List of former national capitals
Asia -- Southwest Asia
Table:
Old capital city

Country

Today a part of

From

Until

Change, reason

Assur

Assyria

Iraq

fl. 2600 BC

9th century BC

moved to Calah

Calah (Nimrud)

Assyria

Iraq

13th Century BC

710 BC

Moved to Nineveh

Nineveh

Assyria

Iraq

1800 BC

600 BC

Destroyed by Babylonians

Babylon

Babylonia

Iraq

24th Century BC

141 BC

Conquered by Assyrians, Persians, Parthians, Alexander the Great, later abandoned completely

Mtskheta

Iberia, Kingdom of

Georgia

3rd century BC

5th century

Capital moved to Tbilisi by Dachi of Iberia

Susa, Anshan (Persia)

Proto-Elamite, Elam

Iran

3200 BC

850 BC

Conquered by Mannaeans

Zirta (Izirtu)

Mannaeans

Iran

850 BC

728 BC

Conquered by Median Empire

Ecbatana

Median Empire

Iran

728 BC

550 BC

captured by Cyrus the Great

Pasargadae

Persian Empire

Iran

559 BC

538 BC

Capital moved to Susa by Cambyses II

Susa

Persian Empire

Iran

538 BC

515 BC

Capital moved to Persepolis by Darius

Persepolis

Persian Empire

Iran

515 BC

331 BC

captured by Alexander the Great and incorporated into Macedonian Empire

Seleucia

Seleucid Empire

Iran

305 BC

240 BC

moved to Antioch

Antioch

Seleucid Empire

Iran

240 BC

64 BC

conquered by Parthia

Ctesiphon, Hecatompylos, Mithridatkird-Nisa, Asaak

Parthian Empire

Iran

240 BC

224

conquered by Sassanid Empire

Firouzabad, Ctesiphon, Damghan

Sassanid Empire

Iran

224

637

fell in Islamic conquest of Persia

Nishapur

Tahirid dynasty

Iran

821

873

conquered by Saffarid dynasty

Zaranj, Amol

Saffarid dynasty, Alavids

Iran

861

900

conquered by Samanid

Bukhara, Balkh, Samarkand, Herat

Samanid dynasty

Iran

875

999

conquered by Ghaznavids

Ghazni

Ghaznavids, Ghurids

Iran

963

1212

conquered by Seljuq dynasty

Nishapur, Rey, Konye-Urgench

Seljuq dynasty, Khwarezmid dynasty

Iran

1037

1231

conquered by Ilkhanate

Using the given table together with the background passages below.

Solve the question: Who chose this city as the capital of the ancient kingdom bounded by the Zagros Mountains to its west until early 7th centuries BC ? Provide just your answer in a JSON object {"answer": "YOUR ANSWER"}.

