alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Beam (structure)

A beam is a structural  element that carries structural load.  

Beams generally carry vertical forces, but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (Those loads can result from wind or an earthquake).  The loads that a beam carries are led to columns or walls, which lead the force to the next element.

Beams are characterized by their profile (their shape), their length, and their material.  In constructions of today beams are mostly made of steel, reinforced concrete, or wood.

Architectural elements
Twin

Twins are two babies that are born at the same time.

Human twins are two people that shared a single pregnancy, and one is normally born quickly after the first.

Types of twins
There are 2 types of twins. They are:

Fraternal twins 
Fraternal twins are also known as "non-identical twins" or dizygotic twins. They happen when two ova are released from the ovary at the same time, and each is fertilized by a different sperm. This results in the birth of fraternal twins. They can be of different sexes. Genetically, they are no more similar than any two siblings.

Identical twins 

Identical twins or monozygotic twins: A single ovum is fertilized to form one zygote. This zygote later splits, and each half of the zygote becomes a twin. The twins have the same genes.

Variations 
There are five variations of twinning that occur commonly. The frequency varies in different populations. The three most common variations are all fraternal, meaning the two twins are not from the same egg: 
(1) male-female twins are the most common result, at about 41% of all twins born; 
(2) female fraternal twins (sometimes called sororal twins), about 20%; 
(3) male fraternal twins, about 19%. 
The last two variations are identical twins, which means they come from one single egg that split later: 
(4) female identical twins (about 10%) and 
(5) (least common) male identical twins (about 10%).

Other animals
Twinning is common in many other species, such as cats, sheep, and ferrets. Twinning occurs in cattle about 1-4% of the time, and research is being done to improve the chances of twins being born. If an animal has twins it can be more profitable for the breeder, especially if there is a smaller chance of miscarriage.

References 

Biological reproduction
Ceiling

A ceiling is the surface that covers the upper limit of a room. It is not generally considered a structural element, as it does not hold anything up. It simply conceals the underside of the floor or roof above it.

There are many different types of ceilings in architecture. In religious buildings, the ceilings are often decorated with frescos, mosaic tiles and other surface treatments. Perhaps the most famous example is the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo.

Related pages
 Hammerbeam roof

Other websites

Virtual Museum treatise on ceiling construction 

Architectural elements
Column

A column in architecture is a vertical element that transmits the weight of the structure above to the structure below. Columns can be either a single piece or several pieces put together. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest.

History

Stone columns were already used in the architecture of ancient Egypt as early as 2600 BC. 

Architectural elements
Keyboard instrument

A keyboard instrument is an instrument that is played by pressing the keys of a keyboard.  In a keyboard, the notes are arranged with naturals (usually white notes) forming the main body of the keyboard, and sharps and flats (usually black notes) placed in cuttings into the upper half of the naturals.

The ways in which the sound is made varies a lot:

 In the piano, hammers hit the strings.
 In the organ, air is sent through pipes.
 In the electronic organ or synthesizer, sound is made electronically.
 In the harpsichord, the strings are plucked by quills or “jacks”.
 In the clavichord, the strings are hit by a metal “tangent”.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the word Clavier was used in Germany to mean any kind of keyboard instrument.  Often, the naturals were black and the sharps and flats were white (see picture of harpsichord), but the layout was exactly the same. 

The development of electronic instruments in the 20th century has brought about many different types of electronic keyboard instruments. These include the ondes Martenot and the synthesizer.

Nowadays, people often talk about a keyboard meaning an electronic keyboard (e.g. “He plays the keyboard”). The plural form of the word is "keyboards".

Yamaha have now made the most successful keyboards, selling over 770,000 a year

Types of keyboards 
Keyboard types include:

 Arranger keyboards
 Digital workstation keyboard

Arranger  keyboard 
Arrangers are mainly aimed at performers. Arrangers are mainly identified by their automatic accompaniment styles. They are used widely by musicians who perform by their own, more like a one-man band. Arrangers offer extensive libraries containing prerecorded accompaniment tracks in nearly every music style imaginable. The instrument can support their singing with onboard effects, vocal harmony, and lyric display while providing MIDI and/or audio file playback. Music played by the keyboardist can often be recorded and saved into a memory bank. Arrangers also help in writing songs and can provide realistic drum styles that match with the tempo and style the musician developed.

The top seller for arrangers include Yamaha and Korg which are used by many keyboardist worldwide.

Workstation keyboard 
A keyboard workstation is a keyboard that is used to change the features of a variety of sounds on a keyboard. Workstation allows one to create new voices using filters, effects and modulations. It also allows for mixing sounds. 

Top brands for these are Nord, Yamaha, Korg, Casio which are used by many keyboardists worldwide.

References
Bow (ship)

The bow is the forward part of the  hull of a ship or boat, the point that is most forward when the vessel is underway. 
The bow is designed to reduce the resistance of the hull cutting through water and should be tall enough to prevent water from easily washing over the top of it. The bow is helpful for letting the ship smoothly pass through the ocean.

Ship building
Sambucus

Sambucus is a genus in the family Adoxaceae. It is commonly called Elder or Elderberry. It includes several similar types of shrubs that produce fruit that is also called elderberries. The plant can be found in swampy habitats and other areas that provide enough water.

