Women, reproductive rights, and HIV/AIDS The results of the field studies indicated that, while the national government programmes and hospital regula- tions may endorse respect for human and reproductive rights, this does not automatically translate into observ- ance of those rights at the service-delivery level. Com- pliance with rights depends on enforcement by provin- cial and municipal authorities, funding for programmes (which affects availability of supplies, equipment, and sufficient staff), and positive attitudes and willingness on the part of service providers. The large majority of respondents in all countries were interested in receiving more information about sexual and reproductive rights. However, both health- care providers and women living with HIV and AIDS did not seem to be clear on how such rights could be relevant to their work environments and daily lives. Researchers in South Africa noted that healthcare work- ers are regarded with great respect and expected to be responsive to community needs. When they fail to do this or when they act in ways that contradict their caring role, community members are either unable to conscious- ly identify this as a violation of their rights or are seldom able to assert their rights (for example, through direct communication with healthcare providers or by initiating a complaints procedure). Recommendations for research, policies, and programmes Based on the literature review and field-study findings, several areas can be identified that warrant further poli- cy-oriented and operational research. These include: The best contraceptive options for women living with HIV and AIDS: Further research is needed on the pos- sible interactions between hormonal contraceptives (e.g. pills, injectables, various types of implants, and contracep- tive patches) and antiretroviral drugs and drugs used for treating common opportunistic infections. As new contraceptives emerge (e.g. contraceptive sprays), their effectiveness for HIV-positive women should also be assessed. Family-planning and pregnancy counselling for HIV- positive women and men: Studies should focus on the quality and comprehensiveness of counselling given to HIV-positive women who are considering their repro- ductive options (both before and during pregnancy), particularly regarding stigmatization of women who choose pregnancy, pressure to have an abortion or to be sterilized, and withholding of information regard- ing post-abortion care and legal abortions for women who would want to terminate a pregnancy. 419 Experiences of HIV-positive women with abortion and post-abortion care: Such studies can examine the prevalence of coerced abortion, denial of abortion care, and unethical preconditions for granting legal abortions. Research can also determine whether HIV-positive women suffer more frequent and more severe compli- cations from unsafe abortions and whether protocols for different types of safe abortion (e.g. vacuum aspi- ration or medication abortion) should take their HIV infection into account in particular ways. A number of policy and programmatic measures can be taken to improve the situation of women living with HIV and AIDS with respect to reproductive choice and rights. Production and dissemination of materials on family planning, contraception, and dealing with unwanted pregnancies in the context of HIV/AIDS: It is advisa- ble that women living with HIV be informed about the double protection offered by male condoms against re-infection and pregnancy. However, they also should receive information about other contraceptive options in relation to HIV/AIDS (e.g. female condoms, which contraceptives might be preferable for women in their situation, potential interactions between hormonal con- traceptives and drugs for opportunistic infections and antiretroviral therapy). Options for avoiding unwanted pregnancies should be mentioned, including emergen- cy contraception and safe abortion for indications con- sidered lawful in each country. Given the high preva- lence of sexual violence experienced by women living with HIV, for example, it is important that they know whether pregnancy termination is allowed in cases of rape or when the health of a woman is endangered. Such materials can be produced through collaboration among AIDS service organizations, reproductive health/family-planning programmes, NGOs, and asso- ciations of people living with HIV and AIDS. Work on these materials can also be combined with lobbying and advocacy work to expand options of women to ex- ercise their rights to health and to decide whether and when to have children. Exploration of possibility of HIV-positive women and men adopting children: While HIV-positive per- sons can reduce the chances of transmission of HIV by participating in prevention of perinatal transmission of AIDS programmes, they can also avoid perinatal transmission by avoiding pregnancy. Many HIV-posi- tive people, particularly younger women, do want biological children. However, some are interested in adopting children. Organizations working on AIDS should ascertain whether legal restrictions on adoption