with IpaD at the tip of the type III secretion needle. Infect Immun 75: 2626–2629. doi:10.1128/IAI.01599-06. 34. Gupta S, Chowdhury R (1997) Bile affects production of virulence factors and motility of Vibrio cholerae. Infect Immun 65: 1131–1134. 35. Schumacher DA, Klose KE (1999) Environmental signals modulate ToxT- dependent virulence factor expression in Vibrio cholerae. J Bacteriol 181: 1508–1514. 36. Osawa R, Yamai S (1996) Production of thermostable direct hemolysin by Vibrio parahaemolyticus enhanced by conjugated bile acids. Appl Environ Microbiol 62: 3023–3025. 37. Osawa R, Arakawa E, Okitsu T, Yamai S, Watanabe H (2002) Levels of thermostable direct hemolysin produced by Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3:K6 and other serovars grown anaerobically with the presence of a bile acid. Curr Microbiol 44: 302–305. doi: 10.1007/s00284-001-0051-3. 38. Pace JL, Chai TJ, Rossi HA, Jiang X (1997) Effect of bile on Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Appl Environ Microbiol 63: 2372–2377. 39. Lin Z, Kumagai K, Baba K, Mekalanos JJ, Nishibuchi M (1993) Vibrio parahaemolyticus has a homolog of the Vibrio cholerae toxRS operon that mediates environmentally induced regulation of the thermostable direct hemolysin gene. J Bacteriol 175: 3844–3855. 40. Sperandio V, Torres AG, Jarvis B, Nataro JP, Kaper JB (2003) Bacteria–host communication: the language of hormones. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100: 8951–8956. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1537100100. 41. Nakano M, Takahashi A, Sakai Y, Nakaya Y (2007) Modulation of pathogenicity with norepinephrine related to the type III secretion system of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. J Infect Dis 195: 1353–1360. doi:10.1086/513275. 42. Bergen SS, Jr., Van Itallie TB, Tennent DM, Sebrell WH (1959) Effect of an anion exchange resin on serum cholesterol in man. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 102: 676–679. 43. Charlton-Menys V, Durrington PN (2008) Human cholesterol metabolism and therapeutic molecules. Exp Physiol 93: 27–42. doi:10.1113/expphysiol. 2006.035147. 44. Matsushita S, Kawamura M, Konishi N, Kai A, Katoh R, et al. (2003) Increasing drug resistance in Vibrio cholerae O1 and non-O1 strains isolated from diarrheal cases in Japan. Kansenshogaku Zasshi (in Japanese) 77: 195–202. 45. Han F, Walker RD, Janes ME, Prinyawiwatkul W, Ge B (2007) Antimicrobial susceptibilities of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus isolates from Louisiana Vp-PAI Gene Expression Gulf and retail raw oysters. Appl Environ Microbiol 73: 7096–7098. doi:10.1128/AEM.01116-07. 46. Neela FA, Nonaka L, Suzuki S (2007) The diversity of multi-drug resistance profiles in tetracycline-resistant Vibrio species isolated from coastal sediments and seawater. J Microbiol 45: 64–68. 47. Baker-Austin C, McArthur JV, Tuckfield RC, Najarro M, Lindell AH, et al. (2008) Antibiotic resistance in the shellfish pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolated from the coastal water and sediment of Georgia and South Carolina, USA J Food Prot 71: 2552–2558. 48. Daramola BA, Williams R, Dixon RA (2009) In vitro antibiotic susceptibility of Vibrio parahaemolyticus from environmental sources in northern England. Int J Antimicrob Agents 34: 499–500. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2009.06.015. 49. Waldor MK (2006) Disarming pathogens - a new approach for antibiotic development. N Engl J Med 354: 2. 50. Cegelski L, Marshall GR, Eldridge GR, Hultgren SJ (2008) The biology and future prospects of antivirulence therapies. Nat Rev Microbiol 6: 17–27. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1818. 51. Escaich S (2008) Antivirulence as a new antibacterial approach for chemother- apy. Curr Opin Chem Biol 12: 400–408. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2008.06.022. 52. Miller JH (1972) Experiments in Molecular Genetics. Cold Spring Harbor NY: CSH Laboratory Press. pp 352–355. 53. Park KS, Ono T, Rokuda M, Jang MH, Okada K, et al. (2004) Functional characterization of two type III secretion systems of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Infect Immun 72: 6659–6665. doi: 10.1128/IAI.72.11.6659-6665.2004. 54. Xu M, Iida T, Yamamoto K, Takarada K, Miwatani T, et al. (1994) Demonstration and characterization of simultaneous production of a thermo- stable direct hemolysin (TDH/I) and a TDH-related hemolysin (TRHx) by a clinically isolated Vibrio parahaemolyticus strain, TH3766. Infect Immun 62: 166–171. 55. Parales RE, Harwood CS (1993) Construction and use of a new broad-host- range lacZ transcriptional fusion vector, pHRP309, for gram- bacteria. Gene 133: 23–30. 56. Kodama T, Akeda Y, Kono G, Takahashi A, Imura K, et al. (2002) The EspB protein of enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli interacts directly with a-catenin. Cell Microbiol 4: 213–222. doi:10.1046/j.1462-5822.2002.00176.x. PLoS ONE | www.plosone.org 12 October 2010 | Volume 5 | Issue 10 | e13365