Central Asia
Major cultural , scientific and economic centres -- Cities within the regular definition of Central Asia and Afghanistan
Table:
City

Country

Population

Image

Information

Nur-Sultan

Kazakhstan

1,006,574
(2017)

The capital and second largest city in Kazakhstan. After Kazakhstan gained its independence in 1991, the city and the region were renamed from Tselinograd to Aqmola. The name was often translated as "White Tombstone", but actually means "Holy Place" or "Holy Shrine". The "White Tombstone" literal translation was too appropriate for many visitors to escape notice in almost all guide books and travel accounts. In 1994, the city was designated as the future capital of the newly independent country and again renamed to the Astana after the capital was officially moved from Almaty in 1997. In 2019 the city was renamed one more time to Nur-Sultan to honor the resigned president.

Almaty

Kazakhstan

1,713,220
(2017)

It was the capital of Kazakhstan (and its predecessor, the Kazakh SSR) from 1929 to 1998. Despite losing its status as the capital, Almaty remains the major commercial center of Kazakhstan. It is a recognized financial center of Kazakhstan and the Central Asian region.

Bishkek

Kyrgyzstan

1,027,200
(2019)

The capital and the largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek is also the administrative center of Chuy Region, which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the region, but rather a region-level unit of Kyrgyzstan.

Mazar-e Sharif

Afghanistan

375,181
(2008)

The fourth largest city in Afghanistan and the capital of Balkh province, is linked by roads to Kabul in the southeast, Herat to the west and Uzbekistan to the north.

Dushanbe

Tajikistan

780,000
(2014)

The capital and largest city of Tajikistan. Dushanbe means "Monday" in Tajik and Persian,[51] and the name reflects the fact that the city grew on the site of a village that originally was a popular Monday marketplace.

Ashgabat

Turkmenistan

1,032,000
(2014)

The capital and largest city of Turkmenistan. Ashgabat is a relatively young city, growing out of a village of the same name established by Russians in 1818. It is not far from the site of Nisa, the ancient capital of the Parthians, and it grew on the ruins of the Silk Road city of Konjikala, which was first mentioned as a wine-producing village in the 2nd century BCE and was leveled by an earthquake in the 1st century BCE (a precursor of the 1948 Ashgabat earthquake). Konjikala was rebuilt because of its advantageous location on the Silk Road, and it flourished until its destruction by Mongols in the 13th century CE. After that, it survived as a small village until the Russians took over in the 19th century.[52][53]

Bukhara

Uzbekistan

237,900
(1999)

The nation's fifth-largest city and the capital of the Bukhara Region of Uzbekistan. Bukhara has been one of the main centers of Persian civilization from its early days in the 6th century BCE, and, since the 12th century CE, Turkic speakers gradually moved in. Its architecture and archaeological sites form one of the pillars of Central Asian history and art.

Kabul

Afghanistan

3,895,000
(2011)

The capital and largest city of Afghanistan. The city of Kabul is thought to have been established between 2000 BCE and 1500 BCE.[54] In the Rig Veda (composed between 1700–1100 BCE), the word Kubhā is mentioned, which appears to refer to the Kabul River.[55] During the 1970's Kabul was called the "Paris of Central Asia".[56]

Kokand

Uzbekistan

209,389
(2011)

Kokand (Uzbek: Qo'qon / Қўқон; Tajik: Хӯқанд; Persian: خوقند; Chagatai: خوقند; Russian: Коканд) is a city in Fergana Region in eastern Uzbekistan, at the southwestern edge of the Fergana Valley. It has a population of 192,500 (1999 census estimate). Kokand is 228 km southeast of Tashkent, 115 km west of Andijan, and 88 km west of Fergana. It is nicknamed "City of Winds", or sometimes "Town of the Boar".

Samarkand

Uzbekistan

596,300
(2008)

The second largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Region. The city is most noted for its central position on the Silk Road between China and the West, and for being an Islamic center for scholarly study. It was here that the ruler Ulugh Beg (1394–1449) built a gigantic astronomical observatory.[57]

Tashkent

Uzbekistan

2,180,000
(2008)

The capital and largest city of Uzbekistan. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the town and the region were known as Chach. Tashkent started as an oasis on the Chirchik River, near the foothills of the Golestan Mountains. In ancient times, this area contained Beitian, probably the summer "capital" of the Kangju confederacy.[58]

Kandahar

Afghanistan

557,118
(2015)

The second largest city in Afghanistan and the capital of Kandahar province. The region around Kandahar is one of the oldest known human settlements.

Osh

Kyrgyzstan

243,216
(2009)

The second largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Osh is also the administrative center of Osh Region, which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the region, but rather a region-level unit of Kyrgyzstan.

With reference to the following table along with the supporting evidence listed at the end.

Provide an answer to this question: Who led the Russian forces to destroy a fortress in the city in Kyrgyzstan with a population of 1,027,200 ? Provide just your answer in a JSON object {"answer": "YOUR ANSWER"}.

