alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, (28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a famous French-speaking philosopher. He was born in Geneva, Switzerland and always described himself as being Genevan.

Early life 
Rousseau lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment. His political ideology influenced the French Revolution and aided the development of nationalism and socialist theories.

Career 
Rousseau was also a composer, writing numerous books about music theory. Rousseau authored Confessions, an autobiography, one of the first of its kind. Many later philosophers were influenced by him. He wrote a novel Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, which was a best-seller and influenced 19th century writers of romanticism.

Rousseau believed that men were born good and innocent, and that corruption and sadness happened because of life experiences and experiences in society.  He believed that if society were gone, man would be happy and pure once again.

Rousseau is most famous for his social contract ideology, which is often compared to the social contract of John Locke. This ideology is stated in Rousseau's book, The Social Contract.

References 

1712 births
1778 deaths
Classical era composers
Swiss composers
Music theorists
18th-century philosophers
Writers from Geneva
Theodoric the Great

Theodoric the Great (454–August 30, 526), known to the Romans as Flavius Theodoricus, was king of the Ostrogoths (488–526), ruler of Italy (493–526), and regent of the Visigoths (511–526). He united several German tribes and encouraged Arianism.

Other websites 
 Theodoric the Great at MiddleAges.net
 New Advent

454 births
526 deaths
Kings and Queens of Italy
Pumpkin Studios

Pumpkin Studios was a company that made computer and video games. It was founded in 1996. It was in Bath, England. They made one game: Warzone 2100. It was a real-time strategy game for PC and PlayStation. It used a few new ideas such as machines that use radio waves to find other objects (radar technology) and machines that shoot objects (artillery). The game also used movies to tell the story to the player. These movies are called full motion videos.

The company was closed on 13 March 2000.

Other websites 
Pumpkin Studios, MobyGames
Pumpkin Studios website (no longer used)
Warzone 2100 website

Video game companies of the United Kingdom
Bath, Somerset
1996 establishments in England
2000 disestablishments in Europe
2000s disestablishments in the United Kingdom
20th-century disestablishments in England
Lublin

Lublin - city in eastern Poland. It's in the Lublin Voivodeship. It has an area of 147.5 km2. About 354,000 people live in Lublin.

Characteristic for Lublin are: high schools (incl. Catholic University of Lublin, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin University of Technology, Medical University of Lublin), Majdanek State Museum] and trolleybuses.

Cities in Lublin Voivodeship
Real-time strategy

Real-time strategy (RTS) is a genre of computer and video games. In real-time strategy games, every player has an army to attack the other player(s). Every player has a military base and people or vehicles (these are called units). The player also has money to create new units or to build new buildings. These buildings can allow the player to do things, such as creating units or to use new technology. Usually, the player that destroys the base and the units of the other player(s) wins. In Esports, if the game has a time limit, the player with the higher points win.

In real-time strategy games, everything the player does, happens right away: there's no time between doing something (like telling a unit to move) and seeing it happen. This is different in turn-based strategy where the players take turns to do things. Under the RTS genre, there is a Real-Time Tactics sub-genre (battlefield focused). The Total War (video game series) is an example of RTT game.

God game vs. Simulation
Most RTSs are God game, that is, the player does not control a single member or unit while playing, but controls all aspects of the game: direct the units, their tactics, improvements and attacks, and direct the planning and Construction of the base, its improvements and the quantity of resources and production.

While in simulation, the player controls a member of the faction, being a collector, soldier, spy, producer, diplomat or leader of the faction itself. Example is the Ark: Survival Evolved in its "Hunger Games" mode.

Examples of real-time strategy games

 Age of Empires series
 Command & Conquer series
 StarCraft, Warcraft and Dota 2
 Total Annihilation
 Supremacy 1914
 Ark: Survival Evolved
 Empire Earth series
 Rise of Nations 
 Stronghold (2001 video game)
 Clash Royale
 Pikmin 4
 
Types of video games
Video game genres
Raw material

Raw materials are materials that have not been processed. They are in the form in which they are found in nature without any thing done to them.  Raw materials are made into other things.

Raw materials usually come from:

 A plant or tree
 An animal
 A mine

Examples of raw materials:

 Grains such as wheat and rice
 Vegetables such as carrots and onions
 Meat such as beef and chicken
 Wood from a tree
 Honey from a bee's nest
 Minerals or metal from a mine
 Crude oil
 Raw hair, a type of hair extensions that has not been processed

Things that are not raw materials because they have been processed

 Bread and pasta
 Toothpaste and soap
 Sausages
 Furniture such as chairs and tables
 Machines such as cars
 Jewelry
 Clothing and shoes
 Gasoline
 Oil that goes in cars
+ coal 
Materials
Minerals
Pasta

Pasta is a food made from flour, starch and water. It is usually cooked in hot water before being eaten. Pasta has been very popular in Italy and has also been eaten in many parts of Asia for a long time.
According to history, however, pasta's earliest roots begin in China, during the Shang Dynasty (1700-1100 BC), where some form of pasta was made with either wheat or rice flour. Pasta also appears to be a feature in the ancient Greek diet in the first millennium BC.

