alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Rust

Rust is a type of corrosion. It happens to iron and its alloys when it is exposed to air or water for a long time. Rust slowly decomposes iron into other chemicals, because of a reaction with the oxygen molecules. Both air and water are needed for rust. Almost all metals corrode but they can be protected by covering with paint, a coating of oil or grease or even plastic.  Sacrificial protection or industrial galvanizing can also work.  Alloys (mixes of metals) such as stainless steel, rust more slowly than pure iron.  When iron rusts, it becomes red or brown, and the metal eventually decays.

Rust appears on metal if it is left outside in the damp air. For example, rust occurs mostly in cracks of alloys or metals.  Rain water can enter the cracks and stay in the cracks, and cause the metal to corrode.  Eventually it becomes rust.  Iron is not strong after it rusts.

Some metals, such as aluminium, titanium, and stainless steel form a very thin coating of tough corrosion on the metal. The metal cannot continue corroding because the coating isolates the rest of the metal from the source of oxygen. This is why aluminium keeps its shine. It also makes aluminium seem very unreactive, even though it can react with water. Rusting iron makes iron oxides that are not tough, so air and water continue to get in and the iron continues to rust.

Some types of basidiomycete fungi can be mistaken for rust because they are similar to rust in color and texture and sometimes are on metals.

Related pages
 Iron(III) oxide
 Hematite
 Corrosion

Other pages

Metals
980s

The 980s was a decade that began on 1 January 980 and ended on 31 December 989.

Events
 983 pagan West Slavs revolt, temporarily ending attempts at conversion and forcing abandonment of German sees and monasteries east of the Elbe
 Kievan Rus' accepts Eastern Orthodox Christianity
Suhl

Suhl is a town in Thuringia, Germany. Its population in 2003 was 43,610.

According to a local joke, "Suhl is so close to the edge of the world you can see Zella-Mehlis".

References

Other websites

Urban Districts of Thuringia
Eisenach

Eisenach is a German city in the west of Thuringia. Next bigger Cities are Erfurt and Kassel. Its population is about 43,000.

References

Other websites

Urban Districts of Thuringia
GameFAQs

GameFAQs is a website with help and information for video games. It was started in November 1995 by Jeff "CJayC" Veasey. It has an active message board community.

Other websites 
GameFAQs

Video game websites
Werner Heisenberg

Werner Karl Heisenberg (5 December 1901  1 February 1976) was a German physicist. He won the  Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of quantum mechanics. He discovered the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which shows there is a limit on how well position and velocity of a particle can be measured.

Early life
Heisenberg was born in Wuerzburg, Germany, the son of a professor of Byzantine history. He went to university to study physics in Munich. Arnold Sommerfeld was one of his teachers. 

Heisenberg was a very good student and needed only three years to finish his studies. He then wrote a doctoral thesis about movements in the flows of liquids ("Über Stabilität und Turbulenz von Flüssigkeitsströmen"—"On the stability and turbulence of liquid streams"). In 1924 he became assistant to Max Born at the University of Göttingen. In June 1925 he was recovering from hay fever on the island Helgoland, and while working alone made the decisive breakthrough to Quantum mechanics. Back in Göttingen, together with Max Born and Pascual Jordan, they wrote the basic paper which founded Quantum 

mechanics. 

In 1926/ 1927 Heisenberg worked with Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen. In February 1927, while Bohr was on extended skiing holidays, he invented the uncertainty principle and published the paper “Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik”—“On the Visualizable Contents of the Quantum-theoretical Kinematics and Mechanics”.

At the age of 26 Heisenberg became professor of theoretical physics at the University of Leipzig.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize when he was 31 years old.

In 1937 he married Elisabeth Schumacher. They had seven children, one of their sons is well known as a neurobiologist and geneticist, Martin Heisenberg.

War and later 
During the Second World War, from 1939 to 1945 Werner Heisenberg was drafted to work on the German Uranium Project .  This was aiming at a nuclear reactor, and did not result in any nuclear weapons, possibly because Heisenberg did not want it to.  Some historians assume that there was a race between the tiny German Uranium project and the huge American Manhattan project.  Hans A. Bethe, the director of the theory division of the Manhattan project at Los Alamos, said this was not true.  Edward Teller, the father of the American hydrogen bomb, said that Heisenberg sabotaged the German project.

After the war, he was held as a prisoner at Farm Hall in England from May 1945 to January, 1946, where the British and Americans kept ten German nuclear scientists.

Later he worked in elementary particle physics, mainly in West Germany and he helped the foundation of the European Laboratory for Elementary Particle Physics CERN in Geneva, Switzerland. In April 1957, he signed a declaration , together with 17 German physicists, that they would never participate in the construction of nuclear weapons. In 1958, his Max-Planck-Institut für Physik was transferred from Göttingen to München.

He died in Munich Germany, in 1976 at the age of 74.

1901 births
1976 deaths
German academics
German Nobel Prize winners
People from Würzburg
German theoretical physicists
Islamophobia

Islamophobia is the dislike, fear, pre-judgment, hostility or hate against Muslims (people following the religion Islam) or the religion itself. 

Sometimes people use it to attack the ideological positions taken by Muslims, but more often than not they state the religion itself as the actual problem.

Muslim women are more likely to experience islamophobia in their lifetime compared to Muslim men, especially if they are wearing some kind of face veil.