Black Elderberry has been found to be effective against the H5N1 strain of Avian Flu (Zakay-Rones et al. 1995). Black Elderberry contains a unique compound called Antivirin® that can help protect healthy cells and inactivate infectious viruses. When given to patients, scientists have found the Black Elderberry, has the ability to ward off flu infections quickly (Zakay-Rones 2004). Black Elderberries are rich in anthocyanins which are a type of flavonoid – anthocyanins are antioxidants that may protect cells from free radicals and support your body’s immune system.
Black Elderberries have almost 5 times as many anthocyanins as Blueberries and twice the overall antioxidant capability of cranberries
Black Elderberry has a more potent antiviral effect than Echinacea. At sites in Switzerland and Italy, researchers have uncovered evidence that the black elderberry may have been cultivated by prehistoric man, and there are recipes for elderberry-based medications in the records dating as far back as Ancient Egypt. Historians, however, generally trace the tradition of the elderberry’s healing power back to Hippocrates, the ancient Greek known as the “father of medicine,” who described this plant as his “medicine chest” for the wide variety of ailments it seemed to cure.

Over the centuries, elderberry has been used to treat colds, flu, fever, burns, cuts, and more than 70 other maladies, from a toothache to the plague. In the 17th century, John Evelyn, a British researcher, declared, “If the medicinal properties of its leaves, bark, and berries were fully known, I cannot tell what our countryman could ail for which he might not fetch a remedy [from the elderberry], either for sickness or wounds.”
 

Elderberry can grow in the form of a shrub or small tree, reaching up to 6 feet in height and width depending on the variety. It blooms during the spring or summer, and its flowers contain both male and female reproductive systems in the event that it is unable to reproduce through cross-pollination. It can be used to create a violet dye.

Other websites

Berries
Dipsacales
Jambul

Jambul or Jamun or Jamblang or Jambhul जांभुळ (मराठी)(Syzygium cumini), Kaalo Jaam (Bangla) Naavar Pazham (Tamil) is an evergreen tropical tree in the flowering plant family Myrtaceae, native to India, Pakistan, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. It is also grown in other areas of southern Asia including Myanmar, Nepal and Afghanistan.  The tree was also introduced to Florida, USA in 1911 by the USDA, and is also now commonly planted in Suriname.  In Brazil, where it was introduced from India during Portuguese colonisation, it has spread out in the wild in some places, as many native birds such as thrushes, tanagers and the Great Kiskadee want their fruits.  The various names for this fruit are (in Java) plum, jambul, jamun, jaman, black plum, faux pistachier, Indian blueberry , jambol, doowet, jambolan and jambolão. Scientific synonyms include Syzygium jambolanum, Eugenia cumini and Eugenia jambolana.

A fairly fast growing species, it can grow as high as 30 metres, and can live more than 100 years.  Its dense foliage provides shade and is grown just for its ornamental value.  The wood is strong and water resistant.  Because of this it is used in railway sleepers and to install motors in wells. It is sometimes used to make cheap furniture and village dwellings though it is relatively hard to work on.

The Jamun tree starts flowering in March-April. The fragrant flowers of Jamun are small, nearly 5 millimetres in diameter.  This is followed by the fruit which appears in May-June and resembles a large berry. The berry is oblong and ovoid.  It is green when just appearing, pink when as it matures, and shining crimson black when fully ripe.  Another variety comes in white and some people say that it can be used as a medicine.  Jamun fruit is a mixture of sweet, slightly sub acid spicy flavour that stands out even after eaten since it turns the tongue into purple color. The fruit is universally accepted to be very good for medicinal purposes, especially diabetics.  The seed is also used in various alternative healing systems like Ayurveda, Unani and Chinese medicine for digestive ailments. The leaves and bark are used for controlling blood pressure and gingivitis.  Wine and vinegar are also made from the fruit.

Tropical fruit
Trees
Myrtaceae
Rambutan

A rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) is a tree from southeast Asia. The fruit that grows on the tree is also called rambutan. It is in the same family as Lychee.

The name rambutan is a word that means "hairy".  The fruit does look hairy.  The fruit is green in color when not yet ripe. Once ripe the outside of the fruit turns red.  The flesh on the inside of the rambutan is white in color. 

Rambutan is native to Indonesia. Rambutan trees grow naturally in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines and elsewhere in Southeast Asia .
Other than those countries, Sri Lanka is also popular  for rambutan.

The fruit are usually sold fresh, used in making jams and jellies, or canned.

References

Fruits
Tropical fruit
Trees
Sapindaceae
Tangerine

A tangerine is citrus fruit related to the mandarin orange. Tangerines are smaller and easier to peel than common oranges. The taste is considered less sour, but sweeter and stronger, than that of an orange.  

Very often, tangerines are simply peeled and eaten by hand, but they are sometimes also used as an ingredient of salads. In Sichuan cuisine, the dried peel of tangerines is used as an ingredient. 

Clementines are sometimes considered as alternatives to tangerines.

References
 

Citrus
Jackfruit

Artocarpus heterophyllus is the scientific name for jackfruit, and is family of Moracea. Jackfruit (also called "Jakfruit") is a type of fruit from India, Bangladesh (National fruit) and Sri Lanka. When a Jackfruit ripens, it changes from green to slightly yellow.

Parts of the Fruit 
The seeds are cooked and taken food, the green like unready fruit is cooked as a plant used for food, and the brown made ready is taken food a little cold.

