History of RNA biology
Nobel Laureates in RNA biology
Table:
Name

Dates

Awards

Altman, Sidney

born 1939

1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Baltimore, David

born 1938

1975 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Barré-Sinoussi, Françoise

born 1947

2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Blackburn, Elizabeth

born 1948

2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Brenner, Sydney

born 1927

2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Cech, Thomas

born 1947

1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Crick, Francis

1916–2004

1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Dulbecco, Renato

1914–2012

1975 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Fire, Andrew

born 1959

2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Gilbert, Walter

born 1932

1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Greider, Carol

born 1961

2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Holley, Robert

1922–1993

1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Jacob, François

1920–2013

1965 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Khorana, H. Gobind

1922–2011

1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Klug, Aaron

born 1926

1982 Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Kornberg, Roger

born 1947

2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Mello, Craig

born 1960

2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Monod, Jacques

1910–1976

1965 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Montagnier, Luc

born 1932

2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Nirenberg, Marshall

1927–2010

1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Taking into account the provided table and the supporting evidence listed.

Solve the question: How many of the biologists were born in the month of April ? Respond with the correct answer (omit explanations) in JSON format as {"answer": "YOUR ANSWER"}. Base your answer solely on the given information.

Sidney Altman ( born May 7 , 1939 ) is a Canadian and American molecular biologist , who is the Sterling Professor of Molecular , Cellular , and Developmental Biology and Chemistry at Yale University . In 1989 he shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Thomas R. Cech for their work on the catalytic properties of RNA .
David Baltimore ( born March 7 , 1938 ) is an American biologist , university administrator , and 1975 Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine , he is a Professor of Biology at the California Institute of Technology , where he served as president from 1997 to 2006 . He also serves as the director of the Joint Center for Translational Medicine , which joins Caltech and UCLA in a program to translate basic science discoveries into clinical realities . He served as president of the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) from 1997 to 2006 , and is currently the President Emeritus and Robert Andrews Millikan Professor of Biology at Caltech . He also served as president of Rockefeller University from 1990 to 1991 , and was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2007 . Baltimore has profoundly influenced international science , including key contributions to immunology , virology , cancer research , biotechnology , and recombinant DNA research , through his accomplishments as a researcher , administrator , educator , and public advocate for science and engineering . He has trained many doctoral students and postdoctoral fellows , several of whom have gone on to notable and distinguished research careers . In addition to the Nobel Prize , he has received a number of awards , including the U.S. National Medal of Science in 1999 . Baltimore currently sits on the Board of Sponsors for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists and is a consultant to the Science Philanthropy Alliance .
Françoise Barré-Sinoussi ( French : [ fʁɑ̃swaz baʁesinusi ] ( listen ) ; born 30 July 1947 ) is a French virologist and Director of the Regulation of Retroviral Infections Division ( French : Unité de Régulation des Infections Rétrovirales ) and Professor at the Institut Pasteur in Paris , France . Born in Paris , France , Barré-Sinoussi performed some of the fundamental work in the identification of the human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) as the cause of AIDS . In 2008 , Barré-Sinoussi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , together with her former mentor , Luc Montagnier , for their discovery of HIV . She mandatorily retired from active research on August 31 , 2015 and fully retired by some time in 2017 .
Elizabeth Helen Blackburn , AC FRS FAA FRSN ( born 26 November 1948 ) is an Australian-American Nobel laureate who is the former President of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies . Previously she was a biological researcher at the University of California , San Francisco , who studied the telomere , a structure at the end of chromosomes that protects the chromosome . In 1984 , Blackburn co-discovered telomerase , the enzyme that replenishes the telomere , with Carol W. Greider . For this work , she was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , sharing it with Greider and Jack W. Szostak , becoming the first Australian woman Nobel laureate . She also worked in medical ethics , and was controversially dismissed from the Bush Administration 's President 's Council on Bioethics .
