List of Nobel laureates affiliated with Imperial College London
Laureates
Table:
Year	Laureate	Relation	Category	Rationale

1929	Frederick Gowland Hopkins ( shared with Christiaan Eijkman )	Student , Royal School of Mines , 1881-1883	Physiology or Medicine	for his discovery of the growth-stimulating vitamins

1937	George Paget Thomson ( shared with Clinton Davisson )	Professor of Physics 1930-1952 ; Fellow of Imperial College , 1955	Physics	for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals

1945	Ernst Boris Chain ( shared with Alexander Fleming and Howard Florey )	Professor of Bacteriology , 1928-1948 , St Mary 's Hospital Medical School	Physiology or Medicine	for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases

1945	Alexander Fleming ( shared with Ernst Boris Chain and Howard Florey )	Professor of Bacteriology , 1928-1948 , St Mary 's Hospital Medical School	Physiology or Medicine	for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases

1948	Patrick Blackett , Baron Blackett	Professor of Physics , 1953-65 ; Fellow of Imperial College , 1967	Physics	for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method , and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation

1956	Cyril Norman Hinshelwood ( shared with Nikolay Semenov )	Senior Research Fellow Imperial College , 1964-1967	Chemistry	for their researches into the mechanism of chemical reactions

1963	Andrew Huxley ( shared with John Carew Eccles and Alan Lloyd Hodgkin )	Fellow of Imperial College , 1980	Physiology or Medicine	for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane

1967	George Porter ( shared with Manfred Eigen and Ronald George Wreyford Norrish )	Visiting Professor , Department of Biology 1978-2002 ; Fellow of Imperial College , 1987	Chemistry	for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions , effected by disturbing the equilibrium by means of very short pulses of energy

1969	Derek Barton ( shared with Odd Hassel )	Professor of Organic Chemistry , 1957-1978 ; Fellow of Imperial College , 1980 ; Emeritus Professor , 1978	Chemistry	for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry

1971	Dennis Gabor	Professor of Electron Physics , 1958-67 ; Fellow of Imperial College , 1970	Physics	for his invention and development of the holographic method

1972	Rodney Robert Porter ( shared with Gerald Edelman )	Pfizer Professor of Immunology , ; St Mary 's Hospital Medical School 1960-1967	Physiology or Medicine	for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies

1973	Geoffrey Wilkinson ( shared with Ernst Otto Fischer )	Professor of Inorganic Chemistry , 1956-1996 ; Emeritus Professor 1988 ; Fellow of Imperial College , 1993	Chemistry	for their pioneering work , performed independently , on the chemistry of the organometallic , so called sandwich compounds

1979	Abdus Salam ( shared with Sheldon Lee Glashow and Steven Weinberg )	Professor of Theoretical Physics , 1957-1996 ; Emeritus Professor , 1993 ; Fellow of Imperial College , 1994	Physics	for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles , including , inter alia , the prediction of the weak neutral current

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Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins OM , PRS ( 20 June 1861 - 16 May 1947 ) was an English biochemist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 , with Christiaan Eijkman , for the discovery of vitamins , even though Casimir Funk , a Polish biochemist , is widely credited with discovering vitamins . He also discovered the amino acid tryptophan , in 1901 . He was President of the Royal Society from 1930 to 1935 .
Christiaan Eijkman ( UK : /ˈeɪkmən , ˈaɪkmən/ AYK-mən , YKE-mən , US : /-mɑːn/ -⁠mahn , Dutch : [ ˈkrɪstijaːn ˈɛikmɑn ] ; 11 August 1858 - 5 November 1930 ) was a Dutch physician and professor of physiology whose demonstration that beriberi is caused by poor diet led to the discovery of antineuritic vitamins ( thiamine ) . Together with Sir Frederick Hopkins , he received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for the discovery of vitamins .