Aššur , also known as Ashur and Qal'at Sherqat , was the capital of the Old Assyrian Empire ( 2025-1750 BC ) , the Middle Assyrian Empire ( 1365-1050 BC ) , and for a time , of the Neo-Assyrian Empire ( 911-608 BC ) . The remains of the city lie on the western bank of the Tigris River , north of the confluence with its tributary , the Little Zab , in what is now Iraq , more precisely in the al-Shirqat District of the Saladin Governorate . Occupation of the city itself continued for approximately 4,000 years , from c. 2600 BC to the mid-14th century AD , when the forces of Timur massacred its population . The site is a World Heritage Site , having been added to that organisation 's list of sites in danger in 2003 following the conflict that erupted following the 2003 invasion of Iraq and as a result of a proposed dam which would flood some of the site . Assur lies 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) south of the site of Nimrud and 100 km ( 60 mi ) south of Nineveh .
Assyria ( /əˈsɪəriə/ ) , also called the Assyrian Empire , was a Mesopotamian kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East and the Levant that existed as a state from perhaps as early as the 25th century BC ( in the form of the Assur city-state ) until its collapse between 612 BC and 609 BC - spanning the periods of the Early to Middle Bronze Age through to the late Iron Age . From the end of the seventh century BC ( when the Neo-Assyrian state fell ) to the mid-seventh century AD , it survived as a geopolitical entity , for the most part ruled by foreign powers such as the Parthian and early Sasanian Empires between the mid-second century BC and late third century AD , the final part of which period saw Mesopotamia become a major centre of Syriac Christianity and the birthplace of the Church of the East . A largely Semitic-speaking realm , Assyria was centred on the Tigris in Upper Mesopotamia . The Assyrians came to rule powerful empires in several periods . Making up a substantial part of the greater Mesopotamian cradle of civilization , which included Sumer , the Akkadian Empire , and Babylonia , Assyria reached the height of technological , scientific and cultural achievements for its time . At its peak , the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911 to 609 BC stretched from eastern Libya and Cyprus in the East Mediterranean to Iran , and from present-day Armenia and Azerbaijan in the Transcaucasia to the Arabian Peninsula . The name Assyria originates with the Assyrian state 's original capital , the ancient city of Aššur , which dates to c. 2600 BC - originally one of a number of Akkadian-speaking city-states in Mesopotamia . In the 25th and 24th centuries BC , Assyrian kings were pastoral leaders . From the late 24th century BC , the Assyrians became subject to Sargon of Akkad , who united all the Akkadian- and Sumerian-speaking peoples of Mesopotamia under the Akkadian Empire , which lasted from c. 2334 BC to 2154 BC . After the Assyrian Empire fell from power , the greater remaining part of Assyria formed a geopolitical region and province of other empires , although between the mid-2nd century BC and late 3rd century AD a patchwork of small independent Assyrian kingdoms arose in the form of Assur , Adiabene , Osroene , Beth Nuhadra , Beth Garmai and Hatra . The region of Assyria fell under the successive control of the Median Empire of 678 to 549 BC , the Achaemenid Empire of 550 to 330 BC , the Macedonian Empire ( late 4th century BC ) , the Seleucid Empire of 312 to 63 BC , the Parthian Empire of 247 BC to 224 AD , the Roman Empire ( from 116 to 118 AD ) and the Sasanian Empire of 224 to 651 AD . The Arab Islamic conquest of the area in the mid-seventh century finally dissolved Assyria ( Assuristan ) as a single entity , after which the remnants of the Assyrian people ( by now Christians ) gradually became an ethnic , linguistic , cultural and religious minority in the Assyrian homeland , surviving there to this day as an indigenous people of the region .
Iraq ( /ɪˈræk/ , /ɪˈrɑːk/ ( listen ) or /aɪˈræk/ ; Arabic : اَلْعِرَاق , al-ʿirāq ; Kurdish : عێراق Êraq ) , officially the Republic of Iraq ( Arabic : جُمْهُورِيَّة ٱلْعِرَاقِ Jumhūriyyah al-ʿIrāq ; Kurdish : کۆماری عێراق Komarî Êraq ) , is a country in Western Asia , bordered by Turkey to the north , Iran to the east , Kuwait to the southeast , Saudi Arabia to the south , Jordan to the southwest and Syria to the west . The capital , and largest city , is Baghdad . Iraq is home to diverse ethnic groups including Arabs , Kurds , Assyrians , Turkmen , Shabakis , Yazidis , Armenians , Mandeans , Circassians and Kawliya . Around 99% of the country 's 38 million citizens are Muslims , with tiny minorities of Christians , Yarsans , Yezidis and Mandeans also present . The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish . Iraq has a coastline measuring 58 km ( 36 miles ) on the northern Persian Gulf and encompasses the Mesopotamian Alluvial Plain , the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range and the eastern part of the Syrian Desert . Two major rivers , the Tigris and Euphrates , run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf . These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land . The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers , historically known as Mesopotamia , is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation . It was here that mankind first began to read , write , create laws and live in cities under an organised government - notably Uruk , from which Iraq is derived . The area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC . Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian , Sumerian , Assyrian and Babylonian empires .
Nimrud ( /nɪmˈruːd/ ; Arabic : النمرود ) is an ancient Assyrian city located 30 kilometres ( 20 mi ) south of the city of Mosul , and 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) south of the village of Selamiyah ( Arabic : السلامية ) , in the Nineveh plains in Upper Mesopotamia . It was a major Assyrian city between approximately 1350 BC and 610 BC . The city is located in a strategic position 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) north of the point that the river Tigris meets its tributary the Great Zab . The city covered an area of 360 hectares ( 890 acres ) . The ruins of the city were found within one kilometre ( 1,100 yd ) of the modern-day Assyrian village of Noomanea in Nineveh Governorate , Iraq . The name Nimrud was recorded as the local name by Carsten Niebuhr in the mid-18th century . [ note 1 ] In the mid 19th century , biblical archaeologists proposed the Biblical name of Kalhu ( the Biblical Calah ) , based on a description of the travels of Nimrod in Genesis 10 . [ note 2 ] Archaeological excavations at the site began in 1845 , and were conducted at intervals between then and 1879 , and then from 1949 onwards . Many important pieces were discovered , with most being moved to museums in Iraq and abroad . In 2013 , the UK 's Arts and Humanities Research Council funded the Nimrud Project , directed by Eleanor Robson , whose aims were to write the history of the city in ancient and modern times , to identify and record the dispersal history of artefacts from Nimrud , distributed amongst at least 76 museums worldwide ( including 36 in the United States and 13 in the United Kingdom ) . In 2015 , the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) announced its intention to destroy the site because of its un-Islamic Assyrian nature . In March 2015 , the Iraqi government reported that ISIL had used bulldozers to destroy excavated remains of the city .
Nimrud ( /nɪmˈruːd/ ; Arabic : النمرود ) is an ancient Assyrian city located 30 kilometres ( 20 mi ) south of the city of Mosul , and 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) south of the village of Selamiyah ( Arabic : السلامية ) , in the Nineveh plains in Upper Mesopotamia . It was a major Assyrian city between approximately 1350 BC and 610 BC . The city is located in a strategic position 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) north of the point that the river Tigris meets its tributary the Great Zab . The city covered an area of 360 hectares ( 890 acres ) . The ruins of the city were found within one kilometre ( 1,100 yd ) of the modern-day Assyrian village of Noomanea in Nineveh Governorate , Iraq . The name Nimrud was recorded as the local name by Carsten Niebuhr in the mid-18th century . [ note 1 ] In the mid 19th century , biblical archaeologists proposed the Biblical name of Kalhu ( the Biblical Calah ) , based on a description of the travels of Nimrod in Genesis 10 . [ note 2 ] Archaeological excavations at the site began in 1845 , and were conducted at intervals between then and 1879 , and then from 1949 onwards . Many important pieces were discovered , with most being moved to museums in Iraq and abroad . In 2013 , the UK 's Arts and Humanities Research Council funded the Nimrud Project , directed by Eleanor Robson , whose aims were to write the history of the city in ancient and modern times , to identify and record the dispersal history of artefacts from Nimrud , distributed amongst at least 76 museums worldwide ( including 36 in the United States and 13 in the United Kingdom ) . In 2015 , the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) announced its intention to destroy the site because of its un-Islamic Assyrian nature . In March 2015 , the Iraqi government reported that ISIL had used bulldozers to destroy excavated remains of the city .
Nineveh ( /ˈnɪnɪvə/ ; Arabic : نَيْنَوَىٰ Naynawā ; Syriac : ܢܝܼܢܘܹܐ ; Akkadian : 𒌷𒉌𒉡𒀀 URUNI.NU.A Ninua ) was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia , located on the outskirts of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq . It is located on the eastern bank of the Tigris River and was the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire . Today it is a common name for the half of Mosul that lies on the eastern bank of the Tigris and the Nineveh Governorate takes its name from it . It was the largest city in the world for approximately fifty years until the year 612 BC when , after a bitter period of civil war in Assyria , it was sacked by a coalition of its former subject peoples , the Babylonians , Medes , Chaldeans , Persians , Scythians and Cimmerians . Its ruins are across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul , in Iraq 's Nineveh Governorate . The two main tells , or mound-ruins , within the walls are Kuyunjiq ( Kuyuncuk ) and Tell Nabī Yūnus . Large amounts of Assyrian sculpture and other artifacts have been excavated and are now located in museums around the world . The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) occupied the site during the mid-2010s , during which time they bulldozed several of the monuments there and caused considerable damage to the others . Iraqi forces recaptured the area in January 2017 .
