Effects and Moderators of a Short Theory of Mind Intervention for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial Autistic traits in the general population: a twin study. Oxytocin's neurochemical effects in the medial prefrontal cortex underlie recovery of task-specific brain activity in autism: a randomized controlled trial The bidirectional association between sleep problems and autism spectrum disorder: a population-based cohort study An electrophysiologic indication of auditory processing defects in autism Nocturnal excretion of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in children and adolescents with autistic disorder Autism in adults: symptom patterns and early childhood predictors. Use of the DISCO in a community sample followed from childhood. A Chinese Mind-Body Exercise Improves Self-Control of Children with Autism: A Randomized Controlled Trial Qigong massage treatment for sensory and self-regulation problems in young children with autism: a randomized controlled trial. Autism Spectrum Conditions - Enhancing Nurture and Development (ASCEND): An evaluation of intervention support groups for parents PLAY Project Home Consultation Intervention Program for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Randomized Controlled Trial A Replication and Extension of the PEERS Intervention: Examining Effects on Social Skills and Social Anxiety in Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders Cross‐site randomized control trial of the Social ABCs caregiver‐mediated intervention for toddlers with autism spectrum disorder Children's Attitudes and Behavioral Intentions Toward a Peer with Autistic Behaviors: Does a Brief Educational Intervention Have an Effect? Intranasal Oxytocin Improves Emotion Recognition for Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders Effectiveness of a novel community-based early intervention model for children with autistic spectrum disorder. The design and implementation of a CBT-based intervention for sensory processing difficulties in adolescents on the autism spectrum. The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Malesand Females, Scientists and Mathematicians Are Prenatal Ultrasound Scans Associated with the Autism Phenotype? Follow-up of a Randomised Controlled Trial A prospective study of autistic-like traits in unaffected siblings of probands with autism spectrum disorder. Evaluation of a New Computer Intervention to Teach People with Autism or Asperger Syndrome to Recognize and Predict Emotions in Others Plasma oxytocin levels in autistic children The efficacy of melatonin for sleep problems in children with autism, fragile X syndrome, or autism and fragile X syndrome.
Limited perspective taking or “ Theory of Mind ” ( ToM ) abilities are a core deficit of autism , and many interventions are aim ed to improve ToM abilities . In this study , we investigated the effectiveness of a ToM treatment for children with autism spectrum disorders ( ASD ) and , for the first time , the moderating roles of social interaction style ( SIS ) and disruptive behavior ( DB ) , to determine which children are most likely to respond to this intervention . The trial protocol is registered at www.trialregister.nl , trial number 2327 and published before the data collection was finished ( www.trialsjournal.com ) . Children with autism aged 7–12 years ( n = 97 ) were r and omized over a waitlist control or a treatment condition . Outcome measures included ToM and emotion underst and ing , parent and teacher question naires on children 's social skills , ToM‐related social behavior , and autistic traits . Six‐month follow‐up parent reported data were collected for the treatment group . The treatment had a positive effect on ToM underst and ing , parent‐reported ToM behavior , and autistic traits , but not on parent or teacher‐reported social behavior . Passive SIS was associated with diminished treatment effects on autistic traits , but DB was unrelated to outcomes . The ToM intervention  improved conceptual social underst and ing and ToM‐related behavior of children with ASD . However , broader application of learned skills to other domains of functioning was limited . Individual differences with regard to treatment response are discussed . Autism Res 2015 , 8 : 738–748 . © 2015 International Society for Autism Research , Wiley Periodicals , BACKGROUND Recent research has indicated that autism is not a discrete disorder and that family members of autistic prob and s have an increased likelihood of exhibiting autistic symptoms with a wide range of severity , often below the threshold for a diagnosis of an autism spectrum disorder . OBJECTIVE To examine the distribution and genetic structure of autistic traits in the general population