Nur-Sultan ( US : /ˌnʊərsʊlˈtɑːn/ ; Kazakh : Nur-Sultan , Нұр-Сұлтан ; Russian : Нур-Султан ) , previously named Astana [ a ] ( Kazakh : Astana , Russian : Астана ) from 1998 to 2019 , is the capital city of Kazakhstan . In March 2019 , it was renamed to Nur-Sultan after the departing Kazakh president , Nursultan Nazarbayev . It stands on the banks of the Ishim River in the northern portion of Kazakhstan , within the Akmola Region , though administered separately from the region as a city with special status . A 2017 official estimate reported a population of 1,029,556 within the city limits , making it the second-largest city in the country , behind Almaty , the capital from 1991 to 1997 . Akmola ( from 1998 Astana and from 2019 Nur-Sultan ) became the capital of Kazakhstan in 1997 , and since then has developed economically into one of the most modernized cities in Central Asia . On 23 March 2019 , following a unanimous vote in Kazakhstan 's parliament , the city was renamed Nur-Sultan , after former Kazakhstan President Nursultan Nazarbayev . Modern Nur-Sultan is a planned city , much like other planned capitals . After it became the capital of Kazakhstan , the city cardinally changed its shape . The Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa designed the master plan of Astana . As the seat of the Government of Kazakhstan , Nur-Sultan is the site of the Parliament House , the Supreme Court , the Ak Orda Presidential Palace and numerous government departments and agencies . It is home to many futuristic buildings , hotels and skyscrapers .
Almaty ( /ˈælməti/ ; Kazakh : Almaty , Алматы ; Yañalif : Almatь ; [ ɑlmɑˈtə ] ; Russian : Алматы , [ ɐlmɐˈtɨ ] ) , formerly known as Alma-Ata ( /ˌælmə.əˈtɑː/ ; Kazakh : Alma-Ata ; Russian : Алма-Ата , romanized : Alma-Ata ) and Verniy ( Russian : Верный , romanized : Vernyy ) , is the largest city in Kazakhstan , with a population of 2,039,376 people , about 11% of the country 's total population , and more than 2.7 million in its built-up area that encompasses Talgar , Boraldai , Otegen Batyr and many other suburbs . It served as capital of the Soviet and later independent Kazakhstan from 1929 to 1997 . In 1997 , the government relocated the capital to Astana ( known as Nur-Sultan as of 23 March 2019 ) in the north of the country and about 12 hours away by train . Almaty continues as the major commercial and cultural centre of Kazakhstan , as well as its most populous and most cosmopolitan city . The city is located in the mountainous area of southern Kazakhstan near the border with Kyrgyzstan in the foothills of the Trans-Ili Alatau at an elevation of 700-900 m ( 2,300-3,000 feet ) , where the Large and Small Almatinka rivers run into the plain . The city has been part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the area of music since November 2017 . The city was the host for a 1978 international conference on Primary Health Care where the Alma Ata Declaration was adopted , marking a paradigm shift in global public health .
The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic [ note 1 ] was one of the transcontinental constituent republics of the Soviet Union from 1936 to 1991 in northern Central Asia . It was created on 5 December 1936 from the Kazakh ASSR , an autonomous republic of the Russian SFSR . At 2,717,300 square kilometres ( 1,049,200 sq mi ) in area , it was the second-largest republic in the USSR , after the Russian SFSR . Its capital was Alma-Ata ( today known as Almaty ) . Today it is the independent nation of Kazakhstan . During its existence as a Soviet Socialist Republic , it was ruled by the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR . On 25 October 1990 , the Supreme Soviet of the Kazakh SSR declared its sovereignty on its soil . Nursultan Nazarbayev was elected as president - a role he remained in for the next 29 years . The Kazakh SSR was renamed the Republic of Kazakhstan on 10 December 1991 , which declared its independence six days later , as the last republic to leave the USSR on 16 December 1991 . The Soviet Union was disbanded on 26 December 1991 by the Soviet of the Republics . The Republic of Kazakhstan , the legal successor to the Kazakh SSR , was admitted to the United Nations on 2 March 1992 .
Bishkek ( Kyrgyz : Бишке́к , بىشکەک ; IPA : [ biʃˈkek ] ; Russian : Бишке́к , tr . Biškék , IPA : [ bʲɪˈʂkʲek ] ) , formerly Pishpek and Frunze , is the capital and largest city of Kyrgyzstan ( Kyrgyz Republic ) . Bishkek is also the most commonly administrative centre of the Chuy Region . The province surrounds the city , although the city itself is not part of the province , but rather a province-level unit of Kyrgyzstan . In 1825 Khokand authorities established the fortress of Pishpek to control local caravan routes and to collect tribute from Kyrgyz tribes . On 4 September 1860 , with the approval of the Kyrgyz , Russian forces led by Colonel Apollon Zimmermann destroyed the fortress . In 1868 a Russian settlement was established on the site of the fortress under its original name , Pishpek . It lay within the General Governorship of Russian Turkestan and its Semirechye Oblast . In 1925 the Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast was established in Russian Turkestan , promoting Pishpek to its capital . In 1926 the Communist Party of the Soviet Union renamed the city as Frunze , after the Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze ( 1885-1925 ) , who was born there . In 1936 , the city of Frunze became the capital of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic , during the final stages of the national delimitation in the Soviet Union . In 1991 the Kyrgyz parliament changed the capital 's name to Bishkek .
Chuy Region or Chui Region ( Kyrgyz : Чүй облусу , romanized : Çüy oblusu ; Russian : Чуйская область , romanized : Čujskaja oblastj ) is the northernmost region ( oblast ) of the Kyrgyz Republic . It is bounded on the north by Kazakhstan , and clockwise , Issyk Kul Region , Naryn Region , Jalal-Abad Region and Talas Region . Its administrative center is Bishkek , but from 2003 to May 2006 it was Tokmok .
Mazār-i-Sharīf ( Dari and Pashto : مزار شریف ; [ mæˈzɒːre ʃæˈriːf ] ) , also called Mazār-e Sharīf , or just Mazar , is the fourth-largest city of Afghanistan , with a 2015 UN-Habitat population estimate 427,600 . It is the capital of Balkh province and is linked by highways with Kunduz in the east , Kabul in the southeast , Herat in the west and Termez in Uzbekistan in the north . It is about 55 km ( 34 mi ) from the Uzbek border . The city also serves as one of the many tourist attractions because of its famous shrines as well as the Islamic and Hellenistic archeological sites . The ancient city of Balkh is also nearby . The name Mazar-i-Sharif means Tomb of the Prince , a reference to the large , blue-tiled sanctuary and mosque in the center of the city known as the Shrine of Ali or the Blue Mosque . Some people believe that the tomb of Ali ibn Abi Talib , the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , is at this mosque in Mazar-i-Sharif , after Ali 's remains were transferred to Mazar-i-Sharif as per request of Ja'far as-Sadiq . [ citation needed ] This is however rejected by other Muslims , as the majority believe he is buried in Najaf , Iraq . The region around Mazar-i-Sharif has been historically part of Greater Khorasan and was controlled by the Tahirids followed by the Saffarids , Samanids , Ghaznavids , Ghurids , Ilkhanates , Timurids , and Khanate of Bukhara until the mid-18th century when it became part of the Durrani Empire after a friendship treaty was signed between emirs Murad Beg and Ahmad Shah Durrani . Mazar-i-Sharif is also known for the famous Afghan song Bia ke berem ba Mazar ( Come let 's go to Mazar ) by Sarban . Mazar-i-Sharif is the regional hub of northern Afghanistan , located in close proximity to both Uzbekistan and Tajikistan . It is also home to an international airport .
