Breakfast glycaemic index and exercise: Combined effects on adolescents' cognition Glycaemic index and glycaemic load of breakfast predict cognitive function and mood in school children: a randomised controlled trial. The delivery rate of dietary carbohydrates affects cognitive performance in both rats and humans Postprandial Effects of Breakfast Glycemic Index on Vascular Function among Young Healthy Adults: A Crossover Clinical Trial Second-meal effect: low-glycemic-index foods eaten at dinner improve subsequent breakfast glycemic response. Dietary fiber, glycemic index, glycemic load and renal cell carcinoma risk. Prolongation of satiety after low versus moderately high glycemic index meals in obese adolescents. Low glycemic index breakfasts and reduced food intake in preadolescent children. Four-week low-glycemic index breakfast with a modest amount of soluble fibers in type 2 diabetic men. Effects of long-term intervention with low- and high-glycaemic-index breakfasts on food intake in children aged 8-11 years. Dietary fiber, whole grains, carbohydrate, glycemic index, and glycemic load in relation to risk of prostate cancer Effect of the glycemic index and content of indigestible carbohydrates of cereal-based breakfast meals on glucose tolerance at lunch in healthy subjects. Ingesting breakfast meals of different glycaemic load does not alter cognition and satiety in children High glycemic index foods, overeating, and obesity. Comparison of high- and low-glycemic-index breakfast cereals with monounsaturated fat in the long-term dietary management of type 2 diabetes. A High Glycemic Meal Suppresses the Postprandial Leptin Response in Normal Healthy Adults Effect of pregnancy on gingival inflammation in systemically healthy women: a systematic review. A Low Glycemic Index Staple Diet Reduces Postprandial Glucose Values in Asian Women With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus A randomized controlled trial to investigate the impact of a low glycemic index (GI) diet on body mass index in obese adolescents Taking a Low Glycemic Index Multi-Nutrient Supplement as Breakfast Improves Glycemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized Controlled Trial Long-term effect of varying the source or amount of dietary carbohydrate on postprandial plasma glucose, insulin, triacylglycerol, and free fatty acid concentrations in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. The use of glycaemic index tables to predict glycaemic index of composite breakfast meals. Consumption of a mid-morning snack improves memory but not attention in school children
The aim of the present study was to examine the combined effects of breakfast glycaemic index ( GI ) and a mid-morning bout of exercise on  adolescents ' cognitive function . Participants were r and omly allocated to a high or low GI breakfast group in a mixed research design , where each participant completed two experimental trials ( exercise and resting ) . Forty-two adolescents ( 12.4±0.5 years old ) , undertook a bout of exercise ( ten repeats of level one of the multi-stage fitness test ; exercise trial ) or continued to rest ( resting trial ) following consumption of either a high or low GI breakfast . A battery of cognitive function tests ( visual search test , Stroop test and Sternberg paradigm ) was completed 30 min before and 45 min following the  exercise . Average heart rate during exercise was 170±15 beats·min(-1 ) . On the complex level of the Stroop test , response times improved across the morning following the low GI breakfast on both the exercise and resting trials , though the improvement was greatest on the exercise trial . However , response times only improved on the resting trial following the high GI breakfast ( p=0.012 ) . On the 5 letter level of the Sternberg paradigm , response times improved across the morning following the low GI breakfast ( regardless of exercise ) and only on the exercise trial following the high GI breakfast ( p=0.019 ) . The findings of the present study suggest that the combined effects of breakfast GI and exercise in adolescents depend upon the component of cognitive function examined . A low GI breakfast and mid-morning bout of exercise were individually beneficial for response times on the Sternberg paradigm , whereas they conferred additional benefits for response times on the Stroop test The macronutrient composition of a breakfast that could facilitate performance after an overnight fast remains unclear . As glucose is the brain 's major energy source , the interest is in investigating meals differing in their blood glucose-raising potential . Findings vary due to unaccounted differences in glucoregulation , arousal and cortisol secretion . We investigated the effects of meals differing in glycaemic index ( GI ) and glycaemic load ( GL ) on cognition and mood in school children . A total of seventy-four school children were matched and r and omly allocated either to the  high-GL or low-GL  group . Within each GL group , children received high-GI and low-GI breakfasts .  