacific
(1879–1883)

Chile

Peru
Bolivia

Chilean victory

Signing of the Treaty of Ancón between Chile and Peru in 1883.

Signing of the Treaty of Valparaiso between Chile and Bolivia in 1884.

Bolivia becomes de facto and de jure landlocked.

Peruvian civil war of 1884–1885.

Saltpeter becomes Chile's main source of wealth for several years.

Emergence of the military and political influence of Chile in South America.[5]

Tension between Chile and Argentina due to the dispute over the Puna de Atacama.

Rivalry between Chile and the United States.[5][Note 5]

Civil War of 1891
(1891)

Chilean Government

Congressist Junta

Congressist victory

Suicide of President José Manuel Balmaceda.

Ascent of Jorge Montt to the presidency.

Beginning of the Parliamentary period.

Decline of the military and political influence of Chile in South America.[citation needed]

The tensions between Chile and the United States during the war lead to the Baltimore crisis.[7]

Based on the provided table together with the context snippets below.

Answer the following question: Who was combatant 1 in the confrontation that was fought between conservative and liberal forces in Chile over the constitutional regime in force ? Respond with the correct answer (omit explanations) in JSON format as {"answer": "YOUR ANSWER"}. Do not introduce information beyond the provided sources.

The Spanish American wars of independence were the numerous wars against Spanish rule in Spanish America with the aim of political independence that took place during the early 19th century , shortly after the French invasion of Spain in 1807 during Europe 's Napoleonic Wars . Although there has been research on the idea of a separate Spanish American ( creole ) identity separate from that of Iberia , political independence was not initially the aim of most Spanish Americans , nor was it necessarily inevitable . With the restoration of Ferdinand VII in 1814 , the King rejected any type of Popular sovereignty ( Junta or Cortes ) . The Liberal Triennium of 1820 also did not change the position of the Cádiz constitution of 1812 against separatism , while Latin Americans were increasingly radicalized seeking political independence . The violent conflicts started in 1809 with short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito in opposing the government of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville . In 1810 , numerous new juntas appeared across the Spanish domains in the Americas when the Central Junta fell to the French invasion . Although various regions of Spanish America objected to many crown policies , there was little interest in outright independence ; indeed there was widespread support for the Spanish Central Junta formed to lead the resistance against the French . While some Spanish Americans believed that independence was necessary , most who initially supported the creation of the new governments saw them as a means to preserve the region 's autonomy from the French . Over the course of the next decade , the political instability in Spain and the absolutist restoration under Ferdinand VII convinced many Spanish Americans of the need to formally establish independence from the mother country . These conflicts were fought both as irregular warfare and conventional warfare . These wars began as localized Civil Wars that later spread and expanded to promote general independence from Spanish rule . This independence led to the development of new national boundaries based on the colonial provinces , which would form the future independent countries that constitute contemporary Latin America during the early 19th century .
The term patriot is used to refer to supporters of Spanish American independence and of their governments that emerged during the revolution between 1808-1825 .
Chile ( /ˈtʃɪli/ ( listen ) , /ˈtʃɪleɪ/ ; Spanish : [ ˈtʃile ] ) , [ nb 2 ] officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish : República de Chile ( help·info ) ) , is a South American country occupying a long , narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west . It borders Peru to the north , Bolivia to the northeast , Argentina to the east , and the Drake Passage in the far south . Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández , Salas y Gómez , Desventuradas , and Easter Island in Oceania . Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres ( 480,000 sq mi ) of Antarctica under the Chilean Antarctic Territory . [ nb 3 ] , The arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth , principally copper and lithium . The relatively small central area dominates in terms of population and agricultural resources , and is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it incorporated its northern and southern regions . Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands , and features a string of volcanoes and lakes . The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords , inlets , canals , twisting peninsulas , and islands . Spain conquered and colonized the region in the mid-16th century , replacing Inca rule in the north and centre , but failing to conquer the independent Mapuche who inhabited what is now south-central Chile . After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818 , Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic . In the 19th century , Chile saw significant economic and territorial growth , ending Mapuche resistance in the 1880s and gaining its current northern territory in the War of the Pacific ( 1879-83 ) after defeating Peru and Bolivia . In the 1960s and 1970s , the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil .
Gran Colombia ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈɡɾaŋ koˈlombja ] ( listen ) , Greater Colombia ) is the name historians use to refer to the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831 . The state included the territories of present-day Colombia , Ecuador , Panama and Venezuela , and parts of northern Peru , western Guyana and northwestern Brazil . The term Gran Colombia is used historiographically to distinguish it from the current Republic of Colombia , which is also the official name of the former state . At the time of its creation , Gran Colombia was the most prestigious country in Spanish America . John Quincy Adams , then Secretary of State and future president of the United States , claimed it to be one of the most powerful nations on the planet . This prestige , added to the figure of Simón Bolívar , attracted to the nation unionist ideas of independence movements in Cuba , the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico , which sought to form an associated state with the republic . But international recognition of the legitimacy of the Gran Colombian state ran afoul of European opposition to the independence of states in the Americas . Austria , France , and Russia only recognized independence in the Americas if the new states accepted monarchs from European dynasties . In addition , Colombia and the international powers disagreed over the extension of the Colombian territory and its boundaries . Gran Colombia was proclaimed through the Fundamental Law of the Republic of Colombia , issued during the Congress of Angostura ( 1819 ) , but did not come into being until the Congress of Cúcuta ( 1821 ) promulgated the Constitution of Cúcuta . Gran Colombia was constituted as a unitary centralist state . Its existence was marked by a struggle between those who supported a centralized government with a strong presidency and those who supported a decentralized , federal form of government .
The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata ( Spanish : Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata ) , earlier known as the United Provinces of South America ( Spanish : Provincias Unidas de Sudamérica ) , a union of provinces in the Río de la Plata region of South America , emerged from the May Revolution in 1810 and the Argentine War of Independence of 1810-1818 . It comprised most of the former Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata dependencies and had Buenos Aires as its capital . It is best known in Spanish-language literature as Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata ( United Provinces of the River Plate i. e. River of silver ) , this being the most common ( occasionally the official ) name in use for the country until the enactment of the 1826 Constitution . The Argentine National Anthem refers to the state as the United Provinces of the South . The Constitution of Argentina recognises Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata as one of the official names of the country , referred to as Argentine Nation ( Nación Argentina ) in modern legislation .
The Mexican Empire ( Spanish : Imperio Mexicano , pronounced [ ĩmˈpeɾjo mexiˈcano ] ( listen ) ) was a monarchy , and the first independent post-colonial imperial state in Mexico . It was the only former colony of the Spanish Empire to establish a monarchy after independence . Together with the Brazilian Empire and the two Haitian Empires , it was one of four European-style empires in the Americas ; it lasted two years before transitioning into a federal republic . It existed from the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba and the declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire in September 1821 until the emperor 's abdication in March 1823 when the Provisional Government took power and the First Mexican Republic was proclaimed in 1824 . The monarch of the state was Agustín de Iturbide , reigning as Agustín I of Mexico .
