Warren Alpert Foundation Prize
Warren Alpert Foundation Prize Recipients
Table:
Year
Recipient(s)
Citation
Nationality

2019

Ed Boyden, Karl Deisseroth, Peter Hegemann, Gero Miesenböck

For pioneering work in the field of optogenetics, a revolutionary technique that uses light and genetic modification to control the activity of cells in the brain.

United States

Germany

Austria

2018
Francis Collins, Paul Negulescu, Bonnie Ramsey, Lap-Chee Tsui, Michael Welsh
For identifying faulty gene behind devastating disease, development of precision-targeted therapies
United States China

2017
Arlene Sharpe, Harvard Medical School, Gordon Freeman, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Lieping Chen, Yale University, James P. Allison, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Tasuku Honjo, Kyoto University
For their collective contributions to the pre-clinical foundation and development of immune checkpoint blockade, a novel form of cancer therapy that has transformed the landscape of cancer treatment.[3]
United States Japan

2016
Rodolphe Barrangou, North Carolina State University, Philippe Horvath, DuPont, Jennifer Doudna, University of California, Berkeley, Emmanuelle Charpentier, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology and Umeå University, Virginijus Šikšnys, Vilnius University Institute of Biotechnology
For their remarkable contributions to the understanding of the CRISPR bacterial defense system and the revolutionary discovery that it can be adapted for genome editing [4]
France United States

Lithuania

2015
Ruth Sonntag Nussenzweig and Victor Nussenzweig, NYU Langone Medical Center, Tu Youyou of the China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing
For their pioneering discoveries in chemistry and parasitology, and their personal commitment to translating these discoveries into effective chemotherapeutic and vaccine-based approaches to controlling malaria[5]
United States China

2014
Dr. Oleh Hornykiewicz, Medical University of Vienna, Roger A. Nicoll, University of California, San Francisco, Dr. Solomon H. Snyder, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
For seminal contributions to our understanding of neurotransmission and neurodegeneration.[6][7]
Austria United States

2013
Dr. David Botstein, Princeton University, Ronald W. Davis, Stanford University School of Medicine, and Dr. David Hogness, Stanford University School of Medicine
For their seminal contributions to the concepts and methods of creating a genetic map in the human, and of positional cloning, leading to the identification of thousands of human disease genes and ushering in the era of human genetics.[6][8]
United States

2012
Dr. Julian Adams, Infinity Pharmaceuticals, Dr. Kenneth C. Anderson, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Dr. Alfred L. Goldberg, Harvard Medical School, and Dr. Paul G. Richardson, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute[9]
For the discovery, preclinical and clinical development of bortezomib to FDA approval and front line therapy for the treatment of patients with multiple myeloma.[6]
United States

2011
Dr. Alain Carpentier, Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou, and Dr. Robert Langer, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
For their application of bioengineering principles to fundamental improvements in human health.[6][10]

United States

France

2009-2010
Dr. Howard Green, Harvard Medical School
For development of methodologies for the expansion and differentiation of human keratinocyte stem cells for permanent skin restoration in victims of extensive burns.[6][11]
United States

2008
Dr. Lloyd Aiello, Joslin Diabetes Center
For the discovery, characterization and implementation of laser panretinal photocoagulation, which is used to treat proliferative diabetic retinopathy[6]
United States

2007
Harald zur Hausen and Lutz Gissmann, German Cancer Research Center
For work leading to the development of a vaccine against human papillomavirus.[12]
Germany

2006
Dennis Slamon, UCLA, Robert Weinberg, MIT, Michael Shepard, Receptor BioLogix, Inc, and Axel Ullrich, Center for Molecular Medicine,
For their work in identifying HER-2/neu as an oncogene and development of the anti-HER-2/neu monoclonal antibody Herceptin for breast cancer therapy.[13]
United States Germany

2005
M. Judah Folkman, Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital
For discovering tumor angiogenesis, and for pioneering work in the development of antiangiogenic therapies for cancer.[6]
United States

2004
Susan Band Horwitz, Albert Einstein College of Medicine
For her seminal contributions to the understanding of how the antitumor agent Taxol kills cancer cells.
United States

2003
Sidney Pestka, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, David Goeddel, Tularik, Inc., and Charles Weissmann, Imperial College School of Medicine, London

For purification and characterization of interferon alpha; cloning of the human interferon alpha gene and mass production of recombinant interferon alpha for cancer treatment and treatment of hepatitis C.[6]
United Kingdom United States

2002
Alfred Sommer, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health
For epidemiologic insight into the effects of Vitamin A deficiency, and the resulting reduction in childhood mortality worldwide.[6]
United States

2001
Eugene Braunwald, Harvard Medical School, and Barry Coller, Rockefeller University School of Medicine.
For work in cardiac physiology and pathophysiology, leading to the use of monoclonal antibodies to platelet surface antigens in antithrombotic therapy.[6]
United States

2000
David Baltimore, California Institute of Technology, Brian Druker, Oregon Health Sciences University, Nicholas Lydon, Amgen, Inc., Alex Matter, Novartis Pharma AG, and Owen Witte, University of California, Los Angeles.
For Development of Abl kinase inhibitors for use in the treatment of chronic myelogenous leukemia[6]
United States Switzerland

1999
Michael S. Brown and Joseph L. Goldstein, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Akira Endo (biochemist), Tokyo Noko University
For Development of HMG CoA reductase inhibitors.[6]
United States Japan

Looking at the table together with the article excerpts below.

Provide an answer to this question: Which of the 2014 recipients began his collegiate career in Appleton , Wisconsin ? Return your answer as JSON: {"answer": "YOUR ANSWER"}.