Babylon was the capital city of Babylonia , a kingdom in ancient Mesopotamia , between the 18th and 6th centuries BC . It was built along the left and right banks of the Euphrates river with steep embankments to contain the river 's seasonal floods . Babylon was originally a small Akkadian town dating from the period of the Akkadian Empire c. 2300 BC . The town became part of a small independent city-state with the rise of the First Babylonian dynasty in the 19th century BC . The Amorite king Hammurabi created a short-lived empire in the 18th century BC . He built Babylon into a major city and declared himself its king . Southern Mesopotamia became known as Babylonia and Babylon eclipsed Nippur as its holy city . The empire waned under Hammurabi 's son Samsu-iluna and Babylon spent long periods under Assyrian , Kassite and Elamite domination . After being destroyed and then rebuilt by the Assyrians , Babylon became the capital of the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire from 609 to 539 BC . The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire , the city came under the rule of the Achaemenid , Seleucid , Parthian , Roman , and Sassanid empires . It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world c. 1770 - c. 1670 BC , and again c. 612 - c. 320 BC .
Babylonia ( /ˌbæbɪˈloʊniə/ ) was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in central-southern Mesopotamia ( present-day Iraq ) . A small Amorite-ruled state emerged in 1894 BC , which contained the minor administrative town of Babylon . It was merely a small provincial town during the Akkadian Empire ( 2335-2154 BC ) but greatly expanded during the reign of Hammurabi in the first half of the 18th century BC and became a major capital city . During the reign of Hammurabi and afterwards , Babylonia was called the country of Akkad ( Māt Akkadī in Akkadian ) , a deliberate archaism in reference to the previous glory of the Akkadian Empire . It was often involved in rivalry with the older state of Assyria to the north and Elam to the east in Ancient Iran . Babylonia briefly became the major power in the region after Hammurabi ( fl . c. 1792-1752 BC middle chronology , or c. 1696-1654 BC , short chronology ) created a short-lived empire , succeeding the earlier Akkadian Empire , Third Dynasty of Ur , and Old Assyrian Empire . The Babylonian Empire , however , rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi and reverted to a small kingdom . Like Assyria , the Babylonian state retained the written Akkadian language ( the language of its native populace ) for official use , despite its Northwest Semitic-speaking Amorite founders and Kassite successors , who spoke a language isolate , not being native Mesopotamians . It retained the Sumerian language for religious use ( as did Assyria ) , but already by the time Babylon was founded , this was no longer a spoken language , having been wholly subsumed by Akkadian . The earlier Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in Babylonian and Assyrian culture , and the region would remain an important cultural center , even under its protracted periods of outside rule . The earliest mention of the city of Babylon can be found in a clay tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad ( 2334-2279 BC ) , dating back to the 23rd century BC .
Mtskheta ( Georgian : მცხეთა , translit . : mtskheta [ mtsʰxɛtʰɑ ] ) is a city in Mtskheta-Mtianeti province of Georgia . One of the oldest cities of Georgia and its former capital , it is located approximately 20 kilometres ( 12 miles ) north of Tbilisi , at the confluence of the Mtkvari and Aragvi rivers . Currently a small provincial capital , for nearly a millennium until the 5th century AD , Mtskheta was large fortified city , a significant economical and political centre of the Kingdom of Iberia . Due to its historical significance and several cultural monuments , the Historical Monuments of Mtskheta became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994 . As the birthplace and one of the most vibrant centers of Christianity in Georgia , Mtskheta was declared as the Holy City by the Georgian Orthodox Church in 2014 . In 2016 the Historical Monuments of Mtskheta were placed by UNESCO under Enhanced Protection , a mechanism established by the 1999 Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict .
Kingdom of Iberia may refer to :
Georgia ( Georgian : საქართველო , translit . : sakartvelo , IPA : [ sɑkʰɑrtʰvɛlɔ ] ( listen ) ) , known until 1995 as the Republic of Georgia ( Georgian : საქართველოს რესპუბლიკა , translit . : sakartvelos resp'ublik ' a ) is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia . Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe , it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea , to the north by Russia , to the south by Turkey and Armenia , and to the southeast by Azerbaijan . The capital and largest city is Tbilisi . Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 square kilometres ( 26,911 sq mi ) , and its 2017 population is about 3.718 million . Georgia is a unitary parliamentary republic , with the government elected through a representative democracy . During the classical era , several independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia , such as Colchis and Iberia . The Georgians officially adopted Christianity in the early 4th century . The Georgian Orthodox Church had enormous importance for the spiritual and political unification of early Georgian states . The unified Kingdom of Georgia reached its Golden Age during the reign of King David the Builder and Queen Tamar the Great in the 12th and early 13th centuries . Thereafter , the kingdom declined and eventually disintegrated under the hegemony of various regional powers , including the Mongols , the Ottoman Empire and successive dynasties of Iran .
Tbilisi ( English : /təbɪˈliːsi , təˈbɪlɪsi/ tə-bih-LEE-see , tə-BIL-ih-see ; Georgian : თბილისი [ tʰbilisi ] ( listen ) ) , in some countries also still known by its pre-1936 international designation Tiflis ( /ˈtɪflɪs/ TIF-lis ) , is the capital and the largest city of Georgia , lying on the banks of the Kura River with a population of approximately 1.5 million people . Tbilisi was founded in the 5th century AD by Vakhtang I of Iberia , and since then has served as the capital of various Georgian kingdoms and republics . Between 1801 and 1917 , then part of the Russian Empire , Tbilisi was the seat of the Imperial Viceroy , governing both Southern and Northern Caucasus . Because of its location on the crossroads between Europe and Asia , and its proximity to the lucrative Silk Road , throughout history Tbilisi was a point of contention among various global powers . The city 's location to this day ensures its position as an important transit route for various energy and trade projects . Tbilisi 's diverse history is reflected in its architecture , which is a mix of medieval , neoclassical , Beaux Arts , Art Nouveau , Stalinist and the Modern structures . Historically , Tbilisi has been home to people of multiple cultural , ethnic , and religious backgrounds , though it is currently overwhelmingly Eastern Orthodox Christian . Its notable tourist destinations include cathedrals Sameba and Sioni , Freedom Square , Rustaveli Avenue and Agmashenebeli Avenue , medieval Narikala Fortress , the pseudo-Moorish Opera Theater , and the Georgian National Museum . The climate in Tbilisi mostly ranges from 18 to 30 °C ( 64 to 86 °F ) .
Dachi ( Georgian : დაჩი , also Darchi , დარჩი , or Darchil , დარჩილი ) , of the Chosroid Dynasty , was the king of Iberia ( Kartli , eastern Georgia ) reigning , according to a medieval Georgian literary tradition , for 12 years , from c. 522 to 534 . He was given a territorial epithet Ujarmeli ( უჯარმელი , i.e. , of/from Ujarma ) for having spent years at his residence at Ujarma . According to the medieval Georgian chronicles , Dachi was the eldest son of King Vakhtang I Gorgasal by Balendukht , daughter of the Iranian Sassanid king Hormizd III . He succeeded his father , who had launched an abortive rebellion against the Sassanid hegemony , and took a more conciliatory line with his Iranian suzerains . From his base at Ujarma in Kakheti , which had constituted the royal demesne from the days of the early Chosroids , he spent special missionary efforts to further Christianize his mountainous subjects . He also enlarged the town of Tbilisi and completed the construction of its citadel which had been founded by his father . Dachi was succeeded by his son , Bacurius II .
Susa was an ancient city of the Proto-Elamite , Elamite , First Persian Empire , Seleucid , Parthian , and Sasanian empires of Iran , and one of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East . It is located in the lower Zagros Mountains about 250 km ( 160 mi ) east of the Tigris River , between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers . The site now consists of three gigantic mounds , occupying an area of about one square kilometer , known as the Apadana mound , the Acropolis mound , and the Ville Royale ( royal town ) mound . The modern Iranian town of Shush is located on the site of ancient Susa . Shush is identified as Shushan , mentioned in the Book of Esther and other Biblical books .
Anshan ( Sumerian : 𒀭𒍝𒀭 Anzan ) , modern Tall-e Malyan ( Persian : تل ملیان ) , was an ancient city in Persia . It was located in the Zagros Mountains in southwestern Iran , approximately 46 kilometres ( 29 mi ) north of Shiraz and 43 kilometres ( 27 mi ) west of Persepolis in the Beyza/Ramjerd plain , in the province of Fars . Its location serves as a landmark for Elamite studies . It was one of the earliest urban states of the Mesopotamian area and earliest capitals of Elam from the late 4th century BC . It fell under the rule of the Persians in the 7th century BC and then became one of the early capitals of Persia . Most of what is known about Anshan has been discovered through ancient artifacts discovered in archaeological digs at Tall-e Malyan and passages in early Elamite texts .
The Proto-Elamite period , also known as Susa III , is the time from ca . 3400 BC to 2500 BC in the area of Elam . In archaeological terms this corresponds to the late Banesh period , and it is recognized as the oldest civilization in Iran . The Proto-Elamite script is an Early Bronze Age writing system briefly in use before the introduction of Elamite cuneiform .
Elam ( /ˈiːləm/ ; Elamite : 𒁹𒄬𒆷𒁶𒋾 haltamti ; Sumerian : 𒉏𒈠𒆠 NIM.MAki ; Hebrew : עֵילָם ʿÊlām ; Old Persian : 𐎢𐎺𐎩 Ūvja ) was an ancient Pre-Iranian civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran , stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq . The modern name Elam stems from the Sumerian transliteration elam ( a ) , along with the later Akkadian elamtu , and the Elamite haltamti . Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East . In classical literature Elam was also known as Susiana ( US : /ˌsuːʒiˈænə/ UK : /ˌsuːziˈɑːnə/ ; Ancient Greek : Σουσιανή Sousiānḗ ) , a name derived from its capital Susa . Elam was part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period ( Copper Age ) . The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history , where slightly earlier records have been found . In the Old Elamite period ( Middle Bronze Age ) , Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau , centered in Anshan , and from the mid-2nd millennium BC , it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands . Its culture played a crucial role during the Persian Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded Elam , when the Elamite language remained among those in official use . Elamite is generally considered a language isolate unrelated to the much later arriving Persian and Iranic languages ; however , some linguists hypothesize that Elamite and the Dravidian languages of India belong to the same language family . In accordance with geographical and archaeological matches , some historians argue that the Elamites comprise a large portion of the ancestors of the modern day Lurs , whose language , Luri , split from Middle Persian .
