Guidance hypothesis with verbal feedback in learning a palpation skill. Qualitative and quantitative knowledge of results: effects on motor learning. Effect of internal versus external focus of attention on implicit motor learning in children with developmental coordination disorder. Motor Learning in Children: Feedback Effects on Skill Acquisition Effects of physical guidance and knowledge of results on motor learning: support for the guidance hypothesis. Time rather than sleep appears to enhance off-line learning and transfer of learning of an implicit continuous task Evidence for motor learning in Parkinson's disease: Acquisition, automaticity and retention of cued gait performance after training with external rhythmical cues Motor learning, retention and transfer after virtual-reality-based training in Parkinson's disease--effect of motor and cognitive demands of games: a longitudinal, controlled clinical study. Effects of Cognitive Processes and Task Complexity on Acquisition, Retention, and Transfer of Motor Skills Practice Schedule and Acquisition, Retention, and Transfer of a Throwing Task in 6-YR.-Old Children Variable training does not lead to better motor learning compared to repetitive training in children with and without DCD when exposed to active video games. From novice to no know-how: A longitudinal study of implicit motor learning Continuous Concurrent Feedback Degrades Skill Learning: Implications for Training and Simulation Motor Learning and the Use of Videotape Feedback After Stroke Effectiveness of knowledge of result and knowledge of performance in the learning of a skilled motor activity by healthy young adults How much feedback is necessary for learning to suture? Differential effects of task complexity on contextual interference in a drawing task. Motor learning following unilateral stroke. Acute exercise improves motor memory: Exploring potential biomarkers Feedback and motor skill acquisition using a haptic dental simulator A Single Bout of Exercise Improves Motor Memory Contextual interference effect on perceptual-cognitive skills training. Effectiveness of Two Forms of Feedback on Training of a Joint Mobilization Skill by Using a Joint Translation Simulator
OBJECTIVE To investigate whether a force application of a novel motor skill was simple or complex and to determine the appropriate level of feedback during training . The objective was to determine the effects of various amounts of knowledge of results ( KR ) on learning a novel skill that is frequently taught in chiropractic for the assessment of vertebral motor unit dysfunction . METHODS Thirty-five active subjects were taught the novel skill of spring testing to a particular force range through 9 or 10 teaching sessions over a 2-week period ( a school holiday limited some to only 9 sessions ) . To determine the particular force range , an initial phase of the study involved a licensed and practicing clinician performing motion palpation spring testing of the thoracic spine of a prone subject . The data from a total of 47 pushes throughout the thoracic spine were recorded , and the mean force and st and ard deviation were calculated . The second phase of the study used the obtained mean and st and ard deviation for teaching the force of prone thoracic spine motion palpation to 35 active subjects by administering spring testing to 35 passive subjects . The active subjects were r and omly divided into 4 groups , with each receiving a varying amount of verbal feedback to move toward the target force of their learned skill . Each passive subject was laid prone on an instrumented adjusting table . Group 1 received the least amount of feedback while learning the novel skill . Groups 2 and 3 received more frequent , intermittent feedback while learning the skill , and group 4 received constant , frequent feedback during each of the 10 teaching sessions . All subjects returned within 2 weeks for 2 retention trials to determine the efficacy of the learned skill . RESULTS The mean force determined was 143 N with a st and ard deviation of 14 N. Each subject was taught spring testing within this target range . The 2 final retention trials showed group 3 to have demonstrated the most targeted retention of the learned motor skill . These subjects exhibited the closest force range to the target for the motor skill learned and fewer changes in st and ard deviation compared with their acquisition trials and thus the highest retention . Group 4 , receiving 100 % feedback , demonstrated the most accurate spring testing during the acquisition trials , but the subjects did not effectively demonstrate when compared on acquisition and retention trials . CONCLUSION The results of this study show data to be consistent with the guidance hypothesis in learning a novel motor skill . The constant KR feedback is beneficial for learning when used to reduce error during practice but detrimental when relied upon for retention and learning . These data suggest the necessity of using motor skill development learning theory in the teaching of chiropractic OBJECTIVE This study investigated the effects of qualitative and quantitative knowledge of results ( KR ) on the acquisition of a motor skill . It was hypothesized that there would be differences in performance during skill acquisition and retention , depending on the type of feedback given . Qualitative KR was in the form of verbal encouragement and quantitative KR was in the form of an algebraic number representing an error score . METHODS Seventy-seven adults were r and omly assigned to one of four feedback conditions , Quantitative , Qualitative , Quantitative and Qualitative , and no feedback ( Control ) .  