List of parson-naturalists
Parson-naturalists
Table:
Leading parson-naturalists

Name
Dates
Description
Known for
Portrait

Turner, William[2]

1508?–1568

Dean of Wells Cathedral

Herbalism
Libellus de Re Herbaria

White, Gilbert[3]

1720–1793

Curate of Selborne, Hampshire
ornithology

Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne

Probably
not authentic

Ray, John[4]

1627–1705

Father of English natural history;
taxonomy; empiricism

Historia Plantarum

Derham, William[5]

1657–1735

Physico-Theology, (Natural theology)

Estimated speed of sound
Astronomy, listed nebulae

Lightfoot, John[6]

1735–1788

Botanist
Conchologist

Flora Scotica (1789)

Henslow, John Stevens[7]

1796–1861

Botanist, Geologist

Mentor and friend of his pupil Charles Darwin

Jenyns, Leonard[8]

1800–1893

Priest, founder of Bath Natural History
and Antiquarian Field Club

Phenology and meteorology observations

Fox, William Darwin[9]

1805–1880

Priest, Entomologist, collector of beetles

Tutored his second cousin Charles Darwin in natural history

Tristram, Henry Baker[10]

1822–1906

Biblical scholar, Ornithologist

Early acceptance of Darwinism,
tried to reconcile it with creation

Wood, John George[11]

1827–1889

Natural history populariser and lecturer

Common Objects of the Country

Dallinger, William[12]

1839–1909

Methodist minister, microbiology

Research on monads
Opposition to spontaneous generation

Cowper, Spencer[13]

1713–1774

Dean of Durham 1746–1774

Meteorology

Morris, Francis Orpen[14]

1810–1893

Irascible Irish clergyman
Hated Darwinism, fox-hunting
Campaigned for
bird conservation law

History of British Birds
A Bible Natural History
Records of Animal Sagacity and Character
Dogs and Their Doings

Bloxam, Andrew[15]

1801–1878

Naturalist on HMS Blonde
Later priest and naturalist

Recorded and collected Hawaiian birds,
some now extinct
Later particularly known for fungi, Rubus and Rosa

Berkeley, Miles Joseph[16]

1803–1889

Vicar of Sibbertoft for much of his life
Known as the founder of British mycology

Account of native British fungi in Sir William Jackson Hooker's British Flora (1836)
Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany (1857)
Outlines of British Fungology (1860)

Linton, William Richardson[17]

1850–1908

Botanist, Vicar of Shirley, Derbyshire

Work on brambles of Derbyshire, including Rubus durescens
Flora of Derbyshire: Flowering Plants, Higher Cryptogams, Mosses and Hepatics, Characeae

Consulting the given table as well as the supplementary paragraphs provided at the end.

Give the answer to the question: The man regarded as one of the leading batologists of his day , was the vicar at what parish located close to the town of Ashbourne ? Return your answer as JSON: {"answer": "YOUR ANSWER"}. Do not introduce information beyond the provided sources.

