List of whistleblowers
1960s–1970s
Table:
Year

Image

Name

Organization

Action

1963

John Paul Vann

United States Army

American colonel, who, during the Vietnam War, reported to his superiors that American policy and tactics were seriously flawed, and later went to the media with his concerns. Vann was asked to resign his commission, did so, but later returned to Vietnam.[11]

1965

Meier 19 [de]

Swiss Police

1966

Peter Buxtun

United States Public Health Service

Exposed the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment.[12]

1967

John White

United States Navy

U.S. Navy Lieutenant Jg, White wrote this letter to the editor of the New Haven (Conn.) Register. He asserted that U.S. President Lyndon Johnson lied to Congress about faulty sonar reports used to justify the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. White continued his whistleblowing activities by appearing in the 1968 documentary In the Year of the Pig. In 2014, he published his post-mortem entitled The Gulf of Tonkin Events: Fifty Years Later (A Footnote to the History of the Vietnam War).

1971

Daniel Ellsberg

United States State Department

Ellsberg was a former RAND Corp. military analyst who, along with Anthony Russo, leaked the Pentagon Papers, a secret account of the Vietnam War to The New York Times. The Pentagon Papers revealed endemic practices of deception by previous administrations, and contributed to the erosion of public support for the war. The release triggered a legal case concerning government efforts to prevent the publication of classified information that was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court (New York Times Co. v. United States (403 U.S. 713)). Ellsberg himself was the subject of retaliation by the Nixon Administration.

1971

Frank Serpico

New York Police Department

Former New York City police officer who reported several of his fellow officers for bribery and related charges in front of the Knapp Commission probing police corruption in the NYPD. Serpico was the first police officer in the history of the NYPD to step forward to report and subsequently testify openly about widespread, systemic corruption payoffs amounting to millions of dollars.[13] The 1973 film Serpico is an account of his story.

1971

Perry Fellwock

National Security Agency

Former NSA analyst who revealed the existence of the NSA and its worldwide covert surveillance network in Ramparts magazine in 1971.[14] At the time, the NSA was an ultra secretive scarcely known organization. Because of the Fellwock revelations, the U.S. Senate Church Committee introduced successful legislation to stop NSA spying on American citizens. Fellwock was motivated by Daniel Ellsberg's release of the Pentagon Papers.[15][16]

1971

Vladimir Bukovsky

Soviet abuse of psychiatry

In the Soviet Union, during the leadership of general secretary Leonid Brezhnev, psychiatry was used as a tool to eliminate political dissidents.[17] In 1971, Vladimir Bukovsky smuggled to the West a file of 150 pages documenting the political abuse of psychiatry, which he sent to The Times.[18] The documents were photocopies of forensic reports on prominent Soviet dissidents.[19] In January 1972, Bukovsky was convicted of spreading anti-Soviet propaganda under Criminal Code, mainly on the ground that he had, with anti-Soviet intention, circulated false reports about political dissenters confined in mental hospitals.[20] Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union was denounced in the course of the Congresses of the World Psychiatric Association in Mexico City (1971), Hawaii (1977), Vienna (1983) and Athens (1989).[21]

1972

W. Mark Felt

Federal Bureau of Investigation

Known only as Deep Throat until 2005, Felt was Associate Director of the FBI, the number-two job in the Bureau, when he leaked information about President Richard Nixon's involvement in the Watergate scandal.[22] The scandal would eventually lead to the resignation of the president, and prison terms for White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman and presidential adviser John Ehrlichman.

1973

Stanley Adams

Hoffmann-LaRoche

A senior executive at Swiss pharmaceutical company Hoffman-LaRoche, Adams supplied evidence to European Economic Community regulators on the company's price fixing in the international vitamin market.[23] The EEC revealed his name during the resulting investigation and Adams was arrested for industrial espionage by the Swiss government and spent six months in jail. He fought for ten years to clear his name and receive compensation from the EEC.

1973

A. Ernest Fitzgerald

United States Department of Defense

U.S. Air Force auditor who exposed to Congress a $2 billion cost overrun associated with Lockheed's C-5A cargo plane. Fitzgerald retired from the Defense Department in 2006.[24]

1973–1997

Henri Pezerat

French National Centre for Scientific Research

Henri Pezerat, working on the Jussieu Campus, detected asbestos fibres falling from the ceiling and created a committee to study and inform people about the dangers of asbestos.

1974

Karen Silkwood

Kerr-McGee

There have been a number of nuclear power whistleblowers who have identified safety concerns at nuclear power plants. The first prominent nuclear power whistleblower was Karen Silkwood, who worked as a chemical technician at a Kerr-McGee nuclear plant. Silkwood became an activist in the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union in order to protest health and safety issues. In 1974, she testified to the United States Atomic Energy Commission about her concerns. The 1983 film Silkwood is an account of this story.

1976

Gregory C. Minor, Richard B. Hubbard, and Dale G. Bridenbaugh

General Electric

Nuclear power whistleblowers. On February 2, 1976, Gregory C. Minor, Richard B. Hubbard, and Dale G. Bridenbaugh (known as the GE Three) "blew the whistle" on safety problems at nuclear power plants, and their action has been called "an exemplary instance of whistleblowing".[25] The three engineers gained the attention of journalists and their disclosures about the threats of nuclear power had a significant impact. They timed their statements to coincide with their resignations from responsible positions in General Electric's nuclear energy division, and later established themselves as consultants on the nuclear power industry for state governments, federal agencies, and overseas governments. The consulting firm they formed, MHB Technical Associates, was technical advisor for the movie, The China Syndrome. The three engineers participated in Congressional hearings which their disclosures precipitated.[25][26][27][28]

1977

Frank Snepp

Central Intelligence Agency

CIA analyst at the US Embassy, Saigon who published Decent Interval in 1977 about Operation Frequent Wind and the failures of the CIA and other American entities to properly prepare for the Fall of Saigon. Although he redacted all names, methods, and sources from the book, after it was published, CIA Director Stansfield Turner had Snepp successfully prosecuted for breach of contract for violating his non-disclosure agreement.[29] Snepp lost all income, including royalties, from publication of the book, a verdict upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court.

Drawing on the table as well as the context paragraphs provided at the end.

State the answer to the question: What is the year of the whistle blower whose organization is the largest employer in the world ? Return your answer as JSON: {"answer": "YOUR ANSWER"}. Base your answer solely on the given information.

