List of languages by time of extinction
List -- 18th century
Table:
Date
Language
Language family
Region
Notes

late 18th century
Esuma
Kwa
southern Côte d'Ivoire
[197]

after 1791
Eora
Pama-Nyungan
Queensland and New South Wales, Australia
[198]

after 1791
Quiripi
Algic > Algonquian
Connecticut/New York/New Jersey, United States
[199]

ca. 1790s
Powhatan
Algic > Algonquian
eastern Virginia, United States

after 1788
Gundungurra
Pama-Nyungan
New South Wales, Australia
[200]

after 1788
Ngunnawal
Pama-Nyungan
New South Wales, Australia
[200]

after 1788
Thurawal
Pama-Nyungan
New South Wales, Australia
[200]

26 December 1777
Cornish
Celtic
Cornwall, England
with the death of Dolly Pentreath[201][notes 10]

after 1770
Weyto
unclassified
Ethiopia

1770
Cuman
Turkic
north of Black Sea; Hungary
with the death of István Varró

ca. 1770s
Abipón
Mataco–Guaicuru
Argentina

1763
Susquehannock
Iroquoian
Maryland/Virginia, United States

1760
Galwegian dialect, Scottish Gaelic
Celtic
Scotland, United Kingdom
with the death of Margaret McMurray

1756
Polabian
Slavic
around the Elbe river, Poland/Germany
[202]

ca. 1730s
Arin
Yeniseian
central Siberia, Russia
[121]

18th Century
Plateau Sign Language
Contact pidgin
Columbia Plateau, United States

18th century
Coahuilteco
isolate/unclassified
Mexico; Texas, United States

18th century
Etchemin
Algic > Algonquian
Maine, United States

18th century
Chibcha
Chibchan
Colombia

18th century
Hilberno-Scottish Gaelic
Celtic
Ireland and Scotland, United Kingdom
[203]

Considering the given table plus the supplementary paragraphs provided.

Give the answer to the question: The main language of the Golden Horde that went extinct in the 18th century was part of a language family composed of at least how many documented languages ? Output only the correct answer as {"answer": "YOUR ANSWER"}. Avoid adding external knowledge.