The Royal School of Mines comprises the departments of Earth Science and Engineering and Materials at Imperial College London . The Centre for Advanced Structural Ceramics and parts of the London Centre for Nanotechnology and Department of Bioengineering are also housed within the building . The school as an organisation no longer exists , having been incorporated into the Faculty of Engineering since 2003 . Today the Royal School of Mines refers to both the departments associated with the former school , and the Edwardian building by Sir Aston Webb , which is viewed as a classic of academic architecture . The building and relevant student union still carry the name .
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded yearly by the Nobel Foundation for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine . One of five prizes bequested in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel , it is an award for scientific progress through laboratory discoveries in experimental physiology . The Nobel Prize is presented annually on the anniversary of Nobel 's death , 10 December . As of 2019 , 110 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 207 men and 12 women . The first one was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring , for his work on serum therapy and the development of a vaccine against diphtheria . The first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , Gerty Cori , received it in 1947 for her role in elucidating the metabolism of glucose , important in many aspects of medicine , including treatment of diabetes . The prize consists of a medal along with a diploma and a certificate for the monetary award . The front side of the medal displays the same profile of Alfred Nobel depicted on the medals for Physics , Chemistry , and Literature ; the reverse side is unique to this medal . The most recent Nobel prize was announced by Karolinska Institute on 7 October 2019 , and has been awarded to Americans William Kaelin Jr. , Gregg L. Semenza and British Peter J. Ratcliffe - for their discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability . Some awards have been controversial . This includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal lobotomy , bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment . Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award .
A vitamin is an organic molecule ( or related set of molecules ) that is an essential micronutrient that an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism . Essential nutrients can not be synthesized in the organism , either at all or not in sufficient quantities , and therefore must be obtained through the diet . Vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others ; it is not a vitamin in the first instance but is in the second . The term vitamin does not include the three other groups of essential nutrients : minerals , essential fatty acids , and essential amino acids . Most vitamins are not single molecules , but groups of related molecules called vitamers . For example , vitamin E consists of four tocopherols and four tocotrienols . The thirteen vitamins required by human metabolism are vitamin A ( as all-trans-retinol , all-trans-retinyl-esters , as well as all-trans-beta-carotene and other provitamin A carotenoids ) , vitamin B1 ( thiamine ) , vitamin B2 ( riboflavin ) , vitamin B3 ( niacin ) , vitamin B5 ( pantothenic acid ) , vitamin B6 ( pyridoxine ) , vitamin B7 ( biotin ) , vitamin B9 ( folic acid or folate ) , vitamin B12 ( cobalamins ) , vitamin C ( ascorbic acid ) , vitamin D ( calciferols ) , vitamin E ( tocopherols and tocotrienols ) , and vitamin K ( quinones ) . Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions . Vitamin A acts as a regulator of cell and tissue growth and differentiation . Vitamin D provides a hormone-like function , regulating mineral metabolism for bones and other organs . The B complex vitamins function as enzyme cofactors ( coenzymes ) or the precursors for them . Vitamins C and E function as antioxidants .
Sir George Paget Thomson , FRS ( /ˈtɒmsən/ ; 3 May 1892 - 10 September 1975 ) was an English physicist and Nobel laureate in physics recognised for his discovery of the wave properties of the electron by electron diffraction .
Clinton Joseph Davisson ( October 22 , 1881 - February 1 , 1958 ) was an American physicist who won the 1937 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of electron diffraction in the famous Davisson-Germer experiment . Davisson shared the Nobel Prize with George Paget Thomson , who independently discovered electron diffraction at about the same time as Davisson .
The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who have made the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics . It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 and awarded since 1901 ; the others being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry , Nobel Prize in Literature , Nobel Peace Prize , and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the extraordinary services he rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays ( or X-rays ) . This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and is widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics . It is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on 10 December , the anniversary of Nobel 's death . Through 2019 , a total of 212 individuals have been awarded the prize .
