2 polyomavirus-associated cerebral disorders seen primarily in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). As HIV+ patients are increasingly qualifying for transplants, the complications of concomitant infection and management in this setting are manifold. The case report of zygomycosis associated with HIV infection and liver transplantation deals with just this conundrum. The oncogenic viruses associated with HIV infection have incited much interest in the ﬁeld over the years. Kapo- si’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus/Human herpesvirus-8 (KSHV/HHV-8) was ﬁrst found in 1994 by isolating DNA fragments of this virus from a Kaposi sarcoma (KS) tumor in an AIDS patient [2]. KSHV was subsequently found to cause several other diseases, such as primary eﬀusion lymphoma and multicentric Castelman s disease (MCD). The case report describing HHV-8 infection associated with KS, MCD, and plasmablastic microlymphoma in a single lymph node of a Kenyan man with AIDS commendably reviews the pathology of this oncogenic process. The number of reported cases of Epstein-Barr virus-(EBV) related smooth muscle tumor arising in patients with AIDS has been increasing since the mid 1990s. The epidemiology, clinical manifestations, pathologic features, prognosis, and management of this fascinating entity are methodically reviewed in this special edition. HIV-infected patients are at increased risk of devel- oping cancer. Despite the advent of HAART, malignancy in this population is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Like KS, AIDS-related non-Hodgkin lymphoma (AIDS-NHL) is one of the most common AIDS-deﬁning malignancies. One of the articles in this edition is a ﬁve-year retrospective case series in which the authors review their institutions experience with numerous lymphoproliferative lesions in the setting of HIV infection. The pathological heterogeneity of AIDS-NHL reﬂects the heterogeneity of their associated molecular lesions [3]. Even though new molecular evidence continues to emerge regarding AIDS- NHL, several biological features about these AIDS-NHL remain perplexing. This is exempliﬁed in the case report of a 47-year-old HIV+ man with a diﬀuse large B-cell lymphoma observed to undergo an immunophenotypic switch from a germinal center to nongerminal center origin. These authors oﬀer several plausible explanations to explain this phenomenon. The incidence and spectrum of non-AIDS-deﬁning can- cers (NADCs) continues to grow [4, 5]. As HIV-infected individuals live longer due to HAART, their risk of dying from one of these cancers is increased. The role of HIV- induced immunosuppression in the development of these NADCs appears to be less important than coinfection with certain viruses such as human papilloma virus (HPV). This edition oﬀers an interesting review of the various carcinomas arising in the head and neck region in HIV+ patients, several of which are related to oncogenic viruses. While several NADCs are on the rise, it remains unclear why others such as breast cancers are decreased in this population [6]. The case report of an invasive ductal carcinoma of the breast surrounded by an intense lymphocytic response in the setting of HIV provides some insight into this interesting Pathology Research International association, demonstrating the unique interplay between breast cancer and the HIV+ host’s immune response. It is of great interest that the two hormonally driven tumors, breast and prostate cancers, may have a decreased incidence in the setting of HIV. Of course, many of the studies about HIV- associated breast and prostate cancer are small, and this may be a statistical aberration. Apart from the direct and indirect eﬀects related to HIV infection, treatment of HIV+ patients too has untoward side eﬀects. For example, HAART may be associated with lipodystrophy, gynecoamastia, insulin resistance, hyperlipi- demia and increased cardiovascular risk. Glitazones, a novel class of insulin-sensitizing antidiabetic agents, have been investigated in the management of HAART-associated lipid disorders. The eﬀect of rosiglitazone, an agonist of per- oxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), on skeletal muscle gene expression with regard to insulin sensitivity in individuals with HIV-insulin resistance is presented in this special AIDS-related edition of the journal. Additional basic science articles provide unique perspectives on osteoim- munopathology in HIV/AIDS and nanotherapeutics using a HIV-1 poly A and transactivator of the HIV-1 LTR-(TAR-) speciﬁc siRNA. The challenges for diagnosis and management of sick people with HIV remains, despite the remarkable success of HAART. We should keep in mind that fewer than one million HIV-infected individuals are currently receiving antiretroviral therapy. Present anti-retroviral therapy costs between $10,000 and $20,000 per year, which provides excellent value for money in developed countries with a cost of about $10,000 per life-year saved; the lives saved are essentially the young and potentially economic productive section of the population. This compares very favorably with many other drugs for chronic therapies in current use. The limitations of anti-retroviral treatment strategies at a physical (suppression of viremia) and political (widespread availability) level have underscored the need to develop more eﬀective strategies to control the spread and pathogenesis of HIV and the diseases related to it that we describe herein. In recent years, the demand for new antiviral strategies has increased markedly. There are many contributing factors to this increased demand, including the ever-increasing prevalence of chronic viral infections and other pathogens individuals are coinfected with, many of which are described in these papers. While this great collection of papers certainly bears testimony to how much we have learned about HIV/AIDS to date, these papers also serve to remind us of how much we still do not understand. Liron Pantanowitz Antonino Carbone Justin Stebbing References [1] AVERT, http://www.avert.org/worldstats.htm. [2] Y. Chang, E. Cesarman, M. S. Pessin et al., “Identiﬁcation of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi’s sarcoma,” Science, vol. 266, no. 5192, pp. 1865–1869, 1994.