William Turner MA ( 1509/10 - 13 July 1568 ) was an English divine and reformer , a physician and a natural historian . He studied medicine in Italy , and was a friend of the great Swiss naturalist , Conrad Gessner . He was an early herbalist and ornithologist , and it is in these fields that the most interest lies today .
A dean , in a church context , is a cleric holding certain positions of authority within a religious hierarchy . The title is used mainly in the Anglican Communion , the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Roman Catholic Church , and many Lutheran denominations . A dean 's assistant is called a subdean .
Wells Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in Wells , Somerset , England , dedicated to St Andrew the Apostle and seat of the Bishop of Bath and Wells , whose cathedra it holds as mother church of the Diocese of Bath and Wells . Built in 1176-1450 to replace an earlier church on the site since 705 , it is moderately sized for an English cathedral . Its broad west front and large central tower are dominant features . It has been called unquestionably one of the most beautiful and most poetic of English cathedrals . Its Gothic architecture is mostly in Early English style of the late 12th - early 13th centuries , lacking the Romanesque work that survives in many other cathedrals . Building began about 1175 at the east end with the choir . Historian John Harvey sees it as Europe 's first truly Gothic structure , breaking the last constraints of Romanesque . The stonework of its pointed arcades and fluted piers bears pronounced mouldings and carved capitals in a foliate , stiff-leaf style . Its Early English front with 300 sculpted figures , is seen as a supreme triumph of the combined plastic arts in England . The east end retains much ancient stained glass . Unlike many cathedrals of monastic foundation , Wells has many surviving secular buildings linked to its chapter of secular canons , including the Bishop 's Palace and the 15th-century residential Vicars ' Close . It is a Grade I listed building .
Herbal medicine ( also herbalism ) is the study of botany and the use of medicinal plants . Plants have been the basis for medical treatments through much of human history , and such traditional medicine is still widely practiced today . Modern medicine makes use of many plant-derived compounds as the basis for evidence-based pharmaceutical drugs . Although herbalism may apply modern standards of effectiveness testing to herbs and medicines derived from natural sources , few high-quality clinical trials and standards for purity or dosage exist . The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products , as well as minerals , shells and certain animal parts . Herbal medicine is also called phytomedicine or phytotherapy . Paraherbalism describes alternative and pseudoscientific practices of using unrefined plant or animal extracts as unproven medicines or health-promoting agents . Paraherbalism differs from plant-derived medicines in standard pharmacology because it does not isolate or standardize biologically active compounds , but rather relies on the belief that preserving various substances from a given source with less processing is safer or more effective - for which there is no evidence . Herbal dietary supplements most often fall under the phytotherapy category .
Gilbert White FRS ( 18 July 1720 - 26 June 1793 ) was a parson-naturalist , a pioneering English naturalist , ecologist and ornithologist . He is best known for his Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne .
A curate ( /ˈkjʊərɪt/ KEWR-it ) is a person who is invested with the care or cure ( cura ) of souls of a parish . In this sense , curate correctly means a parish priest ; but in English-speaking countries the term curate is commonly used to describe clergy who are assistants to the parish priest . The duties or office of a curate are called a curacy .
Selborne is a village in the East Hampshire district of Hampshire , England . It is 3.9 miles ( 6.3 km ) south of Alton . It is just within the northern boundary of the South Downs National Park , which opened on 1 April 2011 . The village receives visitors on almost every day of the year because of its links with the world-famous naturalist , Revd . Gilbert White , who was a pioneer of birdwatching .
Hampshire ( /ˈhæmpʃər/ , /-ʃɪər/ ( listen ) ; postal abbreviation Hants . ) [ note 1 ] is a county in southern England . The county town is the city of Winchester . Its two largest cities , Southampton and Portsmouth , are administered separately as unitary authorities ; the rest of the county is governed by Hampshire County Council . First settled about 14,000 years ago , Hampshire 's history dates to Roman Britain , when its chief town was Winchester . When the Romans left Britain , the area was infiltrated by tribes from Scandinavia and mainland Europe , principally in the river valleys . The county was recorded in the 11th century Domesday Book , divided into 44 hundreds . From the 12th century , the ports grew in importance , fuelled by trade with the continent , wool and cloth manufacture in the county , and the fishing industry , and a shipbuilding industry was established . By the 16th century , the population of Southampton had outstripped that of Winchester . By the mid-19th century , with the county 's population at 219,210 ( double that at the beginning of the century ) in more than 86,000 dwellings , agriculture was the principal industry and 10 per cent of the county was still forest . Hampshire played a crucial military role in both World Wars . The Isle of Wight , historically part of Hampshire , became a separate ceremonial county in 1974 .
Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds . Several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines , due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds . The science of ornithology has a long history and studies on birds have helped develop several key concepts in evolution , behaviour and ecology such as the definition of species , the process of speciation , instinct , learning , ecological niches , guilds , island biogeography , phylogeography , and conservation . While early ornithology was principally concerned with descriptions and distributions of species , ornithologists today seek answers to very specific questions , often using birds as models to test hypotheses or predictions based on theories . Most modern biological theories apply across taxonomic groups , and the number of professional scientists who identify themselves as ornithologists has therefore declined . A wide range of tools and techniques is used in ornithology , both inside the laboratory and out in the field , and innovations are constantly made .