Cognitive function ( CF ) and mood were measured 95 - 140 min after breakfast . Blood glucose and salivary cortisol were measured at baseline , before and after the CF tests . Repeated- measures ANOVA was used to identify differences in CF , mood , glucose and cortisol levels between the breakfasts . Low-GI meals predicted feeling more alert and happy , and less nervous and thirsty ( P < 0·05 for each ) ; high-GL meals predicted feeling more confident , and less sluggish , hungry and thirsty ( P < 0·05 for each ) . High-GL ( P < 0·001 ) and high-GI ( P = 0·05 ) meals increased glucose levels 90 min after breakfast , and high-GI meals increased cortisol levels ( P < 0·01 ) . When baseline mood , glucose and cortisol levels were considered , low-GI meals predicted better declarative-verbal memory ( P = 0·03 ) , and high-GI meals better vigilance ( P < 0·03 ) ; observed GI effects were valid across GL groups . GI effects on cognition appear to be domain specific . On balance , it would appear that the low-GI high-GL breakfast may help to improve learning , and of potential value in informing government education policies relating to dietary recommendations and implementation concerning breakfast Rationale . Glucose is the main metabolic fuel of the brain . The rate of glucose delivery from food to the bloodstream depends on the nature of carbohydrates in the diet , which can be summarized as the glycaemic index ( GI ) . Objectives . To assess the benefit of a low versus high GI breakfast on cognitive performances within the following 4 h. Methods . The influence of the GI of the breakfast on verbal memory of young adults was measured throughout the morning in parallel to the assessment of blood glucose levels . The learning abilities of rats performing an operant-conditioning test 3 h after a breakfast-like meal of various GI was also examined . Results . A low GI rather than high GI diet improved memory in humans , especially in the late morning ( 150 and 210 min after breakfast ) . Similarly , rats displayed better learning performance 180 min after they were fed with a low rather than high GI diet . Conclusion . Although performances appeared to be only remotely related to blood glucose , our data provide evidence that a low GI breakfast allows better cognitive performances later in the morning This study aim ed to evaluate the postpr and ial effects of high and low glycemic index ( GI ) breakfasts on vascular function . It was a crossover trial that included 40 young healthy adults ( 50 % women ) , aged 20–40 years , who were recruited at primary care setting s. They consumed three experimental breakfasts in r and omized order , each one separated by a 1-week washout period : ( 1 ) control conditions ( only water ) ; ( 2 ) low GI ( LGI ) breakfast ( 29.4 GI and 1489 KJ energy ) ; and ( 3 ) high GI ( HGI ) breakfast ( 64.0 GI and 1318 KJ energy ) . Blood sample s were collected at 60 and 120 min after each breakfast to determine glucose and insulin levels . Vascular parameters were measured at 15 min intervals . Augmentation index ( AIx ) was studied as a primary outcome . Secondary outcomes comprised glucose , insulin , heart rate ( HR ) and pulse pressures ( PPs ) . We found a trend toward increased AIx , HR and PPs for the HGI versus the LGI breakfast . A significant interaction between the type of breakfast consumed and all measured parameters was identified ( p < 0.05 ) except for central PP . Stratifying data by sex , this interaction remained significant for AIx and augmentation pressure only in males ( p < 0.05 ) . In conclusion , breakfast GI could affect postpr and ial vascular responses in young healthy adults The effects of the glycemic index ( GI ) of carbohydrate eaten the previous night on the glycemic response to a st and ard test meal eaten subsequently in the morning ( breakfast ) was studied . On separate evenings normal subjects ate low- or high-GI test meals of the same nutrient composition . The dinners consisted of single foods in two experiments and mixed meals containing several foods in the third . The differences between the observed glycemic responses to low- and high-GI dinners were predicted by their GIs . The glycemic responses to breakfast were significantly lower on mornings after low-GI dinners than after high-GI dinners . Eating , at dinner , foods with different fiber contents but the same GI had no effect on postbreakfast glycemia . We conclude that the GI predicts the difference between glycemic responses of mixed dinner meals ; breakfast carbohydrate tolerance is improved when low-GI foods are eaten the previous evening Several epidemiological studies have investigated the potential association between dietary fiber , glycemic index ( GI ) or glycemic load ( GL ) , and renal cell carcinoma ( RCC ) risk with inconsistent results . The aim of this study was to systematic ally evaluate this issue with a meta- analysis approach . A comprehensive literature search up to March 2018 was performed in PubMed and Web of Science data bases . Summary relative risks ( RRs ) and 95 % confidence intervals ( CIs ) were estimated with a r and om-effects model . Twelve studies were finally included in this study ( eight for fiber analysis , five for GI and five for GL ) . A significant positive association was observed between GI and the risk of RCC ( summary RR 1.16 , 95 % CI 1.02 - 1.32 ) , and no significant heterogeneity was detected among studies ( I2 = 22.8 % , P = 0.262 ) . A significant inverse association was found between fiber intake and the risk of RCC ( summary RR 0.82 , 95 % CI 0.72 - 0.92 ) , and no significant heterogeneity was observed across studies ( I2 = 27.6 % , P = 