Esuma ( Essouma ) is an extinct language of uncertain classification within the Kwa branch of the Niger-Congo family , once spoken in the villages of Assinie ( Asini ) and Mafia in Ivory Coast . The Esuma were vassals of the Sanwi capital Krinjabo , and shifted to the Anyin and Nzima languages .
The Kwa languages , often specified as New Kwa , are a proposed but as-yet-undemonstrated family of languages spoken in the south-eastern part of Ivory Coast , across southern Ghana , and in central Togo . The name was introduced 1895 by Gottlob Krause and derives from the word for 'people ' ( Kwa ) in many of these languages , as illustrated by Akan names .
Ivory Coast , formally Côte d'Ivoire , [ a ] officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire , is a country located on the south coast of West Africa . Ivory Coast 's political capital is Yamoussoukro in the centre of the country , while its economic capital and largest city is the port city of Abidjan . It borders Guinea to the northwest , Liberia to the west , Mali to the northwest , Burkina Faso to the northeast , Ghana to the east , and the Gulf of Guinea ( Atlantic Ocean ) to the south . The official language of the republic is French , with local indigenous languages also being widely used that include Baoulé , Dioula , Dan , Anyin , and Cebaara Senufo . In total , there are around 78 different languages spoken in Ivory Coast . The country has large populations of Muslims , Christians ( primarily Roman Catholics ) and various indigenous religions . Before its colonization by Europeans , Ivory Coast was home to several states , including Gyaaman , the Kong Empire and Baoulé . The area became a protectorate of France in 1843 and was consolidated as a French colony in 1893 amid the European scramble for Africa . It achieved independence in 1960 , led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny , who ruled the country until 1993 . Relatively stable by regional standards , Ivory Coast established close political and economic ties with its West African neighbors while at the same time maintaining close relations to the West , especially France . Ivory Coast experienced a coup d'état in 1999 and two religiously-grounded civil wars , first between 2002 and 2007 and again during 2010-2011 . In 2000 , the country adopted a new constitution .
The Sydney language , also referred to as Darug or Iyora ( Eora ) English , is an Australian Aboriginal language of the Yuin-Kuric group that was traditionally spoken in the region of Sydney , New South Wales . It is the traditional language of the Darug and Eora peoples . The term Dharug , which can also be spelt Darug , Dharukk , Dharoog , Dharrag , and Dararrug , etc. , came from the word for yam : midyini . Dharug is the root , or the midyini , of the languages of the Sydney basin . The Darug population was greatly diminished since the onset of colonisation . During the 1990s and the new millennium some descendants of the Darug clans in Western Sydney have been making considerable efforts to revive Dharug as a spoken language . Today some modern Dharug speakers have given speeches in the Dharug language and younger members of the community visit schools and give demonstrations of spoken Dharug . Bowern ( 2011 ) lists Dharuk and Iyora as separate languages .
The Pama-Nyungan languages are the most widespread family of Australian Aboriginal languages , containing perhaps 300 languages . The name Pama-Nyungan is derived from the names of the two most widely separated groups , the Pama languages of the northeast and the Nyungan languages of the southwest . The words pama and nyunga mean man in their respective languages . The other language families indigenous to the continent of Australia are occasionally referred to , by exclusion , as non-Pama-Nyungan languages , though this is not a taxonomic term . The Pama-Nyungan family accounts for most of the geographic spread , most of the Aboriginal population , and the greatest number of languages . Most of the Pama-Nyungan languages are spoken by small ethnic groups of hundreds of speakers or fewer . The vast majority of languages , either due to disease or elimination of their speakers , have become extinct , and almost all remaining ones are endangered in some way . Only in the central inland portions of the continent do Pama-Nyungan languages remain spoken vigorously by the entire community . The Pama-Nyungan family was identified and named by Kenneth L. Hale , in his work on the classification of Native Australian languages . Hale 's research led him to the conclusion that of the Aboriginal Australian languages , one relatively closely interrelated family had spread and proliferated over most of the continent , while approximately a dozen other families were concentrated along the North coast .
Queensland ( locally /ˈkwiːnzlænd/ KWEENZ-land , [ note 1 ] abbreviated as Qld ) is the second-largest and third-most populous state in the Commonwealth of Australia . Situated in the north-east of the country , it is bordered by the Northern Territory , South Australia and New South Wales to the west , south-west and south respectively . To the east , Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean . To its north is the Torres Strait , with Papua New Guinea located less than 200 km across it from the mainland . The state is the world 's sixth-largest sub-national entity , with an area of 1,852,642 square kilometres ( 715,309 sq mi ) . As of 15 May 2018 , Queensland had a population of 5,000,000 , concentrated along the coast and particularly in the state 's South East . The capital and largest city in the state is Brisbane , Australia 's third-largest city . Often referred to as the Sunshine State , Queensland is home to 10 of Australia 's 30 largest cities and is the nation 's third-largest economy . Tourism in the state , fuelled largely by its warm climate , is a major industry . Queensland was first inhabited by Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders . The first European to land in Queensland ( and Australia ) was Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606 , who explored the west coast of the Cape York Peninsula near present-day Weipa . In 1770 , Lieutenant James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia for the Kingdom of Great Britain .
New South Wales ( abbreviated as NSW ) is a state on the east coast of Australia . It borders Queensland to the north , Victoria to the south , and South Australia to the west . Its coast borders the Coral and Tasman Seas to the east . The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state . New South Wales ' state capital is Sydney , which is also Australia 's most populous city . In March 2019 [ update ] , the population of New South Wales was over 8 million , making it Australia 's most populous state . Just under two-thirds of the state 's population , 5.1 million , live in the Greater Sydney area . Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen . The Colony of New South Wales was founded as a British penal colony in 1788 . It originally comprised more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825 . The colony then also included the island territories of New Zealand , Van Diemen 's Land , Lord Howe Island , and Norfolk Island . During the 19th century , most of the colony 's area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand and the various states and territories of Australia .
Quiripi ( pronounced /ˈkwɪrɪpiː/ , also known as Quiripi-Unquachog , Quiripi-Naugatuck , and Wampano ) was an Algonquian language formerly spoken by the indigenous people of southwestern Connecticut and central Long Island , including the Quinnipiac , Unquachog , Mattabesic , Podunk , Tunxis , and Paugussett ( subgroups Naugatuck , Potatuck , Weantinock ) . It has been effectively extinct since the end of the 18th century , although Frank T. Siebert , Jr. , was able to record a few Unquachog words from an elderly woman in 1932 .
The Algic ( also Algonquian-Wiyot-Yurok or Algonquian-Ritwan ) languages are an indigenous language family of North America . Most Algic languages belong to the Algonquian subfamily , dispersed over a broad area from the Rocky Mountains to Atlantic Canada . The other Algic languages are the Yurok and Wiyot of northwestern California , which , despite their geographic proximity , are not closely related . All these languages descend from Proto-Algic , a second-order proto-language estimated to have been spoken about 7,000 years ago and reconstructed using the reconstructed Proto-Algonquian language and the Wiyot and Yurok languages .
The Algonquian languages ( /ælˈɡɒŋkiən/ or /ælˈɡɒŋkwiən/ ; also Algonkian ) are a subfamily of American indigenous languages which includes most of the languages in the Algic language family . The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically similar Algonquin dialect of the indigenous Ojibwe language ( Chippewa ) , which is a senior member of the Algonquian language family . The term Algonquin has been suggested to derive from the Maliseet word elakómkwik ( pronounced [ ɛlæˈɡomoɡwik ] ) , they are our relatives/allies . A number of Algonquian languages , like many other Native American languages , are now extinct . Speakers of Algonquian languages stretch from the east coast of North America to the Rocky Mountains . The proto-language from which all of the languages of the family descend , Proto-Algonquian , was spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago . There is no scholarly consensus about where this language was spoken .
