Madison succeeded Jefferson with a victory in the 1808 presidential election. After diplomatic protests and a trade embargo failed to end British attacks against American shipping, he led the United States into the War of 1812. The war was an administrative morass and ended inconclusively, but many Americans saw it as a successful 'second war of independence' against Britain. The war convinced Madison of the necessity of a stronger federal government, and he presided over the creation of the Second Bank of the United States and the enactment of the protective Tariff of 1816. Madison's presidency, by treaty or war, added 23 million acres of American Indian land to the United States. He retired from public office in 1817 and died in 1836. Madison was never able to privately reconcile his Republican beliefs and his slave ownership. Madison is considered to be one of the most important Founding Fathers of the United States, and historians have generally ranked him as an above-average president.
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