alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Roman Republic

The Roman Republic was a phase in history of the Ancient Roman civilization. According to legend, the city of Rome was founded by Romulus in . It was a kingdom until 510 BC, when the last King, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was overthrown. Then began the Roman Republic.

The Roman Republic was a civilization that was ahead of its time and very advanced. The Roman people elected consuls, who ruled for about a year. Many of the ideas of the Roman Republic are still used today.

The Roman Republic got most of its wealth from trading and taxation. The Roman army was the strongest in Italy.  It was constantly battling the Gauls, who were later conquered by Caesar.  The Punic Wars against Carthage were fought all over the Mediterranean coasts, mainly because of disputes over Sicily and trade. The third enemy was the Germanic tribes or other barbarians (uncivilized people).

The Roman Republic suffered many disasters, including Spartacus (the leader of a slave revolt) who defeated one consul's army before he was captured. Also, Hannibal crossed the Alps and then defeated the Roman army at Cannae and many other battles, which saw Rome greatly fear being destroyed by Carthage.

The end of the Roman Republic is still a matter of dispute, and different scholars will give different dates for it. Usually, the dates of the start of either the First Triumvirate or the Second Triumvirate are given. The triumvirates were groups of three men who had much power.

The end of the Roman Republic is often said to be Gaius Julius Caesar's appointment as dictator (single ruler) by the Roman Senate. That happened after a series of civil wars lasting from about 49 BC to 44 BC.

Some people say the Roman Republic ended with the naval Battle of Actium between Marcus Antonius and Octavian. Both had been in the Second Triumvirate. The battle was fought on 2 September 31 BC in which Octavian won. Later, he was proclaimed Roman emperor. The end date could also be when Octavian was given the title of the first Augustus by the Senate, on 16 January 27 BC.

Those are modern views, however. In the view of the early emperors, the Res Publica (Republic, literally "Thing of the People") still existed but was simply "under their protection". They promised that some day that the Republic would restored to its original form. That never happened and so scholars divide the Roman Empire and the Roman Republic as two different and distinct periods in the history of Rome.

References

 
Former countries in Europe
Former republics
6th-century BC establishments
First Triumvirate

The First Triumvirate is the name most historians give to the political alliance between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey). They made it in 60 BC to give each other power. Each person helped the others to be more powerful. 

Caesar was able to gain money from Crassus to finance his public works campaign. He also gained military power from Pompey's loyal legions. Crassus, who was much envied and hated for his wealth and the means he used to attain it, was also able to gain popularity from Pompey as well as Caesar who had a loyal following in the plebeian class. Pompey was grateful to Caesar for his support against slander in the senate. Caesar's speeches in the senate were in favor of giving the newly conquered land to Pompey's returned legions. Pompey and Crassus ended their old grudge that dated back to the Third Servile War because they realised the advantages they allowed each other. To cement the Triumvirate, Crassus told Caesar's numerous debt holders that he would pay Caesar's loans if Caesar defaulted. Pompey married Caesar's only child, Julia. The Triumvirate lasted until Crassus' death in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.

Caesar and Pompey started fighting. Caesar won at the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar became dictator in the year 44 BC.

Related pages
Second Triumvirate

Ancient Rome
60s BC
50s BC‎
Second Triumvirate

The Second Triumvirate was an alliance between Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus. It was formed to punish the conspirators who assassinated Julius Caesar. 

The Triumvirate lasted from 43 BC to 33 BC. It ended the effort by Marcus Tullius Cicero to make the Senate once again the top body of the Republic. From then on Rome was ruled by an Emperor.

The Triumvirate army, led by Octavian and Mark Antony, defeated the Conspirators' army led by Cassius and Brutus.  The war ended with the Battle of Philippi in Roman Macedonia in 42 BC.  Cassius and Brutus committed suicide and the remainder of their army joined the Triumvirate forces.

References 

Roman Republic

de:Triumvirat#Das Zweite Triumvirat
ja:三頭政治#第二回三頭政治
Turbofolk

Turbofolk or Pop-folk is a style of music from the Balkans that was invented in the early 1990s.  It mostly comes from Greece, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, but it is also popular in other nearby countries.  It sounds like a mix of Arabic-style singing (in the Serbian language) with electronic music and rock music.

Turbofolk is sometimes associated with the recent Balkan wars and the Breakup of Yugoslavia but it is still popular.

Music genres
Bérurier Noir

Bérurier Noir are a French punk band which formed in Paris in 1983. It is made up of Loran (guitar), François (vocals) and Dede (drum machine). In 1985 Masto joined, playing the saxophone. They sing about French politics and anarchism. They are one of the most famous French punk bands.

Discography
 1983: Macadam massacre
 1985: Concerto pour détraqués
 1987: Abracadaboum
 1989: Souvent fauché, toujours marteau
 1990: Viva Bertaga (Live 1989)
 1995: Carnaval des agités (Best Of/Live 1983-1989)
 1998: La bataille de Pali-Kao (Best Of 1983-1989)
 2003: Même pas mort (DVD+CD Best Of+News)
 2005: L'Opéra des Loups (DVD+CD Live 16 titles or DVD only)
 2006: Chant des Meutes (Live 13 titles)
 2006: Invisible

Other websites
  Official site
  http://www.fzm.fr/

French musical groups
Rock bands
Punk bands
990

990 was a common year.