John Paul Vann ( July 2 , 1924 - June 9 , 1972 ) was a lieutenant colonel in the United States Army , later retired , who became well known for his role in the Vietnam War . Although separated from the military before the Vietnam War reached its peak , he returned to service as a civilian and by the waning days of the war was the first American civilian to command troops in regular combat there . He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and was the only civilian in Vietnam to receive the Distinguished Service Cross . He died in a helicopter crash in 1972 at 47 years old .
The United States Army ( USA ) is the land warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces . It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services , and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution . As the oldest and most senior branch of the U.S. military in order of precedence , the modern U.S. Army has its roots in the Continental Army , which was formed ( 14 June 1775 ) to fight the American Revolutionary War ( 1775-1783 ) - before the United States of America was established as a country . After the Revolutionary War , the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784 to replace the disbanded Continental Army . The United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army , and considers its institutional inception to be the origin of that armed force in 1775 . As a uniformed military service , the U.S. Army is part of the Department of the Army , which is one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense . The U.S. Army is headed by a civilian senior appointed civil servant , the secretary of the Army ( SECARMY ) and by a chief military officer , the chief of staff of the Army ( CSA ) who is also a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . It is the largest military branch , and in the fiscal year 2017 , the projected end strength for the Regular Army ( USA ) was 476,000 soldiers ; the Army National Guard ( ARNG ) had 343,000 soldiers and the U.S. Army Reserve ( USAR ) had 199,000 soldiers ; the combined-component strength of the U.S. Army was 1,018,000 soldiers . As a branch of the armed forces , the mission of the U.S. Army is to fight and win our Nation 's wars , by providing prompt , sustained land dominance , across the full range of military operations and the spectrum of conflict , in support of combatant commanders . The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States .
Colonel ( /ˈkɜːrnəl/ kernel ; abbreviated Col. , Col or COL ) is a senior military officer rank below the general officer ranks . However , in some small military forces , such as those of Monaco or the Vatican , colonel is the highest rank . It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations . Historically , in the seventeenth , eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , a colonel was typically in charge of a regiment in an army . Modern usage varies greatly , and in some cases , the term is used as an honorific title that may have no direct relationship to military service . The rank of colonel is typically above the rank of lieutenant colonel . The rank above colonel is typically called brigadier , brigade general or brigadier general . Equivalent naval ranks may be called captain or ship-of-the-line captain . In the Commonwealth air force rank system , the equivalent rank is group captain .
The Vietnam War ( Vietnamese : Chiến tranh Việt Nam ) , also known as the Second Indochina War , and in Vietnam as the Resistance War Against America ( Vietnamese : Kháng chiến chống Mỹ ) or simply the American War , was a conflict in Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 [ A 1 ] to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975 . It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam . North Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union , China , and other communist allies ; South Vietnam was supported by the United States , South Korea , the Philippines , Australia , Thailand and other anti-communist allies . The war , considered a Cold War-era proxy war by some , lasted 19 years , with direct U.S. involvement ending in 1973 , and included the Laotian Civil War and the Cambodian Civil War , which ended with all three countries becoming communist in 1975 . The conflict emerged from the First Indochina War against the communist-led Viet Minh . [ A 4 ] Most of the funding for the French war effort was provided by the U.S. After the French quit Indochina in 1954 , the US assumed financial and military support for the South Vietnamese state . The Việt Cộng , also known as Front national de libération du Sud-Viêt Nam or NLF ( the National Liberation Front ) , a South Vietnamese common front under the direction of North Vietnam , initiated a guerrilla war in the south . North Vietnam had also invaded Laos in the mid-1950s in support of insurgents , establishing the Ho Chi Minh Trail to supply and reinforce the Việt Cộng . :16 U.S. involvement escalated under President John F. Kennedy through the MAAG program from just under a thousand military advisors in 1959 to 16,000 in 1963.:131 By 1963 , the North Vietnamese had sent 40,000 soldiers to fight in South Vietnam . :16 North Vietnam was heavily backed by the USSR and the People 's Republic of China . China also sent hundreds of PLA servicemen to North Vietnam to serve in air-defense and support roles . :371-4 By 1964 , there were 23,000 US advisors in South Vietnam .
Law enforcement in Switzerland is mainly a responsibility of the 26 cantons of Switzerland , who each operate cantonal police agencies . Some cities also operate municipal police agencies as provided for by cantonal law . The federal government provides specialised services and is responsible for the protection of the Swiss border . Throughout Switzerland , the police may be reached by the emergency telephone number 1-1-7 .
Peter Buxtun ( sometimes referred to as Peter Buxton ; born 1937 in Prague ) is a former employee of the United States Public Health Service who became known as the whistleblower responsible for ending the Tuskegee syphilis experiment . Buxtun , then a 27-year-old social worker and epidemiologist in San Francisco , was hired by the Public Health Service in December 1965 to interview patients with sexually transmitted diseases ; in the course of his duties , he learned of the Tuskegee Experiment from co-workers . He later said - I did n't want to believe it . This was the Public Health Service . We did n't do things like that . In November 1966 , he filed an official protest on ethical grounds with the Service 's Division of Venereal Diseases ; this was rejected on the grounds that the Experiment was not yet complete . He filed another protest in November 1968 ; again , his concerns were ruled irrelevant . In 1972 , Buxtun leaked information on the Tuskegee Experiment to Jean Heller of the Washington Star . Heller 's story exposing the Experiment was published on July 25 , 1972 ; It became front-page news in the New York Times the following day . Senator Edward Kennedy called Congressional hearings , at which Buxtun and HEW officials testified and the Experiment was terminated shortly thereafter . Buxtun subsequently testified at the ensuing Congressional hearing . In May 1999 , Buxtun attended the launch of a memorial center and public exhibit to the experiment in Tuskegee .
The United States Public Health Service ( USPHS ) is a division of the Department of Health and Human Services concerned with public health . It contains eight out of the department 's eleven operating divisions . The Assistant Secretary for Health ( ASH ) oversees the PHS . The Public Health Service Commissioned Corps ( PHSCC ) is the federal uniformed service of the USPHS , and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States . Its origins can be traced to the establishment in 1798 of a system of marine hospitals . In 1870 these were consolidated into the Marine Hospital Service , and the position of Surgeon General was established . In 1889 , the PHSCC was established . As the system 's scope grew , it was renamed the Public Health Service in 1912 . The Public Health Service Act of 1944 consolidated and revised previous laws and is the current legal basis for the PHS . It became part of the Federal Security Agency and later the Department of Health , Education and Welfare , which became the Department of Health and Human Services in 1979 .
Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male [ a ] was a clinical study conducted between 1932 and 1972 by the United States Public Health Service . The purpose of this study was to observe the natural history of untreated syphilis ; the African American men in the study were only told they were receiving free health care from the Federal government of the United States . Public Health Service started working on this study in 1932 in collaboration with Tuskegee University , a historically black college in Alabama . Investigators enrolled in the study a total of 600 impoverished , African American sharecroppers from Macon County , Alabama . Of these men , 399 had latent syphilis and 201 did not have the disease . The men were given free medical care , meals and free burial insurance for participating in the study . The men were told that the study was only going to last six months , but it actually lasted 40 years . After funding for treatment was lost , the study was continued without informing the men that they would never be treated . None of the men were told that they had the disease , and none were treated with penicillin even after the antibiotic was proven to successfully treat syphilis . According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the men were told that they were being treated for bad blood , a colloquialism that described various conditions such as syphilis , anemia and fatigue . Bad blood - specifically the collection of illnesses the term included - was a leading cause of death within the southern African American community . The 40-year Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male study was a major violation of ethical standards .
The United States Navy ( USN ) is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States . It is the largest and most capable navy in the world and it has been estimated that in terms of tonnage of its active battle fleet alone , it is larger than the next 13 navies combined , which includes 11 U.S. allies or partner nations . It has the highest combined battle fleet tonnage and the world 's largest aircraft carrier fleet , with eleven in service , two new carriers under construction , and five other carriers planned . With 336,978 personnel on active duty and 101,583 in the Ready Reserve , the U.S. Navy is the third largest of the U.S. military service branches in terms of personnel . It has 290 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of June 2019 [ update ] , making it the third-largest air force in the world , after the United States Air Force and the United States Army . The U.S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy , which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter . After suffering significant loss of goods and personnel at the hands of the Barbary pirates from Algiers , the U.S. Congress passed the Naval Act of 1794 for the construction of six heavy frigates , the first ships of the U.S. Navy . The U.S. Navy played a major role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy and seizing control of its rivers . It played the central role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan . The U.S. Navy emerged from World War II as the most powerful navy in the world . The 21st century U.S. Navy maintains a sizable global presence , deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific , the Mediterranean , and the Indian Ocean . It is a blue-water navy with the ability to project force onto the littoral regions of the world , engage in forward deployments during peacetime and rapidly respond to regional crises , making it a frequent actor in U.S. foreign and military policy .
In the Year of the Pig is an American documentary film directed by Emile de Antonio about American involvement in the Vietnam War . It was released in 1968 while the U.S. was in the middle of its military engagement , and was politically controversial . One year later , the film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature . In 1990 , Jonathan Rosenbaum characterized the film as the first and best of the major documentaries about Vietnam . The film , which is in black and white , contains much historical footage and many interviews . Those interviewed include Harry Ashmore , Daniel Berrigan , Philippe Devillers , David Halberstam , Roger Hilsman , Jean Lacouture , Kenneth P. Landon , Thruston B. Morton , Paul Mus , Charlton Osburn , Harrison Salisbury , Ilya Todd , John Toller , David K. Tuck , David Wurfel and John White . Produced during the Vietnam War , the film was greeted with hostility by many audiences , with bomb threats and vandalism directed at theaters that showed it .
Daniel Ellsberg ( born April 7 , 1931 ) is an American economist , activist and former United States military analyst who , while employed by the RAND Corporation , precipitated a national political controversy in 1971 when he released the Pentagon Papers , a top-secret Pentagon study of the U.S. government decision-making in relation to the Vietnam War , to The New York Times and other newspapers . On January 3 , 1973 , Ellsberg was charged under the Espionage Act of 1917 along with other charges of theft and conspiracy , carrying a total maximum sentence of 115 years . Due to governmental misconduct and illegal evidence-gathering , and the defense by Leonard Boudin and Harvard Law School professor Charles Nesson , Judge William Matthew Byrne Jr. dismissed all charges against Ellsberg on May 11 , 1973 . Ellsberg was awarded the Right Livelihood Award in 2006 . He is also known for having formulated an important example in decision theory , the Ellsberg paradox , his extensive studies on nuclear weapons and nuclear policy , and for having voiced support for WikiLeaks , Chelsea Manning , and Edward Snowden . Ellsberg was awarded the 2018 Olof Palme Prize for his profound humanism and exceptional moral courage .
