Millikan R, Pittman G, Tse CK, Savitz DA, Newman B, Bell D. Ryberg D, Skaug V, Hewer A, Philips DH, Harries LW, Wolf CR, Pelin K, Hirvonen A, Norppa H. 1996. Influence of erythro- Steck SE, Gammon MD, Hebert JR, Wall DE, Zeisel SH. 2007a. cyte glutathione-S transferase T1 on sister chromatid exchanges induced by diepoxybutane in cultured human lymphocytes. Mutagenesis 11:213–215. GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1, and GSTA1 polymorphisms and urinary isothiocyanate metabolites following broccoli con- sumption in humans. J Nutr 137(4):904–909. Rothman KJ, Greenland S. 1998. Modern Epidemiology. Steck SE, Gaudet MM, Britton JA, Teitelbaum SL, Terry MB, Shimada T. 2006. Xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes involved in the Weiserbs KF, Jacobson JS, Begg MD, Wang LW, Wang Q, Philadelphia:Lippincott-Raven Publishers. Rothman N, Shields PG, Poirier MC, Harrington AM, Ford DP, Strickland PT. 1995. The impact of glutathione S-transferase M1 and cytochrome P450 1A1 genotypes on white-blood-cell polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adduct levels in humans. Mol Carcinog 14(1):63–68. Rundle A, Tang D, Hibshoosh H, Estabrook A, Schnabel F, Cao W, et al. 2000a. The relationship between genetic damage from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in breast tissue and breast cancer. Carcinogenesis 21:1281–1289. Rundle A, Tang D, Mooney L, Grumet S, Perera F. 2003. The interaction between alcohol consumption and GSTM1 genotype on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adduct levels in breast tissue. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 12(9):911–914. Rundle A, Tang D, Zhou J, Cho S, Perera FP. 2000b. The associ- ation between glutathione S-transferase M1 genotype and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts in breast tissue. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 9:1079–1085. et al. 1997. Genotypes of glutathione transferase M1 and P1 and their significance for lung DNA adduct levels and cancer risk. Carcinogenesis 18:1285–1289. Shantakumar S, Gammon MD, Eng SM, Sagiv SK, Gaudet MM, Teitelbaum SL, et al. 2005. Residential environmental expo- sures and other characteristics associated with detect- able PAH-DNA adducts in peripheral mononuclear cells in a population-based sample of adult females. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 15(6):482–490. activation and detoxification of carcinogenic polycyclic aro- matic hydrocarbons. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 24:257–276. Spurdle AB, Chang JH, Byrnes GB, Chen X, Dite GS, McCredie MR, et al. 2007. A systematic approach to analyzing gene- gene interactions: polymorphisms at the microsomal epox- ide hydrolase EPHX and glutathione S-transferase GSTM1, GSTT1, and GSTP1 loci and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16(4):769–774. Neugut AI, et al. 2007b. Interactions among GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1 polymorphisms, cruciferous vegetable intake and breast cancer risk. Carcinogenesis 28(9):1954–1959. Terry PD, Goodman M. 2006. Is the association between ciga- rette smoking and breast cancer modified by genotype? A review of epidemiologic studies and meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 15(4):602–611. Upadhyaya P, Rao P, Hochalter JB, Li ZZ, Villalta PW, Hecht SS. 2006. Quantitation of N-acetyl-S-(9,10-dihydro-9-hydroxy- 10-phenanthryl)-L-cysteine in human urine: comparison of glutathione-S-transferase genotypes in smokers. Chem Res Toxicol 19:1234–1240. van der Hel OL, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, van Gils CH, Roest M, Slothouber B, Grobbee DE, et al. 2005. Cumulative genetic defects in carcinogen metabolism may increase breast cancer risk (The Netherlands). Cancer Causes Control 16(6):675–681. Vogl FD, Taioli E, Maugard C, Zheng W, Pinto LF, Ambrosone C, et al. 2004. Glutathione S-transferases M1, T1, and P1 and breast cancer: a pooled analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 13(9):1473–1479. Waldman JM, Lioy PJ, Greenberg A, Butler JP. 1991. Analysis of human exposure to benzo(a)pyrene via inhalation and food ingestion in the Total Human Environmental Exposure Study (THEES). J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1:193–225. Watson MA, Stewart RK, Smith GB, Massey TE, Bell DA. 1998. Human glutathione S-transferase P1 polymorphism: rela- tionship to lung tissue enzyme activity and population frequency distribution. Carcinogenesis 19:275–280. Cancer Biol 14:473–486. Agrawal M, et al. 2003. A cross-sectional study of poly- cyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts and polymor- phism of glutathione S-transferases among heavy smokers by race/ethnicity. Biomarkers 8(2):142–155. Wogan GM, Hecht SS, Felton JS, Conney AH, Loeb LA. 2004. Environmental and chemical carcinogenesis. Semin Zheng W, Wen WQ, Gustafson DR, Gross M, Cerhan JR, Folsom AR. 2002. GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms and post- menopausal breast cancer risk. Breast Cancer Res Treat 74(1):9–16. McCarty et al. adducts in a Chinese population: relationship to PAH exposure, smoking, and polymorphisms of metabolic and DNA repair genes. Biomarkers 13(1):27–40. Korashy H, El-Kadi A. 2006. The role of aryl hydrocarbon recep- tor in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. Drug Metab Rev 38:411–450. Kuljukka-Rabb T, Nylund L, Vaaranrinta R, Savela K, Mutanene P, Veidebaum T, et al. 2002. The effect of relevant geno- types on PAH exposure-related biomarkers. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 12:89–91. Li D, Walcott FL, Chang P, Zhang W, Zhu J, Petrulis E, et al. 2002. Genetic and environmental determinants on tis- sue response to in vitro carcinogen exposure and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Res 62:4566–4570. Li D, Wang M, Dhingra K, Hittelman WN. 1996. Aromatic DNA adducts in adjacent tissues of breast cancer patients: clues to breast cancer etiology. Cancer Res 56:287–293. Lioy PJ, Greenberg A. 1990. Factors associated with human exposures to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Toxicol Ind Health 6:209–223. 2000. Glutathione S-transferases M1, T1, and P1 and breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 9(6):567–573. Mitrunen K, Hirvonen A. 2003. Molecular epidemiology of sporadic breast cancer: the role of polymorphic genes involved in oestrogen biosynthesis and metabolism. Mutat Res 544:9–41. Nakajima T, Elovaara E, Anttila S, Hirvonen A, Camus AM, Hayes JD, et al. 1995. Expression and polymorphism of glutathione S-transferase in human lungs: risk factors in smoking- related lung cancer. Carcinogenesis 16(4):707–711. NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information). 2009a. GenBank Overview. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/Genbank/ [accessed 10 March 2009]. NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information). 2009b. UniGene. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/unigene [accessed 10 March 2009]. Pavanello S, Clonfero E. 2000. Biological indicators of genotoxic risk and metabolic polymorphisms. Mutat Res 463:285–308. 558 ovlume 117 | number 4 | April 2009 • Environmental Health Perspectives