alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Americium

Americium is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Am and the atomic number 95. In chemistry, it is placed in a group of metal elements named the actinides. Americium is a transuranic element (Transuranic means after uranium as all the elements used after uranium are man-made). Americium does not exist in nature and has to be made by people. It has a silver color. Americium is made by bombarding a plutonium target with neutrons.

It was the fourth transuranic element to be discovered. It was named for America, like Francium was named for France.

The longest half life of any type of americium is 7370 years.

Uses 
Americium is used in most smoke detectors. The level of radioactivity is not enough to cause cancer, so it is safe to live in a place where smoke detectors with americium are used.

References

Actinides
Synthetic elements
Phoenix Suns

The Phoenix Suns are an American professional basketball team that plays in the National Basketball Association (NBA). They play in the Pacific Division of the Western Conference. The Suns play at Footprint Center, originally known as America West Arena and later as US Airways Center, Talking Stick Resort Arena, briefly as PHX Arena, and Phoenix Suns Arena.

References

Other websites
Official Phoenix Suns website
BasketballBoards.net - Phoenix Suns Forum
Phoenix Suns at Yahoo! Sports

Sports in Phoenix, Arizona
National Basketball Association teams
1968 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Arizona
Debris

Debris in a general sense means man-made garbage. Debris is the scattered remains of something that is discarded or destroyed. There are many types of debris, depending on the context. When natural disasters happen, debris is the remains of destroyed buildings and land. In the context of geology, debris is the remains of geological activity such as landslides, volcanic eruptions, avalanches, and so on.

The average American produces garbage, also called trash, at the rate of four pounds per day per person, which translates to 600,000 tons per day, or about 220 million tons per year. This is almost twice the rate of trash generation per person as most other major countries. Trash levels can be reduced primarily by recycling, re-use, and reduced consumption.

Other websites 

Miller, 1989, Potential Hazards from Future Volcanic Eruptions in California: USGS Bulletin 1847

Waste
Waste heat

Waste heat is the by-product heat of machines and technical processes for which no useful application is found. 

A fraction of input energy is always converted to heat by friction between machine parts and other processes such as liquid friction (see: viscosity). 

Mechanical drives can be designed to run smoothly, with little loss of energy to heat. Machines for conversion of energy contained in fuels to mechanical work or electric energy produce large amounts of waste heat (see: Second law of thermodynamics). 

This waste heat can be re-used if a cogeneration system is used. It is hard to use waste heat because it is difficult to transport the heat to another place, and it is difficult to store the heat for use at another time.
In electrification of waste heat, organic matter can be used as a working medium to produce electricity on much lower temperatures compared to the water steam cycle. 

Heat
Energy
Waste
Kingda Ka

Kingda Ka is a steel roller coaster at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson, New Jersey, USA. It was built by Stakotra, a subcontractor to Intamin. Built in 2005 to be the worlds tallest and fastest roller coaster Kingda Ka is one of only two strata coasters in the world. Kingda Ka held the record for the worlds fastest roller coaster until the completion of Formula Rossa at Ferrari World in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Kingda Ka goes up  and can go . It first opened on May 21, 2005. To get up 456 feet, the train is launched by a machine to 128 miles per hour in 3 seconds. The train goes up the tower, and back down. At the bottom the train goes over a hill while it is slowing down. Soon it is going slow enough to be able to arrive safely back where it started. The ride lasts 28 seconds from the time it is launched.

History 
In the past, Kingda Ka has been struck by lightning and shut down for almost a whole year. The launch cable snapped once and the ride was shut down for a while. Something happened to the braking fins so they shut down the ride. It also can get shut down by weather. The train is made so that if it rolls back it gets placed back to be launched. This happens when the hydraulic launch system does not get enough power to get over the hill or the brakes on the top off the hill stop you too much.

Story 
Kingda Ka is named for a 500-pound mythical tiger. A tiger in the safari was named after the roller coaster. It is surrounded by bamboo to make it look more real. It also plays music.

Features 

The ride has 4 trains with 5 cars. They are 9 rows in each car that can hold 18 people and there are 2 people in each row. Each seat has shoulder harnesses and buckles that keep the shoulder harness down to make sure passengers are safe. At the top, passengers are weightless for a second, and after riders enjoy a beautiful view, it is followed by a drop.

Restrictions 
Passengers must be 4´7 to ride Kingda Ka.

Problems

The train may sometimes experience a rollback after it is launched. A rollback happens when the train doesn't make it to the top of the hill and rolls back down the track. The launch track has magnetic brakes so that the train doesn't go back to the station.

References

Other websites
 Official website
 
 Kingda Ka
 

Six Flags Great Adventure
Steel roller coasters
Roller coasters in New Jersey
Roller coasters by name
Launched roller coasters
2005 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in New Jersey
Vulnerability

Vulnerability means the extent to which changes can hurt or harm a person or a system.

In context with natural hazards and natural disasters, vulnerability is a concept that looks at the relationship that people have with their environment and at social aspects.