Examples of islamophobia in the world

During the Bosnian War in the 1990s, Serbian Orthodox Christians committed a genocide against Bosniak Muslims, with a strong motive of islamophobia.

In France, since 2013, it is illegal for Muslim women to wear veils (burqas and niqabs) that cover their faces publicly.

Related pages
 Racism - the idea that one race is better than most or all of the others
 Antisemitism - the hatred of Jews

References
Ludwig Erhard

Ludwig Wilhelm Erhard (4 February 1897 in Fürth - 5 May 1977 in Bonn) was a German politician.

Life 
Erhard was born as the son of a salesman. After his middle school exam, he started training to become a salesman himself. He was wounded as soldier in World War I. After World War I, he started to study micro economy at a college in Nuremberg.

After that, he studied economy on the University of Frankfurt am Main. In 1925 he finished his doctoral thesis. Afterwards, he worked in his father's company. After the Great Depression, the company went bankrupt.
From 1928 to 1942, he worked as science assistant, but he could not get a promotion because he did not want to become a member of a Nazi organisation. From 1942 to 1945, he was the head of the institute for industrial research.

Until 1949, he worked for the CDU, but joined still in 1963.
From 1945 to 1946, he worked for the provisional government of Bavaria, afterwards he was an economic organisation official for the British-American administration in West Germany.

In 1949, he became Minister of Economics under Konrad Adenauer.
From 1957-1963, he was Vice Chancellor.
After Adenauer resigned in 1963, Erhard became the new chancellor.
In 1966, Kurt Georg Kiesinger succeeded him.

Erhard died in 1977, aged 80.

1897 births
1977 deaths
Chancellors of Germany
Members of the German Bundestag
Government ministers of Germany
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Politicians from Bavaria
Politicians of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany
Vice Chancellors of Germany
Kurt Georg Kiesinger

Kurt Georg Kiesinger (6 April 1904 in Ebingen, now Baden-Württemberg - 9 March 1988 in Tübingen-Bebenhausen) was a German politician.

Kiesinger was born in Southern Germany. He studied history and philosophy in Tübingen and later law in Berlin.

He joined the Nazi party in 1933, and worked in the government. After the war he was held in a prison camp in Ludwigshafen. He was released when notes on his personnel file showed that he had not helped the anti-Jewish actions in his department, and had tried to stop them.

In 1946, he started a political career in the CDU. From 1958 to 1966, he was Minister President of Baden-Württemberg, from 1967 to 1971 Chair of the CDU.

From 1966 to 1969, he was chancellor of West Germany.

1904 births
1988 deaths
Chancellors of Germany
German civil servants
Members of the German Bundestag
German lawyers
Ministers-President of Baden-Württemberg
Nazis
Politicians from Baden-Württemberg
Politicians of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany
Call of Duty 3

Call of Duty 3 is a first person shooter video game. It is available on many gaming systems such as the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, and PC. It is a sequel to Call of Duty 2, and is part of the Call of Duty series.

Call of Duty 3 is set in France, during the time of World War II. The player is part of the allied forces placing charges, firing mortars, driving jeeps, and killing Nazis. The player moves by using the movement of his own hands. The game also features online play, which allows you to choose the side of allies or axis and play on a team against opposing players.

Differences
While the PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 versions support online headset, the PlayStation 3 does not support headset due to the game being rushed to be ported at the time and is ironic because the PS2 was released before the PlayStation 3. The Wii version does not support online play.

References

Other websites
 Official website
 

2006 video games
Call of Duty series
Brian Johnson

Brian Johnson (born 5 October 1947 in Dunston, Gateshead, England) is an English singer and songwriter. He is best known as the singer for Australian hard rock band AC/DC.

Biography 
Johnson's father, Allan, was in the British Army's light infantry. His mother, Esther, came from Italy. Johnson has two children from his first marriage. That marriage ended in divorce just before he joined AC/DC in 1980.

Before AC/DC 
Johnson was in the Newcastle glam-rock band Geordie in 1972. The band split up in 1978 but Johnson put it back together in 1980. Just after a record contract had been signed, Johnson was asked to audition for AC/DC.

Joining AC/DC 
Johnson joined AC/DC in 1980, after the death of the band's former lead singer Bon Scott. He was the band's first choice. A fan in Cleveland, Ohio had sent a Geordie album to AC/DC after Bon Scott's death. The fan had asked them to consider Johnson. Years earlier, Bon Scott had also praised Johnson's singing and performance style.

Johnson co-wrote all of AC/DC's songs with the Young brothers for ten years.

Other websites 
 AC/DC profile page by Albert Music 
 AC/DC profile page by Atlantic Records 
 AC/DC profile page by Epic Records 
 AC/DC Fan Page 

Johnson, Brian
Johnson, Brian
AC/DC members
1947 births
Living people
Centipede

A centipede is a type of myriapod with many legs. Centipedes are predators. They hunt during the night; they are nocturnal.  Some centipedes are venomous, but none can kill a person unless they are allergic. Centipedes are in the class Chilopoda, and related to millipedes, which are not poisonous. As the millipedes, they are segmented. They have between 5 and 173 segments, but only one pair of legs per segment. There may be 8,000 species in the world.

The house centipede is a carnivore that feeds on cockroaches, house flies and other domestic pests. It is therefore beneficial. But because it has a scary appearance it is often exterminated.