Connecticut ( /kəˈnɛtɪkət/ ( listen ) ) is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States . As of the 2010 Census , it has the highest per-capita income , Human Development Index ( 0.962 ) , and median household income in the United States . It is bordered by Rhode Island to the east , Massachusetts to the north , New York to the west , and Long Island Sound to the south . Its capital is Hartford and its most populous city is Bridgeport . It is part of New England , although portions of it are often grouped with New York and New Jersey as the tri-state area . The state is named for the Connecticut River which approximately bisects the state . The word Connecticut is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for long tidal river . Connecticut 's first European settlers were Dutchmen who established a small , short-lived settlement called Fort Hoop in Hartford at the confluence of the Park and Connecticut Rivers . Half of Connecticut was initially part of the Dutch colony New Netherland , which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware Rivers , although the first major settlements were established in the 1630s by the English . Thomas Hooker led a band of followers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded the Connecticut Colony ; other settlers from Massachusetts founded the Saybrook Colony and the New Haven Colony . The Connecticut and New Haven colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders , considered the first constitutions in America . In 1662 , the three colonies were merged under a royal charter , making Connecticut a crown colony .
New York is a state located in the Northeastern United States . New York was one of the original thirteen colonies that formed the United States . With an estimated 19.45 million residents in 2019 , it is the fourth most populous state . In order to distinguish the state from its city with the same name , it is commonly referred to as New York State ( NYS ) . The state 's most populous city , New York City , makes up over 40% of the state 's population . Two-thirds of the state 's population lives in the New York metropolitan area , and nearly 40% lives on Long Island . The state and city were both named for the 17th-century Duke of York , the future King James II of England . With an estimated population of 8.39 million in 2018 , New York City is the most populous city in the United States and the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States . The New York metropolitan area is one of the most populous in the world . New York City is a global city , home to the United Nations Headquarters , and has been described as the cultural , financial , and media capital of the world , as well as the world 's most economically powerful city . The next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo , Rochester , Yonkers , and Syracuse , while the state capital is Albany . The 27th largest U.S. state in land area , New York has a diverse geography .
New Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the Northeastern United States . It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York ; on the east , southeast , and south by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania ; and on the southwest by the Delaware Bay and the State of Delaware . New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous , with 9 million residents as of 2017 and an area of 8,722.58 square miles , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states , with its biggest city being Newark . New Jersey lies completely within the combined statistical areas of New York City and Philadelphia . New Jersey was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income as of 2017 . New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years , with historical tribes such as the Lenape along the coast . In the early 17th century , the Dutch and the Swedes founded the first European settlements in the state . The English later seized control of the region , naming it the Province of New Jersey after the largest of the Channel Islands , Jersey , and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley , 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton . New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century . In the 19th century , factories in the cities Camden , Paterson , Newark , Trenton , Jersey City , and Elizabeth ( known as the Big Six ) , helped drive the Industrial Revolution . New Jersey 's geographic location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis , between Boston and New York City to the northeast , and Philadelphia , Baltimore , and Washington , D.C. , to the southwest , fueled its rapid growth through the process of suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century . At the turn of the 21st century , this suburbanization began reverting with the consolidation of New Jersey 's culturally diverse populace toward more urban settings within the state , with towns home to commuter rail stations outpacing the population growth of more automobile-oriented suburbs since 2008 .
Powhatan or Virginia Algonquian is an extinct language belonging to the Eastern Algonquian subgroup of the Algonquian languages . It was spoken by the Powhatan people of tidewater Virginia . It became extinct around the 1790s after its speakers switched to English . The sole documentary evidence for this language is two short wordlists recorded around the time of first European contact . William Strachey recorded about 500 words and Captain John Smith recorded only about 50 words . Smith also reported the existence of a pidgin form of Powhatan , but virtually nothing is known of it . Strachey 's material was collected sometime between 1610 and 1611 , and probably written up from his notes in 1612 and 1613 , after he had returned to England . It was never published in his lifetime , although he made a second copy in 1618 . The second copy was published in 1849 , and the first in 1955 . Smith 's material was collected between 1607 and 1609 and published in 1612 and again in 1624 . There is no indication of the location where he collected his material . Like many Algonquian languages , Powhatan did not have a writing system , so all that is left are the recordings from the 17th century and the piecing together that can be done using related Algonquian languages .
Virginia ( /vərˈdʒɪniə/ ( listen ) ) , officially the Commonwealth of Virginia , is a state in the Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States located between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains . The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay , which provide habitat for much of its flora and fauna . The capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond ; Virginia Beach is the most populous city , and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision . The Commonwealth 's estimated population as of 2018 [ update ] is over 8.5 million . The area 's history begins with several indigenous groups , including the Powhatan . In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent English colony in the New World . Virginia 's state nickname , the Old Dominion , is a reference to this status . Slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colony 's early politics and plantation economy . Virginia was one of the 13 Colonies in the American Revolution . In the American Civil War , Virginia 's Secession Convention resolved to join the Confederacy , and Virginia 's First Wheeling Convention resolved to remain in the Union ; that led to the creation of West Virginia . Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction , both major national parties are competitive in modern Virginia . The Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World .
Ngunnawal or Gundungurra is an extinct Australian Aboriginal language , the traditional language of the Ngunnawal and Gandangara peoples . There are contradictory claims as to whether they are one language or two . The name Burragorang is applied to either .
The Pama-Nyungan languages are the most widespread family of Australian Aboriginal languages , containing perhaps 300 languages . The name Pama-Nyungan is derived from the names of the two most widely separated groups , the Pama languages of the northeast and the Nyungan languages of the southwest . The words pama and nyunga mean man in their respective languages . The other language families indigenous to the continent of Australia are occasionally referred to , by exclusion , as non-Pama-Nyungan languages , though this is not a taxonomic term . The Pama-Nyungan family accounts for most of the geographic spread , most of the Aboriginal population , and the greatest number of languages . Most of the Pama-Nyungan languages are spoken by small ethnic groups of hundreds of speakers or fewer . The vast majority of languages , either due to disease or elimination of their speakers , have become extinct , and almost all remaining ones are endangered in some way . Only in the central inland portions of the continent do Pama-Nyungan languages remain spoken vigorously by the entire community . The Pama-Nyungan family was identified and named by Kenneth L. Hale , in his work on the classification of Native Australian languages . Hale 's research led him to the conclusion that of the Aboriginal Australian languages , one relatively closely interrelated family had spread and proliferated over most of the continent , while approximately a dozen other families were concentrated along the North coast .