Events 
 January 1 – Kievan Rus' adopts the Julian calendar.
 Construction of the Al-Hakim Mosque begins in Cairo.
 The Pax Ecclesiae, an edict by the church in southern France attempting to outlaw acts of war against non-combatants and the clergy, is promulgated.

Births 
 Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor (approximate)
 Edmund II of England, (approximate)
 Mieszko II of Poland, king of Poland from 1025 to 1031, duke from 1032 to 1034.
 Yorimichi, regent to the Japanese emperor from 1017 to 1020 and from 1020 to 1068.
Johannes Skotus, Bishop of Mecklenburg (approximate)

Deaths 
 Kaneie, regent to the Japanese emperor from 986 to 990.
 Al-Uqlidisi, Middle-East mathematician.
 Dunash ben Labrat
1073



Events 
 April 22 – Pope Gregory VII (Cardinal Hildebrand) succeeds Pope Alexander II as the 155th pope.
 Emperor Shirakawa ascends the throne of Japan
 Rabbi Yitchaki Alfassi finishes writing the Rif, an important work of Jewish law.
 John IX bar Shushan ends term as Syrian Patriarch of Antioch
 Beginning of Sviatoslav II's reign as ruler of Kievan Rus
 Seljuk Turks conquer Ankara

Births 
 David the Builder, King of Georgia
 Margrave Leopold III of Austria

Deaths 
 April 21 – Pope Alexander II
 June 15 – Emperor Go-Sanjō of Japan (b. 1034)
 Zhou Dunyi – Neo-Confucian philosopher in Song Dynasty China

1073
Bixente Lizarazu

Bixente Lizarazu (born 9 December 1969) is a former French football player. He is one of the most successful football players in the world. He won the FIFA World Cup in 1998 and the European Football Championship in 2000. He has also won the UEFA Champions League (2001) and was champion of the Bundesliga (both with Bayern Munich) five times in a six-year period (1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005).

Lizarazu was born in Saint-Jean-de Luz, a small village in Basque region of France, in 1969. His first club was Eglantins Hendaje (1977-1989). He then went to Girondins Bordeaux (1989-1996). After playing for Bordeaux, he played for the Spanish club Athletic Bilbao (1996-1997) before he went to Bayern Munich (1997-2005). For a six months, he played for Olympique Marseille (2004). He ended his career in 2005.

Club career statistics

|-
|1988/89||rowspan="8"|Girondins Bordeaux||rowspan="8"|Division 1||16||0
|-
|1989/90||38||2
|-
|1990/91||35||2
|-
|1991/92||33||0
|-
|1992/93||35||4
|-
|1993/94||32||9
|-
|1994/95||32||2
|-
|1995/96||23||3

|-
|1996/97||Athletic Bilbao||La Liga||16||0

|-
|1997/98||rowspan="7"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="7"|Bundesliga||11||0
|-
|1998/99||18||2
|-
|1999/00||22||1
|-
|2000/01||15||0
|-
|2001/02||25||1
|-
|2002/03||26||3
|-
|2003/04||26||1

|-
|2004/05||Olympique Marseille||Ligue 1||14||0

|-
|2004/05||rowspan="2"|Bayern Munich||rowspan="2"|Bundesliga||13||0
|-
|2005/06||18||0
258||22
16||0
174||8
448||30
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1992||1||0
|-
|1993||6||0
|-
|1994||5||0
|-
|1995||5||1
|-
|1996||9||0
|-
|1997||4||0
|-
|1998||13||1
|-
|1999||6||0
|-
|2000||12||0
|-
|2001||10||0
|-
|2002||7||0
|-
|2003||12||0
|-
|2004||7||0
|-
!Total||97||2
|}

References

1969 births
Living people
Footballers from Nouvelle-Aquitaine
People from Pyrénées-Atlantiques
Salt evaporation pond

A Salt evaporation pond (or saltern pond) is a man-made shallow pond. Usually it is located near the sea. The ponds can be filled with salt water. The water is then left to evaporate. The salt is left behind, and can be harvested. Such ponds also provide a habitat for several kinds of animals. Most of these animals are birds. 

The color tells how much salt there is left in the water. Green colors come from special algae. These algae are there in low to mid salinity ponds (ponds with little salt in the water). In middle to high salinity ponds, an alga called Dunaliella salina shifts the color to red. Millions of tiny brine shrimp create an orange cast in mid-salinity ponds. Other bacteria such as Stichococcus also contribute tints. These colors are especially interesting to airplane passengers or astronauts passing above due to their somewhat artistic formations of shape and color.

Other websites

NASA page on salt ponds 
Information on the San Francisco Bay salt ponds
Interactive satellite view

Geology
Ponds
Salinity

Salinity is a scientific term. Scientists use it to tell how much salt there is in water. Salinity is measured by the amount of sodium chloride found in 1,000 grams of water, if there is 1 gram of sodium chloride in 1,000 grams of water solution it is 1 part per thousand. This is written as 1‰.

 Fresh water contains less than 0.1% of salt . This is the usual case for rivers and lakes.
 Brackish water contains between 0.1% and 3% of salt. This environment is usually found at estuaries where a river flows into the sea. 
 Saline water contains between 3% and 5% of salt (per volume). Usually, there is about 3.5% salt in the water of the oceans.
 Water that has more than 5% salt in it, is called brine. Some lakes and bodies of water have that much salt in them. The Dead Sea has about 15% salt (150‰) on the surface.