Edward S. Boyden is an American neuroscientist at MIT . He is the Y. Eva Tan Professor in Neurotechnology , a faculty member in the MIT Media Lab and an associate member of the McGovern Institute for Brain Research . In 2018 he was named a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator . He is recognized for his work on optogenetics . In this technology , a light-sensitive ion channel such as channelrhodopsin-2 is genetically expressed in neurons , allowing neuronal activity to be controlled by light . There were early efforts to achieve targeted optical control dating back to 2002 that did not involve a directly light-activated ion channel , but it was the method based on directly light-activated channels from microbes , such as channelrhodopsin , emerging in 2005 that turned out to be broadly useful . Optogenetics in this way has been widely adopted by neuroscientists as a research tool , and it is also thought to have potential therapeutic applications . Boyden joined the MIT faculty in 2007 , and continues to develop new optogenetic tools as well as other technologies for the manipulation of brain activity . Previously , Boyden received degrees in electrical engineering , computer science , and physics from MIT . During high school , Boyden attended the Texas Academy of Mathematics and Science .
Karl Alexander Deisseroth ( born 18 November 1971 ) is the D. H. Chen Professor of Bioengineering and of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University . He is known for creating and developing the technologies of CLARITY and optogenetics , and for applying integrated optical and genetic strategies to study normal neural circuit function as well as dysfunction in neurological and psychiatric disease .
Peter Hegemann ( born 11 December 1954 in Münster , West Germany ) is Professor and Head of the Department for Biophysics at the Humboldt University of Berlin , Germany . He studied chemistry in Münster and Munich and earned his PhD 1984 in Munich with an investigation into the structure and function of halorhodopsin , a light-driven chloride pump in Halobacterium halobium . As a postdoc , he worked in the research groups of Dieter Oesterhelt ( 1984 to 1985 ) and with Kenneth W. Foster at Syracuse University ( 1985 to 1986 ) . In 1986 , he started a research group in the Department of Membrane Biochemistry at the Max-Planck-Institute of Biochemistry in Frankfurt , Germany . He became professor at the University of Regensburg and was appointed full professor at the Humboldt-University of Berlin in 2004 . In 2015 , he was awarded a Senior Research Professor position in Neuroscience by the Hertie Foundation .
Gero Andreas Miesenböck ( born 1965 ) FRS is Waynflete Professor of Physiology and Director of the Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour ( CNCB ) at the University of Oxford and a Fellow of Magdalen College , Oxford .
Optogenetics ( from Greek optikós , meaning 'seen , visible ' ) most commonly refers to a biological technique that involves the use of light to control cells in living tissue , typically neurons , that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive ion channels . As such , optogenetics is a neuromodulation method that uses a combination of techniques from optics and genetics to control the activities of individual neurons in living tissue - even within freely-moving animals . In some usages , optogenetics also refers to optical monitoring of neuronal activity and control of biochemical pathways in non-neuronal cells , although these research activities preceded the use of light-sensitive ion channels in neurons . As optogenetics is used by some authors to refer to only optical control of the activity of genetically defined neurons and not these additional research approaches , the term optogenetics is an example of polysemy . Neuronal control is achieved using optogenetic actuators like channelrhodopsin , halorhodopsin , and archaerhodopsin , while optical recording of neuronal activities can be made with the help of optogenetic sensors for calcium ( GCaMPs ) , vesicular release ( synapto-pHluorin ) , neurotransmitters ( GluSnFRs ) , or membrane voltage ( Quasars , ASAPs ) . Control ( or recording ) of activity is restricted to genetically defined neurons and performed in a spatiotemporal-specific manner by light . In 2010 , optogenetics was chosen as the Method of the Year across all fields of science and engineering by the interdisciplinary research journal Nature Methods . At the same time , optogenetics was highlighted in the article on Breakthroughs of the Decade in the academic research journal Science .
The United States of America ( USA ) , commonly known as the United States ( U.S. or US ) or America , is a country consisting of 50 states , a federal district , five major self-governing territories , and various possessions . [ g ] At 3.8 million square miles ( 9.8 million km2 ) , it is the world 's third or fourth-largest country by total area [ b ] and is slightly smaller than the entire continent of Europe . Most of the country is located in central North America between Canada and Mexico . With an estimated population of over 328 million , the U.S. is the third most populous country in the world . The capital is Washington , D.C. , and the most populous city is New York City . Paleo-Indians migrated from Siberia to the North American mainland at least 12,000 years ago . European colonization began in the 16th century . The United States emerged from the thirteen British colonies established along the East Coast . Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the colonies led to the American Revolutionary War lasting between 1775 and 1783 , leading to independence . The United States embarked on a vigorous expansion across North America throughout the 19th century - gradually acquiring new territories , displacing Native Americans , and admitting new states - until by 1848 it spanned the continent . During the second half of the 19th century , the American Civil War led to the abolition of slavery in the United States . The Spanish-American War and World War I confirmed the country 's status as a global military power .
Germany ( German : Deutschland , German pronunciation : [ ˈdɔʏtʃlant ] ) , constitutionally the Federal Republic of Germany ( German : Bundesrepublik Deutschland , listen ( help·info ) ) , [ f ] is a country in Central and Western Europe . It borders Denmark to the north , Poland and the Czech Republic to the east , Austria and Switzerland to the south , France to the southwest , and Luxembourg , Belgium , and the Netherlands to the west . Germany includes 16 constituent states , covers an area of 357,386 square kilometres ( 137,988 sq mi ) , and has a largely temperate seasonal climate . With 83 million inhabitants , it is the second most populous state of Europe after Russia , the most populous state lying entirely in Europe , as well as the most populous member state of the European Union . Germany is a very decentralised country . Its capital and largest metropolis is Berlin , while Frankfurt serves as its financial capital and has the country 's busiest airport . Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity . A region named Germania was documented before AD 100 . Beginning in the 10th century , German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire . During the 16th century , northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation . After the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire , the German Confederation was formed in 1815 . The German revolutions of 1848-49 resulted in the Frankfurt Parliament establishing major democratic rights .
Austria ( /ˈɒstriə/ ( listen ) , /ˈɔːs-/ ; German : Österreich [ ˈøːstɐʁaɪ̯ç ] ( listen ) ) , officially the Republic of Austria ( German : Republik Österreich , listen ( help·info ) ) , is a landlocked East Alpine country in the southern part of Central Europe . It is composed of nine federated states ( Bundesländer ) , one of which is Vienna , Austria 's capital and its largest city . It is bordered by Germany to the northwest , Czech Republic to the north , Slovakia to the northeast , Hungary to the east , Slovenia and Italy to the south , and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west . Austria occupies an area of 83,879 km2 ( 32,386 sq mi ) and has a population of nearly 9 million people . While German is the country 's official language , many Austrians communicate informally in a variety of Bavarian dialects . Austria initially emerged as a margraviate around 976 and developed into a duchy and archduchy . In the 16th century , Austria started serving as the heart of the Habsburg Monarchy and the junior branch of the House of Habsburg - one of the most influential royal dynasties in history . As an archduchy , it was a major component and administrative centre of the Holy Roman Empire . Early in the 19th century , Austria established its own empire , which became a great power and the leading force of the German Confederation but pursued its own course independently of the other German states . Following the Austro-Prussian War and the compromise with Hungary , the Dual Monarchy was established . Austria was involved in World War I under Emperor Franz Joseph following the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand , the presumptive successor to the Austro-Hungarian throne . After the defeat and the dissolution of the Monarchy , the Republic of German-Austria was proclaimed with the intent of the union with Germany , which eventually failed because of the Allied Powers and the state remained unrecognized .
Francis Sellers Collins ( born April 14 , 1950 ) is an American physician-geneticist who discovered the genes associated with a number of diseases and led the Human Genome Project . He is director of the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) in Bethesda , Maryland , United States . Before being appointed director of the NIH , Collins led the Human Genome Project and other genomics research initiatives as director of the National Human Genome Research Institute ( NHGRI ) , one of the 27 institutes and centers at NIH . Before joining NHGRI , he earned a reputation as a gene hunter at the University of Michigan . He has been elected to the Institute of Medicine and the National Academy of Sciences , and has received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the National Medal of Science . Collins also has written a number of books on science , medicine , and religion , including the New York Times bestseller , The Language of God : A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief . After leaving the directorship of NHGRI and before becoming director of the NIH , he founded and served as president of The BioLogos Foundation , which promotes discourse on the relationship between science and religion and advocates the perspective that belief in Christianity can be reconciled with acceptance of evolution and science , especially through the advancement of evolutionary creation . In 2009 , Pope Benedict XVI appointed Collins to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences .
Lap-Chee Tsui , FRS , GBM , OC , O.Ont , JP ( Chinese : 徐立之 ; pinyin : Xú Lìzhī ; Jyutping : ceoi4 laap6 zi1 ; born 21 December 1950 ) is a Chinese-born Canadian geneticist and served as the 14th Vice-Chancellor and President of the University of Hong Kong .
China ( Chinese : 中国 ; pinyin : Zhōngguó ) , officially the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , is a country in East Asia and is the world 's most populous country , with a population of around 1.428 billion in 2017 . Covering approximately 9,600,000 square kilometers ( 3,700,000 sq mi ) , it is the third largest country by area . [ j ] Governed by the Communist Party of China , the state exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces , [ k ] five autonomous regions , four direct-controlled municipalities ( Beijing , Tianjin , Shanghai , and Chongqing ) , and the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau . China emerged as one of the world 's first civilizations , in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain . For millennia , China 's political system was based on hereditary monarchies , or dynasties , beginning with the semi-mythical Xia dynasty in 21st century BCE . Since then , China has expanded , fractured , and re-unified numerous times . In the 3rd century BCE , the Qin reunited core China and established the first Chinese empire . The succeeding Han dynasty , which ruled from 206 BCE until 220 CE , saw some of the most advanced technology at that time , including papermaking and the compass , along with agricultural and medical improvements . The invention of gunpowder and movable type in the Tang dynasty ( 618-907 ) and Northern Song ( 960-1127 ) completed the Four Great Inventions . Tang culture spread widely in Asia , as the new Silk Route brought traders to as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa . Dynastic rule ended in 1912 with the Xinhai Revolution , when the Republic of China ( ROC ) replaced the Qing dynasty . China , as a whole , was ravaged by feudal warlordism and Japan during World War II .
Arlene Helen Sharpe ( born in 1953 ) is an American immunologist and George Fabyan Professor of Comparative Pathology at Harvard Medical School . In 2017 , she received the Warren Alpert Foundation Prize with Gordon Freeman , Lieping Chen , James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo for their collective contributions to the pre-clinical foundation and development of immune checkpoint blockade , a novel form of cancer therapy that has transformed the landscape of cancer treatment . She served as the hundredth president of the American Association of Immunologists from 2016 to 2017 and served as an AAI Council member from 2013 to 2016 . She is the Co-Director of the Evergrande Center for Immunologic Diseases at Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Womens Hospital . She graduated from Harvard College and Harvard Medical School .