Peru ( /pəˈruː/ ( listen ) ; Spanish : Perú [ peˈɾu ] ; Quechua : Piruw Republika [ pʰɪɾʊw ] ; Aymara : Piruw Suyu [ pɪɾʊw ] ) , officially the Republic of Peru ( Spanish : República del Perú ( help·info ) ) , is a country in western South America . It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia , in the east by Brazil , in the southeast by Bolivia , in the south by Chile , and in the west by the Pacific Ocean . Peru is a megadiverse country with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west to the peaks of the Andes mountains vertically extending from the north to the southeast of the country to the tropical Amazon Basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon river . At 1.28 million km2 ( 0.5 million mi2 ) , Peru is the 19th largest country in the world , and the third largest in South America . Peruvian territory was home to several ancient cultures . Ranging from the Norte Chico civilization starting in 3500 BC , the oldest civilization in the Americas and one of the five cradles of civilization , to the Inca Empire , the largest state in pre-Columbian America , the territory now including Peru has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country , tracing its heritage back to the 4th millennia BCE . The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a viceroyalty that encompassed most of its South American colonies , with its capital in Lima . Peru formally proclaimed independence in 1821 , and following the military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar , and the decisive battle of Ayacucho , Peru completed its independence in 1824 . In the ensuing years , the country enjoyed relative economic and political stability , which ended shortly before the War of the Pacific with Chile . Throughout the 20th century , Peru endured armed territorial disputes , coups , social unrest , and internal conflicts , as well as periods of stability and economic upswing . Alberto Fujimori was elected to the presidency in 1990 ; his government was credited with economically stabilizing Peru and successfully ending the Shining Path insurgency , though he was widely accused of human rights violations and suppression of political dissent . Fujimori left the presidency in 2000 and was charged with human rights violations and imprisoned until his pardon by President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski in 2017 .
Bolivia ( /bəˈlɪviə/ ( listen ) Spanish pronunciation : [ bo.ˈli.βja ] ) , officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia ( Spanish : Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia Spanish pronunciation : [ esˈtaðo pluɾinasjoˈnal de βoˈliβja ] ( listen ) ) , is a landlocked country located in western-central South America . The capital is Sucre , while the seat of government and financial center is located in La Paz . The largest city and principal industrial center is Santa Cruz de la Sierra , located on the Llanos Orientales ( tropical lowlands ) , a mostly flat region in the east of the country . The sovereign state of Bolivia is a constitutionally unitary state , divided into nine departments . Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West , to the Eastern Lowlands , situated within the Amazon Basin . It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil , to the southeast by Paraguay , to the south by Argentina , to the southwest by Chile , and to the northwest by Peru . One-third of the country is within the Andean mountain range . With 1,098,581 km2 ( 424,164 sq mi ) of area , Bolivia is the fifth largest country in South America , after Brazil , Argentina , Peru and Colombia ( and alongside Paraguay , one of the only two landlocked countries in the Americas ) , the 27th largest in the world , the largest landlocked country in the Southern Hemisphere and the world 's seventh largest landlocked country , after Kazakhstan , Mongolia , Chad , Niger , Mali and Ethiopia . The country 's population , estimated at 11 million , is multiethnic , including Amerindians , Mestizos , Europeans , Asians and Africans . Spanish is the official and predominant language , although 36 indigenous languages also have official status , of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani , Aymara and Quechua languages . Before Spanish colonization , the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire , while the northern and eastern lowlands were inhabited by independent tribes . Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century .
Paraguay ( /ˈpærəɡwaɪ/ ; Spanish pronunciation : [ paɾaˈɣwaj ] ( listen ) ; Guarani : Paraguái , [ paɾaˈɰwaj ] ) , officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish : República del Paraguay ; Guarani : Tetã Paraguái ) , is a country in South America . It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest , Brazil to the east and northeast , and Bolivia to the northwest . Although it is one of only two landlocked countries in South America ( the other is Bolivia ) , the country has coasts , beaches and ports on the Paraguay and Paraná rivers that give exit to the Atlantic Ocean through the Paraná-Paraguay Waterway . Due to its central location in South America , it is sometimes referred to as Corazón de Sudamérica ( Heart of South America ) . Spanish conquistadores arrived in 1524 after navigating northwards from the Río de la Plata to the Paraná River , and finally up the Paraguay River . In 1537 , they established the city of Asunción , which was the first capital of the Governorate of Paraguay and Río de la Plata . Paraguay was the epicenter of the Jesuit Missions , where the Guaraní people were educated and introduced to Christianity and European culture under the direction of the Society of Jesus in Jesuit reductions , mainly during the 17th century . However , after the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spanish territories in 1767 , Paraguay increasingly became a peripheral colony , with few urban centers and settlers . Following independence from Spain at the beginning of the 19th century , Paraguay was ruled by a series of authoritarian governments who generally implemented nationalist , isolationist and protectionist policies . This period ended with the disastrous Paraguayan War , during which Paraguay lost at least 50% of its prewar population and around 25-33% of its territory to the Triple Alliance of Argentina , Brazil and Uruguay . In the 20th century , Paraguay faced another major international conflict - the Chaco War - against Bolivia , from which the Paraguayans emerged victorious . Afterwards , the country entered a period of military dictatorships , ending with the 35 year regime of Alfredo Stroessner that lasted until he was toppled in 1989 by an internal military coup .
Banda Oriental , or more fully Banda Oriental del Uruguay ( Eastern Bank ) , was the name of the South American territories east of the Uruguay River and north of Río de la Plata that comprise the modern nation of Uruguay ; the modern state of Brazil Rio Grande do Sul ; and some of Santa Catarina , Brazil . It was the easternmost territory of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . After decades of disputes over the territories , the 1777 First Treaty of San Ildefonso settled the division between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire : the southern part was to be held by the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and the northern territories by the Portuguese Capitania de São Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul ( English : Captaincy of Saint Peter of the Southern Río Grande ) . The Banda Oriental was not a separate administrative unit until the de facto creation of the Provincia Oriental ( English : Eastern Province ) by José Gervasio Artigas in 1813 and the subsequent decree of the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata of 7 March 1814 , which formally established the Gobernación Intendencia Oriental del Río de la Plata ( English : Governorship-Intendency East of the Río de la Plata ) , making it a constituent part of the United Provinces of South America .
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of North , Central and South America and their descendants . Although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers - and many , especially in the Amazon basin , still are - many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture . The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas . Although some societies depended heavily on agriculture , others practiced a mix of farming , hunting and gathering . In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture , large-scale organized cities , city-states , chiefdoms , states , kingdoms and empires . Among these are the Aztec , Inca and Maya states that until the 16th century were among the most politically and socially advanced nations in the world . They had a vast knowledge of engineering , architecture , mathematics , astronomy , writing , physics , medicine , planting and irrigation , geology , mining , sculpture and goldsmithing . Many parts of the Americas are still populated by indigenous peoples ; some countries have sizable populations , especially Belize , Bolivia , Canada , Chile , Ecuador , Greenland , Guatemala , Mexico , Panama , Paraguay , Peru and the United States . At least a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas . Some , such as the Quechuan languages , Aymara , Guaraní , Mayan languages and Nahuatl , count their speakers in millions . Many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees , including religion , social organization and subsistence practices . Like most cultures , over time , cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects but also cater to modern needs .
