List of alumni of the University of St Andrews
Medicine
Table:
Name

Year/degree

Notability

Reference

Edward Jenner

1792 MD

Physician and pioneer of the smallpox vaccine

[13]

Joseph Bancroft

1859 MD

Surgeon and parasitologist

Douglas Black

1933 MB ChB

Physician and the author of the Black Report

John Garrow

MD, PhD

Honorary consultant physician, nutrition scientist, and editor of the European Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Robert Whytt

1730 M.A.

Physician and president of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh

John Arbuthnot

1696 MD

Physician, satirist, polymath, creator of the character John Bull

Patrick Abercromby

1685 MD

Physician, antiquarian, personal physician to King James VII (II of England)

George Ballingall

Physician, surgeon, regius professor of military surgery at Edinburgh University

[10]

John Barclay

B.D

Comparative anatomist, extramural teacher in anatomy, and director of the Highland Society of Scotland

[14]

Robert Batty

1797 MD

Obstetric physician and amateur artist

[15]

Golding Bird

1838 MD 1840 M.A.

Physician; authority on kidney disease; known for his work in related sciences, especially the medical uses of electricity and electrochemistry

David Bruce

Physician, an original member of the Royal Society

Sheila Callender

1935 BSc, 1938 MBChB, 1944 MD

Physician, haematologist

[16]

John Clephane

1729 MD

Physician, military physician and correspondent of David Hume

Andrew Duncan

1762 M.A.

Physician and professor at Edinburgh University

John Eliot

1759 MD

Physician, and personal physician to George IV

Margaret Fairlie

1915 MB ChB

Physician, academic, first woman to hold a professorial chair in Scotland

John Goodsir

Anatomist and pioneer of cell biology

George Britton Halford

1854 MD

Anatomist, physiologist, founder of the first medical school in Australia, the University of Melbourne School of Medicine

John Lorimer

1764 M.D

Royal Army Surgeon, Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh

[17]

Considering the provided table as well as the passages provided at the end.

State the answer to the question: What Scottish comparative anatomist and University of St. Andrews alumnus served as the director of a society originally founded as the Highland Society of Edinburgh ? Output only the correct answer as {"answer": "YOUR ANSWER"}. Use only the information given.