Harvard Medical School ( HMS ) is the faculty of medicine and graduate medical school of Harvard University . It is located in the Longwood neighborhood of Boston , Massachusetts . Founded in 1782 , HMS is one of the oldest medical schools in the United States and is consistently ranked first for research among medical schools by U.S. News & World Report . Unlike most other leading medical schools , HMS does not operate in conjunction with a single hospital but is directly affiliated with several teaching hospitals in the Boston area . HMS-affiliated teaching hospitals and institutes include Dana-Farber Cancer Institute , Massachusetts General Hospital , Brigham and Women 's Hospital , and Boston Children 's Hospital . The HMS faculty has approximately 2,900 full- and part-time voting faculty members consisting of assistant , associate , and full professors , and over 5,000 full- and part-time , post-doctoral researchers and non-voting instructors . The majority of the faculty receive their appointments through an affiliated teaching hospital .
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute is a comprehensive cancer treatment and research institution in Boston , Massachusetts . Dana-Farber is the founding member of Dana-Farber/Harvard Cancer Center , Harvard 's Comprehensive Cancer Center designated by the National Cancer Institute , and one of the 15 clinical affiliates and research institutes of Harvard Medical School . Dana-Farber has two Nobel laureates in Physiology and Medicine among its past and present faculty . Dana-Farber 's research discoveries include the development of the highly successful Gleevec to treat chronic myeloid leukemia .
Yale University is a private Ivy League research university in New Haven , Connecticut . Founded in 1701 , it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine Colonial Colleges chartered before the American Revolution . Chartered by Connecticut Colony , the Collegiate School was established in 1701 by clergy to educate Congregational ministers . It moved to New Haven in 1716 and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale . Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages , the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution . In the 19th century , the college expanded into graduate and professional instruction , awarding the first Ph.D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887 . Its faculty and student populations grew after 1890 with rapid expansion of the physical campus and scientific research . Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools : the original undergraduate college , the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and twelve professional schools . While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation , each school 's faculty oversees its curriculum and degree programs . In addition to a central campus in downtown New Haven , the university owns athletic facilities in western New Haven , a campus in West Haven , Connecticut and forest and nature preserves throughout New England . The university 's assets include an endowment valued at $ 30.3 billion as of September 2019 , the second largest endowment of any educational institution in North America . The Yale University Library , serving all constituent schools , holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States .
James Patrick Allison ( born in August 7 , 1948 ) is an American immunologist and Nobel laureate who holds the position of professor and chair of immunology and executive director of immunotherapy platform at the MD Anderson Cancer Center at the University of Texas . His discoveries have led to new cancer treatments for the deadliest cancers . He is also the director of the Cancer Research Institute ( CRI ) scientific advisory council . He has a longstanding interest in mechanisms of T-cell development and activation , the development of novel strategies for tumor immunotherapy , and is recognized as one of the first people to isolate the T-cell antigen receptor complex protein . In 2014 , he was awarded the Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences ; in 2018 , he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Tasuku Honjo .
The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center ( colloquially MD Anderson Cancer Center ) is a comprehensive cancer center in Houston , Texas . It is the largest cancer center in the US and one of the original three comprehensive cancer centers in the country . It is both a degree-granting academic institution and a cancer treatment and research center located at the Texas Medical Center in Houston . It is affiliated with The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston .
Tasuku Honjo ( 本庶 佑 , Honjo Tasuku , born January 27 , 1942 ) is a Japanese physician-scientist and immunologist . He shared the 2018 Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology and is best known for his identification of programmed cell death protein 1 ( PD-1 ) . He is also known for his molecular identification of cytokines : IL-4 and IL-5 , as well as the discovery of activation-induced cytidine deaminase ( AID ) that is essential for class switch recombination and somatic hypermutation . He was elected as a foreign associate of the National Academy of Sciences , USA ( 2001 ) , as a member of German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina ( 2003 ) , and also as a member of the Japan Academy ( 2005 ) . In 2018 , he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with James P. Allison . He and Allison together had won the 2014 Tang Prize in Biopharmaceutical Science for the same achievement .
Kyoto University ( 京都大学 , Kyōto daigaku ) , or Kyodai ( 京大 , Kyōdai ) is a national university in Kyoto , Japan . It is the second oldest Japanese university , one of Asia 's highest ranked universities and one of Japan 's National Seven Universities . One of Asia 's leading research-oriented institutions , Kyoto University is famed for producing world-class researchers , including 19 Nobel Prize laureates , 2 Fields medalists and one Gauss Prize winner . It has the most Nobel laureates of all universities in Asia .
Japan ( Japanese : 日本 , Nippon [ ɲippoꜜɴ ] ( listen ) or Nihon [ ɲihoꜜɴ ] ( listen ) ) is an island country located in East Asia . It is bordered by the Sea of Japan to the west and the Pacific Ocean to the east , and spans more than 3,000 kilometers ( 1,900 mi ) along the coast of the continent from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Philippine Sea in the south . Part of the Pacific Ring of Fire , Japan encompasses a stratovolcanic archipelago of about 6,852 islands , with five main islands ( Hokkaido , Honshu , Kyushu , Shikoku , and Okinawa ) comprising 97% of the country 's total area of 377,975 square kilometers ( 145,937 sq mi ) . Japan is officially divided into 47 prefectures and traditionally into eight regions . Approximately two-thirds of the country 's terrain is mountainous and heavily forested , and less than one-eighth of land is suitable for agriculture . Consequently , Japan is among the most densely populated and urbanized countries in the world , with over 90% of its population living in urban areas . The largest of these is the metropolitan area centered on the capital city of Tokyo , which is the most populous in the world and home to more than 38 million people . Japan itself is the world 's eleventh most populous country with a population of 126.2 million , of which 97.8% are ethnically Japanese . The kanji ( or Chinese characters ) that make up the name of Japan in the Japanese language mean sun origin ; in the Western world , the country is often known by the sobriquet Land of the Rising Sun . Periods of influence from other regions , primarily China , followed by periods of isolation , particularly from Western Europe , have characterized the history of Japan . While archaeological evidence indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period , the first written mention of the archipelago appears in Chinese texts from the first century AD . Between the fourth and ninth centuries , the kingdoms of Japan became gradually unified under an Emperor and imperial court based in Heian-kyō ( modern Kyoto ) .
Rodolphe Barrangou is an Associate Professor of Food Science and the Todd R. Klaenhammer Distinguished Scholar in Probiotics Research at North Carolina State University . His research focuses on CRISPR-Cas9 in bacteria . In 2017 , Barrangou was named Editor-in-Chief of The CRISPR Journal , a peer-reviewed journal covering the field of genome editing and CRISPR research , which debuted in February 2018 . He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 2018 .
North Carolina State University ( also referred to as NCSU , NC State , or just State ) is a public research university in Raleigh , North Carolina . It is part of the University of North Carolina system and is a land- , sea- , and space-grant institution . The university forms one of the corners of the Research Triangle together with Duke University in Durham and The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . The North Carolina General Assembly founded the North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts , now NC State , on March 7 , 1887 , as a land-grant college . Today , NC State has an enrollment of more than 35,000 students , making it the largest university in the Carolinas and among the largest in the country . NC State has historical strengths in engineering , statistics , agriculture , life sciences , textiles and design and offers bachelor 's degrees in 106 fields of study . The graduate school offers master 's degrees in 104 fields , doctoral degrees in 61 fields , and a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine .
Philippe Horvath is a French scientist working for DuPont Nutrition and Health . His work was integral to the development of CRISPR-Cas , a versatile biochemical method for targeted genetic engineering . For this work , he was awarded the 2015 Massry Prize along with Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna , as well as the 2016 Canada Gairdner International Award , with his Massry co-laureates in addition to Feng Zhang , Rodolphe Barrangou , Anthony Fauci , and Frank Plummer .
DuPont de Nemours , Inc. , commonly known as DuPont , is an American company formed by the merger of Dow Chemical and DuPont on August 31 , 2017 , and then subsequent spinoffs of Dow Inc. and Corteva . Prior to the spinoffs it was the world 's largest chemical company in terms of sales . Within 18 months of the merger the company was split into three publicly traded companies with focuses on the following : agriculture , materials science , and specialty products . The agriculture division is named Corteva , the materials science spin-off is named Dow Inc. , and the specialty products division is named DuPont . Jeff Fettig is executive chairman of the company , and Edward Breen is the CEO . The merger has been reported to be worth an estimated $ 130 billion . With 2018 total revenue of $ 86 billion , DowDuPont ranked No . 35 on the 2019 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States public corporations .
Jennifer Anne Doudna ( born February 19 , 1964 ) is an American biochemist . She is a Li Ka Shing Chancellor Chair Professor in the Department of Chemistry and the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology at the University of California , Berkeley . Doudna has been an investigator with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute ( HHMI ) since 1997 , and since 2018 she holds the position of senior investigator at the Gladstone Institutes as well as that of professor at the University of California , San Francisco . Doudna has been a leading figure in what is referred to as the CRISPR revolution for her fundamental work and leadership in developing CRISPR-mediated genome editing . In 2012 , Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier were the first to propose that CRISPR-Cas9 ( enzymes from bacteria that control microbial immunity ) could be used for programmable editing of genomes , which is now considered one of the most significant discoveries in the history of biology . Doudna has made fundamental contributions in biochemistry and genetics and received many prestigious awards and fellowships including the 2000 Alan T. Waterman Award for her research on the structure as determined by X-ray crystallography of a ribozyme , and the 2015 Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences for CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technology ( with Charpentier ) . She has been a co-recipient of the Gruber Prize in Genetics ( 2015 ) , the Canada Gairdner International Award ( 2016 ) , and the Japan Prize ( 2017 ) . Outside the scientific community , she has been named one of the Time 100 most influential people in 2015 ( with Charpentier ) , and she was listed as a runner-up for Time Person of the Year in 2016 alongside other CRISPR researchers .
The University of California , Berkeley ( UC Berkeley , Berkeley , Cal , or California ) is a public research university in Berkeley , California . Founded in 1868 , it is the flagship campus and the oldest of the ten campuses of the University of California . Berkeley has been ranked by numerous major education publications as among the top ten universities in the world . Berkeley is one of the 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities and had $ 789 million in R & D expenditures in the fiscal year ending June 30 , 2015 . Today , Berkeley maintains close relationships with three United States Department of Energy National Laboratories - Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory - and is home to many institutes , including the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and the Space Sciences Laboratory . Through its partner institution University of California , San Francisco ( UCSF ) , Berkeley also offers a joint medical program at the UCSF Medical Center . As of October 2019 [ update ] , Berkeley alumni , faculty members and researchers include 107 Nobel laureates , the third most of any university worldwide , as well as 25 Turing Award winners , and 14 Fields Medalists . They have also won 19 Wolf Prizes , 45 MacArthur Fellowships , 20 Academy Awards , 19 Pulitzer Prizes , and 207 Olympic medals . In 1930 , Ernest Lawrence invented the cyclotron at Berkeley , based on which UC Berkeley researchers along with Berkeley Lab have discovered or co-discovered 16 chemical elements - more than any other university . During the 1940s , Berkeley physicist J. R. Oppenheimer , the Father of the Atomic Bomb , led the Manhattan project to create the first atomic bomb . In the 1960s , Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the anti-Vietnam War movement led by its students . In the 21st century , Berkeley has become one of the leading universities in producing entrepreneurs and its alumni have founded or co-founded many companies worldwide , including five classified as Fortune 500 Companies as of 2017 .