The royalists were the Latin American and European supporters of the various governing bodies of the Spanish Monarchy , during the Spanish American wars of independence , which lasted from 1808 until the king 's death in 1833 . In the early years of the conflict , when King Ferdinand VII was captive in France , royalists supported the authority in the Americas of the Supreme Central Junta of Spain and the Indies and the Cádiz Cortes that ruled in the King 's name during the Peninsular War . After the restoration of Ferdinand VII in 1814 , royalists supported his claim to rule Spanish America , but were split between those that supported his insistence to rule under traditional law and liberals , who sought to reinstate the reforms enacted by the Cádiz Cortes .
The monarchy of Spain ( Spanish : Monarquía Española ) , constitutionally referred to as The Crown ( Spanish : La Corona ) , is a constitutional institution and the highest office of Spain . The monarchy comprises the reigning monarch , his or her family , and the royal household organization which supports and facilitates the monarch in the exercise of his duties and prerogatives . The Spanish monarchy is currently represented by King Felipe VI , Queen Letizia , and their daughters Leonor , Princess of Asturias , and Infanta Sofía . The Spanish Constitution of 1978 re-established a constitutional monarchy as the form of government for Spain . The 1978 constitution affirmed the role of the King of Spain as the living personification and embodiment of the Spanish State and a symbol of Spain 's enduring unity and permanence and is also invested as the arbitrator and the moderator of Spanish state institutions Constitutionally , the king is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the Spanish Armed Forces . The constitution codifies the use of royal styles and titulary , Royal Prerogatives , hereditary succession to the crown , compensation , and a regency-guardianship contingency in cases of the monarch 's minority or incapacitation . According to the constitution , the monarch is also instrumental in promoting relations with the nations of its historical community . The King of Spain serves as the president of the Organization of Ibero-American States , purportedly representing over 700,000,000 people in twenty-four member nations worldwide . In 2008 , King Juan Carlos I was considered the most popular leader in all Ibero-America . The Spanish monarchy has its roots in the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo founded after the fall of the Roman Empire . Then the Kingdom of Asturias fought the Reconquista following the Umayyad invasion of Hispania in the 8th century . A dynastic marriage between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon united Spain in the 15th century .
Spain ( Spanish : España [ esˈpaɲa ] ( listen ) ) , officially the Kingdom of Spain ( Spanish : Reino de España ) , [ a ] [ b ] is a country in Southwestern Europe with some pockets of Spanish territory across the Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic Ocean . Its continental European territory is situated on the Iberian Peninsula . Its territory also includes two archipelagoes : the Canary Islands off the coast of Africa , and the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea . The African enclaves of Ceuta , Melilla , and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera make Spain the only European country to have a physical border with an African country ( Morocco ) . [ h ] Several small islands in the Alboran Sea are also part of Spanish territory . The country 's mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar ; to the north and northeast by France , Andorra , and the Bay of Biscay ; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean . With an area of 505,990 km2 ( 195,360 sq mi ) , Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe , the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union , and the fourth largest country in the European continent . By population ( about 47 million ) , Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union . Spain 's capital and largest city is Madrid ; other major urban areas include Barcelona , Valencia , Seville , Zaragoza , Málaga and Bilbao . Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago . Iberian cultures along with ancient Phoenician , Greek , Celtic and Carthaginian settlements developed on the peninsula until it came under Roman rule around 200 BCE , after which the region was named Hispania , based on the earlier Phoenician name Sp ( a ) n or Spania . At the end of the Western Roman Empire the Germanic tribal confederations migrated from Central Europe , invaded the Iberian peninsula and established relatively independent realms in its western provinces , including the Suebi , Alans and Vandals .
The overseas expansion under the Crown of Castile was initiated under the royal authority and first accomplished by the Spanish conquistadors . The Americas were invaded and incorporated into the Spanish Empire , with the exception of Brazil , Canada , the north-eastern United States and several other small countries in South America and The Caribbean . The crown created civil and religious structures to administer the region . The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions . Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Caribbean and continuing control of vast territory for over three centuries , the Spanish Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands , half of South America , most of Central America and much of North America ( including present day Mexico , Florida and the Southwestern and Pacific Coastal regions of the United States ) . It is estimated that during the colonial period ( 1492-1832 ) , a total of 1.86 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era ( 1850-1950 ) ; the estimate is 250,000 in the 16th century , and most during the 18th century as immigration was encouraged by the new Bourbon Dynasty . In contrast , the indigenous population plummeted by an estimated 80% in the first century and a half following Columbus 's voyages , primarily through the spread of Afro-Eurasian diseases . This has been argued to be the first large-scale act of genocide in the modern era , although this claim is disputed due to the introduction of disease , which is considered a byproduct of the Columbian exchange . Racial mixing was a central process in the Spanish colonization of the Americas , and ultimately led to the Latin American identity , which combines African , Hispanic , and Native American cultures . Spain enjoyed a cultural golden age in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when silver and gold from American mines increasingly financed a long series of European and North African wars . In the early 19th century , the Spanish American wars of independence resulted in the secession and subsequent balkanization of most Spanish territories in the Americas , except for Cuba and Puerto Rico , which were finally given up in 1898 , following the Spanish-American War , together with Guam and the Philippines in the Pacific . Spain 's loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas .
The Portuguese Empire ( Portuguese : Império Português ) , also known as the Portuguese Overseas ( Ultramar Português ) or the Portuguese Colonial Empire ( Império Colonial Português ) , was composed of the overseas colonies and territories governed by Portugal . One of the longest-lived empires in world history , it existed for almost six centuries , from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 , to the handover of Portuguese Macau to China in 1999 . The empire began in the 15th century , and from the early 16th century it stretched across the globe , with bases in North and South America , Africa , and various regions of Asia and Oceania . The Portuguese Empire originated at the beginning of the Age of Discovery , and the power and influence of the Kingdom of Portugal would eventually expand across the globe . In the wake of the Reconquista , Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa and the Atlantic archipelagos in 1418-19 , using recent developments in navigation , cartography and maritime technology such as the caravel , with the aim of finding a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice-trade . In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope , and in 1498 Vasco da Gama reached India . In 1500 , either by an accidental landfall or by the crown 's secret design , Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil on the South American coast . Over the following decades , Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia , establishing forts and factories as they went . By 1571 a string of naval outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa , the Middle East , India and South Asia . This commercial network and the colonial trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth ( 1500-1800 ) , when it accounted for about a fifth of Portugal 's per-capita income . When King Philip II of Spain ( Philip I of Portugal ) seized the Portuguese crown in 1580 there began a 60-year union between Spain and Portugal known to subsequent historiography as the Iberian Union . The realms continued to have separate administrations .