Edward Jenner , FRS FRCPE ( 17 May 1749 - 26 January 1823 ) was an English physician who was a contributor to development of the smallpox vaccine . The practice of vaccination was popularized by Jenner , and since then has been used ubiquitously to prevent several diseases . The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae ( smallpox of the cow ) , the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox . He used it in 1798 in the long title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae known as the Cow Pox , in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox . Jenner is often called a pioneer of immunization . Using a method valid in immunology before the discovery of germ theory , his work saved many lives . In Jenner 's time , smallpox killed around 10% of the British population , with the number as high as 20% in towns and cities where infection spread more easily . In 1821 , he was appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV , and was also made mayor of Berkeley and justice of the peace . A member of the Royal Society , in the field of zoology he was the first person to describe the brood parasitism of the common cuckoo . In 2002 , Jenner was named in the BBC 's list of the 100 Greatest Britons .
Smallpox vaccine , the first successful vaccine to be developed , was introduced by Edward Jenner in 1796 . He followed up his observation that milkmaids who had previously caught cowpox did not later catch smallpox by showing that inoculated cowpox protected against inoculated smallpox .
Joseph Bancroft ( 21 February 1836 - 16 June 1894 ) was a surgeon , pharmacologist and parasitologist born in England , who emigrated to Queensland , Australia .
In modern medicine , a surgeon is a physician who performs surgery . There are also surgeons in podiatry , dentistry , orthodontics , and the veterinary medicine .
Parasitology is the study of parasites , their hosts , and the relationship between them . As a biological discipline , the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life . This means it forms a synthesis of other disciplines , and draws on techniques from fields such as cell biology , bioinformatics , biochemistry , molecular biology , immunology , genetics , evolution and ecology .
Sir Douglas Andrew Kilgour Black ( 29 May 1913 - 13 September 2002 ) was a Scottish physician and medical scientist who played a key role in the development of the National Health Service . He conducted research in the field of public health and was famous as the author of the Black Report . He was also known for the Black Formula , a translation of the Pignet formula to British measurements . He was born in Delting Shetland in 1913 , educated at Forfar Academy , and studied medicine at the Bute Medical School , University of St Andrews , graduating with MB ChB in 1933 . He conducted research into water loss and dehydration , first at Oxford University , and then at the University of Manchester , where he became professor of medicine in 1959 . In 1974 he became the first chief scientist at the Department of Health and Social Security of the UK government . From 1977-1983 he was president of the Royal College of Physicians . He also served as the president of the British Medical Association and took an uncompromising stand against the apartheid regime in South Africa . In the 1970s Black was asked by the Labour government of the UK to chair an expert committee to investigate health inequalities . The report produced by this committee , popularly known as The Black Report was published in 1980 . Although unpopular with the then Conservative government , it has had a major impact on knowledge on the subject of health inequality since that time , and was published by Penguin Books as Inequalities in Health : The Black Report and the Health Divide in 1982 . Later , Black chaired the UK government investigation into childhood leukaemia around the nuclear reprocessing plant at Sellafield , Cumbria , UK .
Bachelor of Medicine , Bachelor of Surgery , or in Latin : Medicinae Baccalaureus Baccalaureus Chirurgiae ( abbreviated in many ways , e.g . MBBS , MB ChB , MB BCh , MB BChir ( Cantab ) , BM BCh ( Oxon ) , BMBS ) , are the two first professional degrees in medicine and surgery awarded upon graduation from medical school by universities in countries that follow the tradition of the United Kingdom . The historical degree nomenclature states that they are two separate undergraduate degrees ; however , in practice , they are usually combined as one and conferred together , and may also be awarded at graduate-level medical schools . In countries that follow the system in the United States , the equivalent medical degree is awarded as Doctor of Medicine ( MD ) or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine ( DO ) ( the latter in the United States only ) .
The Black Report was a 1980 document published by the Department of Health and Social Security ( now the Department of Health ) in the United Kingdom , which was the report of the expert committee into health inequality chaired by Sir Douglas Black . It was demonstrated that although overall health had improved since the introduction of the welfare state , there were widespread health inequalities . It also found that the main cause of these inequalities was economic inequality . The report showed that the death rate for men in social class V was twice that for men in social class I and that gap between the two was increasing , not reducing as was expected .
John Stuart Garrow ( 19 April 1929 - 22 June 2016 ) was a British nutritionist . He was the editor of the European Journal of Clinical Nutrition from 1988 to 1999 .