Emmanuelle Marie Charpentier ( born 11 December 1968 ) is a French professor and researcher in microbiology , genetics and biochemistry . Since 2015 , she has been a Director at the Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology in Berlin , Germany . In 2018 , she founded an independent research institute , the Max Planck Unit for the Science of Pathogens .
The Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology ( MPIIB ) is a non-university research institute of the Max Planck Society located in the heart of Berlin in Berlin-Mitte . It was founded in 1993 . Arturo Zychlinsky is currently the Managing Director . The MPIIB is divided into four internal research groups , two partner groups and an Emeritus Group of the founding director Stefan H. E. Kaufmann . The Regulation in Infection Biology department headed by Emmanuelle Charpentier was hived off as an independent research center in May 2018 . The Max Planck Unit for the Science of Pathogens is now administratively independent of the Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology . In October 2019 , Igor Iatsenko and Matthieu Domenech de Cellès established new research groups at the institute .
Umeå University ( Swedish : Umeå universitet ; Ume Sami : Ubmeje Universitiähta ) is a university in Umeå in the mid-northern region of Sweden . The university was founded in 1965 and is the fifth oldest within Sweden 's present borders . As of 2015 , Umeå University has nearly 31,000 registered students ( approximately 16,000 full-time students ) , including those at the postgraduate and doctoral level . It has more than 4,000 employees , half of which are teachers/researchers , including 368 professors . Internationally , the university is known for research relating to the genome of the Populus tree and the Norway Spruce , and its highly ranked Institute of ( industrial ) Design .
Virginijus Šikšnys ( born January 26 , 1956 ) is a Lithuanian biochemist .
Vilnius University ( Lithuanian : Vilniaus universitetas ; former names exist ) is the oldest university in the Baltic states , one of the oldest and most famous in Central Europe , preceded only by the universities of Prague , Kraków , Pécs , Budapest , Bratislava and Königsberg . Founded in the 16th century , it was the easternmost university in the world . Today it is the largest university in Lithuania . The university was founded in 1579 as the Jesuit Academy ( College ) of Vilnius by Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland , Stephen Báthory . It was the third oldest university ( after the Cracow Academy and the Albertina ) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . In the aftermath of the Third Partition of Poland ( 1795 ) and the November Uprising ( 1830-1831 ) , the university was closed down and suspended its operation until 1919 . In the aftermath of World War I the university saw failed attempts to restart it by Lithuania ( December 1918 ) and invading Soviet forces ( March 1919 ) . It finally resumed operations as Stefan Batory University in Poland ( August 1919 ) , a period followed by another Soviet occupation in 1920 , and the less than two-years of the Republic of Central Lithuania , incorporated into Poland in 1922 . Following the Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939 , the university was briefly administered by the Lithuanian authorities ( from October 1939 ) , and then after Soviet annexation of Lithuania ( June 1940 ) , punctuated by a period of German occupation after German invasion of the Soviet Union ( 1941-1944 ) , administrated as Vilnius State University by the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic . In 1945 the Polish community of students and scholars of Stefan Batory University was transferred to Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń . After Lithuania regained its independence in 1990 , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union , it resumed its status as one of the prominent universities in Lithuania . The wide-ranging Vilnius University ensemble represents all major architectural styles that predominated in Lithuania : Gothic , Renaissance , Baroque and Classicism .
France ( French : [ fʁɑ̃s ] ( listen ) ) , officially the French Republic ( French : République française , pronounced [ ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛːz ] ( listen ) ) , is a country whose territory consists of metropolitan France in Western Europe and several overseas regions and territories . [ XIII ] The metropolitan area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea , and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean . It is bordered by Belgium , Luxembourg and Germany to the northeast , Switzerland and Italy to the east , and Andorra and Spain to the south . The overseas territories include French Guiana in South America and several islands in the Atlantic , Pacific and Indian oceans . The country 's 18 integral regions ( five of which are situated overseas ) span a combined area of 643,801 square kilometres ( 248,573 sq mi ) and a total population of 67.02 million ( as of July 2019 [ update ] ) . France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its capital in Paris , the country 's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre . Other major urban areas include Lyon , Marseille , Toulouse , Bordeaux , Lille and Nice . France , including its overseas territories , has the most number of time zones of any country , with a total of 12 . During the Iron Age , what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls , a Celtic people . Rome annexed the area in 51 BC , holding it until the arrival of Germanic Franks in 476 , who formed the Kingdom of Francia . The Treaty of Verdun of 843 partitioned Francia into East Francia , Middle Francia and West Francia . West Francia , which became the Kingdom of France in 987 , emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages , following its victory in the Hundred Years ' War ( 1337-1453 ) .
The first known record of the name of Lithuania ( Lithuanian : Lietuva ) is in a 9 March 1009 story of Saint Bruno in the Quedlinburg Chronicle . The Chronicle recorded a Latinized form of the name Lietuva : Litua ( pronounced [ litua ] ) . Due to the lack of reliable evidence , the true meaning of the name is unknown . Nowadays , scholars still debate the meaning of the word and there are a few plausible versions . Since Lietuva has a suffix ( -uva ) , the original word should have no suffix . [ citation needed ] A likely candidate is Lietā . Because many Baltic ethnonyms originated from hydronyms , linguists have searched for its origin among local hydronyms . Usually , such names evolved through the following process : hydronym → toponym → ethnonym . Lietava , a small river not far from Kernavė , the core area of the early Lithuanian state and a possible first capital of the eventual Grand Duchy of Lithuania , is usually credited as the source of the name . However , the river is very small and some find it improbable that such a small and local object could have lent its name to an entire nation . On the other hand , such naming is not unprecedented in world history . Artūras Dubonis proposed another hypothesis , that Lietuva relates to the word leičiai ( plural of leitis ) .
Ruth Sonntag Nussenzweig ( 20 June 1928 - 1 April 2018 ) was an Austrian-Brazilian immunologist specializing in the development of malaria vaccines . In a career spanning over 60 years , she was primarily affiliated with New York University ( NYU ) , as C.V. Starr Professor of Medical and Molecular Parasitology at Langone Medical Center , Research Professor at the NYU Department of Pathology , and finally Professor Emerita of Microbiology and Pathology at the NYU Department of Microbiology .
NYU Langone Medical Center is an academic medical center located in New York City , New York , United States , affiliated with New York University . The Medical Center comprises the NYU School of Medicine and several hospitals : Tisch Hospital , the Rusk Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine , the Hospital for Joint Diseases , NYU Langone Hospital - Brooklyn , NYU Winthrop Hospital , and most recently , Hassenfeld Children 's Hospital . NYU Langone Medical Center also operates over thirty ambulatory facilities in Manhattan , Brooklyn , Queens and Long Island . In early 2016 , NYU Langone had approximately 25,000 employees , and over 8,000 more employees were gained after the acquisition of Long Island 's Winthrop-University Hospital . The main campus of NYU Langone Medical Center overlooks the East River . It was placed on the Honor Roll of U.S. News & World Report Best Hospitals in the nation for 2012-2015 , and was named the # 12 Hospital in the nation on the 2015-2016 Best Hospitals Honor Roll . In the 2016-2017 rankings , NYU Langone claimed the number 10 spot , overtaking Barnes-Jewish Hospital of Washington University in St. Louis . In 2019 , the hospital was once again moved up the list to the # 9 hospital in the U.S .
Tu Youyou ( Chinese : 屠呦呦 ; pinyin : Tú Yōuyōu ; born 30 December 1930 ) is a Chinese pharmaceutical chemist and malariologist . She discovered artemisinin ( also known as qinghaosu 青蒿素 ) and dihydroartemisinin , used to treat malaria , a breakthrough in twentieth-century tropical medicine , saving millions of lives in South China , Southeast Asia , Africa , and South America . For her work , Tu received the 2011 Lasker Award in clinical medicine and the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with William C. Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura . Tu is the first Chinese Nobel laureate in physiology or medicine and the first female citizen of the People 's Republic of China to receive a Nobel Prize in any category . She is also the first Chinese person to receive the Lasker Award . Tu Youyou was born , educated and carried out her research exclusively in China .
Oleh Hornykiewicz ( born 17 November 1926 ) is an Austrian biochemist .
The Medical University of Vienna ( German : Medizinische Universität Wien ) is a public university located in Vienna , Austria . It is the direct successor to the faculty of medicine at the University of Vienna , founded in 1365 by Rudolf IV , Duke of Austria . As one of the oldest medical schools in the world , it is the oldest in the German-speaking countries , and was the second medical faculty in the Holy Roman Empire , after the Charles University of Prague . The Medical University of Vienna is the largest medical organisation in Austria , as well as one of the top-level research institutions in Europe and provides Europe 's largest hospital , the Vienna General Hospital , with all of its medical staff . It consists of 31 university clinics and clinical institutes , and 12 medical-theoretical departments , which perform around 48,000 operations each year . The Vienna General Hospital has about 100,000 patients treated as inpatients and 605,000 treated as outpatients each year . There have been seven Nobel prize laureates affiliated with the medical faculty , and fifteen in total with the University of Vienna . These include Robert Bárány , Julius Wagner-Jauregg and Karl Landsteiner , the discoverer of the ABO blood type system and the Rhesus factor . Sigmund Freud qualified as a doctor at the medical faculty and worked as a doctor and lecturer at the General Hospital , carrying out research into cerebral palsy , aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy . In the 2014-15 Times Higher Education Rankings , the Medical University of Vienna is listed among the top 15 medical schools in Europe and 49th in the world . ( Clinical , Pre-Clinical and Health ) . In 2019 , there were 8,217 applicants for 660 places in medicine proper and 80 in dentistry , which corresponds to an admission rate of about 9,01% Admission is based upon ranking in an admission test called MedAT , which is carried out every summer in conjunction with the three other public medical schools of Austria : the Medical University of Graz , the Medical University of Innsbruck and the Medical Faculty at the Johannes Kepler University Linz .
Roger A. Nicoll ( born 1941 ) is an American neuroscientist at the University of California , San Francisco where he is professor at the Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology . Nicoll grew up in Princeton , New Jersey . He studied biology and chemistry at Lawrence University in Appleton , Wisconsin before he shifted to medical studies at University of Rochester School of Medicine where he obtained a M.D in 1968 . In between he studied electrophysiology for one year at National Institutes of Health where he later returned to work as a researcher . Subsequently , he got a position with the State University of New York in 1973 where he worked with John Eccles whose work he had got interested in after reading a book by Eccles about using electrodes to record impulses from neurons . Nicoll has served on the editorial board of the Journal of Physiology .