Balkh ( Pashto and Persian : بلخ , Balx ) is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan , located in the north of the country . It is divided into 15 districts and has a population of about 1,245,100 , which is multi-ethnic and mostly a Persian-speaking society . The city of Mazar-i-Sharif serves as the capital of the province . The Mazar-e Sharif International Airport and Camp Marmal sit on the eastern edge of Mazar-i-Sharif . The name of the province is derived from the ancient city of Balkh , near the modern town . The city of Mazar-e-Sharif has been an important stop on the trade routes from the Far East to the Middle East , the Mediterranean and Europe . Home to the famous blue mosque , it was once destroyed by Genghis Khan but later rebuilt by Timur . The city of Balkh and the area of Balkh Province was considered a part of various historical regions in history including Ariana and Greater Khorasan . It serves today as Afghanistan 's second but main gateway to Central Asia , the other being Sherkhan Bandar in the Kunduz Province .
Kabul ( Persian : کابل , romanized : Kābol , Pashto : کابل , romanized : Kābəl ) is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan , located in the eastern section of the country . It is also a municipality , forming part of the greater Kabul Province , and divided into 22 districts . According to estimates in 2019 , the population of Kabul is 4.114 million , which includes all the major ethnic groups of Afghanistan . Afghanistan 's only city with a population of over 1 million , Kabul serves as its political , cultural and economical center . Rapid urbanization had made Kabul the world 's 75th largest city . Kabul is located high up in a narrow valley between the Hindu Kush mountains , with an elevation of 1,790 metres ( 5,873 ft ) making it one of the highest capitals in the world . The city is said to be over 3,500 years old , mentioned since at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire . Located at crossroads in Asia - roughly halfway between Istanbul in the west and Hanoi in the east - it is in a strategic location along the trade routes of South and Central Asia , and a key location of the ancient Silk Road . It has been part of the Achaemenids followed by the Seleucids , Mauryans , Kushans , Kabul Shahis , Saffarids , Samanids , Ghaznavids , Ghurids , Khwarazmians , Qarlughids , Khaljis , Timurids , Mughals , and Hotaks , until finally becoming part of the Durrani Empire ( also known as the Afghan Empire ) in 1747 . Kabul became the capital of Afghanistan in 1776 , during the reign of Timur Shah Durrani , the son of Ahmad Shah Durrani . In the early 19th century , the British occupied the city , but after establishing foreign relations , they were compelled to withdraw all forces from Afghanistan . The city was occupied by the Soviets in 1979 but they too abandoned it after the 1988 Geneva Accords were signed .
Herāt ( /hɛˈrɑːt/ ; Persian/Pashto : هرات ) is the third-largest city of Afghanistan . It has a population of about 436,300 , and serves as the capital of Herat Province , situated in the fertile valley of the Hari River in the western part of the country . It is linked with Kandahar , Kabul , and Mazar-i-Sharif via Highway 1 or the ring road . It is further linked to the city of Mashhad in neighboring Iran through the border town of Islam Qala , and to Mary in Turkmenistan to the north through the border town of Torghundi . Herat dates back to Avestan times and was traditionally known for its wine . The city has a number of historic sites , including the Herat Citadel and the Musalla Complex . During the Middle Ages Herat became one of the important cities of Khorasan , as it was known as the Pearl of Khorasan . It has been governed by various Afghan rulers since the early 18th century . In 1717 , the city was invaded by the Hotaki forces until they were expelled by the Afsharids in 1729 . After Nader Shah 's death and Ahmad Shah Durrani 's rise to power in 1747 , Herat became part of Afghanistan . It witnessed some political disturbances and military invasions during the early half of the 19th century but the 1857 Treaty of Paris ended hostilities of the Anglo-Persian War . Herat lies on the ancient trade routes of the Middle East , Central and South Asia , and today is a regional hub in western Afghanistan .
Uzbekistan ( UK : /ʊzˌbɛkɪˈstɑːn , ʌz- , -ˈstæn/ , US : /ʊzˈbɛkɪstæn , -stɑːn/ ; Uzbek : O'zbekiston , Ўзбекистон pronounced [ ozbekiˈstɒn ] ) , officially Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek : O'zbekiston Respublikasi ) , is a country in Central Asia . It is bordered by five landlocked countries : Kazakhstan to the north ; Kyrgyzstan to the northeast ; Tajikistan to the southeast ; Afghanistan to the south ; and Turkmenistan to the southwest . Along with Liechtenstein , it is one of the world 's only two doubly landlocked countries . As a sovereign state , Uzbekistan is a secular , unitary constitutional republic . It comprises 12 provinces and one autonomous republic . The capital and largest city of Uzbekistan is Tashkent . What is now Uzbekistan was in ancient times part of the Iranian-speaking region of Transoxiana and Turan . The first recorded settlers were Eastern Iranian nomads , known as Scythians , who founded kingdoms in Khwarezm ( 8th-6th centuries BC ) , Bactria ( 8th-6th centuries BC ) , Sogdia ( 8th-6th centuries BC ) , Fergana ( 3rd century BC - 6th century AD ) , and Margiana ( 3rd century BC - 6th century AD ) . The area was incorporated into the Iranian Achaemenid Empire and , after a period of Macedonian Greek rule , was ruled by the Iranian Parthian Empire and later by the Sasanian Empire , until the Arab conquest of Iran in the 7th century . The Muslim conquest in the 7th century converted the majority of the population , including the local ruling classes , into adherents of Islam . During this period , cities such as Samarkand , Khiva and Bukhara began to grow rich from the Silk Road . The local Khwarezmian dynasty , and Central Asia as a whole , were decimated by the Mongol invasion in the 13th century .
Dushanbe ( Tajik : Душанбе , IPA : [ duʃæmˈbe ] ; meaning Monday in Persian , Russian : Душанбе , tr . Dushanbe ) is the capital and largest city of Tajikistan . It was named this way because it grew from a village that originally had a popular market on Mondays . As of 2016 [ update ] , Dushanbe had a population of 802,700 . Historically a small village , Dushanbe was made the capital of the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1924 . Until 1929 , the city was known in Russian as Dyushambe ( Russian : Дюшамбе , Dyushambe ) , and from 1929 to 1961 as Stalinabad ( Tajik : Сталинобод , Stalinobod ) , after Joseph Stalin .