References 

Oceanography
Food preservation

Food preservation is about the ways and means which help to preserve food. Food spoils from bacteria if it is not treated.  For thousands of years, humans have used methods of preserving food, so that they can store food to eat later. The simplest methods of preserving food, such as drying strips of fish or meat in the hot sun have been used for thousands of years, and they are still used today by indigenous peoples. The other ancient method is to use salt, and often drying and salting are done together. 

Food is spoiled because microorganisms change it.  There are five basic techniques which make food last longer:
 Killing the microorganisms, or preventing them from multiplying
 Contact of microoganisms with food is prevented
 Certain additives prevent or slow the growth of microoganisms; this is often called curing
Usually several of the techniques are combined.

Methods of preserving food

Common ways of preserving food are:

Heating the food or baking it (a hard corn-flour biscuit stays edible much longer than a bowl of fresh corn)
Pasteurization: Louis Pasteur found that simply heating food kills most microorganisms and makes it last longer. Liquids such as milk are commonly pasteurized. However, the heating has to be done precisely according to a procedure
Converting the food into a longer-lasting form (for example, fresh goat's milk can be converted into cheese or yogurt, which lasts much longer than fresh milk)
Pickling: putting vegetables, meat, or fish in salty water (brine). Salting the food:  Covering it with dry salt
Putting the food in a jar with alcohol (ethanol) or vinegar, also called pickling
Putting large amounts of sugar into the food (for example, as with jam or fruit jarred in sugar and water)
Drying in the sun or in an oven
Smoking the food with the smoke from burning wood. Usually, this is done to food that was salted first.
Keeping the food cold or frozen, including freeze-drying
Adding other preservatives such as sorbates (sorbic acid), sulfites and nitrites.

Multiple methods
Many common methods use several of these approaches at the same time. For example, pickles preserved in a jar are heated then put in a mixture of vinegar and brine. Fruit jams and jellies are heated and mixed with a large amount of sugar. Some preserved fruit is heated and then mixed with alcohol (for example, Brandy) and a large amount of sugar. Smoked hams are cured in brine and then exposed to the smoke from burning wood chips.
Adenosine triphosphate

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a chemical. All living things make ATP to store energy and to move it to the cells that need it. 

Cells get all their energy from ATP. They break ATP molecules apart to use the stored energy. The harder a cell works, the more ATP it needs.

Use 
The ATP molecule is very versatile: it is used for many chemical reactions in the body. Energy is stored in its chemical bonds.

The energy that is stored can be used later. When ATP breaks a bond with a phosphate group and becomes ADP, energy is released. This is an exothermic reaction. 

The ATP phosphate exchange is a nearly never-ending cycle, stopping only when the cell dies.

Functions in cells 
ATP is the main energy source for most cellular functions. This includes the synthesis of macromolecules. It is used in DNA and RNA. ATP also helps macromolecules get across cell membranes.

DNA and RNA synthesis 
In all known organisms, DNA is made by the action of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) enzymes. These enzymes reduce the sugar residue from ribose to deoxyribose by removing oxygen.

ATP is one of the four nucleotides put RNA molecules by RNA polymerases. The energy driving this polymerization comes from cutting off two phosphate groups. The process is similar in DNA biosynthesis.

History 
 ATP was discovered in 1929 by Karl Lohmann and Jendrassik and, independently, by Cyrus Fiske and Yellapragada Subba Rao of Harvard Medical School. Both teams were competing against each other to find an assay (way of measuring) for phosphorus.
 ATP was proposed to be the intermediary between energy-yielding and energy-requiring reactions in cells by Fritz Albert Lipmann in 1941.
 ATP was first synthesized (created) in the laboratory by Alexander Todd in 1948.
 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997 was split, one half given to both Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the other half to Jens C. Skou for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+, K+ -ATPase.

References 

Cellular respiration
Organonitrogen compounds
Phosphates
Shrimp

Shrimp are crustaceans. Shrimp are mainly found in three groups: Caridea, Procarididea, and Dendrobranchiata. There are thousands of species, and usually there is a species adapted to any particular habitat. Any small crustacean which resembles a shrimp tends to be called one.

Adult shrimp are filter feeding benthic animals that live close to the bottom. They can live in schools and can swim rapidly backwards. They have a high tolerance to toxins in polluted areas, and may contribute to high toxin levels in their predators. They play important roles in the food chain and are important food sources for larger animals from fish to whales.

Shrimp are related to prawns. In cooking, the criterion is often only the size of the animal (prawns are bigger). Biologically, prawns and shrimp can be told apart by the structure of their gills. In prawns, the gills are branching; in shrimp they are not.

Food 
Many shrimp species are caught to be eaten. Usually, the head and the digestive tract are removed before the shrimp is eaten. The muscular tails of shrimp can be eaten, and they are widely caught and farmed for human consumption.

Commercial shrimp species support an industry worth 50 billion dollars a year. In 2010 the total commercial production of shrimp was nearly 7 million tonnes. Shrimp farming took off during the 1980s, particularly in China, and by 2007 the harvest from shrimp farms exceeded the capture of wild shrimp. There is often pollution damage done to estuaries when they are used for shrimp farming.

References

Related pages 

 Prawn
 Krill

Decapods
Seafood
Prawn

Dendrobranchiata is a suborder of decapod crustaceans, and contains shrimp and prawn.