using a newly established quantitative measure of autistic traits , the Social Responsiveness Scale ( formerly known as the Social Reciprocity Scale ) . METHODS The sample consisted of 788 pairs of twins aged 7 to 15 years , r and omly selected from the pool of participants in a large epidemiologic study ( the Missouri Twin Study ) . One parent of each pair of twins completed the  Social Responsiveness Scale on each child . The data were subjected to structural equation modeling . RESULTS Autistic traits as measured by the Social Responsiveness Scale were continuously distributed and moderately to highly heritable . Levels of severity of autistic traits at or above the previously published mean for patients with pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified were found in 1.4 % of boys and 0.3 % of girls . Structural equation modeling revealed no evidence for the existence of sex-specific genetic influences , and suggested specific mechanisms by which females may be relatively protected from vulnerability to autistic traits . CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that the social deficits characteristic of autism spectrum disorders are common . Given the continuous distribution of these traits , it may be arbitrary where cutoffs are made between research design ations of being " affected " vs " unaffected " with a pervasive developmental disorder . The genes influencing autistic traits appear to be the same for boys and girls . Lower prevalence ( and severity ) of autistic traits in girls may be the result of increased sensitivity to early environmental influences that operate to promote social competency The neuropeptide oxytocin may be an effective therapeutic strategy for the currently untreatable social and communication deficits associated with autism . Our recent paper reported that oxytocin mitigated autistic behavioral deficits through the restoration of activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex ( vmPFC ) , as demonstrated with functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) during a socio-communication task . However , it is unknown whether oxytocin exhibited effects at the neuronal level , which was outside of the specific task examined . In the same r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , within-subject cross-over clinical trial in which a single dose of intranasal oxytocin ( 24 IU ) was administered to 40 men with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder ( UMIN000002241/000004393 ) , we measured  N-acetylaspartate ( NAA ) levels , a marker for neuronal energy dem and , in the vmPFC using 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy ( 1H-MRS ) . The differences in the NAA levels between the oxytocin and placebo sessions were associated with oxytocin-induced fMRI signal changes in the vmPFC . The oxytocin-induced  increases in the fMRI signal could be predicted by the NAA differences between the oxytocin and placebo sessions ( P=0.002 ) , an effect that remained after controlling for variability in the time between the fMRI and 1H-MRS scans ( P=0.006 ) and the order of administration of oxytocin and placebo ( P=0.001 ) . Furthermore , path analysis showed that the NAA differences in the vmPFC triggered increases in the task-dependent fMRI signals in the vmPFC , which consequently led to improvements in the socio-communication difficulties associated with autism . The present study suggests that the beneficial effects of oxytocin are not limited to the autistic behavior elicited by our psychological task , but may generalize to other autistic behavioral problems associated with the vmPFC Background Sleep difficulties are prevalent in children with autism spectrum disorder ( ASD ) . The temporal nature of the association between sleep problems and ASD is unclear because longitudinal studies are lacking . Our aim is to clarify whether sleep problems precede and worsen autistic traits and ASD or occur as a consequence of the disorder . Methods Repeated sleep measures were available at 1.5 , 3 , 6 , and 9 years of age in 5151 children participating in the Generation R Study , a large prospect i ve birth cohort in the Netherl and s. Autistic traits were determined with the Pervasive Developmental Problems score ( PDP ) of the Child Behavior Checklist ( CBCL ) at 1.5 and 3 years and the Social Responsiveness Scale ( SRS ) at 6 years . This cohort included 81 children diagnosed with ASD . Results Sleep problems in early childhood were prospect ively associated with a higher SRS score , but not when correcting for baseline PDP score . By contrast , a higher SRS score and an ASD diagnosis were associated with more sleep problems at later ages , even when adjusting for baseline sleep problems . Likewise , a trajectory of increasing sleep problems was associated with ASD . Conclusions Sleep problems and ASD are not bidirectionally associated . Sleep problems do not precede and worsen autistic behavior but rather co-occur with autistic traits in early childhood . Over time , children with ASD have an increase in sleep problems , whereas typically developing children have a decrease in sleep problems . Our findings suggest that sleep problems are part of the construct ASD Averaged  evoked potentials ( EPs ) to clicks , r and om pitch changes ( signals ) , and r and om deletions of stimuli within a regular train of tones were examined in five autistic and five normal children .  