New South Wales ( abbreviated as NSW ) is a state on the east coast of Australia . It borders Queensland to the north , Victoria to the south , and South Australia to the west . Its coast borders the Coral and Tasman Seas to the east . The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state . New South Wales ' state capital is Sydney , which is also Australia 's most populous city . In March 2019 [ update ] , the population of New South Wales was over 8 million , making it Australia 's most populous state . Just under two-thirds of the state 's population , 5.1 million , live in the Greater Sydney area . Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen . The Colony of New South Wales was founded as a British penal colony in 1788 . It originally comprised more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825 . The colony then also included the island territories of New Zealand , Van Diemen 's Land , Lord Howe Island , and Norfolk Island . During the 19th century , most of the colony 's area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand and the various states and territories of Australia .
Ngunnawal or Gundungurra is an extinct Australian Aboriginal language , the traditional language of the Ngunnawal and Gandangara peoples . There are contradictory claims as to whether they are one language or two . The name Burragorang is applied to either .
The Tharawal language ( Thurawal , Dharawal , Wodiwodi ) is an extinct Australian Aboriginal language of New South Wales .
Cornish ( Standard Written Form : Kernewek or Kernowek ) is a Southwestern Brittonic language of the Celtic language family . It is a revived language that became extinct as a first language in Cornwall in the late 18th century . A revival began in the early 20th century . Some have expressed the opinion that the language is an important part of Cornish identity , culture and heritage . Cornish is currently recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . It has a growing number of second language speakers . A few parents are inspired to create new first language speakers , by teaching their children the language from birth . Along with Welsh and Breton , Cornish is descended directly from the Common Brittonic language spoken throughout much of Great Britain before the English language came to dominate . It was the main language of Cornwall for centuries until it was pushed westwards by English , maintaining close links with its sister language Breton , with which it was mutually intelligible until well into the Middle Ages . Cornish continued to function as a common community language in parts of Cornwall until the mid 18th century . There is some evidence of knowledge of the language persisting into the 19th century , possibly almost overlapping the beginning of revival efforts . A process to revive the language was begun in the early 20th century , with a number of orthographical systems still in use , although an attempt was made to impose a Standard Written Form in 2008 .
The Celtic languages ( usually /ˈkɛltɪk/ , but sometimes /ˈsɛltɪk/ ) are a group of related languages descended from Proto-Celtic . They form a branch of the Indo-European language family . The term Celtic was first used to describe this language group by Edward Lhuyd in 1707 , following Paul-Yves Pezron , who made the explicit link between the Celts described by classical writers and the Welsh and Breton languages . During the 1st millennium BC , Celtic languages were spoken across much of Europe and in Asia Minor . Today , they are restricted to the northwestern fringe of Europe and a few diaspora communities . There are four living languages : Welsh , Breton , Irish and Scottish Gaelic . All are minority languages in their respective countries , though there are continuing efforts at revitalisation . Welsh is an official language in Wales and Irish is an official language of Ireland and of the European Union . Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as endangered by UNESCO . The Cornish and Manx languages went extinct in modern times . They have been the object of revivals and now each has several hundred second-language speakers . Irish , Scottish and Manx form the Goidelic languages , while Welsh , Cornish and Breton are Brittonic .
Cornwall ( /ˈkɔːrnwɔːl , -wəl/ ; Cornish : Kernow [ ˈkɛrnɔʊ ] ) is a ceremonial county in South West England , bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea , to the south by the English Channel , and to the east by Devon , the River Tamar forming the border between them . Cornwall is the westernmost part of the South West Peninsula of the island of Great Britain . The southwesternmost point is Land 's End and the southernmost Lizard Point . Cornwall has a population of 568,210 and an area of 3,563 km2 ( 1,376 sq mi ) . The county has been administered since 2009 by the unitary authority , Cornwall Council . The ceremonial county of Cornwall also includes the Isles of Scilly , which are administered separately . The administrative centre of Cornwall is Truro , its only city . Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and the cultural and ethnic origin of the Cornish diaspora . It retains a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history , and is recognised as one of the Celtic nations . It was formerly a Brythonic kingdom and subsequently a royal duchy . The Cornish nationalist movement contests the present constitutional status of Cornwall and seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom in the form of a devolved legislative Cornish Assembly with powers similar to those in Wales and Scotland . In 2014 , Cornish people were granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities , giving them recognition as a distinct ethnic group .
Weyto is a speculative extinct language thought to have been spoken in the Lake Tana region of Ethiopia by the Weyto , a small group of hippopotamus hunters who now speak Amharic . The Weyto language was first mentioned by the Scottish traveler James Bruce , who spoke Amharic , passed through the area about 1770 and reported that the Wayto speak a language radically different from any of those in Abyssinia , but was unable to obtain any certain information on it , despite prevailing upon the king to send for two Weyto men for him to ask questions , which they would neither answer nor understand even when threatened with hanging . The next European to report on them , Eugen Mittwoch , described them as uniformly speaking a dialect of Amharic ( Mittwoch 1907 ) . This report was confirmed by Marcel Griaule when he passed through in 1928 , although he added that at one point a Weyto sang an unrecorded song in the dead language of the Wohitos whose meaning the singer himself did not understand , except for a handful of words for hippopotamus body parts which , he says , had remained in use . This Amharic dialect is described by Marcel Cohen ( 1939 ) as featuring a fair number of words derived from Amharic roots but twisted in sound or meaning in order to confuse outsiders , making it a sort of argot ; in addition to these , it had a small number of Cushitic loanwords not found in standard Amharic , and a large number of Arabic loanwords mainly related to Islam . Of the substantial wordlist collected by Griaule , Cohen only considered six terms to be etymologically obscure : šəlkərít fish-scale , qəntat wing , čəgəmbit mosquito , annessa shoulder , ənkies hippopotamus thigh , wazəməs hippopotamus spine . By 1965 , the visiting anthropologist Frederick Gamst found no surviving native words , not even relating to their hunting and fishing work tasks . ( Gamst 1965 . ) The paucity of the data available has not prevented speculation on the classification of their original language ; Cohen suggested that it might have been either an Agaw language or a non-Amharic Semitic language , while Dimmendaal ( 1989 ) says it probably belonged to Cushitic ( as does Agaw ) , and Gamst ( 1965 ) says .it can be assumed that if the Wäyto did not speak Amharic 200 years ago , their language must have been Agäw . According to the Ethnologue , Bender et al . ( 1976 ) saw it as Cushitic , while Bender 1983 saw it as either Eastern Sudanic or Awngi . It thus effectively remains unclassified , largely for lack of data , but possibly related to Agaw .