Pasta is often noodles. It is usually eaten in sauce, fried or in soup. Pasta is usually made from either wheat flour or rice flour, but it can be made with other types of flour. Pasta sometimes has eggs in it. Pasta comes in many different shapes and sizes.

Long pasta is named noodles. it has different names for each width. the name also changes if the edge is wavy. 

Short pasta comes in many shapes, each with a different name. they are named after what they look like. one common example is "bow-ties".

Types of Pasta 
Spaghetti
Macaroni
Tortellini
Linguini
Tagliatelle
Ravioli

Other websites 
 www.archimedes-lab.org :: Pasta shapes – history and a pasta shapes list
 www.food-info.net :: Pasta shapes – a well-illustrated list
 www.lifeinitaly.com :: History of Pasta  – includes pictures of how pasta is made.
 Information about Italian Pasta

References

 
Italian food
Flour

Flour is grains that have been dried and ground into powder. It is usually made of wheat, but can also be made from many other grains, nuts and other substances. Flour is used to make many foods.

Flour is an important part of bread, pasta, cookies, cakes, tortillas. Flour is made in a flour mill where the grain is put between two stones or steel wheels which are rubbed together to make the grains into powder.

The main kinds of flour used in cooking are all-purpose flour, self-raising flour and cake flour. Self-raising flour contains a leavening agent. This makes the food rise (expand) during baking. It produces lighter and softer baked foods by creating small bubbles. Flour that does not have a leavening agent is called all-purpose flour, or plain flour.

Flour can also be made at home. Some people like to make flour at home because when flour comes from the factory, the outer shells of the grains have usually been removed. The outer shells have fiber which is needed for metabolism. Flour has many nutrients. You can even make flour out of things such as pumpkins, pumpkin seeds, brown and white rice, wheat, etc.

History 

It was discovered around 6000 BC that wheat seeds could be crushed between simple millstones to make flour. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills. Most mills were driven by wind (windmills) or water. Later, they were driven by steam. In the 1930s, some flour began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine and riboflavin. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s.

Related pages 
 Kinako
 Wheat flour

References

Other websites
Boston Tea Party

The Boston Tea Party was a protest by American colonists (These people were known as patriots) against King George III's rule in America. It happened on December 16, 1773.

The Boston Tea Party was an act of protest against the British for the Tea Act, one of several new attempts to tax colonists. The Americans had no one to speak for them in the British government. They were frustrated that they were being taxed by the government but had no part in how the government was run. They did not think it was right to pay taxes when they did not have a representative in the government ("No taxation without representation!"). Also, merchants selling their goods would lose their profit because of the taxes. The Americans began purchasing smuggled goods, which were much cheaper.

To show how angry they were, the Sons of Liberty, led by Samuel Adams, dressed up as Native Americans and went onto ships in the Boston Harbor.  They took boxes of tea and dumped them into the water.  The British government was enraged about this.  Parliament made even stricter laws for the colonies, later called the Intolerable Acts.  One of the Acts closed Boston Harbor until the colonists paid for all the tea they dumped. Another took away the right of Boston to govern itself,

The Boston Tea Party was one of the main events that started the American Revolutionary War.

David Kinnison [1764[?]-1852] who served briefly in the American Revolution  also claimed to have been a member of the Boston Tea Party....although he would have been only 9 years old at the time!

References

Other websites  

 Boston Tea Party -history.com
 The Boston Tea Party Historical Society

1770s in Massachusetts
18th-century rebellions
American Revolutionary War
History of Boston
Rebellions in North America
1773
Cookie

A cookie is a sweet dessert made from flour.  Cookies are made in an oven. They are also called biscuits in many English-speaking countries. In the United States and Canada, many varieties of biscuit are called cookies as well.

Description

Most cookies are flat and round like a disc.  Cookies often have flavors added to them, like spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts or dried fruits. Most cookies are very sweet. Today, many people think of cookies with warmth and love. Cookies may be used like chocolate and candy as a reward when children do good deeds.

Even though it is close to cakes and other sweetened breads, cookies usually do not use water for cohesion. Water in cakes makes the base (in the case of cakes called "batter") as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles to form better. Cookies do not have bubbles, so they do not need this. In cookies, some form of oil or fat is used for cohesion. Oils, like butter, egg yolks, vegetable oils or lard are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. So a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is more dense when cooked.

History
Cookies where made in Ancient Greece around 1200 BC. Hard wafers have been made for as long as baking existed. They were very popular because they last a long time and are not fragile, but they were normally not sweet enough to be called cookies today.

Cookies were made at first in 7th century AD Persia, just after the use of sugar became common there. They spread to Europe through the Muslim conquest of Spain. By the 14th century, they were common in all parts of Europe, and could be found anywhere from royal cuisine to street vendors.

People started to travel around the world at that time, and cookies made a good travel snack; a sweeter version of the travel cakes used throughout history. One of the most popular early cookies, which traveled very well and became known on every continent, was the jumble, a hard cookie made mostly from nuts, sweetener, and water.