The United States Department of State ( DOS ) , commonly referred to as the State Department , is a federal executive department responsible for carrying out U.S. foreign policy and international relations . Established in 1789 as the nation 's first executive department , its duties include advising the President of the United States , administering the nation 's diplomatic missions , negotiating treaties and agreements with foreign entities , and representing the U.S. at the United Nations . The department is led by the Secretary of State , a member of the Cabinet who is nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate . The Secretary of State serves as the nation 's chief diplomat and representative abroad , and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession . The State Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building , a few blocks away from the White House , in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington , D.C. ; Foggy Bottom is thus sometimes used as a metonym . The current Secretary of State is Mike Pompeo .
RAND Corporation ( Research ANd Development ) is an American nonprofit global policy think tank created in 1948 by Douglas Aircraft Company to offer research and analysis to the United States Armed Forces . It is financed by the U.S. government and private endowment , corporations , universities and private individuals . The company has grown to assist other governments , international organizations , private companies and foundations , with a host of defense and non-defense issues , including healthcare . RAND aims for interdisciplinary and quantitative problem solving by translating theoretical concepts from formal economics and the physical sciences into novel applications in other areas , using applied science and operations research .
Anthony J. Russo Jr. ( October 14 , 1936 - August 6 , 2008 ) was an American researcher who assisted Daniel Ellsberg , his friend and former colleague at the RAND Corporation , in copying the Pentagon Papers .
The Pentagon Papers , officially titled Report of the Office of the Secretary of Defense Vietnam Task Force , is a United States Department of Defense history of the United States ' political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967 . The papers were released by Daniel Ellsberg , who had worked on the study ; they were first brought to the attention of the public on the front page of The New York Times in 1971 . A 1996 article in The New York Times said that the Pentagon Papers had demonstrated , among other things , that the Johnson Administration systematically lied , not only to the public but also to Congress . More specifically , the papers revealed that the U.S. had secretly enlarged the scope of its actions in the Vietnam War with the bombings of nearby Cambodia and Laos , coastal raids on North Vietnam , as well as Marine Corps attacks , none of which were reported in the mainstream media . For his disclosure of the Pentagon Papers , Ellsberg was initially charged with conspiracy , espionage , and theft of government property , but the charges were later dismissed after prosecutors investigating the Watergate scandal discovered that the staff members in the Nixon White House had ordered the so-called White House Plumbers to engage in unlawful efforts to discredit Ellsberg . In June 2011 , the entirety of the Pentagon Papers was declassified and publicly released .
The New York Times is an American newspaper based in New York City with worldwide influence and readership . Founded in 1851 , the paper has won 127 Pulitzer Prizes , more than any other newspaper . The Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation and 3rd in the U.S. Nicknamed The Gray Lady , the Times has long been regarded within the industry as a national newspaper of record . The paper 's motto , All the News That 's Fit to Print , appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page . The paper is owned by The New York Times Company , which is publicly traded and is controlled by the Sulzberger family through a dual-class share structure . It has been owned by the family since 1896 ; A.G. Sulzberger , the paper 's publisher , and his father , Arthur Ochs Sulzberger Jr. , the company 's chairman , are the fourth and fifth generation of the family to head the paper . Since the mid-1970s , The New York Times has greatly expanded its layout and organization , adding special weekly sections on various topics supplementing the regular news , editorials , sports , and features . Since 2008 , the Times has been organized into the following sections : News , Editorials/Opinions-Columns/Op-Ed , New York ( metropolitan ) , Business , Sports of The Times , Arts , Science , Styles , Home , Travel , and other features . On Sunday , the Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review ( formerly the Week in Review ) , The New York Times Book Review , The New York Times Magazine and T : The New York Times Style Magazine . The Times stayed with the broadsheet full-page set-up and an eight-column format for several years after most papers switched to six , and was one of the last newspapers to adopt color photography , especially on the front page .
New York Times Co. v. United States , 43 U.S. 713 ( 1971 ) , was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court on the First Amendment . The ruling made it possible for The New York Times and The Washington Post newspapers to publish the then-classified Pentagon Papers without risk of government censorship or punishment . President Richard Nixon had claimed executive authority to force the Times to suspend publication of classified information in its possession . The question before the court was whether the constitutional freedom of the press , guaranteed by the First Amendment , was subordinate to a claimed need of the executive branch of government to maintain the secrecy of information . The Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment did protect the right of The New York Times to print the materials .
Richard Milhous Nixon ( January 9 , 1913 - April 22 , 1994 ) was the 37th president of the United States , serving from 1969 until 1974 . The nation 's 36th vice president from 1953 to 1961 , he came to national prominence as a representative and senator from California . After five years in the White House that saw the conclusion to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War , and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency , he became the only president to resign from the office . Nixon was born to a poor family in a small town in Southern California . He graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law . He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government . He served on active duty in the Navy Reserve during World War II . He was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 . His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-Communist and elevated him to national prominence , and he was elected to the Senate in 1950 . He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election , and he became the second-youngest vice president in history at age 40 , serving for eight years in that capacity . He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960 , narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy , and he lost a race for governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962 . In 1968 , he ran for the presidency again and was elected , defeating Vice President Hubert Humphrey and Alabama Governor George Wallace in a close election .
Francesco Vincent Serpico ( born April 14 , 1936 ) [ citation needed ] is a former New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) Detective who holds both American and Italian citizenship . He is known for whistleblowing on police corruption in the late 1960s and early 1970s , an act that prompted Mayor John V. Lindsay to appoint the landmark Knapp Commission to investigate the NYPD . Much of Serpico 's fame came after the release of the 1973 film Serpico , which was based on the book by Peter Maas and which starred Al Pacino in the title role , for which Pacino received an Oscar nomination .
The New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) , officially the City of New York Police Department , is the primary law enforcement and investigation agency within the City of New York . Established on May 23 , 1845 , the NYPD is one of the oldest police departments in the United States , and is the largest police force in the United States . The NYPD headquarters is at 1 Police Plaza , located on Park Row in Lower Manhattan across the street from City Hall . The department 's mission is to enforce the laws , preserve the peace , reduce fear , and provide for a safe environment . The NYPD 's regulations are compiled in title 38 of the New York City Rules . The New York City Transit Police and New York City Housing Authority Police Department were fully integrated into the NYPD in 1995 by New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani . In June 2004 , there were about 45,000 sworn officers plus several thousand civilian employees ; in June 2005 , the number of officers dropped to 35,000 . In December 2011 that figure increased slightly to over 36,600 , helped by the graduation of a class of 1,500 from the New York City Police Academy . As of fiscal year 2018 , the NYPD 's current authorized uniformed strength is 38,422 . There are also approximately 4,500 auxiliary police officers , 5,000 school safety agents , 2,300 traffic enforcement agents , and 370 traffic enforcement supervisors currently employed by the department . The Police Benevolent Association of the City of New York ( NYC PBA ) , the largest municipal police union in the United States , represents over 50,000 active and retired NYC police officers . The NYPD has a broad array of specialized services , including the Emergency Service Unit , K9 , harbor patrol , air support , bomb squad , counter-terrorism , criminal intelligence , anti-gang , anti-organized crime , narcotics , public transportation , and public housing .
The Commission to Investigate Alleged Police Corruption ( known informally as the Knapp Commission , after its chairman Whitman Knapp ) was a five-member panel initially formed in April 1970 by Mayor John V. Lindsay to investigate corruption within the New York City Police Department . The creation of the commission was largely a result of the publicity generated by the public revelations of police corruption made by Patrolman Frank Serpico and Sergeant David Durk . The commission confirmed the existence of widespread corruption and made a number of recommendations .
Police corruption is a form of police misconduct in which law enforcement officers end up breaking their political contract and abuse their power for personal gain . This type of corruption may involve one or a group of officers . Internal police corruption is a challenge to public trust , cohesion of departmental policies , human rights and legal violations involving serious consequences . Police corruption can take many forms , such as bribery .
The New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) , officially the City of New York Police Department , is the primary law enforcement and investigation agency within the City of New York . Established on May 23 , 1845 , the NYPD is one of the oldest police departments in the United States , and is the largest police force in the United States . The NYPD headquarters is at 1 Police Plaza , located on Park Row in Lower Manhattan across the street from City Hall . The department 's mission is to enforce the laws , preserve the peace , reduce fear , and provide for a safe environment . The NYPD 's regulations are compiled in title 38 of the New York City Rules . The New York City Transit Police and New York City Housing Authority Police Department were fully integrated into the NYPD in 1995 by New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani . In June 2004 , there were about 45,000 sworn officers plus several thousand civilian employees ; in June 2005 , the number of officers dropped to 35,000 . In December 2011 that figure increased slightly to over 36,600 , helped by the graduation of a class of 1,500 from the New York City Police Academy . As of fiscal year 2018 , the NYPD 's current authorized uniformed strength is 38,422 . There are also approximately 4,500 auxiliary police officers , 5,000 school safety agents , 2,300 traffic enforcement agents , and 370 traffic enforcement supervisors currently employed by the department . The Police Benevolent Association of the City of New York ( NYC PBA ) , the largest municipal police union in the United States , represents over 50,000 active and retired NYC police officers . The NYPD has a broad array of specialized services , including the Emergency Service Unit , K9 , harbor patrol , air support , bomb squad , counter-terrorism , criminal intelligence , anti-gang , anti-organized crime , narcotics , public transportation , and public housing .