The Americas ( also collectively called America ; French : Amérique , Dutch : Amerika , Spanish and Portuguese : América ) comprise the totality of the continents of North and South America . Together , they make up most of the land in Earth 's western hemisphere and comprise the New World . Along with their associated islands , they cover 8% of Earth 's total surface area and 28.4% of its land area . The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera , a long chain of mountains that runs the length of the west coast . The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by large river basins , such as the Amazon , St. Lawrence River / Great Lakes basin , Mississippi , and La Plata . Since the Americas extend 14,000 km ( 8,700 mi ) from north to south , the climate and ecology vary widely , from the arctic tundra of Northern Canada , Greenland , and Alaska , to the tropical rain forests in Central America and South America . Humans first settled the Americas from Asia between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago . A second migration of Na-Dene speakers followed later from Asia . The subsequent migration of the Inuit into the neoarctic around 3500 BCE completed what is generally regarded as the settlement by the indigenous peoples of the Americas . The first known European settlement in the Americas was by the Norse explorer Leif Erikson . However , the colonization never became permanent and was later abandoned . The Spanish voyages of Christopher Columbus from 1492 to 1502 resulted in permanent contact with European ( and subsequently , other Old World ) powers , which eventually led to the Columbian exchange and inaugurated a period of exploration , conquest , and colonization whose effects and consequences persist to the present .
The Captaincy General of Cuba ( Spanish : Capitanía General de Cuba ) was an administrative district of the Spanish Empire created in 1607 as part of Habsburg Spain 's attempt to better defend the Caribbean against foreign powers , which also involved creating captaincies general in Puerto Rico , Guatemala and Yucatán . The restructuring of the Captaincy General in 1764 was the first example of the Bourbon Reforms in America . The changes included adding the provinces of Florida and Louisiana and granting more autonomy for these provinces . This later change was carried out by the Count of Floridablanca under Charles III to strengthen the Spanish position vis-a-vis the British in the Caribbean . A new governor-captain general based in Havana oversaw the administration of the new district . The local governors of the larger Captaincy General had previously been overseen in political and military matters by the president of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo . This audiencia retained oversight of judicial affairs until the establishment of new audiencias in Puerto Príncipe ( 1800 ) and Havana ( 1838 ) . In 1825 , as a result of the loss of the mainland possessions , the Spanish government granted the governors-captain generals of Cuba extraordinary powers in matters of administration , justice and the treasury and in the second half of the 19th century gave them the title of Governor General .
The Captaincy General of Puerto Rico ( Spanish : Capitanía General de Puerto Rico ) was an administrative district of the Spanish Empire , created in 1580 to provide better military management of the island of Puerto Rico , previously under the direct rule of a lone governor and the jurisdiction of Audiencia of Santo Domingo . Its creation was part of the , ultimately futile , Habsburg attempt in the late 16th century to prevent incursion into the Caribbean by foreign powers . Spain also established Captaincies General in Cuba , Guatemala and Yucatán . The Captaincy General played a crucial role in the history of the Spanish Caribbean . The institution lasted until 1898 in Puerto Rico , when an autonomous local government , headed by a governor-general and an insular parliament , was instituted just months before Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the United States in 1898 following defeat in the Spanish-American War .
Hispanic America ( Spanish : Hispanoamérica or América Hispana ) , also known as Spanish America ( Spanish : América española ) is the portion of the Americas comprising the Spanish-speaking countries of the continents of North and South America . These countries and Spain have significant commonalities with one another as all were part of the same state and the society [ disambiguation needed ] it created . In all of these countries , Spanish is the main language , sometimes sharing official status with one or more indigenous languages ( such as Guaraní , Quechua , Aymara , or Mayan ) , or English ( in Puerto Rico ) and Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion . Hispanic America is sometimes grouped together with Brazil under the term Ibero-America , meaning those countries in the Americas with cultural roots in the Iberian Peninsula . Hispanic America also contrasts with Latin America , which includes not only Hispanic America , but also Brazil ( the former Portuguese America , several colonies and dependencies of Portuguese Empire of Portugal across center-east , northern , northeastern and southeastern South America that came together to form the independent Brazil in the 19th century ) , as well as the former French colonies in the Western Hemisphere ( areas that are now in either the United States of America or Canada are usually excluded ) .
The Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental was the armed-conflict that took place between 1816 and 1820 in the Banda Oriental , for control of what today comprises the whole of the Republic of Uruguay , the northern part of the Argentine Mesopotamia and southern Brazil . The four-year armed-conflict resulted in the annexation of the Banda Oriental into the United Kingdom of Portugal , Brazil and the Algarves as the Brazilian province of Cisplatina . The belligerents were , on one side , the artiguistas led by José Gervasio Artigas and some leaders of other provinces that made up the Federal League , like Andrés Guazurary , and on the other , the troops of the United Kingdom of Portugal , Brazil and the Algarves , directed by Carlos Frederico Lecor . On the naval front , the conflict far exceeded the Rio de la Plata and the Argentine coast to spread globally , as the Insurgent Privateers , most notably under the flag of Buenos Aires and flag of Artigas , harassed Portuguese and Spanish ships in Europe , Africa and the Caribbean . [ citation needed ]
Brigandage is the life and practice of highway robbery and plunder . It is practiced by a brigand , a person who usually lives in a gang and lives by pillage and robbery . The word brigand entered English as brigant via French from Italian as early 1400 . Under the laws of war soldiers acting on their own recognisance without operating in chain of command are brigands and are liable to be tried under civilian laws as common criminals . However , on occasions brigands are not mere malfactors , but may be the last resort of people subject to invasion . Bad administration and suitable terrain encourage the development of brigands . Historical examples of brigands ( often called so by their enemies ) have existed in the France , Greece and the Balkans , India , mainland Italy , Mexico , Sicily and Spain . In parts of the United States of America there was a considerable amount of a certain kind of brigandage .
The Pincheira brothers ( Spanish : Hermanos Pincheira ) was an infamous royalist outlaw group in Chile and Argentina active from 1818 to 1832 . The gang fought initially in the Chilean War of Independence as royalist guerrillas during the Guerra a muerte phase . After Vicente Benavides was executed and the royalist resistance collapsed , they became armed bandits who sought to live outside the new states of Chile and Argentina . Later they specialized on cattle raiding and robbery . The Pincheira brothers formed an alliance with the Boroanos tribe that had settled in Salinas Grandes and Sierra de la Ventana and attacked with them Carmen de Patagones and Fortaleza Protectora Argentina ( today 's Bahia Blanca ) .
The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina , including parts of present-day Patagonia . The collective term refers to a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who shared a common social , religious , and economic structure , as well as a common linguistic heritage as Mapudungun speakers . Their influence once extended from the Aconcagua River to the Chiloé Island and spread later eastward to the Argentine pampa . Today the collective group makes up over 80% of the indigenous peoples in Chile , and about 9% of the total Chilean population . Mapuches are particularly concentrated in Araucanía . Many have migrated to the Santiago and Buenos Aires area for economic opportunities . The Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture ; their traditional social organization consists of extended families , under the direction of a lonko or chief . In times of war , Mapuche would unite in larger groupings and elect a toki ( meaning axe , axe-bearer ) to lead them . Mapuche are known for the textiles woven by women , which have been goods for trade for centuries , since before the arrival of European explorers . At the time of Spanish arrival the Araucanian Mapuche inhabited the valleys between the Itata and Toltén rivers . South of it , the Huilliche and the Cunco lived as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago . In the seventeenth , eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the Andes and pampas , fusing and establishing relationships with the Poya and Pehuenche .
