DL-based prediction of optimal actions of human experts

1 INTRODUCTION . To assist our decision-making , knowledge engineering has been developed to code human experts ’ knowledge into artificial expert systems , which have been successfully applied to multiple domains ( Buchanan & Smith , 1988 ; Russell & Norvig , 1995 ; Kiritsis , 1995 ) . For instance , MYCYN ( Buchanan & Shortliffe , 1984 ) can provide medical advice on infectious diseases , and XCON ( McDermott , 1980 ) can help users to find right computer components . However , knowledge engineering requires expensive and complex engineering , limiting the expert systems ’ utilities ( Buchanan & Smith , 1988 ; Kiritsis , 1995 ) . Notably , DL can enable artificial agents to automatically learn general rules essential for complex tasks from examples without human experts ’ instructions ( LeCun et al. , 2015 ; Hertz et al. , 1991 ) . This leads to the hypothesis that we can use DL to build expert systems without expensive knowledge engineering ( Tan , 2017 ) . Indeed , a line of study already explores DL agents ’ utility in diagnosing diseases based on medical images , for which traditional expert systems were used ; see ( Litjens et al. , 2017 ) for a review . However , it should be noted that most humans ’ decisions involve a sequence of actions , each of which has a subgoal . Thus , sequence learning can be a key component in building artificial intelligent agents that mimic human experts ’ decision-making ( Sun & Giles , 2001 ; Boddy , 1996 ) . Traditionally , symbolic planning is used to mimic humans ’ goal-directed high-level planning , which repeatedly creates sub-goals necessary to accomplish higher level goals until a subgoal can be accomplished in a single action , and deploying symbolic planning requires ‘ substantial prior knowledge ’ and highly computational complexity ( Sun & Giles , 2001 ) . That is , the cost of symbolic planning can be as high as that of other expert systems . In this study , we explored if DL can be used to learn high-level planning essential for human experts ’ decision-making . We note that deep Q learning ( Mnih et al. , 2015 ) has demonstrated impressive achievements in learning optimal sequences of actions for games ( Silver et al. , 2016 ) and that recurrent neural networks have been used to model time series ( Hertz et al. , 1991 ) . Our goal differs from these traditional DL approaches , in that we aim to model high-level planning more directly . To this end , we asked if deep neural networks ( DNNs , agents trained by DL ) can learn to predict strategies written by human experts for the popular game ‘ Angry Bird ’ ( AB ) ( Contributors , 2021 ; Renz et al. , 2019 ) from examples . To clear each stage , players must destroy all pigs in each stage . As the pigs within the game are protected by piles of objects or stay inside towers , a single attack is often not enough to destroy all the pigs in each stage . Instead , players must sequentially organize subgoals to destroy all pigs efficiently , making AB an ideal testbed for high-level planning . Thus , we trained DNNs to predict human experts ’ AB game strategies available at AB wiki pages ( Contributors , 2021 ) ; the AB strategies will be referred to as 3-star guides ( 3SG ) hereafter . In the experiments , we asked three questions . First , can DL learn the functional relationships between screenshots ( still images ) of the stages and 3SG ( human experts ’ strategies ) ? Second , can an attention-based image captioning ( ABIC ) system , previously proposed ( Xu et al. , 2015 ) , learn to create verbal strategies , which would sound reasonable to human players ? Third , can ABIC predict a sequence of strategies ( high-level planning ) appropriate to clear a stage ? Due to the lack of proper evaluation metric , we qualitatively evaluate the outcomes of the answers after training ABIC ; the evaluation metrics of the language model is the topic of active research ( Sellam et al. , 2020 ; Papineni et al. , 2001 ; Chen et al. , 1998 ) . Our empirical studies suggest that ABIC can learn to create verbal strategies after training and that it can predict a sequence of actions , not just a single action . They also support our hypothesis that DL can learn high-level planning from examples and that it can be used to build expert systems to assist human decision making without relying on overly expensive and complex knowledge engineering . Thus , our study indicates that DL can help us deploy expert systems into more domains . 2 DL AGENTS TO PREDICT OPTIMAL STRATEGIES OF ANGRY BIRDS ( AB ) . To clear each level of AB , players use birds to destroy the pigs that are scattered around and protected by towers or piles of wood , glass ( or ice ) and stone blocks . Each level provides a fixed sequence of birds and a unique challenging environment , and the players need to find an effective sequence of actions that can destroy all pigs in each level . The scores are estimated using various factors such as incurred damages and the number of birds used . When players obtain sufficiently high scores , they receive 3 stars . Any experienced game player ( i.e. , an expert ) can devise good strategies ( i.e. , sequence of actions ) to clear even the unseen levels , and conversely , the accuracy/efficiency of the plans can indicate the players ’ ability/efficiency . Therefore , we ask if DL could predict optimal actions ( or action sequence ) from given screenshots of levels . We use the 3SG available at the wiki page ( Contributors , 2021 ) as optimal strategies for DL to predict them . 2.1 FUNCTIONAL CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SCREENSHOTS AND 3SG . In principle , we can consider an expert system as an unknown functional mapping function that can identify an optimal relationship between problems/situations ( i.e. , screenshots in this study ) to decisions/solutions ( i.e. , 3SG in this study ) ; see Fig . 