1100 function was used and transect size was entered as an offset-variable to account for the smaller transect sizes in some kraal sites. A Kruskal–Wallis Chi-square test was used to test for impala dung pile number differences between bush-cleared and control sites. A logistic regression analysis was used to test whether fertilizer (4 levels) and herbivore exclusion treatments (open vs protected) affected C. mopane seedling survival patterns in a full factorial model. In a control plot and a 1.2 g N m-2 fertilizer treatment plot, four and ﬁve seed- lings, respectively, were dug out within weeks after transplantation, presumably by honey badgers Mellivora capensis. These data were omitted from the analysis. All statistical analyses were done in SPSS (v. 15). Results Soil characteristics All sites had sandy top soils (Table 1). There was no dif- ference in percentages sand (t8 = -1.551, P [ 0.05) between controls and kraals (87 vs 92%; Table 1). The concentrations of inorganic N, extractable P, Ca, K and Mg were on average higher in kraal top soils compared to control top soils, whereas Na and Al concentrations were not statistically different (Table 1). The mean pH of kraal soils was higher than the mean pH of control soils. Dif- ferences in the net nitrogen mineralization rate between Oecologia (2011) 165:1095–1107 kraal and control sites were not signiﬁcant (Table 1). However, two sites received less than 38 mm rain during February (&incubation period), compared to 80–121 mm rain received at the remaining sites (n = 6). If the two dry sites are omitted, the net N mineralization rates in kraal sites were on average threefold higher than in control sites (Table 1). These results are consistent with those of the bioassay, as maize grown in kraal soils produced on average 9.5 g per pot, which is signiﬁcantly more than the 3.9 g per pot of plants grown in control soils (Table 1). Plant quality and quantity N, P and K concentrations in U. mosambicensis leaves were higher in kraal sites compared to control sites (Table 2). Differences in Ca, Mg and Na concentrations were not signiﬁcant. The woody density of kraal sites was much lower than the density of control sites (Z = -3.684, P \ 0.001). Only three woody plants were encountered in the nine kraal transects, which contrasts sharply with the median density of 1,700 plants ha-1 in controls (range, 200–3,000 plants ha-1). However, the aboveground herbaceous biomass on kraal sites was not signiﬁcantly different from the control site biomass (Table 2). Herbivore use The mean herbaceous biomass inside exclosures after 8 weeks was 1,108 kg DM ha-1, which is signiﬁcantly Table 1 A comparison of the textural and chemical properties of the topsoil (0–15 cm depth) of abandoned kraal sites with nearby controls sites in a semi arid savanna in South Africa n 18 16 16 12 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 16 Unit % mg kg-1 mg N kg-1 day-1 mg N kg-1 day-1 mg kg-1 mg kg-1 mg kg-1 mg kg-1 mg kg-1 mg kg-1 mg kg-1 g pot-1 Mean (95% CL) Control Kraal 87 (80–92) 92 (85–97) 2.6 (0.7–5.7) 0.21 (0.05–0.37) 0.18 (-0.02–0.38) 5.6 (2.2–10.5) 847 (616–1,115) 226 (143–328) 290 (217–374) 11 (7–15) 7.5 (7.1–8.0) 6.3 (6.2–6.4) 3.9 (2.7–5.8) 8.1 (2.5–16.9) 0.33 (-0.08–0.73) 0.55 (0.26–0.84) 144.9 (79.2–230.2) 2,794 (1,935–3,810) 498 (365–651) 643 (462–854) 16 (10–26) 7.9 (6.4–9.5) 7.6 (7.3–7.9) 9.5 (6.7–13.5) P ns * ns * ** ** * ** ns ns *** * Characteristic Texture Sand Chemical Inorganic N N mineralization (all sites) N mineralization (dry sites excluded) P Ca Mg K Na Al pH (water) Bio-assay (Zea mays) 123 Inorganic N refers to the total extractable nitrate and ammonium measured at time zero. The results of a bioassay with standard maize are also indicated. Back transformed means and 95% conﬁdence limits are given Signiﬁcance levels *** P \ 0.001, ** P \ 0.01, * P \ 0.05, ns P C 0.05