Corruption is a form of dishonesty or criminal offense undertaken by a person or organization entrusted with a position of authority , to acquire illicit benefit or abuse power for one 's private gain . Corruption may include many activities including bribery and embezzlement , though it may also involve practices that are legal in many countries . Political corruption occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts in an official capacity for personal gain . Corruption is most commonplace in kleptocracies , oligarchies , narco-states and mafia states . [ citation needed ] Corruption can occur on different scales . Corruption ranges from small favors between a small number of people ( petty corruption ) , to corruption that affects the government on a large scale ( grand corruption ) , and corruption that is so prevalent that it is part of the everyday structure of society , including corruption as one of the symptoms of organized crime . Corruption and crime are endemic sociological occurrences which appear with regular frequency in virtually all countries on a global scale in varying degree and proportion . Individual nations each allocate domestic resources for the control and regulation of corruption and crime . Strategies to counter corruption are often summarized under the umbrella term anti-corruption .
Serpico is a 1973 American neo-noir biographical crime film directed by Sidney Lumet , and starring Al Pacino . Waldo Salt and Norman Wexler wrote the screenplay , adapting Peter Maas 's biography of NYPD officer Frank Serpico , who went undercover to expose corruption in the police force . Both Maas 's book and the film cover 12 years , 1960 to 1972 . The film and principals were nominated for numerous awards , earning recognition for its score , direction , screenplay , and Pacino 's performance . The film was also a commercial success .
Perry Fellwock ( born 1947 ) [ citation needed ] is a former National Security Agency ( NSA ) analyst and whistleblower who revealed the existence of the NSA and its worldwide covert surveillance network in an interview , using the pseudonym Winslow Peck , with Ramparts in 1971 . At the time that Fellwock blew the whistle on ECHELON , the NSA was a nearly unknown organization and among the most secretive of the US intelligence agencies . Fellwock revealed that it had a significantly larger budget than the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) . Fellwock was motivated by Daniel Ellsberg 's release of the Pentagon Papers . Today , Fellwock has been acknowledged as the first NSA whistleblower . ECHELON is the name popularly given to the signals intelligence ( SIGINT ) collection and analysis network operated on behalf of the five signatory states ( so called Five Eyes FVEY ) to the UKUSA Security Agreement . According to information in a European Parliament document On the existence of a global system for the interception of private and commercial communications ( ECHELON interception system ) , ECHELON was ostensibly created to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies during the Cold War in the early 1960s . Because of the Fellwock revelations , the U.S. Senate United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities ( Church Committee as it was chaired by Frank Church ) introduced successful legislation in 1973 to stop the NSA from spying on American citizens . Speaking about ECHELON , Frank Church said :
The National Security Agency ( NSA ) is a national-level intelligence agency of the United States Department of Defense , under the authority of the Director of National Intelligence . The NSA is responsible for global monitoring , collection , and processing of information and data for foreign and domestic intelligence and counterintelligence purposes , specializing in a discipline known as signals intelligence ( SIGINT ) . The NSA is also tasked with the protection of U.S. communications networks and information systems . The NSA relies on a variety of measures to accomplish its mission , the majority of which are clandestine . Originating as a unit to decipher coded communications in World War II , it was officially formed as the NSA by President Harry S. Truman in 1952 . Since then , it has become the largest of the U.S. intelligence organizations in terms of personnel and budget . The NSA currently conducts worldwide mass data collection and has been known to physically bug electronic systems as one method to this end . The NSA is also alleged to have been behind such attack software as Stuxnet , which severely damaged Iran 's nuclear program . The NSA , alongside the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , maintains a physical presence in many countries across the globe ; the CIA/NSA joint Special Collection Service ( a highly classified intelligence team ) inserts eavesdropping devices in high value targets ( such as Presidential palaces or embassies ) . SCS collection tactics allegedly encompass close surveillance , burglary , wiretapping , [ and ] breaking and entering . Unlike the CIA and the Defense Intelligence Agency ( DIA ) , both of which specialize primarily in foreign human espionage , the NSA does not publicly conduct human-source intelligence gathering . The NSA is entrusted with providing assistance to , and the coordination of , SIGINT elements for other government organizations - which are prevented by law from engaging in such activities on their own .
Ramparts was a glossy illustrated American political and literary magazine , published from 1962 to 1975 and closely associated with the New Left political movement . Unlike most of the radical magazines of the day , Ramparts was expensively produced and graphically sophisticated .
The Church Committee ( formally the United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities ) was a U.S. Senate select committee in 1975 that investigated abuses by the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , National Security Agency ( NSA ) , Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , and the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) . Chaired by Idaho Senator Frank Church ( D-ID ) , the committee was part of a series of investigations into intelligence abuses in 1975 , dubbed the Year of Intelligence , including its House counterpart , the Pike Committee , and the presidential Rockefeller Commission . The committee 's efforts led to the establishment of the permanent U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence .
Vladimir Konstantinovich Bukovsky ( Russian : Влади́мир Константи́нович Буко́вский ; 30 December 1942 - 27 October 2019 ) was a Russian-born British human rights activist and writer . From the late 1950s to the mid-1970s , he was a prominent figure in the Soviet dissident movement , well known at home and abroad . He spent a total of twelve years in the psychiatric prison-hospitals , labour camps , and prisons of the Soviet Union . After being expelled from the Soviet Union in late 1976 , Bukovsky remained in vocal opposition to the Soviet system and the shortcomings of its successor regimes in Russia . An activist , a writer , and a neurophysiologist , he is celebrated for his part in the campaign to expose and halt the political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union . A member of the international advisory council of the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation , a director of the Gratitude Fund ( set up in 1998 to commemorate and support former dissidents ) , [ c 1 ] and a member of the International Council of the New York City-based Human Rights Foundation , Bukovsky was a Senior Fellow of the Cato Institute in Washington , D.C . In 2001 , Vladimir Bukovsky received the Truman-Reagan Medal of Freedom , awarded annually since 1993 by the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation .
In the Soviet Union , systematic political abuse of psychiatry took place and was based on the interpretation of political dissent as a psychiatric problem . It was called psychopathological mechanisms of dissent . During the leadership of General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev , psychiatry was used as a tool to eliminate political opponents ( dissidents ) who openly expressed beliefs that contradicted official dogma . The term philosophical intoxication was widely used to diagnose mental disorders in cases where people disagreed with leaders and made them the target of criticism that used the writings by Karl Marx , Friedrich Engels , and Vladimir Lenin . Article 58-10 of the Stalin Criminal Code - which as Article 70 had been shifted into the RSFSR Criminal Code of 1962 - and Article 190-1 of the RSFSR Criminal Code along with the system of diagnosing mental illness , developed by academician Andrei Snezhnevsky , created the very preconditions under which non-standard beliefs could easily be transformed into a criminal case , and it , in its turn , into a psychiatric diagnosis . Anti-Soviet political behavior , in particular , being outspoken in opposition to the authorities , demonstrating for reform , writing books were defined in some persons as being simultaneously a criminal act ( e.g. , violation of Articles 70 or 190-1 ) , a symptom ( e.g. , delusion of reformism ) , and a diagnosis ( e.g. , sluggish schizophrenia ) . Within the boundaries of the diagnostic category , the symptoms of pessimism , poor social adaptation and conflict with authorities were themselves sufficient for a formal diagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia . The psychiatric incarceration was conducted to suppress emigration , distribution of prohibited documents or books , participation in civil rights actions and demonstrations , and involvement in forbidden religious activity . The religious faith of prisoners , including well-educated former atheists who adopted a religion , was determined to be a form of mental illness that needed to be cured . The KGB routinely sent dissenters to psychiatrists for diagnosing to avoid embarrassing publiс trials and to discredit dissidence as the product of ill minds . Formerly highly classified extant documents from Special file of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union published after the dissolution of the Soviet Union demonstrate that the authorities of the country quite consciously used psychiatry as a tool to suppress dissent . In the 1960s , a vigorous movement grew up protesting against abuse of psychiatry in the USSR .
The Soviet Union , [ b ] officially known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR or СССР ) , [ c ] was a federal sovereign state in northern Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991 . Nominally a union of multiple national Soviet republics , [ d ] in practice its government and economy were highly centralized . The country was a one-party state , governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital in its largest republic , the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( Russian SFSR ) . Other major urban centers were Leningrad , Kiev , Minsk , Tashkent , Alma-Ata , and Novosibirsk . It spanned over 10,000 kilometers ( 6,200 mi ) east to west across 11 time zones , and over 7,200 kilometers ( 4,500 mi ) north to south . Its territory included much of Eastern Europe , as well as part of Northern Europe and all of Northern and Central Asia . It had five climate zones : tundra , taiga , steppes , desert and mountains . The Soviet Union had its roots in the 1917 October Revolution , when the Bolsheviks , led by Vladimir Lenin , overthrew the Russian Provisional Government which had replaced the autocratic regime of Tsar Nicholas II during World War I . In 1922 , after a civil war ending in the Bolsheviks ' victory , the USSR was formed by a treaty which united the Russian , Transcaucasian , Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics . Following Lenin 's death in 1924 and a brief power struggle , Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s . Stalin formalized the Communist Party 's ideology of Marxism-Leninism and replaced the market economy with a command economy which led to a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization . During this period , rapid economic development resulted in dramatic improvements in the average standard of living , particularly in urban areas .
The General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was an office of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) that by the late 1920s had evolved into the most powerful of the Central Committee 's various secretaries . With a few exceptions , from 1929 until the union 's dissolution the holder of the office was the de facto leader of the Soviet Union , because the post controlled both the CPSU and the Soviet government . Joseph Stalin elevated the office to overall command of the Communist Party and by extension the whole Soviet Union . Nikita Khrushchev renamed the post First Secretary in 1953 ; the change was reverted in 1966 . The office grew out of less powerful secretarial positions within the party : Technical Secretary ( 1917-1918 ) , Chairman of the Secretariat ( 1918-1919 ) , Responsible Secretary ( 1919-1922 ) ( when Lenin was leader of the party of Bolsheviks ) .
Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev ( /ˈbrɛʒnɛf/ ; Russian : Леонид Ильич Брежнев , IPA : [ lʲɪɐˈnʲid ɪˈlʲjidʑ ˈbrʲeʐnʲɪf ] ( listen ) ; Ukrainian : Леонід Ілліч Брежнєв , 19 December 1906 ( O.S . 6 December 1906 ) - 10 November 1982 ) was a Soviet politician . The fifth leader of the Soviet Union , he served as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the governing Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) from 1964 until his death in 1982 . His 18-year term as general secretary was second only to Joseph Stalin 's in duration . While Brezhnev 's rule was characterized by political stability and notable foreign policy successes , it was also marked by corruption , inefficiency , and rapidly growing technological gaps with the West . Brezhnev was born into a Russian worker 's family in Kamenskoye in the Russian Empire . Upon the Soviet Union 's formation in the aftermath of the 1917 October Revolution , Brezhnev joined the Soviet Communist party 's youth league in 1923 . He became an official party member in 1929 . When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 , he joined the Red Army as a commissar and rose rapidly through the ranks to become a major general during World War II . Brezhnev was promoted to the Central Committee in 1952 and became a full member of the Politburo in 1957 . In 1964 he ousted Nikita Khrushchev and took over as First Secretary of the CPSU , the most powerful position in the Kremlin . Brezhnev 's conservative , pragmatic approach to leadership significantly stabilized the position of the Soviet Union and its ruling party .
