List of Illinois Institute of Technology alumni
Politics and public service
Table:
Name

Image

Graduation date
Degree

Known for

Reference

Valdas Adamkus

1961
Civil Engineering

Highly decorated President of the Republic of Lithuania, who served two terms, the first from 1998 to 2003 and again from 2004 to 2009.

[3]

Rajeev Chandrasekhar

1985
Master's in Computer Science

Member of the Parliament of India; vice-president of FICCI; member of the Pentium chip design team at Intel; director of Karnataka Power Corporation Limited; and director of HAL Bangalore International Airport. Rajeev Chandrasekhar was a member of the architecture teams that invented the 486 chip and Intel's signature Pentium chip.

[4][5][6][7]

Julius Hoffman

Presiding judge in the Chicago Seven conspiracy trial.

[8]

Munir Ahmad Khan

1956
Transferred

Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (1972-1991) and IAEA Board of Governors (1986-1987)

David V. Miller

Former U.S. Air Force Major General

James G. Roche

1960
Bachelor of Science in language, literature and philosophy

Former Secretary of the Air Force, was Senior Professional Staff Member of the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, asst. dir. of the Office of Net Assessment. Awards include the Order of the Sword, Decoration for Distinguished Civilian Service, Navy Distinguished Public Service Award, Navy Commendation Medal, Legion of Merit, and the Defense Superior Service Medal.

[9]

Mohsen Sazegara

1979

Iranian journalist, political activist, and a researcher at Harvard University.

[10][11]

Gloria Ray Karlmark

1965
Bachelor's degree in Chemistry and Mathematics

Congressional Gold Medal Recipient and one of the Little Rock Nine, a group of African-American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School after the historic Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case.

[12][13]

With reference to the following table and the supporting evidence listed below.

Answer the following question: What country was the 1961 graduate the president of ? Provide just your answer in a JSON object {"answer": "YOUR ANSWER"}. Base your answer solely on the given information.