Types
Common types of cookies:

 Vanilla cookie
 Chocolate cookie, often called Chocolate chip cookie
 Nut cookie, especially peanuts and walnuts 
 Oatmeal cookie
 Ginger cookie
 Fig cookie
 Sugar cookie
 Snickerdoodle cookie

Related pages
Gingerbread Man
Cake
Pastry
Cracker
Biscuit

References

 
Snack foods
Chocolate chip

Chocolate chips are small pieces of chocolate.  They are used to make desserts, usually in baking.  Chocolate chips are most common in cookies.  Chocolate chips are also used in some cakes and other desserts.

Origin
Chocolate chips were invented in 1937 when Ruth Graves Wakefield of the Toll House Inn added cut-up chunks of a semi-sweet Nestlé chocolate bar to a cookie recipe. Lots of people liked the new cookies, and Wakefield made an agreement in 1939 with Nestlé to put her recipe on the chocolate bar's packaging. In return, Nestlé gave Wakefield a lifetime supply of chocolate. 

At first, Nestlé put a small chopping tool in the chocolate bar package. In 1941 Nestlé and one or more other chocolate bar companies started selling the chocolate in chip (or "morsel") form. The Nestlé brand Toll House cookies is named after Toll House Inn.

References 

Food ingredients
Encephalopathy

Encephalopathy means problem of the brain. Most of the time, it is used by medical doctors, to speak about changed brains and thus changed thinking or changed behavior.

Related pages
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy

Diseases and disorders of the brain
Guru Nanak Dev

Sri Guru Nanak Dev ji (15 April 1469 – 22 September 1539) was the founder of Sikhism, and was the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. His father's name was Kalyan Chand Das Bedi who is commonly referred to as Mehta Kalu. His mother's name was Mata Tripta. Both his parents were Hindu Khatris and Guru Nanak Dev ji was born into a Hindu Khatri landowning family. The last Guru said that there would be no more Gurus after him and Sikhs would be taught by the Sikh holy book, which is called Guru Granth Sahib ji. The word "Guru" means "teacher" in Sanskrit. His two sons were Sri Chand and Lakshmi Das.

Beside followers of Sikhism, Guru Nanak is considered holy by Punjabi Hindus and Hindu Sindhis across the Indian subcontinent. Because of his close connection with Hazrat Sheikh Farid-ud-din Ganj Shakar, the Punjabi Sufi saint, Nanak Dev is also considered by many Muslims to be a Sufi, or adherent of Sufic tenets.

His main teaching to the world was written down to be "devotion of thought and having good actions as the first of our jobs".

Life 

Guru Nanak was born in Nankana Sahib, in Punjab. This is now part of Pakistan.

When Guru Nanak was a child he refused the upanayana (holy thread) to initiate him into the Hindu religion. Later in his life he married Mata Sulakhani with whom he had two sons. They were called Sri Chand and Lakshmi Das. According to the Sikh religion, one day he was bathing in the river and god took him up to heaven. His family members were very worried as they had thought he died. After three days he returned with the message of god. He gave up his job to spread the message on how to be a good person.

He died in Kartarpur.

References

Other websites
 Eternal Glory of Sri Guru Nanak Ji
 Sikh-History.com
 Max Arthur MacAuliff, The Sikh Religion, Vol 1, (The Life of Guru Nanak Ji), Oxford University Press, 1909.
 Satguru Nanak Ji (for Children) - eBook
 Sufis, Philosophers, and Nanak
 A short video documentary summarizing the life of Satguru Nanak Ji

1469 births
1539 deaths
Indian people
Punjabi people
Sikhism
Spiritual teachers
Hindu saints
Asian Sufis
Etruscan civilization

The Etruscan civilization lasted from about 900 BC to 27 BC and was a culture in ancient Italy. The Romans called the people Etrusci or Tusci. The Ancient Greeks called them Tyrrhenoi or Tyrrsenoi. The Etruscans called themselves Rasenna.

The Etruscan civilization began in pre-history. They lived in an area which included modern Tuscany, but was larger. At their height, they had three confederacies (like modern states): Etruria, Latinum and the Po Valley, and Campania. The Etruscans ruled Rome until 396 BC.

Language 
Not much is known about the Etruscan language. Not much of its writing survives. Most what survives is from engravings on tombstones. The Etruscans used an alphabet similar to those in Phoenicia and Greece.

The language is related to the Tyrrhenian language family and is not clearly related to other languages. Some Etruscan letters were used by the Romans in the Latin alphabet, which many languages use. Some Romans, such as the emperor Claudius, could read and speak Etruscan. 

The lack of texts makes knowledge of their society and culture depend on much later Roman sources. Politics was based on the small city and probably the family unit. In their heyday, the Etruscan elite became rich by trade with the Celtic world to the north and the Greeks to the south, and filled their large family tombs with imported luxuries. Ancient Greece had a huge influence on their art and architecture, and Greek mythology was evidently very familiar to them.

Etruscan does not survive in any great literary works, unlike Greek and Latin. An Etruscan religious literature existed, and evidence suggests that there was a body of historical literature and drama as well. For example, the name of a playwright, Volnius, is known. He wrote the "Tuscan tragedies". Although there is no evidence of notation, it is possible that Etruscan music had a written form.