A nutritionist is a person who advises others on matters of food and nutrition and their impacts on health . Some people specialize in particular areas , such as sports nutrition , public health , or animal nutrition , among other disciplines . In many countries , a person can claim to be a nutritionist even without any training , education , or professional license , in contrast to a dietitian , who has a university degree , professional license , and certification for professional practice .
Dr Robert Whytt ( 1714-1766 ) was a Scottish physician . His work , on unconscious reflexes , tubercular meningitis , urinary bladder stones , and hysteria , is remembered now most for his book on diseases of the nervous system . He served as President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh .
The degree of Master of Arts ( MA ) in Scotland typically refers to an undergraduate degree ( either a three-year general degree or four-year Honours degree ) in humanities or social sciences awarded by one of the ancient universities of Scotland ( the University of St Andrews , the University of Glasgow , the University of Aberdeen , and the University of Edinburgh ) plus the University of Dundee ( as a result of its history as a constituent college of the University of St Andrews ) and Heriot-Watt University ( at honours level only ) . The first two years of the Scottish Master of Arts consist of ordinary Bachelor level courses ; however , after these , students who are accepted to pursue the Honours route will complete more advanced subjects and write a dissertation in their fourth year . Students who choose to do a general degree will complete their third year at a lower level of specialisation , and receive a Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) or MA without Honours . For the postgraduate degree referred to in other places as Master of Arts , Scottish universities usually award the degree of Master of Letters ( MLitt ) or Master of Science ( MSc ) . Generally , non-ancient universities in Scotland ( e.g . University of Strathclyde , The Robert Gordon University , Edinburgh Napier University , etc . ) , award arts degrees as Bachelor of Arts .
The Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh ( RCPE ) is a medical royal college in Scotland . It is one of three organisations that sets the specialty training standards for physicians in the United Kingdom . It was established by Royal charter in 1681 . The college claims to have 12,000 fellows and members worldwide .
John Arbuthnot FRS ( baptised 29 April 1667 - 27 February 1735 ) , often known simply as Dr Arbuthnot , was a Scottish physician , satirist and polymath in London . He is best remembered for his contributions to mathematics , his membership in the Scriblerus Club ( where he inspired both Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver 's Travels book III and Alexander Pope 's Peri Bathous , Or the Art of Sinking in Poetry , Memoirs of Martin Scriblerus , and possibly The Dunciad ) , and for inventing the figure of John Bull .
John Bull is a national personification of the United Kingdom in general and England in particular , especially in political cartoons and similar graphic works . He is usually depicted as a stout , middle-aged , country-dwelling , jolly and matter-of-fact man .
Patrick Abercromby ( 1656 - c. 1716 ) was a Scottish physician and antiquarian , noted for being physician to King James VII ( II of England ) and his fervent opposition to the Act of Union between Scotland and England .
James II and VII ( 14 October 1633O.S . - 16 September 1701 ) was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII , from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . He was the last Roman Catholic monarch of England , Scotland and Ireland ; his reign is now remembered primarily for struggles over religious tolerance . However , it also involved the principles of absolutism and divine right of kings and his deposition ended a century of political and civil strife by confirming the primacy of Parliament over the Crown . James inherited the thrones of England , Ireland and Scotland from his elder brother Charles II with widespread support in all three countries , largely based on the principle of divine right or birth . Tolerance for his personal Catholicism did not apply to it in general and when the English and Scottish Parliaments refused to pass his measures , James attempted to impose them by decree ; it was a political principle , rather than a religious one , that ultimately led to his removal . In June 1688 , two events turned dissent into a crisis ; the first on 10 June was the birth of James 's son and heir James Francis Edward , threatening to create a Roman Catholic dynasty and excluding his Anglican daughter Mary and her Protestant husband William of Orange . The second was the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for seditious libel ; this was viewed as an assault on the Church of England and their acquittal on 30 June destroyed his political authority in England . Anti-Catholic riots in England and Scotland now made it seem only his removal as monarch could prevent a civil war . Leading members of the English political class invited William of Orange to assume the English throne ; after he landed in Brixham on 5 November 1688 , James 's army deserted , and he went into exile in France on 23 December . In February 1689 , a special Convention Parliament held that the king had vacated the English throne and installed William and Mary as joint monarchs , establishing the principle that sovereignty derived from Parliament , not birth . James landed in Ireland on 14 March 1689 in an attempt to recover his kingdoms , but despite a simultaneous rising in Scotland , in April a Scottish Convention followed that of England by finding that James had forfeited the throne and offered it to William and Mary .