Jackfruit Tree 
The jackfruit tree can be up to 15-20 meters, and its leaves are a stiff, glossy green color and measure up to about 15 to 20 centimeters long. This tree is considered the largest tree-borne fruit in the world weighing near 18 kilograms and reaching up to 60 cm long in length.

References

Other websites 
 

Tropical fruit
Moraceae
National symbols of Bangladesh
National symbols of Sri Lanka
Epitaph Records

Epitaph Records is an American record label. The company mainly deals with punk bands. Epitaph was started by Bad Religion guitarist Brett Gurewitz. Bands that have signed this label are:

 1208
 Alkaline Trio
 ALL *
 Bad Religion
 The Blackout
 The Boss 
 The Bouncing Souls *
 Bring Me the Horizon (U.S. only)
 Busdriver
 Cadence Weapon
 Can't Hang
 The Color of Violence
 Converge
 The Coup
 Danger Doom
 Darkest Souls
 Death By Stereo *
 Descendents *
 The Draft
 Dropkick Murphys *
 Escape the Fate
 Every Time I Die
 Farewell
 Frank Turner (U.S. only)
 Frenzal Rhomb (Australia only)
 The Ghost of a Thousand
 Green Day (re-releasing old material in Europe) *
 Guttermouth *
 The Higher
 The Hives *
 The Hot Melts
 I Am Ghost
 I Set My Friends On Fire
 Leathermouth
 The Locust
 Matchbook Romance
 Millencolin (U.S. only)
 New Found Glory
 NOFX *
 Off With Their Heads
 The Offspring *
 Our Last Night
 Parkway Drive (U.S. only)
 Pennywise
 The Pietasters *
 Rancid (now on Epitaph's sub-label Hellcat Records) *
 Rich Kids on LSD *
 The Robocop Kraus
 Sage Francis
 Settle
 Set Your Goals
 Social Distortion
 Sing It Loud
 SNFU *
 SoliLLaquists of Sound
 Story of the Year
 Joe Strummer & The Mescaleros *
 Ten Foot Pole *
 This City
 Thursday
 Vanna
 Veara
 The Weakerthans
 You Me At Six (U.S. only)

The asterisk (*) marks indicate as those who are no longer signed to Epitaph.

American record labels
Vaccinium arboreum

Vaccinium arboreum (also called sparkleberry or farkleberry) is a species of Vaccinium native to south-eastern United States.  They are usually found in southern Virginia west to southeastern Missouri, and south to Florida and eastern Texas.

Vaccinium arboreum is a shrub (rarely a small tree) growing to 3-5 metres (sometimes up to 9 metres) tall.  The leaves are evergreen in the south of the range, but deciduous farther north where winters are colder.  They are oval-elliptic with an acute apex, 3-7 cm long and 2-4 cm broad, with a smooth or very finely toothed margin. The flowers are white, bell-shaped, 3-4 mm in diameter, with a five-lobed corolla, produced in racemes up to 5 cm long.  The fruit is a round dry berry about 6 mm diameter, green at first, black when ripe, edible but bitter and tough.

References
Germplasm Resources Information Network: Vaccinium arboreum 
Missouriplants: Vaccinium arboreum 
Virginia Tech Dendrology: Vaccinium arboreum 

Berries
Vaccinium
Vaccinium

Vaccinium is a genus of flowering plants. All of them are shrubs in the family Ericaceae. The fruits of Vaccinium species include blueberries, cranberries, huckleberries, and Bilberry.

In total, there are about 450 species, mostly in the cooler parts of the Northern Hemisphere. There are a few tropical species which grow in places like Madagascar or Hawaii. The plants usually grow in heathlands or in forests. Like most plants of the Ericaceae, many species grow in acidic soils. 

The larvae of a number of lepidoptera species (moths and butterflies are examples of lepidoptera) grow on these plants.

Modern research 
The taxonomy of the genus is complex, and is being investigated. Genetic analysis shows that the genus Vaccinium is not monophyletic. Vaccinium's taxonomy can be fixed by enlarging the genus to include a number of related genera. Alternatively, the genus could be broken up into several different genera.

References 

Berries
Cantaloupe

A cantaloupe (also known as a rockmelon, sweet melon, or spanspek) is a type of fruit. It is a muskmelon that is probably related to the watermelon. There are two types of cantaloupe, European and North American. Cantaloupes range in size from 0.5 to 5.0 kilograms (1.1 to 11 lb).

Types of cantaloupe 
 The European cantaloupe is oblong with a light green skin.
 The North American cantaloupe is round with a thin light brown skin. The flesh of the fruit is firm, orange and sweet.

Nutrition

Cantaloupes are a source of polyphenol antioxidants. These are chemicals which were thought to provide certain health benefits to the cardiovascular and immune systems by regulating the formation of nitric oxide. Nitric oxide is a key chemical in promoting health of the endothelium and prevention of heart attacks. However, recent research has indicated they do not benefit the body. The body already has ways to deal with oxidation.

Cantaloupes also are an excellent source of vitamin C.

Dirty cantaloupes can spread bacteria. In 2011, 21 people died in the United States from cantaloupes having listeria bacteria. The bad cantaloupes were traced back from around the country to a single farm in Colorado.