History 
The Etruscans mined metals like copper and iron. They became rich and powerful and travelled around the Mediterranean Sea. The Etruscans began to lose power in the 5th century BC. The Romans began conquering parts of Etruscan land. By the beginning of the 1st century BC, the Etruscans had been entirely defeated.

Art 
Etruscan art included wall paintings, metalwork and sculpture in terracotta. Sculpture in cast bronze was famous and widely exported, but few large examples have survived because bronze was valuable and so was often recycled.

Etruscan religion 
Etruscan religion was a set of stories, beliefs, and religious practices. These came from the preceding Iron Age Villanovan culture. They were heavily influenced by the mythology of ancient Greece and Phoenicia. They had similarities to Roman mythology and religion. As the Etruscan civilization was assimilated into the Roman Republic in the 4th century BC, the Etruscan religion and mythology were partially absorbed. There was a Roman tendency to absorb local gods and customs of conquered lands.

References 

 
History of Italy
Sea of Japan

The Sea of Japan is a sea in the western Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Korea to the west, Russia to the north and Japan to the east and south.

South Korea calls it the East Sea, while North Korea calls it the East Sea of Korea.

Geography
The Sea of Japan is a sea in the north-western edge of the Pacific Ocean. It is separated from the ocean by the Japanese Archipelago, including Sakhalin, Hokkaidō and Honshū. It is surrounded by these islands and the Eurasian Continent. It covers 978,000 square km. The average depth is 1,667 meters. The depth of the deepest point is 3,742 meters. Five (or Six) narrow channels of water link the Sea of Japan and other seas: the Strait of Tartary and La Pérouse Strait with the Sea of Okhotsk; the Tsugaru Strait with the Pacific Ocean; the Kanmon Straits with the Seto Inland Sea; the Busan and Tsushima Strait with the East China Sea. 

The Sea of Japan has a shallow area in its center, called the Yamato Bank. Water here is less than 1,000 meters deep. It has three major sea basins: the Yamato Basin in the southeast, the Japan Basin in the north, and the Tsushima Basin in the southwest. These three surround the Yamato Bank counterclockwise.

The structure of the Sea of Japan can be divided into two layers: the surface water layer is about 300 meters deep, and the deep sea layer is below this. Currents in the surface layer move in the counterclockwise direction. One of them is the Tsushima Current, which is a warm current from the Korean Straits to the north-east direction along the shore of the Japanese Archipelago and mainly considered to be the branch of the Kuroshio Current. The other is the Liman Current, which is a cold current from  the Strait of Tartary to the south-west direction along the shore of the Eurasian continent.

In contrast to the surface water, the deep sea water does not move as much because the five straits in and out are narrow and shallow. The deep sea water of the Sea of Japan tends to stay longer in the bottom of the sea than other deep sea water. The deep sea water is about eighty percent of the water in this sea.

Name

The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) decided to call this area the "Sea of Japan" in 1929.

Since 1992, South Korea has asked the world to use the names "East Sea" or "Sea of Korea" instead of "Sea of Japan".
South Korea argues that this sea has been called "East Sea" since early times. It is also a Korean belief that the name "East Sea" was eliminated from maps of the world in the early 20th century while South Korea was under the rule of Japan.

However, Japan says that the name "Sea of Japan" has been used more widely than "East Sea" in Europe and America since before the 18th century. Japan also argues that if there were no Japan, there would be no sea.

Now, most international maps and documents use the name Sea of Japan only. However, in some cases, the name East Sea is included along with the name Sea of Japan.

References 

Seas of the Pacific Ocean
Natural environment

The Natural environment means all living and non-living things occurring naturally. It does not include human activity. The universe is natural, but often the term "natural environment" only means nature on Earth.   

Two aspects are usually included::
 Ecological units which are natural systems without much human interference.  These include all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and natural events. 
 Universal natural resources and physical phenomena which lack clear-cut boundaries. These include climate, air, water,  energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism. 

There is also the built environment, which is not natural. There, man has changed landscapes and natural environment to make cities and agricultural land.

Etymology 
 EEA multilingual environmental glossary 
 EU Environment Directorate-General
 Rehbar Development Foundation  — Development Foundation/Organization working on Environment, Education and Health

Related pages 
Biodiversity
Ecosystem
Environmentalism
Habitat
World Environment Day

Environment 
Nature
Natural capital

Natural capital is a metaphor for the mineral, plant, and animal formations of the Earth's biosphere when viewed as a means of production of oxygen, water filter, erosion preventer, or provider of other ecosystem services.  

In a traditional economic analysis of the factors of production, natural capital would usually be understood as "land" and therefore something else than "capital" in its original sense.  

At the beginning of reflection about economics "land" was seen as something natural, but "capital"  as man-made goods only.  

But the benefits which humans have from nature are many. 17 of them were closely looked at by Robert Costanza.  These benefits are in some ways similar to those that owners of "capital" have as their capital produces more goods, e.g. a factory which produces automobiles just as an apple tree produces apples.

This is an approach to ecosystem valuation, an alternative to the traditional view of all non-human life as passive natural resources. But human knowledge and understanding of the natural environment is never complete, and therefore we cannot yet know what natural capital means exactly.