0.218 ) . GL was not significantly associated with RCC risk ( summary RR 1.14 , 95 % CI 0.81 - 1.60 ) , and significant heterogeneity was found across studies ( I2 = 78.6 % , P < 0.001 ) . In conclusion , this systematic review and meta- analysis suggests that dietary GI and fiber may be associated with the risk of RCC . Further large prospect i ve cohort studies are still warranted to confirm our preliminary findings BACKGROUND One in 5 American children is overweight , despite a decrease in total fat consumption . This has sparked an interest in the carbohydrate composition of diets , including the glycemic index ( GI ) . OBJECTIVE To investigate whether a low-GI meal replacement ( LMR ) produced similar metabolic , hormonal , and satiety responses in overweight adolescents as a low-GI whole-food meal ( LWM ) when compared with a moderately high-GI meal replacement ( HMR ) . METHODS R and omized , crossover study comparing LMR , HMR , and LWM in 16 ( 8 male/8 female ) adolescents during 3 separate 24-hour admissions . The meal replacements consisted of a shake and a nutrition bar . Identical test meals were provided at breakfast and lunch . Metabolic and hormonal indices were assessed between meals . Measures of participants ' perceived satiety included hunger scales and ad libitum food intake . RESULTS The incremental areas under the curve for glucose were 46 % and 43 % lower after the LMR and LWM , respectively , compared with the HMR .  Insulin 's incremental area under the curve was also significantly lower after both low GI test meals ( LMR = 36 % ; LWM = 51 % ) compared with the HMR .  Additional food was requested earlier after the HMR than the LMR ( 3.1 vs 3.9 hours , respectively ) , although voluntary energy intake did not differ . CONCLUSIONS Differences in insulin response between the meal replacements occurred , and prolongation of satiety after the LMR , based on time to request additional food , was observed . We speculate that the prolonged satiety associated with low GI foods may prove an effective method for reducing caloric intake and achieving long-term weight control OBJECTIVE Recent reports have suggested that a low glycemic index ( GI ) diet may have a role in the management of obesity through its ability to increase the satiety value of food and modulate appetite . To date , no long-term clinical trials have examined the effect of dietary GI on body weight regulation . The majority of evidence comes from single-day studies , most of which have been conducted in adults . The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of 3 test breakfasts-low-GI , low-GI with 10 % added sucrose , and high-GI-on  ad libitum lunch intake , appetite , and satiety and to compare these with baseline values when habitual breakfast was consumed . METHODS A 3-way crossover study using block r and omization of breakfast type was conducted in a school that already ran a breakfast club . A total of 37 children aged 9 to 12 years ( 15 boys and 22 girls ) completed the study . The proportion of nonoverweight to overweight/obese children was 70:30 . Children were divided into 5 groups , and a rolling program was devised whereby , week by week , each group would r and omly receive 1 of 3 test breakfasts for 3 consecutive days , with a minimum of 5 weeks between the test breakfasts . Participants acted as their own control . The 3 test breakfasts were devised to match the energy and nutritional content of an individual 's habitual breakfast as far as possible . All test breakfasts were composed of fruit juice , cereal , and milk with/without bread and margarine ; foods with an appropriate GI value were selected . After each test breakfast , children were instructed not to eat or drink anything until lunchtime , except water and a small serving of fruit supplying approximately 10 g of carbohydrate , which was provided . Breakfast palatability , satiation after breakfast , and satiety before lunch were measured using rating scales based on previously used tools . Lunch was a buffet-style meal , and children were allowed free access to a range of foods . Lunch was served in the school hall where the rest of the schoolchildren were eating . Food intake at lunch was unobtrusively observed and recorded . Leftovers and food swapping were recorded , and plate waste was estimated . Lunch intakes were analyzed using a multilevel regression model for repeated measures data . The likelihood ratio statistic was used to determine whether the type of breakfast eaten had a significant effect on lunch intake after allowing for sex and weight status . RESULTS The type of breakfast eaten had a statistically significant effect on mean energy intake at lunchtime : lunch intake was lower after low-GI and low-GI with added sucrose breakfasts compared with lunch intake after high-GI and habitual breakfasts ( which were high-GI ) . Overweight and sex did not have a significant effect on lunch intake . Pairwise comparisons among the 3 types of test breakfasts and between each test breakfast and habitual breakfast were made . Lunch intake after the high-GI breakfast was significantly higher than after the low-GI breakfast and low-GI breakfast with added sucrose . The details of the pairwise comparisons were as follows : high-GI versus low-GI = 145 + /- 54 kcal ; high-GI versus low-GI plus sucrose = 119 + /- 53 kcal ; low-GI plus