Iran ( Persian : ایران Irān [ ʔiːˈɾɒːn ] ( listen ) ) , also called Persia , and officially the Islamic Republic of Iran ( Persian : جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān ( listen ) [ dʒomhuːˌɾije eslɒːˌmije ʔiːˈɾɒn ] ) , is a country in Western Asia . With 82 million inhabitants , Iran is the world 's 18th most populous country . Its territory spans 1,648,195 km2 ( 636,372 sq mi ) , making it the second largest country in the Middle East and the 17th largest in the world . Iran is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan , [ a ] to the north by the Caspian Sea , to the northeast by Turkmenistan , to the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan , to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman , and to the west by Turkey and Iraq . Its central location in Eurasia and Western Asia , and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz , give it geostrategic importance . Tehran is the political and economic center of Iran , and the largest and most populous city in Western Asia with more than 8.8 million residents in the city and 15 million in the larger metropolitan area . Iran is home to one of the world 's oldest civilizations , beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BCE . It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BCE , and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BCE under Cyrus the Great , whose Achaemenid Empire stretched from Eastern Europe to the Indus Valley , one of the largest empires in history . The empire fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE and was divided into several Hellenistic states . An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BCE , which was succeeded in the third century CE by the Sasanian Empire , a leading world power for the next four centuries . Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century CE , and the subsequent Islamization of Iran led to the decline of the once dominant Zoroastrian religion . Iran 's major contributions to art , philosophy , and science spread throughout the Muslim world and beyond during the Islamic Golden Age .
The Mannaeans /məˈniːənz/ ( country name usually Mannea ; Akkadian : Mannai , Biblical Hebrew Minni , ( מנּי ) were an ancient people who lived in the territory of present-day northwestern Iran south of lake Urmia , around the 10th to 7th centuries BC . At that time they were neighbors of the empires of Assyria and Urartu , as well as other small buffer states between the two , such as Musasir and Zikirta . In the Bible ( Jeremiah 51:27 ) the Mannaeans are called Minni . In the Jewish Encyclopedia ( 1906 ) , Minni is identified with Iranian Azerbaijan , but it could refer to one of the provinces in ancient Armenia ; Minni , Ararat and Ashkenaz . According to examinations of the place and personal names found in Assyrian and Urartian texts , the Mannaeans , or at least their rulers , spoke Hurrian , a non-Semitic and non-Indo-European language related to Urartian , with no modern language connections .
The Medes [ N 1 ] were an ancient Iranian people [ N 2 ] who spoke the Median language and who inhabited an area known as Media between western and northern Iran . Late 9th to early 7th centuries BC , the region of Media was bounded by the Zagros Mountains to its west , to its south by the Garrin Mountain in Lorestan Province , to its northwest by the Qaflankuh Mountains in Zanjan Province , and to its east by the Dasht-e Kavir desert . Its neighbors were the kingdoms of Gizilbunda and Mannea in the northwest , and Ellipi and Elam in the south . In the 8th century BC , Media 's tribes came together to form the Median Kingdom , which became a Neo-Assyrian vassal . Between 616 and 609 BC , King Cyaxares ( 624-585 BC ) allied with King Nabopolassar of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and destroyed the Neo-Assyrian Empire , after which the Median Empire stretched across the Iranian Plateau as far as Anatolia . Its precise geographical extent remains unknown . A few archaeological sites ( discovered in the Median triangle in western Iran ) and textual sources ( from contemporary Assyrians and also ancient Greeks in later centuries ) provide a brief documentation of the history and culture of the Median state . Apart from a few personal names , the language of the Medes is unknown . The Medes had an ancient Iranian religion ( a form of pre-Zoroastrian Mazdaism or Mithra worshipping ) with a priesthood named as Magi . Later , during the reigns of the last Median kings , the reforms of Zoroaster spread into western Iran . [ citation needed ]
Ecbatana ( /ɛkˈbætənə/ ; Old Persian : 𐏃𐎥𐎶𐎫𐎠𐎴 Hagmatāna or Haŋmatāna , literally the place of gathering , Elamite : 𒀝𒈠𒁕𒈾 Ag-ma-da-na Middle Persian : 𐭠𐭧𐭬𐭲𐭠𐭭‏ and Parthian : 𐭀𐭇𐭌𐭕𐭍 Ahmadān , Aramaic : אַחְמְתָא Aḥmeta , Ancient Greek : Ἀγβάτανα in Aeschylus and Herodotus , Ἐκβάτανα , Akkadian : 𒆳𒀀𒃵𒋫𒉡 kura-gam-ta-nu in the Nabonidus Chronicle ) was an ancient city in Media in western Iran . It is believed that Ecbatana is in Hagmatana Hill ( Tappe-ye Hagmatāna ) , an archaeological mound in Hamedan . According to Herodotus , Ecbatana was chosen as the Medes ' capital in the late 8th century BC by Deioces . Under the Achaemenid Persian kings , Ecbatana , situated at the foot of Mount Alvand , became a summer residence . Later , it became the capital of the Parthian kings , at which time it became their main mint , producing drachm , tetradrachm , and assorted bronze denominations . The wealth and importance of the city in the Persian empire is attributed to its location on a crucial crossroads that made it a staging post on the main East-West highway . In 330 BC , Ecbatana was the site of the assassination of the Macedonian general Parmenion by order of Alexander the Great .
Cyrus II of Persia , commonly known as Cyrus the Great , and also called Cyrus the Elder by the Greeks , was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire , the first Persian Empire . Under his rule , the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East , expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Western Asia and much of Central Asia . From the Mediterranean Sea and Hellespont in the west to the Indus River in the east , Cyrus the Great created the largest empire the world had yet seen . Under his successors , the empire eventually stretched at its maximum extent from parts of the Balkans ( Bulgaria-Paeonia and Thrace-Macedonia ) and Eastern Europe proper in the west , to the Indus Valley in the east . His regal titles in full were The Great King , King of Persia , King of Anshan , King of Media , King of Babylon , King of Sumer and Akkad , and King of the Four Corners of the World . The Nabonidus Chronicle notes the change in his title from simply King of Anshan , a city , to King of Persia . Assyriologist François Vallat wrote that When Astyages marched against Cyrus , Cyrus is called 'King of Anshan , but when Cyrus crosses the Tigris on his way to Lydia , he is 'King of Persia . ' The coup therefore took place between these two events . The reign of Cyrus the Great lasted c. 30 years . Cyrus built his empire by first conquering the Median Empire , then the Lydian Empire , and eventually the Neo-Babylonian Empire . He led an expedition into Central Asia , which resulted in major campaigns that were described as having brought into subjection every nation without exception . Cyrus did not venture into Egypt , and was alleged to have died in battle , fighting the Massagetae along the Syr Darya in December 530 BC .
Pasargadae ( from Ancient Greek : Πασαργάδαι , from Old Persian Pāθra-gadā , protective club or strong club ; Modern Persian : پاسارگاد Pāsārgād ) was the capital of the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great ( 559-530 BCE ) , who ordered its construction . Today it is an archaeological site and one of Iran 's UNESCO World Heritage Sites , about 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) to the northeast of the modern city of Shiraz . A limestone tomb there is believed to be that of Cyrus the Great .
The Achaemenid Empire ( /əˈkiːmənɪd/ ; 𐎧𐏁𐏂 Xšāça ( Old Persian ) The Empire c. 550-330 BC ) , also called the First Persian Empire , was an ancient Iranian empire based in Western Asia founded by Cyrus the Great . Ranging at its greatest extent from the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper in the west to the Indus Valley in the east , it was larger than any previous empire in history , spanning 5.5 million square kilometers . Incorporating various peoples of different origins and faiths , it is notable for its successful model of a centralised , bureaucratic administration ( through satraps under the King of Kings ) , for building infrastructure such as road systems and a postal system , the use of an official language across its territories , and the development of civil services and a large professional army . The empire 's successes inspired similar systems in later empires . By the 7th century BC , the Persians had settled in the south-western portion of the Iranian Plateau in the region of Persis , which came to be their heartland . From this region , Cyrus the Great advanced to defeat the Medes , Lydia , and the Neo-Babylonian Empire , establishing the Achaemenid Empire . Alexander the Great , an avid admirer of Cyrus the Great , conquered most of the empire by 330 BC . Upon Alexander 's death , most of the empire 's former territory fell under the rule of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire , in addition to other minor territories which gained independence at that time . The Iranian elites of the central plateau reclaimed power by the second century BC under the Parthian Empire . The Achaemenid Empire is noted in Western history as the antagonist of the Greek city-states during the Greco-Persian Wars and for the emancipation of the Jewish exiles in Babylon . The historical mark of the empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural , social , technological and religious influences as well . Despite the lasting conflict between the two states , many Athenians adopted Achaemenid customs in their daily lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange , some being employed by or allied to the Persian kings .
Cambyses II ( Old Persian : 𐎣𐎲𐎢𐎪𐎡𐎹 Kabūjiya ) was the second King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 530 to 522 BC . He was the son and successor of Cyrus the Great ( r. 550 - 530 BC ) and his mother was Cassandane . Before his accession , Cambyses had briefly served as the governor of northern Babylonia under his father from April 539 BC to December 538 BC . Afterwards , he continued to roam in the Babylonian cities of Babylon and Sippar , before being appointed by his father as co-ruler in 530 BC , who set off to mount an expedition against the Massagetae of Central Asia , where he met his end . Cambyses thus became the sole ruler of the vast Achaemenid Empire , facing no noticeable opposition . His relatively brief reign was marked by his conquests in Africa , notably Egypt , which he conquered after his victory over the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik III ( r. 526 - 525 BC ) at the battle of Pelusium in 525 BC . After having established himself in Egypt , he expanded his holdings in Africa even further , such as his conquest of Cyrenaica . In the spring of 522 BC , Cambyses hurriedly left Egypt to deal with a rebellion in Persia . While en route in Syria ( Eber-Nari ) , he received a wound to the thigh , which was soon affected by gangrene . Cambyses died three weeks later at a location called Agbatana , which is most likely the modern city of Hama . He died childless , and was thus succeeded by his younger brother Bardiya , who ruled for a short period before being overthrown by Darius the Great ( r. 522 - 486 BC ) , who went on to increase the power of the Achaemenids even further .