The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne , or just The Natural History of Selborne is a book by English naturalist and ornithologist Gilbert White . It was first published in 1789 by his brother Benjamin . It has been continuously in print since then , with nearly 300 editions up to 2007 . The book was published late in White 's life , compiled from a mixture of his letters to other naturalists - Thomas Pennant and Daines Barrington ; a 'Naturalist 's Calendar ' ( in the second edition ) comparing phenology observations made by White and William Markwick of the first appearances in the year of different animals and plants ; and observations of natural history organized more or less systematically by species and group . A second volume , less often reprinted , covered the antiquities of Selborne . Some of the letters were never posted , and were written for the book . White 's Natural History was at once well received by contemporary critics and the public , and continued to be admired by a diverse range of nineteenth and twentieth century literary figures . His work has been seen as an early contribution to ecology and in particular to phenology . The book has been enjoyed for its charm and apparent simplicity , and the way that it creates a vision of pre-industrial England . The original manuscript has been preserved and is displayed in the Gilbert White museum at The Wakes , Selborne .
John Ray FRS ( 29 November 1627 - 17 January 1705 ) was an English naturalist widely regarded as one of the earliest of the English parson-naturalists . Until 1670 , he wrote his name as John Wray . From then on , he used 'Ray ' , after having ascertained that such had been the practice of his family before him . He published important works on botany , zoology , and natural theology . His classification of plants in his Historia Plantarum , was an important step towards modern taxonomy . Ray rejected the system of dichotomous division by which species were classified according to a pre-conceived , either/or type system [ further explanation needed ] , and instead classified plants according to similarities and differences that emerged from observation . He was among the first to attempt a biological definition for the concept of species .
Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms , including animals , fungi and plants , in their natural environment , leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study . A person who studies natural history is called a naturalist or natural historian . Natural history encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it . It involves the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms . So while it dates from studies in the ancient Greco-Roman world and the mediaeval Arabic world , through to European Renaissance naturalists working in near isolation , today 's natural history is a cross discipline umbrella of many specialty sciences ; e.g. , geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature .
In biology , taxonomy ( from Ancient Greek τάξις ( taxis ) , meaning 'arrangement ' , and -νομία ( -nomia ) , meaning 'method ' ) is the science of naming , defining ( circumscribing ) and classifying groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics . Organisms are grouped together into taxa ( singular : taxon ) and these groups are given a taxonomic rank ; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a super-group of higher rank , thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy . The principal ranks in modern use are domain , kingdom , phylum ( division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum ) , class , order , family , genus , and species . The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy , as he developed a system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms . With the advent of such fields of study as phylogenetics , cladistics , and systematics , the Linnaean system has progressed to a system of modern biological classification based on the evolutionary relationships between organisms , both living and extinct .
In philosophy , empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience . It is one of several views of epistemology , along with rationalism and skepticism . Empiricism emphasises the role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas , rather than innate ideas or traditions . However , empiricists may argue that traditions ( or customs ) arise due to relations of previous sense experiences . Historically , empiricism was associated with the blank slate concept ( tabula rasa ) , according to which the human mind is blank at birth and develops its thoughts only through experience . Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasises evidence , especially as discovered in experiments . It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning , intuition , or revelation . Empiricism , often used by natural scientists , says that knowledge is based on experience and that knowledge is tentative and probabilistic , subject to continued revision and falsification . Empirical research , including experiments and validated measurement tools , guides the scientific method .
Historia Plantarum ( The History of Plants ) is a botany book by John Ray , published in 1686 .
William Derham FRS ( 26 November 1657 - 5 April 1735 ) was an English clergyman , natural theologian , natural philosopher and scientist . He produced the earliest , reasonably accurate measurement of the speed of sound .
Natural theology , once also termed physico-theology , is a type of theology that provides arguments for the existence of God based on reason and ordinary experience of nature . This distinguishes it from revealed theology , which is based on scripture and/or religious experiences , also from transcendental theology , which is based on a priori reasoning . It is thus a type of philosophy , with the aim of explaining the nature of the gods , or of one supreme God . For monotheistic religions , this principally involves arguments about the attributes or non-attributes of God , and especially the existence of God , using arguments that do not involve recourse to supernatural revelation . Marcus Terentius Varro ( 116-27 BC ) established a distinction between political theology ( the social functions of religion ) , natural theology and mythical theology . His terminology became part of the Stoic tradition and then Christianity through Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas .
The speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit time by a sound wave as it propagates through an elastic medium . At 20 °C ( 68 °F ) , the speed of sound in air is about 343 metres per second ( 1,235 km/h ; 1,125 ft/s ; 767 mph ; 667 kn ) , or a kilometre in 2.9 s or a mile in 4.7 s. It depends strongly on temperature as well as the medium through which a soundwave is propagating . The speed of sound in an ideal gas depends only on its temperature and composition . The speed has a weak dependence on frequency and pressure in ordinary air , deviating slightly from ideal behavior . In common everyday speech , speed of sound refers to the speed of sound waves in air . However , the speed of sound varies from substance to substance : sound travels most slowly in gases ; it travels faster in liquids ; and faster still in solids . For example , ( as noted above ) , sound travels at 343 m/s in air ; it travels at 1,481 m/s in water ( almost 4.3 times as fast as in air ) ; and at 5,120 m/s in iron ( almost 15 times as fast as in air ) . In an exceptionally stiff material such as diamond , sound travels at 12,000 metres per second ( 39,000 ft/s ) - about 35 times as fast as in air - which is around the maximum speed that sound will travel under normal conditions . Sound waves in solids are composed of compression waves ( just as in gases and liquids ) , and a different type of sound wave called a shear wave , which occurs only in solids . Shear waves in solids usually travel at different speeds , as exhibited in seismology . The speed of compression waves in solids is determined by the medium 's compressibility , shear modulus and density . The speed of shear waves is determined only by the solid material 's shear modulus and density .
Astronomy ( from Greek : ἀστρονομία ) is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena . It uses mathematics , physics , and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution . Objects of interest include planets , moons , stars , nebulae , galaxies , and comets . Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions , gamma ray bursts , quasars , blazars , pulsars , and cosmic microwave background radiation . More generally , astronomy studies everything that originates outside Earth 's atmosphere . Cosmology is a branch of astronomy . It studies the Universe as a whole . Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences . The early civilizations in recorded history made methodical observations of the night sky . These include the Babylonians , Greeks , Indians , Egyptians , Nubians , Iranians , Chinese , Maya , and many ancient indigenous peoples of the Americas . In the past , astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry , celestial navigation , observational astronomy , and the making of calendars . Nowadays , professional astronomy is often said to be the same as astrophysics .
A nebula ( Latin for 'cloud ' or 'fog ' ; pl . nebulae , nebulæ or nebulas ) is an interstellar cloud of dust , hydrogen , helium and other ionized gases . Originally , the term was used to describe any diffuse astronomical object , including galaxies beyond the Milky Way . The Andromeda Galaxy , for instance , was once referred to as the Andromeda Nebula ( and spiral galaxies in general as spiral nebulae ) before the true nature of galaxies was confirmed in the early 20th century by Vesto Slipher , Edwin Hubble and others . Most nebulae are of vast size ; some are hundreds of light-years in diameter . A nebula that is visible to the human eye from Earth would appear larger , but no brighter , from close by . The Orion Nebula , the brightest nebula in the sky and occupying an area twice the diameter of the full Moon , can be viewed with the naked eye but was missed by early astronomers . Although denser than the space surrounding them , most nebulae are far less dense than any vacuum created on Earth - a nebular cloud the size of the Earth would have a total mass of only a few kilograms . Many nebulae are visible due to fluorescence caused by embedded hot stars , while others are so diffuse they can only be detected with long exposures and special filters . Some nebulae are variably illuminated by T Tauri variable stars . Nebulae are often star-forming regions , such as in the Pillars of Creation in the Eagle Nebula . In these regions , the formations of gas , dust , and other materials clump together to form denser regions , which attract further matter , and eventually will become dense enough to form stars .
The Reverend John Lightfoot ( 9 December 1735 - 20 February 1788 ) was an English parson-naturalist , spending much of his free time as a conchologist and botanist . He was a systematic and effective curator of the private museum of Margaret Bentinck , Duchess of Portland . He is best known for his Flora Scotica which pioneered the scientific study of the plants and fungi of Scotland . He elected a Fellow of the Royal Society for his scientific work .
Conchology ( from Ancient Greek : κόγχος konkhos , cockle ) is the study of mollusc shells . Conchology is one aspect of malacology , the study of molluscs ; however , malacology is the study of molluscs as whole organisms , whereas conchology is confined to the study of their shells . It includes the study of land and freshwater mollusc shells as well as seashells and extends to the study of a gastropod 's operculum . Conchology is now sometimes seen as an archaic study , because relying on only one aspect of an organism 's morphology can be misleading . However , a shell often gives at least some insight into molluscan taxonomy , and historically the shell was often the only part of exotic species that was available for study . Even in current museum collections it is common for the dry material ( shells ) to greatly exceed the amount of material that is preserved whole in alcohol . Conchologists mainly deal with four molluscan orders : the gastropods ( snails ) , bivalves ( clams ) , Polyplacophora ( chitons ) and Scaphopoda ( tusk shells ) . Cephalopods only have small internal shells , with the exception of the Nautiloidea . Some groups , such as the sea slug nudibranchs , have lost their shells altogether , while in others it has been replaced by a protein support structure .