An unclassified language is a language whose genetic affiliation to other languages has not been established . Languages can be unclassified for a variety of reasons , mostly due to a lack of reliable data but sometimes due to the confounding influence of language contact , if different layers of its vocabulary or morphology point in different directions and it is not clear which represents the ancestral form of the language . Some poorly known extinct languages , such as Gutian and Cacán , are simply unclassifiable , and it is unlikely the situation will ever change . A supposedly unclassified language may turn out not to be a language at all , or even a distinct dialect , but merely a family , tribal or village name , or an alternative name for a people or language that is classified . If a language 's genetic relationship has not been established after significant documentation of the language and comparison with other languages and families , as in the case of Basque in Europe , it is considered a language isolate - that is , it is classified as a language family of its own . An 'unclassified ' language therefore is one which may still turn out to belong to an established family once better data is available or more thorough comparative research is done . Extinct unclassified languages for which little evidence has been preserved are likely to remain in limbo indefinitely , unless lost documents or a surviving speaking population are discovered .
Ethiopia ( /ˌiːθiˈoʊpiə/ ; Amharic : ኢትዮጵያ , ʾĪtyōṗṗyā , listen ( help·info ) , Tigrinya : ኢትዮጵያ , Oromo : Itiyoophiyaa , Somali : Itoobiya , Afar : Itiyoophiyaa ) , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia , is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa . It shares borders with Eritrea to the north , Djibouti to the northeast , Somalia , and the de facto state of Somaliland to the east , Kenya to the south , South Sudan to the west and Sudan to the northwest . With over 109 million inhabitants , Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world and the second-most populous nation on the African continent with a total area of 1,100,000 square kilometres ( 420,000 sq mi ) . Its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa , which lies a few miles west of the East African Rift that splits the country into the Nubian and Somali tectonic plates . Some of the oldest skeletal evidence for anatomically modern humans has been found in Ethiopia . It is widely considered as the region from which modern humans first set out for the Middle East and places beyond . According to linguists , the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations settled in the Horn region during the ensuing Neolithic era . Tracing its roots to the 2nd millennium BCE , Ethiopia 's governmental system was a monarchy for most of its history . Oral literature tells that the monarchy was founded by the Solomonic dynasty of the Queen of Sheba , under its first king , Menelik I . In the first centuries , the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region , followed by the Ethiopian Empire circa 1137 . During the late 19th-century Scramble for Africa , Ethiopia and Liberia were two nations that preserved their sovereignty from long-term colonisation by a European colonial power and many newly-independent nations on the continent subsequently adopted its flag colours . However , the country was later occupied by Italy in 1936 and became Italian Ethiopia ( part of Italian East Africa ) until it was liberated during World War II .
Cuman ( Kuman ) was a Kipchak Turkic language spoken by the Cumans ( Polovtsy , Folban , Vallany , Kun ) and Kipchaks ; the language was similar to today 's various languages of the Kipchak-Cuman branch . Cuman is documented in medieval works , including the Codex Cumanicus , and it was a literary language in Central and Eastern Europe that left a rich literary inheritance . The language became the main language ( lingua franca ) of the Golden Horde .
The Turkic languages are a language family of at least 35 documented languages , spoken by the Turkic peoples of Eurasia from Eastern Europe , the Caucasus , Central Asia and West Asia all the way to North Asia ( particularly in Siberia ) and East Asia . The Turkic languages originated in a region of East Asia spanning Western China to Mongolia , where Proto-Turkic is thought to have been spoken , from where they expanded to Central Asia and farther west during the first millennium . Turkic languages are spoken as a native language by some 170 million people , and the total number of Turkic speakers , including second language speakers , is over 200 million . The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish , spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans ; its native speakers account for about 40% of all Turkic speakers . Characteristic features such as vowel harmony , agglutination , and lack of grammatical gender , are universal within the Turkic family . There is also a high degree of mutual intelligibility among the various Oghuz languages , which include Turkish , Azerbaijani , Turkmen , Qashqai , Gagauz , Balkan Gagauz Turkish and Oghuz-influenced Crimean Tatar . Although methods of classification vary , the Turkic languages are usually considered to be divided equally into two branches : Oghur , the only surviving member of which is Chuvash , and Common Turkic , which includes all other Turkic languages including the Oghuz subbranch . Turkic languages show some similarities with the Mongolic , Tungusic , Koreanic and Japonic languages . These similarities led some linguists to propose an Altaic language family , though this proposal is widely rejected by historical linguists . Apparent similarities with the Uralic languages even caused these families to be regarded as one for a long time under the Ural-Altaic hypothesis . However , there has not been sufficient evidence to conclude the existence of either of these macrofamilies , the shared characteristics between the languages being attributed presently to extensive prehistoric language contact .
The Black Sea is a body of water and marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean between Eastern Europe , the Caucasus , and Western Asia . It is supplied by a number of major rivers , such as the Danube , Dnieper , Southern Bug , Dniester , Don , and the Rioni . The watersheds of many countries drain into the Black Sea beyond the six that immediately border it . The Black Sea has an area of 436,400 km2 ( 168,500 sq mi ) ( not including the Sea of Azov ) , a maximum depth of 2,212 m ( 7,257 ft ) , and a volume of 547,000 km3 ( 131,000 cu mi ) . It is constrained by the Pontic Mountains to the south , Caucasus Mountains to the east , Crimean Mountains to the north , Strandzha to the southwest , Balkan Mountains to the west , Dobrogea Plateau to the northwest , and features a wide shelf to the northwest . The longest east-west extent is about 1,175 km ( 730 mi ) . Important cities along the coast include Odessa , Sevastopol , Samsun , and Istanbul . The Black Sea is bordered by Ukraine , Romania , Bulgaria , Turkey , Georgia , and Russia . It has a positive water balance ; that is , a net outflow of water 300 km3 ( 72 cu mi ) per year through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea . There is a two-way hydrological exchange : the more saline and therefore denser , but warmer , Mediterranean water flows into the Black Sea under its less saline outflow . This creates a significant anoxic layer well below the surface waters . The Black Sea drains into the Mediterranean Sea , via the Aegean Sea and various straits , and is navigable to the Atlantic Ocean .
The Abipón language was a native American language of the Guaicuruan group of the Guaycurú-Charruan family that was at one time spoken in Argentina by the Abipón people . Its last speaker is thought to have died in the 19th century .
Mataco-Guaicuru or Macro-Waikurúan is a hypothetical language family consisting of the Guaicuruan , Matacoan , and sometimes Mascoian and Charruan families . These are spoken in Argentina , Brazil , Paraguay , and Bolivia . Kaufman ( 2007 : 72 ) also adds Lule-Vilela and Zamucoan to the family .
Argentina ( Spanish : [ aɾxenˈtina ] ) , officially the Argentine Republic [ A ] ( Spanish : República Argentina ) , is a country located mostly in the southern half of South America . Sharing the bulk of the Southern Cone with Chile to the west , the country is also bordered by Bolivia and Paraguay to the north , Brazil to the northeast , Uruguay and the South Atlantic Ocean to the east , and the Drake Passage to the south . With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2 ( 1,073,500 sq mi ) , [ B ] Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world , the fourth largest in the Americas , the second largest in South America after Brazil , and the largest Spanish-speaking nation . The sovereign state is subdivided into twenty-three provinces ( Spanish : provincias , singular provincia ) and one autonomous city ( ciudad autónoma ) , Buenos Aires , which is the federal capital of the nation ( Spanish : Capital Federal ) as decided by Congress . The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions , but exist under a federal system . Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica , the Falkland Islands ( Spanish : Islas Malvinas ) , and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands . The earliest recorded human presence in modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period . The Inca Empire expanded to the northwest of the country in Pre-Columbian times . The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century . Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata , a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776 . The declaration and fight for independence ( 1810-1818 ) was followed by an extended civil war that lasted until 1861 , culminating in the country 's reorganization as a federation of provinces with Buenos Aires as its capital city . The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability , with several waves of European immigration , mainly Italians and Spaniards , radically reshaping its cultural and demographic outlook ; 62.5% of the population has full or partial Italian ancestry , and the Argentine culture has significant connections to the Italian culture .