References

Other websites 
 Nutritional and Historical Information 
 MSNBC Article on Farming of Hybridization That Mentions Cantaloupes

Melons
Smash (album)

Smash is one of The Offspring's most successful albums. It came out in 1994 under the label Epitaph Records. It contains their famous hit singles such as "Come Out and Play (Keep 'Em Separated)" and "Self Esteem". Smash is often credited as one of the best punk rock albums sold in the entire world, and is the best selling album ever made on an independent label.

The album is also one of the albums that started mainstream Pop punk music.

Occasionally on the album, there's a guy who comments on the music, but it is not revealed who.

Track listing
"Time to Relax" - 0:25
"Nitro (Youth Energy)" - 2:27
"Bad Habit" - 3:43
"Gotta Get Away" - 3:52
"Genocide" - 3:33
"Something to Believe In" - 3:17
"Come Out and Play" - 3:17
"Self Esteem" - 4:17
"It'll Be a Long Time" - 2:43
"Killboy Powerhead" (The Didjits) - 2:02
"What Happened to You?" - 2:12
"So Alone" - 1:17
"Not the One" - 2:55
"Smash" - 10:39

The Offspring albums
1994 albums
Punk albums
Ilama (fruit)

The Ilama (Annona macroprophyllata), also known as the soncoya or sincuya, is a kind of fruit, and also the name of the tree that it grows on. The trees and fruits can be found in tropical Central America.  The name comes from the Spanish translation of the Nahuatl ilamatzapotl. Its rough translation is 'old woman's sapote'.  The name is also applied to a similar fruit, cabeza de negro  (A. pupurea) which is cultivated as an alternative to the cherimoya.  The cabeza de negro is similar in size to the Ilama but grey-brown in color with hard bumps on the surface, and orange flesh that tastes like mango or papaw.

The Ilama fruit is delicious when eaten ripe. It is either eaten on the half-shell or scooped out with a tool. The Ilama is usually chilled when served, it is sometimes served with a little cream and sugar to intensify the flavor, or with a drop of lime or lemon juice to bring in a tart and bitter tinge.

References 

Annona
The Offspring (album)

The Offspring is the first album by The Offspring. It was originally on vinyl in 1989 under the label Nemesis Records. In 1995, it was re-released on CD on Epitaph Records.

Track listing
 "Jennifer Lost the War" – 2:35
 "Elders" – 2:11
 "Out on Patrol" – 2:32
 "Crossroads" – 2:48
 "Demons" – 3:10
 "Beheaded" – 2:52
 "Tehran" – 3:06
 "A Thousand Days" – 2:11
 "Blackball" – 3:24
 "I'll Be Waiting" – 3:12
 "Kill the President" – 3:22

Personnel
 Keith Holland (Listed as "Dexter Holland" on the CD version) - Vocals
 Noodles - Guitar, Backing Vocals on "Blackball"
 Greg K. - Bass, Backing Vocals on "Blackball"
 R. Welty - Drums

The song "Beheaded" was co-written by The Offspring and (original drummer) James Lilja.

References

The Offspring albums
1989 albums
Debut albums
Punk albums
Apples, Vaud

Apples is a municipality in Switzerland. It is in Vaud Canton. Vaud Canton has 364 communes in it.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 
 Aerial views of the municipality 
 Commune de Apples - VD - Suisse . communal.ch.
Fukuoka

is a Japanese city in Fukuoka Prefecture on the island of Kyushu.  It is the capital city of the prefecture. 

It has been recognized as a city designated by government ordinance since 1992.

History
A short distance is there from Dazaifu and the Fukuoka area to Hakata-wan (博多湾). Hakata-wan was the landing site of the Mongol invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281.

Fukuoka is known for its football team, Avispa Fukuoka; and it is also known for its baseball team, the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks.

Geography
Fukuoka is on the northwest coast of Kyushu. It is about the same distance from Tokyo as it is from Shanghai or Seoul.

Fukuoka City is divided into 7 wards.

Related pages
 Fukuoka Art Museum
 Kyushu National Museum
 Dazaifu

References

Other websites

  Fukuoka/Hakata Tourist Information
 Fukuoka Now

Cities in Fukuoka Prefecture
Finance

Finance is a study which figures out how people, businesses and groups make and use money. It can mean:

 Thinking about money
 Thinking about how to control money to make profit
 Studying how to take chances in projects that make money
 As a verb, "to finance" is to provide money for business
Any system that includes circulation of money.

Some simple finance ideas
The process of finance is learning, how people and groups act in managing their money, and most of all how they manage making money, and making a profit, with spending money, or making a loss.

A group that makes more money than it spends can lend or invest the excess profit. On the other hand, a group that makes less money than it spends can raise money by getting a loan or selling part of its assets or spending less, or making more money. 

A bank is where many people borrowing money meet people lending money. A bank gets money from lenders, and pays interest. The bank then lends this money to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders of different sizes to meet. 

Corporate finance is  about things like the sale of stock by a company to the public. Stock is ownership in a company, broken up into pieces. The stock gives whoever owns it part ownership in that company.  If someone buys one share of XYZ Inc, and the company has 100 shares available, the buyer is 1/100th owner of that company and owns 1/100th (1%) of the profit. 

Finance is used by people, by governments, by businesses, etc., as well as by all kinds of groups.