John Stevens Henslow ( 6 February 1796 - 16 May 1861 ) was a British priest , botanist and geologist . He is best remembered as friend and mentor to his pupil Charles Darwin .
A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid , liquid , and gaseous matter that constitutes the Earth and other terrestrial planets , as well as the processes that shape them . Geologists usually study geology , although backgrounds in physics , chemistry , biology , and other sciences are also useful . Field work is an important component of geology , although many subdisciplines incorporate laboratory work . Geologists work in the energy and mining sectors searching for natural resources such as petroleum , natural gas , precious and base metals . They are also in the forefront of preventing and mitigating damage from natural hazards and disasters such as earthquakes , volcanoes , tsunamis and landslides . Their studies are used to warn the general public of the occurrence of these events . Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions .
Charles Robert Darwin , FRS FRGS FLS FZS ( /ˈdɑːrwɪn/ ; 12 February 1809 - 19 April 1882 ) was an English naturalist , geologist and biologist , best known for his contributions to the science of evolution . [ I ] His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted , and considered a foundational concept in science . In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace , he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection , in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding . Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history , and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey . Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species . By the 1870s , the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact . However , many favoured competing explanations which gave only a minor role to natural selection , and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution . Darwin 's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences , explaining the diversity of life . Darwin 's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh ; instead , he helped to investigate marine invertebrates . Studies at the University of Cambridge ( Christ 's College ) encouraged his passion for natural science . His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell 's conception of gradual geological change , and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author . Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage , Darwin began detailed investigations , and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection .
Leonard Jenyns ( 25 May 1800 - 1 September 1893 ) was an English clergyman , author and naturalist . He was forced to take on the name Leonard Blomefield to receive an inheritance . He is chiefly remembered for his detailed phenology observations of the times of year at which events in natural history occurred .
Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events and how these are influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate , as well as habitat factors ( such as elevation ) . The word , coined by the Belgian botanist Charles Morren in 1849 , is derived from the Greek φαίνω ( phainō ) , to show , to bring to light , make to appear + λόγος ( logos ) , amongst others study , discourse , reasoning and indicates that phenology has been principally concerned with the dates of first occurrence of biological events in their annual cycle . Examples include the date of emergence of leaves and flowers , the first flight of butterflies and the first appearance of migratory birds , the date of leaf colouring and fall in deciduous trees , the dates of egg-laying of birds and amphibia , or the timing of the developmental cycles of temperate-zone honey bee colonies . In the scientific literature on ecology , the term is used more generally to indicate the time frame for any seasonal biological phenomena , including the dates of last appearance ( e.g. , the seasonal phenology of a species may be from April through September ) .
Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics , with a major focus on weather forecasting . The study of meteorology dates back millennia , though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century . The 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions . Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data . It was not until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and more particularly , the development of the computer , allowing for the automated solution of a great many equations that model the weather , in the latter half of the 20th century that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved . An important domain of weather forecasting is marine weather forecasting as it relates to maritime and coastal safety , in which weather effects also include atmospheric interactions with large bodies of water . Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology . Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of Earth 's atmosphere : temperature , air pressure , water vapour , mass flow , and the variations and interactions of those variables , and how they change over time . Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local , regional , and global levels . Meteorology , climatology , atmospheric physics , and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences . Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology . The interactions between Earth 's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system .
The Reverend William Darwin Fox ( 23 April 1805 - 8 April 1880 ) was an English clergyman , naturalist , and a second cousin of Charles Darwin .
Entomology ( from Ancient Greek ἔντομον ( entomon ) , meaning 'insect ' , and -λογία ( -logia ) , meaning 'study of ' ) is the scientific study of insects , a branch of zoology . In the past the term insect was vaguer , and historically the definition of entomology included the study of terrestrial animals in other arthropod groups or other phyla , such as arachnids , myriapods , earthworms , land snails , and slugs . This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use . Like several of the other fields that are categorized within zoology , entomology is a taxon-based category ; any form of scientific study in which there is a focus on insect-related inquiries is , by definition , entomology . Entomology therefore overlaps with a cross-section of topics as diverse as molecular genetics , behavior , biomechanics , biochemistry , systematics , physiology , developmental biology , ecology , morphology , and paleontology . At some 1.3 million described species , insects account for more than two-thirds of all known organisms , date back some 400 million years , and have many kinds of interactions with humans and other forms of life on earth .