Electron diffraction refers to the wave nature of electrons . However , from a technical or practical point of view , it may be regarded as a technique used to study matter by firing electrons at a sample and observing the resulting interference pattern . This phenomenon is commonly known as wave-particle duality , which states that a particle of matter ( in this case the incident electron ) can be described as a wave . For this reason , an electron can be regarded as a wave much like sound or water waves . This technique is similar to X-ray and neutron diffraction . Electron diffraction is most frequently used in solid state physics and chemistry to study the crystal structure of solids . Experiments are usually performed in a transmission electron microscope ( TEM ) , or a scanning electron microscope ( SEM ) as electron backscatter diffraction . In these instruments , electrons are accelerated by an electrostatic potential in order to gain the desired energy and determine their wavelength before they interact with the sample to be studied . The periodic structure of a crystalline solid acts as a diffraction grating , scattering the electrons in a predictable manner . Working back from the observed diffraction pattern , it may be possible to deduce the structure of the crystal producing the diffraction pattern . However , the technique is limited by phase problem . Apart from the study of periodically perfect crystals , i.e .
Sir Ernst Boris Chain , FRS ( 19 June 1906 - 12 August 1979 ) was a German-born British biochemist , and a 1945 co-recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his work on penicillin .
Sir Alexander Fleming FRS FRSE FRCS ( 6 August 1881 - 11 March 1955 ) was a Scottish biologist , physician , microbiologist , and pharmacologist . His best-known discoveries are the enzyme lysozyme in 1923 and the world 's first antibiotic substance benzylpenicillin ( Penicillin G ) from the mould Penicillium notatum in 1928 , for which he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain . He wrote many articles on bacteriology , immunology , and chemotherapy . Fleming was knighted for his scientific achievements in 1944 . In 1999 , he was named in Time magazine 's list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century . In 2002 , he was chosen in the BBC 's television poll for determining the 100 Greatest Britons , and in 2009 , he was also voted third greatest Scot in an opinion poll conducted by STV , behind only Robert Burns and William Wallace .
Howard Walter Florey , Baron Florey , OM , FRS , FRCP ( 24 September 1898 - 21 February 1968 ) was an Australian pharmacologist and pathologist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Sir Ernst Chain and Sir Alexander Fleming for his role in the development of penicillin . Although Fleming received most of the credit for the discovery of penicillin , it was Florey who carried out the first ever clinical trials of penicillin in 1941 at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford on the first patient , a police constable from Oxford . The patient started to recover , but subsequently died because Florey was unable , at that time , to make enough penicillin . It was Florey and Chain who actually made a useful and effective drug out of penicillin , after the task had been abandoned as too difficult . Florey 's discoveries , along with the discoveries of Fleming and Ernst Chain , are estimated to have saved over 200 million lives , and he is consequently regarded by the Australian scientific and medical community as one of its greatest figures . Sir Robert Menzies , Australia 's longest-serving Prime Minister , said , In terms of world well-being , Florey was the most important man ever born in Australia .
Penicillin ( PCN or pen ) is a group of antibiotics , derived originally from common moulds known as Penicillium moulds ; which includes penicillin G ( intravenous use ) , penicillin V ( use by mouth ) , procaine penicillin , and benzathine penicillin ( intramuscular use ) . Penicillin antibiotics were among the first medications to be effective against many bacterial infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci . They are still widely used today , though many types of bacteria have developed resistance following extensive use . About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin ; however , up to 90% of this group may not actually be allergic . Serious allergies only occur in about 0.03% . Those who are allergic to penicillin are most often given cephalosporin C because of its functional groups . All penicillins are β-lactam antibiotics , which are some of the most powerful and successful achievements in modern science . Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming . People began using it to treat infections in 1942 . There are several enhanced penicillin families which are effective against additional bacteria ; these include the antistaphylococcal penicillins , aminopenicillins and the antipseudomonal penicillins . They are derived from Penicillium fungi .