Tajik or Tajiki ( Tajik : забо́ни тоҷикӣ́ , zaboni tojikī , [ zaˈbɔni tɔdʒiˈki ] ) , also called Tajiki Persian ( Tajik : форси́и тоҷикӣ́ , forsii tojikī , [ fɔrˈsiji tɔdʒiˈki ] ) and Tadzhik , is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by Tajiks . It is closely related to neighboring Dari Persian with which it forms a continuum of mutually intelligible varieties . Since the beginning of the twentieth century and independence of Tajikistan from Soviet Union , Tajik has been considered by a number of writers and researchers to be a variety of Persian . [ clarification needed ] The popularity of this conception of Tajik as a variety of Persian was such that , during the period in which Tajik intellectuals were trying to establish Tajik as a language separate from Persian language , Sadriddin Ayni , who was a prominent intellectual and educator , made a statement that Tajik was not a bastardized dialect of Persian . The issue of whether Tajik and Persian are to be considered two dialects of a single language or two discrete languages has political sides to it ( see Perry 1996 ) . By way of Early New Persian , Tajiki Persian , like Iranian Persian and Dari Persian , is a continuation of Middle Persian , the official religious and literary language of the Sasanian Empire ( 224-651 CE ) , itself a continuation of Old Persian , the language of the Achaemenids ( 550-330 BC ) . Tajik is the official language of Tajikistan . In Afghanistan ( where the Tajik people minority forms the principal part of the wider Persophone population ) , this language is less influenced by Turkic languages , is regarded as a form of Dari and as such has co-official language status . The Tajik of Tajikistan has diverged from Persian as spoken in Afghanistan and Iran due to political borders , geographical isolation , the standardization process and the influence of Russian and neighboring Turkic languages . The standard language is based on the northwestern dialects of Tajik ( region of old major city of Samarqand ) , which have been somewhat influenced by the neighboring Uzbek language as a result of geographical proximity . Tajik also retains numerous archaic elements in its vocabulary , pronunciation and grammar that have been lost elsewhere in the Persophone world , in part due to its relative isolation in the mountains of Central Asia .
Persian ( /ˈpɜːrʒən , -ʃən/ ) , also known by its endonym Farsi ( فارسی , fārsi , [ fɒːɾˈsiː ] ( listen ) ) , is a Western Iranian language belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian subdivision of the Indo-European languages . It is a pluricentric language predominantly spoken and used officially within Iran , Afghanistan and Tajikistan in three mutually intelligible standard varieties , namely Iranian Persian , Dari Persian ( officially named Dari since 1958 ) and Tajiki Persian ( officially named Tajik since the Soviet era ) . It is also spoken natively in the Tajik variety by a significant population within Uzbekistan , as well as within other regions with a Persianate history in the cultural sphere of Greater Iran . It is written officially within Iran and Afghanistan in the Persian alphabet , a derivation of the Arabic script , and within Tajikistan in the Tajik alphabet , a derivation of Cyrillic . The Persian language is a continuation of Middle Persian , the official religious and literary language of the Sasanian Empire ( 224-651 CE ) , itself a continuation of Old Persian , which was used in the Achaemenid Empire ( 550-330 BC ) . It originated in the region of Fars ( Persia ) in southwestern Iran . Its grammar is similar to that of many European languages . Throughout history , Persian has been a prestigious cultural language used by various empires in Western Asia , Central Asia , and South Asia . Old Persian written works are attested in Old Persian cuneiform on several inscriptions from between the 6th and the 4th centuries BC , and Middle Persian literature is attested in Aramaic-derived scripts ( Pahlavi and Manichaean ) on inscriptions from the time of the Parthian Empire and in books centered in Zoroastrian and Manichaean scriptures from between the 3rd to the 10th century AD . New Persian literature began to flourish after the Arab conquest of Iran with its earliest records from the 9th century , since then adopting the Arabic script . Persian was the first language to break through the monopoly of Arabic on writing in the Muslim world , with the writing of Persian poetry developed as a court tradition in many eastern courts . Some of the famous works of medieval Persian literature are the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi , the works of Rumi , the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam , the Panj Ganj of Nizami Ganjavi , the Divān of Hafez , The Conference of the Birds by Attar of Nishapur , and the miscellanea of Gulistan and Bustan by Saadi Shirazi .
A market , or marketplace , is a location where people regularly gather for the purchase and sale of provisions , livestock , and other goods . In different parts of the world , a market place may be described as a souk ( from the Arabic ) , bazaar ( from the Persian ) , a fixed mercado ( Spanish ) , or itinerant tianguis ( Mexico ) , or palengke ( Philippines ) . Some markets operate daily and are said to be permanent markets while others are held once a week or on less frequent specified days such as festival days and are said to be periodic markets . The form that a market adopts depends on its locality 's population , culture , ambient and geographic conditions . The term market covers many types of trading , as market squares , market halls and food halls , and their different varieties . Due to this , marketplaces can be situated both outdoors and indoors . Markets have existed for as long as humans have engaged in trade . The earliest bazaars are believed to have originated in Persia , from where they spread to the rest of the Middle East and Europe . Documentary sources suggest that zoning policies confined trading to particular parts of cities from around 3,000 BCE , creating the conditions necessary for the emergence of a bazaar . Middle Eastern bazaars were typically long strips with stalls on either side and a covered roof designed to protect traders and purchasers from the fierce sun . In Europe , informal , unregulated markets gradually made way for a system of formal , chartered markets from the 12th century . Throughout the Medieval period , increased regulation of marketplace practices , especially weights and measures , gave consumers confidence in the quality of market goods and the fairness of prices .
Ashgabat ( Turkmen : Aşgabat , pronounced [ ɑʃʁɑˈbɑt ] ) - formerly named Poltoratsk ( Russian : Полтора́цк , IPA : [ pəltɐˈratsk ] ) between 1919 and 1927 , is the capital and the largest city of Turkmenistan . It is situated between the Karakum Desert and the Kopet Dag mountain range in Central Asia . The city was founded in 1881 , and made the capital of the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic in 1924 . Much of the city was destroyed by the 1948 Ashgabat earthquake but has since seen extensively rebuilt under the rule of Saparmurat Niyazovs White City urban renewal project , resulting in monumental projects sheathed in costly white marble . The Soviet-era Karakum Canal runs through the city , carrying waters from the Amu Darya from east to west .