References 

Myriapods
Pomerania

Pomerania (Pommern in German, Pomorze in Polish) is a region on the Baltic Sea. It is now part of two countries, Germany and Poland.

Prehistoric tribes 

20,000 years ago the territory of present-day Pomerania was covered with ice, which did not start to recede until the late period of the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic some 10,000 years BC, when the Scandinavian glacier receded to the north. Various archaeological cultures developed in the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.

Since around 500BC and before 500 AD Pomerania was dominated by East Germanic tribes including several tribes of Goths, who according to archeological evidence and their own tradition have come from Scandinavia. Goths and Rugians are recorded by Roman historians in the areas of Pomerania in 98 AD. The Veneti, non-Germanic tribe, which later assimilated with Slavs, are recorded by Ptolemy and Pliny the Elder around Vistula in first century AD. By the 7th century Slavic tribes (Wends) such as the Pomeranians settled the area.

Conquest and rule 
Pomerania was first conquered by the Polish duke Mieszko I in the second half of the 10th century. Pagan uprisings in 1005 and 1038 resulted in independence for Western Pomerania and Pomerelia, respectively. Regained by Poland in 1116/1121, the Polish could not hold the Pomeranian duchy longer than 1135, whereas Pomerelia after the 1138 partition of Poland among the sons of Boleslaus Wrymouth became a part of the Polish seniorat, which was declared fief of the Holy Roman Empire in 1156. 

The Western part, the Duchy of Pomerania, was declared part of the Holy Roman Empire (1181). After a brief period of Danish rule (1168/1186-1227), it remained part of Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation until 1806. 

1000 years of history of the areas between Elbe, the Oder and Vistula

References 

Geography of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Geography of Poland
900s

The 900s was a decade that began on 1 January 900 and ended on 31 December 909.

Events

 Accession of Sergius III.
 Destruction of Chang'an, the capital of Tang Dynasty and the largest city in the ancient world.
 Founding of the Royal Mint in England.
 Capture of Thessalonica by Saracens.
1034



Events 
 April 11 – Empress Zoe of Byzantium marries her chamberlain and elevates him to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael IV.
 Free County becomes subject to the Holy Roman Empire.

Births 
 September 3 – Emperor Go-Sanjō of Japan (d. 1073)

Deaths 
 November – King Malcolm II of Scotland, Scottish royal (b. 954)
 Fulbert de Falaise, Norman Tanner (weaver) and businessman (b. c. 973)
Bronllys

Bronllys is a village in the Powys region of Wales. A Norman castle was built there in the 11th century.

Other websites
CastleWales on Bronllys Castle

Villages in Powys
Natural language processing

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a field in Artificial Intelligence, and is also related to linguistics. On a high level, the goal of NLP is to program computers to automatically understand human languages, and also to automatically write/speak in human languages. We say "Natural Language" to mean human language, and to indicate that we are not talking about computer (programming) languages.

References 

Computer science
Würzburg

Würzburg (; Main-Franconian: ) is a city in the German state of Bavaria. About 124,000 people live there. There is a university there.

Würzburg is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop.

In about 1000 BC there was a Celtic settlement in that place. In 698 AD Würzburg became Christianised. The first mention was in 704 AD. In 742 Würzburg became the seat of a bishop. From 1168 the bishops of Würzburg had the title Herzog (Duke), given by the emperor.

In 1402 Würzburg got a university. It later closed and then reopened in 1582. In 1631 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden conquered Würzburg in the 30-year war. In 1803 the Duchy of Würzburg became part of Bavaria, in 1938 the city had more than 100,000 inhabitants for the first time. In 1945 the city was nearly completely destroyed.

Its football team is Würzburger Kickers.

Gallery

References

Other websites
Conscientious objector

A conscientious objector (CO) is a person who decides not to be a combatant in military forces under conscription.

There are many reasons for this decision such as nonviolent or religious beliefs, ethical and moral beliefs to not kill human beings or pacifism.

Countries treat COs in various ways. They have also been treated differently throughout history. COs have been arrested or had to pay a fine. Some countries punished them by killing them. After World War II, many Western countries created alternative non-military services (civil service) as alternative form for pacifists. Often there were commissions to decide if someone really did not want to do armed service because of his beliefs or because of fear of war.

European Court of Human Rights has judged the denial of COs is violation of freedom of religion and thought in 2013, as well European Union recognized the right of conscientious objector as one of fundamental rights.

Other websites 
Alternative Service in the Second World War: Conscientious Objectors in Canada 1939-1945.  
Conscientious objectors in a volunteer army (Chicago Tribune article by Anthony DeBartolo) 
The National Registry for Conscientious Objection 
Conscience - the peace tax campaign 
"Thoughts for Young Men ..." a one-page leaflet 
Manifesto against conscription and the military system , with online signature, official website
International Conscientious Objectors' Day (War Resisters' International)
"Making a Choice: Conscientious Objection or Refusing to Register" (Resisters.info)
The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection
GI Rights Hotline
The Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors (US) 
 Mennonite Central Committee's listing of resources for CO's (US) 
Christadelphian Position And Experience Of Conscientious Objection
War
Politics by issue
Anus language

The Anus language is a tribal language spoken in the Irian Jaya province of Indonesia. It is an Austronesian language.

As of 2005, there are almost 70 speakers of the language all of whom are members of a tribal group living on an island in the Sarmi-Jayapura Bay in West Papua.