Valdas Adamkus ( [ ˈvɐ̂ˑɫdɐs ɐˈdɐmˑkʊs ] ( listen ) ; born Voldemaras Adamkavičius ; 3 November 1926 ) is a Lithuanian politician . He was the President of Lithuania from 1998 to 2003 and again from 2004 to 2009 . In Lithuania , the President 's tenure lasts for five years ; Adamkus ' first term in office began on 26 February 1998 and ended on 28 February 2003 , following his defeat by Rolandas Paksas in the next presidential election . Paksas was later impeached and removed from office by a parliamentary vote on 6 April 2004 . Soon afterwards , when a new election was announced , Adamkus again ran for president and was re-elected . His approval ratings were high and he was regarded as a moral authority in the state . He was succeeded as the president on 12 July 2009 by Dalia Grybauskaitė . He is married to Alma Adamkienė , who is involved in charitable activities in Lithuania . Following the end of his term as president , Adamkus remained involved in international development , and is a member of the European Academy of Diplomacy .
The first known record of the name of Lithuania ( Lithuanian : Lietuva ) is in a 9 March 1009 story of Saint Bruno in the Quedlinburg Chronicle . The Chronicle recorded a Latinized form of the name Lietuva : Litua ( pronounced [ litua ] ) . Due to the lack of reliable evidence , the true meaning of the name is unknown . Nowadays , scholars still debate the meaning of the word and there are a few plausible versions . Since Lietuva has a suffix ( -uva ) , the original word should have no suffix . [ citation needed ] A likely candidate is Lietā . Because many Baltic ethnonyms originated from hydronyms , linguists have searched for its origin among local hydronyms . Usually , such names evolved through the following process : hydronym → toponym → ethnonym . Lietava , a small river not far from Kernavė , the core area of the early Lithuanian state and a possible first capital of the eventual Grand Duchy of Lithuania , is usually credited as the source of the name . However , the river is very small and some find it improbable that such a small and local object could have lent its name to an entire nation . On the other hand , such naming is not unprecedented in world history . Artūras Dubonis proposed another hypothesis , that Lietuva relates to the word leičiai ( plural of leitis ) .
Rajeev Chandrasekhar ( born 31 May 1964 ) is an Indian politician and entrepreneur , and a Member of Parliament in the upper house ( Rajya Sabha ) of the Indian Parliament . He is the Member of Bharatiya Janata Party as of 2018 and also the vice-chairman of the Kerala wing of Bharatiya Janata Party-led coalition National Democratic Alliance . He represents the state of Karnataka . He serves as member of the Parliament , Standing Committee on Defence , Consultative Committee on Finance , the Central Advisory Committee for the National Cadet Corps , Co-Chairman of District Development Coordination & Monitoring Committee , Bangalore Urban District . He is one of the members of Rajya Sabha Select Committee on GST Bill and Rajya Sabha Select Committee on Real Estate Bill . He is the founder and chairman of Jupiter Capital Pvt . Ltd , a financial services and investment company .
The Parliament of India ( Hindi : Bhāratīya sansad ) is the supreme legislative body of the Republic of India . It is a bicameral legislature composed of the President of India and the two houses : the Rajya Sabha ( Council of States ) and the Lok Sabha ( House of the People ) . The President in his role as head of legislature has full powers to summon and prorogue either house of Parliament or to dissolve Lok Sabha . The president can exercise these powers only upon the advice of the Prime Minister and his Union Council of Ministers . Those elected or nominated ( by the President ) to either house of Parliament are referred to as Members of Parliament ( MP ) . The Members of Parliament , Lok Sabha are directly elected by the Indian public voting in Single-member districts and the Members of Parliament , Rajya Sabha are elected by the members of all State Legislative Assembly by proportional representation . The Parliament has a sanctioned strength of 543 in Lok Sabha and 245 in Rajya Sabha including the 12 nominees from the expertise of different fields of science , culture , art and history . The Parliament meets at Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi .
The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry ( FICCI ) is an association of business organisations in India . Established in 1927 , on the advice of Mahatma Gandhi by GD Birla and Purushottam Das Thakurdas , it is the largest , oldest and the apex business organization in India . It is a non-government , not-for-profit organisation . FICCI draws its membership from the corporate sector , both private and public , including SMEs and MNCs . The chamber has an indirect membership of over 250,000 companies from various regional chambers of commerce . It is involved in sector-specific business building , business promotion and networking . It is headquartered in the national capital New Delhi and has a presence in 12 states in India and 8 countries across the world .
Pentium is a brand used for a series of x86 architecture-compatible microprocessors produced by Intel since 1993 . In their form as of November 2011 [ update ] , Pentium processors are considered entry-level products that Intel rates as two stars , meaning that they are above the low-end Atom and Celeron series , but below the faster Core i3 , i5 , i7 , i9 , and workstation Xeon series .