Persepolis ( /pɝˈsepəlɪs/ , Old Persian : 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿 , Pārsa ) was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire ( ca . 550-330 BC ) . It is situated 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) northeast of the city of Shiraz in Fars Province , Iran . The earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BC . It exemplifies the Achaemenid style of architecture . UNESCO declared the ruins of Persepolis a World Heritage Site in 1979 .
Darius I ( Old Persian : Dārayava ( h ) uš , New Persian : داریوش Dāryuš ; Hebrew : דָּרְיָוֶשׁ , Modern : Darəyaveš , Tiberian : Dāryāwéš ; c. 550-486 BCE ) , commonly known as Darius the Great , was the third Persian King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire , reigning from 522 BCE until his death in 486 BCE . He ruled the empire at its peak , when it included much of West Asia , parts of the Caucasus , parts of the Balkans ( Thrace-Macedonia , and Paeonia ) , most of the Black Sea coastal regions , Central Asia , as far as the Indus Valley in the far east and portions of north and northeast Africa including Egypt ( Mudrâya ) , eastern Libya , and coastal Sudan . Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing the legitimate Achaemenid monarch Bardiya , whom he later fabricated to be a imposter named Gaumata . The new king met with rebellions throughout his kingdom and quelled them each time . A major event in Darius 's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece . Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon , Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace , expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon , the Cyclades and the island of Naxos and the sacking of the city of Eretria . Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it . He organized Achaemenid coinage as a new uniform monetary system , along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire . He also put the empire in better standing by building roads and introducing standard weights and measures . Through these changes , the empire was centralized and unified . Darius also worked on construction projects throughout the empire , focusing on Susa , Pasargadae , Persepolis , Babylon , and Egypt . He had the cliff-face Behistun Inscription carved to record his conquests , an important testimony of the Old Persian language .
Alexander III of Macedon ( Greek : Αλέξανδρος Γʹ ὁ Μακεδών ; 20/21 July 356 BC - 10/11 June 323 BC ) , commonly known as Alexander the Great ( Ancient Greek : Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας , romanized : Aléxandros ho Mégas ) , was a king ( basileus ) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon [ a ] and a member of the Argead dynasty . He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of 20 . He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa , and by the age of thirty , he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world , stretching from Greece to northwestern India . He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history 's most successful military commanders . During his youth , Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until age 16 . After Philip 's assassination in 336 BC , he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army . Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father 's pan-Hellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia . In 334 BC , he invaded the Achaemenid Empire ( Persian Empire ) and began a series of campaigns that lasted 10 years . Following the conquest of Anatolia , Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles , most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela . He subsequently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety . [ b ] At that point , his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Beas River . Alexander endeavoured to reach the ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea and invaded India in 326 BC , winning an important victory over the Pauravas at the Battle of the Hydaspes .
Macedonia ( /ˌmæsɪˈdoʊniə/ ( listen ) ; Ancient Greek : Μακεδονία , Makedonía ) , also called Macedon ( /ˈmæsɪdɒn/ ) , was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece , and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece . The kingdom was founded and initially ruled by the royal Argead dynasty , which was followed by the Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties . Home to the ancient Macedonians , the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula , and bordered by Epirus to the west , Paeonia to the north , Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south . Before the 4th century BC , Macedonia was a small kingdom outside of the area dominated by the great city-states of Athens , Sparta and Thebes , and briefly subordinate to Achaemenid Persia . During the reign of the Argead king Philip II ( 359-336 BC ) , Macedonia subdued mainland Greece and the Thracian Odrysian kingdom through conquest and diplomacy . With a reformed army containing phalanxes wielding the sarissa pike , Philip II defeated the old powers of Athens and Thebes in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC . Philip II 's son Alexander the Great , leading a federation of Greek states , accomplished his father 's objective of commanding the whole of Greece when he destroyed Thebes after the city revolted . During Alexander 's subsequent campaign of conquest , he overthrew the Achaemenid Empire and conquered territory that stretched as far as the Indus River . For a brief period , his empire was the most powerful in the world - the definitive Hellenistic state , inaugurating the transition to a new period of Ancient Greek civilization . Greek arts and literature flourished in the new conquered lands and advances in philosophy , engineering , and science spread throughout much of the ancient world . Of particular importance were the contributions of Aristotle , tutor to Alexander , whose writings became a keystone of Western philosophy . After Alexander 's death in 323 BC , the ensuing wars of the Diadochi , and the partitioning of Alexander 's short-lived empire , Macedonia remained a Greek cultural and political center in the Mediterranean region along with Ptolemaic Egypt , the Seleucid Empire , and the Kingdom of Pergamon .
Seleucia ( /sɪˈljuːʃə/ ) , also known as Seleucia-on-Tigris or Seleucia on the Tigris , was a major Mesopotamian city of the Seleucid , Parthian , and Sasanian empires . It stood on the west bank of the Tigris River opposite Ctesiphon , within the present-day Baghdad Governorate in Iraq .
The Seleucid Empire ( /sɪˈljuːsɪd/ ; Ancient Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν , Basileía tōn Seleukidōn ) was a Hellenistic state ruled by the Seleucid dynasty which existed from 312 BC to 63 BC ; Seleucus I Nicator founded it following the division of the Macedonian Empire vastly expanded by Alexander the Great . Seleucus received Babylonia ( 321 BC ) and from there expanded his dominions to include much of Alexander 's near-eastern territories . At the height of its power , the Empire included central Anatolia , Persia , the Levant , Mesopotamia , and what is now Kuwait , Afghanistan , and parts of Pakistan and Turkmenistan . The Seleucid Empire became a major center of Hellenistic culture - it maintained the preeminence of Greek customs where a Greek political elite dominated , mostly in the urban areas . The Greek population of the cities who formed the dominant elite were reinforced by immigration from Greece . Seleucid attempts to defeat their old enemy Ptolemaic Egypt were frustrated by Roman demands . Having come into conflict in the east ( 305 BC ) with Chandragupta Maurya of the Maurya Empire , Seleucus I entered into an agreement with Chandragupta whereby he ceded vast territory west of the Indus , including the Hindu Kush , modern-day Afghanistan , and the Balochistan province of Pakistan and offered his daughter in marriage to the Maurya Emperor to formalize the alliance . Antiochus III the Great attempted to project Seleucid power and authority into Hellenistic Greece , but his attempts were thwarted by the Roman Republic and by Greek allies such as the Kingdom of Pergamon , culminating in a Seleucid defeat at the 190 BC Battle of Magnesia . In the subsequent Treaty of Apamea in 188 BC , the Seleucids were compelled to pay costly war reparations and relinquished claims to territories west of the Taurus Mountains . The Parthians under Mithridates I of Parthia conquered much of the remaining eastern part of the Seleucid Empire in the mid-2nd century BC , while the independent Greco-Bactrian Kingdom continued to flourish in the northeast . However , the Seleucid kings continued to rule a rump state from Syria until the invasion by Armenian king Tigranes the Great in 83 BC and their ultimate overthrow by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BC .
Antioch on the Orontes ( /ˈænti.ɒk/ ; Ancient Greek : Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου , Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou ; also Syrian Antioch ) [ note 1 ] was an ancient Greek city on the eastern side of the Orontes River . Its ruins lie near the modern city of Antakya , Turkey , to which the ancient city lends its name . Antioch was founded near the end of the fourth century BC by Seleucus I Nicator , one of Alexander the Great 's generals . The city 's geographical , military , and economic location benefited its occupants , particularly such features as the spice trade , the Silk Road , and the Royal Road . It eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the Near East . The city was the capital of the Seleucid Empire until 63 B.C . when the Romans took control , making it the seat of the governor of the province of Syria . From the early 4th century , the city was the seat of the Count of the Orient , head of the regional administration of sixteen provinces . [ citation needed ] It was also the main center of Hellenistic Judaism at the end of the Second Temple period . Antioch was one of the most important cities in the eastern Mediterranean of Rome 's dominions . It covered almost 1,100 acres ( 4.5 km2 ) within the walls of which one quarter was mountain , leaving 750 acres ( 3.0 km2 ) about one-fifth the area of Rome within the Aurelian Walls . Antioch was called the cradle of Christianity as a result of its longevity and the pivotal role that it played in the emergence of both Hellenistic Judaism and early Christianity .
Parthia ( Old Persian : 𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 Parθava ; Parthian : 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 Parθaw ; Middle Persian : 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 Pahlaw ) is a historical region located in north-eastern Iran . It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC , was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC , and formed part of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire following the 4th-century-BC conquests of Alexander the Great . The region later served as the political and cultural base of the Eastern-Iranian Parni people and Arsacid dynasty , rulers of the Parthian Empire ( 247 BC - 224 AD ) . The Sasanian Empire , the last state of pre-Islamic Iran , also held the region and maintained the Seven Parthian clans as part of their feudal aristocracy .