The Montoneras originally were known as the armed civilian , paramilitary groups who organized in the 19th century during the wars of independence from Spain in Latin America . They played an important role in the Argentine Civil War , as well as in other Latin American countries during the 19th century , generally operating in rural areas . In the 20th century , the term was applied to some insurgent groups in countries of Central and South America . Generally these were paramilitary groups composed of persons from a locality who provided armed support to a particular cause or leader . In the late 20th century , the leftists guerrillas Montoneros in Argentina adopted a name related to the 19th century militants .
The Desert Campaign ( 1833-34 ) was a military campaign in Argentina led by Juan Manuel de Rosas against the indigenous people of the southern Pampas and northern Patagonia . The campaign was later followed by the Conquest of the Desert , which took place in the 1870s and 1880s .
The Biobío River ( also known as Bío Bío or Bio-Bio ) is the second largest river in Chile . It originates from Icalma and Galletué lakes in the Andes and flows 380 km to the Gulf of Arauco on the Pacific Ocean . The major tributaries of the river are the Malleco and the Laja . The river is Chile 's second-longest river ( the longest being Loa River ) and Biobío basin is Chile 's third largest watershed , after Loa and Baker basins . The river is also the widest river in Chile , with an average width of 1 km . In the Metropolitan area of Concepción , the river is crossed by four bridges : Biobío Railroad Bridge ( 1889 ) , Biobío Bridge ( 1942 ) , Juan Pablo II Bridge ( 1973 ) and Llacolén Bridge ( 2000 ) .
The Chilean Civil War of 1829-1830 ( Spanish : Guerra Civil de 1829-1830 ) was a civil war in Chile fought between conservative Pelucones and liberal Pipiolos forces in Chile over the constitutional regime in force . This conflict ended with the defeat of the liberal forces and the approval of a new constitution in 1833 , that was in force until 1925 .
Pelucones ( Spanish for bigwigs ) was the name used to refer to Chilean aristocratic conservatives in early 19th century . The name Pelucones was originally used by the Pipiolos or liberals in a derogatory manner by linking the conservatives to oldfashioned wigs that were popular in the 18th century . Following the Chilean Civil War of 1829 , where the Pipiolos were defeated , the Pelucones enforce the Chilean Constitution of 1833 with led to creation of a strong unitarian and authoritarian presidentialist system held up by upper-class . In Ecuador former President Rafael Correa popularized the term during his decade in power ( 2007-2017 ) . Its use has been associated with the traditional political and economical elites ( middle to high classes ) that , according to Correa , have dominated the country since its independence , dominating state institutions and policies , giving way to exclusion and poverty amongst the rest of the population .
Pipiolos ( Spanish for a young or naive person ) was a name used to refer to Chilean upper class liberals in the early 19th century . The name pipiolo was originally used by the Pelucones or conservatives in a derogatory manner by associating the liberals to inexperience . In the Chilean Civil War of 1829 the Pipiolos led by Ramón Freire were defeated and the Pelucones could triumphantly enforce the Chilean Constitution of 1833 which led to creation of a strong unitarian and authoritarian presidentialist system held up by upper-class democracy . During the Revolution of 1851 the Pipiolos made a failed attempt to seize power from conservatives . With the Liberal-Conservative Fusion in 1858 term Pipiolo fell into disuse .
In Chilean historiography the Conservative Republic was a period of Chilean history that extended between 1830 and 1861 , characterized by the hegemony of the conservative party , whose supporters were called pelucones . It began with the defeat of the pipiolos by the pelucones at the Battle of Lircay ending the Chilean Civil War of 1829-30 and concluded in 1861 with the election of the independent Jose Joaquin Perez as president , ending the hegemony of the conservative party .
Diego José Pedro Víctor Portales y Palazuelos ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈdjeɣo poɾˈtales ] ; June 16 , 1793 - June 6 , 1837 ) was a Chilean statesman and entrepreneur . As a minister of president José Joaquín Prieto , Diego Portales played a pivotal role in shaping the state and government politics in the 19th century , delivering with the Constitution of 1833 the framework of the Chilean state for almost a century . Portales ' influential political stance included unitarianism , presidentialism and conservatism which led to consolidate Chile as a constitutional authoritarian republic with democracy restricted to include only upper class men . While deeply unpopular during his lifetime , the murder of Portales in 1837 during a mutiny has been judged a decisive factor during the War of the Confederation by switching Chilean public opinion to support the war against the Peru-Bolivian Confederation .
La Frontera is the name given to a geographical region in Chile . La Frontera can denote either the area just around Bío Bío River or the whole area between the Bío Bío and Toltén River being in this later definition largely coterminous with the historical usage of Araucanía . The name comes the times when it was the frontier of the Captaincy General of Chile ( a part of the Spanish Empire and later the Republic of Chile ) with La Araucanía , the lands of the Mapuche nation following their great revolt in 1598 . Following the 1598 revolt and subsequent loss of the cities and forts south of the Bio Bio , the Spanish Empire established a system of forts and fortified towns between the Bio Bio and the Itata River and some within the Mapuche lands of Araucanía itself . This system continued through the 18th century and into the 19th century .
Malón is the name given to the raids of Mapuche bands into Spanish , Chilean and Argentine territory from the 17th to the 19th centuries , as well as to attacks to rival Mapuche factions . The malón among the Mapuche is described by Juan Ignacio Molina as a means of obtaining justice :
The War of the Confederation ( Spanish : Guerra contra la Confederación ) , was a military confrontation waged by Chile , along with Peruvian dissidents , and the Argentine Confederation against the Peru-Bolivian Confederation between 1836 and 1839 . As a result of the Salaverry-Santa Cruz War , Peru-Bolivia Confederation was created by General Andrés de Santa Cruz , which caused a power struggle in southern South America , with Chile and the Argentine Confederation , as both distrusted this new and powerful political entity , seeing their geopolitical interests threatened . After some incidents , Chile and the Argentine Confederation declared war on the Peru-Bolivian Confederation , although both waged war separately . Chile since 1836 carried out the war with Peruvian dissidents who were enemies of Santa Cruz . During the war , one of Santa Cruz 's subordinates , General Luis José de Orbegoso , rebelled against him in 1838 to restore Peru with a new government . However , by not allying with Chile , he ended up being defeated by Chilean forces . On the other hand , the Argentine Confederation did not achieve any significant advance between 1837 and 1838 , paralyzing its war front and losing some territories north of Jujuy . Finally , Chilean-Peruvian forces of the so-called Restorative Army led by General Manuel Bulnes , obtain a decisive victory in the battle of Yungay in 1839 . This battle caused the dissolution of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation , the exile of Santa Cruz , the restoration of Peru and Bolivia , among other consequences .
The Argentine Confederation ( Spanish : Confederación Argentina ) was the last predecessor state of modern Argentina ; its name is still one of the official names of the country according to the Argentine Constitution , Article 35 . It was the name of the country from 1831 to 1852 , when the provinces were organized as a confederation without a head of state . The governor of Buenos Aires Province ( Juan Manuel de Rosas during most of the period ) managed foreign relations during this time . Under his rule , the Argentine Confederation resisted attacks by Brazil , Bolivia , Uruguay , France and the UK , as well as other Argentine factions during the Argentine Civil Wars . Rosas was ousted from power in 1852 by Justo José de Urquiza , after the battle of Caseros . Urquiza convened the 1853 Constituent Assembly to write a national constitution . Buenos Aires resisted Urquiza and seceded from the Confederation in 1852 , becoming the State of Buenos Aires ; the province would return to Argentina in 1861 .
The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived state that existed in South America between 1836 and 1839 . The country was a loose confederation between the states of Peru , divided into the Republic of North Peru and the Republic of South Peru , and Bolivia , with the capital located in Tacna . The Peru-Bolivian Confederation 's formation was personally influenced by Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz , the President of Bolivia , who served as the first and only head of state under the title Supreme Protector . The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was opposed by neighboring countries from its inception , particularly Chile and Argentina , as a potential military and economic threat , and for its support for dissidents in exile . The War of the Confederation was triggered shortly after its formation when Chile and Argentina independently invaded the country . Argentina was defeated in 1837 , but a combined force of Chile and North Peruvian dissidents known as the United Restoration Army were victorious at the Battle of Yungay in January 1839 , which de facto ended the confederation as Peru and Bolivia were restored as independent states , and Santa Cruz fled into exile . The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was officially declared dissolved on August 25 , 1839 , by General Agustín Gamarra after his appointment as President of Peru .