Sir George Ballingall FRSE FRCPE FRCSE FSAScot ( 2 May 1780 - 4 December 1855 ) was a Scottish physician and surgeon . He was regius professor of military surgery at the University of Edinburgh .
A Regius Professor is a university professor who has , or originally had , royal patronage or appointment . They are a unique feature of academia in the United Kingdom and Ireland . The first Regius Professorship was in the field of medicine , and founded by the Scottish King James IV at the University of Aberdeen in 1497 . Regius chairs have since been instituted in various universities , in disciplines judged to be fundamental and for which there is a continuing and significant need . Each was established by an English , Scottish , or British monarch , and following proper advertisement and interview through the offices of the university and the national government , the current monarch still appoints the professor ( except for those at the University of Dublin in Ireland , which left the United Kingdom in 1922 ) . This royal imprimatur , and the relative rarity of these professorships , means a Regius chair is prestigious and highly sought-after . Regius Professors are traditionally addressed as Regius and not Professor . The University of Glasgow currently has the highest number of extant Regius chairs , at fourteen .
The University of Edinburgh ( abbreviated as Edin . in post-nominals ) , founded in 1582 , is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotland 's ancient universities . The university has five main campuses in the city of Edinburgh , with many of the buildings in the historic Old Town belonging to the university . The university played an important role in leading Edinburgh to its reputation as a chief intellectual centre during the Age of Enlightenment , and helped give the city the nickname of the Athens of the North . The University of Edinburgh is ranked 20th in the world by the 2020 QS World University Rankings . It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U.S. News ' Best Global Universities Ranking , and 7th best in Europe by the Times Higher Education Ranking . The Research Excellence Framework , a research ranking used by the UK government to determine future research funding , ranked Edinburgh ( joint submission with Heriot-Watt ) 4th in the UK for research power , and 11th overall . It is ranked the 48th most employable university in the world by the 2020 Global Employability University Ranking . It is a member of both the Russell Group , and the League of European Research Universities , a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe . It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom , after the universities of Cambridge and Oxford . The annual income of the institution for 2018-19 was £1,080.6 million of which £285.7 million was from research grants and contracts , with an expenditure of £1,211.9 million . Alumni of the university include some of the major figures of modern history , including 3 signatories of the American declaration of independence and 9 heads of state and government ( including 3 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom ) .
John Barclay FRSE FRCPE FRCSE FLS MWS ( 10 December 1758 - 21 August 1826 ) was an eminent Scottish comparative anatomist , extramural teacher in anatomy , and director of the Highland Society of Scotland .
In Western universities , a Bachelor of Divinity or Baccalaureate in Divinity ( BD or BDiv ; Latin : Baccalaureus Divinitatis ) is an undergraduate or postgraduate academic degree awarded for a course taken in the study of divinity or related disciplines , such as theology or , rarely , religious studies . In most modern universities , the BD as a first degree is essentially equivalent to a Bachelor of Arts degree with a speciality in divinity . Relatively few institutions award undergraduate Bachelor of Divinity degrees today , and the distinction between institutions that do award such degrees and those that award BA degrees for theological subjects is usually one of bureaucracy rather than curriculum . In the Catholic Universities the Bachelor of Sacred Theology ( STB ) is often called the Baccalaureate in Divinity ( BD ) and is treated as a postgraduate qualification .
Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species . It is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny ( the evolution of species ) . The science began in the classical era , continuing in Early Modern times with work by Pierre Belon who noted the similarities of the skeletons of birds and humans . Comparative anatomy has provided evidence of common descent , and has assisted in the classification of animals .
The Royal Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland ( RHASS ) was founded in Edinburgh in 1784 as the Highland Society of Edinburgh . The Society was formed two years after the repeal of the Dress Act of 1746 , at a time when there was renewed interest in Highland culture . It was formed largely in reaction to the subsistence crises of 1782/3 when many of the estates in the highlands and islands of Scotland were not producing enough food to feed tenants . The Society is responsible for organising the annual Royal Highland Show . Famous members include Sir Walter Scott and James MacDonald , secretary from 1893 to 1912 .
Robert Batty , M.D . ( 14 December 1763 Kirkby Lonsdale , Westmorland - 16 November 1849 Fairlight Lodge , Hastings , East Sussex ) , was an English physician . Batty was born at Kirkby Lonsdale , Westmoreland . He graduated M.D . at the university of St. Andrews on 30 August 1797 , shortly after which he settled in London as obstetric physician . On 30 September 1800 , he was admitted by the College of Physicians , a licentiate in midwifery , and on 22 December 1806 a licentiate of the college . He was physician to the Lying-in Hospital , Brownlow Street , and for some years acted as editor of the Medical and Physical Journal . Like his son , Colonel Robert Batty , he was long known as an amateur artist . His daughter , Elizabeth ( 1791-1875 ) , was married to Philip Martineau , a Master in Chancery . Their son was the English painter , Robert Braithwaite Martineau ( 1826-1869 ) .