Ctesiphon ( /ˈtɛsɪfɒn/ TESS-if-on ; Attic Greek : [ ktɛːsipʰɔ̂ːn ] ; Middle Persian : 𐭲𐭩𐭮𐭯𐭥𐭭 tyspwn or tysfwn , Persian : تیسفون , Greek : Κτησιφῶν ) was an ancient city , located on the eastern bank of the Tigris , and about 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) southeast of present-day Baghdad . Ctesiphon served as a royal capital of the Persian Empire in the Parthian and Sasanian eras for over eight hundred years . Ctesiphon remained the capital of the Sasanian Empire until the Muslim conquest of Persia in 651 AD . Ctesiphon developed into a rich commercial metropolis , merging with the surrounding cities along both shores of the river , including the Hellenistic city of Seleucia . Ctesiphon and its environs were therefore sometimes referred to as The Cities ( Aramaic : Mahuza , Arabic : المدائن , al-Mada'in ) . In the late sixth and early seventh century , it was one of the largest cities in the world . During the Roman-Parthian Wars , Ctesiphon fell three times to the Romans , and later fell twice during Sasanian rule . It was also the site of the Battle of Ctesiphon in 363 AD . After the Muslim invasion the city fell into decay and was depopulated by the end of the eighth century , its place as a political and economic center taken by the Abbasid capital at Baghdad . The most conspicuous structure remaining today is the Taq Kasra , sometimes called the Archway of Ctesiphon .
Qumis ( Persian : قومس ; Middle Persian 𐭪𐭥𐭬𐭩𐭮 Kōmis ) , also known as Hecatompylos ( Ancient Greek : Εκατόμπυλος , in Persian : صددروازه , Saddarvazeh ) was an ancient city which was the capital of the Arsacid dynasty by 200 BCE . The Greek name Hekatompylos means one hundred gates and the Persian term has the same meaning . The title was commonly used for cities which had more than the traditional four gates . It may be understood better as the Many Gated . Most scholars locate it at Sahr -e Qumis , in the Qumis region in west Khurasan , Iran . Alexander the Great stopped here in the summer of 330 BCE and it became part of the Seleucid Empire after his death . The Parni tribe took the city around 237 BCE and made it one of the first capitals of their Parthian Empire . It was mentioned as the royal city of the Parthians by a number of classical writers including Strabo , Pliny , and Ptolemy , although the Parthians seemed to have used a number of cities as their capital at different periods . Qumis was destroyed by an earthquake in 856 AD , and it was probably abandoned afterwards . The site of this ancient city is now called Šahr-e Qumis ( Persian : شهر قومس ) , between Semnan and Damqan in the Semnan Province . In 2011 plans for an International Project of Tourism & Recreational City were published , using the name of Hecatompylos . The project envisions using an area of 250 hectares ( 620 acres ) close to the city of Damghan , which would place the resort at about 30 km ( 19 mi ) northeast of the historic site .
Nisa ( Ancient Greek : Νῖσος and Νίσα and Νίσαιον ) ( also Parthaunisa ) was an ancient settlement of the Iranian peoples , located near ( modern-day ) Bagir village , 18 km southwest of Ashgabat , Turkmenistan . Nisa is described by some as the first seat of central government of the Parthians . It is traditionally assumed to have been founded by Arsaces I ( reigned c. 250 BC-211 BC ) and was reputedly the royal residence of the Parthian kings , although it has not been established that the fortress at Nisa was either a royal residence or a mausoleum . In 2007 , the fortress was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO .
Asaak , Arsacia ( Latin ) or Arshak ( Parthian ) was an ancient city which was a capital and royal necropolis of the Parthian Empire . Many of the Parthian kings such as Arsaces I were crowned in Asaak . It is located in modern Iran near Quchan in the upper Atrek River valley .
The Parthian Empire ( /ˈpɑːrθiən/ ; 247 BC - 224 AD ) , also known as the Arsacid Empire ( /ˈɑːrsəsɪd/ ) , was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran . Its latter name comes from Arsaces I of Parthia who , as leader of the Parni tribe , founded it in the mid-3rd century BC when he conquered the region of Parthia in Iran 's northeast , then a satrapy ( province ) under Andragoras , in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire . Mithridates I of Parthia ( r. c. 171-138 BC ) greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids . At its height , the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates , in what is now central-eastern Turkey , to eastern Iran . The empire , located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and the Han dynasty of China , became a center of trade and commerce . The Parthians largely adopted the art , architecture , religious beliefs , and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire , which encompassed Persian , Hellenistic , and regional cultures . For about the first half of its existence , the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture , though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions . The Arsacid rulers were titled the King of Kings , as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire ; indeed , they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed , albeit largely autonomous , satraps . The court did appoint a small number of satraps , largely outside Iran , but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates . With the expansion of Arsacid power , the seat of central government shifted from Nisa to Ctesiphon along the Tigris ( south of modern Baghdad , Iraq ) , although several other sites also served as capitals . The earliest enemies of the Parthians were the Seleucids in the west and the Scythians in the north . However , as Parthia expanded westward , they came into conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia , and eventually the late Roman Republic .
The Sasanian Empire ( /səˈsɑːniən , səˈseɪniən/ ) , officially known as the Empire of Iranians ( Middle Persian : 𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩 Ērānshahr [ a ] ) , also called the Neo-Persian Empire by historians , was the last kingdom of the Persian Empire before the rise of Islam . Named after the House of Sasan , it ruled from 224 to 651 AD . The Sasanian Empire succeeded the Parthian Empire and was recognised as one of the leading world powers alongside its neighbouring arch-rival , the Roman-Byzantine Empire for a period of more than 400 years . The Sasanian Empire was founded by Ardashir I , after the fall of the Parthian Empire and the defeat of the last Arsacid king , Artabanus V. At its greatest extent , the Sasanian Empire encompassed all of today 's Iran , Iraq , Eastern Arabia ( Bahrain , Kuwait , Oman , Qatif , Qatar , UAE ) , the Levant ( Syria , Palestine , Lebanon , Israel , Jordan ) , the Caucasus ( Armenia , Georgia , Republic of Azerbaijan , Dagestan ) , Egypt , large parts of Turkey , much of Central Asia ( Afghanistan , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , Tajikistan ) , Yemen and Pakistan . According to a legend , the vexilloid of the Sasanian Empire was the Derafsh Kaviani . The Sasanian Empire during Late Antiquity is considered to have been one of Iran 's most important , and influential historical periods and constituted the last great Iranian empire before the Muslim conquest and the Islamization of Iran . In many ways , the Sasanian period witnessed the peak of ancient Iranian civilisation . The Sasanians ' cultural influence extended far beyond the empire 's territorial borders , reaching as far as Western Europe , Africa , China and India . It played a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asian medieval art . Much of what later became known as Islamic culture in art , architecture , music and other subject matter was transferred from the Sasanians throughout the Muslim world .
Firuzabad ( Persian : فيروزآباد also Romanized as Fīrūzābād ; Middle Persian : Gōr or Ardashir-Khwarrah , literally The Glory of Ardashir ; also Shahr-e Gūr شهر گور ) is a city and capital of Firuzabad County , Fars Province , Iran . At the 2006 census , its population was 58,210 , in 12,888 families . Firuzabad is located south of Shiraz . The city is surrounded by a mud wall and ditch . The original ancient city of Gor , dating back to the Achaemenid period , was destroyed by Alexander the Great . Centuries later , Ardashir I , the founder of the Sassanian Empire , revived the city before it was ransacked during the Arab Muslim invasion of the seventh century . It was again revived by the Buyids , but was eventually abandoned in the Qajar period and was replaced by a nearby town , which is now Firuzabad .
Damghan ( Persian : دامغان , also Romanized as Dāmghān ) is the capital of Damghan County , Semnan Province , Iran . At the 2006 census , its population was 57,331 , in 15,849 families . It is situated 342 kilometres ( 213 mi ) east of Tehran on the high-road to Mashad , at an elevation of 1,250 m ( 4,101 ft ) . It is one of the oldest cities on the Iranian plateau , stretching back 7000 years , and boasts many sites of historic interest . The oldest of these is Tappeh Hessar , lying to the southeast of the city , which holds the ruins of a castle dating from the Sassanid period . The Tarikhaneh is one of the oldest mosques in Iran , built as a fire temple during the Sassanid dynasty it was converted into a mosque after the advent of Islam . There are also many other historical buildings belonging to Seljuks and other periods . Apart from its historical interest , the city today is mainly known for pistachios and paper almonds ( kaghazi ) with very thin shells .
The Muslim conquest of Persia , also known as the Arab invasion of Iran , led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire of Iran ( Persia ) in 651 and the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion . The rise of Muslims coincided with an unprecedented political , social , economic , and military weakness in Persia . Once a major world power , the Sasanian Empire had exhausted its human and material resources after decades of warfare against the Byzantine Empire . The internal political situation quickly deteriorated after the execution of King Khosrow II in 628 AD . Subsequently , ten new claimants were enthroned within the next four years . With civil war erupting between different factions , the empire was no longer centralized . Arab Muslims first attacked the Sassanid territory in 633 , when general Khalid ibn Walid invaded Mesopotamia ( Sassanid province of Asōristān ; what is now Iraq ) , which was the political and economic center of the Sassanid state . Following the transfer of Khalid to the Byzantine front in the Levant , the Muslims eventually lost their holdings to Sasanian counterattacks . The second invasion began in 636 under Sa ` d ibn Abi Waqqas , when a key victory at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah led to the permanent end of Sasanian control west of Iran . The Zagros mountains , a natural barrier , marked the border between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sassanid Empire . Caliph Umar ordered a full invasion of the Sasanian empire in 642 , which led to the complete conquest of the Sasanians around 651 . Directing from Medina , a few thousand kilometres away , Caliph Umar 's quick conquest of Iran in a series of well-coordinated , multi-pronged attacks became his greatest triumph , contributing to his reputation as a great military and political strategist .