Dendrobranchiata are commercially fished and are used for cooking. The difference between prawns and shrimp is usually that prawns are larger than shrimps. Prawns are crustaceans similar in appearance to shrimps, but they can be distinguished by the gill structure which branches out in prawns but not in shrimps. Prawns are also related to crabs and lobsters. Prawns have two pairs of antennae.

Prawns are found in calmer waters were the they can nest in water plants to lay their eggs. Like shrimps, prawns tend to prefer warmer waters in the tropics but some species of prawn are found in the Northern Hemisphere.

Prawns eat by filtering nutritious particles out of the water flowing around the prawn. Therefore, prawns are found near rocks or close to the sea floor.

Prawns are a common source of food for humans around the world, particularly in areas where the prawn exists naturally such as South-East Asia.

Decapods
Lee Redmond

Lee Redmond (born February 2, 1941) is a woman from the Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. She is famous for having the longest fingernails in the world.

She has not cut her fingernails since 1979. The combined length of her fingernails are 7 meters and 51 centimeters long (24 feet, 8 inches) . She has an active life despite of her long fingernails. Lee Redmond is in the Guinness Book of World Records in the category Longest Fingernails - Female.

On February 10, 2009, Lee was in a car crash, and was thrown out of the car. She was badly hurt and all her fingernails were broken off.

References

Other websites 
 Guinness World Records: Longest Fingernails - Female.

1941 births
Living people
People from Utah
World record holders
Martin Amis

Martin Amis (25 August 1949 – 19 May 2023) was a Welsh novelist. His best known novels include Money (1984), London Fields (1989), Time's Arrow (1991) and The Information (1995).
 
Affected by several writers including his father Sir Kingsley Amis, Amis's style of writing has affected a generation of writers. His later work looked at moral and geopolitical issues, including The Holocaust, Communist Russia, and the September 11, 2001 attacks and Islamism.

Early life 
 
Amis was born in Swansea, South Wales. He was the middle of three children, with an older brother, Philip, and a younger sister, Sally. He went to many different schools in the 1950s and 1960s. The fame of his father's first novel Lucky Jim sent the Amises to Princeton, New Jersey, where his father lectured. Amis's parents, Hilly and Kingsley, divorced when he was twelve.

Amis graduated from Exeter College, Oxford. He graduated with a first-class degree in English. After Oxford, he got a job at The Times Literary Supplement. At age 27, he became literary editor of The New Statesman.

Early writing 

His first novel The Rachel Papers (1973) won the Somerset Maugham Award. It tells the story of a smart, self-centered teenager (which Amis says he based on himself) and his relationship with his girlfriend in the year before going to university.

Dead Babies (1975) has a typically 1960s plot. It has a house full of characters who abuse various substances. A movie version was made in 2000 which was unsuccessful.

Success (1977) told the story of two foster-brothers, Gregory Riding and Terry Service, and their good and bad luck. 

Other People: A Mystery Story (1981), about a young woman coming out of a coma.

Later career 

Money (subtitled A Suicide Note) is a first-person narrative by John Self. He was an advertising man who wanted to be a movie director. The book follows him as he flies back and forth across the Atlantic looking for success. The book was a huge success and is Amis's most highly regarded work.

London Fields is Amis's longest book. It show the encounters between three main characters in London in 1999, as a climate disaster draws near.

Time's Arrow is about a doctor who helped torture Jews during the Holocaust. It was written in the form of an autobiography. The story is unusual because time runs backwards during the entire novel.

The Experience is mainly about his relationship with his father, Kingsley Amis. He also writes about finding long-lost daughter, Delilah Seale and of how one of his cousins, 21-year-old Lucy Partington, became a victim of suspected serial killer Fred West.

He lived and wrote in London and Uruguay and was married to writer Isabel Fonseca, his second wife.

Other websites 
The Martin Amis Web 
Martin Amis - Author Page (Guardian Books)
Martin Amis interviewed by Ginny Dougary  (2006)

1949 births
2023 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
People educated at Westminster School, London 
People from Swansea
Welsh novelists
Writers from Glamorgan
Xi Shun

Bao Xishun (also known as Xi Shun; born November 2, 1951) is in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's tallest living man. He is  tall. The last time he was measured was on January 15 of 2005. On August 7, 2007 Leonid Stadnyk was measuring and was found to be taller than him. In September 2005 he made his first trip outside of China to London to visit Guinness World Records.

Xi Shun served in the People's Republic of China army but got discharged because of rheumatism. He once saved some dolphins' lives by getting pieces of plastic from their stomachs that veterinarians could not reach. Radhouane Charbib was the tallest man by Guinness world records until Bao Xishun beat his record on 15 January 2005. That is where he was measured 2 millimetres taller in the Chifeng Hospital in China.

1951 births
Living people
People from Inner Mongolia
World record holders
Crab

Crabs are a form of decapods (having eight walking legs and two grasping claws), along with lobsters, crayfish and shrimps. Crabs form an order within the decapods, called the Brachyura. Their short body is covered by a thick exoskeleton.

They are an extremely successful group, found all over the world. They are basically heavily armored shell-breakers. Most crabs live in sea-water, but there are some who live in fresh water, and some who live on land. The smallest are the size of a pea; the largest (the Japanese spider crab) grows to a leg span of 4 metres. About 7,000 species are known.

Structure and life-style

Body 
Crabs have short tails. A crab's tail and  reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax. It is folded under its body, and may not be visible at all unless the crab is turned over. Usually they have a very hard exoskeleton. This means they are well protected against predators. Crabs are armed with a single pair of claws. Crabs can be found in all oceans. Some crabs also live in fresh water, or live completely on land.