Obstetrics is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy , childbirth , and the postpartum period . As a medical specialty , obstetrics is combined with gynaecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology ( OB/GYN ) , which is a surgical field .
Golding Bird ( 9 December 1814 - 27 October 1854 ) was a British medical doctor and a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians . He became a great authority on kidney diseases and published a comprehensive paper on urinary deposits in 1844 . He was also notable for his work in related sciences , especially the medical uses of electricity and electrochemistry . From 1836 , he lectured at Guy 's Hospital , a well-known teaching hospital in London and now part of King 's College London , and published a popular textbook on science for medical students called Elements of Natural Philosophy . Having developed an interest in chemistry while still a child , largely through self-study , Bird was far enough advanced to deliver lectures to his fellow pupils at school . He later applied this knowledge to medicine and did much research on the chemistry of urine and of kidney stones . In 1842 , he was the first to describe oxaluria , a condition which leads to the formation of a particular kind of stone . Bird , who was a member of the London Electrical Society , was innovative in the field of the medical use of electricity , designing much of his own equipment . In his time , electrical treatment had acquired a bad name in the medical profession through its widespread use by quack practitioners . Bird made efforts to oppose this quackery , and was instrumental in bringing medical electrotherapy into the mainstream . He was quick to adopt new instruments of all kinds ; he invented a new variant of the Daniell cell in 1837 and made important discoveries in electrometallurgy with it . He was not only innovative in the electrical field , but he also designed a flexible stethoscope , and in 1840 published the first description of such an instrument .
Kidney disease , or renal disease , also known as nephropathy , is damage to or disease of a kidney . Nephritis is an inflammatory kidney disease and has several types according to the location of the inflammation . Inflammation can be diagnosed by blood tests . Nephrosis is non-inflammatory kidney disease . Nephritis and nephrosis can give rise to nephritic syndrome and nephrotic syndrome respectively . Kidney disease usually causes a loss of kidney function to some degree and can result in kidney failure , the complete loss of kidney function . Kidney failure is known as the end-stage of kidney disease , where dialysis or a kidney transplant is the only treatment option . Chronic kidney disease causes the gradual loss of kidney function over time . Acute kidney disease is now termed acute kidney injury and is marked by the sudden reduction in kidney function over seven days . About one in eight Americans ( as of 2007 ) have chronic kidney disease .
Electrochemistry is the branch of physical chemistry that studies the relationship between electricity , as a measurable and quantitative phenomenon , and identifiable chemical change , with either electricity considered an outcome of a particular chemical change or vice versa . These reactions involve electric charges moving between electrodes and an electrolyte ( or ionic species in a solution ) . Thus electrochemistry deals with the interaction between electrical energy and chemical change . When a chemical reaction is caused by an externally supplied current , as in electrolysis , or if an electric current is produced by a spontaneous chemical reaction as in a battery , it is called an electrochemical reaction . Chemical reactions where electrons are transferred directly between molecules and/or atoms are called oxidation-reduction or redox reactions . In general , electrochemistry describes the overall reactions when individual redox reactions are separate but connected by an external electric circuit and an intervening electrolyte .
David Bruce ( fl . 1660 ) , was a Scottish physician . Bruce was the son of Andrew Bruce , D.D. , principal ( from 1630 to 1647 ) of St. Leonard 's College in St. Andrew 's University . He was first educated at St. Andrews , and proceeded M.A . there . Later he went to France , and studied physic at Paris and Montpellier . He intended taking a medical degree at Padua ; but the plague kept him from Italy , and he finally graduated M.D . at Valence in Dauphiny on 7 May 1657 . On 27 March 1660 Bruce was incorporated doctor of physic at Oxford . He was associated with his great-uncle , Sir John Wedderburne , in the office of physician to the Duke and Duchess of York . But after fulfilling , in consequence of Wedderburne 's infirmities , all the duties of the post for many years , he resigned the office and travelled abroad . Subsequently , he settled at Edinburgh , and was there 'in good repute for his practice . '