Infection is the invasion of an organism 's body tissues by disease-causing agents , their multiplication , and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agents and the toxins they produce . Infectious disease , also known as transmissible disease or communicable disease , is illness resulting from an infection . Infections are caused by infectious agents ( pathogens ) including :
Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett , Baron Blackett OM CH FRS ( 18 November 1897 - 13 July 1974 ) was a British experimental physicist known for his work on cloud chambers , cosmic rays , and paleomagnetism , winning the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1948 . In 1925 he became the first person to prove that radioactivity could cause the nuclear transmutation of one chemical element to another . He also made a major contribution in World War II advising on military strategy and developing operational research . His left-wing views saw an outlet in third world development and in influencing policy in the Labour Government of the 1960s .
A cloud chamber , also known as a Wilson cloud chamber , is a particle detector used for visualizing the passage of ionizing radiation .
Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood OM PRS ( 19 June 1897 - 9 October 1967 ) was a British physical chemist and a Nobel Prize laureate .
Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov ( or Semënov ) , ForMemRS ( Russian : Никола́й Никола́евич Семёнов ; 15 April [ O.S . 3 April ] 1896 - 25 September 1986 ) was a Russian/Soviet physicist and chemist . Semyonov was awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on the mechanism of chemical transformation .
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry . It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 , awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry , physics , literature , peace , and physiology or medicine . This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation , and awarded by Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on proposal of the Nobel Committee for Chemistry which consists of five members elected by Academy . The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10 , the anniversary of Nobel 's death . The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded in 1901 to Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff , of the Netherlands , for his discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions . From 1901 to 2018 , the award has been bestowed on a total of 180 individuals .
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another . Classically , chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms , with no change to the nuclei ( no change to the elements present ) , and can often be described by a chemical equation . Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur . The substance ( or substances ) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents . Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change , and they yield one or more products , which usually have properties different from the reactants . Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps , the so-called elementary reactions , and the information on the precise course of action is part of the reaction mechanism . Chemical reactions are described with chemical equations , which symbolically present the starting materials , end products , and sometimes intermediate products and reaction conditions . Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given temperature and chemical concentration . Typically , reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because there is more thermal energy available to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms . Reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse direction until they go to completion or reach equilibrium . Reactions that proceed in the forward direction to approach equilibrium are often described as spontaneous , requiring no input of free energy to go forward . Non-spontaneous reactions require input of free energy to go forward ( examples include charging a battery by applying an external electrical power source , or photosynthesis driven by absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the form of sunlight ) .
Sir Andrew Fielding Huxley OM PRS ( 22 November 1917 - 30 May 2012 ) was an English physiologist and biophysicist . He was born into the prominent Huxley family . After graduating from Westminster School in Central London , from where he won a scholarship to Trinity College , Cambridge , he joined Alan Lloyd Hodgkin to study nerve impulses . Their eventual discovery of the basis for propagation of nerve impulses ( called an action potential ) earned them the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1963 . They made their discovery from the giant axon of the Atlantic squid . Soon after the outbreak of the Second World War , Huxley was recruited by the British Anti-Aircraft Command and later transferred to the Admiralty . After the war he resumed research at The University of Cambridge , where he developed interference microscopy that would be suitable for studying muscle fibres . In 1952 , he was joined by a German physiologist Rolf Niedergerke . Together they discovered in 1954 the mechanism of muscle contraction , popularly called the sliding filament theory , which is the foundation of our modern understanding of muscle mechanics . In 1960 he became head of the Department of Physiology at University College London . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1955 , and President in 1980 . The Royal Society awarded him the Copley Medal in 1973 for his collective contributions to the understanding of nerve impulses and muscle contraction .
Sir John Carew Eccles AC FRS FRACP FRSNZ FAA ( 27 January 1903 - 2 May 1997 ) was an Australian neurophysiologist and philosopher who won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the synapse . He shared the prize with Andrew Huxley and Alan Lloyd Hodgkin .
Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin OM KBE PRS ( 5 February 1914 - 20 December 1998 ) was an English physiologist and biophysicist , who shared the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Andrew Huxley and John Eccles .