Personal finance

This is finance for people. It is about: 
How much money will be needed by a person, now and when they get old.
Where will this money come from (e.g. savings or borrowing)?  
How can people protect themselves against problems with money in their lives?
How can family money be given to children and grandchildren?
How do taxes affect money choices?

Business finance

Business finance is about finding money for a company's activities. It studies trying to make more profit than loss and taking good risks for the chance to make more money. That's what business is all about.

Financial economics

Financial economics is the study of economics which is important to financial things like changes in price and supply of goods. 

It studies how much risk some actions that a company may take will cause, and how the company should spend its money.

Financial math

Financial math is the study of math for financial markets. Financial math studies mathematics, mainly statistics.

Other websites 
 Wharton Finance Knowledge Project  - Finance knowledge
For facts about three areas in finance - company finance, money and investment management, see   Prof. Aswath Damodaran
For links to finance web sites see Web Sites for Discerning Finance Students, Prof. John M. Wachowicz - 
For the introductory finance web site at the University of Arizona, studyfinance.com
For introductory articles on mathematical finance see quant notes
For introductory articles on behavioral finance see the BF gallery
For introductory articles on financial analysis see Financial Analysis 
Learn how to practice good Financial Planning
Governor General of Canada

The Governor General of Canada is the person who represents Canada's King (or Queen). The King of Canada does not spend much time in Canada because he is also the King of several other countries.

The Governor General is technically chosen by the King and is allowed to use almost all of the King's powers. But most of the time neither the King nor the Governor General use their powers without advice from the Prime Minister of Canada.

 The King would normally always choose whoever the Prime Minister wants them to choose to become Governor General.

 The Governor General usually uses his/her powers for what the Prime Minister advices him/her to do.

Once in a while the Prime Minister may want something done that the Governor General is not allowed to do on her own. The Prime Minister must then go straight to the King, for example for the appointment of 4 or 8 extra Senators to Parliament.

Official Title

As Canada has two official federal languages, the Governor General's title is in both English and French.  

The Governor General's style and title in full is, in , and in

Living former governors-general of Canada
As of , there are five living former governors general of Canada. The most recently deceased former governor general, Roméo LeBlanc (1995–1999), died on 24 June 2009.

 
C
Joseph Barbera

Joseph Roland "Joe" Barbera (March 24, 1911 – December 18, 2006) was an Italian American animator, cartoon artist, storyboard artist, director, producer, and co-founder, together with William Hanna, of Hanna-Barbera. He was born in Manhattan and raised in Flatbush, Brooklyn. The studio produced well-known cartoons such as Tom and Jerry, The Huckleberry Hound Show, The Flintstones, The Jetsons, Scooby-Doo as well as the musical film, ''Charlotte's Web.

Other websites 
 
 Joseph Barbera profile from Tom and Jerry Online
 Hanna Barbera Studios
 Obituary at BBC news

1911 births
2006 deaths
American animators
American television directors
American television producers
Artists from New York City
Movie directors from New York City
Movie producers from New York City
People from Brooklyn
People from Manhattan
William Hanna

William Denby "Bill" Hanna (July 14, 1910 in Melrose, New Mexico – March 22, 2001 in Los Angeles, California) was an American animator, director, producer, cartoon artist, and co-founder with Joseph Barbera of Hanna-Barbera. The studio made well-known cartoons, such as The Huckleberry Hound Show, The Flintstones, The Jetsons, and Scooby-Doo, as well as the musical movie, ''Charlotte's Web.

American animators
American movie producers
American movie directors
American television directors
American television producers
1910 births
2001 deaths
Deaths from laryngeal cancer
Hanna-Barbera

Hanna-Barbera was a company that made cartoon television programs and movies. Some of these cartoons were Tom and Jerry, Droopy, Spike and Tyke, The Jetsons, The Flintstones, Scooby-Doo, Yogi Bear, Smurfs, Pink Panther, Wally Gator, and Peter Potamus, and the 1973 movie version of Charlotte's Web. It was started by and named after William Hanna and Joseph Barbera. In 1991, Turner Broadcasting bought Hanna-Barbera. In 1992, Cartoon Network was launched. In 2001, Hanna-Barbera studios was shut down and moved to Warner Bros. Animation. After the death of Hanna on March 22, 2001, Hanna-Barbera split into two parts: Warner Bros. Animation (for older cartoons) and Cartoon Network Studios (for the newer ones on Cartoon Network).

Hanna-Barbera Studios had many cartoon programs on the air for over four decades. This studio competed with Disney and Warner Bros to produce cartoons.

Related pages
Animation

1957 establishments in the United States
2001 disestablishments in the United States
Spruce

Spruce are trees of the genus Picea, a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae. They live in the northern temperate and taiga regions of the Earth.

Spruce are large trees, from 20 to 60 (–95) m tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their conical form and their needles, that are attached singly to the branches in a spiral fashion. The needles are shed when 4–10 years old.

Growth 
More than half of spruce seedling mortality occurs during the first growing season and is very high during the first winter. Seedlings get freezing damage, frost heaving and erosion, and smothered by litter and snow-pressed vegetation. 

Losses often remain high for some years. "Establishment" is a subjective concept based on the idea that once a seedling has successfully reached a certain size, not much is likely to prevent its further development.

Classification 
There are 35 species alive in the world. The Plant List has 59 accepted spruce names. The other list is World Flora Online.