The University of California , San Francisco ( UCSF ) is a public research university in San Francisco , California . It is part of the University of California system and it is dedicated entirely to health science . It is a major center of medical and biological research and teaching . UCSF was founded as Toland Medical College in 1864 , and in 1873 it affiliated itself with the University of California , becoming its Medical Department . In the same year , it incorporated the California College of Pharmacy and in 1881 it established a dentistry school . Its facilities were located in both Berkeley and San Francisco . In 1964 , the school gained full administrative independence as a campus of the UC system headed by a chancellor , and in 1970 it gained its current name . Historically based at Parnassus Heights and several other locations throughout the city , in the early 2000s it developed a second major campus in the newly redeveloped Mission Bay . As of October 2018 , nine Nobel laureates have been affiliated with UCSF as faculty members or researchers , and the University has been the site of many scientific breakthroughs . The UCSF School of Medicine is the oldest medical school in the Western United States and is highly ranked by international and national rankings of prestige and funding . The UCSF Graduate Division offers 19 PhD programs , 11 MS programs , two certificates and a physical therapy program . UCSF is ranked 5th among research-oriented medical schools in the United States and ranked 3rd for primary care by U.S. News and World Report and is ranked 1st among medical schools in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities ( Clinical Medicine , 2019 ) .
Solomon Halbert Snyder ( born December 26 , 1938 ) is an American neuroscientist who is known for wide-ranging contributions to neuropharmacology and neurochemistry . He studied at Georgetown University , and has conducted the majority of his research at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine . Many advances in molecular neuroscience have stemmed from Dr. Snyder 's identification of receptors for neurotransmitters and drugs , and elucidation of the actions of psychotropic agents , making him one of the most highly cited biologists in the world . He is most famous for his research on the opioid receptor , for which he received the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 1978 . He is one of the most highly cited researchers in the biological and biomedical sciences , with the highest h-index in those fields for the years 1983-2002 , and then from 2007-2019 .
The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine ( JHUSOM ) , located in Baltimore , Maryland , United States ( founded in 1893 ) is the academic medical teaching and research arm of the Johns Hopkins University , founded in 1876 . The School of Medicine shares a campus with the Johns Hopkins Hospital , established in 1889 . Johns Hopkins has consistently ranked among the top medical schools in the United States and in the number of research grants awarded by the National Institutes of Health . Its main teaching hospital , the Johns Hopkins Hospital , was ranked the number one hospital in the United States for 22 years by U.S. News & World Report .
David Botstein ( born 8 September 1942 ) is an American biologist serving as the chief scientific officer of Calico . He served as the director of the Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics at Princeton University from 2003-2013 , where he remains an Anthony B. Evnin Professor of Genomics .
Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton , New Jersey . Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth as the College of New Jersey , Princeton is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution . [ a ] The institution moved to Newark in 1747 , then to the current site nine years later , and renamed itself Princeton University in 1896 . Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities , social sciences , natural sciences , and engineering . It offers professional degrees through the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs , the School of Engineering and Applied Science , the School of Architecture and the Bendheim Center for Finance . The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study , Princeton Theological Seminary and the Westminster Choir College of Rider University . [ b ] Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States . From 2001 to 2018 , Princeton University was ranked either first or second among national universities by U.S. News & World Report , holding the top spot for 16 of those 18 years . As of November 2019 , 68 Nobel laureates , 15 Fields Medalists and 13 Turing Award laureates have been affiliated with Princeton University as alumni , faculty members or researchers . In addition , Princeton has been associated with 21 National Medal of Science winners , 5 Abel Prize winners , 5 National Humanities Medal recipients , 209 Rhodes Scholars , 139 Gates Cambridge Scholars and 126 Marshall Scholars . Two U.S. Presidents , twelve U.S. Supreme Court Justices ( three of whom currently serve on the court ) and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princeton 's alumni body . Princeton has also graduated many prominent members of the U.S. Congress and the U.S .
Ronald Wayne Ron Davis ( born July 17 , 1941 ) is Professor of Biochemistry & Genetics , and Director of the Stanford Genome Technology Center at Stanford University . Davis is a researcher in biotechnology and molecular genetics , particularly active in human and yeast genomics and the development of new technologies in genomics , with over 30 biotechnology patents . In 2013 , it was said of Davis that A substantial number of the major genetic advances of the past 20 years can be traced back to Davis in some way .
Stanford University School of Medicine is the medical school of Stanford University and is located in Stanford , California . It predates the rest of the university and can trace its roots to the Medical Department of the University of the Pacific , founded in San Francisco in 1858 . This medical institution , by then called Cooper Medical College , was acquired by Stanford in 1908 . The medical school moved to the Stanford campus near Palo Alto , California in 1959 . The School of Medicine , along with Stanford Health Care and Lucile Packard Children 's Hospital , is part of Stanford Medicine . It is a research-intensive institution that emphasizes medical innovation , novel methods , discoveries , and interventions in its integrated curriculum . Stanford Health Care was named the third best hospital in California , after the UCSF Medical Center and the UCLA Medical Center .
David Swenson Hogness ( November 17 , 1925 - December 24 , 2019 ) was an American biochemist , geneticist , and developmental biologist and emeritus professor at the Stanford University School of Medicine in Stanford , California .
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute is a comprehensive cancer treatment and research institution in Boston , Massachusetts . Dana-Farber is the founding member of Dana-Farber/Harvard Cancer Center , Harvard 's Comprehensive Cancer Center designated by the National Cancer Institute , and one of the 15 clinical affiliates and research institutes of Harvard Medical School . Dana-Farber has two Nobel laureates in Physiology and Medicine among its past and present faculty . Dana-Farber 's research discoveries include the development of the highly successful Gleevec to treat chronic myeloid leukemia .
Alain Frédéric Carpentier M.D . Ph.D. ( born 11 August 1933 ) is a French surgeon whom the President of the American Association for Thoracic Surgery calls the father of modern mitral valve repair . He is the recipient of the 2007 Lasker Prize .
The Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou ( HEGP ) ( Georges Pompidou European Hospital ) is a French hospital located in Paris . The HEGP is under the aegis of the Assistance publique - Hôpitaux de Paris ( AP-HP ) . Opened in 2001 , the HEGP is the last-born Parisian hospital resulting from the merger of three older hospitals ( Boucicaut Hospital , Broussais Hospital and Laënnec Hospital ) . The hospital architect was Aymeric Zublena . The HEGP is located near the city gate called the Porte de Sèvres , in the southwestern part of the 15th arrondissement . ( There is also a Museum of Modern Art in the Centre Georges Pompidou in the 4th arrondissement of Paris . ) The HEGP can be reached by the Métro station Balard on Line 8 , the station Pont du Garigliano on both RER C and Tramway T3 and the Buses 42 , 88 and 169 . In 2013 , French Professor Alain Carpentier developed the first 100% artificial heart , using biomaterials and electronic sensors . The device was successfully implanted by a team at the hospital on 18 December 2013 .
Robert Samuel Langer , Jr. FREng ( born August 29 , 1948 in Albany , New York ) is an American chemical engineer , scientist , entrepreneur , inventor and one of the twelve Institute Professors at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He was formerly the Germeshausen Professor of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering and maintains activity in the Department of Chemical Engineering and the Department of Biological Engineering at MIT . He is also a faculty member of the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology and the David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research . He is a widely recognized and cited researcher in biotechnology , especially in the fields of drug delivery systems and tissue engineering . His publications have been cited over 305,000 times and his h-index is 272 . According to Google Scholar , Langer is one of the 10 most cited individuals in history . ( Tied for 7th most cited in history ; he is the 5th most cited of any living individual ) . He is the most cited engineer in history . Langer 's research laboratory at MIT is the largest biomedical engineering lab in the world ; maintaining over $ 10 million in annual grants and over 100 researchers . In 2015 , Langer was awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering .
Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) is a private research university in Cambridge , Massachusetts . The Institute is a land-grant , sea-grant , and space-grant university , with an urban campus that extends more than a mile ( 1.6 km ) alongside the Charles River . The Institute also encompasses a number of major off-campus facilities such as the MIT Lincoln Laboratory , the Bates Center , and the Haystack Observatory , as well as affiliated laboratories such as the Broad and Whitehead Institutes . Founded in 1861 in response to the increasing industrialization of the United States , MIT adopted a European polytechnic university model and stressed laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering . It has since played a key role in the development of many aspects of modern science , engineering , mathematics , and technology , and is widely known for its innovation and academic strength , making it one of the most prestigious institutions of higher learning in the world . As of October 2019 [ update ] , 96 Nobel laureates , 26 Turing Award winners , and 8 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT as alumni , faculty members , or researchers . In addition , 58 National Medal of Science recipients , 29 National Medals of Technology and Innovation recipients , 50 MacArthur Fellows , 73 Marshall Scholars , 48 Rhodes Scholars , 41 astronauts , and 16 Chief Scientists of the US Air Force have been affiliated with MIT . The school also has a strong entrepreneurial culture , and the aggregated annual revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni ( $ 1.9 trillion ) would rank roughly as the tenth-largest economy in the world ( 2014 ) . MIT is a member of the Association of American Universities ( AAU ) .
Howard Green ( September 10 , 1925 - October 31 , 2015 ) was an American scientist , and George Higginson Professor of Cell Biology at Harvard Medical School . He was the first to culture human cells in a laboratory setting for therapeutic use . He is one of the founding fathers of stem-cell research and regenerative medicine . One famous case involving Doctor Green concerned Jamie and Glenn Selby , two children from Wyoming who were burned over 95% of their bodies . Green cut small patches of undamaged skin from the boys , grew them in a lab and was able to harvest skin grafts to cover their burns .
Joslin Diabetes Center is the worlds largest diabetes research center , diabetes clinic , and provider of diabetes education . It is located in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area in Boston , Massachusetts , United States . Among the Harvard Medical School affiliated institutions , Joslin is unique in its sole focus on diabetes . Joslin has the worlds largest team of board-certified physicians treating diabetes and its complications , as well as the largest staff of Certified Diabetes Educators anywhere in the world . Joslin also supports the worlds largest diabetes research team with more than 40 faculty investigators and more than 300 researchers .
Harald zur Hausen ( German : [ ˈhaʁalt tsuːɐ̯ ˈhaʊzn̩ ] ; born 11 March 1936 ) is a German virologist and professor emeritus . He has done research on cancer of the cervix , where he discovered the role of papilloma viruses , for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008 .
The German Cancer Research Center ( known as the Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum or simply DKFZ in German and also known as the German Cancer Consortium ) , is a national cancer research center based in Heidelberg , Germany . It is a member of the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres , the largest scientific organization in Germany .