Susquehannock is an extinct language that once was spoken by the Native American Susquehannocks . It is a part of the Iroquoian language family . Little of the Susquehannock language has been preserved . The only source is a Vocabula Mahakuassica compiled by the Swedish missionary Johannes Campanius during the 1640s and published with additions in 1702 . Campanius 's vocabulary contains only 89 words but is sufficient to show that Susquehannock was a northern Iroquoian language closely related to those of the Five Nations . Surviving remnants of the Susquehannock language include the river names Conestoga , Juniata , and Swatara .
The Iroquoian languages are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America . They are known for their general lack of labial consonants . The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking . As of 2008 and as of 2017 , all surviving Iroquoian languages except Cherokee in Oklahoma and Mohawk are severely endangered or critically endangered , with only a few elderly speakers remaining . Cherokee in North Carolina is considered severely endangered .
Maryland ( US : /ˈmɛrələnd/ ( listen ) MERR-ə-lənd ) [ a ] is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the eastern United States , bordering Virginia , West Virginia , and the District of Columbia to its south and west ; Pennsylvania to its north ; and Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean to its east . The state 's largest city is Baltimore , and its capital is Annapolis . Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State , the Free State , and the Chesapeake Bay State . It is named after the English queen Henrietta Maria , known in England as Queen Mary , who was the wife of King Charles I. Sixteen of Maryland 's twenty-three counties , as well as the city of Baltimore , border the tidal waters of the Chesapeake Bay estuary and its many tributaries , which combined total more than 4,000 miles of shoreline . Although one of the smallest states in the U.S. , it features a variety of climates and topographical features that have earned it the moniker of America in Miniature . In a similar vein , Maryland 's geography , culture , and history combine elements of the Mid-Atlantic , Northeastern , and South Atlantic regions of the country . Before its coastline was explored by Europeans in the 16th century , Maryland was inhabited by several groups of Native Americans , mostly by the Algonquin , and to a lesser degree by the Iroquois and Sioux . As one of the original Thirteen Colonies of Great Britain , Maryland was founded by George Calvert , a Catholic convert who sought to provide a religious haven for Catholics persecuted in England . In 1632 , Charles I of England granted Calvert a colonial charter , naming the colony after his wife , Queen Mary ( Henrietta Maria of France ) . Unlike the Pilgrims and Puritans , who rejected Catholicism in their settlements , Calvert envisioned a colony where people of different religious sects would coexist under the principle of toleration . Accordingly , in 1649 the Maryland General Assembly passed an Act Concerning Religion , which enshrined this principle by penalizing anyone who reproached a fellow Marylander based on religious affiliation . Nevertheless , religious strife was common in the early years , and Catholics remained a minority , albeit in greater numbers than in any other English colony .
Galwegian Gaelic ( also known as Gallovidian Gaelic , Gallowegian Gaelic , or Galloway Gaelic ) is an extinct dialect of the Goidelic languages formerly spoken in southwest Scotland . It was spoken by the people of Galloway and Carrick until the early modern period . Little ( except numerous placenames ) has survived of the dialect , so that its exact relationship with other Goidelic languages is uncertain .
Scottish Gaelic ( Gàidhlig [ ˈkaːlɪkʲ ] ( listen ) , Am Faclair Beag Scottish Gaelic pronunciation : [ 'gaːlɪgʲ ] ) or Scots Gaelic , sometimes also referred to simply as Gaelic , is a Goidelic language of the Celtic and Indo-European language family , native to the Gaels of Scotland . As a Goidelic language , Scottish Gaelic , like Modern Irish and Manx , developed out of Old Irish . It became a distinct spoken language sometime in the 13th century in the Middle Irish period , although a common literary language was shared by Gaels in both Ireland and Scotland down to the 16th century . Most of modern Scotland was once Gaelic-speaking , as evidenced especially by Gaelic-language placenames . In the 2011 census of Scotland , 57,375 people ( 1.1% of the Scottish population aged over three years old ) reported as able to speak Gaelic , 1,275 fewer than in 2001 . The highest percentages of Gaelic speakers were in the Outer Hebrides . Nevertheless , there are revival efforts , and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 did not decrease between the 2001 and 2011 censuses . Outside Scotland , a dialect known as Canadian Gaelic has been spoken in eastern Canada since the 18th century . In the 2016 national census , nearly 4,000 Canadian residents claimed knowledge of Scottish Gaelic . Scottish Gaelic is not an official language of the United Kingdom . However , it is classed as an indigenous language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , which the British government has ratified , and the Gaelic Language ( Scotland ) Act 2005 established a language-development body , Bòrd na Gàidhlig .
The Polabian language is an extinct West Slavic language that was spoken by the Polabian Slavs ( German : Wenden ) in present-day northeastern Germany around the Elbe ( Łaba/Laba/Labe in Slavic ) river , from which derives its name ( po Labe - [ traveling ] on Elbe or [ living ] up to Elbe ) . It was spoken approximately until the rise to power of Prussia in mid-18th century , when it was superseded by Low German . By the 18th century , Lechitic Polabian was in some respects markedly different from other Slavic languages , most notably in having a strong German influence . It was close to Pomeranian and Kashubian , and is attested only in a handful of manuscripts , dictionaries and various writings from the 17th and 18th centuries .
The Slavic languages ( also called Slavonic languages ) are the Indo-European languages spoken by the Slavic peoples . They are thought to descend from a proto-language called Proto-Slavic , spoken during the Early Middle Ages , which in turn is thought to have descended from the earlier Proto-Balto-Slavic language , linking the Slavic languages to the Baltic languages in a Balto-Slavic group within the Indo-European family . The Slavic languages are conventionally ( that is , also on the basis of extralinguistic features ) divided intro three subgroups : East , West , and South , which together constitute more than 20 languages . Of these , 10 have at least one million speakers and official status as the national languages of the countries in which they are predominantly spoken : Russian , Belarusian and Ukrainian ( of the East group ) , Polish , Czech and Slovak ( of the West group ) and Bulgarian and Macedonian ( eastern dialects of the South group ) , and Serbo-Croatian and Slovene ( western dialects of the South group ) . The current geographic distribution of natively spoken Slavic languages covers Eastern Europe , the Balkans , Central Europe and all of the territory of Russia , which includes northern and north-central Asia . Furthermore , the diasporas of many Slavic peoples have established isolated minorities of speakers of their languages all over the world . The number of speakers of all Slavic languages together was estimated to be 315 million at the turn of the twenty-first century . Despite the large extent , the individual Slavic languages are considerably less differentiated than Germanic and Romance languages .
The Elbe ( /ˈɛlbə/ ; Czech : Labe ( help·info ) [ ˈlabɛ ] ; German : Elbe [ ˈɛlbə ] ; Low German : Elv , Upper and Lower Sorbian : Łobjo , historically in English also Elve ) is one of the major rivers of Central Europe . It rises in the Krkonoše Mountains of the northern Czech Republic before traversing much of Bohemia ( western half of the Czech Republic ) , then Germany and flowing into the North Sea at Cuxhaven , 110 km ( 68 mi ) northwest of Hamburg . Its total length is 1,094 kilometres ( 680 mi ) . The Elbe 's major tributaries include the rivers Vltava , Saale , Havel , Mulde , Schwarze Elster , and Ohře . The Elbe river basin , comprising the Elbe and its tributaries , has a catchment area of 148,268 square kilometres ( 57,247 sq mi ) , the fourth largest in Europe . The basin spans four countries , however it lies almost entirely just in two of them , Germany ( 65.5% ) and the Czech Republic ( 33.7% , covering about two thirds of the state 's territory ) . Marginally , the basin stretches also to Austria ( 0.6% ) and Poland ( 0.2% ) . The Elbe catchment area is inhabited by 24.4 million people , the biggest cities within are Berlin , Hamburg , Prague , Dresden and Leipzig .