Participants learned an isometric force production skill . Data were collected during skill acquisition and retention phases . Computer hardware and custom software were used to collect data and administer the feedback conditions of the independent variable . RESULTS There was a statistically significant difference in the Acquisition Phase for the main effect of Condition F(3,73 ) = 6.35 , p < .05 , and for Block F(9,657 ) = 2.07 , p < .05 , but there was no statistically significant Condition X Block interaction F(27,657 ) = 1.02 , p > .05 . Pair-wise comparisons revealed statistically significant differences between conditions containing qualitative feedback and conditions containing no qualitative feedback ( p < .05 ) . The main effect of condition was significant F(3,73 ) = 3.00 , p < .05 in the retention phase , however there were no significant pair-wise comparisons ( p > .05 ) . CONCLUSION The results of this study suggest that in a healthy adult population , qualitative feedback , by itself and when combined with quantitative feedback , result ed in superior skill acquisition , but not in the retention of that skill . The artificiality of the task along with differing modes of feedback ( audible versus visual ) are two potentially limiting factors to this study . Future research that controls for these factors may yield more definitive findings about the role that qualitative feedback has in improving motor performance and learning UNLABELLED Children with developmental coordination disorder ( DCD ) struggle to learn new motor skills . It is unknown whether children with DCD learn motor skills more effectively with an external focus of attention ( focusing on impact of movement on the environment ) or an internal focus of attention ( focusing on one 's body movements ) during implicit ( unconscious ) and explicit ( conscious ) motor learning . PURPOSE This paper aims to determine the trends of implicit motor learning in children with DCD , and how focus of attention influences motor learning in children with DCD in comparison with typically developing children . METHODS 25 children , aged 8 - 12 , with ( n=12 ) and without ( n=13 ) DCD were r and omly assigned to receive instructions that focused attention externally or internally while completing a computer tracking task during acquisition , retention , and transfer phases . The motor task involved tracking both repeated and r and om patterns , with the repeated pattern indicative of implicit learning . RESULTS Children with DCD scored lower on the motor task in all three phases of the study , demonstrating poorer implicit learning . Furthermore , graphical data showed that for the children with DCD , there was no apparent difference between internal and external focus of attention during retention and transfer , while there was an advantage to the external focus of attention group for typically developing children . CONCLUSION Children with DCD demonstrate less accuracy than typically developing children in learning a motor task . Also , the effect of focus of attention on motor performance is different in children with DCD versus their typically developing counterparts during the three phases of motor learning . IMPLICATION S Results may inform clinicians how to facilitate motor learning in children with DCD by incorporating explicit learning with either internal or external focus of attention within interventions Background and Purpose : Reduced feedback during motor skill practice benefits motor learning . However , it is unknown whether these findings can be applied to motor learning in children , given that children have different information-processing capabilities than adults . The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of different relative frequencies of feedback on skill acquisition in children compared with young adults . Subjects : The participants were 20 young adults and 20 children . Methods : All participants practice d 200 trials of a discrete arm movement with specific spatiotemporal parameters . Participants from each group ( adults and children ) were r and omly assigned to either a 100 % feedback group or a reduced ( 62 % faded ) feedback group . Learning was inferred from the performance on the delayed ( 24-hour ) retention and reacquisition tests . Results : All participants improved accuracy and consistency across practice trials . During practice , the adults performed with significantly less error than the children . Adults who practice d with reduced feedback performed with increased consistency during the retention test compared with those who practice