Dennis Joseph Slamon ( born August 8 , 1948 ) , is an American oncologist and chief of the division of Hematology-Oncology at UCLA . He is best known for his work identifying the HER2/neu oncogene that is amplified in 25-33% of breast cancer patients and the resulting treatment Herceptin . Slamon is the son of a West Virginia coal miner . He attended Washington & Jefferson College for its pre-med program . He currently serves as director of Clinical/Translational Research at UCLA 's Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center , and as director of the Revlon/UCLA Women 's Cancer Research Program at JCCC . He is a professor of medicine , chief of the Division of Hematology/Oncology and executive vice chair for research for UCLA 's Department of Medicine . Slamon also serves as director of the medical advisory board for the National Colorectal Cancer Research Alliance , a fund-raising organization that promotes advances in colorectal cancer . In 1986 Axel Ulirich , a German scientist working at Genentec , first discovered the Her-2 protein and gave a conference about it in which Slamon was present and afterwards Slamon proposed to work together , since he suspected that a mutation in Her-2 might cause cancer , eventually they found a kind of aggressive breast cancer with a mutation in the gene responsible for the Her-2 protein and started working on producing an antibody to block that protein , hoping to create a new breast cancer treatment , however Genentec had serious administrative conflicts regarding the direction of their research at the time and they refused to fund their research , with Ullrich leaving the company . Despite not working at Genentec Slamon kept insisting , which lead to him being known and disliked among the staff , but eventually he convinced a group of Genentec scientists and got funds to do a small study , which proved the efficacy of the Her-2 antibody in fighting breast cancer which convinced Genentec to launch a full scale research and development effort , which concluded in the creating of new more effective breast cancer treatments . For 12 years , Dr. Slamon and his colleagues conducted the laboratory and clinical research that led to the development of the new breast cancer drug Herceptin , which targets a specific genetic alteration found in about 25 percent of breast cancer patients . To acknowledge Slamon 's accomplishments , President Bill Clinton appointed Slamon to the three-member President 's Cancer Panel in June 2000 . A 1975 honors graduate of the University of Chicago 's Pritzker School of Medicine , Slamon earned his Ph.D. in cell biology that same year .
The University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) is a public research university in Los Angeles . It became the Southern Branch of the University of California in 1919 , making it the fourth-oldest ( after UC Berkeley , UC San Francisco , and UC Davis ) of the 10-campus University of California system and oldest of the campuses in Southern California . It offers 337 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines . UCLA enrolls about 31,500 undergraduate and 12,800 graduate students and had 119,000 applicants for Fall 2016 , including transfer applicants , making the school the most applied-to of any American university . The university is organized into six undergraduate colleges , seven professional schools , and four professional health science schools . The undergraduate colleges are the College of Letters and Science ; Samueli School of Engineering ; School of the Arts and Architecture ; Herb Alpert School of Music ; School of Theater , Film and Television ; and School of Nursing . As of 2017 [ update ] , 24 Nobel laureates , three Fields Medalists , and five Turing Award winners , and two Chief Scientists of the U.S. Air Force have been affiliated with UCLA as faculty , researchers , or alumni . Among the current faculty members , 55 have been elected to the National Academy of Sciences , 28 to the National Academy of Engineering , 39 to the Institute of Medicine , and 124 to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . The university was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1974 . UCLA is considered one of the country 's Public Ivy universities , meaning that it is a public university thought to provide a quality of education comparable with that of the Ivy League . US News & World Report named UCLA the best public university in the United States for 2019 . UCLA student-athletes compete as the Bruins in the Pac-12 Conference .
Robert Allan Weinberg ( born November 11 , 1942 ) is a biologist , Daniel K. Ludwig Professor for Cancer Research at Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , director of the Ludwig Center of the MIT , and American Cancer Society Research Professor . His research is in the area of oncogenes and the genetic basis of human cancer . Robert Weinberg is also affiliated with the Broad Institute and is a founding member of the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research . He teaches at MIT including course 7.012 ( introductory biology ) with Eric Lander . Weinberg and Lander are among the co-founders of Verastem , which is a biopharmaceutical company focused on discovering and developing drugs to treat cancer by targeting cancer stem cells .
Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) is a private research university in Cambridge , Massachusetts . The Institute is a land-grant , sea-grant , and space-grant university , with an urban campus that extends more than a mile ( 1.6 km ) alongside the Charles River . The Institute also encompasses a number of major off-campus facilities such as the MIT Lincoln Laboratory , the Bates Center , and the Haystack Observatory , as well as affiliated laboratories such as the Broad and Whitehead Institutes . Founded in 1861 in response to the increasing industrialization of the United States , MIT adopted a European polytechnic university model and stressed laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering . It has since played a key role in the development of many aspects of modern science , engineering , mathematics , and technology , and is widely known for its innovation and academic strength , making it one of the most prestigious institutions of higher learning in the world . As of October 2019 [ update ] , 96 Nobel laureates , 26 Turing Award winners , and 8 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT as alumni , faculty members , or researchers . In addition , 58 National Medal of Science recipients , 29 National Medals of Technology and Innovation recipients , 50 MacArthur Fellows , 73 Marshall Scholars , 48 Rhodes Scholars , 41 astronauts , and 16 Chief Scientists of the US Air Force have been affiliated with MIT . The school also has a strong entrepreneurial culture , and the aggregated annual revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni ( $ 1.9 trillion ) would rank roughly as the tenth-largest economy in the world ( 2014 ) . MIT is a member of the Association of American Universities ( AAU ) .
Axel Ullrich ( born October 19 , 1943 in Lauban , Silesia ) is a German cancer researcher and has been the director of the molecular biology department at the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry in Martinsried , Germany since 1988 . This department 's research has primarily focused on signal transduction . Ullrich has received Hamdan Award for Medical Research Excellence , awarded by Sheikh Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum Award for Medical Sciences , Dubai , United Arab Emirates in 2008 and Ullrich and his team received the Wolf Prize in 2010 .
Trastuzumab , sold under the brand name Herceptin among others , is a monoclonal antibody used to treat breast cancer and stomach cancer . It is specifically used for cancer that is HER2 receptor positive . It may be used by itself or together with other chemotherapy medication . Trastuzumab is given by slow injection into a vein and injection just under the skin . Common side effects include fever , infection , cough , headache , trouble sleeping , and rash . Other severe side effects include heart failure , allergic reactions , and lung disease . Use during pregnancy may harm the baby . Trastuzumab works by binding to the HER2 receptor and slowing down cell duplication . Trastuzumab was approved for medical use in the United States in 1998 . It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system . As of 2014 [ update ] , the wholesale price in the developing world is between US $ 1,800 and US $ 1,955 per 440 mg vial . In the United Kingdom , a 150 mg vial costs the NHS £407.00 .
Moses Judah Folkman ( February 24 , 1933 - January 14 , 2008 ) was an American medical scientist best known for his research on tumor angiogenesis , the process by which a tumor attracts blood vessels to nourish itself and sustain its existence . He founded the field of angiogenesis research , which has led to the discovery of a number of therapies based on inhibiting or stimulating neovascularization .
Boston Children 's Hospital ( called Children 's Hospital Boston until 2012 ) is a 404-licensed-bed children 's hospital in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area of Boston , Massachusetts . At 300 Longwood Avenue , Children 's is adjacent both to its teaching affiliate , Harvard Medical School , and to Dana-Farber Cancer Institute . Dana-Farber and Children 's jointly operate the Dana-Farber/Boston Children 's Cancer and Blood Disorders Center to deliver comprehensive care for all types of childhood cancers .
Angiogenesis is the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre-existing vessels , formed in the earlier stage of vasculogenesis . Angiogenesis continues the growth of the vasculature by processes of sprouting and splitting . Vasculogenesis is the embryonic formation of endothelial cells from mesoderm cell precursors , and from neovascularization , although discussions are not always precise ( especially in older texts ) . The first vessels in the developing embryo form through vasculogenesis , after which angiogenesis is responsible for most , if not all , blood vessel growth during development and in disease . Angiogenesis is a normal and vital process in growth and development , as well as in wound healing and in the formation of granulation tissue . However , it is also a fundamental step in the transition of tumors from a benign state to a malignant one , leading to the use of angiogenesis inhibitors in the treatment of cancer . The essential role of angiogenesis in tumor growth was first proposed in 1971 by Judah Folkman , who described tumors as hot and bloody , illustrating that , at least for many tumor types , flush perfusion and even hyperemia are characteristic .
Susan Band Horwitz is an American biochemist and professor at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine where she holds the Falkenstein chair in Cancer Research as well as co-chair of the department of Molecular Pharmacology . Horwitz is a pioneer in dissecting the mechanisms of action of chemotherapeutic drugs including camptothecin , epipodophyllotoxins , and bleomycin , and taxol . Horwitz 's work on taxol in particular has brought her international recognition . Horwitz discovered that taxol binds to microtubules , resulting in arrest of the cell cycle in metaphase . Her work paved the way to using taxol and other microtubule binding agents as chemotherapeutics . Taxol remains widely used today , as a means to treat ovarian , breast , and lung cancer . However , since taxol is in short supply , Horwitz is directing studies in her lab to identify similar therapies in natural products .
Albert Einstein College of Medicine is a medical school located in the Morris Park neighborhood of the Bronx in New York City . Einstein currently operates as an independent degree-granting institute under the Montefiore Medical Center ; it was part of Yeshiva University until 2016 . It is well-rated in care and research , and its NIH funding per investigator ranks high . Einstein offers a M.D . program and a Ph.D. program in the biomedical sciences and clinical investigation , and two Master of Science ( M.S . ) degrees .
Paclitaxel ( PTX ) , sold under the brand name Taxol among others , is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of types of cancer . This includes ovarian cancer , breast cancer , lung cancer , Kaposi sarcoma , cervical cancer , and pancreatic cancer . It is given by injection into a vein . There is also an albumin-bound formulation . Common side effects include hair loss , bone marrow suppression , numbness , allergic reactions , muscle pains , and diarrhea . Other serious side effects include heart problems , increased risk of infection , and lung inflammation . There are concerns that use during pregnancy may cause birth defects . Paclitaxel is in the taxane family of medications . It works by interference with the normal function of microtubules during cell division . Paclitaxel was first isolated in 1971 from the Pacific yew and approved for medical use in 1993 . It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system . The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US $ 7.06-13.48 per 100 mg vial .
Sidney Pestka ( May 29 , 1936 - December 22 , 2016 ) was an American biochemist and geneticist . A recipient of the National Medal of Technology , he is sometimes referred to as the father of interferon for his groundbreaking work developing the interferons as treatments for major diseases such as hepatitis , multiple sclerosis , and cancer . Pestka was part of the team working on research involving the genetic code , protein synthesis and ribosome function that led to the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine received by Marshall Warren Nirenberg .
David V. Goeddel ( born 1951 ) is an American molecular biologist who , employed at the time by Genentech , successfully used genetic engineering to coax bacteria into creating synthetic human insulin , human growth hormone , and human tissue plasminogen activator ( tPA ) for use in therapeutic medicine . Recruited by Bob Swanson in 1978 , he was the first non-university scientist to be hired at Genentech , and the company 's third employee . Goeddel became legendary in the biotechnology and molecular biology fields by cloning virtually all of Genentech 's early products and/or processes , including synthetic insulin , growth hormone , and tPA , often beating out bigger and more established laboratories in the process . Besides being perhaps the single most important contributor to Genentech 's rise to one of the nation 's premier biotech companies , his extraordinary drive and competitive work ethic embodied Genentech 's early Clone or Die culture Together with Steve McKnight and Robert Tjian , he founded Tularik in 1991 , and was their president and CEO until Tularik was acquired by Amgen for $ 1.3 billion in 2004 . Goeddel earned his bachelor 's degree in chemistry from the University of California , San Diego , and his PhD in biochemistry from the University of Colorado , Boulder . He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences , and is a recipient of the Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry and the Scheele Award from the Swedish Academy of Pharmaceutical Sciences .