Beetles are a group of insects that form the order Coleoptera , in the superorder Endopterygota . Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases , elytra , distinguishing them from most other insects . The Coleoptera , with about 400,000 species , is the largest of all orders , constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal life-forms ; new species are discovered frequently . The largest of all families , the Curculionidae ( weevils ) , with some 83,000 member species , belongs to this order . Found in almost every habitat except the sea and the polar regions , they interact with their ecosystems in several ways : beetles often feed on plants and fungi , break down animal and plant debris , and eat other invertebrates . Some species are serious agricultural pests , such as the Colorado potato beetle , while others such as Coccinellidae ( ladybirds or ladybugs ) eat aphids , scale insects , thrips , and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops . Beetles typically have a particularly hard exoskeleton including the elytra , though some such as the rove beetles have very short elytra while blister beetles have softer elytra . The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform and typical of insects , although there are several examples of novelty , such as adaptations in water beetles which trap air bubbles under the elytra for use while diving . Beetles are endopterygotes , which means that they undergo complete metamorphosis , with a series of conspicuous and relatively abrupt changes in body structure between hatching and becoming adult after a relatively immobile pupal stage . Some , such as stag beetles , have a marked sexual dimorphism , the males possessing enormously enlarged mandibles which they use to fight other males . Many beetles are aposematic , with bright colours and patterns warning of their toxicity , while others are harmless Batesian mimics of such insects . Many beetles , including those that live in sandy places , have effective camouflage .
Henry Baker Tristram FRS ( 11 May 1822 - 8 March 1906 ) was an English clergyman , Bible scholar , traveller and ornithologist . As a parson-naturalist he was an early supporter of Darwinism , attempting to reconcile evolution and creation .
Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds . Several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines , due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds . The science of ornithology has a long history and studies on birds have helped develop several key concepts in evolution , behaviour and ecology such as the definition of species , the process of speciation , instinct , learning , ecological niches , guilds , island biogeography , phylogeography , and conservation . While early ornithology was principally concerned with descriptions and distributions of species , ornithologists today seek answers to very specific questions , often using birds as models to test hypotheses or predictions based on theories . Most modern biological theories apply across taxonomic groups , and the number of professional scientists who identify themselves as ornithologists has therefore declined . A wide range of tools and techniques is used in ornithology , both inside the laboratory and out in the field , and innovations are constantly made .
John George Wood , or Rev J. G. Wood , ( 21 July 1827 - 3 March 1889 ) , was an English writer who popularised natural history with his writings .
William Henry Dallinger FRS ( 5 July 1839 - 7 November 1909 ) was a British minister in the Wesleyan Methodist Church . He was also an accomplished scientist , being the first to study the complete lifecycle of unicellular organisms under the microscope and studying the adaptation of such organisms to temperature . He made numerous contributions to microscopy , and was president of the Quekett Microscopical Club from 1889 to 1892 . Dallinger was awarded three honorary doctorates , the Ll.D . from Victoria College , Toronto in 1884 , the D.Sc . from Dublin in 1892 , and the D.L.C . from Durham in 1896 . Dallinger was married to Emma Ion Goldsmith ( 1842-1910 ) . They had one child , son Percy Gough ( 1867-1930 ) .
The Wesleyan Methodist Church was the name used by the majority Methodist movement in England following its split from the Church of England after the death of John Wesley and the appearance of parallel Methodist movements . The word Wesleyan in the title differentiated it from the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists ( who were a majority of the Methodists in Wales ) and from the Primitive Methodist movement , which separated from the Wesleyans in 1807 . The Wesleyan Methodist Church followed the Wesleys in holding to an Arminian theology , in contrast to the Calvinism held by George Whitefield , by Selina Hastings ( founder of the Countess of Huntingdon 's Connexion ) and by Howell Harris and Daniel Rowland , the pioneers of Welsh Methodism . Its Conference was also the legal successor to John Wesley as holder of the property of the original Methodist Societies . The title Wesleyan Methodist Church remained in use until the Methodist Union of 1932 , when the church re-united with the Primitive Methodist Church and the United Methodist Church to form the current Methodist Church of Great Britain .
