Environmental Science & Technology then be suﬃciently robust to justify a signiﬁcant redirection of eﬀorts from one sector to another. Key aspects of an eﬀective integrative approach include identiﬁcation of reference (or target) conditions, adequate predictive capability, appropriate treatment and communication of uncertainty, inclusive processes for decision-making that promote acceptance, and institutional capacities for implementation. Nonetheless, unintended conse- quences and unanticipated demands will often arise; these can be partly accommodated through adaptive management. Near-Natural Aquatic Ecosystems As a Reference Condi- tion. The current and emerging challenges to water resources management in Switzerland must also be considered in the context of the objective of achieving “good ecological status” under the Water Framework Directive (WFD) of the European Union (EU). Although “good ecological status” should be defined by comparison with reference sites subject to only minor anthropogenic impacts,24 many aquatic systems are modified to such a degree that their natural state cannot be easily described. It is thus necessary to identify the characteristics of near-natural ecosystems with respect to their hydrology, geomorphology, biogeochemistry, and ecology.25 The analysis of riverine inverte- brates has also been used to establish a site-specific, biological reference condition.26 Historical data, analogies to similar sys- tems, and knowledge of ecosystem function can help in char- acterizing the near-natural state of an ecosystem. The goal of conservation or reestablishment of near-natural ecosystems is to maintain natural biodiversity and ecosystem function and services. Predictive Capacity and Uncertainty. Environmental man- agement relies on the expectation that the effects of interventions can be predicted, but such predictions are uncertain due to the limited scientific understanding of complex and dynamic sys- tems. For decision-making, it is important to identify the sources of uncertainty and to quantify uncertainty in a robust and defensible manner, for example by probabilistic predictions.27,28 This approach was followed in a study that analyzed the causes of the declining catch of brown trout in Swiss rivers.29 The effects of removing the two most important stressors on predicted adult fish density was examined. Particularly at a site affected by intensive agriculture and wastewater inputs, the predicted 2-fold increase in adult fish density was still within the bounds of uncertainty. In contrast, the predicted effects of improving habitat and reducing clogging of the streambed were significant even considering the uncertainty. Decision Support. Water resources management involves difficult decisions that are subject to significant uncertainty, affect many stakeholders over long timeframes, and are con- strained by governing legislation and regulation. It is therefore important that authorities take a well-structured and transparent approach that can easily be communicated. Techniques of decision sciences30 can be applied to water resources management.31,32 These techniques can guide stake- holder involvement processes and help in communicating deci- sions in a transparent manner. As part of such procedures, the elicitation of values from stakeholders can support the identiﬁca- tion of societal objectives. In one study related to river restoration,33 stakeholder values were elicited from eight con- stituency groups. Four management options were ranked by applying these preferences to the predicted outcomes of the options. It was observed that one alternative (the “administra- tion” option) had the best ranking by ﬁve stakeholder groups but was ranked poorly by two others. The analysis of the basis for these low rankings led to the identiﬁcation of a ﬁfth “negotiation” FEATURE alternative. The ﬁfth option had an overall ranking similar to the “administration” option but was not ranked poorly by any group, indicating less potential for future conﬂict. Adaptive Management. Adaptive management entails a dynamic process of continuous learning from experience as a basis for adapting measures that fall short of achieving their objectives or that must respond to evolving societal preferences and/or boundary conditions. In the former case, monitoring of the effects of implemented measures and assessment of their success are clearly required.12 Institutional structures must also be able to accommodate and respond appropriately to new information,34 and financial means must be reserved for neces- sary adaptations. a process which promotes the coordination of water, land, and related resources in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. The Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Framework. The international planning community has been the driving force behind the development of the concept of integrated water resources management (IWRM),35,36 which is most commonly defined as follows:36 a process which promotes the coordination of water, land, and related resources in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. Developing countries have been a principal focus of IWRM, which has consequently emphasized governance, poverty- alleviation, and gender-related issues. There is, however, also an agreement in the international planning community to apply IWRM in industrialized as well as developing countries; this goal is incorporated in the Implementation Plan from the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development.36 The IWRM concept has undergone considerable evolution and is presented by one of its major advocates, the Global Water Partnership (GWP), as “a process of change”.37 Although IWRM has been criticized quite harshly—mainly on the grounds that it is ill-deﬁned and that there is little or no evidence for its beneﬁts35—it has also been taken up seriously within many national planning processes, including that of Switzerland. 38 Two Examples from Switzerland. In 2008, the platform Water Agenda 21 (http://www.wa21.ch) was established to promote dialogue among actors in Swiss water management. This voluntary organization advocates the cross-sectoral manage- ment of water resources and infrastructures in a long-term planning, implementation, and monitoring process, in which the boundaries of political decision making would become more aligned with natural watersheds or technological networks such a sewer systems and hydropower schemes. An adaptive process is recommended in which the progress toward long-term goals is monitored and measures are modified accordingly.6 The network includes federal and regional government agencies, NGOs, and 116 dx.doi.org/10.1021/es202189s |Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 112–118