So it links environment to social forces and institutions and the cultural values that sustain and contest them. “The concept of vulnerability expresses the multidimensionality of disasters by focusing attention on the totality of relationships in a given social situation which constitute a condition that, in combination with environmental forces, produces a disaster” (Bankoff et al. 2004: 11).

Complex definition: Vulnerability is the susceptibility to physical or emotional injury or attack. It also means to have one's guard down, open to censure or criticism; assailable. Vulnerability refers to a person's state of being liable to succumb, as to persuasion or temptation (see Thywissen 2006 for a comparison of vulnerability definitions).

Related pages
Vulnerability index

Other websites 
 Modelling Society’s Capacity to Manage Extraordinary Events *From the  Swedish Morphological Society
United Nations University Institute of Environment and Human Security
MunichRe Foundation

Social sciences
Harm

Harm is physical or psychological or emotional damage or injury to a person, animal or other legal entity. 

It is generally believed that humans, in addition to other sentient animal species, possess an aversion to causing harm to others.

Many religions consider any harm to another person a sin.

Psychology
Injuries
Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of copying another person's ideas, words or writing and pretending that they are one's own work. It can involve violating copyright laws. College students who are caught plagiarizing can be expelled from school. It can permanently damage a student's reputation. Writers who plagiarize commit serious legal and ethical violations.

Types of plagiarism 
 Direct Plagiarism – copying and pasting someone else's work, or making minor changes to someone else's work to pass it off as their own.
 Self-Plagiarism – Happens when a student submits all or part of their own previous work without getting permission from all involved professors.
 Mosaic Plagiarism – Or "patch writing," is when parts of other works are copied without using quotation marks. It can also be when a student keeps the same structure and meaning of an original passage and only uses synonyms.
 Accidental Plagiarism – This can happen when a student does not cite their sources. It can also happen when a student paraphrases information without giving attribution (credit to the original author or authors).
 Mash-up – Two or more data sources that have been turned into one. They may be graphics, texts, songs, and video from various media.

Legal issues 
Many cases of plagiarism, especially in schools, can lead to internal punishment. Certain people have been punished in a legal court for plagiarism, mostly due to copyright claims. Court cases include:
 Sheldon v. Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp. (1936)
 Nichols v. Universal Pictures Corp. (1930)
 Steinberg v. Columbia Pictures (1987)

Any work created in the US after 1st. Mar 1989 is automatically protected by copyright, even if there is no copyright notice attached to the work. The defendant could sue for any copying of this kind of intellectual property.

Avoiding plagiarism 
It is usually not enough to know what plagiarism is, students must also know how to avoid plagiarism. Writers are as responsible for intentional plagiarism as they are for accidental plagiarism. It is important to cite sources while doing research. Putting this off until later can cause some sources to be forgotten or incorrectly cited.

When using a source, make sure the content is in the same context as the paper. Try to avoid using biased sources. Always take the time to find the correct information about a source. For example, some web pages may be part of a larger website. While a web page article may seem fair and balanced, it can be affected by the overall bias or reputation of the publisher. Using something out of context can also lead to charges of plagiarism. Taking the time to properly cite all sources in a paper or work is paying respect to the original ideas of others. This is all part of doing good work.

Related pages 
 Copyright
 Copyright infringement
 Academic dishonesty
 Fair use
 Wikipedia:Citing sources (Wikipedia guideline)
 Ghostwriter
 Pastiche

References

Other websites 
 Avoiding Plagiarism: Writing With Integrity; YouTube
 What is plagiarism and how to avoid it: YouTube
 Avoiding plagiarism: Purdue University

Plagiarism
Copyright infringement
Rickshaw

A riksha or rickshaw is a kind of vehicle that has two wheels. They are usually pulled by a human but there are types that have been changed to be pulled by a bicycle or have their own motor, Rickshaws are popular vehicles in Bangal Pradesh  (Bangladesh) and Japan.

Other websites

Rickshaw! A blog collecting the inscriptions on the back of rickshaws, cycle rickshaws and auto rickshaws
Rickshaw : dekh magar pyar se  A blog entry glancing past, present and future of rickshaw

Public transport
Human-powered vehicles
Saturation

Saturation or saturated generally means "thoroughly full", while unsaturated means less than full. These terms may be related to:

 Dew point, which is a temperature that occurs when atmospheric humidity reaches 100% and the air can hold no more moisture
 Market saturation, in economics, a situation in which a product has become diffused (distributed) within a market
 Saturated model, a concept in mathematical logic
 Saturation (album), an album by the alternative rock band Urge Overkill
 Saturation (biology), in mutation studies, the observed number of mutations relative to the maximum amount possible (usually undefined).
 Saturation (chemistry), multiple definitions for chemistry
 Saturation (color), the intensity of a specific hue
 Saturation (magnetic), the state when the material cannot absorb a stronger magnetic field
 Oxygen saturation, a clinical measure of the amount of oxygen in a patient's blood
 Saturation (telecommunications), a number of meanings
 Saturation arithmetic, in arithmetic, a version of arithmetic in which all operations are limited to fixed range
 In the earth sciences, saturation generally refers to the water content in the soil, where the unsaturated zone is above the water table and the saturated zone is below.
 A saturated liquid or saturated vapor contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling or condensing.
 A saturated transistor is a  BJT transistor that is fully turned on.
Water content

Water content means the amount of water present in a porous substance, such as soil. This term is used in hydrogeology, soil science and soil mechanics. In saturated groundwater aquifers, all available spaces are filled with water. Above a capillary fringe, pore spaces have air in them too.