Nishapur or Nishabur ( Persian : نیشابور ; also romanized as Nīshāpūr , Nišâpur , Nişapur , Nīshābūr , Neyshābūr , and Neeshapoor ; from Middle Persian New-Shabuhr , meaning New City of Shapur , Fair Shapur , or Perfect built of Shapur ) is a city in Khorasan Razavi Province , capital of the Nishapur County and former capital of Khorasan Province , in northeastern Iran , situated in a fertile plain at the foot of the Binalud Mountains . It had an estimated population of 239,185 as of 2011 and its county 433,105 . Nearby are the turquoise mines that have supplied the world with turquoise for at least two millennia . The city was founded in the 3rd century by Shapur I as a Sasanian satrapy capital . Nishapur later became the capital of Tahirid dynasty and was reformed by Abdullah Tahir in 830 , and was later selected as the capital of Seljuk dynasty by Tughril in 1037 . From the Abbasid era to the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran , the city evolved into a significant cultural , commercial , and intellectual center within the Islamic world . Nishapur , along with Merv , Herat and Balkh were one of the four great cities of Greater Khorasan and one of the greatest cities in the middle ages , a seat of governmental power in eastern of caliphate , a dwelling place for diverse ethnic and religious groups , a trading stop on commercial routes from Transoxiana and China , Iraq and Egypt . Nishapur reached the height of its prosperity under the Samanids in the 10th century , but was destroyed and the entire population slaughtered by Mongols in 1221 . This massacre , combined with subsequent earthquakes and other invasions are believed to have destroyed the pottery industry the city was known for .
The Tahirid dynasty ( Persian : طاهریان , romanized : Tâheriyân , pronounced [ t̪ʰɒːheɾiˈjɒːn ] ) was a dynasty , of Persian dehqan origin , that effectively ruled the Khorasan from 821 to 873 while other members of the dynasty served as military and security commanders for the city of Baghdad from 820 until 891 . [ a ] The dynasty was founded by Tahir ibn Husayn , a leading general in the service of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun . Their capital in Khorasan was initially located at Merv but was later moved to Nishapur . The Tahirids have been described as the first independent Iranian dynasty after the fall of the Sassanian Empire . However , according Hugh Kennedy : The Tahirids are sometimes considered as the first independent Iranian dynasty , but such a view is misleading . The arrangement was effectively a partnership between the Abbasids and the Tahirids . And instead , the Tahirids were loyal to the Abbasid caliphs and enjoyed considerable autonomy rather than being independent from the central authority . The tax revenue from Khorasan that was sent to the caliphal treasury was perhaps larger than those collected previously .
The Saffarid dynasty ( Persian : صفاریان ) was a Sunni Iranian dynasty from Sistan that ruled over parts of eastern Iran , with its capital at Zaranj ( a city now in southwestern Afghanistan ) , from 861 to 1003 . One of the first indigenous Persian dynasties to emerge after the Islamic conquest , the Saffarid dynasty was part of the Iranian Intermezzo . The dynasty 's founder was Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar , who was born in 840 in a small town called Karnin ( Qarnin ) , which was located east of Zaranj and west of Bost , in what is now Afghanistan . A native of Sistan and a local ayyār , Ya'qub worked as a coppersmith ( ṣaffār ) before becoming a warlord . He seized control of the Sistan region and began conquering most of Iran and Afghanistan , as well as parts of Pakistan , Tajikistan and Uzbekistan . The Saffarids used their capital Zaranj as a base for an aggressive expansion eastward and westward . They first invaded the areas south of the Hindu Kush , and then overthrew the Persian Tahirid dynasty , annexing Khorasan in 873 . By the time of Ya'qub 's death , he had conquered the Kabul Valley , Sindh , Tocharistan , Makran ( Balochistan ) , Kerman , Fars , Khorasan , and nearly reached Baghdad but then suffered a defeat by the Abbasids . The Saffarid dynasty did not last long after Ya'qub 's death . His brother and successor , Amr bin Laith , was defeated at the Battle of Balkh against Ismail Samani in 900 . Amr bin Laith was forced to surrender most of his territories to the new rulers . The Saffarids were subsequently confined to their heartland of Sistan , with their role reduced to that of vassals of the Samanids and their successors .
Zaranj or Zarang ( Persian/Pashto/Balochi : زرنج ) is a city in southwestern Afghanistan , near the border with Iran , which has a population of 160,902 people as of 2015 . It is the capital of Nimruz province and is linked by highways with Lashkar Gah to the east , Farah to the north and the Iranian city of Zabol to the west . Zaranj is a major border crossing between Afghanistan and Iran , which is of significant importance to the trade-route between Central Asia and South Asia with the Middle East . Zaranj is a Trading and Transit Hub in western Afghanistan , on the border with Iran . There are 17,878 residential dwellings in Zarat and 1,759 hectares of agricultural land . Commercial land use is clustered on the main road to Iran . The history of Zaranj dates back over 2500 years and Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar , founder of the Saffarid dynasty was born in the city .
Amol ( Persian : آمل - [ ɒˈmol ] ; pronunciation ( help·info ) ; also Romanized as Āmol and Amul ) is a city and the administrative center of Amol County , Mazandaran Province , Iran . In the 2006 census , the surveyed population of the city was 197,470 , in 55,183 families . Amol is located on the Haraz river bank . It is less than 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of the Caspian sea and less than 10 kilometres ( 6.2 mi ) north of the Alborz mountains . It is 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) from Tehran , and 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) west of the provincial capital , Sari . Amol is a historic city , with its foundation dating back to the Amard .
Alid dynasties of northern Iran or Alâvids . In the 9th-14th centuries , the northern Iranian regions of Tabaristan , Daylam and Gilan , sandwiched between the Caspian Sea and the Alborz range , came under the rule of a number of Alid dynasties , espousing the Zaydi branch of Shia Islam . The first and most powerful Zaydi emirate was established in Tabaristan in 864 and lasted until 928 . It was interrupted by Samanid occupation in 900 , but restored in 914 by another Alid branch . The second period of the Alid emirate was plagued by internal dissensions and power struggles between the two branches , and ended in the second conquest of the region by the Samanids in 928 . Subsequently , some of the soldiers and generals of the Alavids joined the Samanids , among them Mardavij , founder of the Ziyarid dynasty , and the three sons of Buya ( Ali , Hassan and Ahmad ) , founders of the Buyid dynasty . Local Zaydi rulers survived in Daylam and Gilan until the 16th century .
The Samanid Empire ( Persian : سامانیان , Sāmāniyān , also known as the Samanian Empire , Samanid dynasty , Samanid Emirate , or simply Samanids ) was a Sunni Iranian empire from 819 to 999 . The empire was centered in Khorasan and Transoxiana during its existence ; at its greatest extent , the empire encompassed all of today 's Afghanistan , large parts of Iran , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , Kyrgyzstan , and parts of Kazakhstan and Pakistan . The Samanid state was founded by four brothers ; Nuh , Ahmad , Yahya , and Ilyas - each of them ruled their own territory under Abbasid suzerainty . In 892 , Ismail Samani ( 892-907 ) united the Samanid state under one ruler , thus effectively putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids . It was also under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority . The Samanid Empire is part of the Iranian Intermezzo , which saw the creation of a Persianate culture and identity that brought Iranian speech and traditions into the fold of the Islamic world . This would later lead to the formation of the Turko-Persian culture . The Samanids promoted the arts , giving rise to the advancement of science and literature , and thus attracted scholars such as Rudaki , Ferdowsi , and Avicenna . While under Samanid control , Bukhara was a rival to Baghdad in its glory . Scholars note that the Samanids revived Persian language and culture more than the Buyids and the Saffarids , while continuing to patronize Arabic for sciences as well as the religious studies . They considered themselves to be descendants of the Sasanian Empire . In a famous edict , Samanid authorities declared that here , in this region , the language is Persian , and the kings of this realm are Persian kings .
Bukhara ( Uzbek : Buxoro ; Persian : بخارا ) is a city in Uzbekistan . Bukhara is rich in historical sites , with about 140 architectural monuments . The nation 's fifth-largest city , it had a population of 247,644 as of 31 August 2016 [ update ] . But according to the Statistics of OzStatQom Department the City is the second largest after Tashkent by number of people who migrate . Number of daily migrants is 4,752,000 as of 22nd April 2018 . People have inhabited the region around Bukhara for at least five millennia , and the city has existed for half that time . The mother tongue of the majority of people of Bukhara is Tajik . Located on the Silk Road , the city has long served as a center of trade , scholarship , culture , and religion . UNESCO has listed the historic center of Bukhara ( which contains numerous mosques and madrasas ) as a World Heritage Site .
Balkh ( /bælx/ ; Pashto and Persian : بلخ , Balkh ; Ancient Greek : Βάκτρα , Báktra ; Bactrian : Βάχλο , Bakhlo ) is a town in the Balkh Province of Afghanistan , about 20 km ( 12 mi ) northwest of the provincial capital , Mazar-e Sharif , and some 74 km ( 46 mi ) south of the Amu Darya river and the Uzbekistan border . It was historically an ancient centre of Buddhism , Islam , and Zoroastrianism and one of the major cities of Khorasan , since the latter 's earliest history . The ancient city of Balkh was known to the Ancient Greeks as Bactra , giving its name to Bactria . It was mostly known as the centre and capital of Bactria or Tokharistan . Marco Polo described Balkh as a noble and great city . Balkh is now for the most part a mass of ruins , situated some 12 km ( 7.5 mi ) from the right bank of the seasonally flowing Balkh River , at an elevation of about 365 m ( 1,198 ft ) . French Buddhist Alexandra David-Néel associated Shambhala with Balkh , also offering the Persian Sham-i-Bala ( elevated candle ) as an etymology of its name . In a similar vein , the Gurdjieffian J. G. Bennett published speculation that Shambalha was Shams-i-Balkh , a Bactrian sun temple .
