Levin et al. Table 1 | Continued Authors and year Tom et al. (2007) Focal topic Risky decision- making and loss aversion Time of measurement Before decision-making (anticipation of potential gains or losses phase) Preuschoff et al. (2008) Risk prediction error and risk in decision- making Before decision-making (prediction phase) Risk and Before Gains (increased Tobler et al. expected value decision-making risk-seeking) (2009) in decision- (prediction phase) making Losses (increase risk-aversion) TIME OF MEASUREMENT DURING DECISION-MAKING Reversal During Gains O’Doherty learning task decision-making et al. (2001) of monetary (acquisi- reward and tion/reversal punishment phase) Losses Gottfried et al. (2002) Appetitive and aversive olfactory learning During learning phase Gains (appetitive olfactory learning) Conditions Gains (potential gain effects) Losses (potential loss effects) Risk prediction error Active regions identiﬁed Nucleus accumbens Caudate Thalamus Ventromedial prefrontal cortex Orbitofrontal cortex Frontal pole Middle frontal gyrus Middle/superior frontal gyrus Posterior cingulate Midbrain Nucleus accumbens Caudate Thalamus Ventromedial prefrontal cortex Orbitofrontal cortex Frontal pole Middle frontal gyrus Middle/superior frontal gyrus Posterior cingulate Midbrain Insula Lateral prefrontal cortex Lateral prefrontal cortex Orbitofrontal cortex Medial prefrontal cortex Posterior inferior prefrontal sulcus Orbitofrontal cortex Posterior inferior prefrontal sulcus Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex Medial orbitofrontal cortex Anterior orbitofrontal cortex Ventral striatum Nucleus accumbens Pallidum/dorsomedial amygdala Uncus/ventromedial amygdala Dorsomedial amygdala Ventromedial prefrontal cortex Cerebellar hemisphere Anterior hippocampus Neuropsychology of risky gains/losses Sample size 16 Result Study does not sup- port separate structures because same regions were activated for both gains and losses 19 15 9 15 Study does not make claims about separate structures because the insula was the region of focus Study does not sup- port separate structures because same regions were activated for both gains and losses Study does not clearly sup- port separate structures because same key region (here: orbitofrontal cortex) was activated for both gains and losses Study does not sup- port separate structures because same key regions were activated for both gains and losses (Continued) www.frontiersin.org February 2012 | Volume 6 | Article 15 | 7