References

Austronesian languages
Rule of law

Rule of law is a legal maxim that suggests that no one is above the law and governmental decisions must be made only by applying known legal and moral principles. The Rule of Law limits the powers of Government by judicial defense of laws and the Constitution which is based on recognized basic legal values, established in international law. The Rule of Law is meant to prevent dictatorship and to protect the rights of the people.

The rule of law is especially important as an influence on the economic development in developing and transitional countries. Constitutional economics is the study of  government spending, which, in many transitional and developing countries, is completely controlled by the executive. The standards of constitutional economics can be used during annual budget process. The availability of an effective court system, to be used by the civil society in courts in situations of unfair governmental distribution of national money is a key element for the success of the rule-of-law in developing countries.

To date, the term “rule of law” has been used primarily in the English-speaking countries.  The originally German doctrine of Rechtsstaat is similar, and has been translated into other languages of continental Europe as État de droit (Fr.), Estado de derecho (Sp.), Stato di diritto (It.), and Правовое государство (Ru.).  Rechsstaat can be translated into English as “legal state” or "constitutional state".  

Rule of law is also a main purpose of Council of Europe for solidarity and international peace.

Related pages 
 Constitution
 Constitutionalism
 Constitutional economics
 International human rights law
 Political economy
 Vienna Declaration 
 Council of Europe

References

Other websites 
 What is the Rule of Law?  University of Iowa Center for International Finance and Development
 Centre for Public Law  has an audio and written analysis of the Rule of Law by Lord Bingham of Cornhill (the senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary of the United Kingdom supreme court)

Law

la:Regnum legis
Electorate

The Electorate are the people or citizens of a state who elect representatives to represent them in a democracy. They're also known as voters. Voters are people who normally votes in an election and they vote for their favorite person that if he/she wins, he/she will lead the people to a more favourable country Voting

Voting
Paramount Pictures

Paramount Pictures is an American film production and distribution company. It is the oldest movie studio in the United States. It has been in existence since 1912. Paramount is owned by media conglomerate Paramount Global. Paramount is one of the Big Five movie studios.

History 
Paramount Pictures Inc. can trace its beginnings to the creation in May, 1912 of the Famous Players Film Company. Organized in 1914 by a Utah theater owner, W. W. Hodkinson, Paramount Pictures was the first successful nationwide distributor. Until this time, movies were sold on a statewide or regional basis. This was inefficient and costly to producers.

In 1916, Adolph Zukor created a three-way merger of his Famous Players Film Company, Jesse L. Lasky's Lasky Feature Play Company, and Paramount. The new company was called Famous Players-Lasky and grew quickly. Lasky ran the production side. Hiram Abrams was in charge of distribution and Zukor handled the business side of the company.

In 1927, Famous Players-Lasky took on the name Paramount-Famous Lasky Corporation. Three years later, because of the importance of the Publix theater chain, it was later known as Paramount-Publix Corporation. The company went into bankruptcy in 1933. When the company emerged from bankruptcy, it was known as Paramount Pictures, Inc.

Paramount Pictures had been an early supporter of television. It created stations in 1939 in Los Angeles (later to become KTLA) and Chicago's WBKB.

Paramount's successful run of lightweight pictures in the 1980s and 1990s created hits like Flashdance, the Friday the 13th series; Raiders of the Lost Ark, Beverly Hills Cop and the Star Trek features.

In 1993, entertainment conglomerate Viacom bought Paramount.

Paramount is the last major movie studio located in Hollywood. Other studios such as Warner Bros. and Columbia Pictures moved to other neighborhoods in Los Angeles.

On December 11, 2005, Paramount said it had purchased DreamWorks SKG in a deal worth $1.6 billion. On February 1, 2006, the studio announced that the DreamWorks acquisition was completed.

In March 2010, Paramount started Insurge Pictures, a low-budget label. In 2019, Paramount bought 49 percent of Miramax Films.

List of movies 
 Smile (2022)
 Scream VI (2023)
 Instant Family (2018)
 Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny (2023)
 Scream (2022)
 Sonic the Hedgehog 2 (2022)
 Dora and the Lost City of Gold (2019)
 Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves (2023)
 Cilford The Big Red Dog (2021)
 Puss in Boots (2011)
 Monsters vs. Aliens (2009)
 Mission: Impossible – Dead Recokoning Part One (2023)
 The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out On Water (2015)
 Transformers: Rise of the Beasts (2023)
 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Mutant Mayhem (2023)
 Sherlock Gnomes (2018)
 Paw Patrol: The Movie (2021)
 Wonder Park (2019)

Movie studios

DreamWorks (1996-2010; live-action movies)
Nickelodeon Movies (1998-present)
Miramax Films (2019-present)

Other websites 
 Official website
 Paramount Pictures on IMDB.com
 Insurge Pictures

Viacom
Companies based in Los Angeles
1912 establishments in California
American movie studios
Chord

A chord in music is when two or more notes are played together (some text books say that it is when three or more notes are played).

A chord which is built up of the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes of a scale is called a "tonic triad". If it is made from a major scale, it is a major chord. If it is made from a minor scale it is a minor chord. However, any combination of notes played simultaneously is considered a chord.

When only two notes are played together, it’s more often called “double stops” (referring to the different banks of pipes on a pipe organ, controlled by valves called “stops”).