Pincers 

The pincers (claws) of crabs are their most important weapons. They have at least three functions. The pincers' role in eating is to seize and subdue the prey. If the food is a shellfish (mollusc), then the pincers can exert force to open or break the mollusks shell. Pincers are also used in fighting between males, and for signalling to other crabs.

Food 
Crabs are omnivores, they eat almost anything they find. Often this is algae, but animal food is essential for its good health and development. They will eat molluscs, other crustaceans, worms, fungi and bacteria.

Crabs as food 
Crabs are prepared and eaten all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as soft-shell crab; with other species just the claws and/or legs are eaten. In some regions spices improve the culinary experience. In Asia, Masala Crab and Chilli crab are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In the United States state of Maryland, blue crab is often eaten with Old Bay Seasoning.

For the British dish Cromer crab, the meat is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding a flour mix, creating a crab cake. Crabs are also used in bisque, a French soup.

Evolution 
True crabs appear in the fossil record in the Lower Jurassic. They are part of the 'Mesozoic marine revolution', in which a number of sea-floor predators evolved.

Tailpiece 
The closest relatives of the crabs are anomurans, a crustacean group which includes animals such as hermit crabs, king crabs and squat lobsters. They look a lot like crabs and many have the word 'crab' in their name, but are not true crabs. Anomurans can be told apart by the number of legs: crabs have eight legs, along with two claws or pincers, while the last pair of an anomuran's legs is hidden inside the shell, so that only six are visible.

References
Gran Colombia

Gran Colombia was a centralist country formed after New Granada declared independence in 1819, initially made up of New Granada and Venezuela. The rebels, led by Simon Bolivar, defeated the Spanish Empire but then fought among themselves. In 1831 Venezuela and Ecuador, being the eastern and southern part of the country, declared independence from Gran Colombia due to political differences. After that the remaining territory was of New Granada. Decades later, Panama also became independent from Colombia with help from the United States.

Sources

1821 establishments
1830s disestablishments
Former countries in South America
Nail (anatomy)

A nail is a hard part of the body at the tip of the fingers and toes, of which most people have ten. Toenails and fingernails are similar, except that toenails grow four times more slowly. Only certain mammals have nails: mostly, they are found in primates. They are made of the same kind of material (keratin) as the claws of other animals.

Like hair, nails never stop growing. They must be cut from time to time. It does not hurt when people cut their nails as they are not innervated.  The nails are made up of a protein called keratin which also makes up the main element of hair and skin. People paint their nails to make themselves look more attractive, usually females. On occasion nails can grow into the skin acting as a place of infection known as an ingrowing nail. They can hurt, so are often treated through medicine. The cutting and painting of the nails is called a manicure.

Functions 
The functions of nails are not obvious. They include:

 Protecting the fingertip and the surrounding soft tissues from injuries. 
 Helping delicate movements of the fingertips by allowing counter-pressure on the pulp of the finger. The nail then acts as a counterforce when the end of the finger touches an object. This improves the sensitivity of the fingertip, even though there are no nerve endings in the nail itself. 
 The nail is a tool. For example, when a person pulls out a splinter in a finger. Also, it may be used for some cutting or scraping actions.
Fingernails are a part of the body often used for display in females.
Toenails are a part of the body often deemed ugly.

Related pages 
Nail art
Manicure
Body art
Cosmetics
Lipstick

References 

Limbs and extremities
Integumentary system
Motile

An organism is called motile if it can move on its own. Most organisms are motile. Organisms that cannot move themselves are called sessile.

Physiology
Maria Montessori

Maria Montessori was an Italian educator and doctor. She was born on 31 August 1870 in Chiaravalle, Italy. 

Maria Montessori created the first Montessori school. It was a method of education which respected the natural development of the child. Its main feature was to allow as much independence as possible to the individual child. Another feature was to allow mixed ages in the same classroom. This was different from the formal classroom teaching used even for young children at the time. Maria Montessori started this method when she was in charge of a school for handicapped children. Maria Montessori also founded around 1907 in San Lorenzo, a slum area of Rome, the first Casa dei Bambini ("Children's House"). She died on May 6, 1952.

References 

1870 births
1952 deaths

Montessori, Maria
Italian physicians
Teachers
Portrait of Jacob de Gheyn III

Jacob de Gheyn III is a famous painting.

It was painted by Rembrandt in 1632 and is the most stolen painting in the world. It has been stolen and recovered from galleries  at least four times, making it the world's most stolen painting.

Every time the painting has been recovered anonymously and as a consequence nobody was accused of the theft. This painting by Rembrandt is so well known that it would be difficult for a thief to take it again.
 
Jacob de Gheyn III, also known as Jacob III de Gheyn (1596–1641), was a Dutch Golden Age engraver, son of Jacob de Gheyn II, canon of Utrecht (city), and the subject of a 1632 oil painting by Rembrandt. The portrait is half of a pair of pendent portraits. The other piece is a portrait of de Gheyn's friend Maurits Huygens, wearing similar clothing (ruffs and black doublets) and facing the opposite direction

As legend goes, a man by the name of Marcus Smith V was found in a gallery sneaking and slowly making his way toward the painting with intent to steal it. The ghost of Jacob de Gheyn III sneaked up behind him and killed him. the legend is most likely untrue because Smith was with a lover that night and was actually poisoned the next night.