Other websites 
 Arboretum de Villardebelle Picea cone photos Cones of selected species (page 1)
 Arboretum de Villardebelle Picea cone photos Cones of selected species (page 2)
 Gymnosperm Database – Picea

References 

Conifers
Christmas tree

The Christmas tree is a tradition associated with the celebration of Christmas. It is normally an evergreen coniferous tree that is cut and brought into the home. In Europe, the tree is traditionally a Norway spruce tree.

The tree is decorated with Christmas lights and colourful ornaments during the days around Christmas. An angel or a star is often placed at the top of the tree. Fir trees outside the home may be decorated in a similar fashion. The custom of the Christmas tree has its origin among the Protestant peoples of Northern Europe. It is not a religious symbol.

Other websites 

 British Royal Family Christmas trees 

Christmas
Cell division

Cell division is how a cell, called the parent cell, divides into two cells, called daughter cells. When the cell divides, everything inside it divides also. The nucleus and the chromosomes divide, and the mitochondria divide also.

In mitosis, an ordinary body (somatic) cell divides to make two daughter cells.

In meiosis, a cell divides twice, to produce four gametes (sex cells). The first division of meiosis is a special kind of cell division called a reduction division because the number of chromosomes is halved. The second division of meiosis is similar to mitosis.

Cells are the 'building blocks' of life, and cell division is a basic feature of life. For simple unicellular organisms like Amoebozoa, one cell division reproduces the entire organism. On a larger scale, cell division can create offspring from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings. But most importantly, cell division enables organisms that are able to sexually reproduce to develop from the one-celled fertilised egg (zygote). Cell division also allows for continual renewal and repair of the organism.

References 

Cell biology
Chromosomes
Saparmurat Niyazov

Saparmurat Niyazov (February 19, 1940 - December 21, 2006) was the first President of Turkmenistan. He served from 1993 to 2006. Saparmurat Niyazov also called himself Türkmenbaşy, which means leader of the Turkmen people. He tried to make a cult of personality, which means that he put many pictures and statues of himself around his country to make himself seem important. While he was president, Niyazov made doing many things against the law, such as growing a beard or ballet dancing. He died from a heart attack on December 21, 2006, and Gurbanguly Berdimuhammedow became the new president of Turkmenistan.

1940 births
2006 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Presidents of Turkmenistan
Former dictators
Temperate climate

In geography, temperate latitudes of the Earth lie between the subtropics and the polar circles. Average yearly temperatures in these regions are not extreme, not burning hot nor freezing cold. Temperate means moderate.

Unlike in the tropics, temperatures can change greatly here, between summer and winter. So, most places with a temperate climate have four seasons: summer, autumn, winter and spring. Other areas with a temperate climate can have very unpredictable weather. One day it may be sunny, the next may be rainy, and after that it may be cloudy. This is normal in summer as well as in winter. These are the main types of temperate climate:

 A maritime climate is generally for locations near the sea. That includes London, Dublin, Melbourne or Auckland. Most places do not have a rainy season and a dry season. Prevailing winds in the temperate zone are from the west.  The western edge of temperate continents usually get this maritime climate. Examples are Western Europe, and western North America at latitudes between 40° and 60° north (65°N in Europe).
 Some parts of the temperate zone have a Mediterranean climate, which have a dry summer – for example Rome, Cape Town, Santiago or Adelaide.
 Some parts of the temperate zone, especially in the northern part of the continental climate, have severe winters – for example Moscow or Minnesota – this is called a hemiboreal climate.
 Some places in the temperate zone have hot summers and cold winters, for example Chicago, Beijing, Budapest or Almaty.
 Small areas of a country may have their own microclimate. Even the UK has a little rain forest.

References 

Köppen climate classifications
Lithuanian language

The Lithuanian language is a Baltic language. It is from Lithuania, spoken in a few countries in Europe, as well as in the Americas and Australia. 

Lithuanian and Latvian are the only remaining Baltic languages. Both languages have much in common. Lithuanian, however, adopted fewer words and phrases from German and other languages. However, many words were adopted into Lithuanian by Slavic languages long ago, but in 1920, Lithuanian philologist Jonas Jablonskis and others replaced them with native Lithuanian words.

There are two main dialects of Lithuanian. Samogitian is used mostly in West Lithuania, and the other that is widely used in the whole country is Aukštaitian (Highlanders' dialect). The standard Lithuanian comes from West Aukštaitian. 

The first book written in Lithuanian is Katekizmas by Martynas Mažvydas. It was published in East Prussia in 1547.

Even though Lithuanian was written down relatively recently, it is known for being close to old Indo-European languages, keeping old traits found only in early languages like Vedic Sanskrit and lost in later languages.

References 

Lithuania
Baltic languages
Languages of Europe
Depeche Mode

Depeche Mode is an English band. They formed in Basildon, Essex in 1980. The band's name was taken from French fashion magazine, Dépêche mode, which means "fashion update" or "fashion news dispatch". Depeche Mode became famous in the 1980s. The band has sold over 100 million records around the world.

Depeche Mode were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2020.

Depeche Mode has two current members: Dave Gahan and Martin Gore.