Gaps between soil particles are called pore spaces or voids. These voids contain various amounts of either water or air. Soil moisture content can be expressed in different basis:
Gravimetric: the mass of water/mass of solid material
Volumetric: the volume of soil/total porosity

The amount of void space within a soil depends on the distribution of particle sizes, and is quantified by soil porosity.

Soil moisture is the water stored in soil from after rain or melted snow soak into the ground.  This water can be used by plants in a process called evapotranspiration or it can continue to move deeper into the ground to become part of the groundwater in a process called groundwater recharge.

Related pages
 Humidity

Content
Soil
Milo Ventimiglia

Milo Anthony Ventimiglia (born July 8, 1977) is an American actor. He is best known for playing the hero, Peter Petrelli, on the television series, Heroes. He played Jess Mariano on the television series Gilmore Girls.  He was born in Anaheim, California.

American television actors
Actors from Anaheim, California
1977 births
Living people
Black metal

Black metal is an extreme style of Heavy metal that started in the early 1980s. Lyrics are often for religions such as Satanism. Various black metal bands have relations to satanism in their lyrics and even in outlook. Lyrics may also have subjects such as Paganism. The majority of black metal vocalists are male, although there are a few notable exceptions – for example Cadaveria, Astarte and Lucifugum.

Black metal is divided into two waves. The first wave began in the early 1980s by bands such as Venom, Bathory, Hellhammer, Celtic Frost and Mercyful Fate. Venom's first albums, Welcome to Hell and Black Metal are usually said to be the first black metal records. The second wave is the most popular wave of black metal and it started in the early 1990s. It started from Norway and includes bands such as Darkthrone, Enslaved, Burzum, Satyricon, Mayhem, Gorgoroth, Immortal, and Emperor.

Black metal is also very controversial, especially in Norway. During the early 1990s, certain black metal musicians burned old churches in Norway. One of the people who was found guilty for burning churches, Varg Vikernes, was also found guilty for murdering Øystein Aarseth, a fellow black metal musician.

Subgenres 

 Ambient black metal (also atmospheric black metal) is a type of black metal that uses synthesizers to create a dark atmosphere.
 Symphonic black metal is a type of black metal that uses symphonic elements in the music.
 Viking metal is a type of black metal that focuses on Norse mythology instead of Satanism and the occult. Bands in this subgenre often use some folk instruments as well. Bathory is usually given credit for creating the subgenre with their album, Blood Fire Death.
 National Socialist black metal (also known as Nazi black metal or NSBM) is a title used to refer to black metal acts with an emphasis on Nazi beliefs in their music. Nazi black metal artists are a small minority.

References 

Heavy metal subgenres
Darkness

Darkness is when there is absence of  light. In practice, out in the open air, there is always almost some light, however slight. The darkness of the night sky is estimated by a nine-point scale known as the Bortle scale.

Darkness is made by blocking light from the sun or some other source of light, which makes shadow. At night the Earth blocks the sun, and casts a shadow over one entire side of the world. There is heat radiation even in the dark. 

In mythology, darkness is often connected with evil. Many people are uncomfortable or afraid when in the dark, especially children.

In religion, darkness is considered as beginning of the world, before the light appeared.  At the same time, the darkness was "the second to last plague" (Exodus 10:21).

Darkness in art 
Many artists used and still use darkness to fill the void spaces on the canvas. Also it used for chiaroscuro. To create darkness, all colored paints are mixed. Every color absorbs light frequencies.  

Light
Des O'Connor

Desmond "Des" Bernard O'Connor (12 January 1932 – 14 November 2020) was an English television presenter and singer. He was born in Stepney, London. O'Connor presented the long running game show Countdown on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom, from January 2007 to December 2008.

O'Connor died on 14 November 2020 from problems caused by a fall, aged 88.

References

Other websites 

English autobiographers
British game show hosts
English singers
English television presenters
Singers from London
1932 births
2020 deaths
Writers from London
Accidental deaths from falls
Tony Romo

Antonio "Tony" Ramiro Romo (born April 22, 1980 in San Diego, California) is an American football quarterback who plays for the Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League. He played college football at Eastern Illinois. He is viewed by many as the top quarterback in the NFL.

 

Romo was signed by the Cowboys as an undrafted free agent in 2003. He has had success with Dallas, and is well known by the media. He has the 3rd highest passer rating in NFL history.

1980 births
Living people
Sportspeople from San Diego, California
American football quarterbacks
Carmelo Anthony

Carmelo Kyam Anthony (born May 29, 1984 in Brooklyn, New York) is an American professional basketball small forward. He is currently a free agent. Anthony also played for the Denver Nuggets and the New York Knicks from 2003-2011 to 2017 and the Houston Rockets from 2018 to 2019.