Microbiology ( from Greek μῑκρος , mīkros , small ; βίος , bios , life ; and -λογία , -logia ) is the study of microorganisms , those being unicellular ( single cell ) , multicellular ( cell colony ) , or acellular ( lacking cells ) . Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology , parasitology , mycology and bacteriology . Eukaryotic microorganisms possess membrane-bound organelles and include fungi and protists , whereas prokaryotic organisms - all of which are microorganisms - are conventionally classified as lacking membrane-bound organelles and include Bacteria and Archaea . Microbiologists traditionally relied on culture , staining , and microscopy . However , less than 1% of the microorganisms present in common environments can be cultured in isolation using current means . Microbiologists often rely on molecular biology tools such as DNA sequence based identification , for example 16s rRNA gene sequence used for bacteria identification . Viruses have been variably classified as organisms , as they have been considered either as very simple microorganisms or very complex molecules . Prions , never considered as microorganisms , have been investigated by virologists , however , as the clinical effects traced to them were originally presumed due to chronic viral infections , and virologists took search - discovering infectious proteins . The existence of microorganisms was predicted many centuries before they were first observed , for example by the Jains in India and by Marcus Terentius Varro in ancient Rome . The first recorded microscope observation was of the fruiting bodies of moulds , by Robert Hooke in 1666 , but the Jesuit priest Athanasius Kircher was likely the first to see microbes , which he mentioned observing in milk and putrid material in 1658 . Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is considered a father of microbiology as he observed and experimented with microscopic organisms in 1676 , using simple microscopes of his own design . Scientific microbiology developed in the 19th century through the work of Louis Pasteur and in medical microbiology Robert Koch .
A unicellular organism , also known as a single-celled organism , is an organism that consists of a single cell , unlike a multicellular organism that consists of multiple cells . Unicellular organisms fall into two general categories : prokaryotic organisms and eukaryotic organisms . Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea . Many eukaryotes are multicellular , but the group includes the protozoa , unicellular algae , and unicellular fungi . Unicellular organisms are thought to be the oldest form of life , with early protocells possibly emerging 3.8-4 billion years ago . Although some prokaryotes live in colonies , they are not specialised cells with differing functions . These organisms live together , and each cell must carry out all life processes to survive . In contrast , even the simplest multicellular organisms have cells that depend on each other to survive . Most multicellular organisms have a unicellular life-cycle stage . Gametes , for example , are reproductive unicells for multicellular organisms . Additionally , multicellularity appears to have evolved independently many times in the history of life . Some organisms are partially unicellular , like Dictyostelium discoideum .
Spontaneous generation refers to an obsolete body of thought on the ordinary formation of living organisms without descent from similar organisms . The theory of spontaneous generation held that living creatures could arise from nonliving matter and that such processes were commonplace and regular . For instance , it was hypothesized that certain forms such as fleas could arise from inanimate matter such as dust , or that maggots could arise from dead flesh . A variant idea was that of equivocal generation , in which species such as tapeworms arose from unrelated living organisms , now understood to be their hosts . [ citation needed ] The idea of univocal generation , by contrast , refers to effectively exclusive reproduction from genetically related parent ( s ) , generally of the same species . [ citation needed ] The doctrine of spontaneous generation was coherently synthesized by Aristotle , who compiled and expanded the work of earlier natural philosophers and the various ancient explanations for the appearance of organisms , and was taken as scientific fact for two millennia . Though challenged in the 17th and 18th centuries by the experiments of Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani , spontaneous generation was not disproved until the work of Louis Pasteur and John Tyndall in the mid-19th century .
Spencer Cowper ( 1713-1774 ) was Dean of Durham Cathedral from 1746 to 1774 , known also for his early contributions to meteorology and his liking for poetry and music .
The Dean of Durham is the head ( primus inter pares - first among equals ) and chair of the Chapter , the ruling body of Durham Cathedral . The dean and chapter are based at the Cathedral Church of Christ , Blessed Mary the Virgin and St Cuthbert of Durham in Durham . The cathedral is the mother church of the Diocese of Durham and seat of the Bishop of Durham .
Francis Orpen Morris ( 25 March 1810 - 10 February 1893 ) was an Irish clergyman , notable as parson-naturalist ( ornithologist and entomologist ) and as the author of many children 's books and books on natural history and heritage buildings . He was a pioneer of the movement to protect birds from the plume trade and was a co-founder of the Plumage League . He died on 10 February 1893 and was buried at Nunburnholme , East Riding of Yorkshire , England .
Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin ( 1809-1882 ) and others , stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small , inherited variations that increase the individual 's ability to compete , survive , and reproduce . Also called Darwinian theory , it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859 , including concepts which predated Darwin 's theories . English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860 .
Andrew Bloxam ( 22 September 1801 - 2 February 1878 ) was an English clergyman and naturalist ; in his later life he had a particular interest in botany . He was the naturalist on board HMS Blonde during its voyage around South America and the Pacific in 1824-26 , where he collected mainly birds . Later as a Church of England minister he lived in Warwickshire and Leicestershire and made significant contributions to the study of the natural history of the area . His special interest was in fungi and the genera Rubus and Rosa . His botanical author abbreviation is A.Bloxam .
HMS Blonde was a 46-gun modified Apollo-class fifth-rate frigate of 1,103 tons burthen . She undertook an important voyage to the Pacific Ocean in 1824 . She was used for harbour service from 1850 and was renamed HMS Calypso in 1870 , before being sold in 1895 .