Charles Weissmann ( born 14 October 1931 ) is a Hungarian-born Swiss molecular biologist . Weissmann is particularly known for the first cloning and expression of interferon and his contributions to the unraveling of the molecular genetics of neurogenerative prion diseases such as scrapie , Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and mad cow disease . Weissmann went to University of Zurich and obtained his MD in 1956 and Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry in 1961 . In 1978 , Weissmann co-founded the biotech company Biogen in Geneva . Biogen is considered one of the pioneers of the biotechnology industries . Weissmann was director of the Institute for Molecular Biology in Zurich , President of the Roche Research Foundation and co-founder and Member of the Scientific Council of Biogen . He was Chairman of the Department of Infectology , Scripps Florida until 2011 . Weissmann won several awards , including the Otto Warburg Medal ( 1980 ) and the Scheele Award ( 1982 ) . A member of the American Society of Biological Chemistry and the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina he is also a Foreign Associate of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , the Royal Society ( UK ) and the Pour le Mérite ( Germany ) . On May 16 , 2011 Weissmann became Doctor of Science Honoris Causa at New York University .
Imperial College School of Medicine ( ICSM ) is the medical school of Imperial College London in England , and one of the United Hospitals . It is part of the college 's Faculty of Medicine , and was formed by the merger of several historic medical schools , with core campuses at South Kensington , St Mary 's , Charing Cross , Hammersmith and Chelsea and Westminster . The school ranked 4th in the world for medicine in the 2018 Times Higher Education World University Rankings .
Human type I interferons ( IFNs ) are a large subgroup of interferon proteins that help regulate the activity of the immune system . Interferons bind to interferon receptors . All type I IFNs bind to a specific cell surface receptor complex known as the IFN-α receptor ( IFNAR ) that consists of IFNAR1 and IFNAR2 chains . Type I IFNs are found in all mammals , and homologous ( similar ) molecules have been found in birds , reptiles , amphibians and fish species .
Hepatitis C is an infectious disease caused by the hepatitis C virus ( HCV ) that primarily affects the liver . During the initial infection people often have mild or no symptoms . Occasionally a fever , dark urine , abdominal pain , and yellow tinged skin occurs . The virus persists in the liver in about 75% to 85% of those initially infected . Early on chronic infection typically has no symptoms . Over many years however , it often leads to liver disease and occasionally cirrhosis . In some cases , those with cirrhosis will develop serious complications such as liver failure , liver cancer , or dilated blood vessels in the esophagus and stomach . HCV is spread primarily by blood-to-blood contact associated with intravenous drug use , poorly sterilized medical equipment , needlestick injuries in healthcare , and transfusions . Using blood screening , the risk from a transfusion is less than one per two million . It may also be spread from an infected mother to her baby during birth . It is not spread by superficial contact . It is one of five known hepatitis viruses : A , B , C , D , and E. Diagnosis is by blood testing to look for either antibodies to the virus or its RNA .
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland , commonly known as the United Kingdom ( UK or U.K. ) or Britain , [ note 11 ] is a sovereign country located off the north­western coast of the European mainland . Existing under its current name since 1921 , the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain , the north­eastern part of the island of Ireland , and many smaller islands . Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland . Otherwise , the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean , with the North Sea to the east , the English Channel to the south and the Celtic Sea to the southwest , giving it the 12th-longest coastline in the world . The Irish Sea separates Great Britain and Ireland . The total area of the United Kingdom is 94,000 square miles ( 240,000 km2 ) . The United Kingdom is a unitary parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy . [ note 12 ] The current monarch is Queen Elizabeth II , who has reigned since 1952 , making her the world 's longest-serving current head of state . The United Kingdom 's capital and largest city is London , a global city and financial centre with an urban area population of 10.3 million . Other major cities include Birmingham , Manchester , Glasgow , Leeds and Liverpool . The United Kingdom consists of four constituent countries : England , Scotland , Wales , and Northern Ireland . Their capitals are London , Edinburgh , Cardiff , and Belfast , respectively .
Alfred ( Al ) Sommer is a prominent American ophthalmologist and epidemiologist at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health . His research on vitamin A in the 1970s and 1980s revealed that dosing even mildly vitamin A deficient children with an inexpensive , large dose vitamin A capsule twice a year reduces child mortality by as much as 34 percent . The World Bank and the Copenhagen Consensus list vitamin A supplementation as one of the most cost-effective health interventions in the world .
The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health ( JHSPH ) is part of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore , Maryland , United States . As the first independent , degree-granting institution for research in epidemiology and training in public health , and the largest public health training facility in the United States , the Bloomberg School is a leading international authority on the improvement of health and prevention of disease and disability . The school 's mission is to protect populations from illness and injury by pioneering new research , deploying its knowledge and expertise in the field , and training scientists and practitioners in the global defense of human life . The school is ranked first in public health in the U.S. News and World Report rankings and has held that ranking since 1994 .
Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds that includes retinol , retinal , retinoic acid , and several provitamin A carotenoids ( most notably beta-carotene ) . Vitamin A has multiple functions : it is important for growth and development , for the maintenance of the immune system , and for good vision . Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of retinal , which combines with protein opsin to form rhodopsin , the light-absorbing molecule necessary for both low-light ( scotopic vision ) and color vision . Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid ( an irreversibly oxidized form of retinol ) , which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells . In foods of animal origin , the major form of vitamin A is an ester , primarily retinyl palmitate , which is converted to retinol ( chemically an alcohol ) in the small intestine . The retinol form functions as a storage form of the vitamin , and can be converted to and from its visually active aldehyde form , retinal . All forms of vitamin A have a beta-ionone ring to which an isoprenoid chain is attached , called a retinyl group . Both structural features are essential for vitamin activity . The orange pigment of carrots ( beta-carotene ) can be represented as two connected retinyl groups , which are used in the body to contribute to vitamin A levels . Alpha-carotene and gamma-carotene also have a single retinyl group , which give them some vitamin activity . None of the other carotenes have vitamin activity . The carotenoid beta-cryptoxanthin possesses an ionone group and has vitamin activity in humans .
Eugene Braunwald ( born August 15 , 1929 in Vienna , Austria ) is an American cardiologist .
The Rockefeller University is a private graduate university in New York City . It focuses primarily on the biological and medical sciences and provides doctoral and postdoctoral education . Rockefeller is the oldest biomedical research institute in the United States . The 82-person faculty ( tenured and tenure-track , as of 2018 ) has 37 members of the National Academy of Sciences , 17 members of the National Academy of Medicine , seven Lasker Award recipients , and five Nobel laureates . As of October 2019 , a total of 36 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Rockefeller University . The university is located on the Upper East Side of Manhattan , between 63rd and 68th streets on York Avenue . Richard P. Lifton became the university 's eleventh president on September 1 , 2016 . The Rockefeller University Press publishes the Journal of Experimental Medicine , the Journal of Cell Biology , and The Journal of General Physiology .
Cardiac physiology or heart function is the study of healthy , unimpaired function of the heart : involving blood flow ; myocardium structure ; the electrical conduction system of the heart ; the cardiac cycle and cardiac output and how these interact and depend on one another .
Pathophysiology ( a.k.a . physiopathology ) - a convergence of pathology with physiology - is the study of the disordered physiological processes that cause , result from , or are otherwise associated with a disease or injury . Pathology is the medical discipline that describes conditions typically observed during a disease state , whereas physiology is the biological discipline that describes processes or mechanisms operating within an organism . Pathology describes the abnormal or undesired condition , whereas pathophysiology seeks to explain the functional changes that are occurring within an individual due to a disease or pathologic state .
Monoclonal antibodies ( mAb or moAb ) are antibodies that are made by identical immune cells that are all clones of a unique parent cell . Monoclonal antibodies can have monovalent affinity , in that they bind to the same epitope ( the part of an antigen that is recognized by the antibody ) . In contrast , polyclonal antibodies bind to multiple epitopes and are usually made by several different plasma cell ( antibody secreting immune cell ) lineages . Bispecific monoclonal antibodies can also be engineered , by increasing the therapeutic targets of one single monoclonal antibody to two epitopes . Given almost any substance , it is possible to produce monoclonal antibodies that specifically bind to that substance ; they can then serve to detect or purify that substance . This has become an important tool in biochemistry , molecular biology , and medicine . When used as medications , non-proprietary drug names end in -mab ( see Nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies ) and many immunotherapy specialists use the word mab anacronymically .
David Baltimore ( born March 7 , 1938 ) is an American biologist , university administrator , and 1975 Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine , he is a Professor of Biology at the California Institute of Technology , where he served as president from 1997 to 2006 . He also serves as the director of the Joint Center for Translational Medicine , which joins Caltech and UCLA in a program to translate basic science discoveries into clinical realities . He served as president of the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) from 1997 to 2006 , and is currently the President Emeritus and Robert Andrews Millikan Professor of Biology at Caltech . He also served as president of Rockefeller University from 1990 to 1991 , and was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2007 . Baltimore has profoundly influenced international science , including key contributions to immunology , virology , cancer research , biotechnology , and recombinant DNA research , through his accomplishments as a researcher , administrator , educator , and public advocate for science and engineering . He has trained many doctoral students and postdoctoral fellows , several of whom have gone on to notable and distinguished research careers . In addition to the Nobel Prize , he has received a number of awards , including the U.S. National Medal of Science in 1999 . Baltimore currently sits on the Board of Sponsors for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists and is a consultant to the Science Philanthropy Alliance .
The California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) is a private doctorate-granting research university in Pasadena , California . Known for its strength in natural science and engineering , Caltech is often ranked as one of the world 's top-ten universities . Although founded as a preparatory and vocational school by Amos G. Throop in 1891 , the college attracted influential scientists such as George Ellery Hale , Arthur Amos Noyes and Robert Andrews Millikan in the early 20th century . The vocational and preparatory schools were disbanded and spun off in 1910 and the college assumed its present name in 1920 . In 1934 , Caltech was elected to the Association of American Universities , and the antecedents of NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , which Caltech continues to manage and operate , were established between 1936 and 1943 under Theodore von Kármán . The university is one among a small group of institutes of technology in the United States which is primarily devoted to the instruction of pure and applied sciences . Caltech has six academic divisions with strong emphasis on science and engineering , managing $ 332 million in 2011 in sponsored research . Its 124-acre ( 50 ha ) primary campus is located approximately 11 mi ( 18 km ) northeast of downtown Los Angeles . First-year students are required to live on campus and 95% of undergraduates remain in the on-campus House System at Caltech . Although Caltech has a strong tradition of practical jokes and pranks , student life is governed by an honor code which allows faculty to assign take-home examinations . The Caltech Beavers compete in 13 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA Division III 's Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference . As of November 2019 [ update ] , Caltech alumni , faculty and researchers include 74 Nobel Laureates ( chemist Linus Pauling being the only individual in history to win two unshared prizes ) , 4 Fields Medalists , and 6 Turing Award winners .