The Times is a British daily ( Monday to Saturday ) national newspaper based in London . It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register , adopting its current name on 1 January 1788 . The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times ( founded in 1821 ) are published by Times Newspapers , since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK , in turn wholly owned by News Corp . The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff , were founded independently , and have only had common ownership since 1967 . In 1959 , the historian of journalism Allan Nevins analysed the importance of The Times in shaping the views of events of London 's elite :
Anti-Soviet Agitation and Propaganda ( ASA ) ( Russian : Антисове́тская агита́ция и пропага́нда ( АСА ) ) was a criminal offence in the Soviet Union . To begin with the term was interchangeably used with counter-revolutionary agitation . The latter term was in use immediately after the first Russian Revolution in February 1917 . The offence was codified in criminal law in the 1920s , and revised in the 1950s in two articles of the RSFSR Criminal Code . The offence was widely used against Soviet dissidents .
A criminal code ( or penal code ) is a document which complies all , or a significant amount of , a particular jurisdiction 's criminal law . Typically a criminal code will contain offences which are recognised in the jurisdiction , penalties which might be imposed for these offences and some general provisions ( such as definitions and prohibitions on retroactive prosecution ) . Criminal codes are relatively common in civil law jurisdictions , which tend to build legal systems around codes and principles which are relatively abstract and apply them on a case by case basis . Conversely they are not as common in common law jurisdictions . The proposed introduction of a criminal code in England and Wales was a significant project of the Law Commission from 1968 to 2008 . Due to the strong tradition of legal precedent in the jurisdiction and consequently the large number of binding legal judgements and ambiguous 'common law offences ' , as well as the often inconsistent nature of English law , [ citation needed ] the creation of a satisfactory code became very difficult . The project was officially abandoned in 2008 although as of 2009 it has been revived . A statutory Criminal Law Codification Advisory Committee for Irish criminal law met from 2007 to 2010 and its Draft Criminal Code and Commentary was published in 2011 . In the United States , a Model Penal Code exists which is not itself law but which provides the basis for the criminal law of many states . Individual states often choose to make use of criminal codes which are often based , to a varying extent on the model code . Title 18 of the United States Code is the criminal code for federal crimes . However , Title 18 does not contain many of the general provisions concerning criminal law that are found in the criminal codes of many so-called civil law countries .
There was systematic political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union , based on the interpretation of political opposition or dissent as a psychiatric problem . It was called psychopathological mechanisms of dissent . During the leadership of General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev , psychiatry was used to disable and remove from society political opponents ( dissidents ) who openly expressed beliefs that contradicted the official dogma . The term philosophical intoxication , for instance , was widely applied to the mental disorders diagnosed when people disagreed with the country 's Communist leaders and , by referring to the writings of the Founding Fathers of Marxism-Leninism - Karl Marx , Friedrich Engels , and Vladimir Lenin - made them the target of criticism . Article 58-10 of the Stalin-era Criminal Code , Anti-Soviet agitation , was to a considerable degree preserved in the new 1958 RSFSR Criminal Code as Article 70 Anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda . In 1967 , a weaker law , Article 190-1 Dissemination of fabrications known to be false , which defame the Soviet political and social system , was added to the RSFSR Criminal Code . These laws were frequently applied in conjunction with the system of diagnosis for mental illness , developed by Academician Andrei Snezhnevsky . Together they established a framework within which non-standard beliefs could easily be defined as a criminal offence and the basis , subsequently , for a psychiatric diagnosis .
The World Psychiatric Association is an international umbrella organisation of psychiatric societies .
Vienna ( /viˈɛnə/ ( listen ) ; German : Wien [ viːn ] ( listen ) ) is the national capital , largest city , and one of nine states of Austria . Vienna is Austria 's most populous city , with about 1.9 million inhabitants ( 2.6 million within the metropolitan area , nearly one third of the country 's population ) , and its cultural , economic , and political centre . It is the 6th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union . Until the beginning of the 20th century , it was the largest German-speaking city in the world , and before the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I , the city had 2 million inhabitants . Today , it is the second-largest German-speaking city after Berlin . Vienna is host to many major international organizations , including the United Nations , OPEC , and the OSCE . The city is located in the eastern part of Austria and is close to the borders of Czechia , Slovakia , and Hungary . These regions work together in a European Centrope border region . Along with nearby Bratislava , Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants . In 2001 , the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site . In July 2017 it was moved to the list of World Heritage in Danger . Additionally to being known as the City of Music due to its musical legacy , Vienna is also said to be the City of Dreams , because of it being home to the world 's first psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud .
Athens ( /ˈæθɪnz/ ATH-inz ; Greek : Αθήνα , romanized : Athína [ aˈθina ] ( listen ) ; Ancient Greek : Ἀθῆναι , romanized : Athênai ( pl . ) [ atʰɛ̂ːnai̯ ] ) is the capital and largest city of Greece . Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world 's oldest cities , with its recorded history spanning over 3,400 years and its earliest human presence started somewhere between the 11th and 7th millennium BC . Classical Athens was a powerful city-state that emerged in conjunction with the seagoing development of the port of Piraeus . A center for the arts , learning and philosophy , home of Plato 's Academy and Aristotle 's Lyceum , it is widely referred to as the cradle of Western civilization and the birthplace of democracy , largely because of its cultural and political impact on the European continent , and in particular the Romans . In modern times , Athens is a large cosmopolitan metropolis and central to economic , financial , industrial , maritime , political and cultural life in Greece . Athens is a global city and one of the biggest economic centers in southeastern Europe . It has a large financial sector , and its port Piraeus is both the largest passenger port in Europe , and the second largest in the world . The Municipality of Athens ( also City of Athens ) , which actually constitutes a small administrative unit of the entire city , had a population of 664,046 ( in 2011 ) within its official limits , and a land area of 38.96 km2 ( 15.04 sq mi ) . The urban area of Athens ( Greater Athens and Greater Piraeus ) extends beyond its administrative municipal city limits , with a population of 3,090,508 ( in 2011 ) over an area of 412 km2 ( 159 sq mi ) . According to Eurostat in 2011 , the functional urban area ( FUA ) of Athens was the 9th most populous FUA in the European Union ( the 6th most populous capital city of the EU ) , with a population of 3.8 million people . Athens is also the southernmost capital on the European mainland and the warmest major city in Europe .
William Mark Felt Sr. ( August 17 , 1913 - December 18 , 2008 ) was an American law enforcement officer who worked for the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) from 1942 to 1973 and was known for his role in the Watergate scandal . Felt was an FBI special agent who eventually rose to the position of Associate Director , the Bureau 's second-highest-ranking post . Felt worked in several FBI field offices prior to his promotion to the Bureau 's headquarters . In 1980 he was convicted of having violated the civil rights of people thought to be associated with members of the Weather Underground , by ordering FBI agents to break into their homes and search the premises as part of an attempt to prevent bombings . He was ordered to pay a fine , but was pardoned by President Ronald Reagan during his appeal . In 2005 , at age 91 , Felt revealed that during his tenure as associate director of the FBI he had been the notorious anonymous source known as Deep Throat who provided The Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein with critical information about the Watergate scandal , which ultimately led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974 . Though Felt 's identity as Deep Throat was suspected , including by Nixon himself , it had generally remained a secret for 30 years . Felt finally acknowledged that he was Deep Throat after being persuaded by his daughter to reveal his identity before his death . Felt published two memoirs : The FBI Pyramid in 1979 ( updated in 2006 ) , and A G-Man 's Life , written with John O'Connor , in 2006 . In 2012 the FBI released Felt 's personnel file , covering the period from 1941 to 1978 . It also released files pertaining to an extortion threat made against Felt in 1956 .
The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States and its principal federal law enforcement agency . Operating under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of Justice , the FBI is also a member of the U.S. Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence . A leading U.S. counter-terrorism , counterintelligence , and criminal investigative organization , the FBI has jurisdiction over violations of more than 200 categories of federal crimes . Although many of the FBI 's functions are unique , its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB . Unlike the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , which has no law enforcement authority and is focused on intelligence collection abroad , the FBI is primarily a domestic agency , maintaining 56 field offices in major cities throughout the United States , and more than 400 resident agencies in smaller cities and areas across the nation . At an FBI field office , a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence . Despite its domestic focus , the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint , operating 60 Legal Attache ( LEGAT ) offices and 15 sub-offices in U.S. embassies and consulates across the globe . These foreign offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries . The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas , just as the CIA has a limited domestic function ; these activities generally require coordination across government agencies . The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation , the BOI or BI for short . Its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) in 1935 . The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building , located in Washington , D.C .
Deep Throat is the pseudonym given to the secret informant who provided information in 1972 to Bob Woodward , who shared it with Carl Bernstein . Woodward and Bernstein were reporters for The Washington Post , and Deep Throat provided key details about the involvement of U.S. President Richard Nixon 's administration in what came to be known as the Watergate scandal . In 2005 , 31 years after Nixon 's resignation and 11 years after Nixon 's death , a family attorney stated that former Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) Associate Director Mark Felt was Deep Throat . By then , Felt was suffering from dementia and had previously denied being Deep Throat , but Woodward and Bernstein confirmed the attorney 's claim .
The Watergate scandal was a major federal political scandal in the United States involving the administration of United States President Richard Nixon from 1972 to 1974 that resulted in the end of Nixon 's presidency . The scandal stemmed from the June 17 , 1972 , break-in of the Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) headquarters at the Watergate Office Building in Washington , D.C. , by five men and the Nixon administration 's subsequent attempts to cover up its involvement in the crime . Soon after the perpetrators were arrested , the press and the Justice Department discovered a connection between cash found on them at the time and a slush fund used by the Nixon re-election campaign committee . Further investigations , along with revelations during subsequent trials of the burglars in January 1973 , led the House of Representatives to grant its Judiciary Committee additional investigation authority to probe into certain matters within its jurisdiction , and the Senate to create a special investigative committee to look into the scandal . The resultant Senate Watergate hearings commenced in May 1973 . Broadcast gavel-to-gavel nationwide , by PBS , the hearings aroused great public interest . Senators heard testimony that the president had approved plans to cover up administration involvement in the Watergate break-in , and learned of the existence of a voice-activated taping system in the Oval Office . Meanwhile , Nixon 's administration resisted its probes , which led to a constitutional crisis . Several major revelations and egregious presidential action against the investigation later in 1973 prompted the House to commence an impeachment process against Nixon in February 1974 . On July 24 , 1974 , while the impeachment process was under way , the Supreme Court unanimously ruled in United States v. Nixon that Nixon was obligated to release the Oval Office tapes to government investigators . The tapes revealed that Nixon had conspired to cover up activities that took place after the break-in and had attempted to use federal officials to deflect the investigation . Shortly thereafter , the Judiciary Committee approved articles of impeachment against Nixon for obstruction of justice , abuse of power , and contempt of Congress and reported those articles to the House of Representatives .