Intel Corporation ( commonly known as Intel and stylized as intel ) is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara , California , in Silicon Valley . It is the world 's largest and highest valued semiconductor chip manufacturer based on revenue , and is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors , the processors found in most personal computers ( PCs ) . Intel ranked No . 46 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue . Intel is incorporated in Delaware . Intel supplies processors for computer system manufacturers such as Apple , Lenovo , HP , and Dell . Intel also manufactures motherboard chipsets , network interface controllers and integrated circuits , flash memory , graphics chips , embedded processors and other devices related to communications and computing . Intel Corporation was founded on July 18 , 1968 , by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore ( of Moore 's law ) , and is associated with the executive leadership and vision of Andrew Grove . The company 's name was conceived as portmanteau of the words integrated and electronics , with co-founder Noyce having been a key inventor of the integrated circuit ( microchip ) . The fact that intel is the term for intelligence information also made the name appropriate . Intel was an early developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips , which represented the majority of its business until 1981 . Although Intel created the world 's first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971 , it was not until the success of the personal computer ( PC ) that this became its primary business .
Karnataka Power Corporation Limited ( or KPCL ) is a company owned by the government of Karnataka , and is engaged in the Service of generating electrical power in the state of Karnataka in India . The modes for generation of electric power are hydroelectric , thermal , diesel , gas , wind and solar . The company was started on 20.07.1970 due to a vision of the Karnataka government for separate entities for generation and distribution of electric power . This was done , long before world bank dictated power sector reforms were initiated in early 21st century in India . Karnataka Power Corporation Limited began its journey with a humble beginning in 1970 . With an installed capacity of 746 MW ( 1970 ) , it has expanded its capacity to 8738.305 MW ( 2019 ) . A revenue of Rs.77442 Million in 2019 as compared , to Rs.1.30 Million in 1971 , speaks volumes about KPCL 's progress .
HAL Airport ( IATA : None , ICAO : VOBG ) , also known as Hindustan Airport , is an airport located in Bangalore , Karnataka , India . Due to its location in the heart of the city , it serves as a hub for general , business and VIP aviation . The airport is also used by the Indian Air Force as a cargo and logistics base , and as a testing facility by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited . It served as the city 's main domestic and international airport until 24 May 2008 , when it was replaced by the new , much larger Kempegowda International Airport in Devanahalli . There have since been repeated attempts to restart commercial service at the airport .
Julius Jennings Hoffman ( July 7 , 1895 - July 1 , 1983 ) was a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois . He presided over the Chicago Seven trial .
The Chicago Seven ( originally Chicago Eight , also Conspiracy Eight/Conspiracy Seven ) were seven defendants - Abbie Hoffman , Jerry Rubin , David Dellinger , Tom Hayden , Rennie Davis , John Froines , and Lee Weiner - charged by the federal government with conspiracy , inciting to riot , and other charges related to anti-Vietnam War and countercultural protests that took place in Chicago , Illinois , on the occasion of the 1968 Democratic National Convention . Bobby Seale , the eighth man charged , had his trial severed during the proceedings , lowering the number of defendants from eight to seven . The trial resulted in five of the seven convicted for inciting riots . All were acquitted of conspiracy . However , during the trial , Judge Julius Hoffman sentenced all of the defendants to lengthy sentences for contempt of court . In subsequent proceedings , the judge 's contempt charges were reversed , and all of the convictions for inciting riots were overturned .
Munir Ahmad Khan ( Urdu : منير احمد خان ; b . 20 May 1926 - 22 April 1999 ; NI HI ) , was a Pakistani nuclear engineer and a nuclear physicist , who served as the chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission ( PAEC ) from 1972 to 1991 . He is credited among the persons who are called as father of the Pakistan 's atomic bomb project , for their role in Pakistan 's integrated [ clarification needed ] atomic bomb project - the clandestine Cold war [ dubious - discuss ] program . Khan was technical director of the programme to develop nuclear weapons , which led to the Chagai-I nuclear testing in May 1998 in Balochistan . A technical adviser to the newly created PAEC since 1958 , Khan used that position in IAEA for lobbying for country 's industrial nuclear power development . A proponent of an arm race with India , he remained associated with his country 's various strategic science projects for more than four decades until his death in 1999 . After securing the chairmanship of the Board of Governors of the IAEA from 1986-87 , he made a strong case for Pakistan 's peaceful development on nuclear energy . Serving until 1999 as visiting professor of physics at the Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences in Islamabad , he was instrumental in establishing the International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics and Contemporary Needs . He also made critical contributions on the development of the nuclear fuel cycle including setting up the plutonium program as well as the establishment of reprocessing plants . In 1986 , he entered into a comprehensive civil nuclear energy agreement with China , which led the established the C-1 reactor at the Chashma Nuclear Power Plant .
