Gilmour et al. and the development of asthma. In parallel, toxicologic studies can identify the role that particular chemicals such as diesel exhaust components and ozone play in the develop- ment and exacerbation of disease. In the short term such studies may help to determine how individuals can be protected, whereas in the long term they may provide useful informa- tion to establish limits for release of these chemicals to safe acceptable levels. REFERENCES AAAAI. 2000. The Allergy Report. Milwaukee, WI:American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology. Abbey DE, Hwang BL, Burchette RJ, Vancuren T, Mills PK. 1995. Estimated long-term ambient concentrations of PM10 and development of respiratory symptoms in a nonsmoking population. Arch Environ Health 50(2):139–152. Alsberg T, Stenberg U, Westernholm R. 1985. Chemical and bio- logical characterization of organic material from gasoline exhaust particles. Environ Sci Technol 19:43–50. Bazzaz FA. 1990. The response of natural ecosystems to the rising global CO2 levels. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 21:167–196. Bornehag C-G, Blomquist G, Gyntelberg F, Jarvholm B, Malmberg P, Nordvall L. 2001. Dampness in buildings and health. Indoor Air 11:72–86. Brauer M, Hoek G, Van Vliet P. 2002. Air pollution from trafﬁc and the development of respiratory infections and asthmatic and allergic symptoms in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 166 (8):1092–1098. California EPA. 1997. Health Effects of Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke. Sacramento, CA:California Environmental Protection Agency, Ofﬁce of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2004. Asthma prevalence and control characteristics by race/ethnicity— United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53(7):145–148. Clot B. 2003. Trends in airborne pollen: an overview of 21 years of data in Neuchâtel (Switzerland). Aerobiologia 19:227–234. Cook DG, Strachan DP. 1997. Parental smoking and prevalence of respiratory symptoms and asthma in school age children. Thorax 52:1081–1094. Cook DG, Strachan DP. 1998. Parental smoking, bronchial reactiv- ity and peak ﬂow variability in children. Thorax 53:295–301. Dales RE, Burnett R, Zwanenburg H. 1991. Adverse health effects in adults exposed to home dampness and molds. Am Rev Respir Dis 143:505–509. Diaz-Sanchez D, Proietti L, Polosa R. 2003. Diesel fumes and the rising prevalence of atopy: an urban legend? Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 3(2):146–152. Diaz-Sanchez D, Tsien A, Fleming J. 1997. Combined diesel exhaust particulate and ragweed allergen challenge markedly enhances human in vivo nasal ragweed-speciﬁc IgE and skews cytokine production to a T helper cell 2-type pattern. J Immunol 158:2406–2413. Drake BG, Gonzalez-Meler MA, Long SP. 1997. More efficient plants: a consequence of rising atmospheric CO2? Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 48:609–639. Fitter A, Fitter R. 2002. Rapid changes in ﬂowering time in British plants. Science 296:1689–1691. Frei T. 1998. The effects of climate change in Switzerland 1969–1996 on airborne pollen quantities from hazel, birch and grass. Grana 37:172–179. Frenguelli G, Tedeschini E, Veronesi F, Bricchi E. 2002. Airborne pine (Pinus spp.) pollen in the atmosphere of Perugia (cen- tral Italy): behavior of pollination in the two last decades. Aerobiologia 18:223–228. Fryer AA, Bianco A, Hepple H, Jones PW, Strange RC, Spiteri MS. 2000. Polymorphism at the glutathione S-transferase GSTP1 locus. A new marker for bronchial hyperresponsiveness and asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161:1437–1442. Gehring U, Cyrys J, Sedlmeir G, Brunekeef B, Bellander T, Fischer P, et al. 2002. Traffic-related air pollution and respiratory health during the ﬁrst 2 yrs of life. Eur Respir J 19(4):690–698. Gilliland FD, Li YF, Saxon A, Diaz-Sanchez D. 2004. Effect of glu- tathione-S-transferase M1 and P1 genotypes on xenobiotic enhancement of allergic responses: randomised, placebo- controlled crossover study. Lancet 363:119–125. Gold DR, Burge HA, Carey V, Milton DK, Platts-Mills T, Weiss ST. 632 1999. Predictors of repeated wheeze in the ﬁrst year of life: the relative role of cockroach, birth weight, acute lower res- piratory illness, and maternal smoking. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160:227–236. Heinrich J, Wichmann HE. 2004. Traffic related pollutants in Europe and their effect on allergic disease. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol (5):341–348. Heloma A, Jaakkola MS. 2003. Four-year follow-up of smoke expo- sure, attitudes and smoking behaviour following enactment of Finland’s national smoke-free workplace law. Addiction 98:1111–1117. Hisada T, Salmon M, Nasuhara Y, Chung KF. 2000. Involvement of haemoxygenase-1 in ozone-induced airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness. Eur J Pharmacol 399:299–234. Hiura TS, Kasbokowski MP, Li N, Nel AE. 1999. Chemicals in diesel exhaust particles generate reactive oxygen radicals and induce apoptosis in macrophages. J Immunol 163(10): 5582–5591. IOM (Institute of Medicine). 2000. Clearing the Air: Asthma and Indoor Air Exposures. Washington, DC:National Academies Press. IOM (Institute of Medicine). 2004. Damp Indoor Spaces and Health. Washington, DC:National Academies Press. IPCC. 2001. Third Assessment Report. Geneva:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Jaakkola JJK, Gissler M. 2004. Maternal smoking in pregnancy, fetal development, and childhood asthma. Am J Public Health 94:134–140. Jaakkola JJK, Jaakkola MS. 2002. Effects of environmental tobacco smoke on the respiratory health of children. Scand J Work Environ Health 28(suppl 2):71–83. Jaakkola MS. 2000. Environmental tobacco smoke and respiratory diseases. In; Respiratory Epidemiology in Europe (Annesi- Maesano I, Gulsvik A, Viegi G, eds). Eur Respir Monogr 15:322–383. Jaakkola MS, Jaakkola JJK. 1997. Assessment of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. Eur Respir J 10:2384–2397. Jaakkola MS, Jaakkola JJK. 2002. Effects of environmental tobacco smoke on the respiratory health of adults. Scand J Work Environ Health 28(suppl 2):52–70. Jaakkola MS, Jaakkola JJK. 2004. Indoor molds and asthma in adults. Adv Appl Microbiol 55:309–338. Jaakkola MS, Piipari R, Jaakkola N, Jaakkola JJK. 2003. Environmental tobacco smoke and adult-onset asthma: a population-based incident case-control study. Am J Public Health 93:2055–2060. Jaakkola N, Jaakkola MS, Gissler M, Jaakkola JJK. 2001. Smoking during pregnancy in Finland: determinants and trends from 1987 to 1997. Am J Public Health 91:284–286. Jaakkola N, Ruotsalainen R, Jaakkola JJK. 1994. What are the determinants of children’s exposure to environmental tobacco smoke? Scand J Soc Med 21:107–112. Jablonski LM, Wang X, Curtis PS. 2002. Plant reproduction under elevated CO2 conditions: a meta-analysis of reports on 79 crop and wild species. New Phytol 156:9–26. Klironomos JN, Allen MF, Rillig MC, Zak DR, Pregitzer KS, Kubiske ME. 1997. Increased levels of airborne fungal spores in response to Populus tremuloides grown under elevated atmospheric CO2. Can J Bot 75(10):1670–1673. Klironomos JN, Allen MF, Rillig MC, Piotrowski J, Makvandi- Nejad S, Wolfe BE. 2005. Abrupt rise in atmospheric CO2 overestimates community response in a model plant-soil system. Nature 433:621–624. LaDeau SL, Clark JS. 2001. Rising CO2 levels and the fecundity of forest trees. Science 292:95–98. Li N, Alam J, Venkatesan MI, Eiguren-Fernandez A, Schmitz D. 2004. Nrf2 is a key transcription factor that regulates antioxi- dant defense in macrophages and epithelial cells: protecting against the pro-inﬂammatory and oxidizing effects of diesel exhaust chemicals. J Immunol 173:3467–3481. Li N, Hao M, Phalen RF, Hinds WC, Nel AE. 2003a. Particulate air pol- lutants and asthma: a paradigm for the role of oxidative stress in PM-induced adverse health effects. Clin Immunol 3:250–265. Li N, Sioutas C, Cho A, Schmitz D, Misra C, Sempf J, et al. 2003b. Particulate air pollutants, oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. Environmental Health Perspectives 111:455–460. Li N, Venkatesan MI, Miguel A, Kaplan R, Gujuluva C, Alam J. 2000. Induction of heme oxygenase-1 expression in macrophages by diesel exhaust particle chemicals and quinones via the antioxidant-responsive element. J Immunol 165:3393–3401. McConnell R, Berhane K, Gilliland F, London SJ, Islam T, Gauderman WJ, et al. 2002. Asthma in exercising children exposed to ozone: a cohort study. Lancet 359(9304): 386–391. McDonnell WF, Abbey DE, Nishino N, Lebowitz MD. 1999. Long- term ambient ozone concentration and the incidence of asthma