A nerve is an enclosed , cable-like bundle of nerve fibres called axons , in the peripheral nervous system . A nerve transmit electrical impulses and is the basic unit of the Nervous system . A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses called action potentials that are transmitted along each of the axons to peripheral organs or , in the case of sensory nerves , from the periphery back to the central nervous system . Each axon within the nerve is an extension of an individual neuron , along with other supportive cells such as Schwann cells that coat the axons in myelin . Within a nerve , each axon is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the endoneurium . The axons are bundled together into groups called fascicles , and each fascicle is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the perineurium . Finally , the entire nerve is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the epineurium . In the central nervous system , the analogous structures are known as tracts .
The cell membrane ( also known as the plasma membrane ( PM ) or cytoplasmic membrane , and historically referred to as the plasmalemma ) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment ( the extracellular space ) which protects the cell from its environment . Cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer , including cholesterols ( a lipid component ) that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity under various temperature , in combination with membrane proteins such as integral proteins , and peripheral proteins that go across inside and outside of the membrane serving as membrane transporter , and loosely attached to the outer ( peripheral ) side of the cell membrane acting as several kinds of enzymes shaping the cell , respectively . The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and organelles . In this way , it is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules . In addition , cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion , ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures , including the cell wall , the carbohydrate layer called the glycocalyx , and the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton . In the field of synthetic biology , cell membranes can be artificially reassembled .
George Porter , Baron Porter of Luddenham , OM , Kt , PRS , FRSE ( 6 December 1920 - 31 August 2002 ) was a British chemist . He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1967 .
Manfred Eigen ( 9 May 1927 - 6 February 2019 ) was a German biophysical chemist who won the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on measuring fast chemical reactions . Eigen 's research helped solve major problems in physical chemistry and aided in the understanding of chemical processes that occur in living organisms . In later years , he explored the biochemical roots of life and evolution . He worked to install a multidisciplinary program at the Max Planck Institute to study the underpinnings of life at the molecular level . His work was hailed for creating a new scientific and technological discipline : evolutionary biotechnology .
Ronald George Wreyford Norrish FRS ( 9 November 1897 - 7 June 1978 ) was a British chemist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1967 .
Flash photolysis is a pump-probe laboratory technique , in which a sample is firstly excited by a strong pulse ( called pump pulse ) of light from a pulsed laser of nanosecond , picosecond , or femtosecond pulse width or by another short-pulse light source such as a flash lamp . This first strong pulse is called the pump pulse and starts a chemical reaction or leads to an increased population for energy levels other than the ground state within a sample of atoms or molecules . Typically the absorption of light by the sample is recorded within short time intervals ( by a so-called test or probe pulses ) to monitor relaxation or reaction processes initiated by the pump pulse . Flash photolysis was developed shortly after World War II as a result of the military 's attempts to build cameras fast enough to photograph missiles in flight . The technique was developed in 1949 by Manfred Eigen , Ronald George Wreyford Norrish and George Porter , who won the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this invention . Over the next 40 years the technique became more powerful and sophisticated due to developments in optics and lasers . Also , the interest in this method grew considerably as the practical applications expanded from chemistry to areas such as biology , materials science , and environmental sciences . Today , flash photolysis facilities are extensively used by researchers to study light-induced processes in organic molecules , polymers , nanoparticles , semiconductors , photosynthesis in plants , signaling , and light-induced conformational changes in biological systems .
Sir Derek Harold Richard Barton FRS FRSE ( 8 September 1918 - 16 March 1998 ) was an English organic chemist and Nobel Prize laureate for 1969 .
Odd Hassel ( 17 May 1897 - 11 May 1981 ) was a Norwegian physical chemist and Nobel Laureate .