sucrose versus low-GI = 27 + /- 54 kcal . Lunch intake after the low-GI breakfast and the low-GI breakfast with added sucrose was significantly lower than after the habitual breakfast . The details of the pairwise comparisons were as follows : low-GI versus habitual = -109 + /- 75 kcal ; low-GI plus sucrose versus habitual = -83 + /- 75 kcal ; high-GI versus habitual = 36 + /- 75 kcal . There were no significant differences between the test breakfasts in immediate satiation . The high-GI breakfasts were rated to be more palatable than the low-GI breakfasts . At lunchtime , hunger ratings were greater after the high-GI breakfast compared with the other 2 test breakfasts on 2 of the 3 experimental days . Prelunch satiety scales were inversely related to subsequent food intake . CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that low-GI foods eaten at breakfast have a significant impact on food intake at lunch . This is the first study to observe such an effect in a group of normal and overweight children and adds to the growing body of evidence that low-GI foods may have an important role in weight control and obesity management . The potentially confounding effect of differences in the macronutrient and dietary fiber content of the test breakfasts warrants additional study . In addition , the impact of GI on food intake and body weight regulation in the long term needs to be investigated Low-glycemic index diets are associated with a wide range of benefits when followed on a chronic basis . The chronic effects , however , of the substitution of 1 meal per day are not well known in diabetic subjects . Therefore , we aim ed to evaluate whether the chronic use of a low-glycemic index breakfast ( low-GIB ) rich in low-GI carbohydrates and a modest amount of soluble fibers could have an effect on lipemia at a subsequent lunch , and improve glucose and lipid metabolism in men with type 2 diabetes . A total of 13 men with type 2 diabetes were r and omly allocated in a double-blind cross-over design to a 4-week daily intake of a low-GI versus a high-GI breakfast separated by a 15-day washout interval . The low-GI breakfast was composed of whole grain bread and muesli containing 3 g beta-glucan from oats . Low-GIB induced lower postpr and ial plasma glucose peaks than the high-GIB at the beginning ( baseline , P < .001 ) and after the 4-week intake ( P < .001 ) . The incremental area under the plasma glucose curve was also lower ( P < .001 , P < .01 , baseline , and 4 weeks , respectively ) . There was no effect on fasting plasma glucose , insulin , fructosamine , or glycosylated hemoglobin ( HbA(1c ) ) . Fasting plasma cholesterol , as well as the incremental area under the cholesterol curve , were lower ( P < .03 , P < .02 ) after the 4-week low-GIB period than after the high-GIB period . Apolipoprotein B ( apo B ) was also decreased by the 4-week low-GIB . There was no effect of the low-GI breakfast on triacylglycerol excursions or glucose and insulin responses at the second meal . The high-GIB , however , tended to decrease the amount of mRNA of leptin in abdominal adipose tissue , but had no effect on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ( PPARgamma ) and cholesterylester transfer protein ( CETP ) mRNA amounts . In conclusion , the intake of a low-GI breakfast containing a modest amount ( 3 g ) of beta-glucan for 4 weeks allowed good glycemic control and induced low plasma cholesterol levels in men with type 2 diabetes . The decrease in plasma cholesterol associated with low-GI breakfast intake may reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular complications in subjects with type 2 diabetes The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of long-term intervention of low-glycaemic-index ( GI ) v. high-GI breakfasts on energy and macronutrient intakes in children aged 8 - 11 years . Preadolescent children were assigned to one of two groups in a r and om cross-over design . Each group was given low-GI and high-GI breakfasts on two non-consecutive days per week for 10 weeks per breakfast type . Each breakfast provided approximately 1273 kJ ( 300 kcal ) and was closely matched for macronutrient and dietary fibre content . Subsequent food intake at an ad libitum buffet lunch was recorded and daily energy and macronutrient intakes were measured by 24 h recall and 3 d food diaries . There was a tendency towards a reduced energy intake at lunch following the low-GI breakfast compared with the high-GI breakfast , although the mean difference of 75 kJ ( 18 kcal ) was not significant ( P = 0.406 ) . In particular , there was a trend towards a reduced energy intake in the low-GI arm compared with the high-GI arm among boys . In addition , data from the 3 d food diaries showed that there was a tendency towards a reduced energy intake during the low-GI compared with the high-GI study period . In conclusion , although the difference in energy intake following the low-GI and high-GI breakfasts was not statistically significant , the reduced energy intake following the low-GI breakfast is encouraging . Both dietary fibre and carbohydrate type may affect GI , thus their potential and relative modulating effect on appetite requires further investigation Background The relationships between dietary fiber , whole grains , carbohydrate , glycemic index ( GI ) , glycemic load ( GL ) , and prostate cancer risk are unclear . We conducted a systematic review and meta- analysis to investigate these associations . Methods Relevant studies were identified by a search of PubMed data base and EMBASE data base up to April 2015 . A r and om effects model was used to calculate the summary relative risks ( RRs ) and their corresponding 95 % confidence intervals ( CIs ) . Results Twenty-seven epidemiological studies ( 18 case – control studies and nine cohort studies ) were included in the final analysis .  