Related pages
Natural resource
Nature's services
Ecosystem services

References 
Amory B. Lovins, L. Hunter Lovins and Paul Hawken: A Road Map for Natural Capitalism  (Pdf), in: Harvard Business Review May-June 1999, p.145-157

Other websites 
Natural Capital indicators for OECD countries 
Natural Capitalism
Ecosystem Valuation - US DA

Natural resources
Economics
Green politics
Parkhead

Parkhead () is a suburb in the east end of Glasgow, Scotland. It is the home of the Glasgow Celtic football club.

References

Glasgow
Oswaldtwistle

Oswaldtwistle is a town in Lancashire county near Accrington in North West England.

Many years ago, Oswaldtwistle had a running textile mill, which is a presentation today.

Other websites 
Life and Times of Oswaldtwistle 
Rhyddings Business and Enterprise School, Oswaldtwistle 
Melbourne Street Church, Oswaldtwistle 

Towns in Lancashire
Sod

Sod is grass and the part of the soil beneath it held together by the roots, or a piece of this material. Some sod is grown agriculturally, and is sold to landscapers who use it to quickly get a lawn. Sod was used for building of fortifications in former times.

Construction
Flyover

A flyover is a ceremonial flight by a plane or group of planes. flyovers are often because of important events or celebrations, although more rarely they are because of memorials, like the 9/11 memorial planes. The planes commonly fly in the colors of the country they are in. They are most often seen in the United Kingdom and other commonwealth countries.

Aviation
Blue Angels

The Blue Angels are a group of special pilots who work for the US Navy.  They fly F/A-18 fighter jet airplanes that are painted to look different from regular Navy planes.  They are very famous.  Almost every American has heard of them.  The pilots of the Blue Angels are very good at what they do.  They are able to fly very close to each other and do very difficult tricks.  They are most famous for the flyovers they do at many American sporting events.

Other websites 

 Explore the Navy: Blue Angels  official website.

United States Navy aircraft
Means of production

Means of production (abbreviated MoP; German: Produktionsmittel), also called means of labour are the materials, tools and other instruments used by workers to make products. This includes: machines, tools materials, plant and equipment, land, raw materials, money, energy, and anything else labor needs to make things.

The means of production can be owned by different people in different ways in different societies. Capitalism is when the means of production are owned privately. A capitalist society has a market, where things can be sold and bought. Capitalism also has wage labor. Other societies can be socialist, meaning the means of production are owned in common, either by the workers themselves or by the state. A socialist society may also have a market, depending on the variation of socialism.

Related pages 
 Communism
 Capitalism
 Factors of production
 Labor
 Marxism
 Socialism

References 

Factors of production
Ecosystem services

Ecosystem services are processes by which the natural environment produces resources useful to people, as to economic services. They include:

 Provision of clean water and air
 Flood control
 Pollination of crops
 Mitigation of environmental hazards
 Pest and disease control
 Carbon sequestration
 Aesthetic, cultural and ethical values associated with biodiversity.

To look at the way in which ecosystems provide goods is popular now at Stanford University. The concept of ecosystem services is similar to that of natural capital.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment released in 2005 showed that 60% of ecosystem services are used in a way that destroys them.

References 
Ecosystem Services: A Primer , Ecological Society of America (ESA)
The New Economy of Nature: The Quest to Make Conservation Profitable (), Gretchen C. Daily and Katherine Ellison.
Ecosystem Services: Backgrounder , The Ecosystem Marketplace

Ecology
Green politics
Year 2000 problem

The Year 2000 problem (also known as the Y2K problem, the millennium bug, Y2K Bug, and Y2K) was a computer problem that affected lots of computer systems. It happened because of the way in which some early computer programs were made to handle only years containing two digits (for example '92 instead of 1992). This meant that the computer could confuse the year 2000 with the year 1900, because both would be written as 00. People started fearing that date-related processing would happen incorrectly for dates and times after December 31 1999. It caused concerns that many industries (such as electricity or financial) and government functions would stop working at exactly midnight, January 1 2000. People were panicked by press coverage and media speculation, as well as corporate and government reports. Companies and organisations around the world had to check and upgrade their computer systems to avoid the bug. The preparation for Y2K had a significant effect on the computer industry. No big computer failures occurred when the year changed to 2000.

Similar bugs 
 Year 100 problem
 Year 2038 problem 

2000
History of computing
Biodiversity



The term 
The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968, where he advocated conservation. It was widely adopted only in the 1980s.

The term biodiversity first appeared in a publication in 1988 when entomologist E. O. Wilson used it as a title. Since then, the term has often been used by biologists, environmentalists, political leaders, and citizens. A similar term in the United States is "natural heritage." It predates the others and is more accepted by the wider audience interested in conservation. Broader than biodiversity, it includes geology and landforms.

Definitions 
Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region". An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances. There are three levels at which biological variety can been identified:

species diversity
ecosystem diversity
genetic diversity.