d with 100 % feedback . In contrast , children who received reduced feedback during practice performed with less accuracy and consistency during the retention test than those who received 100 % feedback . However , when feedback was reintroduced during the reacquisition test , the children in the reduced feedback group were able to improve their performance comparable to those in the 100 % feedback group . Discussion and Conclusions : During motor learning , children use feedback in a manner different from that of adults . To optimize motor learning , children may require longer periods of practice , with feedback reduced more gradually , compared with young adults The guidance hypothesis ( Schmidt , 1991 ) predicts that the guiding properties of augmented feedback are beneficial for motor learning when used to reduce error , but detrimental when relied upon . Therefore , a heavily guiding form of feedback might be detrimental for learning . In addition , the guidance hypothesis predicts that practice with a high relative frequency of augmented feedback would be detrimental for learning . An experiment is described that crossed two forms of feedback with two levels of relative frequency . Subjects practice d movements to a target with either physical guidance or knowledge of results , and with either a high or faded relative frequency . The high frequency physical guidance condition result ed in the poorest retention , and both high frequency feedback conditions result ed in the least accuracy in transfer . These results provide support for the guidance hypothesis and suggest consideration of the combined effects on learning of the type and relative frequency of augmented feedback and acquisition-test conditions There is increasing evidence that sleep promotes off-line enhancement of a variety of explicitly learned motor tasks in young adults . However , whether sleep promotes off-line consolidation of implicitly learned motor tasks is still under question . Furthermore , the role of sleep in promoting transfer of learning remains unknown . This study examined the role of sleep in learning and transfer of learning of an implicit continuous motor task . Twenty-three neurologically intact individuals ( mean age 26.4 years ) were r and omly assigned to either a sleep group or a no-sleep group . The sleep group practice d a continuous tracking task in the evening and underwent retention and transfer testing the following morning , while the no-sleep group practice d the tracking task in the morning and underwent retention and transfer testing in the evening . The results show that in both the sleep and no-sleep groups , performance improved off-line without further practice for both the general skill and the sequence-specific skill . The results also indicate that sleep and time promote transfer of learning of both sequence-specific and general skill learning to a spatial and temporal variation of the motor task . These findings demonstrate that sleep does not play a critical role in promoting off-line learning and transfer of learning of an implicit continuous motor task People with Parkinson 's disease ( PD ) have difficulty learning new motor skills . Evidence suggests external stimuli ( cues ) may enhance learning ; however , this may be specific to cued rather than non-cued performance . We aim ed to test effects of cued training on motor learning in PD . We defined motor learning as acquisition ( single task ) , automaticity ( dual task ) and retention of single- and dual-task performance ( follow-up ) . 153 subjects with PD received 3 weeks cued gait training as part of a r and omised trial ( the RESCUE trial ) . We measured changes in  cued gait performance  with three external rhythmical cues ( ERC ) ( auditory , visual and somatosensory ) during single and dual tasks after training and 6 weeks follow-up . Gait was tested without cues to compare specificity of learning ( transfer ) . Subjects were ' on ' medication and were cued at preferred step frequency during assessment . Accelerometers recorded gait and walking speed , step length and step frequency were determined from raw data . Data were analysed with SAS using linear regression models . Walking speed and step length significantly increased with all cues after training during both single- and dual-task gait and these effects were retained . Training effects were not specific to cued gait and were observed in dual-task step length , and walking speed however was more limited in single-task non-cued gait . These results support the use of ERC to enhance motor learning in PD as defined by increased acquisition , automaticity and retention . They also highlight the potential for sustained improvement in walking and complex task performance OBJECTIVES To evaluate the learning , retention and transfer of performance improvements after Nintendo Wii Fit ™ training in patients with Parkinson 's disease and healthy elderly people . DESIGN Longitudinal , controlled clinical study . PARTICIPANTS Sixteen patients with early-stage Parkinson 's disease and 11 healthy elderly people . INTERVENTIONS Warm-up exercises and Wii Fit training that involved training motor ( shifts centre of gravity and step alternation ) and cognitive skills . A follow-up evaluative Wii Fit session was held 60 days after the end of training . Participants performed a functional reach test before and after training as a measure of learning transfer . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Learning and retention were determined based on the scores of 10 Wii Fit games over eight sessions . Transfer of learning was assessed after training using the functional reach test . RESULTS Patients with Parkinson 's disease showed no deficit in learning or retention on seven of the 10 games , despite showing poorer performance on five games compared with the healthy elderly group . Patients with Parkinson 's disease showed marked learning deficits on three other games , independent of poorer initial performance . This deficit appears to be associated with cognitive dem and s of the games which require decision-making , response inhibition , divided attention and working memory . Finally , patients with Parkinson 's disease were able to transfer motor ability trained on the games to a similar untrained task . CONCLUSIONS The ability of patients with Parkinson 's disease to learn , retain and transfer performance improvements after training on the Nintendo Wii Fit depends largely on the dem and s , particularly cognitive dem and s , of the games involved , reiterating the importance of game selection for rehabilitation purpose This experiment was design ed to investigate the effect of cognitive problem-solving operations ( termed context ual interference ) and complexity of tasks on the acquisition retention and transfer of motor skills .  Ninety-six children , ages 7.5–9.5 practised the task of throwing beanbags under either low context ual interference ( blocked practice ) , high context ual interference ( r and om practice ) or medium context ual interference ( combined practice ) . Half of the participants acquired a complex task and the other half a simple task . All participants performed 30 acquisition trials , 9 retention trials and 4 transfer trials . Results indicated that participants who practised in the blocked practice group did not differ in their performance whether they acquired complex or simple tasks . On the other h and , participants from the r and om and combined practice groups who acquired simple tasks performed better than those who acquired complex tasks . These findings support the hypothesis that there is a limit to the interference during practice that will benefit retention and transfer , thus creating the context ual interference effect . It seems that the complex-task condition combined with r and om or combined practice schedule increased the difficulty of acquisition , possibly impeding the cognitive processing during acquisition , thus impairing the learning process Earlier studies have raised questions about the usefulness of variable and r and om practice in learning motor tasks so this study was design ed to investigate the effects of context ual interference in young children , and specifically to evaluate the effectiveness of variable or r and om practice structure in 6-yr.-old boys and girls . Participants on a variable practice schedule showed better performances than those on a blocked schedule . The differences between the two groups were significant in the acquisition , retention , and transfer phases . These results support the hypothesis that context ual interference enhances skill learning . Because the study involved groups of young children in the setting of their normally scheduled physical education class , the practical applications of the results are evident BACKGROUND Little is known about the influence of practice schedules on motor learning and skills transfer in children with and without developmental coordination disorder ( DCD ) . Underst and ing how practice schedules affect motor learning is necessary for motor skills development and rehabilitation . AIMS The study investigated whether active video games ( exergames ) training delivered under variable practice led to better learning and transfer than repetitive practice . METHODS AND PROCEDURES 111 children aged 6 - 10 years ( M=8.0 , SD=1.0 ) with no active exergaming experience were r and omized to receive exergames training delivered under variable ( Variable Game Group ( VGG ) , n=56 ) or repetitive practice schedule ( Repetitive Game Group ( RGG ) , n=55 ) . Half the participants were identified as DCD using the DSM-5 criteria , while the rest were typically developing ( TD ) , age-matched children . Both groups participated in two 20min sessions per week for 5 weeks . OUTCOMES AND RESULTS Both participant groups ( TD and DCD ) improved equally well on game performance . There was no significant difference in positive transfer to balance tasks between practice schedules ( Repetitive and Variable ) and participant groups ( TD and DCD ) . CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATION S Children with and without DCD learn balance skills quite well when exposed to exergames . Gains in learning and transfer are similar