We propose Deep Hierarchical Machine (DHM), a model inspired from the divide-and-conquer strategy while emphasizing representation learning ability and flexibility. A stochastic routing framework as used by recent deep neural decision regression forests is incorporated, but we remove the need to evaluate unnecessary computation paths by utilizing a different topology and introducing a probabilistic pruning technique. We also show a specified version of DHM (DSHM) for efficiency, which inherits the sparse feature extraction process as in traditional decision tree with pixel-difference feature. To achieve sparse feature extraction, we propose to utilize sparse convolution operation in DSHM and show one possibility of introducing sparse convolution kernels by using local binary convolution layer. DHM can be applied to both classification and regression problems, and we validate it on standard image classification and face alignment tasks to show its advantages over past architectures.
Pixel-difference feature is a special type of hand-crafted feature where only several pixels from an input are considered during its evaluation. They are thus efficient to compute and succeeded in computer vision tasks such as face detection @cite_17 , face alignment @cite_9 @cite_5 @cite_6 @cite_10 @cite_13 , pose estimation @cite_1 @cite_21 and body part classification @cite_24 . These features were also naturally incorporated into decision regression trees to divide the input feature space. A counterpart of sparse feature extraction process in CNNs is sparse convolution where the few non-zero entries in the convolution kernel determine the feature extraction process. To obtain a sparse convolution kernel, sparse decomposition @cite_3 and pruning @cite_11 techniques were proposed to sparsify a pre-trained dense CNN. @cite_8 proposed an alternative where random sparse kernel was initialized before the training process. While they focus on speeding up CNNs, there have not been study on using these sparse convolutional layers in problem space dividing process, as traditional pixel-difference feature was used in decision trees.
@cite_13 @cite_11 @cite_8 @cite_9 @cite_21 @cite_1 @cite_6 @cite_3 @cite_24 @cite_5 @cite_10 @cite_17
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A citing sentence is one that appears in a scientific article and cites previous work. Citing sentences have been studied and used in many applications. For example, they have been used in scientific paper summarization, automatic survey generation, paraphrase identification, and citation function classification. Citing sentences that cite multiple papers are common in scientific writing. This observation should be taken into consideration when using citing sentences in applications. For instance, when a citing sentence is used in a summary of a scientific paper, only the fragments of the sentence that are relevant to the summarized paper should be included in the summary. In this paper, we present and compare three different approaches for identifying the fragments of a citing sentence that are related to a given target reference. Our methods are: word classification, sequence labeling, and segment classification. Our experiments show that segment classification achieves the best results. Abstract Documents in computer-readable form can be used to provide information about other documents, i.e. those they cite. To do this efficiently requires procedures for computer recognition of citing statements. This is not easy, especially for multi-sentence citing statements. Computer recognition procedures have been developed which are accurate to the following extent: 73 of the words in statements selected by computer procedures as being citing statements are words which are correctly attributable to the corresponding documents. The retrieval effectiveness of computer-recognized citing statements was tested in the following way. First, for eight retrieval requests in inorganiic chemistry, average recall by search of Chemical Abstracts Service indexing and Chemical Abstracts abstract text words was found to be 50 . Words from citing statements referring to the papers to be retrieved were then added to the index terms and abstract words as additional access points, and searching was repeated. Average recall increased to 70 . Only words from citing statements published within a year of the cited papers were used. The retrieval effect of citing statement words alone (published within a year) without index or abstract terms was the following: average recall was 40 . When just the words of the titles of the cited papers were added to those citing statement words, average recall increased to 50 . Scholars are increasingly citing electronic “web references” which are not preserved in libraries or full text archives. WebCite is a new standard for citing web references. To “webcite” a document involves archiving the cited Web page through www.webcitation.org and citing the WebCite permalink instead of (or in addition to) the unstable live Web page. This journal has amended its “instructions for authors” accordingly, asking authors to archive cited Web pages before submitting a manuscript. Almost 200 other journals are already using the system. We discuss the rationale for WebCite, its technology, and how scholars, editors, and publishers can benefit from the service. Citing scholars initiate an archiving process of all cited Web references, ideally before they submit a manuscript. Authors of online documents and websites which are expected to be cited by others can ensure that their work is permanently available by creating an archived copy using WebCite and providing the citation information including the WebCite link on their Web document(s). Editors should ask their authors to cache all cited Web addresses (Uniform Resource Locators, or URLs) “prospectively” before submitting their manuscripts to their journal. Editors and publishers should also instruct their copyeditors to cache cited Web material if the author has not done so already. Finally, WebCite can process publisher submitted “citing articles” (submitted for example as eXtensible Markup Language [XML] documents) to automatically archive all cited Web pages shortly before or on publication. Finally, WebCite can act as a focussed crawler, caching retrospectively references of already published articles. Copyright issues are addressed by honouring respective Internet standards (robot exclusion files, no-cache and no-archive tags). Long-term preservation is ensured by agreements with libraries and digital preservation organizations. The resulting WebCite Index may also have applications for research assessment exercises, being able to measure the impact of Web services and published Web documents through access and Web citation metrics. @PARASPLIT [J Med Internet Res 2005;7(5):e60] A new form of document coupling called co-citation is defined as the frequency with which two documents are cited together. The co-citation frequency of two scientific papers can be determined by comparing lists of citing documents in the Science Citation Index and counting identical entries. Networks of co-cited papers can be generated for specific scientific specialties, and an example is drawn from the literature of particle physics. Co-citation patterns are found to differ significantly from bibliographic coupling patterns, but to agree generally with patterns of direct citation. Clusters of co-cited papers provide a new way to study the specialty structure of science. They may provide a new approach to indexing and to the creation of SDI profiles.