Threats 
The idea can be used for tackling practical problems in conservation, for example:
loss of species
destruction of habitats
introduced and invasive species
genetic pollution
over-exploitation
effect of climate change

References

Related pages 
Biodiversity Convention
Conservation biology
Endemism
Neurodiversity

Further reading 
Levin, Simon A. 2013. Encyclopedia of biodiversity. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-384719-5
Wilson E.O. 2016. Half-Earth: our planet's fight for life. Liveright. ISBN 978-1631490828

Conservation
Aberdeen, Washington

Aberdeen is a city in the American state of Washington. Aberdeen was founded by Samuel Benn in 1884. In 2000, 16,461 people lived in Aberdeen. Aberdeen is sometimes called the "Gateway to the Olympic Peninsula". It is also called the "Birthplace of Grunge" because musician Kurt Cobain is from Aberdeen. Other notable musicians from Aberdeen include The Melvins. Aberdeen is also the hometown of professional wrestler Bryan Danielson, better known as Daniel Bryan.

References 

Cities in Washington (state)
Julián Padrón

Julián Padrón (September 8, 1910 - August 2, 1954) was a Venezuelan writer. He wrote for books, newspapers and magazines.

Story about Julián Padrón 
Julián Padrón was born on  September 8, 1910. He was from San Antonio, a small town from Monagas, Venezuela. When he was a little boy, he went to private schools in Cumaná. After Padrón went to a secondary school called Andrés Bello in Caracas. In 1929 Julián Padrón got a degree of secondary education in Philosophy.

In 1935 Padrón got 2 degrees: 
 A degree of Lawyer
 A degree of Doctor in Political Science (a person who has knowledge about the science of government). 

Padrón got the first degree at the Supreme Court, a place where judges work. The Supreme Court is in the Federal District. He got the second degree at the Central University of Venezuela, a place of learning. In 1944 Padrón got, at that university, a degree to be a Diplomat and a Consul (a Diplomat and a Consul are persons who are the representatives of a country in other countries). 

In 1929 Julián Padrón wrote for the magazine Elite. In 1935 Julián Padrón, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Pedro Sotillo and Bruno Plá made the magazine El Ingenioso Hidalgo for a short time. In 1936 Padrón made and wrote for the newspaper Unidad Nacional. From 1945 to 1947 he wrote for the newspaper El Universal. He wrote for other newspapers and magazines.

Julián Padrón had these jobs: 

 He was the leader of the Asociación de Escritores Venezolanos, an organisation that is the representative of writers from Venezuela. Padrón was the leader of this organisation in 1937 and in 1940.
 He created and was the manager of the Asociación de Escritores Venezolanos’ Magazines. 
 He had the direction of a committee of the Athenaeum (an organisation that does works about writings) of Caracas in 1940. 
 He had the direction of the magazine Shell from 1952 to 1954.

Julián Padrón died in Caracas on August 2, 1954.

Writings 
Julián Padrón did this group of writings:

Novels (books of long stories)
 La Guaricha (1934)
 Madrugada (1939)
 Clamor Campesino (1945)
 Primavera Nocturna (1950)
 Este Mundo Desolado (1954)
Short Stories
 Candelas de verano (1937)
Dramatical Comedy
 Fogata (1938)
Short Comic Play
 Parásitas Negras (1939) 

In 1940 Padrón and Arturo Uslar Pietri did Antología del Cuento Moderno Venezolano. It was a book that was an anthology (a group of writings) by people from Venezuela. In 1945 Padrón did other book in the anthology Cuentistas Modernos.

Source 
This book has a short biography (story) about Julián Padrón:
 Padrón, Julián (1984): La Guaricha. Ediciones Amon C.A., Caracas. (Biblioteca de Temas y Autores Monaguenses; Colección Guácharo; Reediciones y Biografías). 

1910 births
1954 deaths
Venezuelan writers
Monagas
Peter Ham

Peter William Ham (27 April 1947 – 24 April 1975) was a Welsh singer, songwriter and guitarist, best known as the prominent songwriter and singer of the 1970s group Badfinger.

Ham was born in Swansea, South Wales. He formed a local rock group called The Panthers in 1961. This group became The Iveys in 1965. The band was relocated to London by The Mojos manager, Bill Collins, in 1966, and they continued to perform for three years throughout the United Kingdom. Ham especially took to songwriting and Ray Davies of The Kinks took initial interest in producing his group. In 1968, The Iveys came to the attention of Mal Evans (The Beatles personal assistant) and were eventually signed to the Beatles' Apple label after approval from all four Beatles, who were most impressed by dozens of demos recorded at home, mostly by Pete.

The Iveys changed their name to Badfinger with the single release of "Come And Get It," a song written by Paul McCartney, which became a worldwide Top Ten hit. Ham's hard work paid off eventually as his song "No Matter What" became another worldwide Top Ten hit record in late 1970 . He followed up writing two more huge hits released in 1972, "Day After Day" and "Baby Blue" But the peak came with his co-written song "Without You" - a worldwide No. 1 hit as covered by Harry Nilsson in 1972. The song has since become one of the all-time ballad standards as covered by hundreds of singers including Mariah Carey and Clay Aiken. Ham was also used as a musician on Beatles solo records such as the "All Things Must Pass" LP by George Harrison and the single "It Don't Come Easy" by Ringo Starr.