The Royal Society , formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge , is a learned society and the United Kingdom 's national academy of sciences . Founded on 28 November 1660 , it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society . It is the oldest national scientific institution in the world . The society fulfils a number of roles : promoting science and its benefits , recognising excellence in science , supporting outstanding science , providing scientific advice for policy , fostering international and global co-operation , education and public engagement . The society is governed by its Council , which is chaired by the Society 's President , according to a set of statutes and standing orders . The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows , the basic members of the society , who are themselves elected by existing Fellows . As of 2016 , there are about 1,600 fellows , allowed to use the postnominal title FRS ( Fellow of the Royal Society ) , with up to 52 new fellows appointed each year . There are also royal fellows , honorary fellows and foreign members , the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS ( Foreign Member of the Royal Society ) . The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan , who took up the post on 30 November 2015 . Since 1967 , the society has been based at 6-9 Carlton House Terrace , a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany , London .
Elizabeth Horne Bain Bryson née Macdonald ( 19 August 1880 , Dundee - c.1969 , London ) was a physician , broadcaster , and prominent member of the League of Mothers , an organisation promoting the Christian upbringing of children .
Sheila Theodora Elsie Callender ( 5 April 1914 - 17 August 2004 ) was a British physician and haematologist . She spent the majority of her career at Oxford University , and has been credited with helping to establish haematology as a distinct medical discipline .
Hematology , also spelled haematology , is the branch of medicine concerned with the study of the cause , prognosis , treatment , and prevention of diseases related to blood . It involves treating diseases that affect the production of blood and its components , such as blood cells , hemoglobin , blood proteins , bone marrow , platelets , blood vessels , spleen , and the mechanism of coagulation . Such diseases might include hemophilia , blood clots ( thrombus ) , other bleeding disorders , and blood cancers such as leukemia , multiple myeloma , and lymphoma . The laboratory work that goes into the study of blood is frequently performed by a medical technologist or medical laboratory scientist .
John Clephane , M.D . ( died 1758 ) , was a Scottish physician . Clephane took his degree of M.D . at St. Andrews University on 29 May 1729 . He acted as physician to the army in the Low Countries . He was appointed physician to St George 's Hospital on 8 May 1751 , and admitted a licentiate of the College of Physicians on 25 June 1762 . He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on 8 January 1746 , but was not admitted until 4 May 1749 . Clephane died in the Isle of Wight on 11 October 1758 . He was in the expedition to Quiberon Bay in 1746 under General St. Clair . He was afterwards the familiar friend and correspondent of David Hume , St. Clair 's secretary .
David Hume ( /hjuːm/ ; born David Home ; 7 May 1711 NS ( 26 April 1711 OS ) - 25 August 1776 ) was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher , historian , economist , and essayist , who is best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical empiricism , scepticism , and naturalism . Beginning with A Treatise of Human Nature ( 1739-40 ) , Hume strove to create a naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature . Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas , positing that all human knowledge derives solely from experience . This places him with Francis Bacon , Thomas Hobbes , John Locke , and George Berkeley , as a British Empiricist . Hume argued that inductive reasoning and belief in causality can not be justified rationally ; instead , they result from custom and mental habit . We never actually perceive that one event causes another , but only experience the constant conjunction of events . This problem of induction means that to draw any causal inferences from past experience it is necessary to presuppose that the future will resemble the past , a presupposition which can not itself be grounded in prior experience . An opponent of philosophical rationalists , Hume held that passions rather than reason govern human behaviour , famously proclaiming that Reason is , and ought only to be the slave of the passions . Hume was also a sentimentalist who held that ethics are based on emotion or sentiment rather than abstract moral principle . He maintained an early commitment to naturalistic explanations of moral phenomena , and is usually taken to have first clearly expounded the is-ought problem , or the idea that a statement of fact alone can never give rise to a normative conclusion of what ought to be done . Hume also denied that humans have an actual conception of the self , positing that we experience only a bundle of sensations , and that the self is nothing more than this bundle of causally-connected perceptions . Hume 's compatibilist theory of free will takes causal determinism as fully compatible with human freedom .
Andrew Duncan , the elder ( 17 October 1744 - 5 July 1828 ) FRSE FRCPE FSA ( Scot ) was a British physician and professor at Edinburgh University . He was joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh .
Sir John Eliot , 1st Baronet ( 1736 - 7 November 1786 ) was a Scottish physician and Physician to the Prince of Wales .