The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission ( PAEC ; Urdu : ادارہ جوہری توانائی پاکستان ) is an independent governmental authority and a scientific research institution , concerned with research and development of nuclear power , promotion of nuclear science , energy conservation and the peaceful usage of nuclear technology . Since its establishment in 1956 , the PAEC has overseen the extensive development of nuclear infrastructure to support the economical uplift of Pakistan by founding institutions that focus on development on food irradiation and on nuclear medicine radiation therapy for cancer treatment . The PAEC organizes conferences and directs research at the country 's leading universities . Since the 1960s , the PAEC is also a scientific research partner and sponsor of European Organization for Nuclear Research ( CERN ) , where Pakistani scientists have contributed to developing particle accelerators and research on high-energy physics . PAEC scientists regularly pay visits to CERN while taking part in projects led by CERN . In 2001 , the PAEC was integrated with the National Command Authority ( Pakistan ) which is under the Prime Minister of Pakistan .
The International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA ) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy , and to inhibit its use for any military purpose , including nuclear weapons . The IAEA was established as an autonomous organisation on 29 July 1957 . Though established independently of the United Nations through its own international treaty , the IAEA Statute , the IAEA reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council . The IAEA has its headquarters in Vienna , Austria . The IAEA has two Regional Safeguards Offices which are located in Toronto , Canada , and in Tokyo , Japan . The IAEA also has two liaison offices which are located in New York City , United States , and in Geneva , Switzerland . In addition , the IAEA has laboratories and research centers located in Seibersdorf , Austria , in Monaco and in Trieste , Italy . The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical co-operation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology and nuclear power worldwide . The programs of the IAEA encourage the development of the peaceful applications of nuclear energy , science and technology , provide international safeguards against misuse of nuclear technology and nuclear materials , and promote nuclear safety ( including radiation protection ) and nuclear security standards and their implementation . The IAEA and its former Director General , Mohamed ElBaradei , were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on 7 October 2005 . The Director General is Rafael Grossi , an Argentinian diplomat previously served as an IAEA 's chief of cabinet , whose appointment was approved at the special session of the IAEAs General Conference on 2 December 2019 , as the successor of Yukiya Amano , who died in July 2019 .
David V. Miller ( April 23 , 1919 - January 2016 ) was a Major General in the United States Air Force .
The United States Air Force ( USAF ) is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces . It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services . Initially formed as a part of the United States Army on 1 August 1907 , the USAF was established as a separate branch of the U.S. Armed Forces on 18 September 1947 with the passing of the National Security Act of 1947 . It is the second youngest branch of the U.S. Armed Forces , [ a ] and the fourth in order of precedence . The U.S. Air Force articulates its core missions as air superiority , global integrated intelligence , surveillance , and reconnaissance , rapid global mobility , global strike , and command and control . The U.S. Air Force is a military service branch organized within the Department of the Air Force , one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense . The Air Force , through the Department of the Air Force , is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force , who reports to the Secretary of Defense , and is appointed by the President with Senate confirmation . The highest-ranking military officer in the Air Force is the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . Certain Air Force components are assigned , as directed by the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Air Force , to unified combatant commands . Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them , while the Secretary of the Air Force and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members . Along with conducting independent air operations , the U.S. Air Force provides air support for land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field . As of 2017 [ update ] , the service operates more than 5,369 military aircraft , 406 ICBMs and 170 military satellites .
James Gerard Roche ( born December 16 , 1939 ) is an American politician . He served as the 20th Secretary of the Air Force , serving from January 20 , 2001 to January 20 , 2005 . Prior to serving as secretary , Roche served in the United States Navy for 23 years , and as an executive with Northrop Grumman .
The Secretary of the Air Force ( SecAF , or SAF/OS ) is the head of the Department of the Air Force , a military department within the United States Department of Defense . The Secretary of the Air Force is a civilian appointed by the President , by and with the advice and consent of the Senate . The Secretary reports to the Secretary of Defense and/or the Deputy Secretary of Defense , and is by statute responsible for and has the authority to conduct all the affairs of the Department of the Air Force . The Secretary works closely with their civilian deputy , the Under Secretary of the Air Force ; and their military deputies , the Chief of Staff of the Air Force and Chief of Space Operations . The first Secretary of the Air Force , Stuart Symington , was sworn in on September 18 , 1947 , upon the split and re-organization of the Department of War and Army Air Forces into an air military department and a military service of its own , with the enactment of the National Security Act . On October 16 , 2019 , Barbara Barrett was confirmed by the U.S. Senate as the Secretary of the Air Force , and was sworn in to office on October 18 , 2019 .