regardless of the form of practice schedule employed . WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS This is the first paper to compare the effect of practice schedules on learning in children with DCD and those with typical development . No differences in motor learning were found between repetitive and variable practice schedules . When children with and without DCD spend the same amount of time on exergames , they do not show any differences in acquisition of motor skills . Transfer of motor skills is similar in children with and without DCD regardless of differences in practice schedules The aim of this study was to ascertain whether the performances of implicit and explicit learners would converge over an extended period of learning . Participants practised a complex motor skill - golf putting - for 3000 trials , either with a concurrent secondary , tone-counting task ( implicit learning ) or without such a task ( explicit learning ) . The cognitive dem and s of the secondary task were predicted to prevent the accumulation of verbalizable rules about the motor task . The implicit group reported significantly fewer rules than the explicit group on subsequent verbal protocol s. The performance of the implicit group remained below that of the explicit group throughout the learning phase . However , no significant differences were found between groups during a delayed retention test . Additionally , for the participants in the explicit group only , a Reinvestment Scale score correlated positively with the number of rules accrued and negatively with overall putting performance during the learning phase . We use the results to argue against the excessive use of verbal instruction during skill acquisition , which might be unnecessary and ultimately might hamper performance under stressful conditions In two experiments we investigated the role of continuous concurrent visual feedback in the learning of discrete movement tasks . During practice the learner 's actions either were or were not displayed on-line during the action ; in both conditions the participant received kinematic feedback about errors afterward . Learning was evaluated in retention tests on the following day . We separated ( a ) errors in the fundamental spatial-temporal pattern controlled by the generalized motor program from ( b ) errors in scaling controlled by parameterization processes . During practice concurrent feedback improved parameterization but tended to decrease program stability . Based on retention tests , earlier practice with continuous feedback generally interfered with the learning of an accurate motor program and reduced the stability of time parameterization .  Continuous feedback during acquisition de grade s the learning of not only closed-loop processes in slower movements ( as has been found in earlier studies ) but also motor programs and their parameterization in more rapid tasks . Implication s for feedback in training and simulation are discussed Abstract Background : Efforts have been made to apply motor learning theories to the rehabilitation of individuals following stroke .  Motor learning poststroke has not been well investigated in the literature . This research attempted to fill the gap regarding motor learning applied to practice . Purpose : This two-group research study attempted to determine the effectiveness of an experimental therapy combining videotape feedback with occupational therapy compared to only occupational therapy in learning the motor skill of donning socks and shoes after stroke . Method : Ten participants were r and omly assigned to one of the two groups and all participants were videotaped during pretest and up to 10 treatment sessions aim ed at donning socks and shoes . Only one group viewed their videotape replay . The acquisition of donning socks and shoes was measured using the socks and shoes subtests of the Klein-Bell Activities of Daily Living Scale and their scores on the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure . Results : There was no significant difference between the two groups and both groups improved . However , the group that received videotape feedback thought they performed better and were more satisfied with their ability to don shoes , lending support for the use of videotape feedback poststroke to improve satisfaction with performance [ Purpose ] The acquisition of motor skills are fundamental to human life . There is a lack of research on whether knowledge of performance or knowledge of result as augmented feedback is more effective . The objective of this study was to compare the effectiveness of knowledge of result and knowledge of performance in the learning of a skilled motor activity by healthy young adults . [ Subjects and Methods ] A total of thirty healthy young adult males and females without any neurological or musculoskeletal impairment , between the age of 18–30 years were the subjects of the study . They were r and omly allocated to 2 groups : group 1 was given knowledge of result as feedback , and knowledge of performance was given as feedback to group 2 . Both the groups practice d the task of throwing