Chords can be played on instruments such as piano, keyboard, organ, harp, guitar, harmonica, ukulele and xylophone. Chords with two notes can be played on string instruments by bowing on two strings together. By bowing on two strings and then quickly on the other two strings a violinist can sound as if he is playing a four-part chord. Some players of wind instruments are able to make chords by playing two or more harmonics together.

Related pages
 Harmony
 Interval (music)

Music theory
Irish dance

Irish dancing is an ancient art of dancing from Ireland. There are two main forms of dancing, the social dances where everyone can join in, and the dances performed for an audience. There are five main types of steps in Irish dancing. These are reels, jigs, slip jigs, hornpipes, and treble jigs. Irish dancing is a fun art and sport. There are two versions of dances; hardshoe and softshoe.

Irish dancing, popularized in 1994 by the world famous show Riverdance, is notable for its rapid leg and foot movements, arms stationary at the dancers' sides.

The hardshoe makes a noise when you step and softshoe is like Ballet.

Dances
Grill (cooking)

A grill is an object used for cooking food. With a grill, food is usually roasted. Some grills use charcoal or wood, and other grills use propane gas to cook the food.  

Using wood or charcoal makes smoke and changes the flavor of the food. Using gas does not. Some people only like one type, and some people like both kinds of grilling.

The heat may be added underneath the food, or above, or both. A barbecue is a typical machine for outdoor cooking using coke or other fuel for providing heat from underneath. Overhead grilling is more usual indoors, especially in professional kitchens.

In the United States, there are cook-off grills, which are competitions. The most common meats used are steak, burgers and hot dogs.  Grilling food is very common for holidays or celebrations like the 4th of July (United States Independence Day).  Most people use a grill more outdoors in the summer time.

Grills can have fire touching the food. This might cause a burnt taste and could possibly be a carcinogen.

Related pages 
 Asado
 Barbecue

References 

Cooking appliances
Cooking methods
Order of operations

The order of operations is a mathematical and algebraic set of rules. It is used to evaluate (solve) and simplify expressions and equations. The order of operations is the order that different mathematical operations are done. The standard mathematical operations are addition (+), subtraction (−), multiplication (* or ×), division (/), brackets (grouping symbols used to indicate order of operations like (), [] and {}) and exponentiation (^n or n, also called orders or indices).

Mathematicians have agreed on a correct order to use operations, and it is very important that they know these rules. When people are solving a problem with more than one operation, they will need to know the correct order to solve the problem correctly. Otherwise, the answer will be wrong.

Rules 
Follow all the rules in this order from left to right in the equation.

Brackets and indices 
Use operations inside brackets and solve any indices. You should always solve brackets first when solving an equation.

Example:
2 * 4 + (9 - 8) + 3
2 * 4 + (9 - 8) + 3
2 * 4 + 1 + 3
2 * 4 + 1 + 3
8 + 1 + 3
8 + 1 + 3
9 + 3
= 12

Exponents 
When seeing an exponent, solve it first after solving the brackets. (53 = 5 * 5 * 5 = 125)

Multiplication and division 
Solve any multiplication and division in the problem. Note that multiplication does not precede division; this is a common mistake. Both are solved from left to right as they occur.

Example:
5 * 4 - 9 / 3
5 * 4 - 9 / 3
20 - 9 / 3
20 - 9 / 3
20 - 3
= 17

Addition and subtraction 
Lastly, solve any addition or subtraction.

Two examples of all rules

Example one 
(1 + 8) * (4 - 1) + 16 / 23
(1 + 8) * (4 - 1) + 16 / 23
9 * (4 - 1) + 16 / 23
9 * 3 + 16 / 23
9 * 3 + 16 / 8
9 * 3 + 16 / 8
27 + 16 / 8
27 + 2
= 29

Example two 
(7 + 3) * (6 - 3) + 216 / 33
(7 + 3) * (6 - 3) + 216 / 33
10 * (6 - 3) + 216 / 33
10 * 3 + 216 / 33
10 * 3 + 216 / 27
10 * 3 + 216 / 27
30 + 216 / 27
30 + 8
= 38

Acronyms 
The acronyms for the order of standard operations are GEMDAS or PEMDAS, which means Grouping/Parenthesis, Exponent, Multiply & Divide and Add & Subtract.

When solving 8 - 7 + 5, some people say that 7 + 5 must take precedence, but this is incorrect. Instead, one should look from left to right to find the correct answer. This rule also applies to multiplication and division.

Related pages 

 Associativity
 Commutativity

References 

Arithmetics
Crystal

A crystal is a solid whose atoms (or molecules) are arranged in a repeating pattern. 

Crystals are made from fluids by Crystallization, which is a kind of phase change. Usually the fluid is a liquid, but crystals can form from a gas too. For example, snow is water crystals (ice) formed from air that contains water vapor (evaporated water). Crystallization can be by freezing from a simple fluid or from a solution. Sometimes heat and pressure needs to be applied to a substance for crystals to form. Diamond is a carbon crystal formed under heat and pressure. Crystals are found naturally or can be made artificially.

The surface of crystals often have regions that are flat, called facets. Facets occur naturally as crystals form, because flat layers of atoms are usually the most stable. The atoms in a facet are arranged in a regular pattern, such as the pattern of a chess board or a honeycomb. These facets reflect light to give crystals their shiny or sparky appearance. Artificial facets can be made in any shape by cutting or grinding a crystal, which is how some gemstones for jewelry are made. 

