Review and Synthesis R E F E R E N C E S Ackerly, D.D. (2003). Community assembly, niche conservatism, and adaptive evolution in changing environments. Int. J. Plant Sci., 164, S165–S184. Armbruster, W.S. & Baldwin, B.G. (1998). Switch from specialized to generalized pollination. Nature, 394, 632. Baumiller, T.K. (1993). Survivorship analysis of Paleozoic Crinoi- dea – effect of ﬁlter morphology on evolutionary rates. Paleobi- ology, 19, 304–321. Ben-Halima, T., Gillon, Y. & Louveaux, A. (1985). Spe´cialisation trophique individuelle dans une population de Dociostaurus maroccanus (Orthopt.:Acrididae). Acta Oecol. ⁄ Oecol. Gener., 6, 17–24. Bernays, E.A. (1998). The value of being a resource specialist: behavioral support for a neural hypothesis. Am. Nat., 151, 451– 464. Berthold, P., Helbig, A.J., Mohr, G. & Querner, U. (1992). Rapid microevolution of migratory behavior in a wild bird species. Nature, 360, 668–670. Biesmeijer, J.C., Roberts, S.P.M., Reemer, M., Ohlemuller, R., Edwards, M., Peeters, T. et al. (2006). Parallel declines in poll- inators and insect-pollinated plants in Britain and the Nether- lands. Science, 313, 351–354. Bofarull, A.M., Royo, A.A., Fernandez, M.H., Ortiz-Jaureguizar, E. & Morales, J. (2008). Inﬂuence of continental history on the ecological specialization and macroevolutionary processes in the mammalian assemblage of South America: Differences between small and large mammals. BMC Evol. Biol., 8, 1471–2148. Bo¨ hning-Gaese, K. & Oberrath, R. (1999). Phylogenetic effects on morphological, life-history, behavioural and ecological traits of birds. Evol. Ecol. Res., 1, 347–364. Bra¨ndle, M., Prinzing, A., Pfeifer, R. & Brandl, R. (2002). Dietary niche breadth for Central European birds: correlations with species-speciﬁc traits. Evol. Ecol. Res., 4, 643–657. Brooks, D.R. & McLennan, D.A. (2002). The Nature of Diversity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Brown, J.H. (1995). Macroecology. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Cope, E.D. (1896). The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution. Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago. Crespi, B.J. & Sandoval, C.P. (2000). The phylogenetic evidence for the evolution of ecological specialization in Timema Walking- sticks. J. Evol. Biol., 13, 249–262. Dyer, L.A., Singer, M.S., Lill, J.T., Stireman, J.O., Gentry, G.L., Marquis, R.J. et al. (2007). Host speciﬁcity of Lepidoptera in tropical and temperate forests. Nature, 448, 696–699. Ellenberg, H., Weber, H.E., Du¨ll, R., Wirth, V., Werner, W. & Paulißen, D. (1992). Zeigerwerte von Pﬂanzen in Mitteleuropa, 2nd edn. Scripta Geobotanica 18. Goltze, Go¨ttingen. Feranec, R.S. (2007). Ecological generalization during adaptive radiation: evidence from Neogene mammals. Evol. Ecol. Res., 9, 555–577. Flessa, K.W., Powers, K.V. & Cisne, J.L. (1975). Specialization and evolutionary longevity in the Arthropoda. Paleobiology, 1, 71–91. Fontaine, C., Collin, C.L. & Dajoz, I. (2008). Generalist foraging of pollinators: diet expansion at high density. J. Ecol., 96, 1002– 1010. Futuyma, D.J. (2001). Ecological specialization and generalization. In: Evolutionary Ecology – Concepts and Case Studies (eds Fox, C.W., Are specialists at risk? 861 Roff, D.A. & Fairbairn, D.J.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 177–189. Futuyma, D.J. & Moreno, G. (1988). The evolution of ecological specialization. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 19, 207–233. Jablonski, D. (2001). Lessons from the past: evolutionary impacts of mass extinctions. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci., 98, 5393– 5398. Jablonski, D. & Raup, D.M. (1995). Selectivity of end-Cretaceous marine bivalve extinctions. Science, 268, 389–391. Janz, N., Nyblom, K. & Nylin, S. (2001). Evolutionary dynamics of host-plant specialization: a case study of the tribe Nymphalini. Evolution, 55, 783–796. Jiguet, F., Gadot, A.S., Julliard, R., Newson, S.E. & Couvet, D. (2007). Climate envelope, life history traits and the resilience of birds facing global change. Glob. Chang. Biol., 13, 672– 1684. Johnson, K.G., Budd, A.F. & Stemann, T.A. (1995). Extinction selectivity and ecology of Neogene Caribbean reef corals. Paleobiology, 21, 52–73. Julliard, R., Jiguet, F. & Couvet, D. (2003). Common birds facing global changes: what makes a species at risk? Glob. Chang. Biol., 10, 148–154. Kammer, T.W., Baumiller, T.K. & Ausich, W.I. (1998). Evolu- tionary signiﬁcance of differential species longevity in Osagean- Meramecian (Mississippian) crinoid clades. Paleobiology, 24, 155–176. Karban, R. (2008). Plant behaviour and communication. Ecol. Lett., 11, 727–739. Keller, G., Adatte, T., Stinnesbeck, W., Luciani, V., Karoui- Yaakoub, N. & Zaghbib-Turki, D. (1998). Paleoecology of the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction in planktonic foraminifera. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 178, 257–297. Kelley, S.T. & Farrell, B.D. (1998). Is specialization a dead end? The phylogeny of host use in Dendroctonus bark beetles (Scolytidae). Evolution, 52, 1731–1743. Kiessling, W. & Baron-Sza´bo, R.C. (2004). Extinction and recovery patterns of sclerectinian corals at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimat. Paleoecol., 214, 195–223. Klotz, S., Ku¨hn, I. & Durka, W. (2002). BIOLFLOR – Eine Datenbank mit biologisch-o¨kologischen Merkmalen zur Flora von Deu- tschland. BfN, Bonn. Koh, L.P., Sodhi, N.S. & Brook, B.W. (2004). Ecological correlates of extinction proneness in tropical butterﬂies. Conserv. Biol., 18, 1571–1578. Labandeira, C.C., Johnson, K.R. & Wilf, P. (2002). Impact of the terminal Cretaceous event on plant-insect associations. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 99, 2061–2066. Leonard, J.A., Vila, C., Fox-Dobbs, K., Koch, P.L., Wayne, R.K. & Van Valkenburgh, B. (2007). Megafaunal extinctions and the disappearance of a specialized wolf ecomorph. Curr. Biol., 17, 1146–1150. Liow, L.H. (2007a). Does versatility as measured by geographic range, bathymetric range and morphological variability contribute to taxon longevity? Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr., 16, 117–128. Liow, L.H. (2007b). Lineages with long durations are old and morphologically average: an analysis using multiple datasets. Evolution, 61, 885–901. Losos, J.B., Irschick, D.J. & Schoener, T.W. (1994). Adaptation and constraints in the evolution of specialization of bahamian Anolis Lizards. Evolution, 48, 1786–1798. 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd/CNRS