a soft spongy ball for 6 days per week for 4 weeks , with 40 trials each day . The outcome measure used was the distance of the throw . [ Results ] The results were analyzed using the t-test . The mean distances thrown by both the groups showed highly significant improvements and throwing distance of group 2 showed better improvement than that of group 1 . [ Conclusion ] Both types of augmented feedback were effective at improving skilled motor activity , but the knowledge of performance group showed better improvement than the knowledge of result group Background Many laparoscopic simulation training systems exist and have been shown to transfer learning of surgical skills to the operating room . The manner in which the training is structured to maximize learning has not been examined . There are many aspects to the acquisition of laparoscopic skills during training , one of which is the availability of knowledge of results ( KR ) . Knowledge of results is information about the outcome of motor skill execution , usually provided to individuals at the end of the execution . The timing and nature of KR can affect how well people learn new motor skills . In addition , detailed instruction during learning can also affect skill acquisition . We studied the effects of KR and instruction on the learning curve of a suturing and knot-tying task . We hypothesized that KR was necessary for skill acquisition , and that detailed instruction would help trainees to learn to perform the task more correctly and reach a performance plateau earlier . In addition , the overall workload of a trainee during training would decrease as skills improved , especially when KR and coaching were provided . Methods Nine medical students with no previous laparoscopic surgical experience were r and omly and evenly divided into three groups with different KR conditions : ( 1 ) no KR , ( 2 ) KR , ( 3 ) KR + instruction . Each subject attended a training session for 1 h each day , 6 days a week for 4 consecutive weeks . Performance measures such as task time , smoothness of instrument , and path length were recorded for each trial . Workload was assessed using the NASA-TLX question naire . Results While KR was necessary for learning to suture , continual instruction had limited additional benefits . However , KR + instruction did reduce subjects ’ perceived overall workload . Conclusions Surgical training could be carried out effectively with only knowledge of results . These results have implication s for the staffing of surgical skills laboratories A large number of studies demonstrated the beneficial effects of context ual interference ( CI ) created by a r and om practice of different task variations during training on the retention and transfer of motor skills . Current interpretations of this phenomenon assume that r and om practice engages the subjects in deep and elaborate processing of movement related information , whereas blocked practice results in more superficial processing leading to poorer performance on later retention and transfer tests . According to this line of interpretation , we hypothesised that the complexity of the task to be learned could modulate the effects of CI . If the task is sufficiently complex , it could force the subjects to rely on such elaborate processing , and the beneficial effects of the intertask interference created by r and om practice could be obscured in that case . We tested this hypothesis by analysing the effects of practice schedule ( r and om vs. blocked ) , on the acquisition , retention and transfer of learning in a drawing task where subjects had to reproduce accurately , without visual control , geometrical patterns presented on a video screen , as a function of task complexity defined by the number of segments ( two , three or four ) of each pattern . The results indicated a clear beneficial effect of r and om over blocked practice on delayed retention and transfer . However , this CI effect was only observed in subjects who learned the simplest movements , and was not observed in subjects who practised the more complex task . These results are discussed in terms of intratask interference created by the planning of multiple movements and the processing of knowledge of results ( KR ) when the number of drawing movements is increased . These findings support the assumption that the level of cognitive effort in which the subjects are engaged during training is a main factor influencing long-term retention and transfer of motor skills OBJECTIVE To determine the effect of different motor learning schedules on stroke patients '  rate of acquisition and retention of a functional movement sequence using the hemiparetic upper limb . DESIGN R and omized controlled group study using a retention design with two retention trials . SETTING Outpatient neurorehabilitation clinic . PATIENTS Twenty-four patients with chronic hemiparesis secondary to a single unilateral cerebral stroke without evidence of severe cognitive or language impairment . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE The primary hypothesis was that hemiparetic motor learning that occurred under conditions of context ual interference ( ie , r and om practice ) would be retained better than learning that occurred under conditions of repetitive drill ( blocked practice ) . RESULTS A significant difference was found among the three groups ( ie , r and om- practice , blocked- practice , control ) on both the first retention measure ( chi 2 = 13.50 , p < .01 ) and the second retention measure ( chi 2 = 12.59 , p < .01 ) . More importantly , a significant difference was found between the r and om- practice and blocked- practice groups on both the first retention measure ( U = 68.5 , p < .01 ) and the second retention measure ( U = 62.0 , p = .05 ) . CONCLUSIONS Findings provide empirical evidence to support the contention that r and om practice is more effective than blocked practice , with respect to retention over time , when hemiparetic stroke patients attempt to learn functional motor skills We have recently shown that a single bout of acute cardiovascular exercise improves motor skill learning through an optimization of long-term motor memory . Here we exp and this previous finding , to explore potential exercise-related biomarkers and their association with measures of motor memory and skill acquisition .  Thirty-two healthy young male subjects were r and omly allocated into either an exercise or control group . Following either an intense bout of cycling or rest subjects practice d a visuomotor tracking task .  Motor skill acquisition was assessed during practice and retention 1 h , 24 h and 7 days after practice . Plasma levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) , vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) , insulin-like growth factor ( IGF-1 ) , epinephrine , norepinephrine , dopamine and lactate were analyzed at baseline , immediately after exercise or rest and during motor practice . The exercise group showed significantly better skill retention 24h and 7 days after acquisition . The concentration of all blood compounds increased significantly immediately after exercise and remained significantly elevated for 15 min following exercise except for BDNF and VEGF . Higher concentrations of norepinephrine and lactate immediately after exercise were associated with better acquisition . Higher concentrations of BDNF correlated with better retention 1 h and 7 days after practice . Similarly , higher concentrations of norepinephrine were associated with better retention 7 days after practice whereas lactate correlated with better retention 1h as well as 24 h and 7 days after practice . Thus , improvements in motor skill acquisition and retention induced by acute cardiovascular exercise are associated with increased concentrations of biomarkers involved in memory and learning processes . More mechanistic studies are required to eluci date the specific role of each biomarker in the formation of motor memory AIM To investigate the effect of qualitatively different types of pedagogical feedback ( FB ) on the training , transfer and retention of basic manual dexterity dental skills using a virtual reality ( VR ) haptic dental simulator . METHODS Sixty-three participants ( M = 22.7 years ; SD = 3.4 years ) , with no previous dental training , were r and omly allocated to one of three groups ( n = 21 each ) . Group 1 received device-only feedback during the training phase , that is the visual display of the simulator ( DFB ) ; Group 2 received verbal feedback from a qualified dental instructor ( IFB ) ; and Group 3 received a combination of instructor and device feedback ( IDFB ) . Participants completed four tasks during which feedback was given according to group allocation as well as two skills transfer tests . Skill retention was examined immediately after training , at 1 week and at 1 month post-test . RESULTS Statistically significant differences were found between the groups in overall performance ( P < 0.001 ) and error ( P = 0.006 ) . Post hoc comparisons revealed the IDFB group produced substantially better performance and fewer errors in comparison with DFB and IFB training . This difference translated to improved performance in skill retention and generalisation of knowledge to novel tasks . CONCLUSION These data indicate that the acquisition and retention of basic dental motor skills in novice trainees is best optimised through a combination of instructor and visual display (VR)-driven feedback . The results have implication s for the utility and implementation of VR haptic technology in dental education Regular physical activity has a positive impact on cognition and brain function . Here we investigated if a single bout of exercise can improve motor memory and motor skill learning . We also explored if the timing of the exercise bout in relation to the timing of practice has any impact on the acquisition and retention of a motor skill .  Forty-eight young subjects were r and omly allocated into three groups , which practice d a visuomotor accuracy-tracking task either before or after a bout of intense cycling or after rest .  