Sydney Brenner CH FRS FMedSci MAE ( 13 January 1927 - 5 April 2019 ) was a South African biologist . In 2002 , he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with H. Robert Horvitz and Sir John E. Sulston . Brenner made significant contributions to work on the genetic code , and other areas of molecular biology while working in the Medical Research Council ( MRC ) Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge , England . He established the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism for the investigation of developmental biology , and founded the Molecular Sciences Institute in Berkeley , California , United States .
Thomas Robert Cech ( born December 8 , 1947 ) is an American chemist who shared the 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Sidney Altman , for their discovery of the catalytic properties of RNA . Cech discovered that RNA could itself cut strands of RNA , suggesting that life might have started as RNA . He also studied telomeres , and his lab discovered an enzyme , TERT ( telomerase reverse transcriptase ) , which is part of the process of restoring telomeres after they are shortened during cell division . As president of Howard Hughes Medical Institute , he promoted science education , and he teaches an undergraduate chemistry course at the University of Colorado .
Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS ( 8 June 1916 - 28 July 2004 ) was a British molecular biologist , biophysicist , and neuroscientist . In 1953 , he co-authored with James Watson the academic paper proposing the double helix structure of the DNA molecule . Together with Watson and Maurice Wilkins , he was jointly awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material . The results were based partly on fundamental studies done by Rosalind Franklin , Raymond Gosling and Wilkins . Crick was an important theoretical molecular biologist and played a crucial role in research related to revealing the helical structure of DNA . He is widely known for the use of the term central dogma to summarize the idea that once information is transferred from nucleic acids ( DNA or RNA ) to proteins , it can not flow back to nucleic acids . In other words , the final step in the flow of information from nucleic acids to proteins is irreversible . During the remainder of his career , he held the post of J.W . Kieckhefer Distinguished Research Professor at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla , California . His later research centered on theoretical neurobiology and attempts to advance the scientific study of human consciousness . He remained in this post until his death ; he was editing a manuscript on his death bed , a scientist until the bitter end according to Christof Koch .
Renato Dulbecco ( /dʌlˈbɛkoʊ/ dul-BEK-oh , Italian : [ reˈnaːto dulˈbɛkko , -ˈbek- ] ; February 22 , 1914 - February 19 , 2012 ) was an Italian-American virologist who won the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on oncoviruses , which are viruses that can cause cancer when they infect animal cells . He studied at the University of Turin under Giuseppe Levi , along with fellow students Salvador Luria and Rita Levi-Montalcini , who also moved to the U.S. with him and won Nobel prizes . He was drafted into the Italian army in World War II , but later joined the resistance .
Andrew Zachary Fire ( born April 27 , 1959 ) is an American biologist and professor of pathology and of genetics at the Stanford University School of Medicine . He was awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine , along with Craig C. Mello , for the discovery of RNA interference ( RNAi ) . This research was conducted at the Carnegie Institution of Washington and published in 1998 .
Walter Gilbert ( born March 21 , 1932 ) is an American biochemist , physicist , molecular biology pioneer , and Nobel laureate .
Carolyn Widney Carol Greider ( born April 15 , 1961 ) is an American molecular biologist and Nobel laureate . She is a Bloomberg Distinguished Professor , Daniel Nathans Professor , and Director of Molecular Biology and Genetics at Johns Hopkins University . She discovered the enzyme telomerase in 1984 , while she was a graduate student of Elizabeth Blackburn at the University of California , Berkeley . Greider pioneered research on the structure of telomeres , the ends of the chromosomes . She was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine , along with Blackburn and Jack W. Szostak , for their discovery that telomeres are protected from progressive shortening by the enzyme telomerase .
Robert William Holley ( January 28 , 1922 - February 11 , 1993 ) was an American biochemist . He shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1968 ( with Har Gobind Khorana and Marshall Warren Nirenberg ) for describing the structure of alanine transfer RNA , linking DNA and protein synthesis . Holley was born in Urbana , Illinois , and graduated from Urbana High School in 1938 . He went on to study chemistry at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , graduating in 1942 and commencing his PhD studies in organic chemistry at Cornell University . During World War II Holley spent two years working under Professor Vincent du Vigneaud at Cornell University Medical College , where he was involved in the first chemical synthesis of penicillin . Holley completed his PhD studies in 1947 . Following his graduate studies Holley remained associated with Cornell . He became an Assistant Professor of organic chemistry in 1948 , and was appointed as Professor of Biochemistry in 1962 . He began his research on RNA after spending a year 's sabbatical ( 1955-1956 ) studying with James F. Bonner at the California Institute of Technology . Holley 's research on RNA focused first on isolating transfer RNA ( tRNA ) , and later on determining the sequence and structure of alanine tRNA , the molecule that incorporates the amino acid alanine into proteins . Holley 's team of researchers determined the tRNA 's structure by using two ribonucleases to split the tRNA molecule into pieces . Each enzyme split the molecule at location points for specific nucleotides .