Poland ( Polish : Polska [ ˈpɔlska ] ( listen ) ) , officially the Republic of Poland ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita Polska [ c ] [ ʐɛt͡ʂpɔˈspɔlita ˈpɔlska ] ( listen ) ) , is a country located in Central Europe . It is divided into 16 administrative subdivisions , covering an area of 312,696 square kilometres ( 120,733 sq mi ) , and has a largely temperate seasonal climate . With a population of nearly 38.5 million people , Poland is the fifth most populous member state of the European Union . Poland 's capital and largest metropolis is Warsaw . Other major cities include Kraków , Łódź , Wrocław , Poznań , Gdańsk , and Szczecin . Poland is bordered by the Baltic Sea , Lithuania , and Russia 's Kaliningrad Oblast to the north , Belarus and Ukraine to the east , Slovakia and the Czech Republic to the south , and Germany to the west . The history of human activity on Polish soil spans almost 500,000 years . Throughout the Iron Age the area became extensively diverse , with various cultures and tribes settling on the vast Central European Plain . However , it was the Western Polans who dominated the region and gave Poland its name . The establishment of Polish statehood can be traced to AD 966 , when Mieszko I , ruler of the realm coextensive with the territory of present-day Poland , converted to Christianity . The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025 , and in 1569 it cemented its longstanding political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin . This union formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , one of the largest ( over 1,000,000 square kilometres - 400,000 square miles ) and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe , with a uniquely liberal political system which adopted Europe 's first written national constitution , the Constitution of 3 May 1791 .
Arin was a Yeniseian language spoken in Russia along the Yenisei River between Yeniseysk and Krasnoyarsk . It is classified as a Southern Yeniseian language , along with Pumpokol , Kott , and Assan . It is believed that the term Ar or Ara was used by speakers of Arin to refer to themselves . It became extinct in the 18th century . The closest known relative of Arin , Pumpokol , has been suggested to be the language of the ruling elite of the Xiongnu , as well as the Jie ruling class of the Later Zhao dynasty .
The Yeniseian languages ( sometimes known as Yeniseic or Yenisei-Ostyak ; [ notes 1 ] occasionally spelled with -ss- ) are a family of languages that were spoken by the Yeniseian people in the Yenisei River region of central Siberia . As part of the proposed Dené-Yeniseian language family , the Yeniseian languages have been part of the first demonstration of a genealogical link between Old World and New World language families that meets the standards of traditional comparative-historical linguistics . The only surviving language of the group today is Ket . From hydronymic and genetic data , it is suggested that the Yeniseian languages were spoken in a much greater area in ancient times , including parts of northern China and Mongolia . It has been further proposed that the recorded distribution of Yeniseian languages from the 17th century onward represents a relatively recent northward migration , and that the Yeniseian urheimat lies to the south of Lake Baikal . The Yeniseians have been connected to the Xiongnu , whose ruling elite are thought to have spoken a southern Yeniseian language similar to Pumpokol . The Jie , who ruled the Later Zhao state of northern China , are likewise believed to have spoken a Pumpokolic language based on linguistic and ethnogeographic data . Yeniseian languages are thought to have contributed many ubiquitous loanwords to Turkic and Mongolic vocabulary , such as Khan , Khagan , Tarqan , and the word for god and sky , Tengri . This conclusion has primarily been drawn from the analysis of preserved Xiongnu texts in the form of Chinese characters .
Siberia ( /saɪˈbɪəriə/ ; Russian : Сибирь , tr . Sibír ' , IPA : [ sʲɪˈbʲirʲ ] ( listen ) ) is an extensive geographical region spanning much of Eurasia and North Asia . Siberia has been part of modern Russia since the 17th century . The territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins . The Yenisei River conditionally divides Siberia into two parts , Western and Eastern . Siberia stretches southwards from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and to the national borders of Mongolia and China . With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres ( 5,100,000 sq mi ) , Siberia accounts for 77% of Russia 's land area , but it is home to approximately 33 million people - 23% of the country 's population . This is equivalent to an average population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 7.8/sq mi ) ( approximately equal to that of Australia ) , making Siberia one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth . If it were a country by itself , it would still be the largest country in area , but in population it would be the world 's 35th-largest and Asia 's 14th-largest . Worldwide , Siberia is well-known primarily for its long , harsh winters , with a January average of −25 °C ( −13 °F ) , as well as its extensive history of use by Russian and Soviet governments as a place for prisons , labor camps , and internal exile .
Plateau Sign Language , or Old Plateau Sign Language , is a poorly attested , extinct sign language historically used across the Columbian Plateau . The Crow Nation introduced Plains Sign Talk , which replaced Plateau Sign Language among the eastern nations that used it ( the Coeur dAlene , Sanpoil , Okanagan , Thompson , Lakes , Shuswap , and Coleville ) , with western nations [ which ? ] shifting instead to Chinook Jargon .
The Columbia Plateau is a geologic and geographic region that lies across parts of the U.S. states of Washington , Oregon , and Idaho . It is a wide flood basalt plateau between the Cascade Range and the Rocky Mountains , cut through by the Columbia River .
Coahuilteco was one of the Pakawan languages that was spoken in southern Texas ( United States ) and northeastern Coahuila ( Mexico ) . It is now extinct .
A language isolate , in the absolute sense , is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical ( or genetic ) relationship with other languages , one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common with any other language . Language isolates are in effect language families consisting of a single language . Commonly cited examples include Ainu , Basque , Sumerian , Elamite , and Vedda , though in each case a minority of linguists claim to have demonstrated a relationship with other languages . Some sources use the term language isolate to indicate a branch of a larger family with only one surviving member . For instance , Albanian , Armenian and Greek are commonly called Indo-European isolates . While part of the Indo-European family , they do not belong to any established branch ( such as the Romance , Indo-Iranian , Celtic , Slavic or Germanic branches ) , but instead form independent branches . Similarly , within the Romance languages , Sardinian is a relative isolate . However , without a qualifier , isolate is understood to mean having no demonstrable genetic relationship to any other known language . Some languages once seen as isolates may be reclassified as small families . This happened with Japanese ( now included in the Japonic family along with Ryukyuan languages such as Okinawan ) and Korean in Koreanic languages with Jeju language . The Etruscan language of Italy has long been considered an isolate , but some have proposed that it is related to the so-called Tyrsenian languages , an extinct family of closely related ancient languages proposed by Helmut Rix in 1998 , including the Rhaetian language , formerly spoken in the central Alps , and the Lemnian language , formerly spoken on the Greek island of Lemnos . Language isolates may be seen as a special case of unclassified languages that remain unclassified even after extensive efforts .
An unclassified language is a language whose genetic affiliation to other languages has not been established . Languages can be unclassified for a variety of reasons , mostly due to a lack of reliable data but sometimes due to the confounding influence of language contact , if different layers of its vocabulary or morphology point in different directions and it is not clear which represents the ancestral form of the language . Some poorly known extinct languages , such as Gutian and Cacán , are simply unclassifiable , and it is unlikely the situation will ever change . A supposedly unclassified language may turn out not to be a language at all , or even a distinct dialect , but merely a family , tribal or village name , or an alternative name for a people or language that is classified . If a language 's genetic relationship has not been established after significant documentation of the language and comparison with other languages and families , as in the case of Basque in Europe , it is considered a language isolate - that is , it is classified as a language family of its own . An 'unclassified ' language therefore is one which may still turn out to belong to an established family once better data is available or more thorough comparative research is done . Extinct unclassified languages for which little evidence has been preserved are likely to remain in limbo indefinitely , unless lost documents or a surviving speaking population are discovered .
