4 3.5 s 3 e r sco2.5 e l sca 2 T nP1.5 a e M 1 0.5 0 4 3.5 s 3 e r sco2.5 e l sca 2 T Sn1.5 a e M 1 0.5 0 TE 1 (D) Baseline Post TE 1 (D) Baseline Post 8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine TE 2 (CN) TE 3 (D) Classroom TE 4 (CN) TE 2 (CN) TE 3 (D) Classroom TE 4 (CN) Figure 8: Inattention (subscale of attention deﬁcit/hyperactivity problems)—mean baseline and post-intervention/control scores by classroom. Figure 10: Post-traumatic stress problems—mean baseline and post-intervention/control scores by classroom. 4.5 4 3.5 sre 3 o sce2.5 l a sc 2 I ean1.5 M 1 0.5 0 1.4 1.2 s reo 1 c s lea0.8 c s DO0.6 n a eM0.4 0.2 0 TE 1 (D) Baseline Post TE 1 (D) Baseline Post TE 2 (CN) TE 3 (D) Classroom TE 4 (CN) TE 2 (CN) TE 3 (D) Classroom TE 4 (CN) Figure 9: Oppositional deﬁant problems—mean baseline and post- intervention/control scores by classroom. Figure 11: Sluggish cognitive tempo—mean baseline and post- intervention/control scores by classroom. improving more on ST scores than control teacher TE2, and control teacher TE4 rated students as declining less on ST scores than the other control teacher TE2. Obsessive-Compulsive Problems, Positive Qualities. Diﬀer- ence scores for these other scales were not signiﬁcant between groups. 4. Discussion This pilot study investigated the impact of group drumming on social-emotional behavior in low-income, primarily Latino, children with the speciﬁc aim of identifying the range of behaviors that may show improvement with intervention. The TRF was utilized to assess a myriad of problem behaviors. Students in the school counselor-led drumming program improved signiﬁcantly compared to the control group in multiple domains of social-emotional behavior. Signiﬁcant changes were found in broad-band scales (total problems and internalizing problems), narrow-band syn- drome scales (withdrawn/depression, attention problems, and inattention subscale), DSM-oriented scales (anxiety problems, attention deﬁcit/hyperactivity problems, inatten- tion subscale, and oppositional deﬁant problems), and other scales (post-traumatic stress problems and sluggish cognitive tempo). On each of these scales, at least one drumming class did better than at least one control class. These ﬁndings support our hypothesis that a school-based group drumming program, integrated with activities from group counseling,