In law , dissolution has multiple meanings . Dissolution is the last stage of liquidation , the process by which a company ( or part of a company ) is brought to an end , and the assets and property of the company redistributed . Dissolution of a partnership is the first of two stages in the termination of a partnership . Winding up is the second stage . Dissolution may also refer to the termination of a contract or other legal relationship ; for example , a divorce is the dissolution of a marriage . Dissolution is also the term for the legal process by which an adoption is reversed . While this applies to the vast majority of adoptions which are terminated , they are more commonly referred to as disruptions , even though that term technically applies only to those that are not legally complete at the time of termination . In international law , dissolution ( Latin : dismembratio ) is when a state has broken up into several entities , and no longer has power over those entities , as it used to have previously . An example of this is the case of the former USSR dissolving into different republics .
The Republic of North Peru was one of the three constituent Republics of the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation of 1836-1839 . North Peru was formed from the division of the Republic of Peru into the Republic of North Peru and the Republic of South Peru . These two Republics were founded in 1836 to be ( with the Republic of Bolivia ) constituent Republics of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation . The Confederation came to an end three years later after being defeated by Chile in the War of the Confederation . In August 1839 , Agustín Gamarra declared the Confederation dissolved ; as a result , South Peru and North Peru reverted to being a unified Republic of Peru .
The Republic of South Peru was one of the three constituent Republics of the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation of 1836-39 . South Peru was formed from the division of the Republic of Peru into the Republic of North Peru and the Republic of South Peru . These two Republics were founded in 1836 to be ( with the Republic of Bolivia ) constituent Republics of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation . The Confederation came to an end three years later after being defeated by Chile in the War of the Confederation . In August 1839 , Agustín Gamarra declared the Confederation dissolved ; as a result , South Peru and North Peru reverted to being the single Republic of Peru .
Andrés de Santa Cruz y Calahumana ( Spanish pronunciation : [ anˈdɾes ðe ˈsanta kɾuθ ] ( listen ) ; December 5 , 1792 in Huarina , Bolivia - September 25 , 1865 in Beauvoir , France ) served as the seventh President of Peru during 1827 , the Interim President of Peru from 1836 to 1838 and President of Bolivia ( 1829-39 ) . He also served as Supreme Protector of the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation ( 1836-39 ) , a political entity created mainly by his personal endeavors .
Valparaíso ( /ˌvælpəˈraɪzoʊ , -soʊ/ ; Spanish : [ balpaɾaˈiso ] ) is a major city , seaport , and educational centre in the commune of Valparaíso , Chile . Greater Valparaíso is the third largest metropolitan area in the country . Valparaíso is located about 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) northwest of Santiago by road and is one of the South Pacific 's most important seaports . Valparaíso is the capital of Chile 's second most populated administrative region and has been the headquarters for the Chilean National Congress since 1990 . Valparaíso has two state-owned and several private universities . Valparaíso played an important geopolitical role in the second half of the 19th century , when the city served as a major stopover for ships traveling between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by crossing the Straits of Magellan . Valparaíso mushroomed during its golden age , as a magnet for European immigrants , when the city was known by international sailors as Little San Francisco and The Jewel of the Pacific . In 2003 , the historic quarter of Valparaíso was declared a United Nations Educational , Scientific , and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) World Heritage site . Notable features include Latin America 's oldest stock exchange , the continent 's first volunteer fire department , Chile 's first public library , and the oldest Spanish language newspaper in continuous publication in the world , El Mercurio de Valparaíso . The second half of the twentieth century was unfavorable to Valparaíso , as many wealthy families abandoned the city . The opening of the Panama Canal and reduction in ship traffic dealt a serious blow to Valparaíso 's port-based economy . Over the first 15 years of the twenty-first century the city reached a recovery , attracting artists and cultural entrepreneurs who have set up in the city 's hillside historic districts .
Colonel José Antonio Vidaurre Garretón ( December 22 , 1798 - October 4 , 1837 ) was a Chilean military officer who led a failed insurrection in 1837 that culminated in the assassination of minister Diego Portales . He was born in Concepción , the son of Juan Manuel Vidaurre Ugalde de la Concha and Isabel Garretón . In 1813 , at the age of 15 , he joined the Chilean militia and fought in the Chilean War of Independence as a private , under General Juan Gregorio de las Heras . His bravery helped him win fast promotion , and by 1817 he was already a full captain . He participated in the Battles of Talcahuano and Cancha Rayada , and finally at Maipú in 1818 . He married Valentina Palma and they had four children : Filemón , Emilio , Josefa and Isabel . By 1820 he was a member of the Chilean Army General Staff . As such he participated in the campaigns to capture Chiloé , where he was promoted to Sergeant Major . In 1830 , after participating in the battles of Osorno and Lircay , he was promoted to colonel . Notwithstanding his brilliant military career , he was several times involved in mutinies against his superiors . In 1823 , he participated of a rebellion against General José Joaquín Prieto in Rancagua . In 1828 he joined the rebellion against President Francisco Antonio Pinto .
A caudillo ( /kɔːˈdiː ( l ) joʊ , kaʊˈ-/ kaw-DEE ( L ) -yoh , kow- , Spanish : [ kauˈðiʎo ] ; Old Spanish : cabdillo , from Latin capitellum , diminutive of caput head ) is a type of personalist leader wielding military and political power . There is no precise definition of caudillo , which is often used interchangeably with dictator and strongman . The term is historically associated with Spain , and with Spanish America after virtually all of that region won independence in the early nineteenth century . The roots of caudillismo may be tied to the framework of rule in medieval and early modern Spain during the Reconquest from the Moors . Spanish conquistadors such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro exhibit characteristics of the caudillo , being successful military leaders , having mutual reliance of the leader and their supporters , and rewarding them for their loyalty . During the colonial era , the Spanish crown asserted its power and established a plethora of bureaucratic institutions that prevented such personalist rule . Historian John Lynch argues that the rise of caudillos in Spanish America is rooted not in the distant Spanish past but in the immediate context of the Spanish American wars of independence . Those wars threw off colonial rule and left a power vacuum in the early nineteenth century . Caudillos were very influential in the history of Spanish America and have a legacy that has influenced political movements in the modern era . The term is often used pejoratively by critics of a regime . However , Spain 's General Francisco Franco ( 1936-1975 ) proudly took the title as his own during and after his military overthrow of the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War ( 1936-39 ) , in parallel to the German and Italian equivalents of the same period : Führer and Duce . Spanish censors during his rule attacked publishers who applied the term to Hispanic American strongmen .
The Revolution of 1851 ( or Civil War of 1851 ) was an attempt by Chilean liberals to overthrow the conservative government of president Manuel Montt and repeal the Chilean Constitution of 1833 . After various battles and sieges , by late December 1851 government forces had subdued the revolutionaries .