Paintings by Rembrandt van Rijn
1630s works
María Capovilla

María Esther de Capovilla (September 14, 1889 – August 27, 2006) was an Ecuadorian supercentenarian. She was the world's oldest living person between May 29, 2004, aged 114 years 258 days, and her death from pneumonia on August 27, 2006, aged 116 years 347 days. Following Capovilla's death, Elizabeth Bolden became the world's oldest person.

She was the last living person who was born in the 1880s and also she is still all-time record-holder of the oldest person who was born in Ecuador and the oldest person who was died in Ecuador. She remained the oldest validated South American and Latin American person ever until Francisca Celsa dos Santos of Brazil surpassed her age in October 2021 one day before her death who's final age was 116 years 349 days.

On 10 February 2004, Capovilla surpassed Australian Christina Cock to become the oldest person ever from the Southern Hemisphere. Capovilla was named the World's Oldest Person by Guinness World Records on 9 December 2005, thus superseding both Hendrikje van Andel-Schipper of the Netherlands thought to be the world's oldest person from 29 May 2004 to 30 August 2005, when she died, and Elizabeth Bolden of the United States, thought to be the world's oldest person from 30 August 2005 to 9 December 2005.

Sources 

1889 births
2006 deaths
People from Guayaquil
Deaths from pneumonia
Capovilla, Maria Esther de
Supercentenarians
Wart

Warts are growths on the skin. Very often they resemble solid blisters. Usually, applying pressure to a wart causes pain. Warts are caused by viruses in the HPV family. As there are many types of viruses in the HPV family, there are also many types of wart. In most cases, warts are not dangerous, but may cause a lot of pain.

The virus infects skin cells; if these skin cells move to other areas, new warts can grow there. Warts contain tissue that bleeds easily. A bleeding of this tissue allows the wart to spread to other places. In general, coming in contact with infected tissue spreads the infection.

There are different ways of getting rid of a wart:
 The immune system fights the virus, and can make the wart disappear.
 There are different drugs; many of them are corrosive acids. Regular application on the skin kills the cells which were infected by the virus. Other drugs strengthen the immune system.
 Some of the acids are difficult to handle, or have side-effects. Often, trained medical personnel is needed for their use.
 Different forms of surgery exist: Using a laser, electricity, or infrared radiation. Very often, the use of surgery causes scars.

Types of warts
There are different types of warts, caused by different HPV viruses:
common wart: a wart standing out, with a rough surface, usually occurs on hands or knees.
flat wart:  A small smooth flattened wart,which can occur in large numbers. Most common on the face, neck, hands, wrists and knees;
filiform or digitate wart: These warts look like threads or fingers. Most common on the face, especially near the eyelids and lips;
plantar wart: A hard sometimes painful lump, often with many black dots in the center; usually only found on pressure points on the soles of the feet and on hands;
mosaic wart: Many plantar warts close together. Usually on the hands or soles of the feet
genital wart  A wart that occurs on the genitals.

Getting rid of warts
There are different ways of getting rid of a wart:
There are some over the counter drugs, that usually contain an acid, very often salicylic acid. Getting rid of a wart that way involves cleaning the area around the wart, and treating it with the acid. This will slowly kill wart tissue. Dead tissue can then be removed. Getting rid of a wart that way usually takes several weeks. There are different drugs, with different acids. Some prescription drugs may contain stronger acids, such as chloroacetic acid or silver nitrate. All acids are caustic. This means, healthy tissue around the wart needs to be protected, before the substance is applied.
It is possible to kill off the wart using extreme cold (called cryotherapy). A physician or a specialist doctor for skin diseases usially does this. Before the cold is applied, a local anestetic is used to reduce the pain. Using this method will cause scars.
It is possible to do a special chemotherapy, called cytostatis. This will prevent cell growth.
It is possible to boost the immune system so it can better fight the wart.

Diseases caused by viruses
Ming Kipa

Ming Kipa is a Nepalese Sherpa girl who (as recorded in the 2009 Guinness Book of Records) was the youngest person to climb Mount Everest until 2010. She reached the summit on May 24, 2003 when she was 15 years old, with her brother Mingma Gyula and her sister Laphka. Nepalese law does not allow climbers under 16 to climb Everest, so Ming Kipa climbed from the Chinese side.

In 2010, her record was broken by 13-year old Jordan Romero.

References

Sherpa
Kipa, Ming
1987 births
Living people
Sun Tzu (mathematician)

This article is about the mathematician Sun Tzu. For the military strategist of the same name, see Sun Tzu.

Sun Tzu or Sun Zi was a Chinese mathematician of the third century CE.

His interests were in astronomy.  He tried to develop a calendar and for this he investigated Diophantine equations. He is best known for authoring Sun Tzu Suan Ching (pinyin: Sun Zi Suan Jing; literally, "Sun Tzu's Calculation Classic"), which contains the Chinese remainder theorem.

Other websites 
 Sun Tzu at MacTutor 

Chinese mathematicians
Sergey Karjakin

Sergey Karjakin  (born 12 January 1990 in Simferopol) is a Russian (formerly Ukrainian) chess grandmaster. 

He was a chess prodigy and holds the record for the youngest grandmaster in history, at the age of twelve years and seven months. 

On 25 July 2009 Karjakin adopted Russian citizenship and afterwards played for Russia.