The Russian Empire [ a ] was an empire that extended across Eurasia and North America from 1721 , following the end of the Great Northern War , until the Republic was proclaimed by the Provisional Government that took power after the February Revolution of 1917 . The third-largest empire in history , at its greatest extent stretching over three continents , Europe , Asia , and North America , the Russian Empire was surpassed in size only by the British and Mongol empires . The rise of the Russian Empire coincided with the decline of neighboring rival powers : the Swedish Empire , the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , Persia and the Ottoman Empire . It played a major role in 1812-1814 in defeating Napoleon 's ambitions to control Europe and expanded to the west and south . The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762 . Its matrilineal branch of patrilineal German descent , the House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov , ruled from 1762 to the end of the empire . At the beginning of the 19th century , the Russian Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea in the south , from the Baltic Sea on the west into Alaska and Northern California in America on the east . With 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census , it had the third-largest population in the world at the time , after Qing China and India . Like all empires , it featured great diversity in terms of economies , ethnicities , languages , and religion . There were many dissident elements that launched numerous rebellions and assassinations over the centuries . In the 19th century , they were closely watched by the imperial secret police , and thousands were exiled to Siberia . Economically , the empire was predominantly agricultural , with low productivity on large estates worked by Russian peasants , known as serfs , who were tied to the land in a feudal arrangement .
Nisa ( Ancient Greek : Νῖσος and Νίσα and Νίσαιον ) ( also Parthaunisa ) was an ancient settlement of the Iranian peoples , located near ( modern-day ) Bagir village , 18 km southwest of Ashgabat , Turkmenistan . Nisa is described by some as the first seat of central government of the Parthians . It is traditionally assumed to have been founded by Arsaces I ( reigned c. 250 BC-211 BC ) and was reputedly the royal residence of the Parthian kings , although it has not been established that the fortress at Nisa was either a royal residence or a mausoleum . In 2007 , the fortress was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO .
Parthia ( Old Persian : 𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 Parθava ; Parthian : 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 Parθaw ; Middle Persian : 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 Pahlaw ) is a historical region located in north-eastern Iran . It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC , was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC , and formed part of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire following the 4th-century-BC conquests of Alexander the Great . The region later served as the political and cultural base of the Eastern-Iranian Parni people and Arsacid dynasty , rulers of the Parthian Empire ( 247 BC - 224 AD ) . The Sasanian Empire , the last state of pre-Islamic Iran , also held the region and maintained the Seven Parthian clans as part of their feudal aristocracy .
The Silk Road was a network of trade routes which connected the East and West , and was central to the economic , cultural , political , and religious interactions between these regions from the 2nd century BCE to the 18th century . The Silk Road primarily refers to the land routes connecting East Asia and Southeast Asia with South Asia , Persia , the Arabian Peninsula , East Africa and Southern Europe . The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk carried out along its length , beginning in the Han dynasty in China ( 207 BCE-220 CE ) . The Han dynasty expanded the Central Asian section of the trade routes around 114 BCE through the missions and explorations of the Chinese imperial envoy Zhang Qian , as well as several military conquests . The Chinese took great interest in the security of their trade products , and extended the Great Wall of China to ensure the protection of the trade route . The Silk Road trade played a significant role in the development of the civilizations of China , Korea , Japan , the Indian subcontinent , Iran , Europe , the Horn of Africa and Arabia , opening long-distance political and economic relations between the civilizations . Though silk was the major trade item exported from China , many other goods and ideas were exchanged , including religions ( especially Buddhism ) , syncretic philosophies , sciences , and technologies like paper and gunpowder . So in addition to economic trade , the Silk Road was a route for cultural trade among the civilizations along its network . Diseases , most notably plague , also spread along the Silk Road . In June 2014 , UNESCO designated the Chang'an-Tianshan corridor of the Silk Road as a World Heritage Site . The Indian portion is on the tentative site list .
The 1948 Ashgabat earthquake ( Turkmen : 1948 Ашгабат ыер титремеси ; 1948 Aşgabat yer titremesi ; Russian : Ашхабадское землетрясение 1948 года ; Ashkhabadskoye zemletryasenie 1948 goda ) occurred on 6 October with a surface wave magnitude of 7.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X ( Extreme ) . The shock occurred in Turkmenistan near Ashgabat . Due to censorship by the Turkmen government , the event was not widely reported in the USSR 's media . Historians tend to agree that the ban on reporting the extent of the casualties and damage did not allow the Soviet government to allocate enough financial resources to adequately respond .
Bukhara ( Uzbek : Buxoro ; Persian : بخارا ) is a city in Uzbekistan . Bukhara is rich in historical sites , with about 140 architectural monuments . The nation 's fifth-largest city , it had a population of 247,644 as of 31 August 2016 [ update ] . But according to the Statistics of OzStatQom Department the City is the second largest after Tashkent by number of people who migrate . Number of daily migrants is 4,752,000 as of 22nd April 2018 . People have inhabited the region around Bukhara for at least five millennia , and the city has existed for half that time . The mother tongue of the majority of people of Bukhara is Tajik . Located on the Silk Road , the city has long served as a center of trade , scholarship , culture , and religion . UNESCO has listed the historic center of Bukhara ( which contains numerous mosques and madrasas ) as a World Heritage Site .
Bukhara Region ( Buxoro Region ) ( Uzbek : Buxoro viloyati/Бухоро вилояти , بۇحارا ۋىلايەتى ) is a region of Uzbekistan located in the southwest of the country . The Kyzyl Kum desert takes up a large portion of its territory . It borders Turkmenistan , Navoiy Region , Qashqadaryo Region , a small part of the Xorazm Region , and the Karakalpakstan Republic . It covers an area of 39,400 km2 . The population is estimated at 1,543,900 ( end of 2009 data ) , with 71% living in rural areas . Buxoro Region is divided into 11 administrative districts . The capital is Bukhara ( pop . est . 241,300 at the end of 2005 ) . Other major towns include Olot , Karakul , Galaosiyo , Gazli , Gijduvon ( pop . 40,600 end of 2005 ) , Kogon ( pop . 53,500 , end of 2005 ) , Romitan , Shofirkon , and Vabkent .