Brian J. Druker ( born April 30 , 1955 ) is a physician-scientist at Oregon Health & Science University , in Portland , Oregon . He is the director of OHSU 's Knight Cancer Institute , Jeld-Wen Chair of Leukemia Research , and professor of medicine . In 2009 , he won the Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award and the Meyenburg Award for his influential work in the development of Imatinib ( or STI571 ) , commonly known as Gleevec , for the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia ( CML ) . He has been called Oregon 's best-known scientist .
Oregon Health & Science University ( OHSU ) is a public university in Oregon with a main campus , including two hospitals , in Portland , Oregon . The institution was founded in 1887 as the University of Oregon Medical Department and later became the University of Oregon Medical School . In 1974 , the campus became an independent , self-governed institution called the University of Oregon Health Sciences Center , combining state dentistry , medicine , nursing , and public health programs into a single center . It was renamed Oregon Health Science University in 1981 and took its current name in 2001 , as part of a merger with the Oregon Graduate Institute ( OGI ) , in Hillsboro . The university has several partnership programs including a joint PharmD Pharmacy program with Oregon State University in Corvallis .
Nicholas B. Lydon FRS ( born 27 February 1957 ) is a British scientist and entrepreneur . In 2009 , he was awarded the Lasker Clinical Award and in 2012 the Japan Prize for the development of Gleevec , also known as Imatinib , a selective BCR-ABL inhibitor for the treatment of chronic myeloid leukaemia ( CML ) , which converted a fatal cancer into a manageable chronic condition .
Amgen Inc. ( formerly Applied Molecular Genetics Inc. ) is an American multinational biopharmaceutical company headquartered in Thousand Oaks , California . One of the world 's largest independent biotechnology companies , Amgen was established in Thousand Oaks , California in 1980 . Amgen 's Thousand Oaks staff in 2017 numbered 5,125 ( 7.5% of total city employment ) and included hundreds of scientists , making Amgen the largest employer in Ventura County . Focused on molecular biology and biochemistry , its goal is to provide a healthcare business based on recombinant DNA technology . In 2018 , the company 's largest selling product lines were Neulasta , an immunostimulator used to prevent infections in patients undergoing cancer chemotherapy and Enbrel , a tumor necrosis factor blocker used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases . Other products include Epogen , Aranesp , Sensipar/Mimpara , Nplate , Vectibix , Prolia and XGEVA . Amgen sponsors the Tour of California .
Novartis International AG is a Swiss multinational pharmaceutical company based in Basel , Switzerland . It is one of the largest pharmaceutical companies by both market capitalization and sales . Novartis manufactures the drugs clozapine ( Clozaril ) , diclofenac ( Voltaren ) , carbamazepine ( Tegretol ) , valsartan ( Diovan ) , imatinib mesylate ( Gleevec/Glivec ) , ciclosporin ( Neoral/Sandimmun ) , letrozole ( Femara ) , methylphenidate ( Ritalin ) , terbinafine ( Lamisil ) , and others . In 1996 , Ciba-Geigy merged with Sandoz ; the pharmaceutical and agrochemical divisions of both companies formed Novartis as an independent entity . Ciba-Geigy and Sandoz businesses were sold , or , like Ciba Specialty Chemicals , spun off as independent companies . The Sandoz brand disappeared for three years , but was revived in 2003 when Novartis consolidated its generic drugs businesses into a single subsidiary and named it Sandoz . Novartis divested its agrochemical and genetically modified crops business in 2000 with the spinout of Syngenta in partnership with AstraZeneca , which also divested its agrochemical business . Novartis is a full member of the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations ( EFPIA ) , the International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers and Associations ( IFPMA ) , and the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America ( PhRMA ) .
The University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) is a public research university in Los Angeles . It became the Southern Branch of the University of California in 1919 , making it the fourth-oldest ( after UC Berkeley , UC San Francisco , and UC Davis ) of the 10-campus University of California system and oldest of the campuses in Southern California . It offers 337 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines . UCLA enrolls about 31,500 undergraduate and 12,800 graduate students and had 119,000 applicants for Fall 2016 , including transfer applicants , making the school the most applied-to of any American university . The university is organized into six undergraduate colleges , seven professional schools , and four professional health science schools . The undergraduate colleges are the College of Letters and Science ; Samueli School of Engineering ; School of the Arts and Architecture ; Herb Alpert School of Music ; School of Theater , Film and Television ; and School of Nursing . As of 2017 [ update ] , 24 Nobel laureates , three Fields Medalists , and five Turing Award winners , and two Chief Scientists of the U.S. Air Force have been affiliated with UCLA as faculty , researchers , or alumni . Among the current faculty members , 55 have been elected to the National Academy of Sciences , 28 to the National Academy of Engineering , 39 to the Institute of Medicine , and 124 to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . The university was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1974 . UCLA is considered one of the country 's Public Ivy universities , meaning that it is a public university thought to provide a quality of education comparable with that of the Ivy League . US News & World Report named UCLA the best public university in the United States for 2019 . UCLA student-athletes compete as the Bruins in the Pac-12 Conference .
Chronic myelogenous leukemia ( CML ) , also known as chronic myeloid leukemia , is a cancer of the white blood cells . It is a form of leukemia characterized by the increased and unregulated growth of myeloid cells in the bone marrow and the accumulation of these cells in the blood . CML is a clonal bone marrow stem cell disorder in which a proliferation of mature granulocytes ( neutrophils , eosinophils and basophils ) and their precursors is found . It is a type of myeloproliferative neoplasm associated with a characteristic chromosomal translocation called the Philadelphia chromosome . CML is largely treated with targeted drugs called tyrosine-kinase inhibitors ( TKIs ) which have led to dramatically improved long-term survival rates since 2001 . These drugs have revolutionized treatment of this disease and allow most patients to have a good quality of life when compared to the former chemotherapy drugs . In Western countries , CML accounts for 15-25% of all adult leukemias and 14% of leukemias overall ( including the pediatric population , where CML is less common ) .
Switzerland , officially the Swiss Confederation , is a country situated in the confluence of western , central , and southern Europe . [ note 4 ] It is a federal republic composed of 26 cantons , with federal authorities seated in Bern . [ note 1 ] Switzerland is a landlocked country bordered by Italy to the south , France to the west , Germany to the north , and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east . It is geographically divided among the Swiss Plateau , the Alps , and the Jura , spanning a total area of 41,285 km2 ( 15,940 sq mi ) , and land area of 39,997 km2 ( 15,443 sq mi ) . While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory , the Swiss population of approximately 8.5 million is concentrated mostly on the plateau , where the largest cities are located , among them the two global cities and economic centres of Zürich and Geneva . The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the late medieval period , resulting from a series of military successes against Austria and Burgundy . Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 . The Federal Charter of 1291 is considered the founding document of Switzerland which is celebrated on Swiss National Day . Since the Reformation of the 16th century , Switzerland has maintained a strong policy of armed neutrality ; it has not fought an international war since 1815 and did not join the United Nations until 2002 . Nevertheless , it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world . Switzerland is the birthplace of the Red Cross , one of the world 's oldest and best known humanitarian organisations , and is home to numerous international organisations , including the second largest UN office . It is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association , but notably not part of the European Union , the European Economic Area or the Eurozone .
Michael Stuart Brown ForMemRS ( born April 13 , 1941 ) is an American geneticist and Nobel laureate . He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Joseph L. Goldstein in 1985 for describing the regulation of cholesterol metabolism .
Joseph Leonard Goldstein ForMemRS ( born April 18 , 1940 ) is an American biochemist . He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1985 , along with fellow University of Texas Southwestern researcher , Michael Brown , for their studies regarding cholesterol . They discovered that human cells have low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) receptors that remove cholesterol from the blood and that when LDL receptors are not present in sufficient numbers , individuals develop hypercholesterolemia and become at risk for cholesterol related diseases , notably coronary heart disease . Their studies led to the development of statin drugs .
The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center ( UT Southwestern or UTSW ) is a public medical school in Dallas , Texas . With approximately 13,568 employees and 2,445 faculty and over 2.7 million outpatient visits per year , UT Southwestern is the largest medical school in the University of Texas System and state of Texas . UTSW 's operating budget in 2019 was more than $ 3.152 billion , and is the largest medical institution in the Dallas Metroplex ( and therefore north Texas ) , annually training about 3,700 medical , graduate , and health professions students , residents , and postdoctoral fellows . Ongoing support from outside sources provides approximately $ 422.6 million per year for more than 5,700 research projects . In 2017 , the school had the largest federal expenditure funding of all UT medical institutions at $ 204.5 million dollars . UTSW 's three-part mission is to : educate leaders in patient care , biomedical science , and disease prevention ; conduct research ; and deliver patient care . It incorporates three major degree-granting institutions - UT Southwestern Medical School , UT Southwestern Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences , and UT Southwestern School of Health Professions . UTSW has four major affiliated hospitals : Parkland Memorial Hospital , Dallas Children 's Medical Center , Zale Lipshy Pavilion - William P. Clements Jr. University Hospital , and William P. Clements Jr. University Hospital . However UT Southwestern 's faculty also provide services at Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children , VA North Texas Health Care System , and other affiliated hospitals and community clinics in the Metroplex . Faculty and residents care for more than 100,000 hospitalized patients and oversee approximately 2.2 million outpatient visits a year , including more than $ 106.7 million in unreimbursed clinical services annually . Through the four major hospitals affiliated with UT , the medical center also has a large presence in Plano and Frisco , prominent suburbs in the Dallas area . Furthermore , in 2016 , UT Southwestern began providing additional care through Southwestern Health Resources , a new network combining the systems of Texas Health Resources and UT Southwestern .
Akira Endo ( 遠藤 章 , Endō Akira , born 14 November 1933 ) is a Japanese biochemist whose research into the relationship between fungi and cholesterol biosynthesis led to the development of statin drugs , which are some of the best-selling pharmaceuticals in history . He received the Japan Prize in 2006 , the Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award in 2008 , the Canada Gairdner International Award in 2017 .
β-Hydroxy β-methylglutaryl-CoA ( HMG-CoA ) , also known as 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA , is an intermediate in the mevalonate and ketogenesis pathways . It is formed from acetyl CoA and acetoacetyl CoA by HMG-CoA synthase . The research of Minor J. Coon and Bimal Kumar Bachhawat in the 1950s at University of Illinois led to its discovery . HMG-CoA is a metabolic intermediate in the metabolism of the branched-chain amino acids , which include leucine , isoleucine , and valine . Its immediate precursors are β-methylglutaconyl-CoA ( MG-CoA ) and β-hydroxy β-methylbutyryl-CoA ( HMB-CoA ) .