in nonsmoking adults: the AHSMOG Study. Environ Res 80(2 pt 1):110–21. Miyabara Y, Ichinose T, Takano H, Lim HB, Sagai M. 1998. Effects of diesel exhaust on allergic airway inﬂammation in mice. J Allergy Clin Immunol 102:805–812. Monks TJ, Hanzlik RP, Cohen GM, Ross D, Graham DG. 1992. Quinone chemistry and toxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 112:2–16. NCS. 2005. National Children’s Study Home Page. Rockville, MD:National Children’s Study. Available: http://national childrensstudy.gov [accessed 26 February 2006] Nel A, Diaz-Sanchez D, Ng D, Hiura T, Saxon A. 1998. Enhancement of allergic inﬂammation by the interaction between diesel exhaust particles (DEP) and the immune system. J Allergy Clin Immunol 102:539–554. NRC (National Research Council). 1998. Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter: I. Immediate Priorities and a Long-Range Research Portfolio. Washington, DC:National Academies Press. Owen L, McNeill A, Callum C. 1998. Trends in smoking during preg- nancy in England, 1992–7: quota sampling surveys. BMJ 317:728. Peden DB. 2003. Air pollution: indoor and outdoor. In: Middleton’s Allergy Principles and Practice (Adkinson NF, Yunginger JW, Busse WW, Bochner BS, Holgate ST, Simons FER, eds). 6th ed, Vol 1. Philadelphia:Mosby, 529–555. Penning TM, Burczynski ME, Hung CF, McCoull KD, Palackal NT, Tsuruda LS. 1999. Dihydrodiol dehydrogenases and poly- cyclic aromatic hydrocarbon activation: generation of reac- tive and redox active o-quinones. Chem Res Toxicol 12:1–18. Penttinen P, Timonen KL, Tiittanen P, Mirme A, Ruuskanen J, Pekkanen J. 2001. Number concentration and size of parti- cles in urban air: effects on spirometric lung function in adult asthmatic subjects. Environ Health Perspect 109:319–323. Pirkle JL, Flegal KM, Bernert JT, Brody DJ, Etzel RA, Maurer KR. 1996. Exposure of the US population to environmental tobacco smoke. The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988 to 1991. JAMA 275:1233–1240. Rasmussen A. 2002. The effects of climate change on the birch pollen season in Denmark. Aerobiologia 18(3–4):253–265. Riboli E, Preston-Martin S, Saracci R, Haley NJ, Trichopoulos D, Becher H. 1990. Exposure of nonsmoking women to environ- mental tobacco smoke: a 10-country collaborative study. Cancer Causes Control 1:243–252. Rogers, CA, Wayne PM, Macklin EA, Muilenberg ML, Wagner CJ, Epstein PR, et al. 2006 Interaction of the onset of spring and elevated atmospheric CO2 on ragweed (Ambrosia artemisi- ifolia L.) pollen production. Environ Health Perspect doi:10.1289/ehp.8549 [Online 9 February 2006]. Spieksma FTM, Emberlin J, Hjelmroos M, Jäger S, Leuschner RM. 1995. Atmospheric birch (Betula) pollen in Europe: trends and ﬂuctuations in annual quantities and the starting date of the seasons. Grana 34:51–57. Stiling P, Moon D, Hymus G, Drake B. 2004. Differential effects of elevated CO2 on acorn density, weight, germination, and pre- dation among three oak species in a scrub-oak forest. Global Change Biol 10:228–232. Strachan DP, Cook DG. 1997. Parental smoking and lower respira- tory illness in infancy and early childhood. Thorax 52:905–914. Strachan DP, Cook DG. 1998. Parental smoking and childhood asthma: longitudinal and case-control studies. Thorax 53:204–212. Tarlo SM. Workplace irritant exposures: do they produce true occupational asthma? 2003. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 90(suppl 2):19–23. Treseder KK, Egerton-Warburton LM, Allen MF, Cheng Y, Oechel WC. 2003. Alteration of soil carbon pools and communities of mycorrhizal fungi in chaparral exposed to elevated carbon dioxide. Ecosystems 6(8):786–796. U.S. EPA. 2005. Six Principal Pollutants. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available: http://www. epa.gov/airtrends/sixpoll.html [accessed 27 February 2006]. van Vliet A, Overeem A, de Groot R, Jacobs A, Spieksma FTM. 2002. The inﬂuence of temperature and climate change on the timing of pollen release in the Netherlands. Int J Climatol 22:1757–1767. Wang M, Xiao GC, Li N, Xie Y, Loo JA, Nel AE. 2005. Phospho- proteome and cytokine array analysis show MAP kinases mediate inﬂammation by pro-oxidative diesel exhaust particle chemicals. Electrophoresis 26:2092–2018. Wayne P, Forster S, Connelly J, Bazzaz FA, Epstein PR. 2002. VOLUME 114 | NUMBER 4 | April 2006 • Environmental Health Perspectives