References

Other websites

 Carmelo Anthony's Official website 

1984 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
American Olympic gold medalists
Denver Nuggets players
New York Knicks players
Sportspeople from New York City
American basketball players
Dallas Mavericks

The Dallas Mavericks are an American professional basketball team from Dallas, Texas. They play in the National Basketball Association (NBA). They were founded in 1980. They play their home games at the American Airlines Center. Their owner is Mark Cuban. Though they have had good teams for most of the 2000s, they only made the NBA Finals once in 2006, where they lost to the Miami Heat 4-2. Dallas Mavericks players include Dirk Nowitzki, Jason Kidd, Jason Terry, Shawn Marion, Caron Butler, and Peja Stojakovic. They won their first NBA Championship in 2011 when they beat the Miami Heat in a 4-2 series in a rematch from 2006. After the championship, the Mavericks would not make it past the first/second rounds until 2022.

References

Other websites

National Basketball Association teams
Mavericks
1980 establishments in the United States
1980s establishments in Texas
Walter Payton

Walter Payton (July 25, 1954 – November 1, 1999) was an American football player. He was born in Columbia, Mississippi. Payton played for the Chicago Bears from 1975 to 1987. The Bears won Super Bowl XX in 1985. Payton was made a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1993. He died of cholangiocarcinoma (bile duct cancer) in 1999.

Other websites 
Payton34.com - Walter and Connie Payton Foundation
Walter Payton's Roundhouse.com
Walter Payton Cancer Fund.org - official site

1954 births
1999 deaths
Deaths from cholangiocarcinoma
American football running backs
Chicago Bears players
Sportspeople from Mississippi
Christopher Benfey

Christopher Benfey (born October 28, 1954) is an American writer. He is a Professor of English language at Mount Holyoke College. He has written several books that people liked a lot. He was born in Marion, Pennsylvania. He later moved to Richmond, Indiana where he grew up. He has attended many colleges including the Putney school, Guilford College, Earlham College, and Harvard University.

1954 births
Living people
People from Richmond, Indiana
Writers from Indiana
Writers from Pennsylvania
Harthacanute

Harthacanute (Canute the Hardy, sometimes Hardicanute, Hardecanute; Danish: Hardeknud) (1018 – 8 June 1042) was King of Denmark from 1035 to 1042 and England from 1040 to 1042. He was the only son of Canute the Great and Emma of Normandy.

He followed his father as King of Denmark in 1035, becoming Canute III. Fighting with Magnus I of Norway stopped him from sailing to England to take up his throne. His older, illegitimate half-brother, Harold Harefoot, became regent of England.

Harold took the English crown for himself in 1037. After Harthacanute had settled the situation in Scandinavia he prepared an invasion of England to take over his kingdom. Harold died, and Harthacanute was able to take back his throne peacefully.

Harthacanute was a harsh and unpopular ruler. To pay for his ships, he greatly increased the rate of taxation. In 1041, the people of Worcester killed two of Harthacanute's men who had been collecting the tax. Harthacanute burned the city. The story of Lady Godiva riding naked through the streets of Coventry to persuade the local earl to lower taxes, may come from the reign of Harthacanute. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says of him: "He never accomplished anything kingly for as long as he ruled".

In 1041, Harthacanute asked his half-brother Edward the Confessor (his mother Emma's son by Ethelred the Unready) back from exile in Normandy to become a member of his household, and probably made Edward his heir. Harthacanute was unmarried and had no children. On 8 June 1042, he died at Lambeth— he "died as he stood at his drink, and he suddenly fell to the earth". He was buried at Winchester Cathedral, Hampshire. Edward became the new king.

References 

1018 births
1042 deaths
Canute III
People buried in Winchester Cathedral
11th century in England
Harold Harefoot

Harold Harefoot, also Harold I, (c. 1015 – 17 March 1040) was King of England from 1035 to 1040. He was justthe son of Canute the Great, King of England, Denmark, Norway, and some of Sweden, by his wife Aelgifu of Northampton. There was skepticism about his being Canute's son.

Upon Canute's death (12 November 1035), Harold's younger half-brother Harthacanute, the son of Canute and his queen, Emma of Normandy, was legitimate heir to the thrones of both the Danes and the English. He was unable to travel to his coronation, because his Danish kingdom was under threat of invasion by King Magnus of Norway and King Anund Jacob of Sweden. Therefore, he was installed temporarily as regent though Godwin the Earl of Wessex and the Queen was against it.

Harold died at Oxford on 17 March  1040, just as Harthacanute was preparing an invasion force of Danes, and was buried at the abbey of Westminster.

References

Other websites 
 Harold Harefoot At Find A Grave

1010s births
1040 deaths
11th century in England
English Interregnum

The English Interregnum was the period of parliamentary and military rule in the land occupied by modern-day England and Wales after the English Civil War. It began with the execution of Charles I in 1649 and ended when Charles II became king, after Oliver Cromwell died in 1660.

