successful in extending life, but does little to answer the question "why me?" Mindfulness may give some comfort here by providing a refreshing perspective on die nature of suffering. Acceptance of impermanence and the resulting release from attachments can be enormously liberating, providing relief from the anguish and uncertainty of chronic or terminal illness. BUDDHISM A N D A D D I C T I O N Groves and Farmer (1994) discuss the Buddhist perspective on drug addiction within the framework of the Four Noble Truths. They stress that the universality of dukkha/suffering (the First Noble Truth) encompasses "being attached to the unloved or separatedfromthe loved, as well as notgetting what one wants or getting what one doesn't want; all common features of addiction". Moreover, dukkha can be the fear of potential suffering, or future displeasure ("where will my next fix come from?"). The Second Noble Truth (that dukkha results from tanhajcraving), is discussed with reference to the three sources of craving: kama, bhava and vibhava. Kama is sensory experience, as may be offered by drugs, food or sex - all objects of addiction. Bhava implies the craving for a state of mind - searching for a mindset of self- confidence and security — such as a cocaine high. Vibhava is nothingness, emptiness, non-existence — analogous to alcohol and opiate use to eclipse real feelings. From a Buddhist perspective, therefore, addiction represents a false refuge from the pain and suffering of real life. The addict is trapped in a controlling attachment to the addictive behaviour. The drug provides a rapid but short-lived relief from the ever powerful craving and suffering of withdrawal. The Third Noble Truth (that suffering can be overcome though the extinction of craving and attachment), makes the crucially motivating assertion that there is an alternative to suffering - it is possible to be liberated from both suffering and craving. Finally, the Fourth Noble Truth postulates a *way out' for addicts: The Eightfold Path to Enlightenment (involving mindfulness mediation). It has already been discussed how constructive mindfulness can be to those suffering from anxiety, depression and feelings of low self-worth. It is easy to see the potential value in such technique in freeing people from addictive behaviours and their psychopathological consequences. Moreover, the Buddhist stance on addiction avoids the moralistic approach sometimes adopted in the west. As noted by Marlatt (2002), the choice between total abstinence ('success") and relapse ('failure") can lead patients into a never-ending cycle of restraint and relapse. By contrast, the Buddhist approach places emphasis on compassion. T h e Eightfold Path promotes the development of a new set of attitudes and beliefs in a non-judgmental context of detached observation and positive personal development BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY A N D PSYCHOTHERAPY The West often perceives the self not only as a stable entity, but a strong ego is regarded as the key to a successful life (at work, in interpersonal relationships, etc). To this end, Western psychotherapy often seeks to strengthen the ego, to correct low self esteem. Similarly, psychologists may treat psychotic or character disordered patients by building a stronger self, resulting in a sense of 'ongoingness' and stability in the midst of profound psychological chaos. It would seem therefore that psychotherapy and Buddhist mindfulness are diametrically opposed in their service of the ego (mindfulness promotes the dissolution of the self into anattd). This apparent divergence of the two disciplines is discussed by Michalon (2001), who argues that the two are not opposed, but that ideas of the self and the no-self lie on the same continuum of development. The West focuses on an earlier stage of development, with the later stages being mapped out by Buddhist teachings. Michalon gives the example of individuals who spend the first third of their lives forming attachments to such things as education, work, marriage (145) BUDDHISM A N D PSYCHIATRY and children. Opposing the development of the self at these stages of development could be potentially damaging. Later on in life, however, individuals are more prone to disillusionment with the unsatisfactory nature of existence (the 'mid­ life crisis'). It is at this point that die Buddhist approach could provide tremendous insight into, and perhaps relief from, the nature of existential suffering. CONCLUSION It is only recendy that the West has come to realise the wealth of therapeutic promise contained within Buddhist teachings. In recent years, attempts to integrate the Buddhist approach and Western psychological therapies have begun. The possible therapeutic benefits of Buddhist Psychology are very diverse, and can be brought to bear on different levels of psychological functioning. Mindfulness may be effective in a range of pathologies. These include anxiety disorders, addictive behaviours, chronic pain, and terminal illness such as cancer and HIV - traditionally tacked in the West through a purely organic understanding of disease. Moreover, a deeper penetration of the Buddhist doctrines of anicca and anatta can promote profound person development, providing new ways of relating to suffering. We return then to the question of how to define Buddhism; is it a religion, a philosophy, or a way of life? Perhaps a more fitting definition to the current discussion would be that Buddhism is a form of psychological medicine - a compassionate and highly sophisticated set of psychological constructs whose key concern is the abolition of suffering. REFERENCES Allen BA & Armour-Thomas E. (1991) Construct validation of metacognition. Journal of Psychology. 127(2): 203-211. American Psychiatric Association. (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Barlow DH.(I986) Causes of sexual dysfunction: the role of anxiety and cognitive interference.