The pooled RRs of prostate cancer were 0.94 ( 95 % CI 0.85–1.05 , P=0.285 ) , 1.13 ( 95 % CI 0.98–1.30 , P=0.095 ) , 0.96 ( 95 % CI 0.81–1.14 , P=0.672 ) , 1.06 ( 95 % CI 0.96–1.18 , P=0.254 ) , and 1.04 ( 95 % CI 0.91–1.18 , P=0.590 ) for dietary fiber , whole grains , carbohydrate , GI , and GL , respectively . There was no evidence of significant publication bias based on the Begg ’s test and Egger ’s test . Conclusion The findings of this meta- analysis indicate that , based on available information , dietary fiber , whole grains , carbohydrate , GI , and GL are not associated with the risk of prostate cancer BACKGROUND Diets with a low glycemic index ( GI ) have been shown to improve glucose tolerance in both healthy and diabetic subjects . Two potential mechanisms are discussed in relation to long-term metabolic effects : a decreased dem and for insulin in the postpr and ial phase and formation of short-chain fatty acids from fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates in the colon . OBJECTIVE The objective was to study the effect of the GI and the indigestible carbohydrate -- resistant starch ( RS ) and dietary fiber (DF)--content of cereal-based breakfasts on glucose tolerance at a second meal ( lunch ) in healthy subjects . DESIGN The effects of 7 test breakfasts with known GIs ( GI : 52 - 99 ) and RS + DF contents ( 2 - 36 g ) were evaluated . White-wheat bread was used as a reference breakfast ( high GI , low RS + DF content ) . Glucose and insulin responses after the second meal were measured in healthy subjects . In addition , the satiating capacity of 4 of the 7 test breakfasts was estimated before and during the second meal . RESULTS Two of the 4 low-GI breakfasts improved glucose tolerance at the second meal . Only these 2 breakfasts were capable of postponing the in-between-meal fasting state . There was no measurable effect of fermentable carbohydrates on glucose tolerance at the second meal . The highest satiety score was associated with the barley breakfast that had a low GI and a high RS + DF content . CONCLUSIONS Glucose tolerance can improve in a single day . Slow absorption and digestion of starch from the breakfast meal , but not the content of indigestible carbohydrates in the breakfast meal , improved glucose tolerance at the second meal ( lunch ) Background / Objectives : The effect of Glycaemic Index ( GI ) and Load ( GL ) of breakfasts on satiety and aspects of cognitive function in children is inconclusive . We aim ed to assess if isocaloric breakfasts differing in GL ( by replacing high-GI carbohydrate foods with dairy protein foods ) acutely alter cognitive function and satiety in 10- to 12-year-old children . Subjects/ Methods : A total of 39 children , aged 11.6±0.7 years with body mass index 18.9±3.0 kg/m2 ( Mean±s.e . ) participated in a r and omised crossover trial of three isocaloric breakfasts ( 1.3 MJ ) : high GL ( HGL : 7 g protein , 9 g fat , 50 g carbohydrate , GL 33 ) ; medium GL ( MGL : 14 g protein , 9 g fat , 45 g carbohydrate , GL 24 ) and low GL ( LGL : 18 g protein , 10 g fat , 38 g carbohydrate , GL 18 ) . Blood glucose was recorded using a continuous glucose monitor . Subjective hunger and cognitive performance were measured before and hourly after consuming the test breakfast via a computer-delivered battery . Ad libitum intake at a buffet lunch meal was measured at 3 h at the end of testing . Results : Incremental area under the glucose curve ( iAUC ) was significantly different with HGL > MGL > LGL ( P<0.001 ) . Glucose concentrations fell below baseline after 83±6 min for HGL , 63±5 min ( MGL ) and 67±5 min (LGL)(P=0.009 ) . Breakfast GL did not significantly alter changes in cognitive function or self-reported satiety throughout testing . Energy intake at lunch was not significantly different between treatments ( HGL 2943±168 kJ ; MGL 2949±166 kJ ; LGL 2993±191 kJ ) . Conclusions : Reducing breakfast GL by replacing carbohydrate with protein does not alter satiety or cognition over 3 h in 10- to 12-year-old children OBJECTIVE The prevalence of obesity has increased dramatically in recent years . However , the role of dietary composition in body weight regulation remains unclear . The purpose of this work was to investigate the acute effects of dietary glycemic index ( GI ) on energy metabolism and voluntary food intake in obese subjects . METHODS Twelve obese teenage boys were evaluated on three separate occasions using a crossover study protocol . During each evaluation , subjects consumed identical test meals at breakfast and lunch that had a low , medium , or high GI . The high- and medium-GI meals were design ed to have similar macronutrient composition , fiber content , and palatability , and all meals for each subject had equal energy content . After breakfast , plasma and serum concentrations of metabolic fuels and