George IV ( George Augustus Frederick ; 12 August 1762 - 26 June 1830 ) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover following the death of his father , King George III , on 29 January 1820 , until his own death ten years later . From 1811 until his accession , he served as regent during his father 's final mental illness . George IV was the eldest child of King George III and Queen Charlotte . He led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era . He was a patron of new forms of leisure , style and taste . He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace , and Sir Jeffry Wyatville to rebuild Windsor Castle . George 's charm and culture earned him the title the first gentleman of England , but his dissolute way of life and poor relationships with his parents and his wife , Caroline of Brunswick , earned him the contempt of the people and dimmed the prestige of the monarchy . He excluded Caroline from the coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in an unsuccessful attempt to divorce her . George 's ministers found his behaviour selfish , unreliable and irresponsible . At all times he was much under the influence of favourites . He did not provide national leadership in time of crisis , nor act as a role model for his people . Taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending during the Napoleonic Wars .
Margaret Fairlie FRCOG FRCSE ( 1891-1963 ) was a Scottish academic and gynaecologist . Fairlie spent most of her career working at Dundee Royal Infirmary and teaching at the medical school at University College , Dundee ( later Queen 's College , Dundee ) . In 1940 she became the first woman to hold a professorial chair in Scotland .
Dr John Goodsir FRS FRSE FRCSEd MWS ( 20 March 1814 - 6 March 1867 ) was a Scottish anatomist . He was a pioneer in the formulation of cell theory .
Cell biology is a branch of biology that studies the structure and function of the cell , also known as the basic unit of life . Cell biology encompasses both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and can be divided into many sub-topics which may include the study of cell metabolism , cell communication , cell cycle , and cell composition . The study of cells is performed using several techniques such as cell culture , various types of microscopy , and cell fractionation . These have allowed for and are currently being used for discoveries and research pertaining to how cells function , ultimately giving insight into understanding larger organisms . Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences while also being essential for research in biomedical fields such as cancer , and other diseases . Research in cell biology is interconnected to other fields such as genetics , molecular genetics , biochemistry , molecular biology , medical microbiology , immunology , and cytochemistry .
George Britton Halford ( 26 November 1824 - 27 May 1910 ) was an English-born anatomist and physiologist , founder of the first medical school in Australia , University of Melbourne School of Medicine .
Physiology ( /ˌfɪziˈɒlədʒi/ ; from Ancient Greek φύσις ( physis ) , meaning 'nature , origin ' , and -λογία ( -logia ) , meaning 'study of ' ) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system . As a sub-discipline of biology , physiology focuses on how organisms , organ systems , individual organs , cells , and biomolecules carry out the chemical and physical functions in a living system . According to the classes of organisms , the field can be divided into medical physiology , animal physiology , plant physiology , cell physiology , and comparative physiology . Central to physiological functioning are biophysical and biochemical processes , homeostatic control mechanisms , and communication between cells . Physiological state is the condition of normal function , while pathological state refers to abnormal conditions , including human diseases . The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for exceptional scientific achievements in physiology related to the field of medicine .
A medical school is a tertiary educational institution , or part of such an institution , that teaches medicine , and awards a professional degree for physicians and surgeons . Such medical degrees include the Bachelor of Medicine , Bachelor of Surgery ( MBBS , MBChB , BMBS ) , Doctor of Medicine ( MD ) , or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine ( DO ) . Many medical schools offer additional degrees , such as a Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D ) , Master 's degree ( M.Sc ) , a physician assistant program , or other post-secondary education . Medical schools can also carry out medical research and operate teaching hospitals . Around the world , criteria , structure , teaching methodology , and nature of medical programs offered at medical schools vary considerably . Medical schools are often highly competitive , using standardized entrance examinations , as well as grade point average and leadership roles , to narrow the selection criteria for candidates . In most countries , the study of medicine is completed as an undergraduate degree not requiring prerequisite undergraduate coursework . However , an increasing number of places are emerging for graduate entrants who have completed an undergraduate degree including some required courses . In the United States and Canada , almost all medical degrees are second entry degrees , and require several years of previous study at the university level . Medical degrees are awarded to medical students after the completion of their degree program , which typically lasts five or more years for the undergraduate model and four years for the graduate model . Many modern medical schools integrate clinical education with basic sciences from the beginning of the curriculum ( e.g. ) . More traditional curricula are usually divided into preclinical and clinical blocks .
Faculty of Medicine , Dentistry and Health Sciences of the University of Melbourne has the largest number of post-graduate enrolments in the University of Melbourne and also hosts the most school departments and centres of all University of Melbourne Faculties , consisting of 52 faculty sub-organisations . In 2018 , Melbourne Medical School was ranked 17th in the world and first in Australia in the 2018 QS Subject Rankings .