Discography 

 Speak & Spell (1981)
 A Broken Frame (1982)
 Construction Time Again (1983)
 Some Great Reward (1984)
 Black Celebration (1986)
 Music for the Masses (1987)
 Violator (1990)
 Songs of Faith and Devotion (1993)
 Ultra (1997)
 Exciter (2001)
 Playing the Angel (2005)
 Sounds of the Universe (2009)
 Delta Machine (2013)
 Spirit (2017)
 Memento Mori (2023)

Other websites 

 The official Depeche Mode website
 Depeche Mode International  (Official Fan Club on Smule)

1980 establishments in England
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
2020s British music groups
English rock bands
Musical groups established in 1980
Musical groups from Essex
New wave bands
Gingivitis

Gingivitis is the inflammation of the gums around the teeth. Gingivitis may be caused by a buildup of plaque and tartar because the teeth have not been cleaned properly. It can also be a manifestation of a systemic disease, as in diabetes or AIDS.

Sometimes excessive brushing or flossing can wear out the gums causing gum recession.

If gingivitis is not treated by proper oral hygiene, it can lead to periodontitis, which is a more advanced state of gum disease, that affects the bone and is harder to treat.

Other websites 
 Gingivitis and Periodontitis
 Gum Disease Treatments

References 

Diseases and disorders of the mouth
Inflammation
Taiga

The taiga  is a large area of coniferous forests. It covers most of inland Alaska, Canada, Sweden, Finland, inland Norway, northern Kazakhstan and Russia (especially Siberia), as well as parts of the northern continental United States. 

In Canada, boreal forest is the term used to refer to the southern part of these forests, while "taiga" is used to describe the northern areas south of the Arctic tree line that separates it from tundra.  The trees are mostly pines, spruces and larches. The climate is cold winters and cool summers.

References

Other websites 

Boreal Forests/Taiga (WWF)
Terraformers Canadian Taiga Conservation Foundation 
Arctic and Taiga (Canadian Geographic) 
Coniferous Forest. Earth Observatory. NASA.  .
Taiga Rescue Network (TRN)  A network of NGOs, indigenous peoples or individuals that works to protect the boreal forests.
Index of Boreal Forests/Taiga ecoregions at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu 
The Nature Conservancy and its partners work to protect the Canadian Boreal Forest 
Slater museum of natural history: Taiga 

Forests
Biomes
Conifer

Conifers are gymnosperms. They are cone-bearing seed plants. 

All living conifers are woody plants which are perennial. Most are trees; some are shrubs. They are the Division Pinophyta or Coniferophyta.

Living conifers are all in the order Pinales. Typical examples include cedars, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauris, larches, pines, redwoods, spruces, and yews.

Species of conifers can be found in almost all parts of the world, and are often the most common plants in their habitats, as in the taiga. Conifers are of great economic value, and their wood is mainly used for timber and paper-making The wood of conifers is known as softwood, though yew wood is actually quite hard. The division Coniferae contains about 700 living species.

Evolution 
The earliest conifers were in the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) period (about 300 million years ago), Pinophytes, Cycads, and Ginkgos all developed at this time. These plants live without being so dependent on water. Other adaptations are pollen (so fertilisation can occur without water) and the seed, which allows the embryo to be transported and developed elsewhere.

Conifers appear to be one of the taxa that benefited from the Permian–Triassic extinction event. They were the dominant land plants of the Mesozoic era. Conifers were eventually overtaken by their descendants, the  flowering plants, which first appeared in the Cretaceous. Flowering plants became dominant in the Cainozoic era.

Conifers were a main food of herbivorous dinosaurs, and their resins and poisons no doubt gave them some protection against herbivores. All the reproductive features of modern conifers had evolved by the end of the Mesozoic era.

Related pages 
 Gymnosperm
 Conifer cones

References
Binomial nomenclature

In biology, binomial nomenclature is how species are named. The name of a species is made of two parts: one indicating the genus and one indicating the species. Binomial nomenclature means "two-part name" or "system of two-part names".

History 
The person who popularized this system for use was Swedish botanist and physician Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778).  He gave a two-part name to every species he knew.  This kind of naming had been used before Linnaeus by some naturalists, but after Linnaeus, it was accepted as a good method.

Value of binomial nomenclature 
The value of the binomial nomenclature comes from several things. It saves words because it replaces long descriptions, it is used everywhere, and the names are unique and stable. The system ended the use of local common names, which was the source of much confusion. When science was done by just a few European countries their common names for species were well-known. But as it happened, the common names in all countries was rather different. The same name might be used for more than one species, and several species given the same name. In the Linnaeus system, everyone uses the same name for the same species. Linnaeus chose Latin names: first, because it avoided competitive nationalism; second, because most educated people in his day learned Latin.

The system has been a great success, but it does have some problems. It is not always clear what is a species and what is not. Although many species are quite clear, some are put into one species by some biologists, and into several species by others. Linnaeus himself noticed that species were not always distinct.Today we know something about why this is so. In practice, international committees make decisions about naming species in difficult cases.

Main points 
Widespread: worldwide use instead of different local names.
Clarity: avoids the same term used for different species. Example: "robin" used for different birds in America compared to Europe.
Uniqueness: One name for a species.
Stability: the rules favour stability. 
Simplicity: said to be easier to remember than the previous system.

Where names come from 
The components of a name may come from any source whatsoever. Often they are Latin words, but come originally from Greek. This is gradually changing, and names may now come from a Latinized version of a place, a person, a name from a local language, etc.

