Brochard L, Manchebo J, Wysocki M, et al. 1995. Noninvasive ventilation for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med, 333:817-22. [BTS] The COPD Guidelines Group of the Standards of Care Committee of the BTS. 1997. BTS guidelines for the management of chronic obstruc- tive pulmonary disease. Thorax, 52(Suppl 5):S1-28. Burge PS, Calverley PM, Jones PW, et al. 2000. Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled study of ﬂuticasone propionate in patients with moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: the ISOLDE trial. BMJ, 320:1297-1303. Burge PS, Calverley PM, Jones PW, et al. 2003. Prednisolone response in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: results from the ISOLDE study. Thorax, 58:654-8. Calverley PM. 2000. The future for tiotropium. Chest, 117(2 Suppl):67S- 69S. Calverley PM, Boonsawat W, Cseke Z, et al. 2003. Maintenance therapy with budesonide and formoterol in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J, 22:912-19. Calverley P, Pauwels R, Vestbo J, et al. 2003. Combined salmeterol and ﬂuticasone in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomised control trial. Lancet, 361:449-56. Casaburi R, Kukafka D, Cooper CB, et al. 2005. Improvement in exercise tolerance with the combination of tiotropium and pulmonary rehabilita- tion in patients with COPD. Chest, 127:809-17. Casaburi R, Mahler DA, Jones PW, et al. 2002. A long-term evaluation of once-daily inhaled tiotropium in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J, 19:217-24. Cazzola M, Matera MG, Santangelo G, et al. 1995. Salmeterol and formot- erol in partially reversible severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a dose-response study. Respir Med, 89:357-62. Celli BR. 1996. Current thoughts regarding treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Med Clin North Am, 80:589-609. Celli BR, McNee W. 2004. Standards for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with COPD: a summary of the ATS/ERS position paper. Eur Respir J, 23:932-46. Chrystyn H, Mulley BA, Peake MD. 1988. Dose response relation to oral theophylline in severe chronic obstructive airways disease. BMJ, 297:1506-10. COMBIVENT Inhalation Aerosol Study Group. 1994. In chronic obstruc- tive pulmonary disease, a combination of ipratropium and albuterol is more effective than either agent alone. An 85-day multicenter Trial. Chest, 105:1411-19. Compton CH, Gubb J, Nieman R, et al; International Study Group. 2001. Cilomilast, a selective phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor for treatment of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomised, dose-ranging study. Lancet, 358:265-70. Confalonieri M, Mainardi E, Della Porta R, et al. 1998. Inhaled corticoster- oids reduce neutrophilic bronchial inﬂammation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax, 53:583-5. Connors AF Jr, Dawson NV, Thomas C, et al. 1996. Outcomes following acute exacerbation of severe chronic obstructive lung disease. The SUPPORT investigators (Study to Understand Prognoses and Prefer- ences for Outcomes and Risks of Treatments). Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 154:959-67. Cooper CB, Davidson AC, Cameron IR. 1987. Aminophylline, respiratory muscle strength and exercise tolerance in chronic obstructive airway disease. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir, 23:15-22. Cotton MM, Bucknall CE, Dagg KD, et al. 2000. Early discharge for patients with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomized controlled trial. Thorax, 55:902-6. Cuvelier A, Muir JF, Benhamou D, et al. 2002. Dry powder ipratropium bromide is as safe and effective as metered-dose inhaler formulation: a cumulative dose-response study in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. Respir Care, 47:159-66. Davies L, Angus RM, Calverley PM. 1999. Oral corticosteroids in patients admitted to hospital with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a prospective randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 354:456-60. International Journal of COPD 2006:1(4) Pharmacological treatment of COPD Davies L, Wilkinson M, Bonner S, et al. 2000. “Hospital at home” versus hospital care in patients with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: prospective randomised controlled trial. BMJ, 321:1265-8. Decramer M, Rutten-van Molken M, Dekhuijzen PN, et al. 2005. Effects of N-acetylcysteine on outcomes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (Bronchitis Randomized on NAC Cost-Utility Study, BRONCUS): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet, 365:1552-60. Dransﬁeld MT, Bailey WC. 2004. Fluticasone propionate/salmeterol for the treatment of chronic-obstructive pulmonary disease. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 5:1815-26. Edelson JD, Compton C, Nieman R, et al. 2001. Cilomilast Ariﬂo a potent, selective phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor for treatment of patient with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: results of 6-month trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 163:A771. Emerman CL, Connors AF, Lukens TW, et al. 1990. Theophylline concentrations in patients with acute exacerbations of COPD. Am J Emerg Med, 8:289-92. Fan VS, Bryson CL, Curtis JR, et al. 2003. Inhaled corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and risk of death and hospitalisation: time-dependent analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 168:1488-94. Feoktistov I, Polosa R, Holgate ST, et al. 1998. Adenosine A2B recep- tors: a novel therapeutic target in asthma? Trends Pharmacol Sci, 19:148-53. Fernandez A, Munoz J, de la Calle B, et al. 1994. Comparison of one versus two bronchodilators in ventilated COPD patients. Intensive Care Med, 20:199-202. Gamble E, Grootendorst DC, Brightling CE, et al. 2003. Anti-inﬂammatory effects of the phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor cilomilast (Ariﬂo) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 168:976-82. [GICOPD] Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. 2001. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Publication number 2701. Grandjean EM, Berthet P, Ruffmann R, et al. 2000. Efﬁcacy and oral long-term N-acetylcysteine in chronic bronchopulmonary disease: a meta-analysis of published double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials. Clin Ther, 22:209-21. Gravil JH, Al-Rawas OA, Cotton MM, et al. 1998. Home treatment of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease by an acute respiratory assessment service. Lancet, 351:1853-5. Gross NJ, Petty TL, Friedman M, et al. 1989. Dose response to ipratropium as a nebulized solution in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A three-center study. Am Rev Respir Dis, 139:1188-91. Hak E, van Essen GA, Buskens E, et al. 1998. Is immunising all patients with chronic lung disease in the community against inﬂuenza cost effective? Evidence from a general practice based clinical prospective cohort study in Utrecht, The Netherlands. J Epidemiol Community Health, 52:120-5. Hatzelmann A, Schudt C. 2001. Anti-inﬂammatory and immunomodulatory potential of the novel PDE4 inhibitor roﬂumilast in vitro. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 297:267-79. Hay JG, Stone P, Carter J, et al. 1992. Bronchodilator reversibility, exercise performance and breathlessness in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J, 5:659-64. Hughes JM, Seale JP, Temple DM. 1983. Effect of fenoterol on immunological release of leukotrienes and histamine from human lung in vitro: selective antagonism by beta-adrenoceptor antagonists. Eur J Pharmacol, 95:239-45. Ikeda A, Nishimura K, Koyama H, et al. 1999. Comparison of the bronchodilator effects of salbutamol delivered via a metered-dose in- haler with spacer, a dry-powder inhaler, and a jet nebulizer in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respiration, 66:119-23. Johnson M, Coleman RA. 1995. Mechanisms of action of β2 adrenoceptor agonists. In: Busse WW, Holgate ST (ed). Asthma and rhinitis. Cambridge: Balckwell Sci Pub, 1278-95. 421