The United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence ( sometimes referred to as the Intelligence Committee or SSCI ) is dedicated to overseeing the United States Intelligence Community - the agencies and bureaus of the federal government of the United States who provide information and analysis for leaders of the executive and legislative branches . The Committee was established in 1976 by the 94th Congress . The Committee is select in that membership is temporary and rotated among members of the chamber . The committee comprises 15 members . Eight of those seats are reserved for one majority and one minority member of each of the following committees : Appropriations , Armed Services , Foreign Relations , and Judiciary . Of the remaining seven , four are members of the majority , and three are members of the minority . In addition , the Majority Leader and Minority Leader are non-voting ex officio members of the committee . Also , the Chairman and Ranking Member of the Committee on Armed Services ( if not already a member of the select Committee ) are ex officio members . As part of its oversight responsibilities , the Committee performs an annual review of the intelligence budget submitted by the president and prepares legislation authorizing appropriations for the various civilian and military agencies and departments comprising the intelligence community . These entities include the Office of the Director of National Intelligence , Central Intelligence Agency , Defense Intelligence Agency , National Security Agency , National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency , National Reconnaissance Office , as well as the intelligence-related components of Department of State , Federal Bureau of Investigation , Department of the Treasury , and Department of Energy . The Committee makes recommendations to the Senate Armed Services Committee on authorizations for the intelligence-related components of the U.S. Army , U.S. Navy , U.S. Air Force , and U.S. Marine Corps . The Committee also conducts periodic investigations , audits , and inspections of intelligence activities and programs .
The United States Department of Defense 's Office of Net Assessment ( ONA ) was created in 1973 by Richard Nixon to serve as the Pentagon 's internal think tank that looks 20 to 30 years into the military 's future , often with the assistance of outside contractors , and produces reports on the results of its research . The Director of Net Assessment is the principal staff assistant and advisor to the Secretary and Deputy Secretary of Defense on net assessment . [ clarification needed ] According to Defense Directive 5111.11 , the Director shall develop and coordinate net assessments of the standing , trends , and future prospects of U.S. military capabilities and military potential in comparison with those of other countries or groups of countries in order to identify emerging or future threats or opportunities for the United States . Paul Bracken explains that it is important to have a good grasp of net assessment because it is an important part of the language spoken by leaders in the higher levels of DOD and officers who lack familiarity will be at a disadvantage in communicating with the civilian leadership . Andrew Marshall was named its first director , a position he continued to hold under succeeding administrations . In October 2014 , Marshall announced plans to retire in January 2015 . He was replaced by Jim Baker in May 2015 .
The Order of the Sword is an honor awarded within the U.S. Air Force . It is defined in the Airman 's Guide by Boone Nicolls as a special program where noncommisioned officers of a command recognize individuals they hold in high esteem and wish to honor . Those selected for induction are usually honored during a formal ceremony at a dining-in . Several honorees have been controversial , including Gen Merrill McPeak and Gen Robert H. Foglesong . Various webpages originating with the U.S. Air Force claim an ancient origin for this order :
The United States Department of the Army offers a variety of awards , decorations and incentive programs to honor and recognize the contribution and efforts of its civilian workforce . There are three categories of recognition : monetary , honorary , and time-off .
The Navy Distinguished Public Service Award , established in 1951 , is an award presented by the U.S. Secretary of the Navy to civilians for specific courageous or heroic acts or exceptionally outstanding service of substantial and long-term benefit to the Navy , Marine Corps , or Department of the Navy as a whole . Originally a certificate with a lapel pin , the medal was first presented in July 1951 . It is the highest recognition that the Secretary of the Navy may pay to a civilian not employed by the Department of the Navy .
The Commendation Medal is a mid-level United States military decoration which is presented for sustained acts of heroism or meritorious service . Each branch of the United States Armed Forces issues its own version of the Commendation Medal , with a fifth version existing for acts of joint military service performed under the Department of Defense . The Commendation Medal was originally only a service ribbon and was first awarded by the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard in 1943 . An Army Commendation Ribbon followed in 1945 , and in 1949 , the Navy , Coast Guard , and Army Commendation ribbons were renamed the Commendation Ribbon with Metal Pendant . By 1960 , the Commendation Ribbons had been authorized as full medals and were subsequently referred to as Commendation Medals . Additional awards of the Army and Air Force Commendation Medals are denoted by bronze and silver oak leaf clusters . The Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal and Coast Guard Commendation Medal are authorized gold and silver 5/16 inch stars to denote additional awards . The Operational Distinguishing Device ( O device ) is authorized for wear on the Coast Guard Commendation Medal upon approval of the awarding authority . Order of Precedence is following the Air Medal but before the Prisoner of War Medal and all campaign medals . Each of the military services also awards separate Achievement Medals which are below the Commendation Medals in precedence .
