Lewerin et al. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52:7 http://www.actavetscand.com/content/52/1/7 unless old strains are recovered from the environment. Lacking detailed information on the exact location of old cattle graves, this is currently an unlikely scenario but efforts will be made to produce more detailed maps of the possible location of old anthrax spores. In conclusion, the case described here may indicate that untypical cases in non-endemic areas are missed to a larger extent than previously thought. It may be argued that if these cases do not cause secondary cases there is no harm done. However, there is a need to detect any environmental contamination with anthrax spores so as to prevent future outbreaks. Further insight into the infective dose for grazing animals as well as the symptoms in such animals infected with low doses is needed to better predict risks from old spores remaining in non-endemic countries where the situation may change in the wake of climate change. Furthermore, a commercially available field test would be of great bene- fit for a preliminary risk assessment of animal carcasses, in order to prevent further exposure. Consent As anthrax is included in the Epizootic Act (SFS 1999:657), the details of the case may be made publicly available and the Swedish veterinary authorities have the right as well as an obligation to report on all cases. Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge the scientists at the Centre for Microbiological Preparedness at SMI for help with confirmatory analyses. Author details 1Department of Disease control & Epidemiology, National Veterinary Institute, SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden. 2Varberg Veterinary Practice, Engelbrektsgatan 20, SE-432 42 Varberg, Sweden. 3Eurofins Food & Agro Sweden AB, Box 9024, SE-291 09 Kristianstad, Sweden. 4Swedish Board of Agriculture, SE-551 82 Jönköping, Sweden. 5Department of Bacteriology, National Veterinary Institute, SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden. 6Department of Animal Health and Antimicrobial Strategies, National Veterinary Institute, SE- 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden. 7CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, SE-901 82 Umeå, Sweden. Authors’ contributions SSL and ME took environmental samples in the herd, outlined the eradication efforts and gave advice on all aspects of the case as it evolved, TW was the field veterinarian in charge of the herd, LNH performed the necropsies, AKN handled all legal actions in the case, SEhrs adapted the DNA extraction for direct use on blood samples and perfomed the PCR on blood and dust samples in collaboration with RK, SEng performed the antimicrobial susceptibility testing, KS performed the bacteriological investigations, ACA and SB performed the DNA extraction and real time-PCR analysis from the soil samples, MG performed the MLVA analysis, PW did database comparisons and compiled the results from soil samples and MLVA. Susanna Sternberg Lewerin wrote the manuscript and all other authors contributed with their respective parts of the text. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 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