In chemistry , conformational isomerism is a form of stereoisomerism in which the isomers can be interconverted just by rotations about formally single bonds ( refer to figure on single bond rotation ) . While any two arrangements of atoms in a molecule that differ by rotation about single bonds can be referred to as different conformations , conformations that correspond to local minima on the energy surface are specifically called conformational isomers or conformers . Conformations that correspond to local maxima on the energy surface are the transition states between the local-minimum conformational isomers . Rotations about single bonds involve overcoming a rotational energy barrier to interconvert one conformer to another . If the energy barrier is low , there is free rotation and a sample of the compound exists as a rapidly equilibrating mixture of multiple conformers ; if the energy barrier is high enough then there is restricted rotation , a molecule may exist for a relatively long time period as a stable rotational isomer or rotamer ( an isomer arising from hindered single-bond rotation ) . When the time scale for interconversion is long enough for isolation of individual rotamers ( usually arbitrarily defined as a half-life of interconversion of 1000 seconds or longer ) , the isomers are termed atropisomers ( see : atropisomerism ) . The ring-flip of substituted cyclohexanes constitutes another common form of conformational isomerism . Conformational isomers are thus distinct from the other classes of stereoisomers ( i. e. configurational isomers ) where interconversion necessarily involves breaking and reforming of chemical bonds . For example , L/D- and R/S- configurations of organic molecules have different handedness and optical activities , and can only be interconverted by breaking one or more bonds connected to the chiral atom and reforming a similar bond in a different direction or spatial orientation . They also differ from geometric ( cis/trans ) isomers , another class of stereoisomers , which require the π-component of double bonds to break for interconversion . ( Although the distinction is not always clear-cut , since certain bonds that are formally single bonds actually have double bond character that becomes apparent only when secondary resonance contributors are considered , like the C-N bonds of amides , for instance . ) Due to rapid interconversion , conformers are usually not isolable at room temperature .
Dennis Gabor CBE FRS ( /ˈɡɑːbɔːr , ɡəˈbɔːr/ GAH-bor , gə-BOR ; Hungarian : Gábor Dénes [ ˈɡaːbor ˈdeːnɛʃ ] ; 5 June 1900 - 9 February 1979 ) was a Hungarian-British electrical engineer and physicist , most notable for inventing holography , for which he later received the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physics . Gábor Dénes College in Budapest , Hungary , is named after him in honour of his works .
A hologram is a physical recording of an interference pattern which uses diffraction to reproduce a three-dimensional light field , resulting in an image which retains the depth , parallax , and other properties of the original scene . Holography is the science and practice of making holograms . A hologram is a photographic recording of a light field , rather than an image formed by a lens . The holographic medium , i.e. , the object produced by a holographic process ( which itself may be referred to as a hologram ) is usually unintelligible when viewed under diffuse ambient light . It is an encoding of the light field as an interference pattern of variations in the opacity , density , or surface profile of the photographic medium . When suitably lit , the interference pattern diffracts the light into an accurate reproduction of the original light field , and the objects that were in it exhibit visual depth cues such as parallax and perspective that change realistically with the relative position of the observer . That is , the view of the image from different angles represents the subject viewed from similar angles.In this sense , holograms do not simply produce the illusion of depth but are truly three-dimensional images . In its pure form , holography requires the use of laser light for illuminating the subject and for viewing the finished hologram . A microscopic level of detail throughout the recorded scene can be reproduced . In common practice , however , major image quality compromises are made to eliminate the need for laser illumination to view the hologram , and in some cases , to make it . Holographic portraiture often resorts to a non-holographic intermediate imaging procedure , to avoid the hazardous high-powered pulsed lasers otherwise needed to optically freeze moving subjects as perfectly as the extremely motion-intolerant holographic recording process requires . Holograms can now also be entirely computer-generated to show objects or scenes that never existed .
Prof Rodney Robert Porter , CH , FRS FRSE HFRCP ( 8 October 1917 - 6 September 1985 ) was a British biochemist and Nobel laureate .
Gerald Maurice Edelman ( /ˈɛdəlmən/ ; July 1 , 1929 - May 17 , 2014 ) was an American biologist who shared the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for work with Rodney Robert Porter on the immune system . Edelman 's Nobel Prize-winning research concerned discovery of the structure of antibody molecules . In interviews , he has said that the way the components of the immune system evolve over the life of the individual is analogous to the way the components of the brain evolve in a lifetime . There is a continuity in this way between his work on the immune system , for which he won the Nobel Prize , and his later work in neuroscience and in philosophy of mind .