The Liberal Party ( Partido Liberal ) of Chile was a Chilean political party created by a faction of pipiolos in 1849 . After the conservative victory in the Chilean Civil War of 1829 the liberals became the principal opposition party to the Conservative Party . During the Liberal Party 's early history one of its main goal was to create a new constitution to replace the Chilean Constitution of 1833 . Rigged election helped to prevent the Liberal Party 's presidential candidates to be elected until 1861 , during that time elements of the liberal party made attempts to overthrow the government , these were the Revolution of 1851 and the Revolution of 1859 . These failed insurrections led many liberals to emigrate , among them Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna . In 1863 a group of liberal split off to form the Radical Party which would hold power from 1938 to 1952 . Originally an anticlericalist party that championed classical liberalism , the liberals later became a right-wing party . In 1966 the Liberal Party joined with their old antagonists , the United Conservative Party , to form the National Party .
Mañil or Magnil was a Mapuche lonko who fought in the 1851 Chilean Revolution and led an uprising in 1859 . He was the main chief of the Arribanos and the father of Quilapán who led Mapuche forces in the Occupation of Araucanía .
The Chilean Revolution of 1859 was the second attempt by the Chilean Liberals to overthrow their country 's Conservative government . Like the first attempt in 1851 , it ended in failure . 5,000 people were killed during the fighting .
Pedro León Gallo Goyenechea ( Copiapó , February 12 , 1830 in Santiago - December 16 , 1877 ) was a Chilean politician and one of the founders of the Radical Party .
José Joaquín Pérez Mascayano ( American Spanish : [ xoˈse xo.aˈkim ˈpeɾes ] ; 6 May 1801 - 1 July 1889 ) was a Chilean political figure . He served as the president of Chile between 1861 and 1871 .
Repúlica Liberal is a period of the History of Chile that extends between 1861 and 1891 . It characterized by the rise of the liberal people , after the division of the conservative party . They promulgate the main constitutional reforms that limit the power of the president and give more power to the Congress .
The Radical Party ( Spanish : Partido Radical ) was a Chilean political party . It was formed in 1863 in Copiapó by a split in the Liberal Party . Not coincidentally , it was formed shortly after the organization of the Grand Lodge of Chile , and it has maintained a close relationship with Chilean Freemasonry throughout its life . As such , it represented the anticlericalist position in Chilean politics , and was instrumental in producing the theological reforms in Chilean law in the early 1880s . These laws removed the cemeteries from the control of the Roman Catholic Church , established a civil registry of births and death in place of the previous recordkeeping of the church , and established a civil law of matrimony , which removed the determination of validity of marriages from the church . Prior to these laws , it was impossible for non-Catholics to contract marriage in Chile , and meant that any children they produced were illegitimate . Non-Catholics had also been barred from burial in Catholic cemeteries , which were virtually the only cemeteries in the country ; instead , non-Catholics were buried in the beaches , and even on the Santa Lucia Hill in Santiago , which , in the 19th century , functioned as Santiago 's dump . In the 20th century , the radicals adopted a moderately center-left stance , taking part to Pedro Aguirre Cerda 's Popular Front and then to the Democratic Alliance left-wings coalition which succeeded to Cerda 's death . During the presidency of Gabriel Gonzalez Videla ( 1946-1952 ) it shifted to the right , and many of its members were anti-Communists . In 1950s , the party started to lose ground . At the end of the 1960s , left-wingers gained upper hand in the Radical party , causing some of the more right-wing leaders to leave the party . The anticommunist Radicals formed the Radical Democracy .
The Occupation of Araucanía or Pacification of Araucanía ( 1861-1883 ) was a series of military campaigns , agreements and penetrations by the Chilean army and settlers into Mapuche territory which led to the incorporation of Araucanía into Chilean national territory . Pacification of Araucanía was the expression used by the Chilean authorities for this process .
Araucanía or Araucana was the Spanish name given to the region of Chile inhabited by the Mapuche peoples known as the Moluche ( also known as Araucanos by the Spanish ) in the 18th century . Prior to the Spanish conquest of Chile , the lands of the Moluche lay between the Itata River and Toltén River . Following the great rising of the Moluche and Huilliche after the Battle of Curalaba in 1598 during the Arauco War , the Spanish were expelled from south of the Bío-Bío River . After many decades of further warfare , the bounds of Araucania were recognized by the Spanish as being between the Bío-Bío River and Toltén River . This old region of Araucanía now is divided between the southern part of the Bío-Bío Region and the Araucanía Region , in southern Chile .
The Chincha Islands War , also known as Spanish-South American War ( Spanish : Guerra hispano-sudamericana ) , was a series of coastal and naval battles between Spain and its former colonies of Peru and Chile from 1864 to 1866 . The conflict began with Spain 's seizure of the guano-rich Chincha Islands in one of a series of attempts by Spain , under Isabella II , to reassert its influence over its former South American colonies . The war saw the use of ironclads , including the Spanish ship Numancia , the first ironclad to circumnavigate the world .
Ecuador ( /ˈɛkwədɔːr/ ( listen ) EK-wə-dor ; Spanish pronunciation : [ ekwaˈðoɾ ] ( listen ) ; Quechua : Ikwayur ; Shuar : Ecuador or Ekuatur ) , officially the Republic of Ecuador ( Spanish : República del Ecuador , which literally translates as Republic of the Equator ; Quechua : Ikwadur Ripuwlika ; Shuar : Ekuatur Nunka ) , is a country in northwestern South America , bordered by Colombia on the north , Peru on the east and south , and the Pacific Ocean on the west . Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific , about 1,000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) west of the mainland . The capital city is Quito , which is also its largest city . The territories of modern-day Ecuador were once home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were gradually incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century . The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century , achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia , from which it emerged as its own sovereign state in 1830 . The legacy of both empires is reflected in Ecuador 's ethnically diverse population , with most of its 17.1 million people being mestizos , followed by large minorities of European , Amerindian , and African descendants . Spanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population , though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized , including Quichua and Shuar . The sovereign state of Ecuador is a middle-income representative democratic republic with a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities , namely petroleum and agricultural products . It is governed as a democratic presidential republic . One of 18 megadiverse countries in the world , Ecuador hosts many endemic plants and animals , such as those of the Galápagos Islands . In recognition of its unique ecological heritage , the new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature , or ecosystem rights . It also has the fifth lowest homicide rate in the Americas .
Spain ( Spanish : España [ esˈpaɲa ] ( listen ) ) , officially the Kingdom of Spain ( Spanish : Reino de España ) , [ a ] [ b ] is a country in Southwestern Europe with some pockets of Spanish territory across the Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic Ocean . Its continental European territory is situated on the Iberian Peninsula . Its territory also includes two archipelagoes : the Canary Islands off the coast of Africa , and the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea . The African enclaves of Ceuta , Melilla , and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera make Spain the only European country to have a physical border with an African country ( Morocco ) . [ h ] Several small islands in the Alboran Sea are also part of Spanish territory . The country 's mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar ; to the north and northeast by France , Andorra , and the Bay of Biscay ; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean . With an area of 505,990 km2 ( 195,360 sq mi ) , Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe , the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union , and the fourth largest country in the European continent . By population ( about 47 million ) , Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union . Spain 's capital and largest city is Madrid ; other major urban areas include Barcelona , Valencia , Seville , Zaragoza , Málaga and Bilbao . Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago . Iberian cultures along with ancient Phoenician , Greek , Celtic and Carthaginian settlements developed on the peninsula until it came under Roman rule around 200 BCE , after which the region was named Hispania , based on the earlier Phoenician name Sp ( a ) n or Spania . At the end of the Western Roman Empire the Germanic tribal confederations migrated from Central Europe , invaded the Iberian peninsula and established relatively independent realms in its western provinces , including the Suebi , Alans and Vandals .
The Chincha Islands ( Spanish Islas Chincha ) are a group of three small islands 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) off the southwest coast of Peru , to which they belong , near the town of Pisco . Since pre-Incan times they were of interest for their extensive guano deposits , but the supplies were mostly exhausted by 1874 .