The Legion of Merit ( LOM ) is a military award of the United States Armed Forces that is given for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements . The decoration is issued to members of the eight uniformed services of the United States as well as to military and political figures of foreign governments . The Legion of Merit ( Commander degree ) is one of only two United States military decorations to be issued as a neck order ( the other being the Medal of Honor ) and the only United States military decoration that may be issued in award degrees ( much like an order of chivalry or certain Orders of Merit ) , although the degrees including a neck ribbon are only awarded to non-U.S. nationals . The Legion of Merit is seventh in the order of precedence of all U.S. military awards and is worn after the Defense Superior Service Medal and before the Distinguished Flying Cross . In contemporary use in the U.S. Armed Forces , the Legion of Merit is typically awarded to Army , Marine Corps , and Air Force general officers and colonels , and Navy and Coast Guard flag officers and captains occupying senior command or very senior staff positions in their respective services . It may also be awarded to officers of lesser rank , senior warrant officers ( typically in command positions at the rank of CW5 ) , and to very senior enlisted personnel ( typically in the rank of CSM and SMA in the Army , FLTCM and MCPON in the Navy , CMSAF in the Air Force and SgtMajMC in the Marine Corps ) , but these instances are less frequent , typically by exception , and the circumstances vary by branch of service . Authority to award the Legion of Merit is reserved for general officers and flag officers in pay grade O-9 ( e.g . lieutenant general and vice admiral ) and above , civilian Department of Defense personnel at assistant service secretary or Assistant Secretary of Defense level and above , or equivalent secretary-level civilian personnel with the Department of Homeland Security with direct oversight of the U.S. Coast Guard .
The Defense Superior Service Medal ( DSSM ) is a senior American military decoration of the Department of Defense , awarded to members of the United States Armed Forces who perform superior meritorious service in a position of significant responsibility . The decoration is most often presented to senior officers in the flag and general officer grades , followed by a lesser number of colonels and USN and USCG captains . The medal is presented in the name of the Secretary of Defense and was established by President Gerald R. Ford on February 6 , 1976 , in Executive Order 11904 . It is analogous to the Legion of Merit , albeit awarded for service in a joint duty capacity .
Mohsen Sazegara ( Persian : محسن سازگارا ) is an Iranian journalist and pro-democracy political activist . He held several offices in the Government of Mir-Hossein Mousavi . He applied to become a candidate for President of Iran in the 2001 election but was declined . His reformist policies clashed with the Supreme Leader , Ali Khamenei , eventually resulting in his arrest in early 2003 . Following his release in August 2003 , he moved to the United Kingdom for medical attention . He currently resides in the United States .
Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge , Massachusetts , with about 6,800 undergraduate students and about 14,000 postgraduate students . Established in 1636 and named for its first benefactor , clergyman John Harvard , Harvard is the United States ' oldest institution of higher learning . Its history , influence , wealth , and academic reputation have made it one of the most prestigious universities in the world . The Harvard Corporation , chartered in 1650 , is the governing body of Harvard . In its early years , Harvard College primarily trained Congregational and Unitarian clergy , although it has never been formally affiliated with any denomination . Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century , and by the 19th century , Harvard had emerged as the central cultural establishment among Boston elites . Following the American Civil War , President Charles W. Eliot 's long tenure ( 1869-1909 ) transformed the college and affiliated professional schools into a modern research university ; Harvard was a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900 . A. Lawrence Lowell , who succeeded Eliot , further reformed the undergraduate curriculum and undertook aggressive expansion of Harvard 's land holdings and physical campus . James Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II ; he began to liberalize admissions after the war . The university is organized into eleven principal academic units - ten faculties and the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study - with campuses throughout Greater Boston : its 209-acre ( 85 ha ) original undergraduate campus is centered on Harvard Yard in Cambridge , approximately 3 miles ( 5 km ) northwest of Boston ; the business school and many athletics facilities , including Harvard Stadium , are across the Charles River in the Allston neighborhood of Boston ; and the medical , dental , and public health schools are in the Longwood Medical Area . Harvard 's endowment is worth $ 40.9 billion , making it the largest of any academic institution . Harvard is a large , highly residential research university .