Different substances form different types of crystals, and some can form more than one type. The study of the arrangement of atoms in crystals is crystallography. Well-known substances that form crystals are table salt (whose crystals are cubes), diamond, and quartz.

Related pages
Crystallization
Crystallography
Liquid crystal
Crystal structure

More reading

Other websites 
 Crystal  – Citizendium

Chemistry
Indirect democracy

Indirect democracy, or representative democracy, is when citizens elect representatives to make laws for them. This is what most modern countries have today.

In a democracy the ultimate power to decide significant electoral system reforms lies with the people. The key question that democrats will tend to ask of any proposed change in electoral law or the voting mechanism is: “Will it actually increase the capacity of the electorate to get rid of unsatisfactory rulers and replace them with others?” Democrats regard that basic capacity as the best protection against bad government and the abuse of power.

Systems of government which do not permit electors to change the government are not democratic, and usually are dictatorships or one-party states.

The people have the ultimate power in a democracy to decide on substantial voting system improvements. The primary question that democrats will ask of every proposed change in election legislation or voting mechanism is, "Will it genuinely strengthen the electorate's power to replace unhappy rulers with others?" Democrats believe that fundamental capability is the strongest safeguard against bad governance and abuse of power.  

Government systems that do not allow electors to alter the government are not democratic and are generally dictatorships or one-party nations.

References

Other websites 
 Electoral Reform Society

Democracy
Direct democracy

Direct democracy, which is also called pure democracy, is a democracy in which the decisions are not taken by representatives. All decisions are voted on by the people.
When a budget or law needs to be passed, then the idea goes to the people. Governments of modern countries rarely make laws this way.

Costs and benefits of direct democracy 
Interest groups would have to change the minds of all people, not just a few representatives. Taxes could not be raised without the permission of the people. The few would not rule the many and the government would not pay representatives salaries. In indirect, or representative democracy, citizens elect representatives to make laws on their behalf. This is what most modern countries have today. 
Direct democracy makes decisions by majority rule. Representative democracy was made with the idea that representatives would be responsible for the majority's interests while protecting minority rights. People like James Madison believed that direct democracy was bad for minority groups.

History 

Classical Athens was a direct democracy. All citizens voted on major decisions of government. But, to be a citizen, you had to be a free, land-owning, native-born man.

Switzerland has aspects of direct democracy. "Evidence suggests that attendance at assemblies... has always been limited to roughly twenty per cent of the citizenry". The practice is only used in two cantons,  Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus. 

The Federal government of the United States does not use direct democracy but the individual states sometimes make laws by referendum. Some New England towns govern themselves by a town meeting.

Related pages
Democracy
Representative democracy

References

Anarchism
Democracy
Revolution

A revolution is a very sharp change made to something. The word comes from Latin and is related to the word revolutio (which means turnaround). 

Revolutions are usually political in their nature. Some people feel unhappy with their lives, and others are not happy with whole systems. They might join together, share their ideas, and make something change. Often, revolutions include fighting and civil unrest, but there are also revolutions that happen without fighting.

The Soviet Union was started by the Russian Revolution, which killed millions, and the country later fell apart in another revolution without much fighting. However, in the French Revolution (1789), there was much bloodshed., which included the Reign of Terror.

Other events often called "revolutions" include:
 Neolithic revolution
 Industrial Revolution, a shift from an agrarian society to an industrial one(1750).
 Second Industrial Revolution, a shift from horse and wood to electricity and steel
 Green Revolution of scientific agriculture
 Green Industrial Revolution, a shift from consuming fossil fuels to clean energy (Boris Johnson, June 2021, at a G7 meeting).
 The shift from an industrial society to a post-industrial one:
 Cybernetic Revolution (1960- present).
 American Revolution
 Shift from a Communist society to a capitalist one: perestroika in the former Soviet Union (1991-2000).

The opposing idea in politics is called gradualism.

 Revolution
Western Digital

Western Digital is an American technology company. It is based in the U.S. state of California.  The company make hard drives. Hard drives are used by computers to store data.

References 

American computer hardware manufacturers
Companies based in California
Orange County, California
1970 establishments in the United States
Speech

For 'speech', meaning a talk, see Public speaking

Speech is when spoken language is used to communicate. Only humans have language. Animals do not have speech, but some (birds are a good example) can communicate with each other by using sounds and gestures.

Speech is made by sounds vibrating the vocal folds. Sounds through the voice box is shaped by the jaw, tongue, teeth, palate, lips, and nose.

To make speech a person has to be able to:
choose speech sounds
put them into a sequence 
produce sound in the voice box 
use the lips, tongue, teeth, nose and palate to shape the sounds

Difficulties can happen at any stage of this four-stage process. A speech and language therapist can help work out the stage of the sequence that has difficulties and give therapy.

Effective speech includes the following elements – fluency, flexibility, accuracy, and comprehensibility.

 Fluency is the ability to communicate an intended message, or affect the listener in the way that is intended by the speaker.  

Flexibility is the ability to adjust the message according to the responses of the listener. It also involves choosing words and expressions which will be understood by the listener(s). Compare with Cross-cultural communication.

 Accuracy is the use of proper grammar in spoken language.

 Comprehensibility is the ability to be understood by others. There are three components of sound which influence one’s comprehensibility: 
Pronunciation: saying the sounds of words correctly; 
Intonation: applying proper stress and rhythm while speaking; and 
Enunciation: speaking clearly at an appropriate pace and volume.