hormones were measured . Ad libitum food intake was determined in the 5-hour period after lunch . RESULTS Voluntary energy intake after the high-GI meal ( 5.8 megajoule [ mJ ] ) was 53 % greater than after the medium-GI meal ( 3.8 mJ ) , and 81 % greater than after the low-GI meal ( 3.2 mJ ) . In addition , compared with the low-GI meal , the high-GI meal result ed in higher serum insulin levels , lower plasma glucagon levels , lower postabsorptive plasma glucose and serum fatty acids levels , and elevation in plasma epinephrine . The area under the glycemic response curve for each test meal accounted for 53 % of the variance in food intake within subjects . CONCLUSIONS The rapid absorption of glucose after consumption of high-GI meals induces a sequence of hormonal and metabolic changes that promote excessive food intake in obese subjects . Additional studies are needed to examine the relationship between dietary GI and long-term body weight regulation BACKGROUND Results of 6-wk studies suggest that high-carbohydrate diets are deleterious for people with type 2 diabetes . OBJECTIVE Our objective was to see whether long-term replacement of dietary monounsaturated fatty acids ( MUFAs ) with carbohydrate from breakfast cereals with either a high or a low glycemic index ( GI ) affected blood glucose and lipids in subjects with type 2 diabetes . DESIGN Subjects with type 2 diabetes ( n = 91 ) were r and omly assigned to receive approximately 10 % of energy from a low-GI breakfast cereal , a high-GI cereal , or oil or margarine containing MUFA for 6 mo . Eating breakfast cereal was prohibited for subjects in the MUFA group . RESULTS Seventy-two subjects completed the trial . The subjects who received cereals consumed approximately 10 % more energy from carbohydrate than did the subjects in the MUFA group . Changes in glycated hemoglobin , body weight , and fasting cholesterol and triacylglycerol did not differ significantly among groups . HDL cholesterol increased by approximately 10 % in the MUFA group compared with subjects who consumed either high- or low-GI cereals ( P = 0.002 ) . The ratio of total to HDL cholesterol was higher in the subjects who consumed the high-GI cereal than in the MUFA group at 3 mo but not at 6 mo ( diet x time interaction , P = 0.041 ) . During 8-h metabolic profiles , mean plasma insulin was higher and mean free fatty acids were lower in the 2 cereal groups than in the MUFA group ( P < 0.05 ) . CONCLUSIONS A 10 % increase in carbohydrate intake associated with breakfast cereal consumption had no deleterious effects on glycemic control or blood lipids over 6 mo in subjects with type 2 diabetes . The increase in plasma insulin and the reduction in free fatty acids associated with higher carbohydrate intake may reduce the rate of progression of diabetes Background / Aims : To evaluate the metabolic effects of meals with varying glycemic index ( GI ) . Methods : We measured the glucose , insulin and leptin responses to two contrasting breakfast cereals in a group of 10 young healthy volunteers .  Meals were provided on two separate occasions in r and om order after a 12-hour overnight fast , and consisted of 50 g of available carbohydrate from either Corn Flakes ( Kellogg ’s ) , or Fiber One ® ( General Mills ) . Blood sample s were obtained at rest , and 30 , 60 , 90 and 120 min after eating . The GI was calculated from the glucose response to the test meal normalized against a 50 g oral glucose load . Results : The GI for Corn Flakes was 125 ± 17 units and 49 ± 8 units for Fiber One ® . These meals were classified as high GI and low GI , respectively , and were significantly different from each other ( p < 0.0003 ) . The area under the insulin response curve ( AUC ) following the low glycemic meal was significantly attenuated compared to the high glycemic meal ( 14,064 ± 2,694 vs. 6,828 ± 1,182 pmol/l·min , p < 0.02 ) . The leptin AUC revealed that circulating leptin was suppressed by the high glycemic meal compared to the low ( 3.1 ± 1.5 vs. 9.6 ± 3.6 ng/ml·min , p < 0.04 ) . Conclusions : Lower insulin and higher leptin suggests that low glycemic meals promote a postpr and ial metabolic milieu that is favorable for reduced food consumption ; this may be advantageous in the control of obesity and related disorders including insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes AIM To obtain an overall quantitative estimate of the association between pregnancy and gingival inflammation . MATERIAL AND METHODS Medline and EMBASE data bases were search ed through August 2011 . Prospect i ve cohort or cross-sectional studies assessing the effect of pregnancy on gingival inflammation evaluated by the gingival index ( GI ) and /or bleeding on probing were included . Meta-analyses were performed if possible . RESULTS Forty-four articles representing 33 studies ( 14 cohort and 19 cross-sectional ) were included . Meta-analyses , performed whenever possible , revealed ( 1 ) a significantly lower GI in pregnant women in the first term compared with those in their second or third term of pregnancy ; ( 2 ) a lower mean GI score in post-partum women compared with women in their second [ WMD = 0.143 ; 95 % CI ( 0.031 ; 0.255 ) ; p = 0.012 ] or third term [ WMD = 0.256 ; 95 % CI ( 0.151 ; 0.360 ) ; p < 0.001 ] of pregnancy , when considering cohort studies ; ( 3 ) Non-pregnant women had lower