Brainstem auditory EPs were abnormal in one of the autistic patients . The early cortical EP components P60 and N100 showed no differences across groups , whereas the P200 component of the cortical responses to clicks , as well as the late positive component ( P300 ) to the pitch changes and deleted stimuli , were significantly smaller in the autistic subjects as a group . Furthermore , when P200 and P300 amplitudes were averaged across conditions for the individual subjects , these components were smaller in every autistic subject than in any of the normal subjects . These results are consistent with the view that there are auditory defects in autism that may sometimes involve lower levels of neural transmission as manifested by abnormalities in the brainstem and auditory EP , but are more consistently manifest in higher aspects of processing that involve the registration and storage of stimulus information . It is suggested that the severe language disorder in childhood autism may be secondary to the basic deficits in higher auditory processing BACKGROUND Many studies in autistic disorder report sleep problems and altered circadian rhythms , suggesting abnormalities in melatonin physiology . Additionally , melatonin , a pineal gl and hormone produced from serotonin , is of special interest in autistic disorder given reported alterations in central and peripheral serotonin neurobiology . METHODS Nocturnal urinary excretion of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin was measured by radioimmunoassay in groups of children and adolescents with autistic disorder ( n = 49 ) and normal control individuals ( n = 88 ) matched on age , sex , and Tanner stage of puberty . RESULTS Nocturnal 6-sulphatoxymelatonin excretion rate was significantly and substantially lower in patients with autism than in normal controls ( mean + /- SEM , .75 + /- .11 vs. 1.80 + /- .17 microg/hr , p = .0001 ) , and was significantly negatively correlated with severity of autistic impairments in verbal communication and play ( p < .05 ) . CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate clearly that nocturnal production of melatonin is reduced in autism . Further research is warranted in order to underst and the mechanisms underlying the lower melatonin production , to assess the impact of altered melatonin on the pathophysiology and behavioral expression of autistic disorder , and to determine the utility of melatonin administration in individuals with autism BACKGROUND Few studies have looked at the very long-term outcome of individuals with autism who were diagnosed in childhood . METHODS A longitudinal , prospect i ve , community-based follow-up study of adults who had received the diagnosis of autism ( classic and atypical ) in childhood ( n = 105 ) was conducted . A structured interview ( the Diagnostic Interview for Social and COmmunication disorders -- the DISCO ) was used in order to evaluate symptoms and symptom patterns 13 - 22 years after original diagnosis . Childhood measures , including IQ-level at time of childhood diagnosis and communicative speech registered before age 5 years , were studied in relation to the presence of autism symptoms at follow-up . RESULTS The classical and atypical autism groups were fairly homogeneously impaired in terms of symptoms in the social interaction category whereas other common childhood autism symptoms , including maladaptive and stereotyped behaviours , were more variable in the study group at follow-up . Odd responses to sensory stimuli were still extremely common . Speech before 5 years of age , IQ , gender , diagnosed medical disorder and onset of epilepsy before 5 years were variables that correlated to outcome on the DISCO algorithm for autistic spectrum disorders ( Wing & Gould , 1979 ) concerning style and quality of social interaction , communication style and pattern of self-chosen activities . CONCLUSIONS Social interaction problems were still present in the vast majority of adults with autism/atypical autism , but behavioural impairments were much more variable