Chang and Sarraf Antonetti DA, Barber AJ, Khin S, et al. 1998. Vascular permeability in experimental diabetes is associated with reduced endothelial occludin content: vascular endothelial growth factor decreases occludin in retinal endothelial cells. Penn State Retina Research Group. Diabetes, 47:1953–9. Antonetti DA, Wolpert EB, DeMaio L, et al. 2002 Hydrocortisone decreases retinal endothelial cell water and solute ﬂux coincident with increased content and decreased phosphorylation of occludin. J Neurochem, 80:667–77. Arevalo JF, Fromow-Guerra J, Quiroz-Mercado H, et al. 2007. Primary intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) for diabetic macular edema: results from the Pan-American Collaborative Retina Study Group at 6-month follow-up. Ophthalmology, 114:743–50. Avery RL, Pearlman J, Pieramici DJ, et al. 2006. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) in the treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Oph- thalmology, 113:1695 e1-15. Avitabile T, Longo A, Reibaldi A. 2005. Intravitreal triamcinolone compared with macular laser grid photocoagulation for the treatment of cystoid macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol, 140:695–702. Bandello F, Polito A, Pognuz DR, et al. 2006. Triamcinolone as adjunctive treatment to laser panretinal photocoagulation for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol, 124:643–50. Barber AJ, Lieth E, Khin SA, et al. 1998. Neural apoptosis in the retina during experimental and human diabetes. Early onset and effect of insulin. J Clin Invest, 102:783–91. Bhisitkul RB, Robinson GS, Moulton RS, et al. 2005. An antisense oli- godeoxynucleotide against vascular endothelial growth factor in a nonhuman primate model of iris neovascularization. Arch Ophthalmol, 123:214–19. Bresnick GH, Palta M. 1987a. Oscillatory potential amplitudes. Relation to severity of diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol, 105:929–33. Bresnick GH, Palta M. 1987b. Predicting progression to severe proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol, 105:810–14. Brownlee M. 2001. Biochemistry and molecular cell biology of diabetic complications. Nature, 414:813–20. Brownlee M, Cerami A, Vlassara H. 1988. Advanced glycosylation end products in tissue and the biochemical basis of diabetic complications. N Engl J Med, 318:1315–21. Chen E, Park CH. 2006. Use of intravitreal bevacizumab as a preoperative adjunct for tractional retinal detachment repair in severe proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Retina, 26:699–700. Cheung, AK, Fung MK, Lo AC, et al. 2005. Aldose reductase deﬁciency prevents diabetes-induced blood-retinal barrier breakdown, apop- tosis, and glial reactivation in the retina of db/db mice. Diabetes, 54:3119–25. Chew EY, Mills JL, Metzger BE, et al. 1995. Metabolic control and progres- sion of retinopathy. The Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Diabetes Care, 18:631–7. Chew EY, Klein ML, Ferris FL 3rd, et al. 1996. Association of elevated serum lipid levels with retinal hard exudate in diabetic retinopathy. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) Report 22. Arch Ophthalmol, 114:1079–84. Chew EY, Benson WE, Remaley NA, et al. 1999. Results after lens extraction in patients with diabetic retinopathy: early treatment diabetic retinopathy study report number 25. Arch Ophthalmol, 117:1600–6. Chew EY, Ferris FLI. 2006. Nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy. In: Ryan, SJ (ed). Retina. Vol. II, Elsevier Mosby, St. Louis, pp. 1271–84. Choi KS, Chung JK, Lim SH. 2007. Laser photocoagulation combined with intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide injection in proliferative diabetic retinopathy with macular edema. Korean J Ophthalmol, 21:11–17. Chun DW, Heier JS, Topping TM, et al. 2006. A pilot study of multiple intravitreal injections of ranibizumab in patients with center-involv- ing clinically signiﬁcant diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology, 113:1706–12. 