François Jacob ( 17 June 1920 - 19 April 2013 ) was a French biologist who , together with Jacques Monod , originated the idea that control of enzyme levels in all cells occurs through regulation of transcription . He shared the 1965 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Jacques Monod and André Lwoff .
Har Gobind Khorana ( 9 January 1922 - 9 November 2011 ) was an Indian-American biochemist . While on the faculty of the University of Wisconsin-Madison , he shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Marshall W. Nirenberg and Robert W. Holley for research that showed the order of nucleotides in nucleic acids , which carry the genetic code of the cell and control the cell 's synthesis of proteins . Khorana and Nirenberg were also awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University in the same year . Born in British India , Khorana served on the faculties of three universities in North America . He became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1966 , and received the National Medal of Science in 1987 .
Sir Aaron Klug OM FRS FMedSci HonFRMS ( 11 August 1926 - 20 November 2018 ) was a Lithuanian-born , South African-educated , British biophysicist , and winner of the 1982 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes .
Roger David Kornberg ( born April 24 [ citation needed ] , 1947 ) is an American biochemist and professor of structural biology at Stanford University School of Medicine . Kornberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2006 for his studies of the process by which genetic information from DNA is copied to RNA , the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription .
Craig Cameron Mello ( born October 18 , 1960 ) is an American biologist and professor of molecular medicine at the University of Massachusetts Medical School in Worcester , Massachusetts . He was awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine , along with Andrew Z . Fire , for the discovery of RNA interference . This research was conducted at the University of Massachusetts Medical School and published in 1998 . Mello has been a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator since 2000 .
Jacques Lucien Monod ( February 9 , 1910 - May 31 , 1976 ) was a French biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1965 , sharing it with François Jacob and André Lwoff for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis . Monod and Jacob became famous for their work on the E. coli lac operon , which encodes proteins necessary for the transport and breakdown of the sugar lactose ( lac ) . From their own work and the work of others , they came up with a model for how the levels of some proteins in a cell are controlled . In their model , the manufacture of proteins , such as the ones encoded within the lac ( lactose ) operon , is prevented when a repressor , encoded by a regulatory gene , binds to its operator , a specific site in the DNA sequence that is close to the genes encoding the proteins . ( It is now known that a repressor bound to an operator physically blocks RNA polymerase from binding to the promoter , the site where transcription of the adjacent genes begins . ) Study of the control of expression of genes in the lac operon provided the first example of a system for the regulation of transcription . Monod also suggested the existence of messenger RNA molecules that link the information encoded in DNA and proteins . For these contributions he is widely regarded as one of the founders of molecular biology .
Luc Antoine Montagnier ( US : /ˌmɒntənˈjeɪ , ˌmoʊntɑːnˈjeɪ/ , US : /mənˈ-/ , French : [ mɔ̃taɲe ] ; born 18 August 1932 ) is a French virologist and joint recipient with Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Harald zur Hausen of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) . A long-time researcher at the Pasteur Institute in Paris , he currently works as a full-time professor at Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China . In 2009 , Montagnier published two controversial research studies that some homeopaths claimed as support for homeopathy . Although Montagnier disputed any such support , many scientists greeted his claims with scorn and harsh criticism .
Marshall Warren Nirenberg ( April 10 , 1927 - January 15 , 2010 ) was an American biochemist and geneticist . He shared a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1968 with Har Gobind Khorana and Robert W. Holley for breaking the genetic code and describing how it operates in protein synthesis . In the same year , together with Har Gobind Khorana , he was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University .