An antibody ( Ab ) , also known as an immunoglobulin ( Ig ) , is a large , Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses . The antibody recognizes a unique molecule of the pathogen , called an antigen , via the fragment antigen-binding ( Fab ) variable region . Each tip of the Y of an antibody contains a paratope ( analogous to a lock ) that is specific for one particular epitope ( analogous to a key ) on an antigen , allowing these two structures to bind together with precision . Using this binding mechanism , an antibody can tag a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system , or can neutralize its target directly ( for example , by inhibiting a part of a microbe that is essential for its invasion and survival ) . Depending on the antigen , the binding may impede the biological process causing the disease or may activate macrophages to destroy the foreign substance . The ability of an antibody to communicate with the other components of the immune system is mediated via its Fc region ( located at the base of the Y ) , which contains a conserved glycosylation site involved in these interactions . The production of antibodies is the main function of the humoral immune system . Antibodies are secreted by B cells of the adaptive immune system , mostly by differentiated B cells called plasma cells . Antibodies can occur in two physical forms , a soluble form that is secreted from the cell to be free in the blood plasma , and a membrane-bound form that is attached to the surface of a B cell and is referred to as the B-cell receptor ( BCR ) . The BCR is found only on the surface of B cells and facilitates the activation of these cells and their subsequent differentiation into either antibody factories called plasma cells or memory B cells that will survive in the body and remember that same antigen so the B cells can respond faster upon future exposure . In most cases , interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and , therefore , antibody generation following antigen binding . Soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids , as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms .
Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson FRS ( 14 July 1921 - 26 September 1996 ) was a Nobel laureate English chemist who pioneered inorganic chemistry and homogeneous transition metal catalysis .
Ernst Otto Fischer ( 10 November 1918 - 23 July 2007 ) was a German chemist who won the Nobel Prize for pioneering work in the area of organometallic chemistry .
Organometallic chemistry is the study of organometallic compounds , chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal , including alkaline , alkaline earth , and transition metals , and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron , silicon , and tin , as well . Aside from bonds to organyl fragments or molecules , bonds to 'inorganic ' carbon , like carbon monoxide ( metal carbonyls ) , cyanide , or carbide , are generally considered to be organometallic as well . Some related compounds such as transition metal hydrides and metal phosphine complexes are often included in discussions of organometallic compounds , though strictly speaking , they are not necessarily organometallic . The related but distinct term metalorganic compound refers to metal-containing compounds lacking direct metal-carbon bonds but which contain organic ligands . Metal β-diketonates , alkoxides , dialkylamides , and metal phosphine complexes are representative members of this class . The field of organometallic chemistry combines aspects of traditional inorganic and organic chemistry . Organometallic compounds are widely used both stoichiometrically in research and industrial chemical reactions , as well as in the role of catalysts to increase the rates of such reactions ( e.g. , as in uses of homogeneous catalysis ) , where target molecules include polymers , pharmaceuticals , and many other types of practical products .