Related pages 
 Biological classification
 Taxonomy

References

Other websites 
 The Language of Horticulture 

Taxonomy
System

A system  is a group of related things that work together as a whole. These things can be real or imaginary. Systems can be man-made things like a car engine or natural things like a star system. Systems can also be concepts made by people to organize ideas. 

A subsystem is a system that is part of some larger system. For example, in computer networking, a disk subsystem is a part of a computer system.

Definition  
A system is a group of things that connect and form some kind of coherent whole.

One of the founders of physiology, Claude Bernard, took a big step when he noticed that the internal systems of the body tend to keep things the same even if they are disturbed. He called the functions which keep system stable as homeostasis. This led towards the ideas of error-correction, feedback and regulation. These are all typical of systems which have some kind of goal and can adjust their behaviour so as to correct errors.

Example 
The Solar System is an example of a system. The Solar System includes the Sun and the eight planets, as well as the moons of those planets. These and other members are linked by gravity and by their history as a  planetary system.

Types of systems 
There are many kinds of systems. The key is that the elements of a system work together as a whole whilst still keeping their own identity. This is why planetary systems and body systems are good examples. They work together but have their own separate identity.
 Systems in a living person, such as digestive system, nervous system, and so on. These systems operate so as to keep the body's physiology going within limits.
 Systems of life, such as life cycle, carbon cycle, or ecosystem
 Systems in science, such as the  solar system
 Any mechanical or electrical gadgets where parts work together to keep the output within certain limits. A thermostat is the classic example of this.

Related pages
 Systems theory
 Systems science
 Cybernetics

References 

 
Systems theory
Basic English 850 words
Valencia orange

The Valencia orange is an orange first made by the Californian agronomist William Wolfskill, on his farm in Santa Ana.  The orange was later sold to the Irvine Company, who later used half of its land to grow the orange.  Orange County is named after this orange because of its popularity.  The Irvine Company's Valencia operation later split from the company and became Sunkist.  Cultivation of the Valencia in Orange County had stopped by the mid-1990s because of rising property costs, which caused what remained of the Southern California orange industry to move to Florida. It is usually harvested between March and June. 

Citrus
Amanda Michalka

Amanda Joy "AJ" Michalka (born April 10, 1991) is an American singer and actress from Torrance, California. Her parents are Carrey Begley-Michalka and Mark Michalka. Her older sister is actress Alyson Michalka. She and her sister are in the band 78violet. She starred with her sister in the Disney movie Cow Belles. She is of German-American ancestry.

Biography
Amanda Michalka was born in Torrance, California in 1991. Her older sister, Alyson "Aly" Michalka and their parents moved to Seattle, Washington. There her parents made sure they were exposed to all varieties of music. They then moved back to Southern California, where they still live.

Career
Michalka was in a number of WORD Music Productions at her church in Southern California as a young child. Michalka plays a variety of instruments such as acoustic guitar, electric guitar, piano, and bongos. She used to be a model for catalogs. In March 2006, she made her first appearance on the Disney Channel in the Disney Channel Original Movie Cow Belles, as "Courtney Callum", along with sister Aly, as "Taylor Callum". She has also made appearances on shows such as Oliver Beene, Six Feet Under, The Guardian, and General Hospital. She also appeared with her sister in the MTV movie, Super Sweet 16: The Movie.

Albums
 Insomniatic (2007)
 Acoustic Hearts of Winter (2006)
 Into The Rush (2005)

Filmography

Feature movies
 The Lovely Bones (2009) - Clarissa, Susie’s best friend.

Television movies
 Super Sweet 16: The Movie (2007) - Sara Conners
 Cow Belles (2006) - Courtney Callum

Television series
 Aly & AJ: Sister Act (2007) - Herself
 Kitty's Dish (2005) - Kitty
 Six Feet Under (2004) - Ashley
 General Hospital (2004) - Ashley B.
 Oliver Beene (2003-2004) - Bonnie
 The Guardian (2002-2004) - Shannon Gressler
 Birds of Prey (2002-2003) - Young Dinah

Guest appearances
 Fox & Friends (2007) - Herself
 Live with Regis and Kelly (2007) - Herself
 Punk'd (2007) -  Herself
 Total Request Live (2006) - Herself
 Live with Regis and Kelly (2006) - Herself
 Good Morning America (2006) - Herself
 America's Got Talent (2006) - Herself
 MTV Cribs (2006) - Herself
 The Megan Mullally Show (2006) - Herself

References

Other websites 
 
 Hollywood Records's Aly & AJ Bio 

American television actors
American rock guitarists
Singers from Los Angeles County, California
1991 births
Living people
Actors from Torrance, California
Actors from Seattle
American Christians
American child actors
American child singers
American composers
American movie actors
American pianists
American pop singers
American stage actors
American voice actors
Musicians from Seattle
Singer-songwriters from California
Salmonberry

A salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) is a type of fruit. It is a bramble in the rose family Rosaceae. It is native and widespread in areas of Alaska, predominantly the southeast. It is also widespread in Washington State. They come in red and orange varieties. They fruit in early summer and are used by many to make jams, juices, and other such products. They are considered to be a weed and reproduce and spread rapidly. The berries can be eaten raw, straight from the source. They co-exist with huckleberries, blueberries, thimbleberries, and other such plants in the Tongass National Forest.  This fruit is related to the rose and are native to the west coast of North America from Alaska to Idaho.

Rubus