Mol Neurobiol (2012) 45:87–98 Camussi G (2009) Mesenchymal stem cell-derived micro- vesicles protect against acute tubular injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 20:1053–1067 51. Quesenberry PJ, Aliotta JM (2008) The paradoxical dynamism of marrow stem cells: considerations of stem cells, niches, and microvesicles. Stem Cell Rev 4:137–147 52. Skinner AM, O’Neill SL, Kurre P (2009) Cellular microvesicle pathways can be targeted to transfer genetic information between non-immune cells. PLoS One 4:e6219 53. Taylor DD, Gercel-Taylor C (2011) Exosomes/microvesicles: mediators of cancer-associated immunosuppressive microenvir- onments. Seminars Immunopathol 33:441–454 54. Ratajczak J, Miekus K, Kucia M, Zhang J, Reca R, Dvorak P, Ratajczak MZ (2006) Embryonic stem cell-derived micro- vesicles reprogram hematopoietic progenitors: evidence for horizontal transfer of mRNA and protein delivery. Leukemia 20:847–856 55. Olson SD, Kambal A, Pollock K, Mitchell GM, Stewart H, Kalomoiris S, Cary W, Nacey C, Pepper K, Nolta JA (2011) Examination of Mesenchymal stem cell-mediated RNAi transfer to Huntington’s disease affected neuronal cells for reduction of huntingtin. Molecular Neurology (in press) 56. Spees JL, Olson SD, Whitney MJ, Prockop DJ (2006) Mitochondrial transfer between cells can rescue aerobic respiration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:1283–1288 57. Wilkins A, Kemp K, Ginty M, Hares K, Mallam E, Scolding N (2011) Human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells secrete brain-derived neurotrophic factor which promotes neuronal survival in vitro. Stem Cell Res 58. Aizman I, Tate CC, McGrogan M, Case CC (2009) Extracellular matrix produced by bone marrow stromal cells and by their derivative, SB623 cells, supports neural cell growth. J Neurosci Res 87:3198–3206 59. Croft AP, Przyborski SA (2009) Mesenchymal stem cells expressing neural antigens instruct a neurogenic cell fate on neural stem cells. Exp Neurol 216:329–341 60. Delcroix GJ, Schiller PC, Benoit JP, Montero-Menei CN (2010) Adult cell therapy for brain neuronal damages and the role of tissue engineering. Biomaterials 31:2105–2120 61. Zuccato C, Ciammola A, Rigamonti D, Leavitt BR, Goffredo D, Conti L, MacDonald ME, Friedlander RM, Silani V, Hayden MR, Timmusk T, Sipione S, Cattaneo E (2001) Loss of huntingtin-mediated BDNF gene transcription in Huntington’s disease. Science 293:493–498 62. Zuccato C, Valenza M, Cattaneo E (2010) Molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutical targets in Huntington’s disease. Physiol Rev 90:905–981 63. Croll SD, Suri C, Compton DL, Simmons MV, Yancopoulos GD, Lindsay RM, Wiegand SJ, Rudge JS, Scharfman HE (1999) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor transgenic mice exhibit passive avoidance deficits, increased seizure severity and in vitro hyperexcitability in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex. Neuroscience 93:1491–1506 64. Boudreau RL, McBride JL, Martins I, Shen S, Xing Y, Carter BJ, Davidson BL (2009) Nonallele-specific silencing of mutant and wild-type huntingtin demonstrates therapeutic efficacy in Huntington’s disease mice. Mol Ther 17:1053–1063 65. Harper SQ, Staber PD, He X, Eliason SL, Martins IH, Mao Q, Yang L, Kotin RM, Paulson HL, Davidson BL (2005) RNA interference improves motor and neuropathological abnormalities in a Huntington’s disease mouse model. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:5820–5825 66. DiFiglia M, Sena-Esteves M, Chase K, Sapp E, Pfister E, Sass M, Yoder J, Reeves P, Pandey RK, Rajeev KG, Manoharan M, Sah DW, Zamore PD, Aronin N (2007) Therapeutic silencing of mutant huntingtin with siRNA attenuates striatal and cortical 97 neuropathology and behavioral deficits. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:17204–17209 67. Wang YL, Liu W, Wada E, Murata M, Wada K, Kanazawa I (2005) Clinico-pathological rescue of a model mouse of Huntington’s disease by siRNA. Neurosci Res 53:241–249 68. Lombardi MS, Jaspers L, Spronkmans C, Gellera C, Taroni F, Di Maria E, Donato SD, Kaemmerer WF (2009) A majority of Huntington’s disease patients may be treatable by individualized allele-specific RNA interference. Exp Neurol 217:312–319 69. Pfister EL, Kennington L, Straubhaar J, Wagh S, Liu W, DiFiglia M, Landwehrmeyer B, Vonsattel JP, Zamore PD, Aronin N (2009) Five siRNAs targeting three SNPs may provide therapy for three-quarters of Huntington’s disease patients. Curr Biol 19:774–778 70. Zhang Y, Engelman J, Friedlander RM (2009) Allele-specific silencing of mutant Huntington’s disease gene. J Neurochem 108:82–90 71. Lescaudron L, Unni D, Dunbar GL (2003) Autologous adult bone marrow stem cell transplantation in an animal model of huntington’s disease: behavioral and morphological outcomes. Int J Neurosci 113:945–956 72. Bantubungi K, Blum D, Cuvelier L, Wislet-Gendebien S, Rogister B, Brouillet E, Schiffmann SN (2008) Stem cell factor and mesenchymal and neural stem cell transplantation in a rat model of Huntington’s disease. Mol Cell Neurosci 37:454–470 73. Amin EM, Reza BA, Morteza BR, Maryam MM, Ali M, Zeinab N (2008) Microanatomical evidences for potential of mesenchymal stem cells in amelioration of striatal degeneration. Neurol Res 30:1086–1090 74. Watts C, McNamara IR, Dunnett SB (2000) Volume and differentiation of striatal grafts in rats: relationship to the number of cells implanted. Cell transplant 9:65–72 75. Dey ND, Bombard MC, Roland BP, Davidson S, Lu M, Rossignol J, Sandstrom MI, Skeel RL, Lescaudron L, Dunbar GL (2010) Genetically engineered mesenchymal stem cells reduce behavioral deficits in the YAC 128 mouse model of Huntington’s disease. Behav brain res 214:193–200 76. Edalatmanesh MA, Matin MM, Neshati Z, Bahrami AR, Kheirabadi M (2010) Systemic transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells can reduce cognitive and motor deficits in rats with unilateral lesions of the neostriatum. Neurol Res 32:166–172 77. Im W, Lee ST, Park JE, Oh HJ, Shim J, Lim J, Chu K, Kim M (2010) Transplantation of patient-derived adipose stem cells in YAC128 Huntington’s disease transgenic mice. PLoS Curr 2 78. Jiang Y, Lv H, Huang S, Tan H, Zhang Y, Li H (2011) Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells can improve the motor function of a Huntington’s disease rat model. Neurol Res 33:331–337 79. Lee ST, Chu K, Jung KH, Im WS, Park JE, Lim HC, Won CH, Shin SH, Lee SK, Kim M, Roh JK (2009) Slowed progression in models of Huntington disease by adipose stem cell transplantation. Ann Neurol 66:671–681 80. Lin YT, Chern Y, Shen CK, Wen HL, Chang YC, Li H, Cheng TH, Hsieh-Li HM (2011) Human mesenchymal stem cells prolong survival and ameliorate motor deficit through trophic support in Huntington’s disease mouse models. PLoS One 6: e22924 81. Rossignol J, Boyer C, Leveque X, Fink KD, Thinard R, Blanchard F, Dunbar GL, Lescaudron L (2011) Mesenchymal stem cell transplantation and DMEM administration in a 3NP rat model of Huntington’s disease: morphological and behavioral outcomes. Behav brain res 217:369–378 82. Sadan O, Shemesh N, Barzilay R, Bahat-Stromza M, Melamed E, Cohen Y, Offen D (2008) Migration of neurotrophic factors- secreting mesenchymal stem cells toward a quinolinic acid lesion as viewed by magnetic resonance imaging. Stem Cells 26:2542–2551