Harry Robbins Bob Haldeman ( October 27 , 1926 - November 12 , 1993 ) was an American political aide and businessman , best known for his service as White House Chief of Staff to President Richard Nixon and his consequent involvement in the Watergate scandal . Born in California , Haldeman served in the Navy Reserves in World War II and attended UCLA . In 1949 , he joined the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency , where he worked for 20 years as a prominent advertising executive in both Los Angeles and New York City . He made a name for himself early in Los Angeles social circles from his work as Chairman of the UCLA Alumni Association and a member of the University of California Board of Regents . A long family association with the Republican Party and his own interest drew Haldeman to politics and he became acquainted with Nixon in the 1950s , for whom he developed both an intense respect and steadfast loyalty . He began as an advance man on President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's reelection campaign in 1956 , again worked as an advance man on Nixon 's 1960 presidential campaign , and managed Nixon 's 1962 run for Governor of California . When Nixon was elected President in 1968 , he selected Haldeman as his Chief of Staff . Haldeman is credited with implementing more significant changes to White House staffing systems and Executive Branch governance and operations than any Chief of Staff before him or since , and it is the Haldeman system that presidential administrations continue to operate on today . His intensity and no-nonsense management style earned him a reputation as a stern taskmaster who expected top-notch performance . After he left the Nixon administration in April 1973 , Haldeman was tried on counts of perjury , conspiracy , and obstruction of justice for his role in the Watergate cover-up . He was found guilty and imprisoned for 18 months . Upon Haldeman 's release , he returned to private life and was a successful businessman and real estate developer until his death from cancer in 1993 at the age of 67 .
John Daniel Ehrlichman ( /ˈɜːrlɪkmən/ ; March 20 , 1925 - February 14 , 1999 ) was counsel and Assistant to the President for Domestic Affairs under President Richard Nixon . Ehrlichman was an important influence on Nixon 's domestic policy , coaching him on issues and enlisting his support for environmental initiatives . Ehrlichman was a key figure in events leading to the Watergate break-in and the ensuing Watergate scandal , for which he was convicted of conspiracy , obstruction of justice , and perjury and served a year and a half in prison .
Stanley Adams ( born c. 1927 ) is a former pharmaceutical company executive and corporate whistleblower , whose case was a cause célèbre in the 1970s . Born in Malta as Stanislao Formosa , he changed his name to Stanley George Adams by deed poll on 12 May 1950 . Adams was a senior executive with the Swiss pharmaceutical company Hoffmann-LaRoche when in 1973 he discovered documents which indicated that the company was involved in price-fixing to artificially inflate the price of vitamins . He passed on the documents to the competition commission of the European Economic Community , aware that Switzerland , while not part of the EEC , had a free trade agreement with it . The EEC failed to keep his name confidential during its investigation , passing documents containing Adams ' name to Hoffman La Roche . Adams was arrested and charged with industrial espionage and theft . Adams ' wife was told that he faced a 20-year jail term for industrial espionage . She committed suicide . In the end , Adams served six months in a Swiss prison . When released , he fled to the United Kingdom and , with the assistance of a number of Labour Party MPs , notably John Prescott , later deputy party leader , he attempted to recover compensation from both the Swiss government and the European union . In 1985 the European Union agreed to pay Adams £200,000 , about 40% of his total costs . He documented the saga in Roche vs Adams .
F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG is a Swiss multinational healthcare company that operates worldwide under two divisions : Pharmaceuticals and Diagnostics . Its holding company , Roche Holding AG , has bearer shares listed on the SIX Swiss Exchange . The company headquarters are located in Basel . The company controls the American biotechnology company Genentech , which is a wholly owned affiliate , and the Japanese biotechnology company Chugai Pharmaceuticals , as well as the United States-based Ventana . Roche 's revenues during fiscal year 2018 were 56.85 billion Swiss francs , or approximately US $ 57 billion . Roche is the second-largest pharmaceutical company worldwide . Descendants of the founding Hoffmann and Oeri families own slightly over half of the bearer shares with voting rights ( a pool of family shareholders 45% , and Maja Oeri a further 5% apart ) , with Swiss pharma firm Novartis owning a further third of its shares . Roche is one of the few companies increasing their dividend every year , for 2018 as the 32nd consecutive year . F. Hoffmann-La Roche is a full member of the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations ( EFPIA ) .
The European Economic Community ( EEC ) was a regional organisation that aimed to bring about economic integration among its member states . It was created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957 . [ note 1 ] Upon the formation of the European Union ( EU ) in 1993 , the EEC was incorporated and renamed the European Community ( EC ) . In 2009 , the EC 's institutions were absorbed into the EU 's wider framework and the community ceased to exist . The Community 's initial aim was to bring about economic integration , including a common market and customs union , among its six founding members : Belgium , France , Italy , Luxembourg , the Netherlands and West Germany . It gained a common set of institutions along with the European Coal and Steel Community ( ECSC ) and the European Atomic Energy Community ( EURATOM ) as one of the European Communities under the 1965 Merger Treaty ( Treaty of Brussels ) . In 1993 a complete single market was achieved , known as the internal market , which allowed for the free movement of goods , capital , services , and people within the EEC . In 1994 the internal market was formalised by the EEA agreement . This agreement also extended the internal market to include most of the member states of the European Free Trade Association , forming the European Economic Area , which encompasses 15 countries . Upon the entry into force of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 , the EEC was renamed the European Community to reflect that it covered a wider range than economic policy . This was also when the three European Communities , including the EC , were collectively made to constitute the first of the three pillars of the European Union , which the treaty also founded . The EC existed in this form until it was abolished by the 2009 Treaty of Lisbon , which incorporated the EC 's institutions into the EU 's wider framework and provided that the EU would replace and succeed the European Community .
Price fixing is an agreement between participants on the same side in a market to buy or sell a product , service , or commodity only at a fixed price , or maintain the market conditions such that the price is maintained at a given level by controlling supply and demand . The intent of price fixing may be to push the price of a product as high as possible , generally leading to profits for all sellers but may also have the goal to fix , peg , discount , or stabilize prices . The defining characteristic of price fixing is any agreement regarding price , whether expressed or implied . Price fixing requires a conspiracy between sellers or buyers . The purpose is to coordinate pricing for mutual benefit of the traders . For example , manufacturers and retailers may conspire to sell at a common retail price ; set a common minimum sales price , where sellers agree not to discount the sales price below the agreed-to minimum price ; buy the product from a supplier at a specified maximum price ; adhere to a price book or list price ; engage in cooperative price advertising ; standardize financial credit terms offered to purchasers ; use uniform trade-in allowances ; limit discounts ; discontinue a free service or fix the price of one component of an overall service ; adhere uniformly to previously-announced prices and terms of sale ; establish uniform costs and markups ; impose mandatory surcharges ; purposefully reduce output or sales in order to charge higher prices ; or purposefully share or pool markets , territories , or customers . Price fixing is permitted in some markets but not others ; where allowed , it is often known as resale price maintenance or retail price maintenance . In neo-classical economics , price fixing is inefficient . The anti-competitive agreement by producers to fix prices above the market price transfers some of the consumer surplus to those producers and also results in a deadweight loss . International price fixing by private entities can be prosecuted under the antitrust laws of many countries . Examples of prosecuted international cartels are those that controlled the prices and output of lysine , citric acid , graphite electrodes , and bulk vitamins .
Industrial espionage , economic espionage , corporate spying or corporate espionage is a form of espionage conducted for commercial purposes instead of purely national security . While economic espionage is conducted or orchestrated by governments and is international in scope , industrial or corporate espionage is more often national and occurs between companies or corporations .
Arthur Ernest Ernie Fitzgerald ( July 31 , 1926 - January 31 , 2019 ) was an American engineer , a member of the Senior Executive Service in the United States Air Force , and a prominent U.S. government whistleblower .
The United States Department of Defense ( DoD , USDOD or DOD ) is an executive branch department of the federal government charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government directly related to national security and the United States Armed Forces . The DoD is the largest employer in the world , with nearly 1.3 million active-duty service members ( soldiers , marines , sailors and airmen ) as of 2016 . More employees include over 826,000 National Guard and Reservists from the armed forces , and over 732,000 civilians bringing the total to over 2.8 million employees . Headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington , Virginia , just outside Washington , D.C. , the DoD 's stated mission is to provide the military forces needed to deter war and ensure our nation 's security . The Department of Defense is headed by the Secretary of Defense , a cabinet-level head who reports directly to the President of the United States . Beneath the Department of Defense are three subordinate military departments : the Department of the Army , the Department of the Navy , and the Department of the Air Force . In addition , four national intelligence services are subordinate to the Department of Defense : the Defense Intelligence Agency ( DIA ) , the National Security Agency ( NSA ) , the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency ( NGA ) , and the National Reconnaissance Office ( NRO ) . Other Defense agencies include the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) , the Strategic Capabilities Office ( SCO ) , the Defense Logistics Agency ( DLA ) , the Missile Defense Agency ( MDA ) , the Defense Health Agency ( DHA ) , Defense Threat Reduction Agency ( DTRA ) , the Defense Counterintelligence and Security Agency ( formerly the DSS ) , and the Pentagon Force Protection Agency ( PFPA ) , all of which are subordinate to the Secretary of Defense . Additionally , the Defense Contract Management Agency ( DCMA ) delivers actionable acquisition intelligence , from factory floor to the warfighter . Military operations are managed by eleven regional or functional Unified combatant commands . The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools , including the Eisenhower School ( ES ) and the National War College ( NWC ) .
The Lockheed Corporation was an American aerospace company . Lockheed was founded in 1926 and later merged with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin in 1995 . The founder , Allan Lockheed , had earlier founded the similarly named but otherwise unrelated Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company , which was operational from 1912 through 1920 .