in adulthood . Almost all cases were reported to show persistent perceptual problems . Certain childhood measures were found to prospect ively predict adult social interaction style , communication type , and pattern of self-chosen activities , which still met diagnostic criteria for autism/atypical autism in adulthood Self-control problems commonly manifest as temper outbursts and repetitive/rigid/impulsive behaviors , in children with autism spectrum disorders ( ASD ) , which often contributes to learning difficulties and caregiver burden . The present study aims to compare the effect of a traditional Chinese Chan-based mind-body exercise , Nei Yang Gong , with that of the conventional Progressive Muscle Relaxation ( PMR ) technique in enhancing the self-control of children with ASD . Forty-six age- and IQ-matched ASD children were r and omly assigned to receive group training in Nei Yang Gong ( experimental group ) or PMR ( control group ) twice per week for four weeks . The participants ’ self-control was measured by three neuropsychological tests and parental rating on st and ardized question naires  , and the underlying neural mechanism was assessed by the participants ’ brain EEG activity during an inhibitory-control task before and after intervention . The results show that the experimental group demonstrated significantly greater improvement in self-control than the control group , which concurs with the parental reports of reduced autistic symptoms and increased control of temper and behaviors . In addition , the experimental group showed enhanced EEG activity in the anterior cingulate cortex , a region that mediates self-control , whereas the PMR group did not . The present findings support the potential application of Chinese Chan-based mind-body exercises as a form of neuropsychological rehabilitation for patients with self-control problems . Chinese Clinical Trial Registry ; Registration No. : ChiCTR-TRC-12002561 ; URL : www.chictr.org Autism is commonly associated with sensory and self-regulatory disturbances . This article presents a r and omized controlled study evaluating the effect of a 5-month intervention directed toward improving sensory impairment , digestion , and sleep in 46 children with autism < age 6 . The intervention , Qigong Sensory Training ( QST ) , is a qigong massage intervention based in Chinese medicine . It is two-pronged : Trainers work with children directly 20 times over 5 months , and parents give the massage daily to their children . Improvement was evaluated in two setting s -- preschool and home -- by teachers ( blind to group ) and parents . Teacher evaluations showed that treated children had significant classroom improvement of social and language skills and reduction in autistic behavior compared with wait-list control participants . These findings were confirmed by parent data , indicating that the gains had generalized across context s. A model and supporting data for underst and ing and treating sensory and self-regulation problems in autism is presented There is relatively little evidence about the effectiveness of parent-training programmes for children with autism spectrum conditions ( ASCs ) . Here we evaluate a programme developed to fill a gap in the provision of parent interventions after EarlyBird , which is only available for parents of pre-school ASC children . This programme ( ASCEND ) has now been running for five years . Question naires were used to evaluate seven consecutive 11-session programmes from 2004 to 2007 , involving 79 parents representing 58 children . We measured satisfaction ratings in all seven groups ; the latter five groups ( 59 parents representing 44 children ) were given  Developmental Behaviour Checklists ( DBCs )  and  parental knowledge question naires pre- and post-course . Eighty-eight per cent of respondents found the course useful or very useful while parental knowledge and skills improved significantly across a range of learning outcomes . DBC scores showed significant changes post-course for total problem behaviours and disruptive/antisocial behaviours , with a trend towards reductions in anxiety as reported by parents . Changes in behaviour scores moderately correlated with specific learning items relating to improved skills in behaviour management . This preliminary evaluation suggests that the course produces positive outcomes in terms of parent satisfaction , parent learning and perceived changes in child behaviour , although further independent analysis is required in the form of a r and omized controlled trial Objective : To evaluate the effectiveness of the Play and Language for Autistic Youngsters ( PLAY ) Project Home Consultation model , in combination with usual community services ( CS ) , to improve parent-child interaction , child development , and autism symptomatology in young children with autism spectrum disorders ( ASDs ) compared with CS only . Methods : Children ( N = 128 ) with autism or PDD-NOS ( DSM-4 criteria ) aged 2 years 8 months to 5 years 11 months and recruited from 5 disability agencies in 4 US states were r and omized in two 1-year cohorts . Using videotape and written feedback within a developmental framework , PLAY consultants coached caregivers monthly for 12 months to improve caregiver-child interaction . CS included speech/ language and occupational therapy and public education services . Primary outcomes included change in parent-child interactions , language and development , and autism-related diagnostic category/symptoms . Secondary outcomes included parent stress and depression and home consultant fidelity . Data were collected pre- and post-intervention . Results : Using intent-to-treat analysis ( ITT ) , large treatment effects were evident for parent and child interactional behaviors on the Maternal and Child Behavior Rating Scales . Child language and developmental quotient did not differ over time by group , although functional development improved significantly . PLAY children improved in diagnostic categories on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule ( ADOS ) . PLAY caregivers ' stress did not increase , and depressive symptomatology decreased . Home consultants administered the intervention with fidelity . Conclusions : PLAY intervention demonstrated substantial changes in parent-child interaction without increasing parents ' stress/depression . ADOS findings must be interpreted cautiously because results do not align with clinical experience . PLAY offers communities a relatively inexpensive effective intervention for children with ASD and their parents This study aim ed to evaluate the Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills ( PEERS : Laugeson et al. in J Autism Dev Disord 39(4):596–606 , 2009 ) . PEERS focuses on improving friendship quality and social skills among adolescents with higher-functioning ASD . 58 participants aged 11–16 years-old were r and omly assigned to either an immediate treatment or waitlist comparison group . Results revealed , in comparison to the waitlist group , that the experimental treatment group significantly improved their knowledge of PEERS concepts and friendship skills , increased in their amount of get-togethers , and decreased in their levels of social anxiety , core autistic symptoms , and problem behaviors from pre-to post-PEERS . This study provides the first independent replication and extension of the empirically-supported PEERS social skills intervention for adolescents with ASD To evaluate the efficacy of the Social ABCs parent‐mediated intervention for toddlers with suspected or confirmed autism spectrum disorder ( ASD ) , through a cross‐site r and omized control trial , sixty‐three parent – toddler dyads ( toddler age : 16–30 months ) were r and omized into treatment ( Social ABCs ) or control ( service‐as‐usual ) conditions .  Video  data were obtained at three key time‐points : Baseline ; Post‐training ( PT ; week 12 ) ; and Follow‐Up ( week 24 ) . Analyses included 62 dyads . Treatment allocation significantly accounted for PT gains , all favouring the Treatment group , in ( 1 ) child functional vocal responsiveness to parent prompts ( R2 = 0.43 , P < .001 ) , ( 2 ) child vocal initiations ( R2 = 0.28 , P < .001 ) , ( 3 ) parent smiling ( R2 = 0.09 , P = .017 ) , and ( 4 ) fidelity of implementation ( R2 = 0.71 , P < .001 ) . A trend was observed for increased social orienting ( R2 = 0.06 , P = 0.054 ) ; gains in parent smiling significantly predicted increases in child smiling and social orienting . Parents in the treatment condition reported significant gains in self‐efficacy following the intervention ( P = 0.009 ) . No differential effects emerged for performance on st and ardized measures . The Social ABCs is a relatively low‐re source , efficacious intervention , with potential to be a cost‐effective means of intervening at the first signs of possible ASD . Autism Res 2017 , 10 : 1700–1711 . © 2017 International Society for Autism Research , Wiley Periodicals , This study examined children 's ratings of attitudes and behavioral intentions toward a peer presented with or without autistic behaviors . The impact of information about autism on these ratings was investigated as well as age and gender effects . Third- and sixth- grade children ( N = 233 ) were r and omly assigned to view a video of the same boy in one of three conditions : No Autism , Autism , or Autism/Information . Children at both grade levels showed less positive attitudes toward the