This era in English history can be divided into four periods.
 The first period of the Commonwealth of England from 1649 until 1653
 The Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell from 1653 to 1658
 The Protectorate under Richard Cromwell from 1658 to 1659
 The second period of the Commonwealth of England from 1659 until 1660

Life during the Interregnum
Oliver Cromwell was a Puritan and during the Interregnum, he imposed a very strict form of Christianity upon the country.  Although a main cause of the English Civil War was oppression under Charles I, England during the Interregnum became oppressive in its own fashion. Cromwell granted religious freedom otherwise previously unknown in England, but other forms of expression were suddenly limited (for instance, theatre, which had thrived under the Stuart kings and Elizabeth I, was banned).  Cromwell also made certain that his own personal vision of Christianity was enforced upon the masses. Many of Cromwell's actions were called "harsh, unwise, and tyrannical" by some commentators.  

His son and successor, Richard Cromwell gave up his position as Lord Protector with little hesitation, resigning or "abdicating" after a demand by the Rump Parliament. This was the beginning of a short period of restoration of the Commonwealth of England.

Related pages
Richard Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell
Commonwealth of England
The Protectorate

17th century in England
Interregnum

An interregnum is a period between monarchs, between popes of the Roman Catholic Church, emperors of Holy Roman Empire, Polish kings (elective monarchy) or between consuls of the Roman Republic. It can also refer any gap in the continuity of a government, organization, or social order. The period of interregnum may be peaceful, or it may collapse into chaos and anarchy.

In some monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, an interregnum is usually avoided due to a rule described as "the king is dead, long live the King", i.e. the heir to the throne becomes a new monarch immediately on his predecessor's death or abdication. This famous phrase signifies the continuity of sovereignty. This is not so in other monarchies where the new monarch's reign begins only with coronation or some other formal or traditional event.

Pope's interregnum (or sede vacante) 
An interregnum occurs also upon the death of the Roman Catholic Pope, though this is generally known as a sede vacante (vacant seat).  The interregnum ends immediately upon election of the new Pope by the College of Cardinals.

Related pages
 English Interregnum

Periods and ages in history
Monarchy
The Restoration

The Restoration was an time in the history of the British Isles that started in 1660. In 1660 the House of Stuart was restored to power after the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Restoration came after The Protectorate, when Oliver Cromwell and his son Richard Cromwell had led the government. The kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland started to have a monarchy again. "The Restoration" means both the events at the start of Charles II's reign and the period of time after they happened.

Charles II came back to England after his exile and he became king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Before this, the British Isles's monarchy had stopped after Charles I's execution. The three kingdoms became a republic, without a monarchy: the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

Literature and culture of the Restoration period can also have the name "Restoration". (For example, Restoration drama is the theatre and plays of the Restoration period.)

Other websites 
 http://www.debretts.co.uk/royal_connections/sovereigns_england_17_century.html 
 Review of 'Revolution and Counter-Revolution in England, Ireland and Scotland 1658-60', by Brian Manning 
 Chapter V. The Stewart Restoration  By Sir Charles Harding Firth

History of the British Isles
1660s
Commonwealth of England

The Commonwealth of England was the republican government which ruled first England and then Ireland and Scotland from 1649 to 1660. After the execution of Charles I on January 30, 1649, the Commonwealth was declared (An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth) by the Rump Parliament on May 19, 1649. The government during 1653 to 1659 is properly called The Protectorate, and took the form of direct personal rule by Oliver Cromwell and, after his death, his son Richard, as Lord Protector. The term Commonwealth is, however, loosely used to describe the system of government during the whole of 1649 to 1660, the years of the English Interregnum.

Other websites 
 British flags of the period
 Commonwealth of England: Heads of State: 1649-1660

History of the British Isles
Presbyterianism

Presbyterianism is a kind of Protestant Christianity.  It was started in Scotland by John Knox during the 16th century.  It became powerful in England during the Civil War.  Today there are Presbyterian churches across the world.

Presbyterians (followers of Presbyterianism) believe that the Bible is the most important thing in their church because it was given to humans by God and has no errors in it. They believe that God has control over everything and has chosen to make some people follow Jesus Christ but not others, and that only followers of Jesus may get into heaven. (See Calvinism)

Presbyterian churches may be led by men called Ministers, Rectors or Elders. Some Presbyterian churches have women as elders. "Presbyter" means "elder" and they rule in committees. 

There is no overall leader and there are no bishops in the Presbyterian tradition. On Sunday, the Bible, which they consider the 'Word of God', is read and a sermon preached by the minister is at the heart of a morning worship service, which also includes group singings of some worship songs.

Around the world 
There are Presbyterian churches on every continent except Antarctica, but they do not always agree with each other. There have been many splits ("schisms") caused by various disagreements: some about what they believe, some about how they should be organised. In some cases these splits have been healed but many have not.

In Scotland, where Presbyterianism started, there are at least seven different groups ("denominations"); there are three main groups in England, one in Wales and five in Northern Ireland.

There are dozens of different groups in North America, almost all in the USA.  They arrived during the 17th century, mostly from Scotland and already disagreeing with each other.  Most countries in South America have had Presbyterian churches since the 19th century.

At least 23 countries in Africa have Presbyterian churches, also since the 19th century.

