190 promotion programs. Their inclusion in developing and adapting interventions is critical. A third challenge is the actual implementation of evidence-based HIV interventions. While university-based researchers typically develop the interventions, they are either not involved or minimally involved in the actual packaging, manualizing, and dissemination of these inter- ventions. Manualizing is a lengthy process and not often rewarded in peer-reviewed publications or other products deemed valuable to university faculty. Additionally, the development of core elements, logic models demonstrating how the intervention operates, and project impact measures is commonly conducted with limited input from university faculty. Exacerbating this issue is the fact that implemen- tation science is so new that many university faculty are not familiar with the terms commonly used in translational research. Thus, the original researchers typically have not been given due consideration for what constitutes core elements or a logic model, or what appropriate project impact measures would be for their evidence-based HIV intervention. Finally, the fourth challenge is addressing sustainability of an HIV intervention. Approaches such as CBPR may be helpful in establishing and formalizing long-term relation- ships to facilitate sustainability. Investing in community and grassroots organizations by providing resources and trainings, acknowledging diversity and strengths of minority agencies, and endorsing culturally congruent interventions may facilitate the success of intervention implementation. Conclusions To best combat the HIV/AIDS epidemic within African American communities, researchers, clinicians, and com- munity partners must collaborate to develop culturally congruent HIV interventions that go beyond traditional strategies. While sex education and condom promotion are both critical and necessary weapons, only by understanding the importance of the historical and sociopolitical context of an individual’s life, the influence of culture and the normative scripts that may contradict cultural values and interfere with prevention messages, and the significant contribution of community partners, will this epidemic be curbed. Emphasis on improving the infrastructure of CBOs so that they have resources to continue interventions once research studies are completed is necessary. To best address HIV/AIDS in African American communities, the following suggestions are recommended: 1. Researchers need to endorse theories and conceptual frameworks that are pertinent to African Americans and their sociocultural context. Past interventions have Curr HIV/AIDS Rep (2010) 7:185–193 failed to focus on culture and have stressed individual risk behaviors, the divergence from social norms, and sexual behaviors within a non-contextual setting. Innovative models must develop culturally congruent prevention approaches that place emphasis on structural and social contextual factors [12 , 47], including: a. family, partnerships, community, and the collective nature of African Americans; b. traditional norms imposed by individuals or com- munity organizations such as churches and faith agencies, which may not promote positive personal control (ie, the individual deciding what is best for them); c. cultural pride, creativity, and imagination and victory in overcoming challenges; and d. sexual behaviors that may stem from hostile historical and contextual situations such as settings of poverty and abuses that occur between partners (sexual, physical abuse), and within communities (neighborhood violence), institutions (incarceration in the correctional system), and society (gender stereotypes promoted by media). These theories must also examine the confluence of personal, environmental, and institutional factors over time, as they may discourage the maintenance of improved health. 2. Studies must draw upon the strengths and resiliency of African American communities and not focus solely on deficit models. Thus, case controlled studies of indi- viduals at risk compared to those who are not at risk are needed to better understand how individuals with similar demographic characteristics avoid HIV infection and/or cope with health challenges such as histories of trauma and mental health disorders. 3. Emphasis must be placed on HIV risk reduction as well as prevention messages. Prevention strategies targeting HIV-negative African Americans tend to overshadow the needs of reducing HIV re-infection among those who are already infected or transmission to their partners. Condoms, when presented within a sociocul- tural context, can be a powerful weapon against HIV even for those already infected. For example, a recent study with 535 HIV serodiscordant African American couples highlighted significant change in the number of incidents of unprotected sex and proportion of condom use in a risk reduction intervention compared to a health promotion control [17]. This study stressed the importance for those who are living with the virus to be able to maximize intimacy within their relationships and reduce HIV-related risks with their HIV seronegative partners.