Samarkand ( /ˈsæmərkænd/ ; Uzbek : Samarqand ; Persian : سمرقند ; Russian : Самарканд ) , alternatively Samarqand , is a city in south-eastern Uzbekistan and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Central Asia . There is evidence of human activity in the area of the city from the late Paleolithic era , though there is no direct evidence of when Samarkand was founded ; some theories propose that it was founded between the 8th and 7th centuries B.C . Prospering from its location on the Silk Road between China and the Mediterranean , at times Samarkand was one of the greatest cities of Central Asia . By the time of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia , it was the capital of the Sogdian satrapy . The city was taken by Alexander the Great in 329 BC , when it was known by its Greek name of Marakanda ( Μαράκανδα ) . The city was ruled by a succession of Iranian and Turkic rulers until the Mongols under Genghis Khan conquered Samarkand in 1220 . Today , Samarkand is the capital of Samarqand Region and one of the largest cities of Uzbekistan . The city is noted for being an Islamic center for scholarly study . In the 14th century it became the capital of the empire of Timur ( Tamerlane ) and is the site of his mausoleum ( the Gur-e Amir ) . The Bibi-Khanym Mosque , rebuilt during the Soviet era , remains one of the city 's most notable landmarks . Samarkand 's Registan square was the ancient centre of the city , and is bound by three monumental religious buildings . The city has carefully preserved the traditions of ancient crafts : embroidery , gold embroidery , silk weaving , engraving on copper , ceramics , carving and painting on wood .
Herāt ( /hɛˈrɑːt/ ; Persian/Pashto : هرات ) is the third-largest city of Afghanistan . It has a population of about 436,300 , and serves as the capital of Herat Province , situated in the fertile valley of the Hari River in the western part of the country . It is linked with Kandahar , Kabul , and Mazar-i-Sharif via Highway 1 or the ring road . It is further linked to the city of Mashhad in neighboring Iran through the border town of Islam Qala , and to Mary in Turkmenistan to the north through the border town of Torghundi . Herat dates back to Avestan times and was traditionally known for its wine . The city has a number of historic sites , including the Herat Citadel and the Musalla Complex . During the Middle Ages Herat became one of the important cities of Khorasan , as it was known as the Pearl of Khorasan . It has been governed by various Afghan rulers since the early 18th century . In 1717 , the city was invaded by the Hotaki forces until they were expelled by the Afsharids in 1729 . After Nader Shah 's death and Ahmad Shah Durrani 's rise to power in 1747 , Herat became part of Afghanistan . It witnessed some political disturbances and military invasions during the early half of the 19th century but the 1857 Treaty of Paris ended hostilities of the Anglo-Persian War . Herat lies on the ancient trade routes of the Middle East , Central and South Asia , and today is a regional hub in western Afghanistan .
The Ghaznavid dynasty ( Persian : غزنویان ġaznaviyān ) was a Persianate Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin , at their greatest extent ruling large parts of Iran , Afghanistan , much of Transoxiana and the northwest Indian subcontinent from 977 to 1186 . The dynasty was founded by Sabuktigin upon his succession to rule of the region of Ghazna after the death of his father-in-law , Alp Tigin , who was a breakaway ex-general of the Samanid Empire from Balkh , north of the Hindu Kush in Greater Khorasan . Although the dynasty was of Central Asian Turkic origin , it was thoroughly Persianised in terms of language , culture , literature and habits and hence is regarded by some as a Persian dynasty . Sabuktigin 's son , Mahmud of Ghazni , declared independence from the Samanid Empire and expanded the Ghaznavid Empire to the Amu Darya , the Indus River and the Indian Ocean in the East and to Rey and Hamadan in the west . Under the reign of Mas'ud I , the Ghaznavid dynasty began losing control over its western territories to the Seljuq dynasty after the Battle of Dandanaqan , resulting in a restriction of its holdings to modern-day Afghanistan , Pakistan ( Punjab and Balochistan ) . In 1151 , Sultan Bahram Shah lost Ghazni to the Ghurid king Ala al-Din Husayn .
Ghazni ( Pashto/Persian : غزني‬ ) historically known as Ghaznin ( غزنين ) or Ghazna ( غزنه ) , is a city in central Afghanistan with a population of around 270,000 people . The city is strategically located along Highway 1 , which has served as the main road between Kabul and southern Afghanistan for thousands of years . Situated on a plateau at 2,219 metres ( 7,280 ft ) above sea level , the city is 150 km south of Kabul and is the capital of Ghazni Province . Ghazni ( the name meaning jewel ) is an ancient city with a rich history . Ghazni Citadel , the Minarets of Ghazni , the Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III and several other cultural heritage sites have brought travellers and archeologists to the city for centuries , and in 2013 , ISESCO declared Ghazni the year 's Islamic Capital of Culture . During the pre-Islamic period , the area was inhabited by various tribes who practiced different religions including Buddhism and Hinduism . Arab Muslims introduced Islam to Ghazni in the 7th century and were followed in the 9th century by the Saffarids . Sabuktigin made Ghazni the capital of the Ghaznavid Empire in the 10th century . The city was destroyed by one of the Ghurid rulers , but later rebuilt . It fell to a number of regional powers , including the Timurids and the Delhi Sultanate , until it became part of the Hotaki dynasty , which was followed by the Durrani Empire or modern Afghanistan . During the First Anglo-Afghan War in the 19th century , Ghazni was partially destroyed by British-Indian forces . The city is currently being rebuilt by the Government of Afghanistan in remembrance of the Ghaznavid and Timurid era when it served as a major center of Islamic civilisation .
The Ghurids or Ghorids ( Persian : سلسله غوریان ; self-designation : شنسبانی , Shansabānī ) were a dynasty of Iranian descent from the Ghor region of present-day central Afghanistan , but the exact ethnic origin is uncertain . The dynasty converted to Sunni Islam from Buddhism , after the conquest of Ghor by the Ghaznavid sultan Mahmud of Ghazni in 1011 . The dynasty overthrew the Ghaznavid Empire in 1186 when Sultan Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad of Ghor conquered the last Ghaznavid capital of Lahore . At their zenith , the Ghurid empire encompassed Khorasan in the west and reached northern India as far as Bengal in the east . Their first capital was Firozkoh in Mandesh , Ghor , which was later replaced by Herat , and finally Ghazna . The Ghurids were patrons of Persian culture and heritage . Abu Ali ibn Muhammad ( reigned 1011-1035 ) was the first Muslim king of the Ghurid dynasty to construct mosques and Islamic schools in Ghor . The Ghurids were succeeded in Khorasan and Persia by the Khwarazmian dynasty , and in northern India by the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate .
The Seljuq dynasty , or Seljuqs ( /ˈsɛldʒʊk/ SEL-juuk ; Persian : آل سلجوق Al-e Saljuq ) , was an Oghuz Turk Sunni Muslim dynasty that gradually became a Persianate society and contributed to the Turco-Persian tradition in the medieval Middle East and Central Asia . The Seljuqs established both the Seljuk Empire and the Sultanate of Rum , which at their heights stretched from Iran to Anatolia , and were targets of the First Crusade .
Shahr-e Rey ( Persian : شهر ری , City of Ray ) or simply Ray ( Rey ; ری ) is the capital of Ray County in Tehran Province , Iran . Formerly a distinct city , it has now been absorbed into the metropolitan area of Greater Tehran as the 20th district of municipal Tehran , the capital city of the country . Historically known as Rhages ( /ˈreɪdʒəz/ ) , Rhagae and Arsacia , Ray is the oldest existing city in Tehran Province . In the classical era , it was a prominent city belonging to Media , the political and cultural base of the Medes . Ancient Persian inscriptions and the Avesta ( Zoroastrian scriptures ) , among other sources , attest to the importance of ancient Ray . Ray is mentioned several times in the Apocrypha . It is also shown on the 4th-century Peutinger Map . The city was subject to severe destruction during the medieval invasions by the Arabs , Turks , and Mongols . Its position as a capital city was revived during the reigns of the Buyid Daylamites and the Seljuk Turks . Ray is richer than many other ancient cities in the number of its historical monuments . The Neolithic site of Cheshme-Ali , the reconstructed Median-era Rey Castle , the Parthian-era Rashkan Castle , the Sasanian-era Zoroastrian Fire Temple of Bahram , and the once Zoroastrian and now Islamic Shrine of Bibi Shahrbanu are among the many archaeological sites in Ray . Ray has been home to many historical figures , including royalty , merchants , scholars and poets .
Konye-Urgench ( Turkmen : Köneürgenç ; Russian : Куня Ургенч , Kunya Urgench - from Persian : Kuhna Gurgānj کهنه گرگانج ) - Old Gurgānj also known as Kunya-Urgench , Old Urgench or Urganj , is a municipality of about 30,000 inhabitants in north Turkmenistan , just south from its border with Uzbekistan . It is the site of the ancient town of Ürgenç ( Urgench ) , which contains the ruins of the capital of Khwarazm , a part of the Achaemenid Empire . Its inhabitants deserted the town in the 1700s in order to develop a new settlement , and Kunya-Urgench has remained undisturbed ever since . In 2005 , the ruins of Old Urgench were inscribed on the UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites . ( See List of World Heritage Sites in Turkmenistan )
The Khwarazmian ( English : /kwəˈræzmiən/ ) dynasty was a Persianate Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin . The dynasty ruled large parts of Central Asia and Iran in the approximate period of 1077 to 1231 , first as vassals of the Seljuqs and the Qara-Khitan , and later as independent rulers , up until the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia in the 13th century . The dynasty spanned 2.3 ( or 3.6 ) million square kilometers . The dynasty was founded by commander Anush Tigin Gharchai , a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans , who was appointed as governor of Khwarezm . His son , Qutb ad-Din Muhammad I , became the first hereditary Shah of Khwarezm .
The Ilkhanate , also spelled Il-khanate ( Persian : ایلخانان , Ilxānān ) , known to the Mongols as Ulus Hülegü ( Mongolian : Хүлэгийн улс , Hulegīn Uls ) was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire , ruled by the Mongol House of Hulagu . Hulagu Khan , the son of Tolui and grandson of Genghis Khan , inherited the Middle Eastern part of the Mongol Empire after his brother Möngke Khan died in 1260 . Its core territory lies in what is now part of the countries of Iran , Azerbaijan , and Turkey . At its greatest extent , the Ilkhanate also included parts of modern Iraq , Armenia , Georgia , Turkmenistan , Afghanistan , part of modern Dagestan , part of modern Tajikistan , and the northwestern edge of the Indian subcontinent . Later Ilkhanate rulers , beginning with Ghazan in 1295 , converted to Islam . In the 1330s , the Ilkhanate was ravaged by the Black Death . Its last khan Abu Sa'id died in 1335 , after which the khanate disintegrated .