In Asia, the Korea Presbyterian Church was started through the mission of the Presbyterian Church (USA).  After Korean independence, the division was formed afresh as 'Presbyterian Church in Korea (KoRyuPa)' advocating the views of Dutch Reformed churches.  In 2012 a new General Assembly of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church of Korea declared authentic historical succession of John Knox.

Related pages 
 Wee Frees
 Ian Paisley
Declaration of war

A declaration of war is a formal declaration issued by a national government indicating that a state of war exists between that nation, and one or more others.

Declarations of war have been used in diplomacy since the Renaissance, when the first formal declarations of war were issued.

In an effort to force nations to resolve issues without warfare, the United Nations Charter attempted to commit member nations to using warfare only under limited circumstances, such as to defend when attacked. Wars continued to begin and end, but powerful states no longer declared them.

Related pages
Casus belli

Other websites
 Declarations of war during World War II

War
Cyrillic script

The Cyrillic script, sometimes called the Slavonic script or Slavic script, is a native Slavic alphabet. It is now used to write Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Rusyn, Bulgarian, Macedonian and for most South Slavic languages. It was developed in the Bulgarian empire during the reign of Tsar Simeon I. The Soviet Union made many non-Slavic languages in the Caucasus, Siberia, Central Asia and in northern Russia to be written in Cyrillic.

History 
Old Church Slavonic was the original language of the Slavic people, and it was used for Russian Orthodox Church. In the 9th century, two monks, St. Cyril and St. Methodius, were missionaries in Eastern Europe. When they preached to the Slavic peoples, they invented the Glagolitic alphabet, an early form of Cyrillic. 

During the 18th century, Nikolay Karamzin added Э, Й and Ё.

In 1708, Peter the Great added lowercase forms to the letters.

After the October Revolution, the Communist Party changed the Cyrillic alphabet for the Russian language so it would be easier for Soviet citizens to learn how to read and write. The letters I/i, Ѣ/ѣ, Ѳ/ѳ, Ѵ/ѵ were all removed from Russian.

In 1991, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan decided to drop the Cyrillic script and to adopt the Latin script.

Related pages 
 Roman alphabet

References 

 
9th-century works
Silent Spring

Silent Spring is the name of a book by Rachel Carson. It was published in 1962. It tells of the damage done to the environment by the use of chemicals to kill pests. The book is widely credited with helping launch the modern American environmental movement.

The book documented detrimental effects of pesticides such as DDT on wildlife, particularly birds. Carson accused the chemical industry of spreading disinformation, and public officials of accepting industry claims uncritically.

References

Other websites 
 Silent spring studyguide: summary, analysis, historical context, retrieved April 26, 2006
 New York Times report of chemical industry's campaign  July 22, 1962
 Jim Norton, "Silencing Silent Spring
 Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC): The Story of Silent Spring 

1962 books
Biology books
Nymph (biology)

In zoology, a nymph is the young stage of some kinds of invertebrates, especially insects.

Insects grow by metamorphosis. In incomplete metamorphosis, an insect egg hatches, and a small nymph comes out. The nymph usually looks just like the adult insect but is much smaller. Nymphs do not become pupae before becoming adults. They just grow larger. They moult through various stages called instars.

Some insects have nymphs that are aquatic, which means they live in water. These nymphs look very different from the adults. Dragonflies have nymphs that live in water, such as in lakes and rivers. Nymphs that live in water are sometimes called naiads.

The other way insects grow is by complete metamorphosis. This way has no nymphs. The adult form is prepared in the pupa, and comes out perfect.

Some insects that are nymphs when they are young are grasshoppers, cockroaches, true bugs and dragonflies.

Insects
Developmental biology
Saab

Saab is a Swedish car and airplane maker, started in Trollhattan, Sweden in 1937. Saab started to make cars in 1947. The automobile part of the business is now owned by Spyker Cars. The aviation and defense parts of Saab are owned by the Wallenberg family.

Models
 Saab 9-3

References

Other websites
YouTube page

Aircraft companies
Automobile companies of Sweden
Military organizations
The Protectorate

The Protectorate was the period of British history during which the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland was governed by a Lord Protector, which was from 1653 to 1659.

Before the Protectorate, England (and then Scotland and Ireland) had been ruled directly by Parliament since it had declared England to be a Commonwealth in 1649. The Rump Parliament had been sent away in April 1653 by soldiers led by Oliver Cromwell. Although the replacement Barebones Parliament (July–December 1653), was nominated by Cromwell and the leaders of the army, it was just as difficult to control.

The post of Lord Protector was created by a constitution passed in December 1653, which gave Cromwell the position for life. Although the constitution divided power between the Lord Protector, the Council of State and Parliament, there was in practice again the strong executive power that had been absent since the end of the monarchy. Cromwellian government has been called 'one of the first experiments in (de facto) military dictatorship' (Abbott).

During the Protectorate, there was Puritan legislation. Religious toleration was extended to Jews and most Protestants but not Anglicans or Roman Catholics.

After Cromwell's death in September 1658, the new Lord Protector, Richard Cromwell, was unable to control the army and resigned in May 1659. After the chaotic English Interregnum, the monarchy was restored in May 1660 through the initiative of General George Monck.