The Lockheed C-5 Galaxy is a large military transport aircraft originally designed and built by Lockheed , and now maintained and upgraded by its successor , Lockheed Martin . It provides the United States Air Force ( USAF ) with a heavy intercontinental-range strategic airlift capability , one that can carry outsized and oversized loads , including all air-certifiable cargo . The Galaxy has many similarities to the smaller Lockheed C-141 Starlifter and the later Boeing C-17 Globemaster III . The C-5 is among the largest military aircraft in the world . The C-5 Galaxy 's development was complicated , including significant cost overruns , and Lockheed suffered significant financial difficulties . Shortly after entering service , cracks in the wings of many aircraft were discovered and the C-5 fleet was restricted in capability until corrective work was completed . The C-5M Super Galaxy is an upgraded version with new engines and modernized avionics designed to extend its service life beyond 2040 . The USAF has operated the C-5 since 1969 . In that time , the airlifter supported US military operations in all major conflicts including Vietnam , Iraq , Yugoslavia , and Afghanistan , as well as allied support , such as Israel during the Yom Kippur War and operations in the Gulf War . The Galaxy has also been used to distribute humanitarian aid and disaster relief , and supported the US space program .
Henri Pézerat ( April 12 , 1928 - February 16 , 2009 ) was a French research director , toxicologist and whistleblower .
The French National Center for Scientific Research ( French : Centre national de la recherche scientifique , CNRS ) is the French state research organisation and is the largest fundamental science agency in Europe . In 2016 , it employed 31,637 staff , including 11,137 tenured researchers , 13,415 engineers and technical staff , and 7,085 contractual workers . It is headquartered in Paris and has administrative offices in Brussels , Beijing , Tokyo , Singapore , Washington , D.C. , Bonn , Moscow , Tunis , Johannesburg , Santiago de Chile , Israel , and New Delhi . CNRS was ranked # 3 in 2015 and # 4 in 2017 by the Nature Index , which measures the largest contributors to papers published in 82 leading journals .
The Jussieu Campus ( Campus Universitaire de Jussieu ) is a higher education campus located in the 5th arrondissement of Paris , France . It is the main campus of the Faculty of Science of Sorbonne University . The Paris Diderot University ( Paris VII ) , was also originally located on the Jussieu campus but moved to its new independent campus in the Paris Rive Gauche neighborhood in 2006-2012 . Many ties continue to exist between the two universities . [ citation needed ] Because of reconstruction programs in progress ( see below ) , various facilities have been moved out of the campus to other parts of Paris .
Asbestos ( pronounced : /æsˈbɛstəs/ or /æsˈbɛstɒs/ ) is a term used to refer to six naturally occurring silicate minerals . All are composed of long and thin fibrous crystals , each fiber being composed of many microscopic 'fibrils ' that can be released into the atmosphere by abrasion and other processes . Asbestos is an excellent electrical insulator and is highly heat-resistant , so for many years it was used as a building material . However , it is a well-known health and safety hazard , and today , the use of asbestos as a building material is now illegal in many countries . Inhalation of asbestos fibres can lead to various serious lung conditions , including asbestosis and cancer . Archaeological studies have found evidence of asbestos being used as far back as the Stone Age to strengthen ceramic pots , but large-scale mining began at the end of the 19th century when manufacturers and builders began using asbestos for its desirable physical properties . Asbestos was widely used during the 20th century until the 1970s , when public recognition of the health hazards of asbestos dust led to its prohibition in mainstream construction and fireproofing in most countries . Despite this , and in part because the consequences of exposure can take decades to arise , at least 100,000 people per year are thought to die from diseases related to asbestos exposure . Despite the severity of asbestos-related diseases , the material has been widely used all around the world , and most pre-1980s buildings are thought to contain asbestos . Many developing countries still support the use of asbestos as a building material , and mining of asbestos is ongoing , with top producer Russia having produced about one million tonnes in 2015 .
Karen Gay Silkwood ( February 19 , 1946 - November 13 , 1974 ) was an American chemical technician and labor union activist known for raising concerns about corporate practices related to health and safety in a nuclear facility . She worked at the Kerr-McGee Cimarron Fuel Fabrication Site in Oklahoma , making plutonium pellets , and became the first woman on the union 's negotiating team . After testifying to the Atomic Energy Commission about her concerns , she was found to have plutonium contamination on her person and in her home . While driving to meet with a New York Times journalist and an official of her union 's national office , she died in a car crash under unclear circumstances . Her family sued Kerr-McGee for the plutonium contamination of Silkwood . The company settled out of court for US $ 1.38 million , while not admitting liability . Her story was chronicled in Mike Nichols 's 1983 Academy Award nominated film Silkwood in which she was portrayed by Meryl Streep .
The Kerr-McGee Corporation , founded in 1929 , was an American energy company involved in oil exploration , production of crude oil , natural gas , perchlorate and uranium mining and milling in various countries . On June 23 , 2006 , Anadarko Petroleum acquired Kerr-McGee in an all-cash transaction totaling $ 16.5 billion plus $ 2.6 billion in debt and all operations moved from their base in Oklahoma , United States .
There have been a number of nuclear whistleblowers , often nuclear engineers , who have identified safety concerns about nuclear power and nuclear weapons production . In 1976 Gregory Minor , Richard Hubbard and Dale Bridenbaugh blew the whistle on safety problems at nuclear power plants in the United States , and Fukushima in Japan . George Galatis was a senior nuclear engineer who reported safety problems at the Millstone 1 Nuclear Power Plant , relating to reactor refueling procedures , in 1996 . Other nuclear power whistleblowers include Arnold Gundersen and David Lochbaum .
A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor . As is typical of thermal power stations , heat is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine connected to a generator that produces electricity . As of 2014 [ update ] , the International Atomic Energy Agency reported there were 450 nuclear power reactors in operation in 31 countries . Nuclear plants are usually considered to be base load stations since fuel is a small part of the cost of production and because they can not be easily or quickly dispatched . Their operations and maintenance and fuel costs are , along with hydropower stations , at the low end of the spectrum and make them suitable as base-load power suppliers . The cost of spent fuel management , however , is somewhat uncertain .
The Oil , Chemical and Atomic Workers Union ( OCAW ) was a trade union in the United States which existed between 1917 and 1999 . At the time of its dissolution and merger , the International represented 80,000 workers and was affiliated with the AFL-CIO .
The United States Atomic Energy Commission , commonly known as the AEC , was an agency of the United States government established after World War II by U.S. Congress to foster and control the peacetime development of atomic science and technology . President Harry S. Truman signed the McMahon/Atomic Energy Act on August 1 , 1946 , transferring the control of atomic energy from military to civilian hands , effective on January 1 , 1947 . This shift gave the members of the AEC complete control of the plants , laboratories , equipment , and personnel assembled during the war to produce the atomic bomb . During its initial establishment and subsequent operationalization , the AEC played a key role in the institutional development of Ecosystem ecology . Specifically , it provided crucial financial resources , allowing for ecological research to take place . Perhaps even more importantly , it enabled ecologists with a wide range of groundbreaking techniques for the completion of their research . In the late 1950s and early 1960s , the AEC also approved funding for numerous bioenvironmental projects in the arctic and subarctic regions . These projects were designed to examine the effects of nuclear energy upon the environment and were a part of the AEC 's attempt at creating peaceful applications of atomic energy . :22-25 An increasing number of critics during the 1960s charged that the AEC 's regulations were insufficiently rigorous in several important areas , including radiation protection standards , nuclear reactor safety , plant siting , and environmental protection . By 1974 , the AEC 's regulatory programs had come under such strong attack that the U.S. Congress decided to abolish the AEC . The AEC was abolished by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 , which assigned its functions to two new agencies : the Energy Research and Development Administration and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission . On August 4 , 1977 , President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977 , which created the Department of Energy .
Silkwood is a 1983 American biographical drama film directed by Mike Nichols and starring Meryl Streep , Cher and Kurt Russell . The screenplay by Nora Ephron and Alice Arlen was inspired by the life of Karen Silkwood . Silkwood was a nuclear whistleblower and a labor union activist who died in a car collision while investigating alleged wrongdoing at the Kerr-McGee plutonium plant where she worked . In real life , her death gave rise to a 1979 lawsuit , Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee , led by attorney Gerry Spence . The jury rendered its verdict of $ 10 million in damages to be paid to the Silkwood estate ( her children ) , the largest amount in damages ever awarded for that kind of case at the time . The Silkwood estate eventually settled for $ 1.3 million . Silkwood was shot largely in both New Mexico and Texas on a budget of $ 10 million . Factual accuracy was maintained throughout the script , with some incidents exactly parallel to the real-life experiences of Karen Silkwood . One scene in particular involved the activation of a radiation alarm at the plant . Silkwood herself had forty times the legal limit of radioactive contamination in her system . Streep had just finished filming Sophie 's Choice ( 1982 ) when production began . The film marked a departure for some of its stars : it is noted for being one of the first serious works of Cher , who had been previously known mostly for her singing , and for Russell , who was at the time widely known for his work in the action genre .
Gregory Charles Minor was one of three American middle-management engineers ( known as the GE Three ) who resigned from the General Electric nuclear reactor division in 1976 to protest against the use of nuclear power in the United States . A native of Fresno , California , Minor received a BS degree in electrical engineering from the University of California in 1960 . He gained an MS degree at Stanford University in 1966 . He began working for G.E . in 1960 and died of leukemia in 1999 . Gregory C. Minor , Richard B. Hubbard , and Dale G. Bridenbaugh resigned from the division of GE that built nuclear reactors in 1976 , because they believed nuclear power presented a profound threat to mankind . All three were managing engineers who had spent most of their working life building reactors , and their defection galvanized anti-nuclear groups across the country . The three engineers acknowledged , in Congressional testimony , the possibility of human error , and asserted that nuclear engineers had become so specialized that none of them could see the whole picture any longer . As a result , they said , no one was in control . All three of the engineers were members of the Creative Initiative Foundation , a California group that seeks to strengthen human relations and change the world for the better . The engineers ' resignations were coordinated by another CIF member , who helped them orchestrate the announcement for maximum effect . Gregory Minor said that he had developed a deep conviction that nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons now present a serious danger to the future of all life on this planet .
General Electric Company ( GE ) is an American multinational conglomerate incorporated in New York City and headquartered in Boston . As of 2018 [ update ] , the company operates through the following segments : aviation , healthcare , power , renewable energy , digital industry , additive manufacturing , venture capital and finance and lighting . In 2018 , GE ranked among the Fortune 500 as the 18th-largest firm in the U.S. by gross revenue . In 2011 , GE ranked among the Fortune 20 as the 14th-most profitable company but has since very severely underperformed the market ( by about 75% ) as its profitability collapsed . Two employees of GE - Irving Langmuir ( 1932 ) and Ivar Giaever ( 1973 ) - have been awarded the Nobel Prize .
The GE Three are three nuclear engineers who blew the whistle on safety problems at nuclear power plants in the United States in 1976 . The three nuclear engineers gained the attention of journalists and the anti-nuclear movement . The GE Three returned to prominence in 2011 during the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster .
A whistleblower ( also written as whistle-blower or whistle blower ) is a person who exposes secretive information or activity that is deemed illegal , unethical , or not correct within a private or public organization . The information of alleged wrongdoing can be classified in many ways : violation of company policy/rules , law , regulation , or threat to public interest/national security , as well as fraud , and corruption . Those who become whistleblowers can choose to bring information or allegations to surface either internally or externally . Internally , a whistleblower can bring his/her accusations to the attention of other people within the accused organization such as an immediate supervisor . Externally , a whistleblower can bring allegations to light by contacting a third party outside of an accused organization such as the media , government , law enforcement , or those who are concerned . Whistleblowers , however , take the risk of facing stiff reprisal and retaliation from those who are accused or alleged of wrongdoing . Because of this , a number of laws exist to protect whistleblowers . Some third-party groups even offer protection to whistleblowers , but that protection can only go so far . Whistleblowers face legal action , criminal charges , social stigma , and termination from any position , office , or job . Two other classifications of whistleblowing are private and public . The classifications relate to the type of organizations someone chooses to whistle-blow on : private sector , or public sector . Depending on many factors , both can have varying results .
The China Syndrome is a 1979 American disaster thriller film directed by James Bridges and written by Bridges , Mike Gray , and T. S. Cook . It tells the story of a television reporter and her cameraman who discover safety coverups at a nuclear power plant . It stars Jane Fonda , Jack Lemmon , and Michael Douglas , with Douglas also serving as the film 's producer . The cast also features Scott Brady , James Hampton , Peter Donat , Richard Herd , and Wilford Brimley . China syndrome is a fanciful term - not intended to be taken literally - that describes a fictional result of a nuclear meltdown , where reactor components melt through their containment structures and into the underlying earth , all the way to China . The China Syndrome premiered at the 1979 Cannes Film Festival , where it competed for the Palme d'Or while Lemmon received the Best Actor prize . The film was released theatrically on March 16 , 1979 , twelve days before the Three Mile Island nuclear accident in Dauphin County , Pennsylvania , which gave the film 's subject matter an unexpected prescience . Upon release the film was a critical and commercial success with critics praising the film 's screenplay , direction and thriller elements and Fonda 's and Lemmon 's performances . The film grossed $ 51.7 million on a production budget of $ 5.9 million . It received four nominations at the 52nd Academy Awards : Best Actor ( Lemmon ) , Best Actress ( Fonda ) , Best Art Direction ( George Jenkins , Arthur Jeph Parker ) , and Best Original Screenplay .
Frank Warren Snepp , III ( born May 3 , 1943 ) is a journalist and former chief analyst of North Vietnamese strategy for the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) in Saigon during the Vietnam War . For five out of his eight years as a CIA officer , he worked as interrogator , agent debriefer , and chief strategy analyst in the United States Embassy , Saigon ; he was awarded the Intelligence Medal of Merit for his work . Snepp is currently a producer for KNBC-TV in Los Angeles , California . He was one of the first whistle blowers who revealed the inner workings , secrets and failures of the national security services in the 1970s . As a result of a loss in a 1980 court case brought by the CIA , all of Snepp 's publications require prior approval by the CIA .
The Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States , tasked with gathering , processing , and analyzing national security information from around the world , primarily through the use of human intelligence ( HUMINT ) . As one of the principal members of the United States Intelligence Community ( IC ) , the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is primarily focused on providing intelligence for the President and Cabinet of the United States . Unlike the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , which is a domestic security service , the CIA has no law enforcement function and is mainly focused on overseas intelligence gathering , with only limited domestic intelligence collection . Though it is not the only agency of the federal government of the United States specializing in HUMINT , the CIA serves as the national manager for coordination of HUMINT activities across the U.S. intelligence community . Moreover , the CIA is the only agency authorized by law to carry out and oversee covert action at the behest of the President . It exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions , such as the Special Activities Center . The CIA was also instrumental in establishing intelligence services in several U.S. allied countries , such as Germany 's BND . Before the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 , the CIA Director concurrently served as the head of the Intelligence Community ; today , the CIA is organized under the Director of National Intelligence ( DNI ) . Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI , the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks . In 2013 , The Washington Post reported that in the fiscal year 2010 , the CIA had the largest budget of all IC agencies , exceeding previous estimates . The CIA has increasingly expanded its role , including covert paramilitary operations . One of its largest divisions , the Information Operations Center ( IOC ) , has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations .
The United States Embassy in Saigon was first established in June 1952 , and moved into a new building in 1967 and eventually closed in 1975 . The embassy was the scene of a number of significant events of the Vietnam War , most notably the Viet Cong attack during the Tet Offensive which helped turn American public opinion against the war , and the helicopter evacuation during the Fall of Saigon after which the embassy closed permanently . In 1995 , the U.S. and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam formally established relations and the embassy grounds and building were handed back to the United States . The former embassy was subsequently demolished in 1998 and is currently a park inside of the U.S. Consulate General 's compound in what is now called Ho Chi Minh City .
Operation Frequent Wind was the final phase in the evacuation of American civilians and at-risk Vietnamese from Saigon , South Vietnam prior to the takeover of the city by the North Vietnamese People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) in the Fall of Saigon . It was carried out on 29-30 April 1975 , during the last days of the Vietnam War . More than 7,000 people were evacuated by helicopter from various points in Saigon . The airlift resulted in a number of enduring images . Evacuation plans already existed as a standard procedure for American embassies . At the beginning of March , fixed-wing aircraft began evacuating civilians from Tan Son Nhat Airport through neighboring countries . By mid-April , contingency plans were in place and preparations were underway for a possible helicopter evacuation . As the imminent collapse of Saigon became evident , Task Force 76 was assembled off the coast near Vũng Tàu to support a helicopter evacuation and provide air support if required . In the event , air support was not needed as the North Vietnamese paused for a week at the outskirts of Saigon , possibly waiting for the South Vietnamese government to collapse and avoiding a possible confrontation with the U.S. by allowing the mostly-unopposed evacuation of Americans from Saigon . :14 On 28 April , Tan Son Nhut Air Base ( lying adjacent to the airport ) came under artillery fire and attack from Vietnamese People 's Air Force aircraft . The fixed-wing evacuation was terminated and Operation Frequent Wind commenced . The evacuation took place primarily from the Defense Attaché Office compound , beginning around 14:00 on the afternoon of 29 April , and ending that night with only limited small arms damage to the helicopters .
The Fall of Saigon , also known as the Liberation of Saigon , was the capture of Saigon , the capital of South Vietnam , by the People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) and the Viet Cong on 30 April 1975 . The event marked the end of the Vietnam War and the start of a transition period to the formal reunification of Vietnam into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam . The PAVN , under the command of General Văn Tiến Dũng , began their final attack on Saigon on April 29 , 1975 , with the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) forces commanded by General Nguyễn Văn Toàn suffering a heavy artillery bombardment . This bombardment at the Tan Son Nhat International Airport killed the last two American servicemen in combat in Vietnam , Charles McMahon and Darwin Judge . By the afternoon of the next day , the PAVN had occupied the important points of the city and raised their flag over the South Vietnamese presidential palace . The city was renamed Hồ Chí Minh City , after the late North Vietnamese President Hồ Chí Minh . The capture of the city was preceded by Operation Frequent Wind , the evacuation of almost all the American civilian and military personnel in Saigon , along with tens of thousands of South Vietnamese civilians who had been associated with the southern regime . The evacuation was the largest helicopter evacuation in history . :202 In addition to the flight of refugees , the end of the war and the institution of new rules by the communists contributed to a decline in the city 's population .
Stansfield Turner ( December 1 , 1923 - January 18 , 2018 ) was an admiral in the United States Navy who served as President of the Naval War College ( 1972-1974 ) , commander of the United States Second Fleet ( 1974-1975 ) , Supreme Allied Commander NATO Southern Europe ( 1975-1977 ) , and was Director of Central Intelligence ( 1977-1981 ) under the Carter administration . A graduate of Oxford and the Naval Academy , Turner served for more than 30 years in the Navy , commanding warships , a carrier group , and NATO 's military forces in southern Europe , among other commands . Turner was appointed to lead the CIA by Jimmy Carter in 1977 and undertook a series of controversial reforms , including downsizing the Agency 's clandestine arm and emphasizing technical intelligence collection over human intelligence . He also oversaw the CIA 's responses to the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet-Afghan War . After leaving the CIA in 1981 , Turner entered the private sector , authored several books , and criticized subsequent administrations , including the Bush administration 's handling of the Iraq War . He was a senior research scholar at the University of Maryland , College Park 's School of Public Policy .
Breach of contract is a legal cause of action and a type of civil wrong , in which a binding agreement or bargained-for exchange is not honored by one or more of the parties to the contract by non-performance or interference with the other party 's performance . Breach occurs when a party to a contract fails to fulfill its obligation ( s ) as described in the contract , or communicates an intent to fail the obligation or otherwise appears not to be able to perform its obligation under the contract . Where there is breach of contract , the resulting damages will have to be paid by the party breaching the contract to the aggrieved party . If a contract is rescinded , parties are legally allowed to undo the work unless doing so would directly charge the other party at that exact time . It is important to bear in mind that contract law is not the same from country to country . Each country has its own independent , free standing law of contract . Therefore , it makes sense to examine the laws of the country to which the contract is governed before deciding how the law of contract ( of that country ) applies to any particular contractual relationship .
A non-disclosure agreement ( NDA ) , also known as a confidentiality agreement ( CA ) , confidential disclosure agreement ( CDA ) , proprietary information agreement ( PIA ) or secrecy agreement ( SA ) , is a legal contract between at least two parties that outlines confidential material , knowledge , or information that the parties wish to share with one another for certain purposes , but wish to restrict access to or by third parties . Doctor-patient confidentiality ( physician-patient privilege ) , attorney-client privilege , priest-penitent privilege , bank-client confidentiality , and Kickback agreements are examples , often not enshrined in a written contract between the parties . It is a contract through which the parties agree not to disclose information covered by the agreement . An NDA creates a confidential relationship between the parties , typically to protect any type of confidential and proprietary information or trade secrets . As such , an NDA protects non-public business information . Like all contracts , they can not be enforced if the contracted activities are felonies . NDAs are commonly signed when two companies , individuals , or other entities ( such as partnerships , societies , etc . ) are considering doing business and need to understand the processes used in each other 's business for the purpose of evaluating the potential business relationship . NDAs can be mutual , meaning both parties are restricted in their use of the materials provided , or they can restrict the use of material by a single party . An employee can be required to sign an NDA or NDA-like agreement with an employer , protecting trade secrets . In fact , some employment agreements include a clause restricting employees ' use and dissemination of company-owned confidential information . In legal disputes resolved by settlement , the parties often sign a confidentiality agreement relating to the terms of the settlement .