Gloria Cecelia Ray Karlmark ( born September 26 , 1942 , Little Rock ) is a member of the Little Rock Nine , the nine African-American students who desegregated Central High School in Little Rock , Arkansas in 1957 . One of the three children of Harvey C. and Julia Miller Ray , she was 15 when she attempted to enter Little Rock Central High School where she was barred from entering by the Arkansas National Guard , under the order of Governor Orval Faubus who opposed integration . They returned to the school weeks later protected by federal troops . In 1965 , she graduated from the Illinois Institute of Technology with a bachelor 's degree in Chemistry and Mathematics . She worked briefly as a public school teacher and research assistant at the University of Chicago Research Medical Center . Ray married Krister Karlmark in 1966 , and in 1970 , she joined International Business Machines ( IBM ) Nordic Laboratory in Stockholm , Sweden , where she worked as a systems analyst and technical writer . In 1976 she cofounded the journal Computers in Industry , serving as the editor-in-chief until 1991 . Karlmark graduated from Kungliga Patent & Registreringsverket in Sweden as a patent attorney , and from 1977 until 1981 , she worked for IBM International Patent Operations . From 1976 to 1994 , Karlmark founded and was editor-in-chief of Computers in Industry , an international journal of computer applications in industry . In 1994 , Karlmark went to work in the Netherlands for Philips Telecommunications in Hilversum and , later , for Philips Lighting in Eindhoven . She and her husband have two children . In 1998 , Karlmark and the other members of the Little Rock Nine were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in recognition of selfless heroism .
A Congressional Gold Medal is an award bestowed by the United States Congress . The congressional practice of issuing gold medals to occasionally honor recipients from the military began during the American Revolution . Later the practice extended to individuals in all walks of life and in the late 20th century also to groups . The Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom are the highest civilian awards in the United States . The congressional medal seeks to honor those , individually or as a group , who have performed an achievement that has an impact on American history and culture that is likely to be recognized as a major achievement in the recipient 's field long after the achievement . However , There are no permanent statutory provisions specifically relating to the creation of Congressional Gold Medals . When a Congressional Gold Medal has been deemed appropriate , Congress has , by legislative action , provided for the creation of a medal on an ad hoc basis . Thus , there are generally fewer gold medals than presidential medals . U.S. citizenship is not a requirement . As of April 4 , 2019 , 163 institutions , people , or events have been awarded a Congressional Gold Medal .
The Little Rock Nine was a group of nine African American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957 . Their enrollment was followed by the Little Rock Crisis , in which the students were initially prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Orval Faubus , the Governor of Arkansas . They then attended after the intervention of President Dwight D. Eisenhower . The U.S. Supreme Court issued its historic Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka , Kansas , 347 U.S. 483 , on May 17 , 1954 . Tied to the 14th Amendment , the decision declared all laws establishing segregated schools to be unconstitutional , and it called for the desegregation of all schools throughout the nation . After the decision , the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) attempted to register black students in previously all-white schools in cities throughout the South . In Little Rock , Arkansas , the school board agreed to comply with the high court 's ruling . Virgil Blossom , the Superintendent of Schools , submitted a plan of gradual integration to the school board on May 24 , 1955 , which the board unanimously approved . The plan would be implemented during the fall of the 1957 school year , which would begin in September 1957 . By 1957 , the NAACP had registered nine black students to attend the previously all-white Little Rock Central High , selected on the criteria of excellent grades and attendance . Called the Little Rock Nine , they were Ernest Green ( b . 1941 ) , Elizabeth Eckford ( b .
African Americans ( also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans ) are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the black racial groups of Africa . The phrase generally refers to descendants of enslaved black people who are from the United States . African Americans constitute the third largest ethnic group and the second largest racial group in the US , after White Americans and Hispanic and Latino Americans . Most African Americans are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States . On average , African Americans are of West/Central African and European descent , and some also have Native American ancestry . According to U.S. Census Bureau data , African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American . The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities ( ≈95% ) . Immigrants from some Caribbean , Central American , and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term . African-American history starts in the 16th century , with peoples from West Africa forcibly taken as slaves to Latin America , and in the 17th century with West African slaves taken to English colonies in North America . After the founding of the United States , black people continued to be enslaved , and the last four million black slaves were only liberated after the Civil War in 1865 . Due to notions of white supremacy , they were treated as second-class citizens . The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only , and only white men who owned property could vote .