He won Candidates Tournament 2016 and earned the right to challenge for the World Chess Championship. In November 2016, he lost the championship match to Magnus Carlsen in the rapid tiebreaks after drawing 6–6 in the classical games. He won the 2016 World Blitz Chess Championship. He played in the candidates tournament again in 2018, coming third.

References 

1990 births
Living people
Ukrainian chess players
Chess grandmasters
Russian chess players‎
Yusuf Islam

Yusuf Islam (born 21 July 1948) is an English singer. He sang many of his early songs when he called himself Cat Stevens. He was born as Stephen Demetre Georgiou to a Swedish mother and Greek father. He became a Muslim in 1977. After 2 years, he took the name of Yusuf İslam. He has sold over 60 million albums around the world since the late 1960s as Cat Stevens or Yusuf İslam.

As a waiter in his father's cafe, he began writing songs "to escape the mundanity of it all". Chart success was followed by adulation, touring, drug use, confusion, tuberculosis and, in the early 1970s, Islam's changed outlook and an album called Tea For The Tillerman.

Stevens nearly drowned in an accident in Malibu in 1975.  Stevens described the event in a VH1 interview some years later: "I suddenly held myself and I said, 'Oh God! If you save me, I'll work for you.'" He had looked into Buddhism; Zen and I Ching, numerology, tarot cards and astrology", but when his brother David gave him a copy of the Qu'ran, Stevens began to convert to Islam.

In 1977 he changed his name to Yusuf Islam upon becoming a Muslim. He stopped playing and recording pop music for almost 30 years, but started performing again in 2006.

He lives with his family in London, England.

Albums 
As Cat Stevens:
 1967: Matthew and Son
 1967: New Masters
 1970: Mona Bone Jakon
 1970: Tea for the Tillerman
 1971: Teaser and the Firecat
 1972: Catch Bull at Four
 1973: Foreigner
 1974: Buddha and the Chocolate Box
 1974: Saturnight (Live in Tokyo)
 1975: Numbers
 1977: Izitso
 1978: Back to Earth
 2004: Majikat

As Yusuf Islam:
 1995: The Life of the Last Prophet
 1999: Prayers of the Last Prophet
 2000: A Is for Allah
 2001: Bismillah
 2003: I Look I See
 2005: Indian Ocean
 2006: Footsteps in the Light
 2006: An Other Cup
 2007: Yusuf's Cafe Session
 2009: Roadsinger

References 

1948 births
Living people
Converts to Islam
English guitarists
English rock musicians
English singers
Musicians from London
Multi-instrumentalists
Synth-pop singers
Malay language

Malay is an Austronesian language predominantly spoken by Malay people in northeastern of Sumatra to the Riau Islands and its surroundings; which includes Singapore and Malay Peninsula, as well as the western and northernmost coast of Borneo (especially in Pontianak and Brunei).

Writing system 

Malay is normally written with the Latin alphabet called Rumi. But there is also a modified Arabic alphabet that is called Jawi. Rumi is official in Malaysia and Singapore, and the Indonesian language has a different official orthography that uses also the Latin script. Rumi and Jawi are both official languages in Brunei. Efforts are currently being undertaken to preserve Jawi script and to revive its use amongst Malays in Malaysia, and students taking the Malay language examination in Malaysia have the option of answering questions using Jawi script. But the Latin alphabet is still the most commonly used script in Malaysia, both for official and informal purposes. 

Historically, Malay has been written in various types of script. Before the introduction of Arabic script in the Malay region, Malay was written using Pallava, Kawi and Rencong script and are still in use today by the Champa Malay in Vietnam and Cambodia.

References

Austronesian languages
Malaysian culture
Languages of Singapore
Brunei
Euzebiusz Smolarek

Euzebiusz Smolarek (born 9 January 1981) is a Polish football player. He plays for ADO Den Haag and Poland national team.

In 2004, he came to Dortmund with Bert van Maarwijk, who is his trainer. Before that, he played for Borussia Dortmund and under van Maarwijk with Feyenoord Rotterdam. He is also in the Poland national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|2000/01||rowspan="5"|Feyenoord Rotterdam||rowspan="5"|Eredivisie||25||3
|-
|2001/02||19||2
|-
|2002/03||0||0
|-
|2003/04||21||7
|-
|2004/05||3||0

|-
|2004/05||rowspan="4"|Borussia Dortmund||rowspan="4"|Bundesliga||15||3
|-
|2005/06||34||13
|-
|2006/07||30||9
|-
|2007/08||2||0

|-
|2007/08||Racing Santander||La Liga||34||4

|-
|2008/09||Bolton Wanderers||Premier League||12||0

|-
|2009/10||Kavala||Super League||15||3
68||12
81||25
34||4
12||0
15||3
210||44
|}

International career statistics

|-
|2002||1||0
|-
|2003||0||0
|-
|2004||2||0
|-
|2005||7||3
|-
|2006||11||4
|-
|2007||6||6
|-
|2008||11||2
|-
|2009||5||4
|-
|2010||4||1
|-
!Total||47||20
|}

References

Other websites
 Euzebiusz Smolarek 90minut.pl Info

1981 births
Living people
People from Łódź
Polish footballers
National Party of Australia

The National Party of Australia is the third biggest political party in Australia. It was first called the Country Party when it started in 1920 and then became the National Country Party in 1975. In 1982 it became the National Party.

The National Party represents the interests of people who live in rural areas, that is, not in big cities. It normally joins together with the Liberal Party to form a coalition government. It has fewer people in Parliament than the Liberal Party. The current leader is Warren Truss. When the National Party is in a coalition government its leader is usually the Deputy Prime Minister.