References

Other websites
 Pete Ham's Official website 

Musicians who committed suicide
People from Swansea
Suicides by hanging in the United Kingdom
The Beatles
Welsh rock musicians
Welsh singer-songwriters
1947 births
1975 deaths
Egalitarianism

Egalitarianism is the belief that people should be equal to one another. The word is named for the French word égal, meaning equal or level.

There are many possible kinds of egalitarianism. For example, legal egalitarianism is the belief that groups of people should be equal in law even if they are of different race or religion. Gender egalitarianism is the idea that men and women are equally important, even though they are different.

This word may be used when talking about philosophy in many slightly different ways. We can best understand the different kinds of egalitarianism by asking, "Who is equal to whom?" and "How are they equal?"

Related pages
Equality before the law
Primitive communism
Social equality
Social justice

Philosophical movements and positions
English Wikipedia

The English Wikipedia is the English language edition of the Wikipedia online encyclopedia. English is the first language in which Wikipedia was written. It was started on 15 January 2001. It is the largest encyclopedia in the world, and the largest version of Wikipedia since April 2019. It has  articles as of . In October 2015, the total volume of the compressed texts of the English Wikipedia's articles added up to 23.2 gigabytes.

The Simple English Wikipedia is a variation in which most of the articles use only basic English vocabulary (simplewiki).  There is also the Old English (Ænglisc/Anglo-Saxon) Wikipedia (angwiki). It has a newsletter called The Signpost.

Wikipedias in other languages have imitated some of its technical and organizational features.

As the English Wikipedia is very popular, there can be many people editing the Wiki in one minute.  This made recent changes less effective for understanding changes.  Instead, editors can select and watch for changes in particular articles, using the "watchlist" feature of MediaWiki.  Both watchlist and recent changes can be filtered to show particular kinds of edits, such as edits from IP addresses or edits that may possibly be vandalism.  Some editors use special software to detect and fix vandalism. 

Some people think that the English Language Wikipedia shows bias and unfairness. Editors of reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned Wikipedia's utility and status as an encyclopedia. An example of bias is that around 90% of Wikipedia editors are male. Other people think that Wikipedia is more useful than other encyclopedias because it is large and can be updated quickly.

In 2010, the logo of the English Wikipedia like most Wikipedias was slightly changed. However, some Wikipedias, like the Simple English Wikipedia, still kept the old logo.

Related pages
 Wikipedia administrators
 Simple English Wikipedia

References

Other websites

 The English Wikipedia main page
 English Wikipedia mobile
 English Wikipedia Statistics Page

Wikipedias
Websites established in 2001
Jurisdiction

In law, jurisdiction is the authority given to a judge to take decisions in matters concerning the law. The word comes from the Latin jus, juris meaning "law" and dicere meaning "to speak": and literally means: telling the law. Jurisdiction may be legally restricted to a certain period of time called a statute of limitations.

It also includes the authority a of formally constituted legal body or a political leader to deal with legal matters and, by implication, to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility. Jurisdiction relies on public International Law, conflict of laws, constitutional law and the powers of the executive and legislative branches of government to give resources to best serve the needs of its society.

Other websites 
LII Law about... Jurisdiction
 Supreme Court Decision on Guantánamo Bay jurisdiction
Jurisdiction As Property  on franchise jurisdiction

Legal terms
Thermoplastic

A thermoplastic is a material, usually a plastic polymer, which becomes more soft when heated and hard when cooled. Thermoplastic materials can be cooled and heated several times without any change in their chemical or mechanical properties. When thermoplastics are heated to their melting point, they melt to a liquid. They freeze to a glassy state when cooled below their glass transition temperature. 

Thermoplastic materials have many features. Some products made from thermoplastic materials are used for electronic applications. They protect against electrostatic discharge and radio frequency interference. Thermoplastics are one of the main two types of plastics. 

Thermoplastic can be moulded into any shape. Thermoplastics differ from thermosetting polymers. Thermosets form irreversible chemical bonds during the curing process, and won't melt.

Types of thermoplastics 
PET (polyethylene terephthalate) :- Light, rigid or semi-rigid, naturally transparent or colorless, PET is an excellent moisture and gas barrier and is resistant to impacts. It is one of the most easily recyclable plastics and is used to produce bottles, bags and synthetic fibers for clothing.

HDPE (high-density polyethylene) :- HDPE is translucent, strong and easy to process, resistant to impacts and non-toxic. It is used to make bottles, tanks, bins and containers for transport. 

LDPE (low-density polyethylene) :-  LDPE can be translucent or transparent. Suitable for contact with food, it is the lightest and most heat-sensitive plastic. It is used for packaging, bags, sacks, cable coatings, containers, pipes and toys. 

PVC (polyvinyl chloride) :- PVC is a very versatile plastic, resistant to wear and tear, chemical and atmospheric agents and fire. It is used in the paper industry and for packaging, food containers, credit cards, furnishings, clothing and toys.

PP (polypropylene) :- Transparent, light and strong, this material can be used as both a plastic and a fiber. Easily colored, it does not absorb water. It is used to make textile fibers, couplings, containers for transport, furniture, carpets, ropes and food containers.