Motor skill acquisition was assessed during practice and retention was measured 1 hour , 24 hours and 7 days after practice . Differences among groups in the rate of motor skill acquisition were not significant . In contrast , both exercise groups showed a significantly better retention of the motor skill 24 hours and 7 days after practice . Furthermore , compared to the subjects that exercised before practice , the subjects that exercised after practice showed a better retention of the motor skill 7 days after practice . These findings indicate that one bout of intense exercise performed immediately before or after practicing a motor task is sufficient to improve the long-term retention of a motor skill . The positive effects of acute exercise on motor memory are maximized when exercise is performed immediately after practice , during the early stages of memory consolidation . Thus , the timing of exercise in relation to practice is possibly an important factor regulating the effects of acute exercise on long-term motor memory INTRODUCTION Context ual interference ( CI ) effect predicts that a r and om order of practice for multiple skills is superior for learning compared to a blocked order . We report a novel attempt to examine the CI effect during acquisition and transfer of anticipatory judgments from simulation training to an applied sport situation . METHOD Participants were required to anticipate tennis shots under either a r and om practice schedule or a blocked practice schedule .  Response accuracy was recorded for both groups in pretest , during acquisition , and on a 7-d retention test . Transfer of learning was assessed through a field-based tennis protocol that attempted to assess performance in an applied sport setting . RESULTS The r and om practice group had significantly higher response accuracy scores on the 7-d laboratory retention test compared to the blocked group . Moreover , during the transfer of anticipatory judgments to an applied sport situation , the decision times of the r and om practice group were significantly lower compared to the blocked group . CONCLUSION The CI effect extends to the training of anticipatory judgments through simulation techniques . Furthermore , we demonstrate for the first time that the CI effect increases transfer of learning from simulation training to an applied sport task , highlighting the importance of using appropriate practice schedules during simulation training Background and Purpose Joint mobilization is a complicated task to learn and to teach and is characterized by great intersubject variability . This study 's purpose was to investigate whether quantitatively augmented feedback could enhance the learning of joint mobilization and , more specifically , to compare the effects of training with concurrent or terminal feedback by using a joint translation simulator ( JTS ) . Subjects Thirty-six undergraduate physical therapist students were r and omly assigned to control ( no feedback ) , concurrent feedback , and terminal feedback groups . Methods The JTS was design ed to simulate tissue resistance based on load-displacement relationships of glenohumeral joint specimens . Subjects applied specific mobilization grade s of force on the JTS while quantitative feedback was given to the feedback groups either during a trial ( ie , concurrent feedback ) or after a trial ( ie , terminal feedback ) . The skill acquisition phase lasted a total of 40 minutes , and a total of 75 repetitions were performed for each grade of each joint model . Pretest and no-feedback retention tests were conducted . Results During acquisition and retention , both feedback groups performed more accurately than did the control group . No obviously superior performance was shown by the terminal feedback group compared with concurrent feedback group during retention testing . Discussion and Conclusion Subjects who trained with augmented feedback had less variability , and thus more consistency , than the control group subjects who received no feedback . Augmented feedback provides the student with a reference force and the status of his or her performance . The effectiveness of the JTS feedback compared with no feedback was clearly demonstrated . Skill acquisition in mobilization can be enhanced by either concurrent or terminal feedback
VAF should be considered in the rehabilitation of lower extremity musculoskeletal dysfunctions .
However , it can not be unequivocally confirmed that VAF is effective in this population , owing to study heterogeneity and a lack of high- quality evidence .
Nevertheless , positive effects on lower extremity biomechanics and postural control have been identified .
BACKGROUND Verbal augmented feedback ( VAF ) is commonly used in physiotherapy rehabilitation of individuals with lower extremity musculoskeletal dysfunction or to induce motor learning for injury prevention .
Its effectiveness for acquisition , retention and transfer of learning of new skills in this population is unknown .
OBJECTIVES First , to investigate the effect of VAF for rehabilitation and prevention of lower extremity musculoskeletal dysfunction .
Second , to determine its effect on motor learning and the stages of acquisition , retention and transfer in this population .