Kim and Ruger BMC Public Health 2010, 10:195 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/10/195 Page 12 of 19 Table 7: Age-adjusted Occupational Disparities in Behavioral Risk Factors by Gender (1998) All (%) Class I Class II Class III Class IV Class V Class VI All (%) Class I Class II Class III Class IV Class V Class VI Male 16.06 19.60 64.34 29.00 35.87 71.07 28.93 78.01 21.99 34.17 Moderate 35.14 Smoking Never Ex Current Alcohol No Heavy Obesity No Obesity Exercise No Regular Sleeping No χ2 = 1002.43(p < .01, df = 10) χ2 = 312.52(p < .01, df = 10) χ2 = 806.58(p < .01, df = 10) χ2 = 774.32(p < .01, df = 10) χ2 = 579.03(p < .01, df = 5) χ2 = 942.24(p < .01, df = 5) χ2 = 1505.30(p < .01, df = 5) χ2 = 315.46(p < .01, df = 5) χ2 = 256.52(p < .01, df = 5) χ2 = 297.76(p < .01, df = 5) 97.87 0.47 1.66 76.34 23.66 0.00 88.54 11.46 83.15 16.85 43.78 56.22 93.24 3.07 3.69 59.87 32.28 7.85 77.85 22.15 84.46 15.54 44.50 55.50 90.18 1.77 8.05 64.63 25.93 9.44 63.94 36.06 89.64 10.36 50.11 49.89 91.23 1.88 6.89 59.63 33.52 6.85 74.40 25.60 88.13 11.87 44.94 55.06 96.93 1.77 1.31 78.90 17.41 3.69 65.20 34.80 98.23 1.77 38.80 61.20 91.57 1.95 6.48 66.27 30.88 2.85 59.48 40.52 89.76 10.24 55.78 44.22 24.41 20.14 55.45 24.18 38.58 27.42 65.22 34.78 66.05 33.95 39.09 60.97 17.40 23.09 59.51 29.87 39.62 36.19 68.58 31.42 73.72 26.28 33.32 66.68 13.81 15.16 71.03 25.77 31.23 38.90 65.38 34.62 79.08 20.92 32.43 67.57 15.48 17.79 66.73 29.63 40.36 33.87 70.86 29.14 80.69 19.37 34.49 65.51 Adequate 65.83 female non-standard employees had higher rates of men- tal disorders compared to men whereas males in non- standard employment had higher rates of musculoskele- tal disorders and liver disease [52]. As a result, for Korean women, household income could be significantly more important than occupation in determining deprivations in health. Another explanation, in particular for the gender differ- ential in the impact of socioeconomic position on health that cannot be explained by differences in behavioral risk factors alone, may be women's overall inferior status in Korean society, beginning from birth. Though South Korea is regarded as one of the most advanced countries in Asia, some socioeconomic obstacles for women still remain, especially in the successful pursuit of women's careers and economic wealth and stability. This trend is exacerbated in Korea by the high cost of education, which can create barriers for women in accessing health care, health knowledge and information, as well as preventive screening services. 17.58 19.91 62.51 23.64 30.25 40.12 75.42 24.58 89.82 10.18 29.97 70.03 Female 13.65 93.46 14.63 71.72 1.93 4.61 24.18 71.79 38.14 24.19 38.22 4.03 80.23 68.92 19.77 31.08 81.99 83.67 18.01 16.33 40.32 41.26 59.68 58.74 Although there is growing social awareness of the importance of equal opportunities for and treatment of both genders, implementation of policies designed to promote women's rights are slow and sometimes even halted under the pretext of efficiency and economic development. Although Korea is among the world's top ten economies, it was ranked 108th among 130 countries in the Global Gender Gap report in 2008, leaving only a score of Arab and African countries behind it [53]. In the past, when women mostly engaged in jobs requiring low- level skills, companies did not think of the female labor force as increasing their financial burden. Today, how- ever, businesses are reluctant to fully utilize the female talent pool for fear it will cost them more, as there is increased societal pressure to offer women equal employ- ment opportunities while protecting their motherhood at the same time. When a society restricts women's job opportunities and socioeconomic prospects, it could fur- ther harm their self-reported acute and chronic health