PS (polystyrene or styrofoam) :- One of the most important thermoplastic materials, it is transparent, hard and inflammable, very bright and inert against many corrosive agents. It can be given shiny or opaque colors. Polystyrene is commonly used to replace glass, aluminum and wood because it is cheaper. It can also be used in packaging materials (including for foods), containers, boxes, lamps, disposable objects, cups and toys.

References

Related pages 
 Plastic
Pete Doherty

Peter Doherty (born 12 March 1979) is an English musician. He was born in Hexham, Northumberland. He is in the popular rock band The Libertines. He is also in a band called Babyshambles.

He receives a lot of media coverage for his drug and legal problems and the relationship he had with fashion supermodel Kate Moss. Doherty has been convicted of many crimes.  Some of the crimes are drug offences, car theft, and driving with a suspended licence.  He has served prison sentences for drug possession and burglary.

References 

British burglars
British people convicted of drug offences
English rock musicians
English singer-songwriters
Musicians from Northumberland
1979 births
Living people
Polycarbonate

Polycarbonate is a transparent (something which can be seen through) thermoplastic. This material is tough and stable. It can resist a high temperature of 138°C (280°F) and a low temperature of -40°C (-40°F). It is stain resistant and non-toxic. The weight of polycarbonate is one sixth of glass. 

Industries use polycarbonate for making different products, from bulletproof windows to CDs and DVDs. The main advantages of polycarbonate are high strength and light weight.

Industries use clear polycarbonate to make glasses. This is because it has very good transparency and durability. Lenses made from clear polycarbonate can be thinner than lenses made from regular glass.

Companies that make electronic equipment use polycarbonate to make the cover of mobile phones, laptops and other products. Although polycarbonate is not poisonous, the process of making polycarbonate uses toxic chemicals. (See Bisphenol A).

Related pages
 DVD
 Compact disc
 Laptop

thermoplastics
Natural disaster

A natural disaster is a major event caused by the natural processes of the Earth. Examples are floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis and other geologic processes. A natural disaster causes loss of life or property damage, and leaves some economic damage afterwards costing millions. 

Human activities may be the cause causes of natural disasters, such as climate change and deforestation.

The damage disasters do to humans and their property counts most. One moght say: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability". 

If a strong earthquake happens in uninhabited areas, it is usually not seen as a disaster. An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population. In a vulnerable area, such as Nepal during the 2015 earthquake, an earthquake can have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage, which can take years to repair.

Volcanoes 
A volcanic eruption occurs when hot materials from the Earth's interior are thrown out of a volcano. Lava, rocks, dust, and gas compounds are some and volcanic ash and kill many people. Some are quiet outflows of hot lava. Several more complex types of volcanic eruptions have been described by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of eruption has been seen. Some volcanoes may show only one type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may show a range of types in a series.

References

Other websites 
 http://www.gdacs.org
 http://www.swemorph.com/pdf/multi.pdf
 http://www.undp.org/bcpr/
Ibanez

Ibanez is a company that makes guitars. The company is from Nagoya, Aichi, Japan. The company was started by Hoshino Gakki.  The company is very big and sells many guitars to musicians.

Other websites 
Ibanez guitars and bass museum - Ibanez instruments database, resources, user reviews, pictures
History of Hoshino Gakki Co., Ltd. 
Ibanez Register - Gallery of past and present Ibanez guitars and basses.

Guitars
Manufacturing companies of Japan
Nagoya
Landslide

A landslide includes a wide range of ground movements, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows.

The biggest reason for a landslide is that there is a slope and material goes down the slope because of gravity.

But other things also contribute to landslides: 
 erosion by rivers, glaciers, or ocean waves makes slopes too steep
 rock and soil slopes made weak through saturation by snowmelt or heavy rains 
 earthquakes that make weak slopes fail or crack the rocks that will eventually fall down
 volcanic eruptions produce loose ash deposits, heavy rain, and debris flows
 vibrations from machinery, traffic, blasting and even thunder may trigger failure of weak slopes
 weight from much rain or snow, stockpiling of rock or ore, from waste piles, or from buildings may stress weak slopes to failure and other structures 
 groundwater pressure making the slope unstable
 in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted plants that bind the colluvium to bedrock

An underlying reason is the nature of the material. For example, a thixotropic material such as mud or sand and water, can change from a gel to a sol by adding water or pressure, or shaking. It goes from being stable one minute to fluid the next minute. The greatest disasters, like lahars or mudslides, happen suddenly. It is possible for much of a volcano to just slide down suddenly, as with Toba, Krakatoa and Mount St Helens.

Other websites

 United States Geological Survey site
 British Columbia government landslide information 
 Slide! , a program on B.C.'s Knowledge Network, with video clips
 Geoscience Australia Fact Sheet 

Geology
Landforms
2040s

The 2040s decade will begin on January 1, 2040 and will end on December 31, 2049.

The decade as a whole 
This decade will be called "the twenty-forties". The Roman number will be MMXL.

The first baby boomers will be 100 years old in 2046.