mean GI values than women in their second or third term of pregnancy . Small changes in plaque levels were reported . CONCLUSION Despite the limited number of studies included in the meta-analyses , the present systematic review confirms the existence of a significant increase in GI throughout pregnancy and between pregnant versus post-partum or non-pregnant women , without a concomitant increase in plaque levels Background A low glycemic index ( GI ) diet is beneficial for glucose control in patients with diabetes mellitus . This study aim ed to investigate the influence of a low-GI diet on postpr and ial glucose levels in women with gestational diabetes mellitus ( GDM ) . Methods Pregnant women with GDM were r and omized to receive a normal diabetic control diet or a low-GI staple diet for 5 days . A low-GI staple food was used to replace rice in lunch and dinner for the low-GI staple diet group , whereas the total energy and carbohydrate levels remained equal in both groups . Fasting and postpr and ial glucose levels were determined daily . Results A total of 140 pregnant women with GDM were included in the study , including 66 in the low-GI staple diet group and 74 in the normal diabetic diet control group . No differences existed in baseline characteristics between the 2 groups ( all P > 0.05 ) . After dietary intervention , glucose levels were significantly reduced in the low-GI staple diet group ( all P < 0.01 ) and the control group ( all P < 0.008 ) . Postintervention glucose values after breakfast , lunch , and dinner were significantly reduced in the treatment group compared with those in the control group ( all P < 0.05 ) . The percentage changes from baseline of all glucose values were significantly greater in the treatment group than in the control group ( all P < 0.05 ) . Conclusions A low-GI staple diet significantly reduces postpr and ial glucose levels in women with GDM Background The role of a low glycemic index ( GI ) diet in the management of adolescent obesity remains controversial . In this study , we aim to evaluate the impact of low GI diet versus a conventional Chinese diet on the body mass index ( BMI ) and other obesity indices of obese adolescents . Methods Obese adolescents aged 15–18 years were identified from population -recruited , territory-wide surveys . Obesity was defined as BMI ≥95th percentile of Hong Kong local age- and sex-specific references . Eligible subjects were r and omized to either an intervention with low GI diet ( consisting of 45 - 50 % carbohydrate , 30 - 35 % fat and 15 - 20 % protein ) or conventional Chinese diet as control ( consisting of 55 - 60 % carbohydrate , 25 - 30 % fat and 10 - 15 % protein ) . We used r and om intercept mixed effects model to compare the differential changes across the time points from baseline to month 6 between the 2 groups . Results 104 obese adolescents were recruited ( 52 in low GI group and 52 in control group ; 43.3 % boys ) . Mean age was 16.7 ± 1.0 years and 16.8 ±1.0 years in low GI and control group respectively . 58.7 % subjects completed the study at 6 months ( 65.4 % in low GI group and 51.9 % in control group ) . After adjustment for age and sex , subjects in the low GI group had a significantly greater reduction in obesity indices including BMI , body weight and waist circumference ( WC ) compared to subjects in the control group ( all p < 0.05 ) . After further adjustment for physical activity levels , WC was found to be significantly lower in the low GI group compared to the conventional group ( p = 0.018 ) . Conclusion Low GI diet in the context of a comprehensive lifestyle modification program may be an alternative to conventional diet in the management of obese adolescents . Trial registration number Clinical Trials.gov Ref . No : Dietary therapy is the mainstay of treatment for diabetes . This study examined the effect of a low glycemic index ( GI ) multi-nutrient supplement , consumed in place of breakfast , on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus ( T2DM ) . A total of 71 participants were r and omized at a 2:1 ratio into either a breakfast replacement group or a normal breakfast group for a 12-week interventional study . The primary outcome measure was change in hemoglobin A1c ( HbA1c ) . Nutrition status and somatometry were studied as secondary outcomes . The breakfast replacement group displayed a −0.2 % absolute reduction in HbA1c ( 95 % CI ( confidence interval ) , −0.38 % to −0.07 % , p = 0.004 ) , while the HbA1c of the control group increased 0.3 % ( 95 % CI , 0.1 % to 0.5 % , p = 0.005 ) . The baseline Mini Nutritional Assessment score for both groups was 26.0 and no significant changes occurred following intervention . However , there was a statistically significant difference in body mass index between the treatment and control groups ( p = 0.032 ) due to the weight gain in the control group ( increased 0.5 kg , 95 % CI was 0.2 to 0.9 , p = 0.007 ) . These data suggest that breakfast replacement with a low GI multi-nutrient supplement can improve glycemic and weight control in T2DM BACKGROUND Reducing the glycemic load ( GL ) is considered beneficial for managing insulin resistance . The GL can be reduced either by reducing carbohydrate intake or by reducing the glycemic index ( GI ) . OBJECTIVE We studied whether these 2 dietary maneuvers have the same long-term effects