child in the two autism conditions . In rating their own behavioral intentions , children showed no differences between conditions . However , in attributing intentions to their classmates , older children and girls gave lower ratings to the child in the autism conditions . Information about autism did not affect ratings of either attitudes or behavioral intentions as ascribed to self or others BACKGROUND A diagnostic hallmark of autism spectrum disorders is a qualitative impairment in social communication and interaction . Deficits in the ability to recognize the emotions of others are believed to contribute to this . There is currently no effective treatment for these problems . METHODS In a double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled , crossover design , we administered oxytocin nasal spray ( 18 or 24 IU ) or a placebo to 16 male youth aged 12 to 19 who were diagnosed with Autistic or Asperger 's Disorder . Participants then completed the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task , a widely used and reliable test of emotion recognition . RESULTS In comparison with placebo , oxytocin administration improved performance on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task . This effect was also shown when analysis was restricted to the younger participants aged 12 to 15 who received the lower dose . CONCLUSIONS This study provides the first evidence that oxytocin nasal spray improves emotion recognition in young people diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders . Findings suggest the potential of earlier intervention and further evaluation of oxytocin nasal spray as a treatment to improve social communication and interaction in young people with autism spectrum disorders The Nova Scotia  early intensive behavior intervention model -NS EIBI ( Bryson et al. , 2007 ) for children with autistic spectrum disorders was design ed to be feasible and sustainable in community setting s. It combines parent training and naturalistic one-to-one behavior intervention employing Pivotal Response Treatment - PRT ( R. Koegel & Koegel , 2006 ) . We followed 45 children ( 33 males , mean baseline age = 50 months ) for 12months . Mean gains of 14.9 and 19.5 months were observed on expressive and receptive language measures , respectively , for children with an IQ of 50 or more at baseline versus 6.1 and 8.4 months for children with IQs less than 50 . Behavior problems decreased significantly over the 1-year treatment for both groups , but autism symptoms decreased only for those with an IQ of 50 or more BACKGROUND Unusual reactions to sensory input now form part of the diagnostic criteria for autism . These features are common and can have an often-devastating impact on autistic individuals and their families . Yet there are few vali date d interventions that help to remediate or support autistic individuals ' adverse sensory experiences . To date , both measurement of sensory experiences and the result ing interventions have been based on assumptions of neurological sensitivities and largely ignored the role of cognition . This study therefore sought to assess the feasibility of a new 8-week CBT-based group intervention for self-regulation of sensory processing difficulties . METHOD Seven cognitively able adolescents diagnosed with autism aged 11 - 16 years from one mainstream secondary school received the 8-week intervention . Measures of sensory reactivity , anxiety and repetitive behaviours were taken at baseline , post-intervention and follow-up , 8 weeks after the intervention had ceased . Semi-structured interviews and focus groups were also conducted with adolescents and their parents to examine further the acceptability of the intervention . RESULTS The results showed that the intervention itself was feasible - both in its implementation and its acceptability to participants . Qualitative analysis clearly showed that the intervention was effective in raising meta-conscious awareness and self-regulation in these autistic adolescents . Analysis of outcome variables showed no significant change over the intervention period , although effect sizes were moderate-to-large . CONCLUSIONS These preliminary results are encouraging and should inform the design of a future pilot r and omized controlled trial to test its efficacy with a larger group of participants Currently there are no brief , self-administered instruments for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum . In this paper , we report on a new instrument to assess this : the Autism-Spectrum Quotient ( AQ ) . Individuals score in the range 0–50 . Four groups of subjects were assessed : Group 1 : 58 adults with Asperger syndrome ( AS ) or high-functioning autism ( HFA ) ; Group 2 : 174 r and omly selected controls . Group 3 : 840 students in Cambridge University ; and Group 4 : 16 winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad .  The adults with AS/HFA had a mean AQ score of 35.8 ( SD = 6.5 ) , significantly higher than Group 2 controls ( M = 16.4 , SD = 6.3 ) . 80 % of the adults with AS/HFA scored 32 + , versus 2 % of controls . Among the controls , men scored slightly but significantly higher than women . No women scored extremely highly ( AQ score 34 + ) whereas 4 % of men did so . Twice as many men ( 40 % ) as women ( 21 % ) scored at intermediate levels ( AQ score 20 + ) . Among the AS/HFA group , male and female scores did not differ significantly . The students in Cambridge University did not differ from the r and omly selected control group , but scientists ( including mathematicians ) scored significantly higher than both humanities and social sciences students , confirming an earlier study that autistic conditions are associated with scientific skills . Within the sciences , mathematicians scored highest . This was replicated in Group 4 , the Mathematics Olympiad winners scoring significantly higher than the male Cambridge humanities students . 6 % of the student sample scored 327plus ; on the AQ . On interview , 11 out of 11 of these met three or more DSM-IV criteria for AS/HFA , and all were study ing sciences/mathematics , and 7 of the 11 met threshold on these criteria . Test — retest and interrater reliability of the AQ was good . The AQ is thus a valuable instrument for rapidly quantifying where any given individual is situated on the continuum from autism to normality . Its potential for screening for autism spectrum conditions in adults of normal intelligence remains to be fully explored An existing r and omised controlled trial was used to investigate whether multiple ultrasound scans may be associated with the autism phenotype .  From 2,834 single pregnancies , 1,415 were selected at r and om to receive ultrasound imaging and continuous wave Doppler flow studies at five points throughout pregnancy ( Intensive ) and 1,419 to receive a single imaging scan at 18 weeks ( Regular ) , with further scans only as indicated on clinical grounds . There was no significant difference in the rate of Autism Spectrum Disorder between the Regular ( 9/1,125 , 0.8 % ) and Intensive ( 7/1,167 , 0.6 % ) groups , nor a difference between groups in the level of autistic-like traits in early adulthood . There is no clear link between the frequency and timing of prenatal ultrasound scans and the autism phenotype CONTEXT The presence of autistic-like traits in relatives of individuals with autism spectrum disorder ( ASD ) is well recognized , but , to our knowledge , the emergence of these traits early in development has not been studied . OBJECTIVE To prospect ively investigate the emergence of autistic-like traits in unaffected ( no ASD diagnosis ) infant siblings of prob and s diagnosed as having ASD . DESIGN Two groups of children unaffected with ASD were assessed prospect ively-siblings of prob and s diagnosed as having ASD ( high risk [ HR ] ) and control subjects with no family history of ASD ( low risk [ LR ] ) . Scores on a measure of autistic-like traits at 12 months of age were used in a cluster analysis of the entire sample . SETTING A prospect i ve study of infant siblings of prob and s with ASD from 3 diagnostic centers in Canada . PARTICIPANTS The study included 170 HR and 90 LR children , none of whom was diagnosed as having ASD at age 3 years . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES The Autism Observation Scale for Infants was used to measure autistic-like traits and derive clusters at 12 months of age . Clusters were compared on ASD symptoms , cognitive abilities , and social-emotional difficulties at age 3 years . RESULTS Two clusters were identified . Cluster 1 ( n = 37 ; 14.2 % of total sample ) had significantly higher levels of autistic-like traits compared with cluster 2 . Within cluster 1 , 33 children came from the siblings ( 19.4 % of HR group ) and only 4 came from the control subjects ( 4.5 % of LR group ) . At age 3 years , children from cluster 1 had more social-communication impairment ( effect size > 0.70 ; P < .001 ) , lower cognitive abilities ( effect size = -0.59 ; P < .005 ) , and more internalizing problems ( effect size = 0.55 ; P = .01 ) . Compared with control subjects , HR siblings had a relative risk of 4.3 ( 95 % CI,1.6 - 11.9 ) for membership in cluster 1 . CONCLUSIONS Study findings suggest the emergence of autistic-like traits resembling a broader autism phenotype by 12 months of age in approximately 19 % of HR siblings who did not meet ASD diagnostic criteria at age 3 years This r and omized controlled