The War of the Pacific ( Spanish : Guerra del Pacífico ) , also known as the Saltpeter War ( Spanish : Guerra del salitre ) and by multiple other names , was a war between Chile and a Bolivian-Peruvian alliance . It lasted from 1879 to 1884 , and was fought over Chilean claims on coastal Bolivian territory in the Atacama Desert . The war ended with victory for Chile , which gained a significant amount of resource-rich territory from Peru and Bolivia . Chile 's army took Bolivia 's nitrate rich coastal region and Peru was defeated by Chile 's navy . Battles were fought in the Pacific Ocean , the Atacama Desert , Peru 's deserts , and mountainous regions in the Andes . For the first five months the war played out in a naval campaign , as Chile struggled to establish a sea-based resupply corridor for its forces in the world 's driest desert . In February 1878 , Bolivia imposed a new tax on a Chilean mining company ( Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarril de Antofagasta , CSFA ) despite Bolivian express warranty in the 1874 Boundary Treaty that it would not increase taxes on Chilean persons or industries for 25 years . Chile protested and solicited to submit it to mediation , but Bolivia refused and considered it a subject of Bolivia 's courts . Chile insisted and informed the Bolivian government that Chile would no longer consider itself bound by the 1874 Boundary Treaty if Bolivia did not suspend enforcing the law . On February 14 , 1879 when Bolivian authorities attempted to auction the confiscated property of CSFA , Chilean armed forces occupied the port city of Antofagasta . Peru , bound to Bolivia by their secret treaty of alliance from 1873 , tried to mediate , but on 1 March 1879 Bolivia declared war on Chile and called on Peru to activate their alliance , while Chile demanded that Peru declare its neutrality . On April 5 , after Peru refused this , Chile declared war on both nations .
The Treaty of Ancón was signed by Chile and Peru on 20 October 1883 , in the Ancón District near Lima . It was intended to settle the two nations ' remaining territorial differences at the conclusion of their involvement in the War of the Pacific and to stabilise post-bellum relations between them . Under the treaty 's terms , Chile gained control over Tarapacá . Chile was also to retain the conquered provinces of Tacna and Arica for ten years , after which their fate was to be decided by a plebiscite . The plebiscite was never held . Finally , in 1929 , through the mediation of the United States under President Herbert Hoover , an accord was reached . Under the Tacna-Arica compromise , Chile kept Arica , while Peru regained Tacna and received USD $ 6 million indemnity and other concessions . Another important provision in the treaty said that Chile could not cede sovereignty of former Peruvian territories to other nations without asking Peru first . The Chapter has been invoked once , during the Chilean proposal of 1975 that offered Bolivia sovereignty over some minor ports . The Peruvian government rejected the proposed land swap .
The Treaty of Valparaiso was an agreement between Chile and Bolivia that ended the War of the Pacific . Signed on April 4 , 1884 , the third treaty of the war forced Bolivia to give Antofagasta to Chile .
In law and government , de facto ( /deɪ ˈfæktoʊ , di -/ day FAK-toh , dee -⁠ ; Latin : de facto [ deː ˈfaktoː ] , in fact ) describes practices that exist in reality , even though they are not officially recognized by laws . It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice , in contrast with de jure ( by law ) , which refers to things that happen according to law .
In law and government , de jure ( /deɪ ˈdʒʊəri , di -/ day JOOR-ee , dee -⁠ ; Latin : de iure [ deː ˈjuːrɛ ] , by law ) describes practices that are legally recognised , regardless whether the practice exists in reality . In contrast , de facto ( in fact ) describes situations that exist in reality , even if not legally recognised . The terms are often used to contrast different scenarios : for a colloquial example , I know that , de jure , this is supposed to be a parking lot , but now that the flood has left four feet of water here , it 's a de facto swimming pool . To further explain , even if the signs around the flooded parking lot say Parking Lot ( the law determining it as a parking lot ) , it is in fact a swimming pool ( due to the current practical circumstances of it being flooded ) .
The Peruvian civil war of 1884-1885 was an internal Peruvian conflict that resulted from Peru 's defeat in the War of the Pacific . The casus belli was the Treaty of Ancon .
The Puna de Atacama dispute , sometimes referred to as Puna de Atacama Lawsuit ( Spanish : Litigio de la Puna de Atacama ) , was a border dispute involving Argentina , Chile and Bolivia in the 19th century over the arid high plateau of Puna de Atacama located about 4500 meters above the sea around the current borders of the three countries . The dispute originated with the Chilean annexation of the Bolivian Litoral Department in 1879 during the War of the Pacific . In 1879 the Chilean Army occupied San Pedro de Atacama , the main settlement of the current Chilean part of Puna de Atacama . By 1884 Bolivia and its ally Peru had lost the war and Argentina communicated to the Chilean Government that the border line in the Puna was still a pending issue between Argentina and Bolivia . Chile answered that the Puna de Atacama still belonged to Bolivia . The same year Argentina occupied Pastos Grandes in the Puna . Bolivia had still not signed any peace treaty with Chile until the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1904 . In the light that influential Bolivian politicians considered the Litoral Province lost for ever , the adjacent Puna de Atacama appeared to be a remote , mountainous and arid place difficult to defend . This prompted the Bolivian government to use it as a tool for to obtaining benefits from both Chile and Argentina . This led to the signature of two contradictory treaties in which Bolivia granted Argentina and Chile overlapping areas . The treaties were the following :
The Chilean Civil War of 1891 ( also known as Revolution of 1891 ) was a civil war in Chile fought between forces supporting Congress and forces supporting the President , José Manuel Balmaceda from 16 January 1891 to 18 September 1891 . The war saw a confrontation between the Chilean Army and the Chilean Navy , which sided with the president and the congress , respectively . This conflict ended with the defeat of the Chilean Army and the presidential forces and President Balmaceda committing suicide as a consequence . In Chilean historiography the war marks the end of the Liberal Republic and the beginning of the Parliamentary Era .
Revolutionary Junta of Iquique ( Spanish : Junta Revolucionaria de Iquique ) ( April 13 , 1891 - December 26 , 1891 ) , was the political structure established to challenge the power of Chilean President José Manuel Balmaceda following the insurrection of the navy that started the 1891 Chilean Civil War . It ruled the country until Admiral Jorge Montt assumed power as the new President after the defeat of President Balmaceda .
José Manuel Emiliano Balmaceda Fernández ( American Spanish : [ maˈnwel βalmaˈseða ] ; July 19 , 1840 - September 19 , 1891 ) was the 11th President of Chile from September 18 , 1886 to August 29 , 1891 . Balmaceda was part of the Castilian-Basque aristocracy in Chile . While he was president , his political disagreements with the Chilean congress led to the 1891 Chilean Civil War , following which he shot and killed himself .
Jorge Montt Álvarez ( American Spanish : [ ˈxoɾxe mõndː ] ; April 26 , 1845 - October 8 , 1922 ) was a vice admiral in the Chilean Navy and president of Chile from 1891 to 1896 .
The Parliamentary Era in Chile began in 1891 , at the end of the Civil War , and spanned until 1925 and the establishment of the 1925 Constitution . Also called pseudo-parliamentary period or Parliamentary Republic , this period was thus named because it established a quasi-parliamentary system based on the interpretation of the 1833 Constitution following the defeat of President José Manuel Balmaceda during the Civil War . As opposed to a true parliamentary system , the executive was not subject to the legislative power but checks and balances of executive over the legislature were weakened . The President remained the head of state but its powers and control of the government were reduced . The Parliamentary Republic lasted until the 1925 Constitution drafted by President Arturo Alessandri and his minister José Maza . The new Constitution created a presidential system , which lasted , with several modifications , until the 1973 coup d'état . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , Chile temporarily resolved its border disputes with Argentina with the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina , the Puna de Atacama Lawsuit of 1899 and the Cordillera of the Andes Boundary Case , 1902 .
The Baltimore crisis was a diplomatic incident that took place between Chile and the United States , after the 1891 Chilean Civil War , as a result of the growing American influence in Pacific Coast region of Latin America in the 1890s . It marked a dramatic shift in United States-Chile relations . It was triggered by the stabbing of two United States Navy sailors from USS Baltimore in front of the True Blue Saloon in Valparaíso on October 16 , 1891 . The United States government demanded an apology . Chile ended the episode when it apologized and paid a $ 75,000 indemnity .