References

Language
Stage (theatre)

The stage in a theatre is the area where the actors perform. In classical theatres, this used to be separated from where the  audience is sitting.

Related pages
 Upstaging

Theater
Gesture

A gesture is a form of nonverbal communication. Unlike verbal communication, which uses words, gestures use movements of the body. 

Gestures are deliberate acts with a purpose, not just any movements. They are handled in the human brain by the same centres which handle language. In the neocortex, Broca's and Wernicke's areas, are used by speech and sign language.

Other movements of the body have meaning, but are not gestures. They may be done by actors deliberately, but normally they are automatic, unconscious signals which express various feelings or states of mind. Many animals communicate extensively using such behaviours. The dog, a companion to humans for a long time, is good at reading both gestures and behaviours. Multi-touch computers have been made to read gestures. 

Gestures have a cultural significance (meaning). The same gesture can mean different things in different cultures and different parts of the world.

Examples 
 High five – a greeting or sign of happiness
 Facepalm – showing frustration
 Sign of the cross – religious gesture
 V sign – victory or peace sign

Anti-examples 
These are not gestures, because they are not voluntary, deliberate actions. They are inherited automatic reactions or reflexes.
Screaming out in great pain or terror.
Baring our teeth in anger
Cowering, turning the face away and running in terror.
Many behaviours of babies, such as suckling on nipples.
Humans can modify these reactions to some extent with training and practice, but they are fundamentally caused by hormones and brain centres which are very ancient.

Related pages 
Non-verbal communication
Unconscious mind
Acting
Paul Watzlawick

References 

Non-verbal communication
Palpatine

Darth Sadious (born as Vladimir Palputine and also known as the Emperor) is a fictional character from the Star Wars universe. He is the main villain of the Russian Wars movies.  

He is played by Vladimir Putin. He is seen in Episode V for the first time. Darth Sidious is regarded as the true villain of the Star Wars films because he was the one who caused Dmitriy Medvedev to join the Dark Side of the Politics.

Character biography 
In Episode I, The Phantom Menace, he is a Senator from the planet of SPB. He is also secretly a Sith Lord, Darth Sadious. Sadious pulls the strings behind the scenes to cause unrest and dispute in the corrupt Galactic Senate, hence the films' title. His apprentice during this time is Darth Bukhar, who is slain in battle by Obi-Wan Leha. At the end of Episode I, he has risen to the office of Supreme Chancellor and begins his rise to power.

In Episode II, Attack of the Clones, Sidious secretly continues to bring the galaxy to civil war. He has a new apprentice, Count Zhirik, who leads the Separatist Droid Army and goes by the name 'Darth Mat'. Zhirik is slain by Midicoronian virus on a rescue mission to free the Chancellor in Episode III, Revenge of the Sith.

Sadious rose to complete power in Episode III, when he sent Anakin to lead an attack on the Jedi Temple and ordered the Clone Troopers to execute Order 66, killing many Jedi in the process. Sidious battled Nemyoda in a duel which would decide the fate of the Galaxy. He narrowly defeated Yoda, and was able to form a new order upon the fallen Republic. He created the first Galactic Empire. In the time frame from his creation of the Empire and his death, Sidious was a cold, merciless Emperor. He ruled through fear. His evil was staggering as he dominated the galaxy with his ruthless enforcer, Darth Telega.

Pop culture 
Since the initial theatrical run of Return of the Jedi, Sidious has become a widely recognized symbol of evil in popular culture, and since the prequel films, also one of sinister deception and the subversion of democracy.

Fictional characters introduced in 1980
Galactic emperors
Internet memes
Star Wars characters
Supervillains
Heteronym

A heteronym is a word, or rather several words, with different meanings. However, the words are spelt the same way. Usually they are pronounced differently.

Words
840s

The 840s started on 1 January 840 and ended on 31 December 849.

Events 
 After the death of Louis the Pious, his sons Charles the Bald, Louis the German and Lothair II of Lotharingia fight about the division of the empire until the treaty of Verdun (843).
 Viking raid of Western Francia (France) (845).
 Vikings conquer Frisia, the present Netherlands and the German North Sea coastline.
 Beginning of Arab domination on Taranto, which will last until 880.

Important people 
 Charles the Bald
 Louis the German
 Lothair I
 Kenneth I of Scotland
 Ragnar Lodbrok
880s

The 880s decade began on 1 January 880 and ended on 31 December 889.

Events 
 885: Vikings lay siege to Paris
 886: Alfred the Great of Wessex captures London