trial looked at the effect of a new computer program design ed to teach people with autistic spectrum disorders to better recognize and predict emotional responses in others . Two groups of 11 children ( age 12 - 18 ) with autism or Asperger syndrome at two special schools participated :  one group used the computer program for 10 half-hour sessions over 2 weeks . Within-program data showed a significant reduction in errors made from first to last use . Students were assessed pre- and post-intervention using facial expression photographs , cartoons depicting emotion-laden situations , and non-literal stories . Scores were not related to age or verbal ability . The experimental group made gains relative to the control group on all three measures . Gains correlated significantly with the number of times the computer program was used and results suggest positive effects . Further research could assess whether these gains generalized into real life or improved performance on theory of mind measures BACKGROUND Social impairments are central to the syndrome of autism . The neuropeptide oxytocin ( OT ) has been implicated in the regulation of social behavior in animals but has not yet been examined in autistic subjects . METHODS To determine whether autistic children have abnormalities in OT , midday plasma sample s from 29 autistic and 30 age-matched normal children , all prepubertal , were analyzed by radioimmunoassay for levels of OT . RESULTS Despite individual variability and overlapping group distributions , the autistic group had significantly lower plasma OT levels than the normal group . OT increased with age in the normal but not the autistic children .  Elevated OT was associated with higher scores on social and developmental measures for the normal children , but was associated with lower scores for the autistic children . These relationships were strongest in a subset of autistic children identified as aloof . CONCLUSIONS Although making inferences to central OT functioning from peripheral measurement is difficult , the data suggest that OT abnormalities may exist in autism , and that more direct investigation of central nervous system OT function is warranted STUDY OBJECTIVE To determine the efficacy of melatonin on  sleep problems in children with autistic spectrum disorder ( ASD ) and fragile X syndrome ( FXS ) . METHODS A 4-week , r and omized , double blind , placebo-controlled , crossover design was conducted following a 1-week baseline period . Either melatonin , 3 mg , or placebo was given to participants for 2 weeks and then alternated for another 2 weeks . Sleep variables , including sleep duration , sleep-onset time , sleep-onset latency time , and the number of night awakenings , were recorded using an Actiwatch and from sleep diaries completed by parents . All participants had been thoroughly assessed for ASD and also had DNA testing for the diagnosis of FXS . RESULTS Data were successfully obtained from the 12 of 18 subjects who completed the study ( 11 males , age range 2 to 15.25 years , mean 5.47 , SD 3.6 ) . Five participants met diagnostic criteria for ASD , 3 for FXS alone , 3 for FXS and ASD , and 1 for fragile X premutation . Eight out of 12 had  melatonin  first . The conclusions from a nonparametric repeated- measures technique indicate that mean night sleep duration was longer on melatonin than placebo by 21 minutes ( p = .02 ) , mean sleep-onset latency was shorter by 28 minutes ( p = .0001 ) , and mean sleep-onset time was earlier by 42 minutes ( p = .02 ) . CONCLUSION The results of this study support the efficacy and tolerability of melatonin treatment for sleep problems in children with ASD and FXS
The results show different consistency across studies between the three types of timing ability .
The highest consistency of results showing atypical time perception abilities is found in high-level time perception studies .
It remains unclear if autism is characterized by a fundamental time perception impairment .
Overall , there are a number of studies that show differences between autistic and non-autistic individuals , but some studies do not find such differences .
Group differences are more consistent across studies using complex tasks rather than simpler more fundamental timing tasks .
Problems with timing and time perception have been suggested as key characteristics of autism spectrum condition ( ASC ) .
Studies and personal accounts from clinicians , parents , caregivers , and self-reports from autistic people themselves often refer to problems with time .
Although a number of empirical studies have examined aspects relating to time in autistic individuals , there remains no clear consensus on whether or how timing mechanisms may be affected in autism .