Texas ( /ˈtɛksəs/ , locally /ˈtɛksɪz/ ; Spanish : Texas or Tejas , pronounced [ ˈtexas ] ( listen ) ) is the second largest state in the United States by area ( after Alaska ) and population ( after California ) . Located in the South Central region , Texas shares borders with the states of Louisiana to the east , Arkansas to the northeast , Oklahoma to the north , New Mexico to the west , and the Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas to the southwest , and has a coastline with the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast . Houston is the most populous city in Texas and the fourth largest in the U.S. , while San Antonio is the second-most populous in the state and seventh largest in the U.S. Dallas-Fort Worth and Greater Houston are the fourth and fifth largest metropolitan statistical areas in the country , respectively . Other major cities include Austin , the second-most populous state capital in the U.S. , and El Paso . Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State for its former status as an independent republic , and as a reminder of the state 's struggle for independence from Mexico . The Lone Star can be found on the Texas state flag and on the Texas state seal . The origin of Texas 's name is from the word taysha , which means friends in the Caddo language . Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault , Texas contains diverse landscapes common to both the U.S. Southern and Southwestern regions . Although Texas is popularly associated with the U.S. southwestern deserts , less than 10% of Texas 's land area is desert . Most of the population centers are in areas of former prairies , grasslands , forests , and the coastline . Traveling from east to west , one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods , to rolling plains and rugged hills , and finally the desert and mountains of the Big Bend . The term six flags over Texas [ note 1 ] refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory .
Etchemin was a language of the Algonquian language family , spoken in early colonial times on the coast of Maine . The word Etchemin is thought to be either French alteration of an Algonquian word for canoe or a translation of Skidijn the native word for people in use by the inhabitants of the St. John , Passamaquoddy and St. Croix Rivers . The only known record of the Etchemin language is a list of the numbers from one to ten recorded by Marc Lescarbot in the early 17th century and published in his book The History of New France ( 1609 ) . The numerals in the list match those of Malecite-Passamaquoddy , Eastern Abenaki , as well as languages of southern New England such as Wampanoag , but as a set they do not match any other Algonquian language . The Etchemin language disappeared not long after Lescarbot 's visit , and it is unknown what became of the tribe . All other language records called 'Etchemin ' , under more detailed analysis , appear to be the neighboring Malecite-Passamaquoddy language .
Maine ( /meɪn/ ( listen ) ) is the northernmost state in the northeastern United States . Maine is the 12th smallest by area , the 9th least populous , and the 13th least densely populated of the 50 U.S. states . Located in New England , it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west , the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast , and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Québec to the northeast and northwest , respectively . Maine is the only state to border exactly one other state , is the easternmost among the contiguous United States , and is the northernmost state east of the Great Lakes . Maine is known for its jagged , rocky coastline ; low , rolling mountains ; heavily forested interior ; and picturesque waterways , as well as its seafood cuisine , especially lobster and clams . There is a humid continental climate throughout most of the state , including coastal areas . Maine 's most populous city is Portland and its capital is Augusta . For thousands of years , indigenous peoples were the only inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine . At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine , several Algonquian-speaking peoples inhabited the area . The first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island , by Pierre Dugua , Sieur de Mons . The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony , established by the Plymouth Company in 1607 . A number of English settlements were established along the coast of Maine in the 1620s , although the rugged climate , deprivations , and conflict with the local peoples caused many to fail over the years .
Chibcha is an extinct language of Colombia , spoken by the Muisca , one of the many advanced indigenous civilizations of the Americas . The Muisca inhabited the central highlands ( Altiplano Cundiboyacense ) of what today is the country of Colombia . The name of the language Muysc Cubun in its own language means language of the people or language of the men , from muysca ( people or men ) and cubun ( language or word ) . Important scholars who have contributed to the knowledge of the Chibcha language were Juan de Castellanos , Bernardo de Lugo , José Domingo Duquesne and Ezequiel Uricoechea .
The Chibchan languages ( also Chibchan , Chibchano ) make up a language family indigenous to the Isthmo-Colombian Area , which extends from eastern Honduras to northern Colombia and includes populations of these countries as well as Nicaragua , Costa Rica , and Panama . The name is derived from the name of an extinct language called Chibcha or Muysccubun , once spoken by the people who lived on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense of which the city of Bogotá was the southern capital at the time of the Spanish Conquista . However , genetic and linguistic data now indicate that the original heart of Chibchan languages and Chibchan-speaking peoples may not have been in Colombia at all , but in the area of the Costa Rica-Panama border , where one finds the greatest variety of Chibchan languages .
Colombia ( /kəˈlʌmbiə/ ( listen ) kə-LUM-bee-ə , /-ˈlɒm-/ -⁠LOM- ; Spanish : [ koˈlombja ] ( listen ) ) , officially the Republic of Colombia ( Spanish : República de Colombia ( help·info ) ) , [ Note 1 ] is a country largely situated in the north of South America , with land and territories in North America . Colombia is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea , the northwest by Panama , the south by both Ecuador and Peru , the east by Venezuela , the southeast by Brazil , and the west by the Pacific . It comprises thirty-two departments , with the capital in Bogotá . Colombia is ethnically and linguistically diverse , with its rich cultural heritage reflecting influences by various Amerindian civilizations , European settlement , forced African labor , and immigration from Europe and the greater Middle East . Urban centres are concentrated in the Andean highlands and the Caribbean coast . Colombia has been inhabited by various American Indian peoples since at least 12,000 BCE , including the Muisca , Quimbaya , and the Tairona . Spaniards arrived in 1499 and by the mid-16th century annexed part of the region , establishing the New Kingdom of Granada , with Santafé de Bogotá as its capital . Independence from Spain was achieved in 1819 , but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved , with what is now Colombia and Panama emerging as the Republic of New Granada . The new sovereign state experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation ( 1858 ) , and then the United States of Colombia ( 1863 ) , before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886 . Panama seceded in 1903 , leading to Colombia 's present borders . Beginning in the 1960s , the country suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict and political violence , both of which escalated in the 1990s . Since 2005 , there has been significant improvement in security , stability , and rule of law .
Classical Gaelic ( Scottish Gaelic : Gàidhlig Chlasaigeach ; Irish : Gaeilge Chlasaiceach ) was the shared literary form that was in use in Scotland and Ireland from the 13th century to the 18th century . The language may be thought of as a high-register version of Early Modern Irish . Although the first written signs of Scottish Gaelic having diverged from Irish appear as far back as the 12th century annotations of the Book of Deer , Scottish Gaelic did not have a standardised form and did not appear in print on a significant scale until the 1767 translation of the New Testament into Scottish Gaelic although John Carswell 's Foirm na n-Urrnuidheadh , an adaptation of John Knox 's Book of Common Order , was the first book printed in either Scottish or Irish Gaelic .