1A . If the mapping does exist , it would be possible to build expert systems . Thus , we first investigate functional correlations between screenshots and 3SG . Since a multilayer perceptron ( MLP ) has been considered a universal problem solver ( Hertz et al. , 1991 ) , we assume that a trained MLP can predict the embeddings of 3SG ( word embeddings ) from the embeddings of screenshots ( image embeddings ) , if the functional mappings from the screenshots to 3SG exist . Based on this assumption , we train MLPs , which contain 100 hidden neurons in single hidden layers , with 80 % levels ( out of 327 ) randomly selected and test them with the remaining ( test ) levels . The image embeddings are created using the ResNet18 ( Safka , 2021 ) , and the word embeddings are generated using Hugging Face ’ s BERT model ( Wolf et al. , 2020 ) . We first use image embeddings as inputs and word embeddings as outputs ( Fig . 1B ) and train MLP to minimize the mean squared error ( MSE ) . A open-source ML library Pytorch ( Paszke et al. , 2017 ) is used to construct MLPs , and its built-in function ( MSELoss ) is used to estimate MSE . The word embeddings are projected to the PCA space , which is spanned by various numbers of principal axes , using a python package ‘ Scikit-learn ’ ( Pedregosa et al. , 2011 ) . In the experiments , we repeat the same experiment 5 times with different random seeds and display the mean and standard deviations of them in Fig . 1C . As the number of principal axes increases , MLPs ’ errors are reduced , and the magnitudes of reduction grow bigger ; see the blue line in Fig . 1C . Interestingly , when the word and image embeddings are used as inputs and outputs , MLP can not predict the outputs anymore ( the orange line in Fig . 1C ) . These results suggest that functional mappings from screenshots to 3SG exist , but not vice versa . 2.2 EXPERT SYSTEMS OF AB . Encouraged by the results above , we ask if DL can directly predict human instructions from screenshots . Here , we train the attention-based image-captioning system ( ABIC ) ( Xu et al. , 2015 ) to predict 3SG from the screenshots . In the original form , ABIC uses convolutional networks as an encoder and recurrent networks as a decoder . The encoder extracts 14-by-14 annotation vectors , and the decoder uses annotation vectors to predict word sequences after training . They further proposed that the attention network , which determines the region of interest , can help the encoder-decoder system learn to produce captions . We refer to the original study for more details ( Xu et al. , 2015 ) . In this study , we adopted Pytorch implementation of ABIC from a public github repository ( Vinodababu , 2021 ) and train it to predict 3SG from the screenshots using the default setting of the implementation . This adopted Pytorch implementation uses ResNet101 ( He et al. , 2015 ) as a encoder and the long short term memory ( LSTM ) ( Hochreiter & Schmidhuber , 1997 ) as a decoder . Specifically , ResNet101 produces 2048 annotation vectors ( 14-by-14 pixels ) , the attentional network transforms annotation vectors using weighted sum , and LSTM selects the best word with previously selected word and weighted annotation vectors . In the experiments , we randomly select 70 % of the levels as training examples , 15 % as validation examples , and 15 % as test examples . The number of total levels used here is 359 . ResNet101 was adopted from TorchVision ( Marcel & Rodriguez , 2010 ) and frozen during training , whereas both LSTM and the attentional network were trained . 2.2.1 ABIC CAN BE AN AB EXPERT . We note that ABIC was trained to produce a single sentence caption after being trained with multiple captions for a single image ( Xu et al. , 2015 ) . To test the potential of AIBC as an AB expert , we mimic this baseline training of AIBC by ignoring the fact that 3SG describe the sequence of actions . Instead , we treat them as independently generated guides for the same stage and use them to train AIBC as an expert system of Angry Birds ( EAB ) to predict a single action . With this setting , we also effectively increase the number of training examples . In AB and its wiki page ( Contributors , 2021 ) , levels are grouped into multiple stages , and the two consecutive numbers are used to refer to each level . For instance , level ‘ 12-03 ’ refers to the third level in the 12th stage , and the same type of reference is used to clarify the levels below . In the experiments , 253 levels are randomly chosen as training and 50 levels as test examples ( i.e. , levels ) . We edit the guides slightly for clarification and remove irrelevant descriptions . Many instructions explain the bird types , while most screenshots do not include the birds . Thus , we augment the screenshots by inserting the circles that represent the first birds in the levels via colors in the top-left corners ( Fig . 2 ) . With the edited guides and augmented screenshots , we train EAB and evaluate its predicted actions for test ( unseen ) screenshots . Fig . 2B shows an example of EAB outputs . As shown in the figure , the model utilizes attention to create a strategy ( sentence ) . Table 1 shows some examples of EAB ’ s predicted actions/strategies for the unseen test levels ( i.e. , screenshots ) . Here , we make a few observations . First , although the guides describe the sequence of actions , most EAB outputs appear to describe only the first action . Second , EAB selects the correct birds to create predictions on strategies for 10 test levels . Third , a few of the predicted strategies are consistent with the guides . Fourth , the 3SG have diverse writing styles , making the quantitative evaluation of predicted strategies extremely difficult . These results raise the possibility that DL can learn to predict an optimal action from examples only . Due to EAB ’ s low precision , we tested if EAB ’ s performance can be further improved ..

Summary: This paper suggests using deep learning to learn expert decision-making from game strategy guides. They focus on the task of Angry Birds, for which they have natural language descriptions of what actions to take to pass a given level. Given a visual representation of an Angry Birds screenshot, they train an LSTM to model the natural language guides. They claim that their model generalizes well.