Little Rock Central High School ( LRCHS ) is an accredited comprehensive public high school in Little Rock , Arkansas , United States . The school was the site of forced desegregation in 1957 after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional three years earlier . This was during the period of heightened activism in the civil rights movement . Central is located at the intersection of Park Street and Daisy L. Gatson Bates Drive ( formerly 14th Street ) . Bates was an African-American journalist and state NAACP president who played a key role in bringing about , through the 1957 crisis , the integration of the school . Central can trace its origins to 1869 when the Sherman School operated in a wooden structure at 8th and Sherman streets ; it graduated its first class on June 13 , 1873 . In 1885 the Sherman School was moved to 14th and Scott streets and was named Scott Street School , but was more commonly called City High School . Five years later in 1890 , the Peabody School was constructed at West Capitol and Gaines streets . It was named in honor of philanthropist George Peabody from US $ 200,000 received via the Peabody Education Fund . In 1905 , the city founded Little Rock High School at the intersection of 14th and Cumberland streets , and shuttered the Peabody and Scott Street schools to serve as the city 's sole public high school . At the time only white students were enrolled . In 1927 at a cost of US $ 1.5 million , the city completed construction on the nation 's largest and most expensive high school facility , which remains in use today .
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka , 347 U.S. 483 ( 1954 ) , was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in which the Court ruled that U.S. state laws establishing racial segregation in public schools are unconstitutional , even if the segregated schools are otherwise equal in quality . Handed down on May 17 , 1954 , the Court 's unanimous ( 9-0 ) decision stated that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal , and therefore violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution . However , the decision 's 14 pages did not spell out any sort of method for ending racial segregation in schools , and the Court 's second decision in Brown II ( 349 U.S. 294 ( 1955 ) ) only ordered states to desegregate with all deliberate speed . The case originated in 1951 , when the public school district in Topeka , Kansas , refused to enroll the daughter of local black resident Oliver Brown at the school closest to their home , instead requiring her to ride a bus to a segregated black elementary school farther away . The Browns and twelve other local black families in similar situations then filed a class action lawsuit in U.S. federal court against the Topeka Board of Education , alleging that its segregation policy was unconstitutional . A three-judge panel of the U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas rendered a verdict against the Browns , relying on the precedent of the Supreme Court 's 1896 decision in Plessy v. Ferguson , in which the Court had ruled that racial segregation was not in itself a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause if the facilities in question were otherwise equal , a doctrine that had come to be known as separate but equal . The Browns , then represented by NAACP chief counsel Thurgood Marshall , appealed to the Supreme Court , which agreed to hear the case . The Court 's decision in Brown partially overruled Plessy v. Ferguson by declaring that the separate but equal notion was unconstitutional for American public schools and educational facilities . [ note 1 ] It paved the way for integration and was a major victory of the Civil Rights Movement , and a model for many future impact litigation cases . In the American South , especially the Deep South , where racial segregation was deeply entrenched , the reaction to Brown among most white people was noisy and stubborn . Many Southern governmental and political leaders embraced a plan known as Massive Resistance , created by Virginia Senator Harry F. Byrd , in order to frustrate attempts to force them to de-segregate their school systems . Four years later , in the case of Cooper v. Aaron , the Court reaffirmed its ruling in Brown , and explicitly stated that state officials and legislators had no power to nullify its ruling .
The Supreme Court of the United States ( SCOTUS ) is the highest court in the federal judiciary of the United States . It has ultimate ( and largely discretionary ) appellate jurisdiction over all federal and state court cases that involve a point of federal law , and original jurisdiction over a narrow range of cases , specifically all Cases affecting Ambassadors , other public Ministers and Consuls , and those in which a State shall be Party . The Court holds the power of judicial review , the ability to invalidate a statute for violating a provision of the U.S. Constitution . It is also able to strike down presidential directives for violating either the Constitution or statutory law . However , it may act only within the context of a case in an area of law over which it has jurisdiction . The Court may decide cases having political overtones , but it has ruled that it does not have power to decide non-justiciable political questions . Established by Article III of the Constitution , the composition and procedures of the Supreme Court were initially established by the 1st Congress through the Judiciary Act of 1789 . As later set by the Judiciary Act of 1869 , the Court consists of the chief justice of the United States and eight associate justices . Each justice has lifetime tenure , meaning they remain on the Court until they resign , retire , die , or are removed from office . When a vacancy occurs , the president , with the advice and consent of the Senate , appoints a new justice . Each justice has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it . When in majority , the chief justice decides who writes the opinion of the court ; otherwise , the most senior justice in the majority assigns the task of writing the opinion .