Mohammad Abdus Salam NI , SPk , KBE ( /sæˈlæm/ ; Punjabi , Urdu : عبد السلام , pronounced [ əbd̪ʊs səlaːm ] ; 29 January 1926 - 21 November 1996 ) , was a Pakistani theoretical physicist . He shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics with Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg for his contribution to the electroweak unification theory . He was the first Pakistani to receive a Nobel Prize in science and the second from an Islamic country to receive any Nobel Prize ( after Anwar Sadat of Egypt ) . Salam was science advisor to the Ministry of Science and Technology in Pakistan from 1960 to 1974 , a position from which he was supposed to play a major and influential role in the development of the country 's science infrastructure . Salam contributed to developments in theoretical and particle physics . He was the founding director of the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission ( SUPARCO ) , and responsible for the establishment of the Theoretical Physics Group ( TPG ) in the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission ( PAEC ) . As Science Advisor , Salam played a role in Pakistan 's development of the peaceful use of nuclear energy , and may have contributed as well to development of atomic bomb project of Pakistan in 1972 ; for this , he is viewed as the scientific father of this programme . In 1974 , Abdus Salam departed from his country , in protest , after the Parliament of Pakistan passed unanimously a parliamentary bill declaring members of the Ahmadiyya movement to which Salam belonged non-Muslims . In 1998 , following the country 's nuclear tests , the Government of Pakistan issued a commemorative stamp , as a part of Scientists of Pakistan , to honour the services of Salam . Salam 's notable achievements include the Pati-Salam model , magnetic photon , vector meson , Grand Unified Theory , work on supersymmetry and , most importantly , electroweak theory , for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize . Salam made a major contribution in quantum field theory and in the advancement of Mathematics at Imperial College London . With his student , Riazuddin , Salam made important contributions to the modern theory on neutrinos , neutron stars and black holes , as well as the work on modernising the quantum mechanics and quantum field theory .
Sheldon Lee Glashow ( US : /ˈɡlæʃoʊ/ , UK : /ˈɡlæʃaʊ/ ; born December 5 , 1932 ) is a Nobel Prize winning American theoretical physicist . He is the Metcalf Professor of Mathematics and Physics at Boston University and Eugene Higgins Professor of Physics , Emeritus , at Harvard University , and is a member of the Board of Sponsors for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists .
Steven Weinberg ForMemRS ( /ˈwaɪnbɜːrɡ/ ; born May 3 , 1933 ) is an American theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate in Physics for his contributions with Abdus Salam and Sheldon Glashow to the unification of the weak force and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles . He holds the Josey Regental Chair in Science at the University of Texas at Austin , where he is a member of the Physics and Astronomy Departments . His research on elementary particles and physical cosmology has been honored with numerous prizes and awards , including in 1979 the Nobel Prize in Physics and in 1991 the National Medal of Science . In 2004 he received the Benjamin Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society , with a citation that said he is considered by many to be the preeminent theoretical physicist alive in the world today . He has been elected to the US National Academy of Sciences and Britain 's Royal Society , as well as to the American Philosophical Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . Weinberg 's articles on various subjects occasionally appear in The New York Review of Books and other periodicals . He has served as consultant at the U. S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency , President of the Philosophical Society of Texas , and member of the Board of Editors of Daedalus magazine , the Council of Scholars of the Library of Congress , the JASON group of defense consultants , and many other boards and committees .
In particle physics , the electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature : electromagnetism and the weak interaction . Although these two forces appear very different at everyday low energies , the theory models them as two different aspects of the same force . Above the unification energy , on the order of 246 GeV , [ a ] they would merge into a single electroweak force . Thus , if the universe is hot enough ( approximately 1015 K , a temperature not exceeded since shortly after the Big Bang ) , then the electromagnetic force and weak force merge into a combined electroweak force . During the quark epoch , the electroweak force split into the electromagnetic and weak force . Sheldon Glashow , Abdus Salam , and Steven Weinberg were awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for their contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles , known as the Weinberg-Salam theory . The existence of the electroweak interactions was experimentally established in two stages , the first being the discovery of neutral currents in neutrino scattering by the Gargamelle collaboration in 1973 , and the second in 1983 by the UA1 and the UA2 collaborations that involved the discovery of the W and Z gauge bosons in proton-antiproton collisions at the converted Super Proton Synchrotron . In 1999 , Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus Veltman were awarded the Nobel prize for showing that the electroweak theory is renormalizable .
Weak neutral current interactions are one of the ways in which subatomic particles can interact by means of the weak force . These interactions are mediated by the Z boson . The discovery of weak neutral currents was a significant step toward the unification of electromagnetism and the weak force into the electroweak force , and led to the discovery of the W and Z bosons .