on postpr and ial plasma glucose , insulin , triacylglycerol , and free fatty acid ( FFA ) concentrations in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance ( IGT ) . DESIGN Thirty-four subjects with IGT were r and omly assigned to high-carbohydrate , high-GI ( high-GI ) ; high-carbohydrate , low-GI ( low-GI ) ; and low-carbohydrate , high-monounsaturated fatty acid ( MUFA ) diets for 4 mo . Plasma glucose , insulin , and FFAs were measured from 0800 to 1600 at baseline in response to high-GI meals ( 60 % carbohydrate , GI = 61 , GL = 63 ) and after 4 mo in response to meals representative of the study diet . RESULTS Carbohydrate intake ( % of energy ) , GI , and GL in the high-GI , low-GI , and MUFA groups ( breakfast and lunch meals combined ) , respectively , were 60 % , 61 , and 63 ; 60 % , 53 , and 55 ; and 49 % , 61 , and 52 . Compared with the change after 4 mo of the high-GI diet , both the low-GI and MUFA diets reduced 0 - 8-h mean plasma glucose concentrations by 0.35 mmol/L ( P < 0.05 ) . Mean plasma insulin was approximately 20 % higher ( P < 0.05 ) and FFAs approximately 12 % lower ( P < 0.05 ) after the low-GI diet than after the high-GI diet , with no significant effect of MUFA . Changes in 0 - 8-h mean plasma triacylglycerols in the 3 treatment groups differed significantly : -0.14 , 0.04 , and 0.18 mmol/L , respectively , with the high-GI , MUFA , and low-GI diets . CONCLUSIONS In subjects with IGT , reducing the GI of the diet for 4 mo reduced postpr and ial plasma glucose by the same amount as did reducing carbohydrate intake . The 2 dietary maneuvers had different effects on postpr and ial plasma insulin , triacylglycerols , and FFAs The applicability of the glycaemic index ( GI ) in the context of mixed meals and diets is still debatable . The objective of the present study was to investigate the predictability of measured GI in composite breakfast meals when calculated from table values , and to develop prediction equations using meal components . Furthermore , we aim ed to study the relationship between GI and insulinaemic index ( II ) . The study was a r and omised cross-over meal test including twenty-eight healthy young men . Thirteen breakfast meals and a reference meal were tested . All meals contained 50 g available carbohydrate , but differed considerably in energy and macronutrient composition . Venous blood was sample d for 2 h and analysed for glucose and insulin . Prediction equations were made by regression analysis . No association was found between predicted and measured GI . The meal content of energy and fat was inversely associated with GI ( R(2 ) 0.93 and 0.88 , respectively ; P<0.001 ) . Carbohydrate content ( expressed as percentage of energy ) was positively related to GI ( R(2 ) 0.80 ; P<0.001 ) . Using multivariate analysis the GI of meals was best predicted by fat and protein contents ( R(2 ) 0.93 ; P<0.001 ) . There was no association between GI and II . In conclusion , the present results show that the GI of mixed meals calculated by table values does not predict the measured GI and furthermore that carbohydrates do not play the most important role for GI in mixed breakfast meals . Our prediction models show that the GI of mixed meals is more strongly correlated either with fat and protein content , or with energy content , than with carbohydrate content alone . Furthermore , GI was not correlated with II Muthayya , S. , T. Thomas , K. Srinivasan , K. Rao , A. V. Kurpad , J.-W. Van Klinken , G. Owen and E.A. de Bruin : Consumption of a mid-morning snack improves memory but not attention in school children . Physiol Behav 00(0 ) 000 - 000 , 2006.--This study aim ed to determine whether consumption of a mid-morning snack with appropriate energy compensation through a smaller breakfast or lunch , result ed in improved cognitive performance of 7 - 9 year old children with a low and high socioeconomic status ( LSES and HSES , n=35 and 34 respectively ) . The children were each r and omly assigned to three iso-caloric dietary interventions : control ( st and ard breakfast , no snack and st and ard lunch ) , intervention A ( small breakfast , snack , and st and ard lunch ) and intervention B ( st and ard breakfast , snack , and small lunch ) , using a cross-over design . The children were tested on three different days , each one week apart . Computerised tests of cognitive performance , consisting of memory , sustained attention and psychomotor speed , were performed during four sessions , i.e. , prior to breakfast , after breakfast , after a mid-morning snack and after lunch . Having a mid-morning snack result ed in a smaller decline in immediate and delayed memory in LSES but not in HSES children . Having a snack did not influence sustained attention and psychomotor speed in either LSES or HSES children . This study shows that a more evenly distributed energy intake throughout the morning by consuming a mid-morning snack improves memory performance in school-age LSES children even when the total amount of energy consumed during the morning is not altered
In summary , GI breakfasts do not affect cognitive domains in children and adolescents
This systematic review and meta- analysis aims to compare the effect of High-Glycemic Index ( GI ) versus Low-GI breakfasts on cognitive functions , including memory and attention , of children and adolescents .