Other websites 
 United Kingdom: Flags of the Interregnum, 1649–1660

History of the British Isles
Rump Parliament

The Rump Parliament was the name given to Parliament until 1660 of the English Parliament that followed the Long Parliament, after Pride's Purge of December 6 1648 had removed those Members of Parliament that were against the plan to try King Charles I for high treason.

Other websites 
 British Civil Wars: Rump Parliament 
  Full text of the Act erecting a High Court of Justice for the Trial of Charles I January 6, 1649
 Full text of the Sentence of the High Court of Justice upon the King, 27 January, 1649 
 Full text of The Death Warrant of Charles I, 29 January, 1649
 Full text of the Act appointing a Council of State, 13 February, 1649
 Full text of the Act abolishing the Office of King, 17 March, 1649
 Full text of the Act abolishing the House of Lords, 19 March, 1649
 Full text of the Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth, 19 May, 1649
 Full text of the Act declaring what Offences shall he adjudged Treason under the Commonwealth, 17 July, 1649
 Chambers' Book of Days:April 20th With a censored version of Cromwell's 1653 speech ending the Parliament.
 http://castorblog.com/archives/000275.html  with an uncensored version of Cromwell's speech.
 Full text of the Declaration by Oliver Cromwell and the Council of Officers after putting an End to the Long Parliament, 22 April, 1653

17th century in England
Parliaments
Michael Owen

Michael Owen (born 14 December 1979) is a retired English professional footballer.

Club career statistics 

Statistics accurate as of match played 19 May 2013

International career statistics 

International goals
Scores and results list England's goal tally first.

References

Other websites

 
 
 
 Profile at ManUtd.com
 Michael Owen's column in The Times
 Photographs and statistics at sporting-heroes.net – England, Liverpool, Real Madrid, Newcastle
 Premier League profile
 

1979 births
Living people
People from Chester
Sportspeople from Cheshire
Association football forwards
English footballers
Premier League players
1998 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2000 players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2004 players
2006 FIFA World Cup players
English autobiographers
Ballon d'Or winners
Manchester United F.C. players
Liverpool F.C. players
England at the 1998 FIFA World Cup
England at UEFA Euro 2000
England at the 2002 FIFA World Cup
England at UEFA Euro 2004
England at the 2006 FIFA World Cup
Norman conquest of England

The Norman conquest of England was a military invasion of England by William the Conqueror in 1066.

William was Duke of Normandy, a country on the other side of the English Channel, now a region in France. He invaded England after the death of King Edward the Confessor because he believed he had the most right to be King of England, but King Harold II had himself crowned king instead. King Harold, with his Saxon army, and Duke William fought at the Battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066. King Harold was killed in the battle and his army left. On December 25, 1066 William was crowned the new King of England.

The Norman conquest was an important change in English history. The conquest linked England more closely with Continental Europe, and made Scandinavian influence less important. It created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe.  The conquest changed the English language and culture, and set the stage for rivalry with France, which would continue (with a few breaks) until the 19th century. 

England has never been successfully invaded since the Norman invasion nearly 1000 years ago.

Related pages
 Spanish Armada
 Jacobitism
 Operation Sea Lion

Other websites 
 Essential Norman Conquest , multimedia resources by Osprey Publishing.
 The Effect of 1066 on the English Language
 Collection of source material on the Norman conquest of England

Wars involving England
Normandy
1066 in England
11th-century conflicts
11th century in Europe
Raid

For the technology of putting many hard drives together, see RAID
A raid is an attack into enemy territory with no intent to get control of it. For example, the attack on Pearl Harbor was an air raid.

The attackers go away immediately after the attack. Most raids are brief and performed by a small number of people.

War
English Reformation

The English Reformation was part of the Protestant Reformation. Many Christian churches in Europe broke away from  Rome. Each of the countries that went through this process did so in a different way. Earlier the Roman Catholic Church had supreme powers. 

Henry VIII broke ties with the church and became head of the English church. This was done in 1534 in the Acts of Supremacy. It was the beginning of the Church of England. His friend Thomas Cranmer became Henry's Archbishop of Canterbury. Cranmer would  also go on to advise Edward Henry's son when he took the throne in 1549. For years, the Church of England was almost exactly the same as the Catholic Church, except that it was ruled by the King instead of the Pope. This is different from the Reformation on the European continent, where the reformers wanted big changes right away. 

There were several causes for the English Reformation. One of these was that Henry VIII, who was King of England, wanted to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon. Another reason was because Henry wanted the Church's wealth and power, and got them with the dissolution of the monasteries.  

The Protestant Reformation in Scotland, however, was based more on the teachings of Martin Luther and John Calvin, so it was more like the Reformation in continental Europe. 

16th century in England
Protestant Reformation
Gianluigi Buffon

Gianluigi "Gigi" Buffon (born 28 January 1978) is an former Italian professional footballer who plays in the goalkeeper position. He is a Goalkeeper for the Serie B team Parma Calcio. He used to play for the Italy national team from 1996 till he retired in 2018. Buffon is recognized by many peoples as one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time, and, by some, as the greatest ever.

Gianluigi Buffon started his career in Parma and won a UEFA Cup in 1999. In 2001, he transferred to the Italian giant Juventus and won the Serie A on consecutive years.