The Rigveda ( Sanskrit : ऋग्वेद ṛgveda , from ṛc praise and veda knowledge ) is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns . It is one of the four sacred canonical texts ( śruti ) of Hinduism known as the Vedas . The text is layered consisting of the Samhita , Brahmanas , Aranyakas and Upanishads . [ note 1 ] The Rigveda Samhita is the core text , and is a collection of 10 books ( maṇḍalas ) with 1,028 hymns ( sūktas ) in about 10,600 verses ( called ṛc , eponymous of the name Rigveda ) . In the eight books - Books 2 through 9 - that were composed the earliest , the hymns predominantly discuss cosmology and praise deities . The younger books ( Books 1 and 10 ) in part also deal with philosophical or speculative questions , virtues such as dāna ( charity ) in society , questions about the origin of the universe and the nature of god , and other metaphysical issues in their hymns . The Rigveda is the oldest known Vedic Sanskrit text . Its early layers are one of the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language . [ note 2 ] The Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the bulk of the Rigveda Samhita was composed in the northwestern region ( Punjab ) of the Indian subcontinent , most likely between c. 1500 and 1200 BC , although a wider approximation of c. 1700-1100 BC has also been given . [ note 3 ] Some of its verses continue to be recited during Hindu rites of passage celebrations ( such as weddings ) and prayers , making it probably the world 's oldest religious text in continued use .
The Kabul River ( Pashto : د کابل سیند ; Persian : دریای کابل ) , the classical Cophes /ˈkoʊfiːz/ , is a 700-kilometre ( 430 mi ) long river that emerges in Maidan Wardak Province in the Sanglakh Range of the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan , and is separated from the watershed of the Helmand River by the Unai Pass . The Kabul River empties into the Indus River near Attock , Pakistan . It is the main river in eastern Afghanistan and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan .
Kokand ( Uzbek : Qoqon , Қўқон , قوقان ; Russian : Кока́нд ; Persian : خوقند , romanized : Xuqand ; Chagatai : خوقند , Xuqand ; Tajik : Хӯқанд , romanized : Xökand ) is a city in Fergana Region in eastern Uzbekistan , at the southwestern edge of the Fergana Valley . The population of Kokand on April 24 , 2014 [ update ] was approximately 187,477 . The city lies 228 km ( 142 mi ) southeast of Tashkent , 115 km ( 71 mi ) west of Andijan , and 88 km ( 55 mi ) west of Fergana . It is nicknamed City of Winds , or sometimes Town of the Boar . Kokand 's name derives from the well-known tribal family group of Kokan who belong to the Kongrat tribe of Uzbeks . Kokand is at the crossroads of the two main ancient trade routes into the Fergana Valley , one leading northwest over the mountains to Tashkent , and the other west through Khujand . As a result , Kokand is the main transportation junction in the Fergana Valley .
Uzbek is a Turkic language that is the first official and only declared national language of Uzbekistan . The language of Uzbeks , it is spoken by some 27 million native speakers in Uzbekistan and elsewhere in Central Asia ( 2015 ) , making it the second-most widely spoken Turkic language after Turkish . Uzbek belongs to the Eastern Turkic or Karluk , branch of the Turkic language family . External influences include Arabic , Persian and Russian . One of the most noticeable distinctions of Uzbek from other Turkic languages is the rounding of the vowel /ɑ/ to /ɒ/ , a feature that was influenced by Persian . Standard Uzbek is also notable for its complete loss of vowel harmony , a characteristic Turkic feature .
Chagatai ( چغتای/جغتای , Čağatāy ) is an extinct Turkic language that was once widely spoken in Central Asia and remained the shared literary language there until the early 20th century . Literary Chagatai is the predecessor of the modern Karluk branch of Turkic languages , which includes Uzbek and Uyghur . Ali-Shir Nava ' i was the greatest representative of Chagatai literature .
Russian ( русский язык , tr . rússky yazýk ) is an East Slavic language , which is an official language in Russia , Belarus , Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan , as well as being widely used throughout Eastern Europe , the Baltic states , the Caucasus and Central Asia . It was the de facto language of the Soviet Union until its dissolution on 25 December 1991 . Although nearly three decades have passed since the breakup of the Soviet Union , Russian is used in official capacity or in public life in all the post-Soviet nation-states , as well as in Israel and Mongolia . Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages , one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages , and part of the larger Balto-Slavic branch . Written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century onward . Russian is the largest native language in Europe and the most geographically widespread language in Eurasia . It is the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages , with 144 million speakers in Russia , Ukraine and Belarus . Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers and the seventh by total number of speakers . The language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations . Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet , after English . Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without , the so-called soft and hard sounds .
Fergana Region ( Uzbek : Fargona viloyati , Russian : Ферганская область ) is one of the regions of Uzbekistan , located in the southern part of the Fergana Valley in the far east of the country . It borders the Namangan and Andijan Regions of Uzbekistan , as well as Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan . It covers an area of 6,800 km2 . The population is estimated to be around 2,597,000 , with over 71% of the population living in rural areas .
The Fergana Valley is a valley in Central Asia spread across eastern Uzbekistan , southern Kyrgyzstan and northern Tajikistan . Divided into three republics of the former Soviet Union , the valley is ethnically diverse and in the early 21st century was the scene of ethnic conflict . A large triangular valley in what is an often dry part of Central Asia , the Fergana owes its fertility to two rivers , the Naryn and the Kara Darya , which run from the east , joining near Namangan , forming the Syr Darya river . The valley 's history stretches back over 2,300 years , when its population was conquered by Greco-Bactrian invaders from the west . Chinese chroniclers date its towns to more than 2,100 years ago , as a path between Greek , Chinese , Bactrian and Parthian civilisations . It was home to Babur , founder of the Mughal Dynasty , tying the region to modern Afghanistan and South Asia . The Russian Empire conquered the valley at the end of the 19th century , and it became part of the Soviet Union in the 1920s . Its three Soviet republics gained independence in 1991 . The area largely remains Muslim , populated by ethnic Uzbek , Tajik and Kyrgyz people , often intermixed and not matching modern borders . Historically there have also been substantial numbers of Russian , Kashgarians , Kipchaks , Bukharan Jews and Romani minorities . Mass cotton cultivation , introduced by the Soviets , remains central to the economy , along with a wide range of grains , fruits and vegetables . There is a long history of stock breeding , leatherwork and a growing mining sector , including deposits of coal , iron , sulfur , gypsum , rock-salt , naphtha and some small known oil reserves .