Rubus is a large and diverse superspecies of flowering plants in the rose family , Rosaceae , subfamily Rosoideae , with 250-700 species . Raspberries , blackberries , and dewberries are common , widely distributed members of the genus . Most of these plants have woody stems with prickles like roses ; spines , bristles , and gland-tipped hairs are also common in the genus . The Rubus fruit , sometimes called a bramble fruit , is an aggregate of drupelets . The term cane fruit ( or cane-fruit ) , or cane berry ( or caneberry ) , applies to any Rubus species or hybrid which is commonly grown with supports such as wires or canes , including raspberries , blackberries , and hybrids such as loganberry , boysenberry , marionberry and tayberry . The stems of such plants are also referred to as canes .
A rose is a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus Rosa , in the family Rosaceae , or the flower it bears . There are over three hundred species and thousands of cultivars . They form a group of plants that can be erect shrubs , climbing , or trailing , with stems that are often armed with sharp prickles . Flowers vary in size and shape and are usually large and showy , in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds . Most species are native to Asia , with smaller numbers native to Europe , North America , and northwestern Africa . Species , cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant . Roses have acquired cultural significance in many societies . Rose plants range in size from compact , miniature roses , to climbers that can reach seven meters in height . Different species hybridize easily , and this has been used in the development of the wide range of garden roses .
Miles Joseph Berkeley ( 1 April 1803 - 30 July 1889 ) was an English cryptogamist and clergyman , and one of the founders of the science of plant pathology . The standard author abbreviation Berk . is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name .
Sibbertoft is a village and civil parish in the Daventry district of Northamptonshire in England . At the time of the 2001 census , the parish 's population ( including Sulby ) was 343 people , increasing to 462 at the 2011 Census . Facilities in the village include a pub , church , recreation ground and the Sibbertoft Reading Room which is in effect the village hall .
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi , including their genetic and biochemical properties , their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder , traditional medicine , food , and entheogens , as well as their dangers , such as toxicity or infection . A biologist specializing in mycology is called a mycologist . Mycology branches into the field of phytopathology , the study of plant diseases , and the two disciplines remain closely related because the vast majority of plant pathogens are fungi .
Sir William Jackson Hooker KH FRS FRSE FLS ( 6 July 1785 - 12 August 1865 ) was an English botanist and botanical illustrator . Born and educated in Norwich , an inheritance gave him the means to travel and to devote himself to the study of natural history , particularly botany . He published his account of an expedition to Iceland in 1809 , but only after his notes and specimens were destroyed during his voyage home . He married Maria , the eldest daughter of the Norfolk banker Dawson Turner , in 1815 , afterwards living in Halesworth for eleven years , where he established a herbarium that was renowned amongst botanists at the time . He held the post of Regius Professor of Botany at Glasgow University , where he worked with the botanist and lithographer Thomas Hopkirk . Hooker enjoyed the friendship and support of Sir Joseph Banks for his exploring , collecting and organising work . in 1841 he succeeded William Townsend Aiton as Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew . During his career , the gardens at Kew were expanded greatly , an arboretum was established , new glass-houses were built , and a museum of economic botany was established . A prolific writer , among his publications are The British Jungermanniae ( 1816 ) , Flora Scotica ( 1821 ) , and Species Filicum ( 1846-64 ) . In 1865 Hooker died as the result of complications due to a throat infection , and was buried at St Anne 's Church , Kew . His son , Joseph Dalton Hooker , succeeded him as Director of Kew Gardens .
Rev . William Richardson Linton ( 2 April 1850 in Diddington , Huntingdonshire - 7 April 1908 in Ashbourne , Derbyshire ) , Corpus Christi College , M.A. , was an English botanist and vicar of the parish of Shirley , Derbyshire . He was regarded as one of the leading batologists of his day .
Shirley is a small village and civil parish in Derbyshire , close to the town of Ashbourne . The population of the civil parish as taken at the 2011 Census was 270 . It is situated in the countryside on top of a small hill .
Derbyshire ( /ˈdɑːrbiʃər , -ʃɪər/ ) is a county in the East Midlands of England . A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire , containing the southern extremity of the Pennine range of hills which extend into the north of the county . The county contains part of the National Forest , and borders on Greater Manchester to the northwest , West Yorkshire to the north , South Yorkshire to the northeast , Nottinghamshire to the east , Leicestershire to the southeast , Staffordshire to the west and southwest and Cheshire also to the west . Kinder Scout , at 636 metres ( 2,087 ft ) , is the highest point in the county , whilst Trent Meadows , where the River Trent leaves Derbyshire , is its lowest point at 27 metres ( 89 ft ) . :1 The River Derwent is the county 's longest river at 66 miles ( 106 km ) , and runs roughly north to south through the county . In 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms ( near Swadlincote ) as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain . The city of Derby is a unitary authority area , but remains part of the ceremonial county of Derbyshire . The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants . There is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland : 75% of the population live in 25% of the area . [ citation needed ]
Rubus durescens is a rare British species of flowering plant in the rose family . It is native to England , where the entire global distribution of this bramble is found only within the southern half of the county of Derbyshire . It occurs in hedges , shrubs , wood and heathy areas , and was first described and named in 1892 by the Derbyshire botanist William Richardson Linton . Linton placed an illustration of the plant in gold leaf on the cover of the 1903 version of The Flora of Derbyshire , of which he was the sole author .