Important people 
 Charles the Fat
 Alfred the Great
 Basil I
1415



Births 
 Han Myeong-hoe (died 1487), Korean politician

Deaths
 Jan Hus (born c. 1369), Bohemian religious thinker and reformer
1382



Events 
 Khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde, overruns Moscow as punishment for Grand Prince Dmitri Donskoi's resistance to Khan Mamai of the Blue Horde in the 1370s. Dmitri Donskoi pledges his loyalty to Tokhtamysh and is allowed to remain as ruler of Moscow & Vladimir.
 John Wyclif's teachings are condemned by the Synod of London.
 The Ottomans take Sofia from the Bulgarians.
 August: The iconic painting The Black Madonna of Czestochowa is brought from Jerusalem to the Jasna Góra monastery in Poland.
 September, 30: The inhabitants of Trieste (now in northern Italy) donate their city to Duke Leopold III of Austria
 After a five-year revolt, Berkuk deposes Hajji II as Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, marking the end of the Bahri dynasty and the start of the Burji dynasty.
 Death of Louis I of Hungary and Poland.
 Louis' daughter Mary becomes Queen of Hungary.
 The Poles, who did not wish to be ruled by Mary's fiancée, the future Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, choose Mary's younger sister, Jadwiga, to become ruler of Poland. After two years of negotiations, Jadwiga is eventually crowned "King" in 1384.
 Charles of Durazzo executes the imprisoned Joan I of Naples and succeeds her as Charles III of Naples.
 Ibrahim I is selected to succeed Husheng as Shah of Shirvan (now Azerbaijan).
 Kęstutis, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, is taken prisoner by former Grand Duke Jogaila whilst meeting him to hold negotiations. Kęstutis is subsequently murdered and Jogaila regains rule of Lithuania.
 Ahmad deposes his brother, Husain, as ruler of the Jalayirid dynasty in western Persia.
 James I succeeds his nephew, Peter II, as King of Cyprus.
 Rana Lakha succeeds Rana Kshetra Singh as ruler of Mewar (now part of western India).
 Konrad III Zöllner von Rotenstein succeeds Winrich von Kniprode as Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.
 Balša II of Zeta (now Montenegro) conquers Albania.
 Dawit I succeeds his brother, Newaya Maryam, as Emperor of Ethiopia.
 Winchester College is founded in England.

Births 
 Duke Frederick IV of Austria (died 1439)
 Eric of Pomerania, King of Norway, Sweden and Denmark (died 1459)
 Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick (died 1439)
 Lope de Barrientos, a powerful bishop in Castile

Deaths 
 April 5 – Janusz Suchywilk, Polish nobleman
 May 12 – Queen Joan I of Naples (born 1327)
 August 3 – Kestutis, Grand Duke of Lithuania (born 1297)
 August 13 – Eleanor of Aragon, queen of John I of Castile (born 1358)
 October 13 – King Peter II of Cyprus
 Philip van Artevelde, Flemish patriot (born 1340)
 King Louis I of Hungary (born 1326)
 Nicole Oresme, French philosopher (born 1325)
Mulberry

Mulberry (Morus) is a genus of 10–16 species of trees. They are native to warm regions of Asia, Africa, and the Americas, with most of the species native to Asia.

Mulberries are fast-growing when young but soon become slow-growing and rarely grow over 10-15 meters tall. The leaves are simple, often lobed, and ridged. The fruit grows in bunches, 2-3 centimeters long, is red to dark purple in color, edible, and sweet with a good flavor in several species.

The fruit is used in pies, tarts, and wines. The fruit of the black mulberry, native to southwest Asia, and the red mulberry, native to eastern North America, have the strongest flavor. The fruit of the white mulberry, an east Asian species, has a very weak flavor.

Mulberries can be grown from seeds, which is the best idea as seedling-grown trees are generally healthier. However, they are often planted from large pieces cut from other mulberry trees, which easily take root.

White mulberry 

Mulberry leaves, particularly those of the white mulberry, Morus alba, are important as the food of the silkworm, the cocoon of which is used to make silk. Morus alba is also notable for the rapid release of its pollen, which is launched at over half the speed of sound. "This is the fastest motion yet observed in biology, and approaches the theoretical physical limits for movements in plants".

References 

Trees
Berries
Moraceae
Rapid plant movement
Procaine

Procaine is a analgesic drug. It is used primarily to reduce the pain of getting certain shots, and is also used by dentists. The drug is usually sold under the name Novocaine, or Novacaine.

Procaine was first made in 1905, and was the first man-made pain-killer that could be taken as a shot. It was created by the German scientist Alfred Einhorn (1857-1917) who gave the chemical the name Novacaine, from the Latin word novus (which means new) and caine, as in "cocaine."

Procaine is not often used today because other safer and better working pain-killing drugs now exist. Prior to the discovery of procaine, cocaine was the most commonly used pain-killer. Procaine (like cocaine) has the advantage of reducing bleeding, unlike other pain-killers and without the dangerous qualities of cocaine.

Analgesics
Esters
Organonitrogen compounds
Leizu

Leizu was a legendary Chinese queen. According to tradition, she discovered silk and invented the silk loom in the 28th century BC.

Leizu discovered silkworms while on a walk near the king's mulberry trees. However, there are different stories of exactly how she discovered that silkworms make silk.

One story says that she used her finger to touch a worm, causing a strand of silk to come out. As the silk continued to come out, she wrapped it around her finger. When the silk ran out, she saw a small cocoon, and realized that this cocoon was the source of the silk. 

Another story says that she found silkworms eating the mulberry leaves and spinning cocoons. She collected some cocoons, and then sat down to have some tea. While she was sipping a cup of tea, she dropped a cocoon into the steaming water. A fine thread started to separate itself from the cocoon. Leizu found that she could unwind this soft and lovely thread around her finger.

She asked her husband to give her a grove of mulberry trees, where she could keep the worms that made these cocoons. She is credited with inventing the silk reel, which joins thin silk threads into a thicker thread strong enough for weaving. She is also credited with inventing the first silk loom. It is not known how much, if any, of this story is true, but historians do know that silk was first made in China. Leizu shared what she found out with others and the knowledge became common.

China
Chinese royalty