Tashkent ( /ˌtɒʃˈkɛnt/ ; Russian pronunciation : [ tɐʂˈkʲent ] ; Russian : Ташкент , tr . Tashkent ) , or Toshkent ( [ tɒʃˈkent ] ; Uzbek : Toshkent , Тошкент , تاشكینت ) , is the capital and largest city of Uzbekistan , as well as the most populated city in ex-Soviet Central Asia with a population in 2018 of 2,485,900 . It is located in the north-east of the country close to the border with Kazakhstan . Before Islam influence started in the 8th century AD , Tashkent was influenced by the Sogdian and Turkic cultures in its early history . After its destruction by Genghis Khan in 1219 , the city was rebuilt and profited from the Silk Road . From 18th to 19th century , the city became an independent city-state , before being re-conquered by the Khanate of Kokand . In 1865 , it fell to the Russian Empire , and became the capital of Russian Turkestan . In Soviet times , Tashkent witnessed major growth and demographic changes due to forced deportations from throughout the Soviet Union . Much of the city was destroyed in the 1966 Tashkent earthquake , though it was rebuilt afterwards as a model Soviet city . It was the fourth-largest city of the Soviet Union at the time , after Moscow , Leningrad and Kiev . Today , as the capital of an independent Uzbekistan , Tashkent retains a multi-ethnic population , with ethnic Uzbeks as the majority . In 2009 , the city celebrated its 2,200 years of written history .
Andijan ( sometimes spelled Andijon or Andizhan in English ) ( Uzbek : Andijon / Андижон / ئەندىجان ; Persian : اندیجان , Andijân/Andīǰān ; Russian : Андижан , Andižan ) is a city in Uzbekistan . It is the administrative , economic , and cultural center of Andijan Region . Andijan is located in the south-eastern edge of the Fergana Valley near Uzbekistan 's border with Kyrgyzstan . Andijan is one of the oldest cities in the Fergana Valley . In some parts of the city , archeologists have found items dating back to the 7th and 8th centuries . Historically , Andijan was an important city on the Silk Road . The city is perhaps best known as the birthplace of Babur who , following a series of setbacks , finally succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal dynasty in the Indian subcontinent and became the first Mughal emperor . Andijan also gained notoriety in 2005 when government forces opened fire on protestors , killing hundreds in what came to be known as the Andijan Massacre . Andijan was developed into an important industrial city during the Soviet era . Manufactured goods produced in the city include chemicals , domestic appliances , electronics , foodstuffs , furniture , plows , pumps , shoes , spare parts for farming machines , various engineering tools , and wheelchairs .
Fergana ( Uzbek : Fargʻona/Фарғона , فەرغانە ; Tajik : Фарғона , Farğona/Farƣona ; Persian : فرغانه Farġāna/Farqâna ; Russian : Фергана́ ) , or Ferghana , is the capital of Fergana Region in eastern Uzbekistan . Fergana is about 420 km east of Tashkent , about 75 km west of Andijan , and less than 20 km from the Kyrgyzstan border . While the area has been populated for thousands of years , the modern city was founded in 1876 .
Samarkand ( /ˈsæmərkænd/ ; Uzbek : Samarqand ; Persian : سمرقند ; Russian : Самарканд ) , alternatively Samarqand , is a city in south-eastern Uzbekistan and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Central Asia . There is evidence of human activity in the area of the city from the late Paleolithic era , though there is no direct evidence of when Samarkand was founded ; some theories propose that it was founded between the 8th and 7th centuries B.C . Prospering from its location on the Silk Road between China and the Mediterranean , at times Samarkand was one of the greatest cities of Central Asia . By the time of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia , it was the capital of the Sogdian satrapy . The city was taken by Alexander the Great in 329 BC , when it was known by its Greek name of Marakanda ( Μαράκανδα ) . The city was ruled by a succession of Iranian and Turkic rulers until the Mongols under Genghis Khan conquered Samarkand in 1220 . Today , Samarkand is the capital of Samarqand Region and one of the largest cities of Uzbekistan . The city is noted for being an Islamic center for scholarly study . In the 14th century it became the capital of the empire of Timur ( Tamerlane ) and is the site of his mausoleum ( the Gur-e Amir ) . The Bibi-Khanym Mosque , rebuilt during the Soviet era , remains one of the city 's most notable landmarks . Samarkand 's Registan square was the ancient centre of the city , and is bound by three monumental religious buildings . The city has carefully preserved the traditions of ancient crafts : embroidery , gold embroidery , silk weaving , engraving on copper , ceramics , carving and painting on wood .
Samarqand Region ( Samarkand Region ) ( Uzbek : Samarqand viloyati ) is one of the regions of Uzbekistan . It is located in the center of the country in the basin of Zarafshan River . It borders with Tajikistan , Navoiy Region , Jizzakh Region and Qashqadaryo Region . It covers an area of 16,773 km² . The population is estimated to be around 3,651,700 , with some 75% living in rural areas . Samarqand Region was established on January 15 , 1938 , and is divided into 14 administrative districts . The capital is Samarqand ( pop est 368,000 inhabitants ) . Other major towns include Bulungur , Juma , Ishtikhon , Katta-Kurgan , Urgut , and Oqtosh . The climate is a typically arid continental climate .
China ( Chinese : 中国 ; pinyin : Zhōngguó ) , officially the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , is a country in East Asia and is the world 's most populous country , with a population of around 1.428 billion in 2017 . Covering approximately 9,600,000 square kilometers ( 3,700,000 sq mi ) , it is the third largest country by area . [ j ] Governed by the Communist Party of China , the state exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces , [ k ] five autonomous regions , four direct-controlled municipalities ( Beijing , Tianjin , Shanghai , and Chongqing ) , and the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau . China emerged as one of the world 's first civilizations , in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain . For millennia , China 's political system was based on hereditary monarchies , or dynasties , beginning with the semi-mythical Xia dynasty in 21st century BCE . Since then , China has expanded , fractured , and re-unified numerous times . In the 3rd century BCE , the Qin reunited core China and established the first Chinese empire . The succeeding Han dynasty , which ruled from 206 BCE until 220 CE , saw some of the most advanced technology at that time , including papermaking and the compass , along with agricultural and medical improvements . The invention of gunpowder and movable type in the Tang dynasty ( 618-907 ) and Northern Song ( 960-1127 ) completed the Four Great Inventions . Tang culture spread widely in Asia , as the new Silk Route brought traders to as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa . Dynastic rule ended in 1912 with the Xinhai Revolution , when the Republic of China ( ROC ) replaced the Qing dynasty . China , as a whole , was ravaged by feudal warlordism and Japan during World War II .