432 Cunningham ET Jr., Adamis AP, Altaweel M, et al. 2005. A phase II ran- domized double-masked trial of pegaptanib, an anti-vascular endothelial growth factor aptamer, for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology, 112:1747–57. Danis RP, Bingaman DP, Jirousek M, et al. 1998. Inhibition of intraocular neovascularization caused by retinal ischemia in pigs by PKCbeta inhibition with LY333531. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 39:171–9. Danis RP, Criswell M, Orge F, et al. 2003. Intravitreous anti-raf-1 kinase antisense oligonucleotide as an angioinhibitory agent in porcine pre- retinal neovascularization. Curr Eye Res, 26:45–54. Davis MD, Fisher MR, Gangnon RE, et al. 1998. Risk factors for high-risk proliferative diabetic retinopathy and severe visual loss: Early Treat- ment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Report #18. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 39:233–52. Deckert T, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Borch-Johnsen K, et al. 1989. Albuminuria reﬂects widespread vascular damage. The Steno hypothesis. Diabeto- logia, 32:219–26. Deinum J, Derkx FH, Danser AH, et al. 1990. Identiﬁcation and quan- tiﬁcation of renin and prorenin in the bovine eye. Endocrinology, 126:1673–82. Do DV, Nguyen QD, Browning DJ, et al. 2007. Results of a Phase I Study of Intravitreal VEGF Trap in Subjects With Diabetic Macular Edema: The CLEAR-IT DME Study. In: Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology, Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Engerman RL, Kern TS. 1984. Experimental galactosemia produces dia- betic-like retinopathy. Diabetes, 33:97–100. Felinski EA, Antonetti DA. 2005. Glucocorticoid regulation of endothelial cell tight junction gene expression: novel treatments for diabetic reti- nopathy. Curr Eye Res, 30:949–57. Ferrara N. 1995. Vascular endothelial growth factor. The trigger for neo- vascularization in the eye. Lab Invest, 72:615–18. Fong DS, Segal PP, Myers F, et al. 1997. Subretinal ﬁbrosis in diabetic macular edema. ETDRS report 23. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopa- thy Study Research Group. Arch Ophthalmol, 115:873–7. Funatsu H, Yamashita H, Nakamura S, et al. 2006. Vitreous levels of pigment epithelium-derived factor and vascular endothelial growth factor are related to diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology, 113:294–301. Gambaro G. 1998. Danaparoid sodium in diabetic retinopathy. Lancet, 351:674. Gao BB, Clermont A, Rook S, et al. 2007. Extracellular carbonic anhydrase mediates hemorrhagic retinal and cerebral vascular permeability through prekallikrein activation. Nat Med, 13:181–88. Giusti C, Forte R, Vingolo EM, et al. 2001. Is acetazolamide effective in the treatment of diabetic macular edema? A pilot study. Int Ophthal- mol, 24:79–88. Hammes HP, Du X, Edelstein D, et al. 2003. Benfotiamine blocks three major pathways of hyperglycemic damage and prevents experimental diabetic retinopathy. Nat Med, 9:294–9. Haritoglou C, Kook D, Neubauer A, et al. 2006. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) therapy for persistent diffuse diabetic macular edema. Retina, 26:999–1005. Haupt E, Ledermann H, Kopcke W. 2005. Benfotiamine in the treatment of diabetic polyneuropathy--a three-week randomized, controlled pilot study (BEDIP study). Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther, 43:71–7. Iida T. 2007. Combined triamcinolone acetonide injection and grid laser photocoagulation: a promising treatment for diffuse diabetic macular oedema? Br J Ophthalmol, 91:407–8. Jaffe GJ, Martin D, Callanan D, et al. 2006. Fluocinolone acetonide implant (Retisert) for noninfectious posterior uveitis: thirty-four-week results of a multicenter randomized clinical study. Ophthalmology, 113:1020–7. Jain A, Sarraf D, Fong D. 2003. Preventing diabetic retinopathy through control of systemic factors. Curr Opin Ophthalmol, 14:389–94. Jonas JB, Hayler JK, Sofker A, et al. 2001. Intravitreal injection of crystalline cortisone as adjunctive treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol, 131:468–71. Clinical Ophthalmology 2008:2(2)