Buffon joined the Italy national team in 1997. In the 2006 FIFA World Cup, he led them to the championship, allowing only two goals in 7 games and keeping 5 clean sheets (no goals allowed), which was a new World Cup record at that time.

Career statistics

Club

International 
Source:

Notes

References 

1978 births
Living people
Italian association football goalkeepers
Footballers from Tuscany
People from Carrara
Italy at the 1998 FIFA World Cup
Italy at the 2002 FIFA World Cup
Italy at UEFA Euro 2004‏‎
Italy at the 2006 FIFA World Cup
Italy at UEFA Euro 2008
Italy at the 2010 FIFA World Cup
Italy at UEFA Euro 2012
Italy at the 2014 FIFA World Cup
Italy at UEFA Euro 2016‏‎‏‎
Checksum

A checksum is a number. It is a kind of redundancy check. There are different ways to calculate it. It serves as a check, that no errors have been made when writing down the number. In its simplest form, the digits are simply added up. This can however not detect errors of swapping digits around. One of the uses of checksums is to check that account numbers have been entered correctly. 

Portuguese bank account identifiers are a good example of how checksums work. They have 21 digits. The first 19 digits identify the bank, branch and account number.  The last two digits are "mod 97" checksum digits based on modular arithmetic. A typical Portuguese bank account number is 0002.0123.12345678901.54. The digits have the following meanings:

The digits "0002" represent the bank.
The digits "0123" represent the branch of the bank.
The digits "12345678901" represent the account number
The digits "54" represent the checksum.

If 000201231234567890154 (the bank account number without the dots) is divided by 97, the answer is 207458809978249 remainder 1. Since the remainder is "1", the bank account identifier is probably correct. If the person writing down the number missed a digit, swapped two digits around or wrote a digit down incorrectly the remainder would not have been "1". If this is the case then the computer should detect an error and give an error message.   

Another place where checksums are used are serial numbers for computer software.

References

Computer science
Fennel

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is a kind of herb. It is native to the Mediterranean and some parts of Asia. Its bulb, leaves, and seeds may be eaten. Dried fennel seeds are used as a spice for flavoring food. Fennel was used to make the spiced wine, claret, in the Middle Ages. Their flavor is like anise.

Images

Other websites 
 Fennel - nutrition and uses

Herbs
Spices
Apiaceae
DisneyToon Studios

DisneyToon Studios was an animation studio created and owned by Walt Disney Animation Studios. Disneytoon Studios closed its doors on June 28, 2018, resulting in a layoff of 75 animators and staff. It worked together with Walt Disney Animation Studios. DisneyToon Studios made a total of 67 movies.

List of movies 
This is a list of 62 movies that were made by DisneyToon Studios.

Theatrical releases to most or all countries are marked with an asterisk (*). Theatrical releases to only some countries are marked with a double asterisk (**).

DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp (1990)*
The Return of Jafar (1994)
Gargoyles the Movie (1995)A Goofy Movie (1995)* Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996)Mighty Ducks the Movie (1997)
Pooh's Grand Adventure: The Search for Christopher Robin (1997)
Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997)
Belle's Magical World (1998)
Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998)
The Lion King II: Simba's Pride (1998)
Doug's 1st Movie (1999)Hercules zero to hero (1999)
Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas (1999)
Seasons of Giving (1999)
The Tigger Movie (2000)*
An Extremely Goofy Movie (2000)
Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins (2000)The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea (2000)Recess school's out (2001)
Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure (2001)
Mickey's Magical Christmas Snowed in at the House of Mouse (2001)Recess Christmas Miracle on Third Street (2001)
Return to Never Land (2002)*
Cinderella II: Dreams Come True (2002)
The Hunchback of Notre Dame II (2002)
Tarzan and Jane (2002)Mickey's House of Villains (2002)
Winnie the Pooh: A Very Merry Pooh Year (2002)
101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure (2003)
The Jungle Book 2 (2003)*
Piglet's Big Movie (2003)*
Atlantis: Milo's Return (2003)
Stitch! The Movie (2003) Recess All Growed Down (2003)
Recess Taking the Fifth Grade (2003)Teacher's Pet (2004)
The Lion King 1½ (2004)
Winnie the Pooh: Springtime with Roo (2004)
Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers (2004)
Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas (2004)
Mulan II (2004)
Pooh's Heffalump' Movie (2005)*
Tarzan II (2005)
Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch (2005)
Pooh's Heffalump Halloween Movie (2005)
Kronk's New Groove (2005)
Bambi II (2006)**
Leroy and Stitch (2006)Winnie the Pooh: Shapes and Sizes (2006)Winnie the Pooh: Wonderful Word Adventure (2006)Brother Bear 2 (2006)The Fox and the Hound 2 (2006)Cinderella III: A Twist in Time (2007)Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams (2007)The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning (2008)Tinker Bell (2008) Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure (2009)Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue (2010)Secret of the Wings (2012)**
Planes (2013)The Pirate Fairy (2014)**Planes: Fire & Rescue (2014)Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast'' (2015)

Franchises

References

The Walt Disney Company