Mīrzā Muhammad Tāraghay bin Shāhrukh ( Chagatay : میرزا محمد طارق بن شاہ رخ , Persian : میرزا محمد تراغای بن شاہ رخ ) , better known as Ulugh Beg ( الغ‌ بیگ ) ( 22 March 1394 - 27 October 1449 ) , was a Timurid sultan , as well as an astronomer and mathematician . Ulugh Beg was notable for his work in astronomy-related mathematics , such as trigonometry and spherical geometry , as well as his general interests in the arts and intellectual activities . It is thought that he spoke five languages : Arabic , Persian , Turkic , Mongolian , and a small amount of Chinese . During his rule ( first as a governor , then outright ) the Timurid Empire achieved its cultural peak through Ulugh Beg 's attention and patronage . Samarkand was captured and given to Ulugh Beg by his father Shah Rukh . [ citation needed ] He built the great Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand between 1424 and 1429 . It was considered by scholars to have been one of the finest observatories in the Islamic world at the time and the largest in Central Asia . Ulugh Beg was subsequently recognized as the most important observational astronomer from the 15th century by many scholars . He also built the Ulugh Beg Madrasah ( 1417-1420 ) in Samarkand and Bukhara , transforming the cities into cultural centers of learning in Central Asia . However , Ulugh Beg 's scientific expertise was not matched by his skills in governance . During his short reign , he failed to establish his power and authority . As a result , other rulers , including his family , took advantage of his lack of control and he was subsequently overthrown and assassinated .
In geography , an oasis ( /oʊˈeɪsɪs/ ; plural oases /oʊˈeɪsiːz/ ) is a cultivated area ( often a date palm grove ) in a desert or semi-desert environment . Oases also provide habitat for animals and spontaneous plants .
The Chirchiq or Chirchik ( Uzbek : Chirchiq , Чирчиқ , Russian : Чирчик ) is a river of Uzbekistan , a major right tributary of the Syr Darya . It is 155 kilometres ( 96 mi ) in length and its basin has an area of 14,900 square kilometres ( 5,800 sq mi ) . The principal tributary is the Ugam River ( right ) . The river is formed at the confluence of the Chatkal River and Pskem River , which form the Lake Charvak reservoir . It flows through about 30 km of canyon in the upper reaches . Below , the valley widens and eventually joins the Syr Darya . There are several dams on the river which serve both for electricity generation and irrigation . All main canals of Tashkent , such as Bozsu , Anhor , Salar , and Burijar are fed by the water from Chirchik . The river flows through or in close proximity to the cities Hodjikent , Gazalkent , Chirchiq , Tashkent , Yangiyol , and Chinaz .
Golestān Province ( Persian : استان گلستان , Ostān-e Golestān ) is one of the 31 provinces of Iran , located in the north-east of the country south of the Caspian Sea . Its capital is Gorgan . The province was put as part of Region 1 upon the division of the provinces into 5 regions solely for coordination and development purposes on June 22 , 2014 . Majority of its population are Sunni Muslims . Golestān was split off from the province of Mazandaran in 1997 . It has a population of 1.7 million ( 2011 ) and an area of 20,380 km² . The province is divided into the following twelve counties ( shahrestans ) : Aliabad County , Aqqala County , Azadshahr County , Bandar-e Gaz County , Gonbad-e Qabus County , Gorgan County , Kalaleh County , Kordkuy County , Maraveh Tappeh County , Minudasht County , Ramian County , and Torkaman County . Present-day Gorgan was called Esterabad until 1937 .
Kangju ( Chinese : 康居 ; pinyin : Kangju ; Wade-Giles : K'ang-chü ; Eastern Han Chinese : kʰɑŋ-kɨɑ ) was the Chinese name of an ancient kingdom in Central Asia which became for a couple of centuries the second greatest power in Transoxiana after the Yuezhi . Its people , the Kāng ( Chinese : 康 ) were an Indo-European semi-nomadic people probably identical to the Iranian Sogdians or other Iranian groups closely related to them , such as the Asii .
Kandahar ( /ˈkɑːnðəˌhɑːr/ ) or Qandahar ( Pashto : کندهار ; Dari : قندهار ; known in older literature as Candahar ) is a city located in Afghanistan , with a population of about 614,118 . Kandahar is located in the south of the country on the Arghandab River , at an elevation of 1,010 m ( 3,310 ft ) . It is the capital of Kandahar Province , and also the center of the larger cultural region called Loy Kandahar . In 1709 , Mirwais Hotak made the region an independent kingdom and turned Kandahar into the capital of the Hotak dynasty . In 1747 , Ahmad Shah Durrani , founder of the Durrani dynasty , made Kandahar the capital of the Afghan Empire . Kandahar is one of the most culturally significant cities of the Pashtuns and has been their traditional seat of power for more than 300 years . It is a major trading center for sheep , wool , cotton , silk , felt , food grains , fresh and dried fruit , and tobacco . The region produces fine fruits , especially pomegranates and grapes , and the city has plants for canning , drying , and packing fruit , and is a major source of marijuana and hashish en route to Tajikistan . The region around Kandahar is one of the oldest known human settlements . A major fortified city existed at the site of Kandahar , probably as early as c. 1000-750 BCE , and it became an important outpost of the Achaemenid ( Persian ) Empire in the 6th century BCE . Alexander the Great had laid-out the foundation of what is now Old Kandahar in the 4th century BC and gave it the Ancient Greek name Αλεξάνδρεια Aραχωσίας ( Alexandria of Arachosia ) . Many empires have long fought over the city due to its strategic location along the trade routes of southern , central and western Asia .
Kandahār ( Pashto : کندھار ; Persian : قندهار , Qandahār ) is one of the thirty-four provinces of Afghanistan , located in the southern part of the country next to Pakistan . It is surrounded by Helmand in the west , Uruzgan in the north and Zabul Province in the east . Its capital is the city of Kandahar , which is located on the Arghandab River . The greater region surrounding the province is called Loy Kandahar . The province contains about 18 districts , over 1,000 villages , and approximately 1,368,100 people , which is mostly tribal and a rural society . The main inhabitants of Kandahar province are the native ethnic Pashtuns , although smaller communities of Tajiks , Hazaras , Uzbeks and Baloch are also found in parts of the city of Kandahar . The current governor of the province is Humayoon Azizi .
Osh ( Kyrgyz and Russian : Ош ; Uzbek : Osh ) is the second largest city in Kyrgyzstan , located in the Fergana Valley in the south of the country and often referred to as the capital of the south . It is the oldest city in the country ( estimated to be more than 3000 years old ) , and has served as the administrative center of Osh Region since 1939 . The city has an ethnically mixed population of about 281,900 in 2017 , comprising Uzbeks , Kyrgyz , Russians , Tajiks , and other smaller ethnic groups . It is about 5 km from the Uzbekistan border .
Osh Region ( Kyrgyz : Ош облусу , Oş oblusu/Osh oblusu , وش وبلاستى ; Russian : Ошская область , Oshskaya oblast/Ošskaja oblastj ) is a region ( oblast ) of Kyrgyzstan . Its capital is Osh . It is bounded by ( clockwise ) Jalal-Abad Region , Naryn Region , Xinjiang , China , Tajikistan , Batken Region , and Uzbekistan .