The Party was quite powerful during the 1940s, 1950's and 1960s. Because it worked closely with the United Australia and later Liberal Party, three National leaders - Earle Page, Arthur Fadden and John McEwen - were Prime Minister for a short time. The Party is strongest in Queensland, where it has had several State Premiers. In 2008, the Liberal Party and National Party came together in Queensland and are now called the "Liberal National Party of Queensland".

The party's federal parliamentary leader since 2022 is David Littleproud. He replaced Barnaby Joyce following a leadership spill after the 2022 federal election.

References

Other websites
 Official website

 
1920 establishments
1920s establishments in Australia
Oil well

An oil well is a well to get petroleum from the ground.  People in the petroleum industry look for a place that might have oil.  They drill a hole deep in the ground and, if the oil is there, then pump it up from the hole.  Most oil is very deep underground.

Oil wells can be classified by purpose: 
 Production wells produce gas or oil. 
 Appraisal wells determine the characteristics of a hydrocarbon accumulation. 
 Exploration wells explore for new oil and gas. 
 Wildcat wells  explore areas which are not near known gas or oil fields.

Active wells can also be categorized as:
 Oil producers may produce some gas, but they primarily produce liquid hydrocarbons. 
 Gas producers primarily produce gaseous hydrocarbons and aquifer producers primarily produce water to for the purpose of re-injecting it into the ground to manage the pressure of gas or oil wells. 
 Water injectors inject the water that is removed from the aquifer producers, as well as disposal of any water obtained during gas or oil production. 
 Gas injectors inject gas into reservoirs to maintain the reservoir’s pressure, as well as for disposal and sequestering of gas that cannot be immediately used.

Wells may be straight holes, or directionally drilled:
 Straight(vertical) holes wells are those drilled to targets essentially beneath the surface location of the well,  although some small deviation in the  well bore can occur during the drilling process. 
 Directionally drilled wells are those which are drilled to targets not directly beneath the surface location of the well.  Directionally drilled wells can be  classified  further into  Straight kick, S- kick and horizontal wells. 
 In straight kick wells, the well bore is deviated until the desired angle is achieved. This angle is maintained all the way to the bottom of the hole. 
 In S-kick  wells, the well bore is deviated to achieve the desired horizontal displacement and then returns to a vertical direction before penetrating the producing zone. The term "S-kick" is derived from the shape of the course.
 Horizontal wells, as the name implies, are deviated until the well bore achieves a horizontal direction. The well bore may then continue in the horizontal direction for hundreds or even thousands of feet, depending on results desired.

Petroleum
Prairie

A prairie is a type of habitat with mostly grasses, but also flowering plants and occasional shrubs or isolated trees. This type of habitat can be found around the world, but it goes by different names, such as steppes in Asia. What attracts tourists is the golden grass in prairie grassland. The word 'prairie' generally means grasslands in North America. There are often many animals on a prairie. They either prefer a prairie or can only live in a prairie. Well-known are the American bison (also called the buffalo) and the pronghorn antelope. Birds include the bobolink and the meadowlark.

Tall grass prairie 
A tall grass prairie has plants and grasses that typically grow three to seven feet (one to two meters) high, with occasional plants growing higher.  This type of prairie grows in areas with a good amount of rain.  Illinois (the prairie state), Indiana and Iowa are good examples of where a tall grass prairie would be.  This type of habitat usually has rich soil and is very good for farming.  Much of the original prairie has been changed into crops or lost to brush and trees.

Trees can grow in this area, but most were stopped by fires that swept through. Some oaks and hickories could survive a prairie fire. If there are scattered trees, it is called a savanna, and an area in a prairie where trees grew closer together is called a grove. In the last century, fires have been stopped, and trees and brush that once did not grow in prairies are taking over. Some of these invasive species were accidentally introduced from Europe or elsewhere. In Illinois, less than 0.01% of the original prairie still exists. For this reason, conservationists in this area practice prairie restoration to keep the prairie in good condition.

Short grass prairie 

Short grass prairie is in drier areas, and is usually one to two feet (0.3 to 0.6 meters) high and has more space between plants. The American West (from central Texas up into Canada, East of the arid semi-desert) is all short grass prairie. Much of this area is converted to pastures for grazing cows and sheep. Areas near rivers are irrigated for crops. Some of the original native plants are still widespread.

Mixed grass prairie
Mixed grass prairie is found between the short grass prairie and the tall grass prairie and contains more species than either the short grass prairie or the tall grass prairie.

Related pages 
Prairie dog

References 

Grasslands
Mall

A mall or shopping center is a large building that is full of many smaller shops and stores.  It is different from earlier markets or bazaars because most of the shops are not little booths or stalls in one big open area.  Each store has its own space with walls.  Most of their entrances face a central walking area inside the building.

People visit the stores in the mall to shop.  Most malls have parking lots (places to park cars).  Most malls also have roofs so people can shop inside.  Most malls have a food court where people buy food.  Some malls have movie theatres.

Name 
"Mall" is the most common name for these buildings in America, and "shopping center" is the most common name for them in the United Kingdom. The name "shopping center" is also sometimes used in America. Malls are also sometimes called plazas.

Famous malls 
 West Edmonton Mall, in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, is one of the largest malls in the world.
 The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota is one of the largest malls in the world.
 Ala Moana is the largest outdoor mall in the United States.